Society for American Archaeology

Ceramic Standardization and Intensity of Production: Quantifying Degrees of Specialization Author(s): Valentine Roux Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 68, No. 4 (Oct., 2003), pp. 768-782 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3557072 Accessed: 03/11/2008 16:01
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CERAMIC STANDARDIZATIONAND INTENSITY OF PRODUCTION: QUANTIFYING DEGREES OF SPECIALIZATION

ValentineRoux

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between metric variability of ceramic vessels of a single type and intensity of production. This relationship is examined on the basis of vessels made by Indian and Spanish potters whose rates of production vary from low to high. Results are compared with Filipino data to embrace different cultures and therefore possibly different emic conceptions of standardization. We conclude that rate of production affects the degree of standardization. However, only in a high-rate production situation do we have motor habits that transcend emic conceptions of standardization. Indeed, factors like size classes, emic conception of size classes, and skill may induce a certain variability despite similar rates of production. Indexing degrees of standardization needs, in other respects, to take into account the cumulative effect of production events that play on the CV (Coefficient of Variation) values. Applied to Mesopotamian data, our results suggest that third millennium ceramic production can be compared to low-rate production observed ethnographically. El prop6sito de este estudio es analizar la relacion entre la variabilidad metrica de las vasijas de un solo tipo cerdmico y la intensidad de la produccion. Esta relacion se estudia a partir de una serie de piezas manufacturadas por alfareros de la India y de Espana cuya produccion puede variar en cantide de baja a alta. Los resultados se comparan con datos de los filipinos para abarcar diferentes culturas y, por lo tanto, posibles diferencias en conceptos emicos de estandarizaci6n. Concluimos que la tasa de produccion incide en el nivel de estandarizacion. Sin embargo, solamente en caso de una tasa alta de producci6n hay habitos de manufactura que transcienden los conceptos emicos de estandarizacion. En efecto, factores como las clases de dimensiones, los conceptos emicos del tamaiio y la destreza del artesano producen cierta variabilidad a pesar de que haya tasas similares de produccion. Para medir los grados de estandarizacion se requiere, entre otros aspectos, tomar en cuenta el efecto acumulativo de los eventos de producci6n sobre los valores del CV (coeficiente de variaci6n). Al aplicar estos resultados a los datos de Mesopotamia, se cuenta con bases para plantear que la produccion de ceramica en el tercer milenio puede ser comparada con una produccion de nivel bajo tal como se lo ha observado en contextos etnogrdficos.

archaeology, the degree of ceramic standardization is takento reflectintensityof production and degree of specialization. The standardizationhypothesis (e.g., Costin 1991, 2000; Costin and Hagstrum1995) proposes that moreuniformityis due to a higherrateof production. The latteris correlatedwith economic specialization, which encompasses many ways to (domesticvs. specialized organizecraftproduction vs. full-timepotters,attached part-time production, vs. independent potters,individualvs. workshop, etc.) (e.g., Arnoldand Nieves 1992; Blackmanet al. 1993;Costin 1991,2000; CostinandHagstrum 1995; Feinman et al. 1981; London 1991; Longacre 1991;Longacreetal.1988;Rice 1989,1991;

In

Sinopoli 1988; Stark 1995). Degree of standardrawmaterial comizationmaybe assessedthrough position, manufacturingtechniques, form and Two types of dimensions,and surfacedecoration. attributes may be distinguished (Costin and Hagstrum 1995): intentional and mechanical. are controlledby the artisan Intentionalattributes andincludetechnological, andstylmorphological, istic properties.Mechanical attributesare those introducesinto "whichthe potterunintentionally his orherworks" (CostinandHagstrum 1995:622). Theyrelateto motorhabitsand skill, and,because theyareunconscious,theymoredirectlyreflectthe of production.In this regard,metric organization shouldreflectthe number of workunits, variability

de Pr6histoireet Technologie, CNRS, 92023 Nanterrecedex, France Valentine Roux * Laboratoire AmericanAntiquity,68(4), 2003, pp. 768-782 CopyrightO2003 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology 768

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"on the assumptionthatthe amountof variability correlateddirectly in these mechanicalattributes with the numberof independentpottersor work groups"(Costin and Hagstrum1995:622). For a the theless the variability, of pottery, largequantity fewer the numberof full-timepotters. The inverse correlationbetween metric varihasbeenpartlytested abilityandrateof production studies (e.g., Kvammeet by ethnoarchaeological al. 1996; Longacre 1999). Statisticalresultshave and foraperture to differentiate, enabledtheauthors height, between householdpottersand part-time between and/orfull-timepotters,and for aperture part-timeand full-time potters.The authorsconclude that numerousfactors (e.g., differencesin raw materials,potters'levels of expertise,market demand, manufacturingtechniques, local traditions, and types of measurement aids) affect ceramic standardization (see also Arnold and Nieves 1992), and that more effective means of measuringand assessing variabilityin ceramics between prowould help "untanglerelationships duction intensity and product standardization" (Kvammeet al. 1996:125). With this purpose in mind, we conductedan ethnoarchaeological studyto isolatetheparameters as well as to quantify involvedin standardization, the relationshipbetween intensity of production We examinevessels anddegreeof standardization. madeby Indianand Spanishpotterswith different Wethencompare resultsto Filratesof production. ipino data to propose regularities(Gallay 1986) and metricvariability, betweenrate of production taking into account differentpossible emic conResultsare appliedto ceptionsof standardization. datafromMesopotamia. archaeological Ethnographic Case Studies Two areconsidered. situations Threeethnographic of them are in India,in ruraland urbancontexts. respectivelyby low- and They are characterized Thesetwo situations, ceramicproduction. high-rate because they pertainto the same culturalcontext, "intenwill enableus to easilyisolatetheparameter and assess its effects on stansity of production" The thirdcase, in Spain,is in anurban dardization. context. This enables us to compare high-rate ceramic productionwithin two differentcultural contexts.Moreover,the Spanishexampleenables us to comparehigh-rate using different production

