14.

3 Input-Output (I/O) Equation Another form in which a system model may be represented in an input-output (I/O) equation, which is a single differential equation in terms of the system input, system output, and their (time) derivatives
y ( n ) + a y ( n ) + + a n y + a n y = b! u ( m ) + b u ( m ) + + bm u + bm u m n

( "-##)

In $quation ( "-##), a (i = ,#,, n) and b (k = !, ,, m) are constant coefficients (for linear system, y is the system output, and u is the input%) &or a dynamic system involving many generali'ed coordinates, one often finds it e(tremely difficult or impossible to obtain the input-output equation directly from the governing equations% )his is mainly because, in most cases, the generali'ed coordinates are coupled through the governing differential equations%
i k

Strategy )he idea is to ta*e the +aplace transform of each differential equation in the system model, assuming 'ero initial conditions% ,onsequently, a set of algebraic equations in terms of the transfer functions of the coordinates will be obtained% )hen the unwanted variables may be eliminated to produce a single equation in terms of the +aplace of the desired coordinate and input% -ltimately, this equation is transformed into time domain and interpreted as a differential equation in the form of $quation ( "-##)% Example 14.9 ,onsider the mechanical system of $(ample equation of motion

"%. with the

x+ b x+ kx = f (t )

where the applied force f (t ) represents the system input% Obtain the input-output equation assuming that the system output is the

displacement, x(t ) of the bloc*, and assuming 'ero initial conditions% Solution /y assumption, the output is y = x and the input is u = f % 0irect substitution of these into the equation of motion results in

y+ b y+ ky = u

which is in the general form of $quation ( "-##) with

n = #, a = b, a # = k , m = !, b! =

where m is the order of the right-hand side of $quation ( "-##)% )herefore, the governing equation is already in the desired form, and no further analysis is needed% Example 14.10 Obtain the input-output equation for the mechanical system of $(ample "%", where the input and output are f (t ) and x (t ) respectively% Solution &rom previous results, the equations of motion are

m x + b x k # ( x # x ) b# ( x # x ) = !
m# x # + b# ( x # x ) + k# ( x# x ) = f (t)

( "-1a)

( "-1b)

)he input-output equation must be a differential equation in terms of f (t ), x (t ) , and their time derivatives% )a*ing the +aplace transform of $quations ( "-1a and b) results in

m s # X ( s ) + b sX ( s ) + k X ( s ) k # 3 X # ( s ) X ( s )2 b# 3 sX # ( s ) sX ( s )2 = ! m# s # X # ( s ) + b# 3 sX # ( s ) sX ( s )2 + k # 3 X # ( s ) X ( s )2 = F ( s )

( "-#.) ,ollect li*e terms in $quation ( "-#.) to obtain

3 m s # + (b + b# ) s + k + k # 2 X ( s ) (b# s + k # ) X # ( s ) = ! (b# s + k # ) X ( s ) + ( m# s # + b# s + k # ) X # ( s ) = F ( s )

or, in matri( form,

m s # + (b + b# ) s + k + k # (b# s + k # ) X ( s) ! = F ( s) # X ( s ) ( b s + k ) m s + b s + k # # # # # #

/ecause the output is x , directly solve the above for ,ramer4s rule, as follows
X ( s) = ! (b# s + k # ) F ( s ) m# s # + b# s + k # m s # + (b + b# ) s + k + k # (b# s + k # ) (b# s + k # ) m# s # + b# s + k #

X ( s ) via

X (s) =

(b# s + k # ) F ( s ) 3m s + (b + b# ) s + k + k # 2(m# s # + b# s + k # ) (b# s + k # ) #

#

( "-#")

Algebraic manipulation of $quation ( "-#") yields

{m m s
#

"

+ 3 m b# + m# (b + b# )2s . + 3m k # + b b# + ( k + k # )m# 2s # + (b# k + b k # ) s + k k # X ( s ) = (b# s + k # )F(s)

In time domain, representing the system4s output and input, this equation then reads

m m# x + 3m b# + m# (b + b# )2 x + 3m k # + b b# + (k + k # )m# 2 x + (b# k + b k # ) x + k k # x = b# f + k # f

( "-#5)

which is the system4s input-output equation% As e(pected, equation ( "-#5) is a differential equation relating input f , output x , and their derivatives, and is precisely in the general form of $quation ( "-##) Problems 14.5 ,onsider a dynamic system with input whose state-variable equations are
x = x# x# =

f (t )

and output

3. x # # x + f (t )2

0irectly from these equations, determine the input-output equation% 14. In 6roblem "%5, assume that input-output equation%
x#

is the output% &ind the

14.4 !rans"er #un$tion Once again, consider a linear, time-invariant (constant coefficients) system described by
y ( n ) + a y ( n ) + + a n y + a n y = b! u ( m ) + b u ( m ) + + bm u + bm u m n

