Jean Ait Belkhir, Race, Gender & Class Journal

The Development of Rhetorical Privilege in the News Reporting of Violent Crime Author(s): Cecelia Baldwin Source: Race, Gender & Class, Vol. 8, No. 4, Race, Gender & Class in Media (2001), pp. 8-19 Published by: Jean Ait Belkhir, Race, Gender & Class Journal Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41674992 . Accessed: 12/02/2014 04:37
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Race , Gender & Classi Volume 8, Number4, 2001 (8-19) : www.suno.edu/sunorgc/ Race, Gender & Class Website

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Development Privilege Reporting of

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Rhetorical in the Ne Crime ws

Violent

Cecelia Baldwin Journalism and Mass Communications San Jos State University

in news thelinguistic ofviolent crime Abstract:Thisstudy explores presentation how created a media. This and reveals rhetorical distorted patterns reporting created an extension of to the dominant distortion privilege granted subsequently thisstudy examined theterm tohigheconomic status. culture and/or Specifically, that attributes rhetorical and other child oriented linguistic projected imagery boy in thestudy for crimes committed. Included in turn alleviated that responsibility saturated crimes thathave had highly are severalhighprofile cases of violent was repeatedly alleviation of responsibility mediacoveragewherea rhetorical deniedto diverse cultures. culture and repeatedly givento thedominant newsreporting, race, criminology, linguistics, Keywords:media,journalism, and class gender,

and Mass Communications, San Jos Cecelia Baldwin, School of Journalism San CA StateUniversity, One Washington 95192-0055. Email: Jos, Square, baldwin@jmc.sjsu.edu

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NewsReporting Crime ofViolent

that "rhetoric, [as] a category (1999) positions overlaps - perhaps withor is closelyrelated to from indistinguishable Bratlinger ideology" (p. 293). Eagleton's(1983)viewson classisieconomic that is primary torhetoric, structures andmore that the posit ideology specifically, deconstruction ofrhetoric revealsthesecret of ideology.This article workings of the rhetoric used in news reporting as partof the social explorespatterns maintenance and formation of illusiveand tenacious ideological,racist,and classist ofinequity. Brummet andBowers "for centuries, (1999) purport patterns thehegemony ofrace in America has beenfueled rhetorical primarily through in thetexts hidden ofevery dayexperience" strategies (p. 118). Rhetorical has a productive ofexploring issues, study history provocative and in revealing hidden contextual them tothefore as partof meaning, bringing hasbeendonethrough thecase study thediscourse ofa society. Thistraditionally used method. "Rhetorical studies has alwaysproductively case study analysisas the disclosure of rhetorical texts...linguistic its exemplar through practice... incultural iffor reason is absolutely essential rhetorical no other evidence studies, thanthatit provides theonlypersuasiveevidence"(Rosteck,1999:13). Case inmaking theshadowed studies a legitimating structures ofrhetorical become step visible. power In thisarticle, revealthegranting ofprivilege from selected case studies to describe defendants from thedominant thelanguageused in newsreporting of theterms culture.The nonspecific designation boyand man in our culture that as part features allowus to viewprivilege enablestheseterms to be isolated of news reporting. The terms,boy and man, can of the social construct ofprivilege that our theideological nature and distortion demonstrate permeates the news showshow,in selected criminal culture.This study cases, highprofile of childlike media has used the termboy,as well as utilizedthe application to describe defendants who are considered adults. It is attributes, linguistic how thispractice of lessenedresponsibility. demonstrated leads to a perception Theseterms, a younger culture and age,areappliedto thedominant designating class. Diverse cultures are identified in to theeconomically opposition privileged adult for offenders. thispractice the utilization of descriptors younger by Background withthelabel ofman? In 1936 the At whatage is a maledesignated three howa society proposed waysofdetermining RalphLinton, anthropologist,

