SCOPE OF PRODUCTION FORESTRY IN ENHANCING CARBON MITIGATION IN INDIA

A Preliminary Report

Satya P. Mohapatra, Niloy K. Bhattacherjee, Soumitri Das and Prabhat Upadhyaya

ASHOKA TRUST FOR RESEARCH IN ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT (ATREE) NEW DELHI.

December 30, 2005

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 2 3 $ 5 & (

Chapte List of Abbreviations Introduction Climate Change and Forestr Demand and !u""l of #ood in India %roduction Forestr in India %roduction Forestr and Carbon !e'uestration %olicies in India on %roduction Forestr )e*t !te"s

Pa!e 2 3 5 10 1& 2& 30 $3

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
". UNITS +m2 ha -ha .s /!D cm m +m cr 0 C r m3 +g -t t 5t -g !'uare +ilometre ,ectare -illion hectare Indian .u"ees /! Dollar Centimetre -etre 0ilometre Crore 110(2 Degree Celsius 3ear Cubic metre 0ilogramme -illion tonnes 4onnes 4housand million tonnes -illion grammes

#. ACRONYMS AAC Annual Allo6able Cut C Carbon CDClean Develo"ment -echanism C72 Carbon dio*ide FA7 Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations F3% Five83ear %lans 5,5 5reenhouse gas I94 International 9missions 4rading I%CC Intergovernmental %anel on Climate Change I447 International 4ro"ical 4imber 7rganisation :F:oint Forest -anagement :I :oint Im"lementation L/L/CF Land8/se, Land8/se Change and Forestr -AI -ean Annual Increment -o9F -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests )A9; )ational Afforestation and 9co8develo"ment ;oard )F% )ational Forest %olic )FA% )ational Forestr Action %rogramme !9;I !ecurities and 9*change ;oard of India !F. !tate of Forest .e"ort /)9% /nited )ations 9nvironment %rogramme /)FCCC /nited )ations Frame6or+ Convention on Climate Change

". INTRODUCTION

4he develo"ing countries 6ill bear the ma*imum brunt of global 6arming and climate change, although their contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is much less than that of the develo"ed countries< It is, therefore, im"ortant that countries li+e India ta+e "roactive ste"s to contribute to fighting climate change< 4he forestr sector has the "otential to se'uester carbon< ,o6ever, managing natural forests alone for ma*imi=ing carbon se'uestration 6ill com"romise 6ith other ecological functions of natural forests,< ,hence, the need for "roduction forestr , 6hich means an "lantation carried out outside the natural forest area for meeting the fuel6ood and timber demand of the countr < %roduction forestr in India can not onl bridge the constantl increasing ga" bet6een demand and su""l of industrial timber but also hel" the nation enhance carbon se'uestration but also hel" the nation to bridge the constantl increasing ga" bet6een demand and su""l of industrial timber< In addition, it can hel" conserve bio8diversit b reducing large8scale fuel6ood removals from natural forest areas and create much needed alternative em"lo ment o""ortunities in rural areas to curtail "overt driven forest degradation< 4he "resent government "olicies, at "resent, are notneed to be refined in order to conducive to boost the gro6th of "roduction forestr to its fullest "otential< It is, therefore, necessar to create a better understanding of the "otential of "roduction forestr in carbon mitigation in India, anal =e the "olic and "rocedural constraints that hinder the achievement of this "otential and increase the level of a6areness of "olic ma+ers about the im"ortance of enhancing countr >s 6ood "roduction outside natural forest areas< 4he "resent "ro?ect aims at delivering 1< A re"ort on the im"act that an im"etus to "roduction forestr can have on@ a2 the level of carbon se'uestration in India on an annual basis and b2 the net carbon emissions from the countr 6here bul+ of 6ood harvested is used as fuel6ood< 2< An u"dated 6ood balance stud of the countr 6ith "ro?ections of emerging demand8 su""l ga" for non8domestic 6ood demand till 2020 AD< 3< %roceedings of a national 6or+sho" on A5lobal 1mitigation2 and )ational 16ood su""l Brural develo"ment2 Advantages of %roduction Forestr @ !co"e, Constraints and 7""ortunities<C $< A 6hite "a"er on "olic and "rocedural constraints that have hindered augmentation of 6ood "roduction in India leading to "rogressivel increasing de"endence on im"orts b the industrial and commercial users of 6ood< 4his 6ould constitute the basis for structuring the deliberations of the "ro"osed national 6or+sho"< 4he "ro?ect methodolog 6ill include i< .evie6 of available literature governmentBinde"endent agencies< and recent sectoral studies done b

ii< Anal sis of the e*isting "olicies "ertaining to forestr , land8use and o6nershi", local governance, industrial develo"ment, foreign trade, agriculture and 6asteland develo"ment to identif ga"s 6ith reference to "roduction forestr < iii< %re"aration of status "a"ers on India>s national 6ood balance u" to 2020 iv< Consultations 6ith sta+eholders li+e the industr , "rominent civil societ organi=ations, and the 5overnment agencies< v< .egional #or+sho"s at Delhi, 5u6ahati and ;angalore and a )ational #or+sho" at )e6 Delhi to discuss and finali=e the draft re"ort< vi< 46o sensiti=ation 6or+sho"s each for "olic ma+ers and social sector re"resentatives vii< %ublication of articles in relevant ?ournals and the "o"ular media< 4he "ossible im"acts of the "ro?ect 6ould be@ 1< An increased level of a6areness of "olic ma+ers about the im"ortance of enhancing indigenous 6ood "roduction to@ a2 reali=e the full carbon se'uestration and rural develo"ment "otential of the forestr sector outside e*isting natural forest areasD b2 meet fast gro6ing national re'uirements of 6ood for subsistence as 6ell as commercial uses, and c2 achieve the forest cover targets enshrined in the )ational Forest %olic , 1EFF< 2< A diagnosis of the "olic and "rocedural bottlenec+s that need to be resolved 1and the 6a to accom"lish that2 to give "roduction forestr its "lace in the overall land use matri* of India, a countr 6ith ra"idl e*"anding econom and resultant booming demand for 6ood to meet commercialBindustrial needs< P $%e&t t'(e)'*e+ Yea " Constitution of steering committee Literature revie6 and anal sis Dialogue 6ith sta+eholders #ood balance stud First interim re"ort Yea # .egional 6or+sho"s !econd interim re"ort )ational #or+sho" #hite "a"er on "olicies related to "roduction forestr in India Yea , Final re"ort !ensiti=ation 6or+sho"s for "olic ma+ers and sta+eholders

&

#. CLIMATE CHANGE AND FORESTRY 2<1 5reenhouse 5ases and 5lobal #arming

,uman activities have resulted in the alteration of the com"osition of our atmos"here triggering change in the 9arthGs climate< 4he 6orldGs "o"ulation has gro6n at an alarming rate 6ith a corres"onding increase in demand for natural resources, energ , food, and goods< As a conse'uence of increase in consum"tion, vast 'uantities of gases and effluents are discharged that change the com"osition of the atmos"here and its ca"acit to regulate its tem"erature< 4he rise in the global tem"erature is caused b the accumulation of the so8called Hgreenhouse gasesH, namel , carbon dio*ide 1C722, methane, nitrous o*ide, and chlorofluorocarbons< 9nerg received from the sun is absorbed as short 6avelength radiation and is eventuall returned to s"ace as long 6avelength infrared radiation< 5reenhouse gases absorb the infrared radiation, tra""ing it in the atmos"here in the form of heat energ < ; increasing the atmos"hereGs abilit to absorb infrared energ , the greenhouse gases are disturbing the 6a the climate maintains the balance bet6een incoming and outgoing energ 1< 4his increases the "robabilit of occurrence of unseen and un"redictable events across the "lanet< 4here has been an increase of average global surface tem"erature b 0<& 0C during the last 100 ears as a conse'uence of human activities, such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels< 4he Intergovernmental %anel on Climate Change 1I%CC2 stated in its 4hird Assessment .e"ort2 that the globall averaged surface tem"erature is "ro?ected to increase b 1<$ IC to 5<F IC from 1EE0 to 2100 under business8as8usual, and sea levels b E cm to FF cm over the same "eriod< If nothing is done to "revent or limit these changes, the 6ill have ma?or conse'uences for the ecos stem< 2<2 9ffects of Climate Change

4he effects of climate change are manifest in several 6a s 3< 5loball , "reci"itation is on the rise< In the )orthern ,emis"here, "reci"itation has increased b 0<5J to 1<0J "er decade 6hereas the increase in tro"ical countries has been 0<2J to 0<3J "er decade< 4he changes in the global climate have caused a reduction of the sno6 "ac+ in northern latitudes, a melting of mountain glaciers, a tha6ing of the Arctic "ermafrost, and a shrin+ing of the "olar ice ca"s< 4he average sea level of the 6orldGs oceans has risen 10 cm to 20 cm in the last centur < /)9% models $ "redict an increase in global mean sea level of bet6een 13 cm and E$ cm b the ear 2100D ho6ever, other models "redict a sea level rise b 5$cm to &F cm b 21005< 4hese conse'uences 6ill include geogra"hic shifts in the occurrence of different s"ecies andBor the e*tinction of s"ecies< Changes in rainfall "atterns 6ill "ut "ressure on 6ater resources in man regions, 6hich 6ill, in turn, affect both irrigation and drin+ing 6ater su""lies< 9*treme 6eather events and floods 6ill become more fre'uent 6ith their

increasing economic costs and human suffering< .iver deltas that are "resentl being farmed and estuaries that are no6 im"ortant 6ildlife habitats 6ill be flooded and become saline, ma+ing them unsuitable for these uses< #arm seasons 6ill become dr er in the interior of most mid8latitude continents, increasing the fre'uenc of droughts and land degradation< 4his 6ill be "articularl serious for areas 6here land degradation, desertification and droughts are alread severe< Additionall , tro"ical diseases 6ill e*tend be ond their "resent geogra"hic range< Develo"ing countries 6ould bear the ma*imum brunt of global 6arming and climate change&< 4he socioeconomic im"act of climate change in develo"ing countries 6ill be significant< .ising tem"eratures and irregular "reci"itation "atterns 6ill im"act negativel on agricultural cro" ields, food securit , and health issues related to malnutrition< An increased incidence and intensit of violent storms and monsoons 6ill "roduce more flooding 6hich, in turn, 6ill cause greater damage to infrastructure and an increase in the incidence of vector8borne 1e<g<, malaria2 and 6ater8borne 1e<g< cholera2 diseases< 4he least "rivileged in societ are also the least e'ui""ed to ada"t to climate change< %overt , limited infrastructure, "oor access to technolog , inade'uate education, and limited management s+illsD combine to frustrate the abilit of develo"ing countries to res"ond to the challenges(< 2<3 India>s Contribution to Climate Change

Develo"ing countries continue to use technolog that though chea"er, is both outdated and harmful for the environment< 4heir less efficient use of fuels and other resources is from both a lac+ of state8of8art technolog and "ro"ortionall higher use of coal and biomass, 6hich emit more of 5,5s "er unit of energ than do "etroleum "roducts and natural gasF< 4his further increases their vulnerabilit to global as 6ell as local environmental and climatic changes< 4hough the develo"ed countries contribute a ma?or chun+ to the global 6arming, still the are not as vulnerable as the develo"ing countries< 4he total carbon dio*ide8e'uivalent emissions from India are estimated to be 1,001,352 5g 11000 -t2, 6hich is about three "ercent of the total global carbon dio*ide8e'uivalent emissions< ;ased on this, the "er ca"ita carbon dio*ide8e'uivalent emissions for 1EE0 are estimated to be 1<1E$ tonnes or 325 +g of carbonE< In com"arison, the "er ca"ita emissions for :a"an and the /! are 2$00 and 5$00 +g of carbon res"ectivel in 1EE0 10< India>s C72 emissions are far belo6 the develo"ed countries but it 6ill be one of the nations 6hich could "ossibl be seriousl affected b global 6arming and the resulting climate change, "artl due to its high "o"ulation densit and "artl due to its long coastline< 2<$ Forests and Climate Change

