Formulas for IPhO

Version: June 26, 2013

Mathematics
F (n) (x0 )(x x0 )n /n!

1. Taylor series (truncate for approximations):

F (x) = F (x0 ) + Special case linear approximation: F (x) F (x0 ) + F (x0 )(x x0 ) Some examples for |x| 1: sin x x, cos x 1 x2 /2, ex 1 + x ln(1 + x) x, (1 + x)n 1 + nx 2. Perturbation method: nd the solution iteratively using the solution to the nonperturbed (directly solvable) problem as the 0th approximation; corrections for the next approximation are calculated on the basis on the previous one. 3. Solution of the linear dierential equation with constant coecients ay + by + cy = 0: y = A exp(1 x) + B exp(2 x), where 1,2 is the solution of the characteristic equation a2 + b + c = 0 if 1 = 2 . If the solution of the characteristic equation is complex, while a, b and c are real numbers, then 1,2 = i and y = Cex sin(x + 0 ).

7. sin( ) = sin cos cos sin cos( ) = cos cos sin sin tan( ) = (tan + tan )/(1 tan tan ) 2 2 cos2 = 1+cos , sin2 = 1cos 2 2 cos(+ )+cos( ) cos cos = , ... 2 + cos + cos = 2(cos 2 + cos 2 ), . . . . 8.
An angle inscribed in a circle is half of the central angle that subtends the same arc on the circle. Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right triangle is the diameter of its circumcircle; if the angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, it is a cyclic quadrilateral. 9. Taking derivatives: (f g ) = f g + f g, f [g (x)] = f [g (x)]g (sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = sin x (ex ) = ex , (ln x) = 1/x, (xn ) = nxn1 (arctan x) = 1/(1 + x2 ) (arcsin x) = (arccos x) = 1/ 1 x2 10. Integration: the formulas are the same as for derivatives, but with swapped left-handside and rhs. (inverse operation!), e.g.

2.

If there is an extraordinary coincidence in the problem text (e.g. two things are equal) then the key to the solution might be there. 3. Read carefully the recommendations in the problems text. Pay attention to the problems formulation insignicant details may carry vital information. If you have solved for some time unsuccessfully, then read the text again perhaps you misunderstood the problem. 4. Postpone long and time-consuming mathematical calculations to the very end (when everything else is done) while writing down all the initial equations which need to be simplied. 5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly dicult, it has usually a very simple solution (and a simple answer). This is valid only for Olympiad problems, which are denitely solvable. 6. In experiments a) sketch the experimental scheme even if you dont have time for measurements; b) think, how to increase the precision of the results; c) write down (as a table) all your direct measurements.

the intersection pt. of AB with the line connecting endpoints of vA and vB . 5. Non-inertial reference frames: + v2 = v0 + v1 , a2 = a0 + a1 + 2 R aCor Note: aCor v1 , ; aCor = 0 if v1 = 0. 6 . Ballistic problem: reachable region 2 2 y v0 /(2g ) gx2 /2v0 . For an optimal ballistic trajectory, initial and nal velocities are perpendicular. 7. For nding fastest paths, Fermats and Huygenss principles can be used. 8. To nd a vector (velocity, acceleration), it is enough to nd its direction and a projection to a single (possibly inclined) axes.

IV 1.

Mechanics

xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1). Special case of the substitution method:

III 1.

Kinematics

f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a.

4.

Complex numbers z = a + bi = |z |ei , z = a ib = |z |ei b |z |2 = z z = a2 + b2 , = arg z = arcsin |z | Rez = (z + z )/2, Imz = (z z )/2 |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 ei = cos + i sin i i ei ei cos = e + , sin = e 2 2i 5. Cross and dot products of vectors are distributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac. a b = b a = ax bx + ay by + . . . = ab cos | a b| = ab sin ; a b = b a a, b a b = (ay bz by az ) ex + (az bx bz ax ) ey + . . . a [ b c] = b( a c) c( a b). Mixed prod. (volume of parallelep. def. by 3 vec.): ( a, b, c) ( a [ b c]) = ([ a b] c) = ( b, c, a).