fashioning techniques: without rotative kinetic energyandwith rotativekineticenergy(here,padand wheel throwing). dle-and-anvil Low-RateCeramicProduction(India) Low-rateceramic productionwas studied in the southernpartof AndhraPradesh(A.P.).Fourvillages, next to Tirupati,were visited within the framework of an ethnoarchaeological survey1 (ChavaramBekam, Alapakam, Kota Aruruand These villages are separated by only Chapakam). of them contains 1,200-2,000 km. Each 3-10 Pottersworkwithinthe inhabitants and2-5 potters. in the domestic space, courtyard or under an no There is warehouse; pots are storedin awning. The is area the house. firing generallylocated at of the Potters work throughthe outskirts village. Festito different out the year according rhythms. like and the val months January February represent the while monsoon months represent peak season, In most the slack season. cases, pottery is only source of income of the potters.Pots are sold by links potters'wives, either throughpatron-client (the jajmani system) or throughbarteror trade, within a 3-4 km radius. the largerpart Threetypes of vessels represent of productionand consumption:kura catti, ralla catti andpedda bana. Kuracattiarevesselsforcookingvegetables (for dishes like kura, samba, rasam). Ralla catti are vessels for cooking lentils (dal) and spinachthat, once cooked, aregroundagainstthe bottomof the vessel with a wooden pestle. Pedda bana are big storagejars wheremainly cerealsare stored. each All in all, around6,000 pots areproduced less outof which,roughlyspeaking, yearperpotter, than 50 percentare kuracatti and ralla catti, and 5 percentarepedda bana. The otherproductsare andstoragepotsof sevvariouscooking,transport, eral sizes. The demandis not for strictlystandardized vessels, but for a volume thatmay varyfrom one familyto anotherdependingon the size of the family. of wheel Vesselsarefashioned by a combination throwingand paddling.Pots are firstthrownon a wheel. Dependingon theirdimenpivoted-spoked sions, they arethrownoff the hump(kuracatti)or to froma mass of clay whose quantity corresponds the pot to be thrown (pedda bana). They are detachedfromthe humpor fromthe wheel with a

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stringin such a way that a hole is left at the bottom. Neck andshoulderdimensionsdo not usually changeafterthis point.The lowerpartof the body the is a thickwall, shapedby subsequent paddling; reached has when the starts clay paddlingprocess a leather-hard consistency,using stone anvils and wooden paddles.The firsttaskis to close the hole direction.Once by paddlingthe pot in a downward thebottomis closed, ashis addedto theinnerlower partof the body thatis shapedwith a smalleranvil and a lighterpaddle.For ralla catti, sandis added to the bottomas an abrasive againstwhich vegetables will be ground.Paddlingfollows. The bigjars arepaddledtwice. Ash is addedduringthe second paddling.Ash preventsthe anvil from stickingto the clay. Whilepotsare Thepotsreceivelittledecoration. lines areincised with still on the wheel, horizontal a piece of wood.Oncetheyhavedried,pots arecovered with a red slip.

by Arcellin-Pradelle and Laubenheimer(1982, 1985). These workshopsare made up of specialized areas,which include the manufacturing area, the drying area, the kiln, and the warehouse.In some cases, thehouse is partof the workshoparea. Most assisTwo to fourpotterscan worktogether. tantsarenot membersof the household. of one workshop hasbeenexamTheproduction Itis located inedin detailandpublished extensively. in Vall de Uxo, a village in the provinceof Castellon. It is runby a single potterwho carriesout the whole manufacturingprocess. He works intensively (10 hoursa day), 11 monthsa year.Vessels are sold mainly throughmiddlemen.Production includestableand cooking vessels. Pitcherswith flat bottomsareconsideredhere. They arewheel thrownon a kick-wheel.Whenthe consistency,the clay has reached a leather-hard bottomis turned(scraped)on the wheel. The handle is fixedwith slurry. The pottermakesabout50 a Annual is approximately pitchers day. production High-Rate CeramicProduction 14,000 pitchers. was studiedin North ceramicproduction Accordingto the craftsman,his intentionis to High-rate in his view, makeverysimilar Indiaand in Spain. pots;standardization, In North India, the study was conducted in indexes the degreeof skill. Uttam Nagar, a suburbof New Delhi with about Analytical Procedure 200 potterhouseholds.Everyhouse has a nuclear affectsmetricvarior extendedfamily that owns one or two wheels, To studyhowrateof production in located on series of vessels and one kiln under ability representinga single open shelters, placed Theclay,conveyedby truck,is stored ceramic type, we examine series of vessels fashthecourtyard. conor in the street,dependingon spa- ioned withinlow-ratevs. high-rate in the courtyard production a full-time texts. Series of vessels made one manufacture is tial constraints. potter is a by Pottery event and a the even takes that during monsoon; production represent "group."The place activity affects is as follows:if rateof production rainsrestrictthe numberof firingsbut do not stop hypothesis motor then vessels made habits, by high-rateproproduction. variThe differentpottersinterviewedspecialize in ducerswill presentless intra-andinter-group indices that or than low-rate Metric of water manufacture the producers. jars (ghada matka) ability on motor habits remain to be defined medium reveal small in three sizes: made (bich may (ghadiya), A of meaAll in around the basis of data. wide and kaghada) all, empirical range large(baraghada). 15,000 pots are producedeach year per potter,of suresis thereforeconsidered. which, roughlyspeaking,30 percentare ghadiya, Measurements 60 percentare bich ka ghada, and 10 percentare Measurements ofAndhra Pradesh ceramicsinclude bara ghada. maximum the and to Potsarefashioned diameter,aperture throwing (Figure 1) height, according thicknessof the wall andof the lip, techniquedescribedfor Andhra (rimdiameter), paddle-and-anvil we tookthree as is commonin Northwest andwidthof thelip. Forthethickness, Pradesh pots.However, on each side of the two of themrelate no hole is left measures and Behura India(Saraswati 1964), pot: the padfrom the to the wheel-thrown one relates to the is detached at the bottom when part, pot meaThickness and width of the were wheel. dled block wheel, which is a pivoted part. lip the measures been studied sured on each side of These have aperture. Spanishceramicworkshops