( "-#7)

in which u and y denote the system input and output, respectively% &urthermore, assume that initial conditions are all 'ero8 i%e%, u (!) = ! = u ( m ) (!) and y(!) = ! = = y ( n ) (!) % )a*e +aplace transforms of both sides of $quation ( "-#7) to obtain
s n + a s n + + a n s + a n )Y ( s ) = (b! s m + b s m + + bm )U ( s )

( "-#9) function is output and "-#9), the form of a

)hen, assuming 'ero initial conditions, the transfer defined as the ratio of the +aplace transform of the +aplace transform of the input% &rom equation ( transfer function is then determined to be in the rational function%
G (s) = b sm + b s m + + bm Y (s) = n ! U ( s) s + a s n + + a n s + a n

( "-#1)

:ecall that each pair of system input and output corresponds to an input-output equation% )he same is true here in the sense that corresponding to each pair of input and output, there e(ists a single transfer function% In general, for a ;I;O system with p inputs and q outputs there are a total of pq transfer functions% <rouping these transfer functions in the form of a matri( yields the p(q transfer function matri( (or simply, transfer matri()% )ransfer functions can be used to determine the output of a system associated with a *nown input% &rom $quation ( "-#1) it is readily seen that Y ( s) = G ( s)U ( s) in which G ( s) and U ( s ) are both *nown% )a*ing the inverse +aplace of both sides, the output is

y (t ) = L {Y ( s )} = L {G ( s )U ( s )}

( "-#=)

Example 14.11 ,onsider the single-degree-of-freedom mechanical system studied in $(ample "%.% Assume it to be sub>ect to 'ero initial conditions% ?uppose x is the output and f (t ) is the input% 0etermine the transfer function% Solution )a*ing the +aplace transform of the equation of motion, assuming 'ero initial conditions, results in
(ms # + bs + k ) X ( s ) = F ( s )

so that the system transfer function is obtained as

X ( s) = F ( s ) ms # + bs + k

Example 14.12 In the system shown in &igure "%" , x(t ) and y (t ) denote the output and input, respectively% <iven that the equation of motion is m x + c x+ kx = c y + ky , find the system transfer function, assuming 'ero initial conditions%

&igure "%" ?ingle-degree-of-freedom system%

Solution )a*ing the +aplace transform of both sides of the equation of motion and collecting li*e terms, one obtains
( ms # + cs + k ) X ( s ) = (cs + k )Y ( s )

,onsequently, the transfer function is

G (s) = X ( s) cs + k = # Y ( s ) ms + cs + k

Example 14.13 ,onsider the two-degree-of-freedom mechanical system in &igure "%5 ?ub>ected to 'ero initial conditions% )he equations of motion are given as

m x + c x c x # + kx kx# = f (t) m# x # c x + c x # kx + kx# = f # (t )

( "-.!)

where x and x # are system outputs, and f and inputs% 0etermine the transfer function matri(%

f#

are system

&igure "%5 )wo-degree-of-freedom mechanical system% Solution /ecause there are two inputs and two outputs, there are four transfer functions, denoted by G ( s), G # ( s ), G# ( s ), and G## ( s ) % ,onsequently, the transfer matri( is formed as

G ( s ) G # ( s ) % (s) = G # ( s ) G ## ( s )

;ore specifically, these transfer functions are defined as follows

G ( s) = G# ( s) = X ( s) F ( s) X # (s) F (s) , G # ( s) =
F # ( s ) =!

X ( s) F# ( s )

F ( s ) =!

, G ## ( s ) =
F # ( s ) =!

X # ( s) F# ( s )

( "-. )

F ( s ) =!

$(press the equations of motion, $quations ( "-.!), in secondorder matri( form as

m !

! x c c x k k x f + + = m# x # c c x # k k x# f #

( "-.#)

)a*ing the +aplace transform of both sides of $quation ( "-.#) after setting initial conditions to 'ero, one obtains
m s # + cs + k (cs + k ) X ( s) F ( s ) = m #s # + cs + k X # ( s) F# ( s) (cs + k )

( "-..)