11.

Numerical methods. Newtons iterative method for nding roots f (x) = 0: xn+1 = xn f (xn )/f (xn ). Trapezoidal rule for approximate integration:

f (x)dx
a

ba [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . . 2n

+2f (xn1 ) + f (xn )] 12. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: differentiate/integrate each component; alternatively dierentiate by applying the triangle rule for the dierence of two innitesimally close vectors.

For a point or for a translational motion of a rigid body (integral area under a graph): d x , x= v dt (x = vx dt etc.) v= dt d2 x d v = 2, a= v= adt dt dt vx 1 1 dv , x = dvx dx = a t= vx x x ax If a = Const., then previous integrals can be found easily, e.g. 2 x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 v0 )/2a.

2. 3.

Rotational motion analogous to the translational one: = d/dt, = d/dt; a= dv/dt + nv 2 /R Curvilinear motion same as point 1, but vectors are to be replaced by linear velocities, accelerations and path lengths. 4. Motion of a rigid body. a) vA cos = vB cos ; vA , vB velocities of pts. A and B ; , angles formed by vA , vB with line AB . b) The instantaneous center of rotation (= center of curvature of material pt. trajectories!) can be found as the intersection pt. of perpendiculars to vA and vB , or (if vA , vB AB ) as

II 1.

General recommendations

6.

Cosine and sine laws: c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos a/ sin = b/ sin = 2R

Check all formulas for veracity: a) examine dimensions; b) test simple special cases (two parameters are equal, one param. tends to 0 or ); c) verify the plausibility of solutions qualitative behaviour.

For a 2D equilibrium of a rigid body: 2 eqns. for force, 1 eq. for torque. 1 (2) eq. for force can be substituted with 1 (2) for torque. Torque is often better boring forces can be eliminated by a proper choice of origin. If forces are applied only to 2 points, the (net) force application lines coincide; for 3 points, the 3 lines meet at a single point. 2. Normal force and friction force can be combined into a single force, applied to the contact point under angle arctan with respect to the normal force. 3. Newtons 2nd law for transl. and rot. motion: = m = I = ). F a, M (M rF For 2D geometry M and are essentially scalars and M = F l = Ft r, where l is the arm of a force. 4. Generalized coordinates. Let the systems state be dened by a single parameter and so that the pot. energy its time derivative 2 /2; then = ( ) and kin. en. K = = d( )/d . (Hence for transl. motion: force is the derivative of pot. en.) 5. If the system consists of mass points mi : = rc = mi ri / mj , P mi vi = L Iz =

mi ri vi , K =

2 /2 mi vi

2 mi (x2 i + yi ) =

(x2 + y 2 )dm.

Additionally to pt. 5, the mom. of inertia rel. to the z -axis through the mass center can be found as Iz0 = i,j mi mj [(xi xj )2 + (yi yj )2 ]/2M . 10. Mom. of inertia rel. to the origin = 2 mi ri is useful for calculating Iz of 2D bodies or bodies with central symmetry using 2 = Ix + Iy + Iz . 11. Physical pendulum with a reduced length l: 2 (l) = g/ (l + I/ml), (l) = ( l l) = g/ l, l = l + I/ml Coecients for the momenta of inertia: 1 cylinder 2 , solid sphere 2 5 , thin spherical shell 2 1 1 1 , rod (rel. to endpoint 3 12 3 ), square 6 . 13. Often applicable conservation laws: energy (elastic bodies, no friction), momentum (no net external force; can hold only along one axis), angular momentum (no net ext. torque, e.g. the arms of ext. forces are 0 (can be written rel. to 2 or 3 pts., then substitutes conservation of lin. mom.). 14. Additional forces in non-inertial frames of ref.: inertial force m a, centrifugal force (better to and Coriolis force 2m m 2 R v avoid it; being to the velocity, it does not create any work). 15. Tilted coordinates: for a motion on an inclined plane, it is often practical to align axes along and to the plane; gravit. acceleration has then both x- and y - components. Axes may also be oblique (not to each other), but then with v = vx ex + vy ey , vx = to the x-projection of v. 16. Collision of 2 bodies: conserved are a) net momentum, b) net angular mom., c) angular

9 .