4he burning of fossil fuels is the most im"ortant source of greenhouse gases< Coal and "etroleum are the "rinci"al fuels for "o6er generation, industr , and trans"ortation, accounting for about (5 "ercent of all emissions< As the global econom has gro6n, there has been a dramatic increase in the consum"tion of fossil fuels, 6itnessed most

dramaticall in the virtual revolution of the trans"ortation sector< Cars and truc+s have increased from a mere handful a hundred ears ago to the tens of millions of vehicles currentl on the road< Airline travel has also gone u" to thousands of flights "er da < All of this change has been accom"anied b a s+ roc+eting consum"tion of fossil fuels< Also, energ needs for heating and domestic coo+ing have not onl increased 6ith the gro6th in "o"ulation, but also 6ith the changes in technolog < 4here has been a shift a6a from biomass fuels to more convenient, less e*"ensive "etroleum8based sources< In addition to the burning of fossil fuels, other im"ortant sources of greenhouse gas emissions are activities related to land use, "rimaril tro"ical deforestation and forest fires< 5reenhouse gases from deforestation are mostl carbon dio*ide 6ith lesser amounts of methane and carbon mono*ide< 4ro"ical deforestation is one of the most critical environmental "roblems facing the develo"ing countries toda in terms of its long8term and catastro"hic im"act on biodiversit , loss of economic o""ortunities, creation of social "roblems, and contribution to global climate change< Forests are both a source and a sin+ of carbon< 4hus, managing forests for carbon storage 6ill hel" to absorb atmos"heric carbon dio*ide11,12< Li+e agricultural cro"s, forests se'uester carbon from the atmos"here as a result of "hotos nthesis< As trees have a much longer lifes"an, the act as long8term reservoirs that loc+ u" the carbon for decades, even centuries, in the form of cellulose and lignin< 2<5 Forestr and 0 oto %rotocol

Forestr has assumed greater significance after the inclusion of afforestation and reforestation activities under the 0 oto %rotocol of the /nited )ations Frame6or+ Convention on Climate Change 1/)FCCC2< /)FCCC is an international environmental treat formulated at the /nited )ations Conference on 9nvironment and Develo"ment 1/)C9D2, informall +no6n as the 9arth !ummit, held in .io de :aneiro in 1EE2< 4he treat aimed at reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, "ursuant to its su""ortersG belief in the global 6arming h "othesis< 4he treat as originall framed set no mandator limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual nations and contained no enforcement "rovisionsD it is therefore considered legall non8binding< 4he 0 oto %rotocol 6as ado"ted in December 1EE( and came into force in Februar 2005< 4he ob?ective of this agreement is to stabili=e greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmos"here at a level that 6ould "revent dangerous anthro"ogenic interference 6ith the climate s stem< Countries, 6hich ratif this "rotocol, commit to reducing their emissions of carbon dio*ide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if the maintain or increase emissions of these gases< 4he industriali=ed countries are re'uired to reduce their collective emissions b 5<2J com"ared to the ear 1EE0< In addition to this the industriali=ed countries are also re'uired to consider 6a s to minimi=e adverse affects of their greenhouse gas emissions on develo"ing countries< 4he develo"ing countries are not re'uired b the 0 oto %rotocol to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, as the "er8

ca"ita emission rates of the develo"ing countries are a tin fraction of those in the develo"ed 6orld< ,o6ever, the ca"acit of the develo"ing countries must be strengthened to enhance their contribution to fighting climate change< Ca"acit building and technolog transfer needs to be a central "art of the global a""roach to combating climate change< Carbon mitigation in develo"ing countries remains an area of minor "riorit as these countries have various other immediate "roblems to deal 6ith and develo"mental needs to meet 6ith< -an develo"ing countries are of the vie6 that ta+ing u" an obligation regarding carbon se'uestration 6ould reduce them to carbon colonies, and that the 6ould be as+ed to com"romise 6ith their develo"ment to com"l 6ith the agreed terms of such "ro?ects< At the "resent stage of develo"ment, reducing energ consum"tion 6ould mean com"romising 6ith the develo"mental "otential of the countr < #hat can be done at this stage is to ensure that the increased C72 emission due to continuous use of energ sources is mitigated continuousl 13< 4his can be achieved b afforestation and reforestation activities< !o the im"lementation of carbon mitigation "ro?ects must be integrated 6ithin the general national economic "olicies1$< 4he 0 oto %rotocol also includes three mar+et8based instruments +no6n as the 0 oto -echanisms that allo6 countries to earn or bu credits outside their borders< 4he are Clean Develo"ment -echanism 1CD-2, :oint Im"lementation 1:I2, and International 9missions 4rading 1I942< 4hese mechanisms enable %arties to access cost8effective o""ortunities to reduce emissions or to remove carbon from the atmos"here in other countries< #hile the cost of limiting emissions varies considerabl from region to region, the benefit for the atmos"here is the same, 6herever the action is ta+en< 4he develo"ing countries can "artici"ate in t6o of these mechanisms, directl in CD- activities and indirectl in I94 through CD- activities< 4he Clean Develo"ment -echanism 1CD-2 is a 6a to earn credits b investing in emission reduction "ro?ects in develo"ing countries< International 9missions 4rading 1I942 6ill "ermit develo"ed countries that have ta+en on a 0 oto target to bu and sell credits among themselves< Forests and agricultural soils can remove and store carbon dio*ide from the atmos"here< 4hese carbon se'uestration activities are called Ksin+sG< !in+s can be enhanced through sustainable management "ractices in forestr and on farms< 4he 0 oto %rotocol "rovides for inclusion of sin+s as "art of a countr Gs strateg to meet its obligations< India signed and ratified the %rotocol in August 2002< !ince India is e*em"ted from the frame6or+ of the 4reat , it is e*"ected to gain from the %rotocol in terms of transfer of technolog and related foreign investments< 4he best "ossible forestr scenario among the various o"tions available needs to be identified15 such that the demand of 6ood and 6ood "roducts is met o"timall , besides mitigating carbon< After the energ sector, the focus of the Climate Convention and scientific literature is largel on the forestr sector for underta+ing various "ro?ects under Land8/se, Land8/se Change and Forestr 1L/L/CF2 1&< Absorbing C72 from air and

10

in?ecting it into the biomass is the onl "ractical 6a of removing large volumes of 5,5s from the atmos"here< 2<& Forestr 7"tions for -itigating Climate Change

In India, the current and "ro?ected rates of afforestation and reforestation under the baseline scenario are inade'uate to meet the biomass demand "ro?ected for 2015 1(< !o India 6ill be re'uired to select from t6o o"tions< 4he first o"tion is to reduce the biomass demand< 4his can be achieved b substituting the traditional methods b ne6 innovative, technolog driven energ o"tions b investing heavil in building totall ne6 infrastructure and ensuring that it "ercolates do6n to villages as 6ell< 4his o"tion 6ould be much more feasible in urban "arts of the countr 6here direct de"endence on fuel6ood and biomass is less com"ared to rural India< !econd o"tion available is to increase the biomass su""l so as to fill in the currentl "revailing demand8su""l ga"< 4his 6ill re'uire gro6ing trees as cro"s ver much li+e other commercial cro"s< As 6e 6ould see further in the "olic stud , the government su""ort 6ould be marginal< 4he information needed for assessing the "otential of degraded and fallo6 lands, issues related to them such as e*tent of degradation, their o6nershi" and "ossible future use has not been s stematicall calculated for the entire countr 1F< 5overnment, in order to "romote forestr activities, es"eciall commercial, 6ill need to develo" a""ro"riate "olicies to "romote "artici"ation of industr , farmers, commercial ban+s and e*ternal agencies1E<

11

,. DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF WOOD IN INDIA 3<1< Industrial #ood

Industrial 6ood includes all t "es of 6ood other than fuel6ood< Larious industrial sectors, such as "ul" and "a"er, "l 6ood, match industr , s"orts goods industr , rail6a s, "ac+aging industr , vehicle bod builders, agricultural e'ui"ment as 6ell as furniture and housing sector ma+e u" the demand for industrial 6ood< 4he demand for industrial 6ood in 1EF( 6as estimated to be around 2( million m 3 of 6hich 1E<&1 million m3 6as from the industrial sector and (<E3 million m 3 from the household sector20< 4he "ro?ected demand for total industrial 6ood for 1EE& 6as &$<$ million m3, (3 million m3 for 2001 and F1<F million m 3for 200&21< 4he demand for industrial 6ood is met through su""lies from government forests and non8forest sources, such as farmlands and homestead gardens22< 4able 3<1 belo6 sho6s the domestic timber "roduction trend< 4able 3<1 #ood %roduction 4rend in India 1EF08E$ 1figures in million m32 %roduction of 1EF0 1EF3 .ound #ood 14otal2 212<1 23(<( Fuel6ood 1E2<$ 215<& Industrial #ood 1E<( 22<1 !hare of !a6B%l Logs 15<2 1&<( !hare of %ul"6oodB%articles 1<2 1<2 23 !ource@ FA7 11EE&2< 1Muoted in )FA%, 1EEE2 1EE0 2(3<( 2$E<3 2$<$ 1F<$ 1<2 1EE$ 2E$<0 2&E<2 2$<F 1F<$ 1<2

7ther estimates suggest an annual removal of fuel6ood alone to be more than $00 million m3< ,o6ever, the Annual Allo6able Cut 1AAC2 from government forests is onl &&<( million m3< 4he annual sustainable cut from "rivate sources is estimated at &0 million m3< 4herefore the total legitimate availabilit is ?ust about 12( million m 3< 4he shortfall is understood to be made good b over8e*"loitation of forest resources< 2$4able 3<2 belo6 sho6s a more conservative estimate of domestic timber "roduction< 4able 3<2 #ood %roduction 4rend 1EEF82000 1figures for fuel6ood in million tonnes 1-t2, rest in million m32 %roduction of 1EEF8EE Fuel6ood $<1 4imber 2<0 %oles &<5*1083 %ul" N -atch #ood 50<$*1082 !ource@ Forestr !tatistics India25 1EEE82000 $<0 F<0*1081 E2 *1083 $&<& *1082

12

4he liberali=ed Indian econom has "osted health gro6th figures since the earl E0s< 4his has led to multi"lication of the demand for timber< -assive real estate develo"ment, increasing urbani=ation and gro6ing middle and u""er income classes are the ma?or drivers of this demand< 7n the su""l side, ho6ever, the Indian timber mar+et continues to be disorgani=ed and dis"ersed< !erious restrictions on harvest of notified forest stands, and a 6ea+ "rivate "lantation sector have created a de"endence on e*"ensive im"orts< 4his has led to an eventual shift to6ards "lastics, aluminium and steel in construction and furniture industries< 4he substitution is estimated to be u"to 25J of the timber mar+et< 4raders of timber and manufacturers and traders of value8added "roducts, alread facing acute shortages of domesticall harvested ra6 material, are further hamstrung b the su""l of reliable and timel timber trade information2&< %ul"6ood is an im"ortant ra6 material used b the "a"er industr < It has been calculated that the countr >s "ul" and "a"er industr obtained $1<(J of fibrous ra6 material from government8o6ned natural forests, 25<2J from farm forestr , 20<&J from the o"en mar+et, and 12<5J from ca"tive "lantations2(< 3<2< Fuel6ood