@e(t, use ,ramer4s rule to solve for X ( s) % )his requires replacing the first column of the coefficient matri( by the vector on the right-hand side, and

F (s) (cs + k ) (m# s # + cs + k )F (s) + (cs + k )F# (s) X ( s) = = (s) F# (s) m# s # + cs + k (s) m# s # + cs + k cs + k = F (s) + F# (s) ( s) ( s)

( s ) denotes the determinant of the #(# coefficient where matri( in $quation ( "-..), and is defined as

( s) =

m s # + cs + k (cs + k ) = ( m s # + cs + k )(m# s # + cs + k ) (cs + k ) # (cs + k ) m # s # + cs + k

?imilarly, solve $quation ( "-..) for X # ( s) using ,ramer4s rule% )his time the second column of the coefficient matri( is replaced by the vector on the right-hand side, and
X # (s) = m s # + cs + k ( s ) (cs + k ) F ( s ) m s # + cs + k cs + k = F# ( s ) + F (s) ( s) ( s ) F# ( s)

?ubsequently, all four transfer functions, defined through the relations in $quation ( "-. ), can be obtained as
G ( s) = X (s) F ( s) =
F# ( s ) =!

m# s # + cs + k ( s )
cs + k ( s )
cs + k ( s )

G # (s) =

X (s) F# ( s )
X # ( s) F ( s)

=
F ( s ) =!

G# ( s ) =

=
F# ( s ) =!

G## ( s ) =

X # (s) F# ( s )

=
F ( s ) =!

m s # + cs + k ( s )

)hen, constitute the transfer matri(,

% ( s) ,

as defined earlier%

Example 14.14 0etermine the transfer matri( for the electrical circuit of $(ample "%1% Assume that q and q # are system outputs, and that initial conditions are 'ero% Solution

)he governing equations of this system are given by $quation ( "-#!) and may be e(pressed in the standard second-order matri( form as

L !

! q R R q / C + + L# q R R q ! # #

! Q e = / C # Q# !

+aplace transformation of the governing equations, ta*ing into account 'ero initial conditions, yields
L s # + Rs + / C Rs Q ( s) Rs = L# s # + Rs + / C # Q# ( s )
Q (s)

E (s) !

-sing ,ramer4s rule, solve for obtain

Q ( s) = E ( s) ( s ) !

and

Q# ( s )

separately to

Rs L# s # + Rs + / C # = E ( s) L# s # + Rs + / C # ( s )

G (s) =

Q ( s ) L# s # + Rs + / C # = E (s) ( s )

Q# ( s ) =

L s # + Rs + / C ( s ) Rs Q# ( s ) Rs = E ( s) ( s )

E (s) Rs = E (s) ( s ) !

G # ( s ) =

where
( s ) = ( L s # + Rs + / C )( L# s # + Rs + / C # ) R# s #

Insert this into the e(pressions of to obtain

G ( s ) and G # ( s )

and simplify

L# C C # s # + RC C # s + C G (s) = L L# C C # s " + RC C # ( L + L# ) s . + ( L C + L# C # ) s # + R(C + C # ) s +

and
G# ( s) = RC C # s L L# C C # s + RC C # ( L + L# ) s . + ( L C + L# C # ) s # + R(C + C # ) s +
"

,onsequently, the transfer matri( is defined as

G ( s ) % (s) = G# ( s )

&elation bet'een state-spa$e "orm an( trans"er "un$tion :egardless of the type of representation for the mathematical model of a dynamic system, similar information about the system may be e(tracted% ;ore specifically, given that the statespace form of a system model is available, its transfer function or transfer matri( can be determined using state, input, output, and direct transmission matrices% )o this end, we consider two separate casesA single input-single output (?I?O) systems, and multiple input-multiple output (;I;O) systems%

Single input-single output (SISO) systems ,onsider a dynamic system with a single input and a single output with a state-space representation
* = ,* + +u y = )* + Du

( "-.")

and a transfer function

G(s) = Y (s) U ( s)

( "-.5)
n(

Assume 'ero initial state8 i%e%, *(!) = ! % +aplace transformation of state and output equations yields
s-( s ) = ,-( s ) + +U ( s ) ( sI , ) -( s ) = +U ( s ) -( s ) = ( sI , ) +U ( s )

( "-.7a)
Y ( s ) = )-( s ) + DU ( s )

( "-.7b)

?ubstitution of .7b) results in

-( s )

from $quation ( "-.7a) into $quation ( "-

Y ( s ) = )( sI , ) +U ( s ) + DU ( s ) = 3)( sI , ) 1+ + D 2U ( s )

)hus, the transfer function defined by $quation ( "-.5) may be e(pressed in terms of the state, input, output, and direct transmission matrices as
G ( s) = Y (s) = )( sI , ) + + D U (s)

( "-.9)

:ecall that
( sI , ) = sI , ad>( sI , )

Insert into $quation ( "-.9) and simplify to obtain

G( s) =

) ad> ( sI , )+ + sI , D )ad> ( sI , )+ N ( s) +D = = sI , sI , sI ,

( "-.1)

in which

N (s)

is an nth-degree polynomial in s%

Example 14.15 0etermine the transfer function for the single-degree-of-freedom mechanical system of $(ample "%., using its state-space form% Solution )he state-space form for this system was determined in $(ample "%9 to beA
* = ,* + +u y = )* + Du

where
x ! * = , , = k / m x# ! , += , u = f (t ), ) = [ b / m / m ! ], D = !