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Figure 1. Measurements taken on Andra Pradesh vessels (ralla catti).

enable us to calculateindexes of regularityin the fashioningof the walls and the lip.2 Measurementof New Delhi ceramics include diameter andaperture (rimdiamheight,maximum eter). takenby For Spanishceramics,measurements andLaubenheimer include(FigArcellin-Pradelle ure2) (1) maximum diameter, (3) neck (2) aperture, base total diameter,(5) diameter,(4) height, (6) (7) lip height,(8) heightof the maximumdiameter, lip thickness,(9) handlewidth, (10) handlethickness, (11) height of the decoration (distance between the bottomand an incised groove), (12) height of the zone that has not been turned (scraped),(13) capacity,and (14) weight. Data dimensionswere measuredon InAndhraPradesh, 166 ralla catti, 186 kuracatti and 85 pedda bana made by, respectively, 6, 7, and 6 potters. Three potters(A, B, and G) live in Chavaram Bekam.They arerespectively45, 35, and 32 years old. Two of them (A and B) are brothers-in-law. They live in the same compound. Two potters(C and D) live in Alapakam.Son and father,they are respectively30 and 60 years old, and live in the same compound. He is 45 years Onepotter(E)livesin KotaAruru. old. He is 65 years Onepotter(F) livesin Chapakam. old. Exceptfor two seriesof kuracatti, the ceramic vessels were not fired,having been made the day

Figure 2. Measurements taken on Spanish vessels. (1) Maximum diameter, (2) aperture, (3) neck diameter, (4) base diameter, (5) total height, (6) maximum diameter height, (7) lip height, (8) lip thickness, (9) handle width, (10) handle thickness, (11) height of the decor (distance between the bottom and an incised groove), and (12) height of the zone which has not been turned.

orthedaybefore.Thefactthat theyweremeasured, vessels were not firedand not measuredthe same day does not affectthe results.Indeed,all the vessels weremeasured leather hard,thatis to say when the drying shrinkageaffecting the volume of a ceramichad alreadyoccurred. the kura Moreover, catti datadid not revealany significantdifference of values betweenthe firedand unfiredseries. In New Delhi, measurements of 180 ghariya were made.These pots arefiredanddistributed by 6 potterswho are, on average,46 years old (the youngestis 30 and the oldest is 65). In Spain, 100 fired pitchers were measured. These were madein the courseof two daysby one potter.Dependingon the day of manufacture, they belong to seriesA or B. Series C includesseriesA andB. Indexes of Standardization Variabilitybetween low-rate and high-rateproductionis examinedby comparing the inter-group the two Indian variability by presented assemblages Pradesh vs. New Delhi). Let us recallthat (Andhra a groupcorresponds to a potter'sproduction. Comis since the parison justifiable fashioningprocess is the same in both situations. hasbeencomputed Inter-group variability using ANOVA(analysisof variance).As underlined by Kvammeet al. (1996), results obtainedby an Ftest are dependenton an assumptionof normality thatdoes nothold mostof the time.Forthisreason,

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we proceeded with a posteriori tests (LSD3 [Scheffe]andGames-Howell)thatarevery robust with populations that are not normally distributed and are useful for comparingheterogeneous varianceson small samples. betweenlow-rateandhigh-rate proVariability ductionis also examinedby comparingthe intraby the Indian(Andhra groupvariability presented PradeshandNew Delhi) andthe Spanishsamples. will enableus to test whether The Spanishmaterial the rangeof values,as observedin the Indianhighto thetechvariesaccording rateproduction context, to wheel throwing). nique (frompaddle-and-anvil Moreover,the Spanishexample will enable us to of ceramicsmadeoverthecourse testthevariability of two daysby the same potter. variabilityhas been calculatedon Intra-group the basis of Coefficientof Variation(CV). CV is deviationdivided defined as the sample standard the sample mean, multiplied by 100 and by It may be consideredas expressedas a percentage. the standardstatistic in studies of variationand thereforeas an excellent measureof standardization (Eerkensand Bettinger2001). Results The results of these analyses enable us to assess affectsthe metricvariabilhow rateof production wheel-thrown for and pots. ity paddled in Low-RateProduction Inter-GroupVariability Contexts existsin low-rate production Inter-group variability differences(p shows ANOVA contexts; significant < .001) betweenthe series of vessels producedby the differentIndianpottersfrom AndhraPradesh tests(LSD [Scheffe] 3, 4, and5). Statistical (Figures and Games-Howell)confirmthese differences(p < .05). These differenceshold for height,aperture, andmaximumdiameter.4 They do not hold for the of wall and of lip (widthand indexes of regularity thickness). Pedda bana are producedless frequentlythan ralla catti and kura catti. However,they are not characterized by inter-individual differences strongerthanthe ones displayedby the two other classes of vessels. is establishedduringwheel throwing Aperture andis not modifiedlaterby paddling,as arevessel However,contrary heightandmaximumdiameter.

Kura c.atti 19 18 17 16 15 14 ' 13 I I I I I I I

TT

Ti
T1 I

T
1 I

= 12

23 -

j 22m 21 -

20 | 20
: 19-

18 17 -

T
A B

11111
C D E F G

16

19 18 17 16 -

E15-

14 - T
13 12
I

T i- I
I I I I I I

A B

C D E F

Figure 3. Inter-group differences among Andhra Pradesh potters (A-G) as shown by means and standard deviations of measurements taken on kura catti.

does notproto whatwe expected,wheel throwing techduceless variability thanthepaddle-and-anvil nique. Inter-GroupVariabilityin High-Rate ProductionContexts variabilNorthIndianvessels displayinter-group ANOVA that shows as attested on the basis of ity < between differences ghariya (p .001) significant

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773

Ralla catti 19 18 17 16 15 I 14 -

Pedda Bana 46 44 42 -

T T
TT
BiT D
I I I I

T
T
1TI
I I
*o

40 38.