India is a ma?or "roducer and consumer of fuel6ood< In 1EE&, fuel6ood consum"tion in India 6as 201 million tonnes 1-t2, out of 6hich 1&2 -t 1F0<&J2 6as consumed in the household sector< 4he rest 6as consumed b commercial units 1ba+eries, restaurants2 and industrial units 1tobacco, gum, bric+, ceramics2< Almost F0J of rural and 50J of urban households are estimated to use 6ood for household energ su""l < According to the )ational Forestr Action %rogram, consum"tion of fuel6ood increased b 0<5J ear on ear, over a sustained "eriod2F< Felling of trees and lo""ing of t6igs and branches in the natural forests have been the ma?or sources of fuel6ood< In addition, shrubs on degraded lands and roadsides, "lanting through social and farm forestr "rogrammes and homestead gardens "rovided other sources of fuel6ood in the countr < In the ear 1EE1, these sources contributed (0<5 -t, $& -t, $0 -t and 1& -t res"ectivel , adding u" to a total consum"tion of 1(2<5 -t 2E< 4he demand for fuel6ood has continuousl increased 6ith the increase in "o"ulation< #hile the use of fuel6ood declined 6ith the gro6th of the si=e of cities, in to6ns of less than 20,000 inhabitants, fuel6ood accounted for F0J of the total energ consum"tion 30< 4he rural "o"ulation de"ends on fuel6ood in addition to other biofuels, such as dung ca+e and cro" 6astes< Fuel6ood is used as a source of energ in (1<(J households in the rural area and 32<(J in urban area< 4he average annual household consum"tion of fuel6ood in the forested rural areas has been almost four times higher than the non8forest rural areas of India31< 3<3< Demand8!u""l 5a"

13

4he demand8su""l ga" in the countr is 3(83F million m3 in the case of industrial 6ood and a staggering 121 -t in the case of fuel6ood< A "art of this ga" is being met through unsustainable removals from government forests and other lands 32< Demand "ro?ections for the near future suggest that the situation ma indeed deteriorate< 4able 3<3 and 3<$< sho6 the "ro?ected demand situation till 2011< 4he "ro?ection 6as made using the "ro?ected "o"ulation for 2011 and the 1EF1 "o"ulation to demand ratio<33 4able 3<3< /se of Fuel6ood, cro" residues and dung 1in 10& tonnes2< 3ear Fuel6ood 1Air dr 2 F&<3 EE<& 10E<3 11(<E 133<1 15(<0 1E1<0 Cro" residues 1Air dr 2 2&<$ 30<& 33<& 3&<3 $1<0 Dung 1fresh O about F(J moisture2 $&<$ 5$<& 5E<E &$<& (3<0

1E5385$ 1E&08&1 1E&58&& 1E(08(1 1E(58(& 1EF& 2011P P %ro?ection !ource@ .avindranath et al.3$

4able 3<$< 4imber /se and %ro?ected Demand for India 1in 10& m32 4 "e of 4imber Demand Long8term use !hort8term use 8 %a"er 8 -atch industr 8 %ac+aging 4otal short8term use 4otal timber !ource@ .avindranath et al.35 3<$< #ood Im"ort in India 9stimate 11EF&2 13<(& &<5( 0<$$ &<F1 13<F2 2(<5F %ro?ection 120112 25<F5

25<E& 51<F1

India>s forest "roducts im"ort bill, of 6hich a ma?or "art is attributable to timber, is u"6ards of .s< 5,(00 crores3&< India is one of the largest im"orters of logs in the global trade< India and :a"an accounted for &FJ of the re"orted International 4ro"ical 4imber 7rganisation 1I4472 log e*"ort volume in 2003< In fact, India is no6 the second largest im"orter of tro"ical log, overta+ing :a"an for the first time in 2003 6ith im"orts of ?ust over 2<$ million m3, u" 10J from 2002 levels< In recent ears, near stable "rices for tro"ical log "roducts 6ere due mainl to the gro6ing demand in India and China 3(< 4able 3<5 lists the ma?or timberBvalue8added items im"orted3F< 4able 3<5@ India>s -a?or #ood Im"orts 1$

LAL/9 1in .s< La+hs2 1EEE82000 Fuel 6ood in Logs 13<E0 7ther Fuel #ood &<$& Coniferous #ood in Chi"s or %articles $<(& )on8coniferous #ood in Chi"s of %articles &<1$ #ood 4reated 6ith %aintBothers 1111<05 !a6logs and Leneer logs in .ough 3F<E2 4ea+ #ood in .ough $02E0<(0 7thers 11(EE<FE 7a+ #ood in .ough 110<30 ;eech #ood in .ough 2$$<25 Andaman %adau+ 1Pterocarpus dalber ioide2 33$(<1E ;onsom 1Phoebe oalparensis2 $0&<02 5urgan 1Dipterocarpus alatus2 5&0E<3$ !al 1Shorea robusta2 2E<20 !andal #ood 1Santalum album2 10<0& 7ther 122E53<&( 7ther #ooden !lee"er 20F<1& Douglas Fir 1Psudotsu a men!iesie2 2&<$( %ine 1Pinus spp2 21<(5 7ther Coniferous #ood Articles 1&3<0& !a6nBChi""ed #ood of ;eech 1(0<51 !a6nBChi""ed #ood of ;irch 1Betula spp2 12F<03 !a6nBChi""ed #ood of #illo6 2E5<(3 7thers 2&2<F0 474ALP 5,((,35$ P Includes substantial im"ort of "l 6ood, building materials, cor+, 6ood "ul", "a"er and "rinted material based on tro"icalBconiferous 6ood !ource@ Forestr !tatistics India3E< Im"orts are mostl from -ala sia and - anmar but 6ith an increasing com"onent from Africa< A 23J dro" to 1<E million m3 in India>s 200$ im"orts 6as mainl due to a decline in re"orted trade 6ith Indonesia, because of Indonesia>s restrictions on e*"orts< 4he shift to6ard African timber is also "artl because of gro6ing restrictions on Asian log e*"orts< Also, the de"endence on tro"ical timber is changing, 6ith not onl India but also -ala sia and the %hili""ines no6 sourcing substantial 'uantities of timber im"orts from non8tro"ical areas< 4able 3<& lists the ma?or su""liers of timber to India$0<

I4C 1,!2 C7D9 $$011001 $$01100E $$012100 $$012200 $$031000 $$032001 $$03$E01 $$03$E0E $$03E100 $$03E200 $$03EE01 $$03EE02 $$03EE03 $$03EE12 $$03EE13 $$03EE2E $$0&E000 $$0(1001 $$0(1002 $$0(100E $$0(E200 $$0(EE01 $$0(EE02 $$0(EE0E

%.7D/C4 D9!C.I%4I7)

4able 3<&@ India>s -a?or 4imber !u""liers

15

M/A)4I43 1m3, 20032 15,$E,35( 3,$0,(E( EE,&(( E5,E3E &5,110 2&,3&E (,30E 474AL 2$,$F,3&5P P Includes minor im"orts from non8regular su""liers !ource@ I447$1< India>s tro"ical "l 6ood "roduction, based largel on im"orted tro"ical logs, is also rising ra"idl < India>s "roduction soared 23J in 2002 to 1<& million m 3 overta+ing ;ra=il and :a"an< It surged a further 10J to almost 1<F million m3 in 2003 and remained at this level in 200$< India is no6 the fourth largest tro"ical "l 6ood "roducer in the 6orld< Also, India, Indonesia and 4hailand are the onl significant 6ood "ul" "roducing countries in the I447 club< India "roduced 1<( million m3of 6ood "ul" in 2003< #hereas Indonesia>s "ul" industr is based on fast8gro6ing "lantations as 6ell as tro"ical hard6oods from natural forests and "ul" im"orts, Indian "a"er and "ul" ma+ers have to de"end largel on timber im"orts$2< 3<5< Issues .egarding 4imber 4rade

!L< )7< 1< 2< 3< $< 5< &< (<

9Q%7.49. C7/)4.3 -ala sia - anmar )igeria Cote d>Ivoire 5abon 5u ana Indonesia

4here are issues of concern regarding re"orting of India>s timber trade figures< 4here is a substantial discre"anc bet6een India>s re"orted log im"orts from - anmar 13,$1,000 m32 and - anmar>s re"orted e*"orts< 4his gives rise to doubts about the nature of at least a "art of the tro"ical timber im"orts into India< 3<5&<

Domestic -ar+et 7utloo+

It is fairl obvious that im"orts cannot be relied on to feed India>s enormous domestic demand of industrial timber and small timber< %roduction forestr on a large scale is the onl ans6er< Illegal felling and timber smuggling continue to "lague India>sremain a concern for the fForests De"artment and societ in general< 4he legislative assembl in 7rissa has demanded a ne6 la6 to sei=e "roceeds from all illegal logging activities< It is estimated that all forests in the state 6ill disa""ear in 5 ears unless action is ta+en< 4he authorities in :har+hand have also detected illegal smuggling of tea+6ood from the a""ro*< 1,000 +m2 !aranda forests$3< International 7utloo+

3<&(<

1&

In addition to losing share of the domestic mar+et to alternative materials such as metal allo s, the Indian timber industr ris+s becoming uncom"etitive in value8added e*"orts< China isCertain Asian countries are beginning to dominate the value8added e*"orts mar+et< It isIn fact, the are e*"ected to become the largest "roducers and a ma?or e*"orters of tro"ical "l 6ood in the near future< In "articular, China is4hese countries are also aggressivel targeting :a"anese and 9uro"ean mar+ets for timber "roducts< Lietnam is the onl ma?or com"etitor to China in "rocessing of tea+6ood< 4here is a strong interest in certified 6ood in several Asian "roducer countries< For instance, re"resentatives of a Chinese com"an visited !ao %aulo, ;ra=il, see+ing ne6 su""liers of certified 6ood< 4he move 6as motivated b re'uirements of 9uro"ean home8im"rovement clients demanding certified 6ood< Active "olic changes have been effected b someveral Asian governments< Indonesia>s In some 9ast Asian countries, the ailing forestr 8based industries got a boost, 6ith the government "romising to increase the logging 'uota in order to enhance the local industr >s "roduction ca"acit and hel" create ?obs< 9arlier, in 200$ alone, illegal logging fines had amounted to nearl /!D F00 million 1.s< 3,&00 crores2$$<