In a frame where the mass centers velocity is vc (index c denotes quantities rel. to the mass center): 2 =L c + M R c L vc , K = Kc + M vc /2 =P c + M P vc 7. Steiners theorem is analogous (b distance of the mass center from rot. axis): I = Ic + mb2 . and L from pt. 5, Newtons 2nd 8. With P law: = dP /dt, M = dL/dt F

6.

12.

mom. of one of the bodies with respect to the impact point, d) total energy (for elastic collisions); in case of friction, kin. en. is conserved only along the axis to the friction force. Also: e) if the sliding stops during the impact, the nal velocities of the contact points will have equal projections to the contact plane; f) if sliding doesnt stop, the momentum delivered from one body to the other forms angle arctan with the normal of the contact plane. 17. Every motion of a rigid body can be represented as a rotation around the instantaneous center of rotation C (in terms of velocities of the body points). NB! Distance of a body point P from C = to the radius of curvature of the trajectory of P . 18. Tension in a string: for a massive hanging string, tensions horizontal component is constant and vertical changes according to the strings mass underneath. Pressure force (per unit length) of a string resting on a smooth surface is determined by its radius of curvature and tension: N = T /R. Analogy: surface tension pressure p = 2/R; to derive, study the pressure force along the diameter. 19. Liquid surface takes equipot. shape (neglecting ); in incompr. liquid, p = p0 w, wvol. dens. of pot. en. (for a gas, see X-6). 20 . Adiabatic invariant: if the relative change of the parameters of an oscillating system is small during one period, the area of the loop drawn on the phase plane (ie. in p-x coordinates) is conserved with a very high accuracy. 21. For studying stability use a) principle of minimum potential energy or b) principle of small virtual displacement. 22 . Virial theorem for nite movement: a) If F | r|, then K = (time averages); b) If F | r|2 , then 2 K = . 23. Tsiolkovsky rocket equation v = u ln M m.

A system of N coupled oscillators has N dierent eigenmodes when all the oscillators oscillate with the same frequency i , xj = xj 0 sin(i t + ij ), and N eigenfrequencies i (which can be multiple, i = j ). General solution (with 2N integration constants Xi and i ) is a superposition of all the eigenmotions : xj =

3.

3.

If refraction index changes continuously, then we imaginarily divide the media into layers of constant n and apply Snells law. Light ray can travel along a layer of constant n, if the requirement of total internal reection is marginally satised, n = n/r (where r is the curvature radius).

Xi xj 0 sin(i t + ij + i )

4.

If refraction index depends only on z , the photons mom. px , py , and en. are conserved: kx , ky = Const., | k |/n = Const.

If a system described with a generalized co2 /2 has an ordinate (cf IV-2) and K = equilibrium state at = 0, for small oscillations ( ) 2 /2 [where = (0)] so that 2 = /. 5. The phase of a wave at pt. x, t is = kx t + 0 , where k = 2/ is a wave vector. The value at x, t is a0 cos = a0 ei . The phase velocity is vf = = /k and group velocity vg = d/dk. 6. For linear waves (electromagn. w., smallamplit. sound- and water w.) any pulse can be considered as a superpos. of sinusoidal waves; a standing w. is the sum of two identical counterpropagating w.: ei(kxt) + ei(kxt) = 2eit cos kx. 7. Speed of sound in a gas cs = (p/)adiab = p/ = v /3. 8. Speed of sound in elastic material cs = E/.

4.

5.

The thin lens equation (pay attention to signs): 1/a + 1/b = 1/f D.