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thesethreelabels. The first of theterms man and boy designates designation an initiation ofpassage. The second represents processor a cultural ceremony a designation reasonfor ofmanhood is theneedtohavea childgrowup quickly, so there is a shortened theshortened could boyhood.In someinstances, boyhood be considereda transitional or temporary change due to war or a single event. However, theshortened could also be a consistent devastating boyhood where arepresent andboys wouldbe expected tobe responsible pattern hardships for a family as men. Linton described thethird ofusageas sustaining designation where a society undefinable no to the different of terms gives specific guidelines manand boy(Linton, 1936). In oursociety with a nonspecific vernacular tothedesignation guideline of theterms and there has an additional term thatis used man, boy appeared in news as we have in our primarily reporting, youth. Youth, designated has been not as a of when a boy language, applied only nonspecific designation a man,butwhenthere is an extension becomes ofchildhood. Thisis an extension whena boyis notresponsible oftime for thefamily orthesociety as a whole.The word becomes becauseofitsassociation ofchild. It is generally boy problematic to havea six-foot notconsidered reasonable reasonable, boybutit doesbecomes in ourculture, tohavea six foot a person whocan participate almost youth, fully in oursociety butis notyet for themaintenance ofthat Thus, responsible society. to fulfill theculture's a new wordis created needs. But in news reporting it becomes ofinterest when theterm is notusedandtheterms additionally youth boy can carry additional textual and mantherefore was meaning.The term, youth, inthe70s and80s butwas less frequently usedin thelate popularized bythepress a relationship 90s. It is interesting to speculate between theseeras denoting the morerecent decreased oftheterm and therecent trend towards frequency youth offenders and convicted and younger as adults. younger beingtried manand boyand thesubsequent The examination oftheterms cultural the term in of with the current youth newspaper reporting, coupled development in newsreporting' s decreased a trend window to usageoftheterm youth, opens andracist As a climate turns to an classist either man or political ideology. using and as younger and younger defendants are tried as adults, the boydesignation, window is openeda bitwider.However, whatbecomes critical in thisshift is if thenewsmediaengaged inanswering the Is the following questions affirmatively: a diverse culture oran economic lower 15 to 19 yearold from class a man? Is the thedominant culture or a higher economic class a boy(or 15 to 19 yearold from anddemise other childoriented oftheterm allows term)?Thedevelopment youth and sociopoliticalnature of language. The us to view the sociocultural socioculturalaspect of linguisticshas a lengthyhistorical development. Wierzvbicka Johen Gottfried whointhe19th Herder, ( 1992) quotes stated, century nation to the it thinks and thinks tothe "Every speaks...according way according

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v. 21:88). Thinking is based on cultural beliefs and the wayit speaks"(Herder, needsofa group ofpeople. Historically, cultural EdwardSapir(1949) continued thisby stating that"languageis a guideto social reality" (p. 162) and Whorf itself as a "shaper ofideas"(p. 213). Cultural have studies (1956) posits language with andrhetorical togainanunderstanding studies linguistic additionally merged oftherelentless theseshapers ofideashaveovernations acrosstheworld. power Media Hegemony as a Function of News Reporting The sociocultural and sociopolitical nature oflanguageinteracts as one revealssystematically distorted communication as a function of of theseterms in the and The inclusion of (Horkheimer Adorno, 1972). ideology publicsphere themedia, as part oftheIdeological State as defined Althusser (ISA) Apparatus by intothepublicdiscourse in which thepublicsphere themediais (1969), extends in economic andpolitical s concept a fundamental Gramsci* component systems. s conceptof media's place in the Althusser' (1971) of hegemonyfurthers Foucault and StateApparatus. rhetoric (1972) explores Additionally, Ideological anddomination andposits as being as a function offreedom power implicit power and ideology in thepublic in language. This study revealshow rhetoric merge of class and race thatcan be either or to produce distortions privileged sphere prejudicial. thatis refers to the social construct of dominance Media hegemony thedistortions ofourculture, inthemedia.Thisdominant viewcontains reflected toa classandrace,as wellas itsprejudice which thegranting ofprivilege include is therefore thewayin which themedia a class or race. Media against hegemony the as well the diffuses the dominant of into as public private concept reality dimensionof people's lives (Altheide,1984). In several studiesof media Hall (1979,1980)andClausMueller revealed Stuart (1973) repeatedly hegemony, were found to rules and codes that work routines incorporate journalists' language found which werea partofthedominant ideology.Additionally, Chaney(1981) andstrategically dominant that usethese codesconsciously topromote journalists interests. ideological thepublic are As Habermas (inwhich (1973) critiques sphere newspapers distorted refers to the communication of he included), newspaper systematically has articulated, as a scientization of which has developed, as Habermas reporting a model where This scientization is based on politics. positivist objective analysis as thegoal. "Journalists cametothink ofthemselves not ofthenewsis proposed of a as participants ofpolitical even ina process discussion, character, nonpartisan but as professionals, above the politicalfray"(Hallin, 1985). But standing in text, as hooks do notseparatefactsfrom values,forembedded newspapers