1(

$< PRODUCTION FORESTRY IN INDIA

$<1< Definitions

In the conte*t of the current stud , "roduction forestr ma be understood to be the raising of bloc+ "lantations on "rivate lands, leased forest lands or leased communit lands 6ith the follo6ing "ur"oses@ a2 su""l of timber as ra6 material to 6ood8based industr , and b2 su""l of fuel6oodBsmall timber for mitigation of the huge demand8su""l ga" in energ needs in rural areas< 4he si=e or the o6nershi" "attern of the land in 'uestion ma var < It ma be useful to consider the follo6ing additional definitions 1and e*"lanator notes2 b Food and Agriculture 7rgani=ation 1FA72"#, .ome for a better understanding of "roduction forestr < $<1<1< Forest Land s"anning more than 0<5 hectares 1ha2 6ith trees higher than 5 metres 1m2 and a cano" cover of more than 10 "ercent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ< It does not include land that is "redominantl under agricultural or urban land use< 9*"lanator notes@ a2 Forest is determined both b the "resence of trees and the absence of other "redominant land uses< 4he trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 m in situ< Areas under reforestation that have not et reached but are e*"ected to reach a cano" cover of 10 "ercent and a tree height of 5 m are included, as are tem"oraril unstoc+ed areas, resulting from human intervention or natural causes, 6hich are e*"ected to regenerate< b2 Includes areas 6ith bamboo and "alms "rovided that the criteria of height and cano" cover are met< c2 Includes forest roads, firebrea+s and other small o"en areasD forest in national "ar+s, nature reserves and other "rotected areas such as those of s"ecific scientific, historical, cultural or s"iritual interest< d2 Includes 6indbrea+s, shelterbelts and corridors of trees 6ith an area of more than 0<5 ha and 6idth of more than 20 m< e2 Includes "lantations "rimaril used for forestr or "rotection "ur"oses, such as rubber8 6ood "lantations and cor+ oa+ stands< f2 9*cludes tree stands in agricultural "roduction s stems, for e*am"le in fruit "lantations and agroforestr s stems< 4he term also e*cludes trees in urban "ar+s and gardens<

1F

$<1<2< 7ther 6ooded land Land not classified as Forest, s"anning more than 0<5 haD 6ith trees higher than 5 m and a cano" cover of 5810 "ercent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situD or 6ith a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 "ercent< It does not include land that is "redominantl under agricultural or urban land use< $<1<3< %roduction ForestB7ther 6ooded land designated for "roduction and e*traction of forest goods, including both 6ood and non86ood forest "roducts< $<1<$< %roduction Forest Forest actuall designated for "roduction of forest goods i<e< 6here the e*traction of forest "roducts, usuall 6ood and fibre, are the "redominant management ob?ective< It includes both 6ood and non 6ood forest "roducts< $<1<5< %roductive "lantation ForestB7ther 6ooded land of introduced s"ecies and in some cases native s"ecies, established through "lanting or seeding mainl for "roduction of 6ood or non 6ood goods< 9*"lanator notes@ a2 Includes all stands of introduced s"ecies established for "roduction of 6ood or non8 6ood goods< b2 -a include areas of native s"ecies characteri=ed b fe6 s"ecies, straight tree lines andBor even8aged stands< 4he second set of definitions are borro6ed from common technical "arlance, 6ith s"ecial reference to 6hat is in vogue in entities in the 6ood8based industr , such as "a"er mills< $<1<&< Farm Forestr 4he "ractice of raising trees as cro", to "rimaril harvest and sell the timber 6ithout reference to the si=e of the holding1s2< $<1<(< Agroforestr 4he "ractice of gro6ing timber along 6ith "ure agricultural food and cash cro" s"ecies andBor horticultural s"ecies Finall , terms such as industrial "lantations 16ith connotations similar to the first definition in this section2 and tree farming 1tall ing 6ith definition $<1<& above2 are also to be found in the literature in this domain<

1E

$<2<

,istor of "lantation resources in India

%lantation resources have been generated and maintained in India over the ages< 9m"eror Asho+a 12(38232 ;C2 is +no6n to have had trees "lanted along long stretches of main roads in his vast em"ire< 9m"eror !hiva?i 11&3081&F02 is re"orted to have encouraged "lantation forestr 6ithin his em"ire< !her 0han 11$(2815$52, 6ho asserted his inde"endence from the -ughal 9m"eror ,uma un and built and ruled over a large em"ire, is +no6n to have formall converted an old im"erial high6a s"anning almost the entire north of the Indian sub8continent into the 5rand 4run+ .oad and had large stretches of the roadsides "lanted 6ith trees< 4he earliest "lantation of the colonial era in India is re"orted to be of a native s"ecies, tea+ 1$ectona randis2, "lanted in 1F$0 in )ilambur, 0erala< .egular "lanting, mainl of tea+, began in 1F&5 in man of the tea+8gro6ing central and southern "rovinces< In 1E10, %ucalyptus s""< 6as introduced in the )ilgiri ,ills of the "resent 4amil )adu< %lanting of other native s"ecies 6as accelerated after the taun ya s stem 6as introduced in 1E11< 4hese "lantations, ho6ever, did not cover an e*tensive area until 1E50$&< %lanned afforestation for soil conservation, industrial 6ood, fuel6ood and fodder started in the late 1E50s< 4he total "lantation area to the end of 1E(2 6as about 2<1 -ha< 9stablishment of "lantations remained confined mostl to forest reserves until 1E(E $(< 4he "lantation boom occurred 6hen the social forestr "ro?ects 1!F- %rogrammes2 6ere launched in man states along 6ith several other afforestation "ro?ects carried out 6ith the assistance of e*ternal donors< 4he annual "lanting rate increased to about 1 -ha during 1EF081EF5< -ost "lantations have since then been established outside forest reserves in 6astelands o6ned b the government or on communit or "rivate farmers> land< %lantation forestr received further im"etus 6hen a )ational #asteland Develo"ment ;oard 6as created in 1EF5< 4he annual rate of "lanting increased to 1<F -ha during 1EF58 1EE0< 4he area of "lantations established during 1EF081EE0 6as estimated b converting seedlings "lantedBdistributed b a notional e'uivalence of 2,000 seedlings to one hectare< .ecords of "lantations established since 1EE1 are maintained for "lanted area and distributed seedlings se"aratel , b the )ational Afforestation and 9co8develo"ment ;oard 1)A9;2 created in 1EE2 at the /nion -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests< 4he annual rate of "lanting since 1EE0 has been ranging bet6een 1<$ to 1<& -ha $F< India has si=eable "lantation areas of non8forest s"ecies< 4he total area to 1EE( 6as about 15<3 -ha, of 6hich rubber 1&e'ea brasiliensis2 occu"ied 1<2*1082 -ha and bamboo and cashe6 1Anacardium s""<2 occu"ied 0<$ -ha and 0<1 -ha res"ectivel $E< !ummaries of trends in "lantations in India are also available from other sources< Fig< $<1< sho6s one such estimate<

20

Fig< $<1< 4ree %lantation 4rends in India

20 15 (Mha) 10 10 5 0 1979-80 1980-81 1985-86 1989-90 1990-91 1995-97 3.5 4.5 17 19 15

!ource@ .a6at and .a6at <50 $<2<1< !"ecies com"osition A large variet of s"ecies are "lanted in the varied agro8climatic =ones< ,o6ever, detailed information about the com"osition of s"ecies in "lantations is lac+ing< Acacia s""<, %ucalyptus s""< and $ectona randis occu" the greatest areas in the "lantations< %ucalyptus lobulus, %. randis and %. tereticornis are most common s"ecies, 6hile among the Acacias, Acacia auriculi(ormis, A. catechu, A. mearnsii, A. nilotica and A. tortalis are common< 7ther commonl "lanted broadleaves are Albi!ia s""<, A!adirachta indica, )asuarina e*uiseti(olia, Dalber ia sissoo, +melina arborea, Populus s""< Prosopis s""<, Shorea robusta and $erminalia s""< !urvival rates of s"ecies differ and sal 1Shorea robusta2 is +no6n for seedling d ing8bac+ disease< Among conifers, )edrus deodara and Pinus ro,bur hii occu" a ma?or area< Pinus patula and P. caribaea have been "lanted to a limited e*tent51< $<2<2< 5ro6th and ield #ood "roduction from forest "lantations at the national or sub8national level is not available< It is re"orted that "roductivit from "lantations in general is 'uite lo6< For e*am"le, mean annual increment 1-AI2 for tea+ at the average rotation age of 5F ears varies bet6een 0<& to ( m3BhaB r 6ith a mean of 2<5 m3BhaB r in 0erala, one of the ma?or tea+ "roducing states< It ma be noted that t4his recorded "roductivit ma differ from real "roductivit on account of not ta+ing into account the since smalltimber and fuel6ood removal from forests is not ta+en into account< %roductivit levels of some "lantations, mainl of eucal "tus and "o"lar, raised b farmers under "rivate o6nershi", is better52< 3ield of selected s"ecies is as belo653@ Dalber ia sissoo .otation 1 ears2@ 30 to $0 -ean annual increment m3BhaB r@ $ to & %ucalyptus spp. .otation 1 ears2@ 10 to 20

21

-ean annual increment m3BhaB +melina arborea .otation 1 ears2@ 30 to $0 -ean annual increment m3BhaB Acacia nilotica .otation 1 ears2@ 20 to 25 -ean annual increment m3BhaB Populus s""< .otation 1 ears2@ F to 10 -ean annual increment m3BhaB $<3<

r@ F to 12 r@ 10 to 15 r@ 3 to $ r@ 20 to 25

Land /se and Availabilit

India>s biomass demands ma be met through afforestation and reforestation cou"led 6ith sustainable "lantation forestr management "ractices< Large "otential e*ists for afforestation in "rivate lands, such as farm fallo6 lands and marginal cro"lands 5$< 4his section contains information on forestland, 6astelands and land use "atterns< %ercent of 5eogra"hic Area Ler Dense Forest 51,2F5 1<5& -oderatel Dense Forest 33E,2(E 10<32 7"en Forest 2F(,(&E F<(& 4otal Forest CoverP &(F,333 20<&$ !crub $0,2&E 1<23 )on8forestPP 2,5&F,&&1 (F<13 4otal 5eogra"hic Area 3,2F(,2&3 100<00 2 P Includes $,$&1 +m under mangroves 10<1$J of countr >s geogra"hic area2 PP 9*cludes scrubs and includes 6ater bodies !ource@ !tate of Forest .e"ort 120032<## 4able $<1@ Forest Cover in India Class Area 1+m22

22

4able $<2@ #astelands of India

Class 5ullied andBor .avinous Land Land 6ithB6ithout !crub #aterlogged and -arsh Land Land Affected b !alinit BAl+alinit 8 CoastalBInland !hifting Cultivation Area /nder8utilisedBdegraded notified forest land Degraded "asturesBgra=ing land Degraded land under "lantation cro" !ands O InlandBcoastal -iningBIndustrial #astelands ;arren roc+ Bston 6asteBsheet roc+ Area !tee" slo"ing area !no6 covered andBor glacial area Area 1+m22 20553<35 1E$01$<2E 1&5&F<$5 20$((<3F 351$2<20 1$0&52<31 25E(F<E1 5F2F<0E 50021<&5 1252<13 &$5F$<(( (&5&<2E 55(FF<$E %ercent of 5eogra"hic AreaP 0<&5 &<13 0<52 0<&5 1<11 $<$$ 0<F2 0<1F 1<5F 0<0$ 2<0$ 0<2$ 1<(&

P 9*cludes more than 1<2 La+h !' 0m not ma""ed in :N0 !tate !ource@ #asteland Atlas of India 120002< Muoted in Forestr !tatistics India 120012<5& 4ables $<3< and $<$< sho6 the "atterns of o6nershi" and designated functions of 6ooded lands and forests in India< 4able $<3< 76nershi" of Forest Land in India Area 11000 hectares2 Categories Forest 7ther 6ooded land 1EE0 2000 1EE0 2000 %rivate o6nershi" 1,25& 1,0&& 11& (5 %ublic o6nershi" &2,&F3 &&,$FF 5,((F $,&5& 7ther o6nershi" 0 0 0 0 4otal &3,E3E &(,55$ 5,FE$ $,(31 !ource@ FA7, 5lobal Forest .esources Assessment 120052<5( 4able $<$< Designated Functions of Forest Land in India CategoriesBdesignated function Forest %roduction %rotection of soil and 6ater Area 11000 hectares2 %rimar function 4otal area 6ith function 1EE0 2000 2005 1EE0 2000 2005 1&,2&0 1$,&(F 1$,33& 10,000 10,000 10,000 $1,1&0 &3,E3E $3,2(F &(,55$ $3,03& &(,(01