6. 7.

Newtons eq. (x1 , x2 distances of the image and the object from the focal planes): x1 x2 = f 2 . Parallax method for nding the position of an image: nd such a pos. for a pencils tip that it wouldnt shift with resp. to the image when moving perpendicularly the position of your eye.

8.

9. Sp. of shallow (h ) water waves: v = gh. 10. 11.

s . Dopplers eect: = 0 1u /cs

1+v /c

Geometrical constructions for nding the paths of light rays through lenses: a) ray passing the lens center does not refract; b) ray to the optical axis passes through the focus; c) after refr., initially rays meet at the focal plane; d) image of a plane is a plane; these two planes meet at the plane of the lens.

Huygens principle: wavefront can be constructed step by step, placing an imaginary wave source in every point of previous wave front. Results are curves separated by distance x = cs t, where t is time step and cs is the velocity in given point. Waves travel perpendicular to wavefront.

9.

Luminous ux [unit: lumen (lm)] measures the energy of light (emitted, passing a contour, etc), weighted according to the sensitivity of an eye. Luminous intensity [candela (cd)] is the luminous ux (emitted by a source) per solid angle: I = /. Illuminance [lux (lx)] is the luminous ux (falling onto a surface) per unit area: E = /S .

V 1.

Oscillations and waves 1.

VI

Damped oscillator: 2 x + 2 x + 0 x = 0 ( < 0 ). Solution of this equation is (cf. I.2.): x = x0 et sin(t

Geometrical optics. Photometry.

10.

2 2 ). 0 0

2.

Eq. of motion for a system of coupled oscillators: x i = j aij xj .

Fermats principle: waves path from point A to point B is such that the wave travels the least time. 2. Snells law: sin 1 / sin 2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 .

Gauss theorem for luminous ux: the ux through a closed surface surrounding the point sources of intensity Ii is = 4 Ii ; singlesource-case: at a distance r, E = I/r2 .

11.

An experimental hint: if a grease stain on a paper is as bright as the surrounding paper, then the paper is equally illuminated from both sides.

VII 1.

Wave optics

Diraction method based on Huygens principle: if obstacles cut the wavefront into fragment(s), the wavefront can be divided into small pieces which serve as imaginary point-like light sources; the wave amplitude at the observ. site will be the sum over the contributions of these sources. 2. Two slit interference (the slit width d a, ): angles of maxima max = arcsin(n/a), n Z ; I cos2 (k a 2 sin ), where k = 2/. 3. Single slit: angles of minima min = arcsin(n/d), n Z, n = 0. NB! the central maximum is double-wide. I sin2 (k d 2 sin )/.

4.

Diraction grating: the main maxima are the same as in pt. 2, the width of the main maxima the same as for pt. 3 with d being the net grating length. Spectral resolving power = nN , where n is the order number of the main max. and N the number of slits. 5. Resolving power of a spectral device: = L , where L is the optical path dierence be tween the shortest and longest beams. dn 6. Resolving power of a prism: = a d .

( ). EnNB! dispersion: n = n( ) = ergy ux density (en. per unit area and time): c I= n 0 E 2 . 12. Malus law: for linearly polarized light I = I0 cos2 , where is the angle between the polarization planes. 13. /4-plate: phase shift /2 between linearly polarized components. 14. Brewsters angle: reected and refracted rays are ; reected ray is completely polarized; incidence angle tan B = n. 15. Dir. with optical elements: no need to calculate optical path lengths through lenses, prisms etc.: work simply with images. Particular conclusion: biprism gives the same dir. as a double slit. 16 . Optical bres: Mach-Zehnder interferometer is analogous to a double-slit diraction; circular resonator to Fabry-P erot interferometer; Bragg lters work similarly to the X2 ray case. Single-mode bres: n/n 1 2 (/d) .