36 -

13 12
A

E 34 B D EF G = 32
I I I I I I

A 46 -

24 -

2322 21*20E 19 -

TlTT Ill
I I I I I I

j 44;42
| 40* 38|
.

T
T , I
I I I I

T ii
I I

36 34 -

* 18S 17 A BD EF G

S 32

A 24 22 20 /~

19 18 17 16 -

T
l vT T
I I I I I

15X 14 -

18-

= 16 14
A I I I I IF

1
I

1312
A B D E F A G Figure 5. Inter-group differences among Andhra Pradesh potters (A-G) as shown by means and standard deviations of measurements taken on pedda bana. BD EF G

Figure 4. Inter-group differences among Andhra Pradesh potters (A-G) as shown by means and standard deviations of measurements taken on ralla catti.

producedby Delhi potters (Figure 6). Statistical tests (LSD [Scheffe]andGames-Howell)confirm these differences(p < .05). These differenceshold andmaximumdiameter.5 for height, aperture, in Low-Rate Intra-GroupVariability ProductionContexts The AndhraPradeshceramicsyield the following

results: variabilityin CVs for height, maximum is highest for pedda bana. diameter,and aperture For pedda bana, CV values range from 1.43 to 7.81 percent. For ralla catti, CV values range mainly from 2.01 to 4.70 percent,except for one whose CVvaluesrangefrom6.61 to 7.15 perpotter cent.Thispotter(F) is theoldest(65 yearsold).For kura catti, CV values range mainly from 2.50 to

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31.531-

Kura Catti
- 108o 8-

30.5 3029.52928. 528 -

i
V0
potteri potter2 potter3 . potter4 potter5 potter6

64-

27.5 27

14 13.5 1311 12.52.

1 23T

C.

I I

I I

, I

I I

AI AB

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Ralla Catti
8o

- 1086-

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4-

29.8 29.66-

E 20

''`9??"b
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3 29.4E 29.2-

28.80 28.2 2
28 p p 4 p , p

Pedda Bana 10860 0

e
potter1 potter2 potter3 potter4

potter5

potter6

Potters of New Delhi Figure 6. Inter-group differences among New Delhi potters (1-6) as shown by means and standard deviations of measurements taken on ghariya.

42rx II v

E=

..

5.54 percent,except for one potterwhose CVvalues range from 5.98 to 9.71 percent (Figure 7). This potter(B), who is 35 years old, is acknowledged to not be as good a potteras his brother-inlaw (A). Whatever the absolute dimensions, whether standard height, maximumdiameter,or aperture, deviations and within the same (SD) range. CVvary Since aperture is obtainedby throwing,maximum diameter by paddling,andheightby a combination of throwingandpaddling,it follows thatvariation

---

Height

.....M...... . Max. Diam. .--.-.Aperture

Figure 7. Coefficients of variations (CV) of measurements taken on series of kura catti,ralla catti andpedda bana produced by Andhra Pradesh potters (A-G).

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Table 1. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Ralla Catti Producedby Six Pottersfrom AndhraPradesh. Max. Diameter Aperture 20.8 .68 3.29 17.42 .64 3.68 Wall Thickl .41 .07 16.22 Wall Thick2 .46 .06 13.54 Wall Thick3 .39 .09 22.76 Lip Width 1.32 .19 14.57 Lip Thickness

Potters Height PotterA (n = 31) Mean (cm) 13.13 .62 SD CV (%) 4.7 PotterB (n = 30) Mean (cm) 13.64 SD .57 4.19 CV(%) Potter D (n = 30) Mean (cm) 14.78 SD .55 3.75 CV (%) PotterE (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV(%)

20.39 .54 2.62

14.82 .58 3.91

.25 .06 23.93

.34 .08 24.41

.52 .11 21.75

1.83 .11 6.26

.65 .17 25.65

22.38 .56 2.51

18.05 .36 2.01

.40 .06 14.9

.49 .07 13.58

.54 .07 13.48

1.76 .11 6.44

1.4 .15 10.5

14.47 .6 4.16

22.79 .56 2.45

17.02 .61 3.58

.26 .05 21.01

.31 .04 13.66

.44 .06 14.08

1.73 .09 5.47

.53 .07 12.39

PotterF (n = 18) Mean (cm) 13.84 SD .91 6.61 CV (%) Potter G (n = 27) Mean (cm) 14.68 SD .64 CV (%) 4.37

22.23 1.5 6.73

17.06 1.22 7.15

.34 .05 13.98

.38 .06 16.95

.56 .07 12.38

1.72 .09 5.38

.94 .14 14.68

22.11 .84 3.79

17.25 .67 3.87

.41 .08 18.55

.39 .06 15.46

.47 .07 14.19

1.7 .09 5.16

.74 .13 17.21

in dimensiondoes not seem to dependon the fashioning technique. Amplitudeof CVvaries,for some potters,from one categoryof vessel to the next. The same potter can presentlow CVvalues on pedda bana, and higher CV values on kuracatti, or low CV values on kuracatti andhigherCVvalues on ralla catti. Forthe threetypesof vessels,thicknessof walls shows veryhigh intra-group reflectedin variations, CVvaluesthatcanreach25 percent(Tables1, 2, 3). CV values for lip thickness and width range mostly from4 to 8 percent.However,some vessel variation (Tables groupsshowhighintra-individual 1,2,3). When consideringthe standard deviationsand CVvaluesof eachtypeof vessel, all potterspooled, it appearsthat,for height,maximumdiameterand CVvaluesrangefrom5 to 9 percent(Table aperture, There is a cumulative effect,also called "cumu4). lativeblurring" et al. 1993) thatmakes (Blackman

these pooled CVvalues higherthanthose for each potter. Intra-GroupVariabilityin High-Rate Production Contexts In Uttam Nagar (New Delhi), variabilitywithin is less thanin Andhra Pradesh. potters'production variable for one of the Except jarsmadeby (height the all CV values are less than 3 percent potter5), Maximum diameter the (Table5). presents lowest from to .87 1.40 values, ranging percent.CV values of aperture from 1.19 to 2.83 percent.CV range values of heightrangefrom 1.40 to 3.19 percent. When pooling the potters, height, maximum diameterandaperture presentCVsthatrangefrom 1 to 5 percent(Table6). Once again the cumulative effect results in CV values higherthan those for each individualpotter. In Spain,whateverthe series considered(A, B or C), the dimensionsthat vary least are height,