23

CategoriesBdesignated function

Conservation of biodiversit !ocial services -ulti"le "ur"ose )o or un+no6n function 4otal forest 7ther 6ooded land %roduction 1,$EE 1,02F F(0 3,(1F %rotection of soil and 6ater E22 (00 &0( 5,FE$ Conservation of biodiversit 1,2&0 1,0(F E3& $,$01 !ocial services 5,FE$ -ulti"le "ur"ose 2,213 1,E2& 1,&E( )A )o or un+no6n function )A 4otal other 6ooded land 5,FE$ $,(32 $,110 )A P )ot A""licable !ource@ FA7, 5lobal Forest .esources Assessment 120052<5F

Area 11000 hectares2 %rimar function 4otal area 6ith function 1EE0 2000 2005 1EE0 2000 2005 12,($0 1$,322 1$,&&$ $(,&$0 52,E22 53,3&$ &3,E3E &(,55$ &(,(01 2$,E3E 2F,55$ 2F,(01 )A )A )A )AP )A )A &3,E3E &(,55$ &(,(01 )A )A )A 2,E22 $,(32 3,&(2 $,(32 )A )A )A 2,55( $,110 3,230 $,110 )A )A )A

!everal estimates and "ro?ections of land use "atterns in India e*ist< !ome estimates consider all degraded land in India "otentiall available for forestr activities, as the are unsuitable for cro" "roduction<5E 4hese estimates also combine "rivate sector studies 6ith government estimates to generate a com"rehensive account of land availabilit in India< Fig< $<2< Land /se %atternP of India 11EE52
!isc 5% Degra e 22% Pasture 3% Non-agricultural 6% Forest Area 19%

Agriculture 45%

P 4otal Land Area 32F<(3 -ha&0< !ource@ .avindranath&1 et al. 4he %lanning Commission refers to several a""roaches at estimation of culturable 6astelands in India< Fig< $<3 belo6 gives a brea+u" of the 2&$ -ha of land 1out of the total of 30$ -ha of recorded land in India2 identified b the Commission as culturable&2<

2$

Fig< $<3< Culturable Land in India 1J of 2&$ -ha2

Fallo,s -*ultura#le %astes-Pas tures-. ro+es 21%

*ulti+ate (an 54% Forest (an 25%

!ource@ %lanning Commission 11EEE2&3 7ther estimates of area availabilit also e*ist, such as that sho6n in Fig< $<$<belo6< It (a.e *$te/ that 0he ea+ a ea 1*/e +h'2t'*! &1)t'3at'$* ha+ .ee* '*&)1/e/ '* t$ta) a ea a3a')a.)e 2$ p $/1&t'$* 2$ e+t -4 the +a(e (a- *$t .e a3a')a.)e '* ea)'t-. He*&e the 2'!1 e 2$ t$ta) )a*/ a3a')a.')'t- (a- &$(e /$0* t$ 5#.6 Mha. Fig< $<$ Area Available for %roduction Forestr in India 1J of &5<$5 -ha2
")i'ting *ulti+ation 4% Degra e Forest 25% &nclassi'ie (an 11% %astelan 10% "an $ Area 9% "cru#lan 41%

!ource@ Lal and !ingh 120002&$ -ore detailed "ro?ections also e*ist that s"ecif the e*tent of in"uts re'uired to meet "lantation forestr targets< 4able $<5 belo6 sho6s one such "ro?ection< Area "ro?ections 6ere based on demand for industrial 6ood, sa6n6ood and fuel6ood b 2015 &5< 4he total 'uantities of fuel6ood, industrial 6ood and sa6n6ood 6ere divided b the mean annual national biomass increment of the forestr activities to obtain area re'uirements< Also, "lanting activities 6ere assumed to start in 2000 and continue in "hases till 2030 . The ($/e) a)+$a!a'* +1!!e+t+ a ea e71' e(e*t+ 2$ e!e*e at'$* '* $pe*8/e! a/e/ 25

2$ e+t+ (""." Mha4 '* a**1a) pha+e+ $2 9.: Mha) a*/ 2$ e+t p $te&t'$* th $1!h ha)t'*! 2$ e+t &$*3e +'$* $2 9., Mha a**1a))- (6.:; Mha4 '* a**1a) pha+e+ $2 9., Mha) &&< 4able $<5@ Area .e'uired to be Dedicated to meet ;iomass .e'uirements Area to be dedicated to meet the biomass demands as of 2015 !hort .otation Forestr Long .otation Forestr Annual area to be "lanted 1to meet total area dedicated targets2 Sh$ t R$tat'$* F$ e+t L$*! R$tat'$* F$ e+t S$1 &e< Ra3'*/ a*ath et al. (#99")&( $<$< %resent 7utloo+ 3<&3 -ha &<&& -ha 9."# Mha 9.## Mha

In the absence of a robust industrial "lantation movement, several t "es of relations bet6een 6oodbased industr and the farmer communit are seen to have evolved@ !u""l of free or subsidi=ed seedlings ;an+ loan schemes Leasing or share cro""ing schemes .ND and commercial sale of im"roved clonal "lanting stoc+&F In the earl 1EE0s, man "rivate com"anies started tea+ "lantations b raising funds from "ublic sources< 4he "romised ver attractive rate of return< 4heir calculation 6as based on the assum"tion of high volume "er tree on a 208 ear rotation, 6hich 6as found unrealistic and 6rong< 4he "lantation sites 6ere mostl degraded and less "roductive and the "lanting material 6as also not of geneticall su"erior 'ualit < 7n scrutin of accounts of some "lanting com"anies b the !ecurities and 9*change ;oard of India 1!9;I2, it 6as found that the com"anies de"ended on the fresh investors and not on interim returns of tea+ "lantations to honor the commitment of earlier investors< 4he com"anies also could not "rove their claims of high "roductivit , as a result most of the com"anies 6ere closed do6n during late 1EEF< 4he total area brought under tea+ "lantation b them 6as around 5,000 ha<&E $<5< Factors Affecting 5ro6th of %roduction Forestr

!everal factors constrain the gro6th of "roduction forestr in India@(0 ,igh cost of credit and lac+ of access to credit Long gestation "eriod, "articularl for long8rotation forestr Absence of mar+et institutions .egulations on "lanting, harvesting, and trans"ortation of trees Im"ort of timber, "ul", and "a"er Lac+ of high ielding genetic "lanting material and silviculture "ractices Absence of forestr e*tension services to farmers 9*ternal funding largel to forest de"artment, not for farmers or "lantation com"anies 2&

)o foreign direct investment in forestr

4he disaggregation of "roduction forestr sector is "ossibl also reflected in surve s and assessment figures thereof< 7nl the annual statistics on "lantations done under different schemes and the cumulative "lantation areas since 1E51 are available< -onitoring and inventor of "lantations is inade'uate and as a result the actual area of e*isting "lantations is uncertain< %lantations established after 1EF5 constitute more than (0 "ercent of the total< %art of the annual "lantation target 135 to $0 "ercent2, "articularl after 1EF5, is achieved b the distribution of seedlings< !ince 1EE2, )A9; had started survival assessments of first8 ear "lantations in limited areas 1about 10 J2, but the results of the assessment are not used to correct the area figures re"orted<(1

2(

=. PRODUCTION FORESTRY AND CARBON SE>UESTRATION 5<1 .ationale for Carbon !e'uestration

Climate change 1generall alluding to global 6arming2 refers to the variation in the climate of the 9arth due to various factors such as variation in solar radiation, the 9arth>s orbit and greenhouse gas concentrations< 7f these factors, increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases 1"redominantl carbon dio*ide, C722 is attributed to anthro"ogenic activities< 4he carbon reservoir 1carbon dio*ide sin+ or C72 sin+2 is increasing in si=e, and the global carbon stoc+ is "ro?ected to increase b a net 2E0 5t 15t R thousand million tonnes2 due to C72 increases, climate change and vegetation redistribution(2< Carbon se'uestration describes the "rocesses that remove the carbon from the bios"here< 4he I%CC concluded that the Gcumulative amount of carbon that could "otentiall be conserved and se'uestered over the "eriod 1EE582050 b slo6ing deforestation 113F million ha2 and "romoting natural forest regeneration in the tro"ics 121( million ha2, combined 6ith the im"lementation of a global forestation "rogramme 13$5 million ha of "lantations and agroforests2 6ould be about &08F( 5tC , e'uivalent to 12815 "ercent of the "ro?ected cumulative fossil fuel and deforestation emissions over the same "eriodG (3< -an other 6a s have been suggested to mitigate the increase of carbon in the atmos"here< Land use, Land8use Change and Forestr 1L/L/CF2 and agriculture se'uester carbon in forests and agricultural lands< 4he other o"tion is to decrease emissions of C72 and other 5reenhouse 5ases 15,5s2 b substituting fossil fuels 6ith biomass substitutes< #hile this 6ould be a better 6a to control C72 emissions, forestation is a tool for bringing about a net reduction in atmos"heric carbon levels($< 4he forests in India are under tremendous "ressure due to "o"ulation gro6th and industrial develo"ment< 4he forests are getting degraded because of illicit felling of trees for timber and fuel6ood that are being carried out be ond the carr ing ca"acit of the forests< 4he removals from the forests are "redominantl for fuel6ood 1(5J2 and to a smaller level for small timber 125J2< 5iven that, (0J of a tree is timber and onl 30J is made of branches 1that is used as fuel6ood2, the increasing fuel6ood removals are leading to degradation of the forests<4his is leading to increased carbon dio*ide emission that contributes to climate change< 5<2 Current !tatus of Carbon !e'uestered in Indian Forests

4he forestr sector has the "otential to se'uester carbon in addition to sustain its carbon< 4he total carbon "ool of forests are is assessed from estimates of biomass from gro6ing stoc+ of forest stratum< I%CC(5 "rescribes a default value of 0<E5 as the conversion and e*"ansion factor to convert volume 1in cubic metres2 to biomass 1e*"ressed as tonnes of dr matter2< I%CC(& also "rescribes a factor 0<$5 for converting the biomass into carbon content< 7ther researchers have used similar values, e<g<, Chaturvedi(( assumed the factor to be 0<$F and ;had6al and !ingh(F assumed the factor to be 0<5< 4he ma?or grou"ing of Indian forests 1based on climate2 are@

2F

1< tro"ical 2< montane subtro"ical 3< montane tem"erate $< al"ine 4hese are subdivided into 1& sub8t "es based on Cham"ion and !eth (E classification< 7f these sub8t "es, ma?orit of the area is under tro"ical moist deciduous and tro"ical dr deciduous forests< 4he total forest cover of India has been around &$ -ha since the 1EF0sF0 1F!I, 1EEE2< Dhad6al and )a a+F1 1As cited in Lal and !inghF22 estimated the total carbon "ool of Indian forests to be 1EE$ million tonnes 1-t2 for the ear 1EF5< .avindranath and !omashe+harF3 estimated the total carbon "ool for Indian forests to be $1(E -t for the ear 1EF&< In a more recent research stud , Lal and !inghF$ estimated the total carbon "ool for Indian forests for the ear 1EE5 to be 202( -t< 4able 5<1 9stimates of total forestr carbon "ool in India 3ear 1EF5 1EF& 1EE5 4otal forest carbon "ool 1EE$ -t $1(E -t 202( -t !ource Dhad6al and )a a+ 11EE32 .avindranath and !omashe+har 11EE52 Lal and !ingh 120002