VIII 1.
Rseries =

Circuits
Ri ,
1 R =

U = IR, P = U I

1 Ri

7. Angular distance when two pts. are resolved 2.

in an ideal telescope (lens): = 1.22/d. For that angle, the center of one point falls onto the rst dir. min. of the other point. 8. Bragg theory: a set of ion planes of a crystal reects X-rays if 2a sin = k; a distance between neighb. planes, glancing angle. 9. Reection from optically denser dielectric media: phase shift . Semi-transparent thin lmS also introduce phase shifts. 10. Fabry-P erot interferometer: two semitransp. mirrors with large reectivity r (1 r 2a 1). Resolving power (1r ) . Transmission spectrum can be found by introducing 5 plane waves (for left- and rightwardspropagating waves before the device, in the dev. and after the dev.) and tailoring these at the region boundaries. 11. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric elds are added; vector diagram can be used, angle between vectors is the phase shift;

crossed a potential drop U ; work of emf is A = E q. 8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2. 9. E = d/dt = d(LI )/dt, = BS . 10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method nd the solution in U -I coordinates as an intersection point of a nonlinear curve and a line representing Ohm/Kircho laws. In case of many intersection points study stability some solutions are usually unstable. 11. Make use of short- and long-time limits. For tobservation RC or LR , quasiequilibrium is reached: IC 0 (wire is broken near C ) and EL 0 (L is eectively shortcircuited). For tobservation RC or LR , the charge leakage of C and current drop in L are small, Q Q and I I : C is shortcircuited and L is broken. 12. If L = 0, then I (t) is a continuous function. 13. Through a superconducting contour, magnetic ux = Const. In particular, with no external B , LI = Const. 14. Mutual inductance: magnetic ux through a contour 1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2 current in a second contour). Theorems: L12 = L21 M ; M L1 L2 .

inside a sphere (or innite cylindrical surface) of homogeneous surface charge E = 0, inside a cylindrical surface current to the axes B = 0, inside a ball (d = 3), cylinder (d = 2) or layer (d = 1) of homogeneous or j: 1 = = E r; B j r d0 d0 ( r radius vector from the centre). 7. Long solenoid: inside B = In0 , outside 0; ux = N BS and (with n = N l ) inductance L = /I = V n2 0 . Short solenoid 0 B = In ( solid angle). 4

8.

Measuring magnetic eld with a small coil E and ballistic galvanometer: q = R dt = N S B/R. 9. Potential energy of a system of charges: qi qj 1 =k = ( r)dq, dq = ( r)dV. rij 2
i>j

Kirchos laws: I = 0,
node

contour

U =0

IX 1.

Electromagnetism

3.

To reduce the number of eqns. for pt 2: method of node potentials; method of loop currents; equivalent circuits (any 3-terminals or Y ; 2-term. with emf r and E in series). 4. Resistance of innite chain: use selfsimilarity; resistance between neighbour nodes of innite grid: generalized method of electrical images. 5. AC: apply pts. 14 while substituting R with Z : ZR = R, ZC = 1/iC, ZL = iL; = arg Z, Ue = |Z |Ie 2 Ri . P = |U ||I | cos(arg Z ) = Ii

F = kq1 q2 /r2 , = kq1 q2 /r Keplers laws are applicable (Ch. XII). S = 0, 2. Gausss law: Bd

S = Q, 0 Ed

= 4GM. g dS Bdl = I, 0

3.Circulation theorem
, Ed l = 0 (= )

g d l = 0.

6.

Characteristic times: RC = RC , LR = L/R, LC = 1/ LC . Relaxation to stationary current distribution exponential, et/ . 7. Energy conservation for electric circuits: W + Q = U q, where q is charge which has

Magnetic eld caused by current element: er = 0 I dl dB ; 4 r2 0I hence, at the center of circular I : B = 2r = e( +E ), F =I Bl . 5. F vB From the Gausss and circulation laws: I0 charged wire: E = 2 , DC: B = 2 r ; 0r charged surface E = 20 , current sheet B = 0 j 2 ;

4.