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Table 2. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Kura Catti Producedby Seven Potters from AndhraPradesh. Max. Height Diameter 14.11 .55 3.87 19.82 .78 3.94 Wall Thickl .3 .08 25.95 Wall Thick2 .53 .10 18.06 Wall Thick3 .4 .08 20.85 Lip Width 2.73 .24 8.66 Lip Thickness 1.0 .14 13.81

Potters PotterA (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) PotterB (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD

Aperture 13.7 .57 4.19

CV(%)
PotterC (n = 11) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterD (n = 31) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterE (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) PotterF (n = 24) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) PotterG (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%)

14.66 .88 5.98

20.01 1.94 9.71

14.04 .87 6.21

.37 .07 18.0

.38 .07 18.23

.44 .06 13.9

2.98 .24 7.88

1.18 .110 9.39

15.48 .45 2.88

21.17 .86 4.06

14.82 .55 3.68

.30 .07 22.59

.55 .09 16.49

.45 .06 13.1

2.77 .18 6.41

1.1 .10 9.5

15.34 .47 3.08

20.49 .51 2.5

14.3 .43 3.0

.30 .04 14.66

.52 .07 14.12

.52 .07 14.12

2.58 .11 4.13

1.07 .12 11.44

15.03 .56 3.71

20.96 .68 3.26

15.23 .59 3.9

.21 .06 29.48

.36 .05 12.84

.39 .04 10.15

2.74 .11 4.14

1.01 .08 7.95

14.37 .63 4.38

21.09 .96 4.55

15.28 .85 5.54

.27 .06 23.24

.34 .08 22.62

.37 .06 15.39

2.25 .13 5.85

1.12 .09 7.88

15.27 .65 4.26

20.85 .70 3.35

15.22 .58 3.82

.29 .05 18.05

.48 .08 16.17

.49 .06 11.74

2.14 .15 7.01

.89 .07 7.44

maximumdiameter,and aperture(rim and neck diameter). Their CV values range from 1.4 to 2.9 percent(Table7). Such a variationin the precision of the dimensionshas been observedfor the productionof six otherworkshopslocated in disa greater tantvillages.Theotherdimensions present degreeof variability(higherCV). Thestandard of seriesA is smaller than deviation thatof seriesB, which meansthatthe pottermade vessels with a higherdegreeof variabilityon day B thanon dayA. Whenstatistically the comparing thatmeansdismeans(AspinWelshtest),it appears tinguishthe two groupsfor the following parameters:capacity, diameter, weight,heightof maximum and height of the decoration.They are the parameterswith the higherCV.

Discussion We can now examine whetherrate of production affects motor habits and consequentlydegree of standardization. Our results suggest that the series of vessels consideredhere presentdifferentdegrees of standardization resultingfrom differingrates of production. High-rate ceramic production is less variablethanlow-rateproduction (Tables4, 6, and 7). However,even with high rates of production, work units may be distinguishedthroughmetric variablesas exemplifiedby the inter-group analysis of New Delhi potters(Figure6). Variability of ceramic assemblages is best expressedby CVsthatareplacedherealonga continuum of variationfrom .87 to 25 percent.The

REPORTS Table 3. MeasurementsTakenon Series of Pedda Bana Producedby Six Pottersfrom AndhraPradesh. Wall Max Thickl HeiPht Diameter Aperture ----~~~~~~--IIt-, - -r -- I----___ 39.09 2.45 6.27 35.68 2.34 6.56 16.94 .77 4.55 .40 .08 20.06 Wall Thick2 .48 .08 15.7 Wall Thick3 .42 .09 21.77 Lip Lip Width Thickness 4.12 .25 6.11 1.69 .14 8.15

777

Potters PotterA (n = 12) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterB (n = 16) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) PotterD (n = 16) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterE (n = 15) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterF (n = 13) Mean (cm) SD CV(%) PotterG (n = 13) Mean (cm) SD CV-(%)

40.08 1.90 4.75

37.48 1.17 3.11

16.56 .70 4.20

.44 .07 15.06

.69 .11 16.13

.52 .08 15.72

4.35 .21 4.85

1.78 .21 12.02

38.58 .84 2.17

36.74 1.24 3.38

17.91 .71 3.96

.55 .08 14.19

.80 .08 10.21

.69 .08 11.11

1.83 .10 5.54

1.14 .10 8.43

42.58 2.25 5.29

40.11 1.55 3.86

19.15 1.35 7.04

.43 .09 21.18

.55 .07 11.9

.55 .05 9.94

3.58 .16 4.50

1.46 .10 6.75

37.18 2.9 7.81

35.61 2.16 6.05

15.35 .77 5.04

.48 .09 17.96

.51 .07 13.33

.46 .11 23.05

4.44 .33 7.33

1.78 .13 7.18

38.21 .55 1.43

35.93 .77 2.14

15.8 .74 4.7

.47 .06 13.44

.73 .08 10.28

.53 .07 12.48

3.44 .17 4.97

1.44 .09 6.05

minimumCVis below 1.7percent,whichis the CV value derivedfrom the Weberfraction6(Eerkens and Bettinger2001), althoughno automationor was used in this case. Here, standard independent we assume that it is possible to obtainsuch high
high d degree given degrees of standardization e of n a hh g degrees ofstann motor expertise acquired through an optimal per-

been observed (e.g., Benco 1988) althoughsome ethnographic cases tend to show the opposite (Arnold and Nieves 1992). It can be considered robustsince we could isolate the technicalfactor by analyzing pots made according to different
Table 4. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Vessels fromAndhraPradesh. Produced by thePotters Height Type of vessel Ralla catti (n = 166) Max. Diameter Aperture 21.74 1.19 5.46 20.52 1.13 16.93 1.24 7.35 14.61 .91 6.24

ongoing cycle (Bril et al. 2000). ception-action

Height, maximum diameter, and aperture are the variables most likely to vary according to motor habits. Lips are stylistic features that allow potters to express themselves as they please. In Spain, the