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is theinvisible social construct ofthedominant class as thetext (1994) argues, itself becomesa place ofdominant cultural hooks (1994) privilege.Moreover, revealed theracist that construct defines racialized within text.The use of groups theterm attributes have been,and continue to be, an boy and other linguistic of systematically distorted where communication, exampleof thephenomenon have demonstrated thelack ofseparation betweenfactand cultural newspapers valuein thegranting ofdominant cultural privilege. there is a guideforthejournalists' use oftheterms Although boyand are often overlooked.Officially, to Associated man,theseguidelines according Pressstyle, an individual becomes a woman ormanat 18 years ofage (Associated Press StyleBook, 1999). A veteran stated: "[thereis] no newspaper reporter official differentiation between and the style girl/boy youth, although informally of teen elevates a and continues beginning yearsusually boy/girl, youth through 17" (Lundstrom, for these that we can see 2000). Itis in thedisregard guidelines dominant ofprivilege and prejudice concepts emerge.The use oftheterms boy and man,in thereporting ofnewsstories, toviewmedia givesus theopportunity as it relaysthedominant of reality and therefore hegemony concept relaysthe distortion within thedominant concept. Case Studies Threesetsofcase studies arediscussed.Each setuses twohighprofile cases that had very ofnewscoverage.The first case ofeach setis that highrates of rhetorical to that of the dominant cultureand/or privilegegranted high economic status.The secondcase ofeach setcompares a case during thesame timeperiodthatalso had a highsaturation of mediacoverage, butwherethe defendants werefrom diverse cultures and had a lowereconomic status.These cases gaveno rhetorical and often secondcomparison did theopposite. privilege Thecasesshowthepattern ofprivilege to the dominant class and granted privilege denied those of diversecultures as well as different ways that ideological differences are furthered by thelinguistic privilege.These sets of cases were selected from different time to to thecontinuance ofthis periods help demonstrate the to mid The The first is from 1990s. second set is from the late pattern. early thelate 1990s. 1980sand thethird setis from Set #1- Case #la Distortion ofreality intheMenendez became through language apparent in where two their mid were with the murder oftheir trial, men, twenties, charged the a of rhetorical distortion from wealthy parents. During trial, pattern developed thefactthat Erikand LyleMenendez, twoadults,23 and 25 yearsofage, were described as boysin thenewsmedia. A random search from theLexis repeatedly

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Nexisnewsdatabaseshowed that in 151 articles tothese defendants referring they werecalled boys in 76 of the articles(just over 50%). The description "the MenedezBoys"also appeared in many as well,addingtotheimpact headlines of therhetoric. it shouldbe noted that theother Additionally, descriptor generally usedwas notmanormenbutwas brothers werealso commonly referred (as they to as the "Menendezbrothers").In callingthemboys,thereis not only the creation ofa falsereality butthere is an extension ofprivilege that is beinggiven. The description of theseadultsas boys is extending thelack of responsibility from children and givento theseadults. Theyhave beengranted the expected of reduced the news media. responsibility by privilege rhetorically As theactualtrialcommenced, after months ofsaturation bythenews in it is also to note that Eric and Menendez came to court media, interesting Lyle men trial for not coats and ties as would be the norm for on murder. Did sweaters, of the defense this privilege recognizedthe powerof the media in granting of this The and and take distorted reality? public subsequently boyhood advantage often biasedin thedominant ofprivilege and prejudice, ideology already jurors, that subtlyserve to deepen and are influenced by the linguisticattributes ofthisstudy that the theinequities ofoursociety.It is thecontention strengthen a ofresponsibility was givento thesemenbecauseoftheir reduction beingfrom class. Further examination revealed a pattern ofsuch economic highly privileged in thisstudy was itfound that menofa poverty class,who privilege.At no time weredesignated with thelabelboys. had committed murder, is also The complexities of economicstatussuperseding ethnicity inthis was ofCubandescent.In thesearch case as theMenendez family apparent in 92% of was no reference toethnic oftheabovenewsarticles there background ofthe mentioned thehigheconomic status thearticles, while100% ofthearticles Menendez family. without Menendez trial concluded a verdict sincethefirst Additionally, when werenow thesecond thedefendants a second trial wasneeded.During trial, that 24% ofthenewsarticles 24 and 26 a search was conducted and itwas found for thedefendants. stillusedboysas a descripter Set# 1- Case #lb Damian time andregional thesameapproximate location, period During which in his the of was on trial for role Williams, Denny beating Reginald age 19, the in which followed the insurrection Los at the onset of 1992 took Angeles place In this was not murder. His of Trial. fact,during crime, course, Rodney King of his crimefrom was activeprotesting as to the upgrading timethere simple assault to multiplecountsof assault and finallyupgradingthe aggravated heavier of the crime to mayhemwhich carriesa significantly seriousness