Force between parts of a uniformly charged sphere or cylindrical surface: substitute force due to charges with force due to hydrostatic pressure. 11. If all the charges are at the distance R (eg. at the center of an inhomogeneously charged sphere or ring), = kQ/r. 12. To nd the net charge (or potential) induced by external charges, use the superpos. pr.: smear the charges to make the problem symmetric. 13. Conductor shields charges and electric elds, eg. charge distribution inside a hollow sphere cannot be seen from outside (it seems as if there is a conducting ball carrying a total charge Q) 14. Capacitances: C = 0 S/d (plane), 40 r(sphere), 20 l(ln R/r)1 (coaxial). 15. Dipole moment: e = = I S. d qi ri = lq, d

10.

16. 17. 18.

Energy and torque of a dipole: E E (B ), M =d (B ). W = d 2 Dipole eld: = k d er /r ; E, B r3 .

6.

e ) , d Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E F = (B d ) ; interaction between 2 dipoles: F r 4 . 19. Point charge as a magn. dipole: d 2 v /B is an adiab. inv (see IV-20).

Electric and magnetic images: grounded (superconducting for magnets) planes act as mirrors. Field of a grounded (or isolated) sphere can be found as a eld of one (or two) ctive charge(s) inside the sphere. The eld in a planar waveguide (slit between metallic plates) can be obtained as a superposition of electromagnetic plane waves. 21. Balls (cylinders) polarization in homogeneous (electric) eld: superpos. of homogeneously charged (+ and ) balls (cylinders), d E. 22. Eddy currents: power dissipation density B 2 v 2 /; momentum given during a single pass: F B 2 a3 d/ (where d thickness; a size). 23. Inside a superconductor and for fast processes inside a conductor B = 0 and thus I = 0 (current ows in surface layer skin eect). = B 24. Charge in homog. magnetic eld B ez moves along a cycloid with drift speed v = E/B = F/eB ; generalized mom. is conserved p x = mvx Byq, py = mvy + Bxq, 2 as well as gen. angular mom. L = L + 1 2 Bqr . 25. MHD generator (a length along the ): direction of E E = vBa, r = a/bc. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve (loop) in B H -coordinates (for a coil with core also B -I coord.): the loop area gives the thermal energy dissipation density per one cycle). = 0 E = 0 E +P , 27. Fields in matter: D is dielectric polarization vector (volwhere P = B/ ume density of dipole moment); H 0 = 0 J , where J is magnetization vector (volB/ ume density of magnetic moment). 28. In an interface between two substances Et , Dn (= Et ), Ht (= Bt /) and Bn are continuous. 1 (0 E 2 +B 2 /0 ). 29. Energy density: W = 2 30. For 1, eldlines of B are attracted to the ferromagnetic (acts as a potential hole, cf. pt. 28). = E/ . 31. Current density j = ne v = E

20.

X 1. 2. 3.
pV =

Thermodynamics

m RT

2. 3.

i Internal energy of one mole U = 2 RT .

Volume of one mole at standard cond. is 22,4 l. 4. Adiabatic processes: slow as compared to sound speed, no heat exchange: pV = Const. (and T V 1 = Const.). 5. = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i. 6. Boltzmanns distribution: = 0 egh/RT = 0 eU/kT .

Interference: as in wave optics. Uncertainty (as a math. theorem): h 1 h px , E t , t . 2 2 2 For qualitative estimates by non-smooth shapes, h serves better (px h etc). 4. Spectra: h = En Em ; width of spectral lines is related to lifetime: h. 5. Oscillators (eg. molecule) en. levels (with eigenfrequency 0 ): En = (n + 1 2 )h0 . For many eigenfrequencies: E = i hni i .