Mean(cm)
SD cv(%) Kuracatti n = 174)

14.1
.88

variationin the base diametercould be relatedto

the absence of visual reference when manufacturing the base in the course of the hollowing operation. Variation in height of decoration and turning zone corresponds to the fact that they are secondary attributesthat do not contribute to the general shape V~~~~~ ~Pedda ot tmepot.
_ ~c ~_1 ....

6.27
14.81 .78

Mean(cm)
SD

CV(%)
dd b
bana (n = 84)

5.23
84) 39.37 2.58 6.56

5.52
37.03 2.21 5.97

The formingtechniquedoes not affectvariabilThisresulthas already ity of ceramicassemblages.

Mean (cm)

17.02 1.54 9.07

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Table 5. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Vessels Producedby the Six Pottersfrom Uttam Nagar (New Delhi). Maximum Diameter 29.49 .36 1.22

Table 6. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Vessels Producedby the Pottersfrom Uttam Nagar (New Delhi). Ghariya (n = 180) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Height Max. Diameter Aperture 29.74 29.04 12.11 1.12 .47 .59 3.77 4.85 1.61

Potters Potter 1 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Potter 2 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Potter 3 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Potter4 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Potter 5 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%) Potter 6 (n = 30) Mean (cm) SD CV (%)

Height 30.36 .58 1.9

Aperture 11.9 .22 1.87

30.51 .48 1.56

29.19 .32 1.08

12.36 .15 1.19

30.3 .61 2.01

28.82 .40 1.40

11.64 .26 2.25

28.72 .69 2.41

29.3 .36 1.24

13.09 .31 2.34

28.19 .90 3.19

28.74 .37 1.30

11.52 .33 2.83

30.37 .42 1.40

28.69 .25 .87

12.14 .29 2.41

techniques(wheel throwingvs. paddle-and-anvil). In AndraPradesh,there is a tendency for the than smaller biggest pots to be less standardized pots. This tendencyhas been observedelsewhere Benco 1988).Itmaybe thaterrors (see in particular in estimatingobjectsize increaselinearlywith the or size of theintended endproduct(e.g., magnitude Coren et al. 1994 cited in Eerkensand Bettinger could be thatthe 2001:494). Anotherexplanation in smallerquantities and, biggestpots areproduced therefore,thatmotorhabitsareless practicedthan those for smallerpots. Therefore,metriccomparisons should take size classes into account (as underlined also by Stark1995). Skill may affectthe rangeof variability. A skill may be defined as the capacity to reach a goal throughuse of the resourcesin one's environment (Brilet al. 2000). This capacitymay varyfromone Pradesh personto theother,as shownby theAndhra

potters,amongwhom some, of the same age, have the same amountof experience.Metricdatafrom San Nicolas in the northern Philippines(Longacre thisresult.Potsproduced 1999) support by thelessskilled pottershow greatermetricalvariation. The differentresults obtainedfor Indian and Spanishpotterycan be comparedwith those from the Philippines.The hypothesis is that if motor habitsdetermine thenwe degreeof standardization, shouldhave,forthethreedifferent cultures(Indian, Spanish,Filipino),the same rangeof metricvariability for series of vessels producedwithin the same range of production(low-ratevs. high-rate In otherwords,intercultural production). comparison shouldenableus to assess how ceramicvariability may be affected by different emic InAndhra Pradesh, conceptionsof standardization. the size-class definitionis a functionof the size of the family thatwill use the vessels. In the Philippines, the size classes arebasedon vessel volume, reckoned thechupa(ca. 100ml) (Kvamme through et al. 1996). In Spain, standardizationindexes degreeof skill andthe potter'sintentionis to make to UttamNagar'spotvery similarpots,in contrast ters, whose vessel measurements respondto market-oriented norms. In the Indian and Spanish contexts, all potterspooled, high-rateproduction yieldedceramicassemblageswhose CVvaluesare less than 5 percent,whereas low-rateproduction yielded ceramic assemblages whose CV values rangefrom5 to 9 percent.Theseresultsareslightly differentfromthe ones obtainedin the Philippines (Kvammeet al. 1996). In the Philippines,all potters pooled, the high-rateproduction(Paradijon, full-timepotterspecialists)presentsCVvaluesthat range from 4.3 to 6.92 percent,whereaslow-rate production(Dalupa, part-timepotter specialists) from4.06 to 5.56 percent. The presentsCVsranging least-specialized potters (Dangtalan,household use, and restrictedexchange) produce ceramics whose CVvaluesrangefrom 6.27 to 8.34 percent. Paradijonand Dalupa ceramics differentiateon aperture only (B-F test,p = .0482) whereasDalupa