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A search that revealed thedefendant, whowasconsiderably punishment. although thanEric and Lyle Menendez,was never referred to as a boy. He was younger neverreferred to as a teen. He was neverreferred to as a young man. He was never referred to as a youth. Generally, he was grouped with others atthescene. He was referred to onlyas man(men):40% ofthetime, black(s):36%, orblack man (men): 23%, thusadditionally, he was racializedin 59% ofthedescriptors used. Set #2- Case #2a A similar contrast ofprivilege andprejudice wasstudied byCorea( 1990). Thisstudy from two crimes in and in New 1989 1987 York originated City.These crimes can also shed new on a the alleviation of in light contrasting responsibility as it childlike the use of created reporting gives privilege through descriptors by thepress. The press itas the "Preppie which occurred in New Murder," designated York City's CentralPark. Here,a whitemale (in his mid twenties) froman affluent murdered a white womanin Central Park. As family rapedandbrutally thanthevictim, was givento thecriminal and the out,moreattention pointed criminal was portrayed as a fine (Corea,1990). upstanding person in thepress'slabeling thiscrimeas "thePreppie Murder" it Moreover, a harmless becomesmuchmorethan merely nickname. Although the term hadbecome a part ofpopular itsmeaning stems from thefact "preppie" language, itimplies in a preparatory that enrollment schoolwhich thecriminal wouldhave beenclearly Theterm toooldtoattend. became a general term vernacular Preppie thetraditional dress ofa prepschoolattendee as a modeofexpression byusurping for a conservative, butwelldressed, wholookedas though youthful person, they a private couldafford school.Brantlinger found theterm was (1993) additionally identified as oneofhigheconomic status. is encoded with the Thus,thenickname of class. privilege Morespecifically, theterm usestheie/y form of "Preppie" linguistically a namethus what Van as an nickname. Buren affection (1997) designates creating WhenWierzbicka theie/y formulation ofa nickname, shefound (1992) analyzed itspecifically meant,"I wantto speaktoyou[oraboutyou] (#1)thewaypeople knowwelland (#3)toward whom (#2)towhom speakto [orabout]children they feel 220). they something good' (p. The harmless labelof"Preppie" is an affectionate nickname packedwith and distortion. to the three this linguistic privilege According previous points, nicknamedesignates the accused as a child (see #1 above) thus allowinga diminished it creates a senseofknowing himpersonally (see #2 responsibility;