7. Properties of an ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a (l1 , l2 distances to the foci), 1 = 2 (light from one focus is reected to the other), S = ab. 8. A circle and an ellipse with a focus at the circles center can touch each other only at the longer axis. 9 . Runge-Lenz vector (the ellipticity vector): L v = + er = Const. GM m XIII 1. Theory of relativity
Lorentz transforms (rotation of 4D space-time of Minkowski geometry), = 1/ 1 v 2 /c2 : x = (x vt), y = y, t = (t vx/c2 )
2 p x = (px mv ), m = (m px v/c ) Length of 4-vector: s2 = c2 t2 x2 y 2 z 2 2 2 2 2 m0 c = m2 c 2 p 2 x py pz Adding velocities: w = (u + v )/(1 + uv/c2 ).

6. 7.

7.

Maxwells distribution (how many mole2 cules have speed v ) emv /2kT . 8. Atm. pressure: if p p, then p = g h.

Tunnelling eect: barrier with width l is easily penetrable, if h, where = l/ /m. Bohrs model: En 1/n2 . In a (classically calculated) circular orbit, there is an integer number of wavelengths = h/mv . 8. Compton eect if photon is scattered from an electron, photons = C (1 cos ). 9. Photoeect: A + mv2 /2 = h (A - work of exit for electrons). I -U -graph: photocurrent starts at the counter-voltage U = (h A)/e, saturates for large forward voltages. 10. Stefan-Boltzmann: P = T 4 .

9. p = = nkT , v = 3kT /m, = vnS . 10. Carnots cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms. = (T1 T2 )/T1 ; derive using S -T -coordinates. 1 11. Heat pump, inverse Carnot: = T1T T2 . 12. 13. 14.
Entropy: dS = dQ/T . I law of thermodynamics: U = Q + A II law of thermodynamics: S 0 (and real Carnot ). 15. Gas work (look also p. 10) i A= pdV, adiabatic: A = (pV ) 2 Daltons law: p = pi . Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour pv = p0 ; at the interface betw. 2 liquids: pv1 + pv2 = p0 . 18. Heat ux P = kS T /l (k thermal conductivity); analogy to DC circuits (P corresponds to I , T to U , k to 1/). 19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . Solids: for low temperatures, c T 3 ; for high T , c = 3N k, where N number of ions in crystal lattice. 20. Surface tension: U = S, F = l, p = 2/R.

1 2 3 mnv

2. 3. 4. 5.

Doppler eect: = 0

(1 v/c)/(1 + v/c).

XII 1. 2.
2

Kepler laws

26.

16. 17.

32.

Lenzs law: system responds so as to oppose to changes.

XI 1.

Quantum mechanics

p = h k (|p | = h/), E = h = h .

F = GM m/r , = GM m/r. Gravitational interaction of 2 point masses (Keplers I law): trajectory of each of them is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, with a focus at the center of mass of the system. Derive from R.-L. v. (pt 9). 3. Keplers II law (conserv. of angular mom.): for a point mass in a central force eld, radius vector covers equal areas in equal times. 4. Keplers III law: for two point masses at elliptic orbits in r2 -force eld, revolution periods relate as the longer semiaxes to the power of 3 2: 2 2 3 T1 /T2 = a3 1 /a2 . 5. Full energy (K + ) of a body in a gravity eld: E = GM m/2a. 6. For small ellipticities = d/a 1, trajectories can be considered as having a circular shapes, with shifted foci.

Minkowski space can be made Euclidean if time is imaginary (t ict). Then, for rot. angle , tan = v/ic. Express sin , and cos via tan , and apply the Euclidean geometry formulae. 6. Shortening of length: l = l0 / . 7. Lengthening of time: t = t0 . 8. Simultaneity is relative, t = vx/c2 . = d v ), where m = m0 ]. 9. F p/dt [= d (m
dt

Ultrarelativistic approximation: v c, p mc, 1 v 2 /c2 2(1 v/c). = B || , E = E || , 11 . Lorentz tr. for E -B : B

10.

||

||

E + ), B E = (E v B = (B v 2 ). c

marks an advanced material. Corrections/suggestions kalda@ioc.ee. Composed by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk and J.K.