REPORTS Table 7. MeasurementsTakenon the Series of Pitchers Producedby One Potterin the Course of Two Days. Series Mean (mm) SD CV (%) Measurements 1.7 1.4 121.1 Maximum diameter A 2.4 2.0 B 120.2 2.1 1.7 C 121.0 2.1 2.2 A 98.9 Aperture 2.4 2.4 B 100.1 2.6 2.5 100.1 C 2.3 A 1.9 82.7 Neck diameter 2.2 2.6 B 80.9 2.2 2.7 82.1 C 2.6 A 5.7 49.6 Base diameter 2.2 4.4 B 50.4 2.3 4.6 50.0 C 2.1 2.6 A 78.8 Total height 2.2 2.6 B 80.4 2.4 2.9 C 79.3 1.8 4.4 A Maximum diam. 40.3 2.1 5.1 B 40.6 height 41.1 1.9 3.7 C 6.4 A .9 13.9 Lip height .6 B 14.4 4.3 .7 4.9 C 14.4 .1 2.0 A 5.0 Lip thickness .3 6.0 B 5.9 .2 4.8 5.0 C .7 A 4.0 17.5 Handle width .5 3.0 B 17.2 .8 2.8 17.4 C .5 4.7 A Handle thickness 10.5 .5 5.1 B 9.8 .6 6.0 C 10.2 2.3 A 4.9 46.9 Height of the decor 3.1 6.8 B 45.9 2.9 6.1 C 46.1 5.2 A 9.2 56.4 Height of the 5.8 11.2 B 51.8 non-turnedzone 6.0 10.0 55.2 C A 25.1 5.1 489.6 Capacity B 18.5 6.2 490.2 28.3 15.7 492.1 C 4.1 A 14.5 353.2 Weight 17.4 5.0 B 348.5 4.7 16.8 C 352.5 Note: Series A (n = 50) and B (n = 50) were made over two days. Series C pools series A and B. Data from ArcellinPradelle and Laubenheimer(1985).

779

on aperture and Dangtalanceramicsdifferentiate andheight(B-F test,p = .008,p = .0003) (Kvamme et al. 1996).Thethreecommunities employa comand paddle-and-anvil binationof coil-and-scrape techniquesto fashiontheirpots. These observationssuggest, first, that smallscale productiondoes develop motor habits that series of enable potters to produce standardized

to thosemadeby high-rate vessels comparable producers.This pointis supported by the San Nicolas datapublished by Longacre(1999). Seriesof water and 20 pots maderespectivelyby 36, 25, jars (62, four potters)vary between about3 and 4 percent Theirannualproduction is comparable metrically. to that achieved by the AndhraPradeshpotters (Longacreindicatesthat they make 100 pots per week when it is not raining).Small-scaleproduction refershereto annualproduction of a few thousands pots. It has to be distinguishedfrom very whose metricvariability small-scaleproduction is much higher.The Kalingapotteryvariesabout12 percent(Longacre1999). Such variationis comin Papua to thevariation observed and Amaparable zonia for very low production (Stark1995). Second, emic conceptions of class sizes may which is why CVvalinduce a certainvariability, ues do not rangethe same way fromone cultureto the other,despite similarrates of production(as observedalso by Longacre1999). in a cumulative-effect no smallThird, situation, scaleceramicassemblage at least twovaripresents ables with CVvalues lower than3 percent. the ethnographic To summarize, datapresented here suggestthatceramicassemblagespresenting CV values from 3 to 6 percentare quite ambiguous. They may result from large-scaleas well as small-scaleproduction. Ceramicassemblagesprefrom values 6 to 9 percentmay belong CV senting to small-scaleas well as very small-scaleproduction. Ceramicassemblagespresentingat least two variableswith CV valuesbelow 3 percentpointto high-scaleproduction(Figure8). These ceramic assemblages are made up of fewer than 10 productionevents (i.e., let us recall that a productionevent correspondsto a potter's In the future,more assemblagesrepproduction). eventsshould more numerous production resenting be analyzed.Indeed, we have seen that the more we pool potterstogether,the greaterthe cumulative effect thatplays on the CVvalues.This cumuif assemblagesare lativeeffectshouldbe amplified eventsachievedovera few madeup of production events. centuries,or else multipleproduction let us recall that Finally, large-scaleproduction is achievedby full-time specialists,whereaslowscale productionmay be achievedeitherby fulltime or part-time specialists, or even by the least-specialized pottersin a community.

780

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Large-scaleproduction (14,000pots a yearperpotter)

Large-scaleproduction or small-scaleproduction (between14,000and4,000 pots a yearperpotter) 3%-6%

Small-scaleproductionor very small-scaleproduction (6,000pots a yearor less perpotter) >6%

<3% 9%

(|)CV
6%

Pradesh Andhra

C )^r^v
L^V )i

i JAndhra Pradesh

~Delhi

3%

G"?

(Z)r^v^ ~Delhi Spain

Figure 8. Quantifying rate of production by reference to ceramic assemblages made up of less than 10 production events.

Application To Archaeological Data data. Letus now applyourresultsto archaeological bowls the"open-simple-rim" fineware Weconsider that had become one of the most characteristic ceramic forms by 2200 B.C. at Tell Leilan and numerousother sites in NorthernMesopotamia. As outlinedby Blackmanet al. (1993), they offer to examinethe notionof stanthe rareopportunity dardizationsince large waster stacks have been recoveredin the easternpart of the Leilan lower town (Period IIb). A portion of the stacks, containing27 whole bowls and bowl fragments,was broughtto United Statesand examinedby Blackman et al. (1993). Accordingto theirresults,stanwerefollowed at everystepof dardized procedures thebowl-production process.Chemicalanalysisof the bowls in the wasterstack shows a remarkably high degreeof homogeneityin the chemicalcomclays. Concerningvesposition of the constituent weremade:rim sel dimensions,fivemeasurements diameter,wall thickness1 cm below the rim, vessel height, base diameter, and maximum basal thickness.According to Blackmanet al. (1993), these bowls show a high degreeof standardization since CVvaluesareless than10 percent.Fromthis, they conclude that "metricdata from the Leilan wasters show a level of homogeneity consistent with expectationsfor specializedmass production of utilitarian goods" (Blackmanet al. 1993:73).