Dense natural forests are better stores of carbon than o"en natural forests< A stud of natural forests of -adh a %radesh b %andeF5 estimated the total carbon "ool in standing cro" as 3&3 -t for dense forests and F0 -t for o"en forests< 7"en forests, therefore, have a "otential to se'uester more carbon< It is also to be noted that the annual "roductivit of Indian forests have been re"orted to increase from 0<( m3 Bha in 1EF5F& to 1<3( m3 Bha in 1EE5F(< 5<3 9stimates of future carbon se'uestration

%rasad et al.FF have modeled the land use changes and forestr data of India from 1EE( to 1EEE and suggested that Indian forests 6ould be a "otential sin+ for 0<E$ 5t of carbon over a "eriod of time, 6ith an increase in dense forest area of about (& -ha and decrease of about 3 -ha and 5 -ha in o"en and scrub forests, if similar land use changes that occurred during 1EE(81EEE 6ould continue< 4he stud bases its observations on final outcomes on the land use "atterns 1and changes therein2 observed bet6een 1EE( and 1EEE< 4he authors use stochastic modeling techni'ues to determine relationshi"s bet6een land usage and magnitude of carbon stored in forests and soils< 4he e*tend the model to ma" net carbon flu* bet6een the land and the atmos"here< An entire series of studies on methods for e*amining the future conse'uences of changes in land usage and carbon flu* "atterns are also referred to and evaluated as sources of suggested carbon mitigation strateg o"tions< A stud b ;had6al and !inghFE uses the Land /se and Carbon !e'uestration 1L/C!2

2E

model 6ith soft6are develo"ed at the #orld .esources Institute, #ashington, DC, /!A< Indian agriculture and forest statistics 6ere s stematicall integrated 6ith geogra"hic and demogra"hic data< 4hree distinct scenarios O business as usual, conservation and "lantation forestr 6ere considered< It 6as estimated that under "lantation forestr , ( billion tonnes of carbon 6ill be se'uestered during 200082050< In an earlier stud b .avindranath et al<E0, a sustainable forestr scenario and a commercial forestr scenario 6ere develo"ed 6ith the aim of meeting the biomass demands through "lantation forestr and conserving the forests< Com"arison of the commercial forestr scenario over the baseline scenario 1in the "eriod 2000820122 estimated that an additional carbon stoc+ of (F * 10 & -g C 6ould be se'uestered a"art from meeting all the incremental biomass demands 1estimated for 2000820152< 5<$ 9conomics of %roduction Forestr

In the stud mentioned above, .avindranath et al<E1 considered the cost8effectiveness of four "otential forestr activities to meet the biomass demand of the countr < 4hese activities 6ere@ 12 short8rotation forestr 1afforestation to meet the fuel6ood and industrial 6ood re'uirements2, 22 long8rotation forestr 1afforestation to meet the structural 1sa6n6ood2 re'uirements2, 32 forest regeneration 1reforestation to regenerate and reclaim the degraded forest lands through "rotection and "romotion of forest succession2, and $2 forest "rotection 1to conserve the biomass of natural forest b halting deforestation2< 4he mitigation "otential on a "er8hectare basis for the "eriod 200082030 6as lo6est for short8rotation forestr 1at 25 -g CBha2 and highest for forest "rotection 1at 1(& -g CBha2< 4he life c cle cost of mitigation 6as lo6est for forest "rotection 1/!D 0<3E B-g C2 follo6ed b forest regeneration 1/!D 0<EE B-g C2, long8rotation forestr 1/!D 11<&E B-g C2, and short8rotation forestr 1/!D 1F<F B-g C2< 5<5 !tatus of %roduction Forestr in India

4he area under "lantation in India has been gro6ing over the "ast decades< 4he rate of afforestation in India 6as 1<&( -haB r during the 1EF0s and 2 -haB r in the 1EE0s E2< Agroforestr also has the "otential to store carbon and remove C7 2 through enhanced gro6th of trees and shrubs and has been demonstrated as a "romising mechanism of carbon se'uestration in IndiaE3< Carbon se'uestration in Indian agroforests varies from 20 tC BhaB r in /ttar %radeshE$ to a carbon "ool of 238$( tCBhaB r in tree8bearing arid agroecos stems of .a?asthanE5< 4he average se'uestration "otential of agroforestr has been estimated to be 25 tCBhaB r over E& million ha of land in the countr E&< #ith the aim to se'uester carbon ra"idl , it is best to gro6 fast8gro6ing s"ecies 6ith shorter rotation "eriods< In India, the choice of s"ecies for "lantations is dictated b mar+et demand for eucal "tus and "o"lar "oles< 7ther fast gro6ing s"ecies are Albi!ia, )assia siamea, -eucaena leucocephala, )asuarina e*uisti(olia, and Dalber ia sissoo<

30

Afforestation in India is generall carried out under the social forestr "rogramme< 4his includes gro6ing trees on communit commons, "ublic or government o6ned land and aveanue "lantations< Farm forestr that includes raising "lantations of eucal "tus, casuarina, tea+ and other commercial s"ecies on farmland, or on bunds is considered agro8forestr E(< 9ucal "tus s"ecies and Acacia auriculi(ormis are gro6n under the reforestation "rogrammes that included the follo6ing t6o categories of "lantationsEF@ 1< "lantations on village commons and degraded forest land that 6ere carried out to meet the biomass need, such as for fuel and small timber< 2< farm forestr on farmersG o6n land to meet industrial demand In India, "lantations can also be categori=ed as@ 1< short rotation "lantation forestr 1s"ecies such as %ucalyptus, Acacia auriculi(ormis and )asuarina e*uiseti(olia2, and 2< hard6ood "lantations 1s"ecies such as $ectona and Pinus2< ;roadl s"ea+ing, the ma?or "lantation s"ecies are "o"lar and eucal "tus in north India, subabool in central India, and eucal "tus, Acacia auriculo(ormis and rubber6ood in south India< 4he "roductivit of forest "lantations under the national afforestation "rogramme is significantl higher com"ared to natural forests< A national level stud of forest "lantations in India estimated the mean anuual "roductivit 1of 6ood biomass2 to be 3<2 tonnes "er hectare "er ear 1tBhaB r2 EE, 100< 4here are a fe6 location8s"ecific studies on "roductivit of forest "lantations and the range of "roductivities recorded var from 1<2 to F<2 tBhaB r, 6ith the national mean "roductivit of about 3<1 tBhaB r 101< 4his variation is not sur"rising since the case studies 6ere location8s"ecific and ranged from farm forestr in semi8arid regions to "lantations on degraded forest lands in heav rainfall =one< It "roductivities could range from 285 tBhaB r in semi8arid regions and 5810 tBhaB r in sub8 humid regions102< 7ne should also note that the "roductivit of an forest "lantation 6ould de"end on the age of the trees< #hile the s"ecies choice and "roductivit is largel determined b factors such as climate and soil, the "roductivit can be "otentiall increased b im"rovement in genetic stoc+, a""lication of fertili=ers and irrigation< A "reliminar estimate of "otential "roductivities b .avindranath and ,all103 "laces it in a range of 20835 tBhaB r< 4he total carbon flu* of Indian forests can be calculated based on the total carbon u"ta+e and emissions into the atmos"here< For the ear 1EF&, .avindranath et al.10$ estimated the total carbon emissions from forests to be &$ -t and the total carbon u"ta+e to be &E -t< 4he have estimated that carbon u"ta+e from the area brought under tree "lantation and the e*isting forest under forest succession 6ill offset the gross carbon emission in the countr , and "ro?ections for the ear 2011 sho6 large "otential for net se'uestration of carbon<

31

5. POLICIES IN INDIA ON PRODUCTION FORESTRY &<1 )ational Agricultural %olic

&<1<1< )ational Commission on Agriculture, 1E(& )ational Commission on Agriculture 1)CA2 recommended a change over from the conservation8oriented forestr to more d namic "rogramme of "roduction forestr < According to the Commission, "roduction of industrial 6ood 6ould have to be the main reason for the e*istence of forests and should be "ro?ect8oriented and economicall feasible< 4he )CA recommended against leasing forestlands to industr and instead 6anted government to allocate them forest ra6 material through enhancing commercial forestr < For the "ur"ose of commercial forestr , it further recommended that out of &$ million hectare 1-ha2 of forest lands available in India at that time $F -ha should be brought under "roduction forestr and remaining 1& -ha for biological diversit < &<2 &<2<1 )ational Forest %olic 1)F%2 )ational Forest %olic , 1E52

)F%, 1E52105 ac+no6ledged the need for sustained su""l of timber and other forest "roduce to meet the develo"mental need of various industries< 4he "olic ma+ers had t6o ma?or ob?ectives in mind 6hile framing )F% 1E52< First to ensure that forests 6ere "reserved and managed on a sustainable basis, and second to use them for meeting national interest as a source of timber< !ince both these ob?ectives some6hat o""osed each other, )F% came u" 6ith a conce"t of Ktreelands.< It identified the sco"e for involving state governments as 6ell as various other institutions, such as, Defence, .ail8 6a s, %ublic #or+s De"artments, /niversities and Colleges, ;oards, -unici"alities and other local authorities, associations and institutions in the "rocess b converting the land at their dis"osal into treelands 4o ensure that the needs of forest8based industries are met 6ithout "utting undue "ressure on forests the need to substitute tree8s"ecies of commercial im"ortance in "lace of inferior treeOs"ecies 6as advocated< 4he "olic also mentioned involving both the industries and individuals in a bigger manner and em"hasi=ed on considering commercial and industrial interests for establishing closer contacts and bonding bet6een Forest .esearch Institutes and industries utili=ing timber and forest "roducts< &<2<2 Forest Conservation Act, 1EF0

4he Act10& "ut a ban on the de8reservation of forests or use of forestland for non8forest "ur"ose< 4he Act of 1EF0, conse'uentl , brought the sub?ect of forests from state list to concurrent list enabling the "arliament of India to loo+ into the matter of forests< After

32

the Act, no state government could use forestland for non8forest "ur"oses 6ithout "rior endorsement b the central government< 4his "ut u" a chec+ not onl on the conversion of forests but also brought to halt the fragmentation of the remaining forests< 4his ensured that a local "art could not ta+e the decision of diverting the forests for ta+ing u" an "olitical mileage< 4he centre acted as an inde"endent agenc , to 6hich the state governments and their decisions 6ere ans6erable< &<2<3 )ational Forest %olic , 1EFF