6rior to substitution into $quation ( "-.9), we note that

s ( sI , ) = k / m
( sI , )

s + (b / m) s = s ( s + b / m) + k / m k / m

s + b / m

,onsequently, $quation ( "-.9) yields

G(s) = [ =

!]

s ! [ = s ( s + b / m) + k / m k / m s + b / m / m s ( s + b / m) + k / m = ms # + bs + k

/m !] / m( s + b / m)

s ( s + b / m) + k / m m

.ultiple input-multiple output (.I.O) systems

)he formulation leading to $quation ( "-.9) was based on the assumption of a single input and single output that caused G ( s) and D to be scalars ( ( )% Bhen the system has multiple inputs and outputs, G ( s) and D e(tend to the transfer matri(, % ( s) , and the direct transmission matri(, / , respectively% In treating these systems, there e(ist two possible scenariosA (a) a specific transfer function, or a few selected transfer functions, are desired8 or (b) the entire transfer matri( is sought% In either situation, what turns out to be significant consideration is the ad>ustment of si'es of the matrices +, ), and / in $quation ( ".9)% 6roper modification of these matrices leads to the desired transfer function or transfer matri(% Example 14.16 ?uppose a dynamic system has the following governing equations

x + x x # + x x# = u x # x + x # x + x# = u #

( "-.=)

where u and u# denote the system inputs, and x and x# represent the outputs% 0etermine the transfer function X (s)/U (s), via a modification of $quation ( "-.9)% Solution )here are four state variables,
x = x , x # = x # , x. = x , x " = x #

which result in the following state-variable equations

x = x. x # = x" x . = x + x # x. + x " + u x " = x x # + x. x " + u #

,onsequently, the state equation is

* = ,* + +u

where

x ! x ! * = # , , = x. x"

! !

! ! ! u , + = ! !, u = ! u # !

/ecause G (s)CX (s)/U (s) is the transfer function to be determined, x must be chosen as the output and u as the input% In other words, the problem at hand reduces to a single inputsingle output system, and may be treated as before% Dowever, in doing so, certain matrices must be ad>usted properly% /ecause u is the input, the input matri( +, which was originally "(#, reduces to "( matri( + , which is the first column of +% )his is because the elements of the first column of + correspond to u % &urthermore, since x is the output, the output equation reads
y = ) *, where ) = [ ! ! !]

Bith this information available, we now apply $quation ( "-.9) as

G (s) = X ( s) = ) ( sI , ) + + D U ( s)

( "-"!)

with
! ! +1 = !

and

D =!

,alculate (sI-,) - and insert into $quation ( "-"!) to find the desired transfer function
G ( s ) = ) ( sI , ) + + D

=[

s ( s + ) # s ! ! !] # # s ( s + #s + #) s # # s

s s(s + ) # s# s#

s# + s + s+ # s(s + s + ) s# + s

s+ s +s+ s# + s s(s # + s +
#

! ! ) !

s# + s + s # ( s # + # s + #)

Example 14.17 :eferring to the system of $(ample transfer matri( %(s)%

"% 7, determine the

Solution )his problem falls under category (b), discussed earlier% Be are see*ing the transfer matri( associated with inputs u and u#, and outputs x and x#8 hence, %(s) is #(#%
s# + s + # # s ( s + #s + #) % ( s) = )( sI ,) + + / = s+ s # ( s # + #s + #) s+ s ( s + #s + #) s# + s + # # s ( s + #s + #)
# #

Problems 14.0 )he equation of motion of a rotational mechanical system is derived as

# o + " o + o = ! i
where ! and ! denote angular displacements, and are system input and output, respectively% 6arameters E, /, and F are constants% Assuming that the system is sub>ected to 'ero initial conditions, determine the transfer function ( s) / ( s) %
i o

14.1 )he governing equations of an electromechanical system can be shown to be

$i + Ri + = % $t $ # + " # i = ! $t

Dere, i and denote the current and the angular velocity, respectively, and are system outputs, and applied voltage % is the input% 6arameters E, +, :, /, F , and F# are constants% &ind the two possible transfer functions, represented by
G ( s) = ' ( s) ( s ) and G # ( s ) = & ( s) & (s)

and determine the transfer matri(

%(s)% 14.2 ,onsider the system of 6roblem "%9% -sing a suitable set of state variables, e(press the equation of motion in the form of state equation% 0etermine the transfer function via the state, input, and output matrices%