Tell Leilan bowls are supposedto be a single event.If we compareTell Leilanbowls production withIndian,Spanish,andFilipinovessels in terms of standard deviationand CV, it appearsthat we are dealing with a weakly standardized production system: CV values of rim diameters are 9.19 percentand CVvaluesof heightsare4.4 percent. These CV values, which are not affectedby any cumulativeeffect, are high comparedto our referencepoints.They do not correethnographic spond to so-called large-scale production.They may reflect small-scaleproduction,which means that, even if they were made by specialists (as attestedby the skills required for theirfashioning; see Roux and Corbetta1989), the rate of production may not have been so high (Figure8). The low degreeof standardization thatappears in this production is quiteconsistentwiththe variabilitymeasuredon a second series of open-simple-rim bowls recovered from domestic refuse contexts (Leilan, Period IIb). This second series couldhavebeen produced over 200 years.CVvalues reach18 percent.Blackmanet al. (1993) interpret this variability in terms of noncentralized i.e., multipleworkshopsduring production; period IIb.Accordingto ourethnographic data,thecumulative effect of intra- and inter-groupvariability shouldnot be underestimated also (as underlined by Blackmanet al. 1993). In the case of the second series of bowls from Tell Leilan, the 18

REPORTS

781

percentCVvaluescould be the resultof a cumulative effect over 200 years and correspondto vessels whose degree of variability, for a single productionevent, could not have exceeded 9 perof the two seriesof bowls may cent.The variability be highly comparable therefore (as suggestedalso et al. and Blackman 1993:74) interpretedin by termsof similarratesof production. Conclusion In this paper,we have examinedthe standardization hypothesisthroughthe metricvariability presented by series of vessels producedin different economic contexts. By comparingdifferenteconomic situations belonging to the same culture (Indian),we have been able to isolatethe paramein orderto test the ter "intensityof production" to which rate of production hypothesisaccording in on motor habits that, turn,affectthe degree plays Ourresultsshowthatrateof proof standardization. ductiondoes affect the degree of standardization. However,when comparingceramic assemblages from differentcultures(Filipino), it appearsthat also play on emic conceptionsof standardization in a metricvariability. high-rateproduction Only situationdo we have motor habits that transcend It enablesus emic conceptionsof standardization. evenif hypothetically, therelative to quantify, range of variability expectedon vessels madewithindifferent contexts of production.When applied to data,these resultsshow that some archaeological considered ceramicproduction upto now as highly in standardized may correspond, fact, to relatively small-scaleproduction. By way of conclusion, let us emphasize that dataneed to be interpreted by refarchaeological data. Quantifierence to quantifiedethnographic cation has to be cross-culturalso that it can be appliedin any culturalcontext.In orderto elabotechnireferentsor regularities, ratecross-cultural cal facts have to be studiedin termsof resources conandconstraints (Roux 1999). The constraints sideredhere are the motor habits underlyingthe series of vessels. The productionof standardized culturalaspect is taken into accountthroughthe One of the emic conceptionsof standardization. to assess is also aims of ethnoarchaeological study emic transcend the contextinto which constraints enables such an approach conceptions.Ultimately, us to testourinterpretations againstempiricaldata.

Acknowledgments.This research was supportedby a grant from the French Institute of Pondicherry (Ministry of ForeignAffairs).A firstversion of the paperwas presentedat the 1994 World Archaeological Congress in New Delhi, India. I thankJ. Pouchepadassfor supportof the projectand M.L.K. Murty for his precious collaboration in the field. Comments on earlier drafts of this paper by Patricia L. Crown and anonymous reviewers are especially acknowledged. I also kindly thankTim Kohler for critique, suggestions, and editorial comments. I am grateful to Jehanne Feblot-Augustinsand CarolKramerfor theirhelp in improving my English. Figures were drafted by GerardMonthel (CNRS, UMR7055). The Spanish abstractwas kindly translated by Jean-FrancoisBouchard.

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Notes
1. The ethnoarchaeologicalsurvey was carried out in Andhra Pradesh, in February 1991, in collaboration with Prof. M.L.K. Murty(Universityof Hyderabad). 2. Index of regularityof walls = (Thickl/L-Thickl/R)2 + + (Thick3/L-Thick3/R)2. (L = left, R (Thick2/L-Thick2/R)2 = right).Likewise for thicknessand width of the lip. 3. The Least Significant Difference (LSD) is the minimum differencebetween the two groups that can be considered statisticallysignificant. between 4. For kuracatti (Figure3), height differentiates potterA and pottersC, D, E, G, potterF and potterC, D, E, G, and potterB and pottersC, D, G. Maximumdiameterdifferentiatesbetween potterA and potters C, D, E, F, G, and betweenpotterA and pottersD and E. Aperturedifferentiates pottersC, D, E, F, G, pottersB and C, E, F, G, and pottersD and E, F, G (Games-Howelltest). For ralla catti (Figure 4), potterA and pottersB, D, E, G, potterB height differentiates and potters D, E, G, and potter F and potters D and G. Maximumdiameterdifferentiatesbetween potterB and potters D, E, F, G, potterA and pottersD, E, F, G, and pottersG andE. Aperturedifferentiates between potterB andpottersA, D, E, F, G, and potter D and potters A, E, F, G (GamesHowell test). Forpedda bana (Figure5), height differentiates between potterF and pottersB, E, potterG and pottersB, E, and potterE and pottersA, B, D. Maximumdiameterdifferentiates between potterE and potterA, B, D, F, G, and potters G and B. Aperturedifferentiatesbetween potter F and pottersA, B, D, E, potterG and pottersA, D, E, potterB and pottersD, E, potterA and potters D, E, and pottersD and E (Games-Howelltest). 5. Height differentiatesbetween potters 5 and 1, 2, 4, 6, potters 3 and 1, 2, 4, 6, potters 1 and 2, 4, 6, potters6 and 4, and potters 2 and 4. Aperturedifferentiateseach potterfrom each other. Maximum diameter differentiatesbetween two groups of potters:potters3, 5, 6 and potters 1, 2, 4 (GamesHowell test). 6. "Unlike mechanical scales that determine weight unit of error,humanappreciation of heavwithin an invariant iness is scaled relativeto object weight. This value (2 percent) has come to be called the Weber's fraction for heaviness" (Eerkensand Bettinger2001:495). Received March 25, 2002; Revised October31, 2002; AcceptedApril 17, 2003.