4he )F%, 1EFF10( loo+ed u"on forests not as a source of ra6 material for commercial "ur"oses, but "rimaril for conserving soil, 6ater and biodiversit besides meeting subsistence re'uirements of the local "eo"le< 4he "olic clearl mentioned that the economic utilities coming from the forests 6ould be secondar to this "rime aim< 4he )F% 1EFF shifted the official focus from fuel6ood and timber to the management of forests "rimaril for their services< It made it im"erative to ensure that the forests are not onl conserved but also their cover and "roductivit is increased so as to meet the demand of goods and services coming from forests< 4he "olic , 6hile addressing the "roduction forestr "rogramme, e*"ressed its concern in "lugging the increasing demand8su""l ga" of fuel6ood and meeting the national needs< ;ut it e*"licitl mentioned that no such activit should result in an sort of clear felling of alread e*isting natural forests< It e*"ressed the desire that such "rogrammes should hel" the countr meet 6ith its ob?ective of achieving one8third forest cover< 4he "olic "ut a thrust on meeting t6o im"ortant concerns of utili=ing the 6astelands and increasing tree cover b "romoting ma?or forestr "rogrammes< 4o reduce the "ressure on forests, it also aimed at "romoting substitution of 6ood besides encouraging better and efficient utili=ation of forest "roduce< !ince land "la s an im"ortant role in ta+ing u" "lantations, it advocated that a slight modification in land la6s should be ta+en u" so that the "rocess becomes smooth for the investors< At the same time, it maintained that an sort of leasing should be in coherence 6ith the e*isting land ceiling act< 4he "olic discouraged the earlier trend of meeting ra6 material re'uirements of forest8 based industr b o"erating on natural forests< It directed these industries to meet their re'uirements b establishing a direct relationshi" 6ith individuals 6ho had the ca"acit to do so< 4he industr 6as encouraged to chi" in b contributing its resources and e*"ertise at various levels during the total "ro?ect duration< 4he "olic also gives more im"ortance to native s"ecies over the e*otic s"ecies< It discourages the use of e*otic s"ecies 6ithout "rior scientific trials to establish that there are no adverse effect on the environment< &<2<$ )ational Forestr Action %rogramme, India 1)FA%2, 1EEE

4he )FA%10F aimed to "re"are an action "lan for ne*t 20 ears, in conformit 6ith )F% 1EFF< It is a com"rehensive strategic "lan to address the issue underl ing the ma?or

33

"roblems of the forestr sector and to reverse the "rocess of degradation for sustainable develo"ment of forests< 4he consum"tion of fuel86ood in India 6as re"orted to be about five times higher than 6hat could be sustainabl removed from forests10E< Further, a large tract of forestland 6as claimed 1nearl $<3 -ha2 for underta+ing industriali=ation and develo"ing infrastructure necessar for meeting the develo"ment goals of the nation< 4he )FA% aimed at meeting the re'uirements of forest based industries 6ithout com"romising the conservation and "rotection of natural forests< 4he basic "ur"ose of )FA% 6as to establish direct lin+age bet6een the )F% and the )ational Five83ear %lans 1F3%2< In the "ast, a com"rehensive and constant "rogramme structure for forestr 6as found missing< 9ver "lan had its o6n "rogramme structure< !o it 6as difficult to find lin+ages and establish trends< Although "lans had s"ecified ob?ectives and "rogrammes, the main activit under most of them 6as tree "lanting< )FA% recogni=ed the ca"abilit of "lantations to hel" conserve the natural forests b "roviding an alternative source for forest "roducts< 4he %rogramme 6as also o"timistic regarding the ca"abilit of "lantations to earn foreign e*change, besides meeting the domestic re'uirements of the countr < 4he %rogramme admitted that des"ite the "olic addressing direct relationshi" bet6een industr and farmers, the government did not ade'uatel su""ort "rivate initiatives< It raised concern on the inabilit of the government to "rovide these initiatives 6ith relevant research, e*tension, technological "ac+ages, in"ut deliver , and mar+et information or credit facilities< It felt and remar+ed that it 6as im"erative to encourage small o"erators, +ee" them interested in sustainable forestr develo"ment and understand their needs ade'uatel < )FA% suggested loo+ing at these "lantations as a means of ra6 material for industries or for meeting energ re'uirements< It intended to conserve and rehabilitate 31 -ha of degraded forests 1less than $0J cro6n densit 2 in addition to bringing 2E -ha of non8 forest land under "lantations< It advocated the use of different strategies for both these targets< 4he "roblem of degraded forests 6as to be tac+led b involving local communities, es"eciall the areas near villages through :oint Forest -anagement 1:F-2< For non8forest land, mar+et8oriented massive tree "lantation drive involving multi"le agencies 6as "ro"osed< 4he )FA% came u" 6ith a strategic a""roach to meet its ob?ectives< 4he a""roach had five interrelated Kstrategic areas> 6hich formed the ver basis of the %rogramme< 4hese a""roaches 6ere@ %rotect e*isting forest resources Im"rove forest "roductivit .educe total demand !trengthen "olic and institutional frame6or+ 9*"and forest area

3$

4he state governments 6hile "re"aring the !tate Forestr Action %rogrammes 1!FA%s2 incor"orated all "lanned activities as "art of these activities<4he )FA% recommended that for the sustainabilit of forests, the "roductivit of forest "lantations 6as to be increased at least 3 to 5 cubic meter "er ha "er ear 1m 3BhaB r2 b "romoting regeneration and enrichment of "lantations< %lantations to be carried out on all categories of 6astelands 6ere also suggested< 0ee"ing in mind the fuel6ood re'uirements of the countr , em"hasis 6as "aid on ta+ing u" "lantations of fuel6ood s"ecies on non8forest 6asteland< !trengthening the institutions for "eo"leGs "artici"ation in "rotection and develo"ment of degraded and fringe forests 6as em"hasi=ed< .egarding the financing "art of the "rogramme, the sources of funds 6ere grou"ed under four broad categories, namel , domestic "ublic financing, domestic "rivate financing, e*ternal "ublic financing, and e*ternal "rivate financing< &<3 &<3<1 )ational 9nvironment %olic )ational 9nvironment %olic 1)9%2, 200$

)9%110 em"hasi=ed the need to develo" a strateg to meet the goal of raising the forest cover of the nation to 33J b 2012< It "romoted the involvement of non8forestr sector as 6ell< For increasing the forest and tree cover of the nation, multi"le sta+eholder "artnershi"s have been recogni=ed 6here each sta+eholder 6ould have his role clearl defined< For achieving the aforesaid target of 33J forest cover, the )9% 200$ suggested that the afforestation activities should be ta+en u" on degraded land, 6astelands as 6ell as "rivate land holdings< 0e elements of the strateg 6ould include@ 1i2 im"lementation of multi8 sta+eholder "artnershi"s involving the Forest De"artment, local communities, and investors, 6ith clearl defined obligations and entitlements for each "artner, follo6ing good governance "rinci"les, to derive environmental, livelihood, and financial benefitsD and 1ii2 rationali=ation of restrictions on cultivation of forest s"ecies outside notified forests, to enable farmers to underta+e social and farm forestr 6here their returns are more favourable than cro""ing< 4he "olic called for develo"ment of a strateg to achieve the targets set for the eleventh five8 ear "lan< 4he "roblem of climate change and its underl ing causes in global 6arming and increased usage of 5,5s has been addressed in the %olic < It identifies deforestation in the countr as one of the reasons for climate change e*"resses concern that India and other develo"ing nations 6ould be affected the most b climate change< 4he current level of emission in India is substantiall lo6er than that of the develo"ed nationsD ho6ever, India>s economic gro6th could result in an increase in 5,5 emission< ,o6ever, government "olicies favouring rene6able energ and afforestation "ro?ects as 6ell as the gro6th of less energ intensive service sectors 6ould result in a decrease in the level of emissions< &<$ %lanning Commission .e"orts

35

&<$<1 .e"ort on Leasing of Degraded Forest Lands, 1EEE 4he .e"ort111 6as of the vie6 that the degraded forestland should not be leased out to "rivate entre"reneurs< In accordance 6ith )F% 1EFF, it recommended that industries needing forest ra6 material should establish contact 6ith farmers< 4he government 6ould lease land to Forest Develo"ment Cor"oration 1FDC2 6ho, in turn, 6ould enter into "ro"er -o/ 6ith the user agenc 6ithout leasing the land to them, as "er the 57I guidelines of 1EE$< 4his -7/ 6ould give the user agenc the right to underta+e afforestation and ta+e a fi*ed "ercentage of forest "roduce at the time of harvesting< 4he .e"ort recommended leasing barren land far a6a from habitations, available in "lots of 1000 ha or more, and of no use to the villagers< 4hese are desert or ravine or saline lands, 6hich re'uire huge investment before the can be made "roductive< 4he .e"ort gives reference of Investment %romotion !cheme of -inistr of .ural Develo"ment, 5overnment of India 6herein such enter"rises 6ould be entitled to 25J subsid on their ca"ital investment< 4his means that the land needed for "roduction "ur"oses could be mobili=ed for meeting the demand of industr "rovided the industr is read to "ut in huge investment besides follo6ing the guidelines< 4he re"ort estimated that 33 -ha of degraded non8forest lands and 2( -ha of degraded forests 1a total of &0 -ha2 6ould be available for tree gro6ing< 4he .e"ort also addresses the issue of difference bet6een barren and degraded lands< /ncultivated "ublic land 6as classified under these t6o categories< ;arren land 6ere defined as having forestBtree cover less than 10J 6hereas degraded land 6ere classified as having forestBtree cover bet6een 10 to $0J< &<$<2 5reening India for Livelihood !ecurit and !ustainable Develo"ment, 2001

5reening India %rogramme112 "ro"oses to cover $3 -ha degraded land 115 -ha of degraded forestland, 10 -ha of degraded irrigated land, and 1F -ha of degraded rainfed land2< It recognises that there e*ist numerous "roblems that ma+e the im"lementation of agroforestr "rograms difficult@ Cumbersome legislation 6ith res"ect to tree felling, 6ood trans"ortation and "rocessing< Lac+ of mar+et information and infrastructure Dearth of a""ro"riate agroforestr models Absence of economic securit and incentives for tree gro6ers Lac+ of e*tension training and demonstration )on8availabilit of 'ualit "lanting material /nfavourable Im"ort and 9*"ort "olic

4he .e"ort highlighted the lessons learnt from the farm forestr "rogramme@ 4ree "lanting should not be underta+en in uncultivable lands, but in cultivated8field and homesteads<

3&

All 6astelands, non8forest areas and degraded forestlands should be brought under silvi8"astoral s stem 6ith suitable s"ecies for fuel and fodder "roduction< 4his can be addressed through :F-< Coastal land through afforestation, ravines and sand dune area for land reclamation, area under mining leases, 6ater logged areas can be targeted for converting into forested land< Five83ear %lans

&<$<3

Forestr has also been covered from the first five8 ear "lan, though it remains neglected most of the time in the "lanning "rocess< 7f the total fund allocated to various sectors, funds for forestr in India hovered around 1J onl < 4he e*"enditure on forestr sector has increased substantiall since si*th five8 ear "lan in accordance 6ith the increase in afforestation activities underta+en to meet the desired targets< 4he si*th five8 ear "lan coincided 6ith the FCA 1EF0< !o the increase in s"ending on forestr sector can be attributed to a shift in governmental "olicies< In the fifth "lan, the s"ending 6as a meagre .s<10(<2F crore, 6hich increased to .s<15E&$<0& crore at the end of ninth five8 ear "lan< 4he area afforested under the same time "eriod has increased from 12<21 hectares to F0<50 hectares< 4he com"arison sho6s that the s"ending has increased at a much higher rate than the afforested area< 4he area afforested under seventh, eight and ninth ear "lan has been almost same, but the s"ending has almost tri"led in same time "eriod< 4his sho6s that gro6ing trees alone 6ill not ma+e these afforestation activities successful< %ro"er care and maintenance of the area afforested needs higher allocation of mone < In fact, mone s"ent in ninth five8 ear "lan 6as close to E0J of 6hat had been s"ent till date in the countr on these activities< 4his sends "ositive signals regarding finance to the "ro?ect "ro"onents and im"lementers about the success of afforestation< &<$<$ 4enth Five83ear %lan 120028200(2