14.5 State-spa$e representation "rom t3e input-output equation ?uppose the input u and output y of a dynamic system are related through the input-output equation, as
y ( n ) + a y ( n ) + + a n y + a n y = b! u ( m ) + b u ( m ) + + bm u + bm u m n

( "-" )

)hen, ta*ing the +aplace transformation of this equation and assuming 'ero initial conditions, the corresponding transfer function is obtained as
Y ( s ) b! s n + b s n + + bn = n U ( s) s + a s n + + a n

( "-"#)

:ewrite the transfer function, defining ((s), as

Y ( s) Y (s) ( (s) = = (b! sn + b s n + + bn ) n n U (s) ( (s) U ( s) s + a s + + an

( "-".)

Interpretation of the newly constructed transfer functions in the time domain yields
) Y ( s) = b! sn + b s n + + bn y (t ) = b! ) ( n ) + b ) ( n + + bn ) ( ( s)

( "-"")

and
( ( s) = n ) (n) + a ) (n ) + + an ) = u n U (s) s + a s + + an

( "-"5)

$quation ( "-"5) represents an nth-order differential equation and hence, n initial conditions are required for a complete solution8 that is, )(!), )(!),, ) ( n ) (!) % )he state variables are then chosen as

x =) x# = ) xn = ) ( n )

( "-"7)

)he corresponding n state-variable equations may then be obtained as before% )he first n* of these equations are merely automatic relations between the state variables, and the last one is generated using equation ( "-"5)
x = x# x # = x. x n = ) ( n ) = a n x a n x # a x n + u

( "-"9)

)herefore, e(pressing the state-variable equations, $quation ( ""9), in matri( form, the state equation is given as
* = ,* + +u

where
! x ! x * = # , , = ! x n a n ! ! ! an ! a# ! ! ! ! , + = ! a

( "-"1)

in which the state matri( , is referred to as the lower companion matri(% )he system output y is given by $quation ( "-""), that can be e(pressed in terms of the state variables as
y = b! ) ( n ) + b ) ( n ) + + bn ) = b! x n + b x n + + bn x

( "-"=)
xn

?ubstituting the last equation in $quation ( "-"9) for $quation ( "-"=), we have
y = b! ( a n x a n x # a x n + u ) + b x n + + bn x

in

:earranging and collect li*e terms to obtain

y = ( b! a n + bn ) x + ( b! a n + bn ) x # + + ( b! a + b ) x n + b! u

( "-5!) As a result, rewriting $quation ( "-5!) using the matri( notation, the output equation is given as
y = )* + Du

where

) = [ b! a n + bn

b! a n + bn

b! a + b ], D = b!

( "-5 )

$quations ( "-"1) and ( "-5 ) constitute the system4s statespace form% Example 14.18 A dynamic system is described by its transfer function, as
Y ( s) = U (s) s # + #s +

0etermine the state-space form% Solution ;anipulation of the transfer function results in

y+ # y+ y = u

which is the system4s input-output equation% ,omparison reveals that

n = #, a = #, a # = , b =

Dence, defining the state variables, and the resulting state vector as

 x = y *= x = y #

the state-space form is

! ! * = * + u # y =[ !] *

Example 14.19 Obtain the state-space representation for the input-output equation below

y + " y+ # y+ .y = # u+ u

( "-5#)

Solution )he system4s transfer function, assuming 'ero initial conditions, is

Y (s) #s + = . U (s) s + "s # + #s + .
Y ( s) = #s + ( ( s) ( ( s) = U ( s) s . + "s # + #s + .

and in time domain,

y = # )+ )

) + " )+ # )+ .) = u

0efining the state variables and the corresponding state vector as

 x = ) * = x # = ) x. = )
the state-variable equations are determined and e(pressed in matri( form to give the state equation, as
x = x# x # = x. x . = . x # x # " x. + u

! * = ! .

! #

! ! * + !u "

)he output equation is

y = # )+ ) = # x # + x y = [

!] *

Problems 14.14 0etermine the state-space representation of the inputoutput equation

y+ # y+ y = u+ .u+ #u
Y ( s) s+ = U ( s ) s ( s + .)

14.11 )he transfer function of a dynamic system is given as

( ) (#)

0etermine the input-output equation and, subsequently, find the state-space form% -sing the state, input, and output matrices obtained in part (a), find the transfer function% Is this in agreement with the transfer function provided originallyG