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him(see #3above). Of course, it towards above), and it extends goodfeelings from a class that wouldbe able to also has theassociative ofan individual power themselves andthe attend a preparatory school. In stripping awaythedistortions it is vital thatwe are able to recognizethe inequitiesof these distortions, that thenickname has created. communicative distortion developed Set #2- Case #2b the "PreppieMurder"case with another Corea (1990) contrasted case. as the "CentralPark Jogger" notorious attackin CentralPark reported handled the incident of how the news media Corea's study analyzed jogger, a in was beaten white who and women, survived) (who narrowly raped viciously American and Latinoindividuals. Central Parkin 1989 bya groupof African centers on the factthat Theirages rangedfrom14-15. Corea's examination there was very the of the crime was bombarded the by brutality although public the crime and a little information about the individualswho committed thelabeling about thevictim, ofinformation tremendous amount hence, developed tothevictim. ParkJogger," was also in reference "Central Thus,the bythepress, Murder"was case was reported theopposite wayin whichthe"Preppie exactly theusageof toascertain In fact, was doneof100 articles whena search reported. of ofthearticles theterm (23%) contained anymention boyless thanone fourth ofwho The individual characteristics in thefirst twoparagraphs. thedefendants and they and howthey whatthey did,where were, up wereoverlooked grew they The story fellintothedominant as racialminorities. weregrouped image merely as violent cruelmuggers(Corea, ofminorities shared ofthepublic's assumption 1990). their their innocence whomaintained Theseindividuals, trial, throughout DNA evidence were obtained and confessions testified that where illegally police Times to as boysonlyoncein was inconclusive, , 1989),werereferred (NewYork to appear. Theywerenot and that was thefirst article a searchof 100 articles, wereindeedconsiderably extended they although linguistic privilege boyhood's warm thefriendly, nor were extended than the Murderer," they "Preppie younger for was criticized the media nickname an presents.Additionally, feelings ie/y was such tremendous to there as and their extensive why questioned coverage coverageof this case, of a whitewomenwho was of a high economicclass occurred and shootings murders whileon thesamenight as, "an (banker), many seven murders blotter and found the York checked New police reporter inquisitive Park... Central thesameAprilnight as theinfamous occurred andeight shootings done. had been which no of Jose News,1989), reporting Mercury episode"(San and seriousnature theextremely ofthisstudy to diminish It is nottheintention crimes to of these to review the but of crimes committed strip reporting brutality thereporting sustains. that oftheculture and distortions awaythemyths

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Set #3- Case #3a Eric Harrisand DylanKlebold,from Coloradoin 1999,who Littleton, killed23 students and injured20, were17 and 18 yearsof age. In a searchor neither was everreported as a man(men). Therewerefewer articles, descriptors inother ofthese individuals than searches noted sincemore references previously in theother weregivenusingtheir actualnamesthan searches.Whendescriptors wereused, theywerereferred to as teens(teenagers) 36% of thetime,youths: men:only10%. Furthermore, the 19%, kids: 18%, and boys:18%, and young menwerefound in thefirst ofyoung thekillings, descriptions only dayfollowing ofthe"Central Park Jogger" case. It couldbe reasonable to thus,theopposite was gathered abouttheir assumethatas moreinformation suburban European American thedescriptors becamemoreyouthful and/or childlike. background theColumbine demonstrate another Additionally, HighSchoolshootings of rhetorical This demonstration of was articulated privilege. privilege type by Tavis Smiley (1999). reporter, commentary givenbybroadcast I nowunderstand Thanks totheLittleton thedifference between tragedy, a clique and a gang. If you're a young or Black male Asian,Hispanic, and feeling unwanted and not leave home in hated, included, you your theprojects or ghetto offriends dayto "hookup" with every your group whofeelthesamewayyoudo so youcan go outin thestreets andbeatup in a similar or killsomeone butwearing different colors, group carjack and possibly do drugs- thenyou belong to a drivers, unsuspecting GANG. a young White maleandnotfeeling included because If,however, you're baseball,or soccerteams,youpull on your you'renoton thefootball, black trenchcoat, leave your room in your upper middle-class and home- where off PC reading neighborhood you've just gotten your - andjoin your and spewing hate buddies andproceed bombs toplant in a school full of childrenand adults then systematically and coldkillthirteen countless others as youlaugh bloodedly peopleand wound and spewhateand racialslurs- then youbelongto a CLIQUE!" in thefirst article thetwokillers On thedayoftheshooting, examined, as a member ofa gang.Thiswastheonly found. weredescribed "gang"descriptor with becametheoperative as the Soon clique or friend(s) description. Again, terms ofboyetc.,it couldbe thatas moreinformation was gathered abouttheir suburban American thedescriptor ofgangwasalso deleted. European background Set #3- Case #3b 1997to 2000, therewas a highprofile case in San Duringtheyears,

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San JoseArea. A man was killedin Palo Alto, a verywealthy, Francisco/ American whichresidesin highly diverse community, predominantly European EastPalo Alto,was predominantly area. Thebordering LatinoandAfrican town, income inthearea. Fivemalesages American andhadoneofthelowest averages beatand thediverse lower economic 15, 16, 17 and 18 from community allegedly man(AsianAmericans makeup 10. 8 % ofthiswealthy killed an AsianAmerican a lateevening tothenewsmedia whowas outfor stroll.In addition community), to a wealthy referto this as "an invasion," [froma poor neighborhood to as men, the news media also referred these defendants repeatedly neighborhood] the as youngmen,but as men. In a searchof articles, not even primarily to as men(or man): 34% ofthetime, as young men: defendants werereferred for these 65% ofthedescriptors 28%, and as adult(s):3%. Theseterms compile 15-18 yearolds. The defendants werereferred to as youth:16% of thetime, ofthestudy teen(s):6%, juvenile(s):6%, boy(s):6%. Again,itis nottheintent thelinguistic crime buttoevaluate todiminish theseriousness ofthis development it. surrounding in 86% to as gangmembers thedefendants werereferred Additionally, the defendants deniedthis and proofhad not been of the articles, although is that there substantiated that togangs. Butequally as instructive, they belonged in thiscase thanin theLittleton was onceagaina reverse case,where progression at the the descriptors of boy,juvenile and teen appearedalmostexclusively used that followed ofthiscase. The considerable primarily reporting beginning ofmenor man. racialized primarily descriptors Conclusion we mustfirst If we are to addressissues of inequality recognizethe first This can an that be of study important project inequalities. systems language that can reveal rhetorical to that and analysis patterns Linguistic step recognition. class as of a dominant the awaythe analysisstrips ruling incorporate ideology clusters of divisions of a culture. encoded racist and classist Analyzing subtly from which the is in the discourse rhetorical crucial public patterns understanding must be viewedas a critical is guided. Linguistic and rhetorical analysis sphere as issuesofinequality are addressed.Stripping siteofstruggle publicdiscourse the maintenance oftheideology refutes racist andclassist ofitsendemic structure, within thestructure. contained a half dozencasesthat havebeenexamined there areonly here, Although amounts ofmediaspace and therefore thesecases have beengiventremendous in thesehigh have becomepartof our culture. To use languageof distortion of as it is diffused intoboth cases makes the distortion a all of our lives part profile a In cases we are these thepublicand private given window spheres. analyzing

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revealthese aredailyexamples that Even distortion. Butthere to that patterns. to delete racialized information from their are attempted news whennewspapers itwasnoted, that a 13year these old stories, supersede attempt. Recently, patterns a child,a boy,or a youth. had notbeenreferred to as a youngster, allegedkiller, In spiteofhisyoung toas a young manandas a teenin news age,he wasreferred it was found thatthisyoungster, stories. Upon investigation, barely entering a person ofthese wasindeed ofcolor.Examples rhetorical patterns teenage years, in thehighprofile cases discussed. invadeourperceptions day,notmerely every of thesehigh profile cases makesthema partof a national But thesaturation divisive nature of continues toperpetuate discourse that practices.The invisible racist contribute to the and classistist structures suchdivisive unrelenting patterns in ourculture.We muststrive to maketheinvisible seen in order to resist the it on our culture. of the tenacious hold has continuity tothecritical Thisexploratory research is only a beginning point analysis in and rhetorical structures theproduction of an of thelinguistic development need to be revealed. media as news multiple patterns unequal Bibliography A failure PublicOpinion ofperspective. D. (1984). Mediahegemony: Altheide, , 48:477. Quarterly L. (1969). For Marx. Harmondsworth: Althusser, Penguin. school: View E. (1993). Thepolitics ofsocial class insecondary of Brantlinger, and impoversihed . New York:Teachers youth affluent CollegePress of D. (1981). Public opinionand social change:The social rhetoric Chaney, ofthenews.In E. Katz and & T. Szecsko and theconcept documentary . Beverly Hills: Sage. (eds.),Mass mediaand social change themedia etal. (eds.). Newberry , Downing Corea,A. (1990). Questioning Park, CA,: Sage. M. (1972). The discourse oflanguage.Thearcheology Foucault, ofknowledge and thediscourse on language . New York:Pantheon. and Wishart. A. (1971). Prisonnotebooks. London:Lawrence Gramsci, andpraxis.Boston:BeaconPress. J. (1973). Theory Habermas, andtheideological effect. Mass communication studies Hall, S. (1979). Culture and society. Hills: Beverly Sage. and . (1980). Culturalstudiesand the centre:Some problematics in cultural Culture studies. , media, language:Working papers problems. London:Hutchinson. newsmedia,critical andpubliclife. Hallin,D.C. (1985). TheAmerican theory Massachusetts: MIT Press. Cambridge, werke.B. Suphan(ed.). 33 vols. Berlin: J.G. (1877-1913). Samtliche Herder,

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