4he current five8 ear "lan113 targets to increase the forestBtree cover to 25J< It agrees that no strateg 6ould be successful unless and until the basic needs are met< .ecogni=ing the role "la ed b :F- in regeneration of degraded forests, the "lan recommends ta+ing further ste"s in identif ing its strengths and 6ea+nesses, so that the area under im"lementation can be increased< .aising concern on high im"orts of round timber and other forest "roduce, it e*"resses a desire for reversing this trend< 4his could be achieved b utili=ing communit land, degraded forests or "rivate farmlands of the countr < Im"lementing the same 6ould mean removal of government subsidies, regulation of tariff on im"orts and other such "olic modifications, 6hich 6ill ma+e the "lantation activities more desirable among farmers and village communities< %romotion of technolog , credit su""ort, develo"ing mar+eting infrastructure and "roviding e*tension and training to interested farmers has also been recommended< %olic recommendations for tac+ling the "roblems related to constraint of felling, trans"ortation and selling of forest "roduce 6hich act as disincentive for gro6ing trees are also suggested< 4his as+s for creating a favourable "olic environment, 6hich "romotes "ositive interaction among various sta+eholders<

3(

0ee"ing u" 6ith the challenges facing the societ , "lan "ro"oses to utili=e the 6astelands and degraded lands for ta+ing u" CD- "ro?ects< 4his 6ould hel" in utili=ing the 6astelands besides generating additional incentives for ta+ing u" "lantations< 9m"hasis has been "ut on gro6ing s"ecies such as /atropha curcas and Pon amia pinnata, 6hich also gro6 naturall and can be utili=ed for generating bio8diesel, although success of these schemes are et to be full reali=ed<< 4hese "lantations are cost8effective and easil re"licable< 4o ta+e u" the afforestation activities more seriousl all "rogrammes have been merged under a single scheme called K)ational Afforestation %rogramme 1)A%2>< It is being o"erated through Forest Develo"ment Agencies 1FDAs2< !imilarl , another "rogramme named )ational Action %rogramme to Combat Desertification under /) Convention to Combat Desertification 1/)CCD2 has been ta+en u" b -o9F< A 20 ears> com"rehensive )A% to combat desertification in the countr 6as "re"ared 6ith the follo6ing ob?ectives@ Communit based a""roach to develo"ment, Activities to im"rove the 'ualit of life of the local communities, .aising a6areness, Drought management "re"aredness and mitigation, .ND initiatives and interventions 6hich are locall suited, !trengthening self8 governance leading to em"o6erment of local communities< For the 4enth Five83ear %lan, it has been "ro"osed to initiate activities that include, among others, assessment and ma""ing of land degradation, drought monitoring and earl 6arning s stem grou"s, drought "re"aredness contingenc "lans, and on8farm research activities for develo"ment of indigenous technolog , etc< 4he gro6ing demand of ra6 material from our natural resources is threatening them< 9nvisaging the threat to the natural resources due to gro6ing demand of ra6 material,is, the "lan %lan "ro"oses to ta+e u" "lantation, 6hich 6ould reduce "ressure on the natural forests and reverse the negative im"act of deforestation 6hile meeting the increasing demand< 4he %lan "ro"oses to encourage agro8forestr b "romoting technolog , e*tension, and training, credit su""ort, mar+eting infrastructure, etc<, and "roviding a "olic environment, 6hich assures the farmers of a remunerative "rice< It also "ro"oses to removes the constraints of felling, trans"ort and mar+eting of forest "roduce from "rivate holdings in different !tates and to formulate a common guideline for this "ur"ose< 4he current mean annual increment 1-AI2 of forest "lantations varies from about 2 m3BhaB ear for valuable timber s"ecies to about 58F m 3BhaB ear for eucal "tus and other fast gro6ing s"ecies< 5enerall , -AI is around 10 m 3BhaB ear in good 'ualit "lantations in various countries< 4his "oor "erformance of forest "lantation remains a great concern in the area of "olic decisions< 4he %lan suggests measures including a""ro"riate site selection, site8s"ecies matching, "lanting of elite clones, "ro"er maintenance and "rotection, timel tending, thinning, irrigation, a""lication of manures and "esticides, etc< for im"roving the "roductivit of "lantations< For im"roving the utili=ation of "lantation, the "lan identifies Indian %l 6ood Industries .esearch and 4raining Institute 1I%I.4I2 to be activel involved< I%I.4I can also hel" develo" "rogrammes that 6ill not onl fulfill the demand, but also "rovide 6ith more 6ood substitutes< 3F

&<5

%olicies 5overning Foreign 4rade in Forestr %roduce

4imber "rice in India has been increasing at the rate of 15J "er ear, ma+ing im"ort of timber more attractive, and 4the current im"ort "olic allo6s dut free im"ort of timber and "ul"< In order to hel" 6ood8based industries meet their re'uirements, the government removed the trade barriers and liberali=ed the im"ort of timber on 7"en 5eneral License 175L2< For industries, it 6as a 6elcome ste" and had an additional benefit of gro6th of industries in the coastal belt< 4his "olic change led to increased im"ort of timber< ,o6ever, the "roduce from the im"orted timber is sold mainl in domestic mar+et and there is "racticall no e*"ort of "roducts against im"ort< 9*"ort is less than one tenth of im"ort< India>s foreign e*change reserve as 6ell as interest of tree gro6ers has been "ut under an un6anted "ressure< It created a sense of insecurit among tree gro6ers of the countr 6ho no6 had to be satisfied 6ith a smaller share of the mar+et, as global "la ers offered attractive deals to ca"ture a bigger share of the gro6ing mar+et< Des"ite tough com"etition from the forestr sector and im"orting agencies, farmers are still su""l ing 50 "er cent of 6ood su""lies from their holdings 11$< 4he im"ortance and "otential of agroforestr and several other such models has not been reali=ed< 4he acce"tance of timber from "lantations as ra6 material in 6ood based industries has o"ened ne6 avenues for these farmers< ,o6ever, to give a boost to tree gro6ing activit as a means for im"ort substitution, certain "olic initiatives 6ere felt necessar and 6ere recommended< 4o im"ose heav im"ort dut on such 6ood "roducts, 6hich areBcan be "roduced 6ithin the countr to meet domestic needs< 9nhance .ND efforts to manufacture 'ualit "roducts from "lantation gro6n 6ood and other rene6able fibres for im"ort substitution< 9*"ort of 6ood and natural fibre based "roducts "romoted through incentives and sim"lification of "rocedure< 9volution and im"lementation of minimum mandator material and "roduct standards< -echanism for collection and dissemination of information regarding im"ort, e*"ort, "rices and trade of timber needs to be develo"ed< 4he im"ort of various 6ood8based commodities has been 'uite high than the e*"orts both in terms of 'uantit and mone involved< 4hough the e*"orts have increased a bit com"ared to im"ort in ear 1EEE800 over 1EEF8EE, huge ga" still remains< ;esides, the farmers 6ould find it difficult to ma+e a financial comebac+ to ta+e u" this activit again if their initial investment does not return enough "rofit< -oreover, im"ort of 6ood reduces the o"tion of generating additional em"lo ment o""ortunities in the countr , 6hich 6ould be easil ta+en u" b the lo68income class< A general reason cited for this im"ort has been to reduce "ressure on forests< %roduction forestr , farm forestr , agroforestr , if utili=ed to their hilt can do a6a 6ith this im"ort, 6hich as of no6 "uts a burden of .s< F,000 crores annuall 115< -oreover, this 6ould also hel" achieve the goal of one8third forest cover< )o6 the industries are also interested in

3E

ta+ing u" these activities b building relationshi" 6ith farmers< 4he north86estern "art of the countr too+ these efforts on a large scale, and massive "lantations of eucal "tus and "o"lar 6ere raised< ,o6ever, a lac+ of organi=ed mar+et along 6ith government "olicies, 6hich ma+e the "rocess of harvesting trees and their trans"ortation cumbersome, did not allo6 this effort to get the o"timum revenues< #ood im"ort under 7"en 5eneral License 175L2 made the "ro"osition of im"orting 6ood ra6 material more attractive< 5enerall , this im"orted 6ood comes from natural forests outside the countr < In man cases, the harvesting "rocedure is unsustainable< In a 6a , these ste"s save Indian forests at the cost of forests in other 6ood8e*"orting countries< In toda >s scenario of climate change, a "henomenon occurring at one "lace can have com"le* im"lications at far off distances as 6ell< !o the "roblem gets transferred instead of getting solved< !o the solution lies in raising more trees 6ithin the countr < 4his 6ill "rovide incentive for local farmers and a disincentive for those countries indulging in these unsustainable activities b ta+ing benefit of im"erfect mar+et conditions< (<$ Financing !chemes

Institutional funding is ver im"ortant in areas 6here a farmer8industr relationshi" is to be established< In order to "romote the afforestation activities, the central government has been s"ending mone through the five8 ear "lans< !chemes such as Investment %romotional !cheme have been instrumental in initiating and "romoting "roduction forestr throughout the nation, though not as successfull as the 6ere initiall conceived< 4he e*"erience in the last t6o decades sho6 that institutional funding has been minimal in forestr "rogrammes< 4hese are some im"ortant reasons@ Dearth of technical and economic data on different farm forestr models< 4his limits the abilit of ban+s to evaluate ban+ abilit of various farm forestr "ro?ects< %roducers and ban+s often find the associated ris+ unacce"table< 4here are no insurance s stem to guard against the loss to "roducers and ban+s arising from various natural calamities< 4he lending ban+s do not have ade'uate ca"abilit to assist in formulation and a""raisal of "ro?ects for farm forestr < Investment %romotional !cheme

(<&<1

4he !cheme 6as launched in the ear 1EE$8E5 in order to stimulate involvement of the cor"orate sectorBfinancial institutions, etc< to "ool in resources for develo"ment of non8 forest 6astelands< 4he "rinci"al ob?ectives of the scheme 6ere@ 1< 4o facilitateBattractBchanneli=eBmobili=e resources from financial institutions, ban+s, cor"orate bodies including user industries and other entre"reneurs for develo"ment of 6astelands in non8forest areas belonging to Central and !tate 5overnments, "ancha ats, village communities, "rivate farmers, etc<

$0

2< 4o "romote grou" of farmers belonging to different categories, namel , large, small, marginal N !CsB!4s for bringing 6astelands under "roductive use< 3< 4o facilitate "roduction and flo6 of additional biomass including farm8forestr "roducts used as ra6 material in"uts for different t "es of industries< $< 4o facilitate em"lo ment generation through land develo"ment and other allied land based and related activities including "lantations< 4he !cheme 6as restructured to ma+e it broad8based and circulated to all the states and other concerned in August 1EEF< /nder this !cheme, Central %romotional !ubsid 6as limited to .s< 25 la+hs or 25J of the "ro?ect cost for on8farm develo"ment activities, 6hichever 6as less, sub?ect to condition that the "romoter>s contribution in the "ro?ect shall not be less than 25J of the "ro?ect cost< 4he "ro?ects "romoted b the !cheduled Commercial ;an+s 1!C;s2, .egional .ural ;an+s, Land Develo"ment ;an+s and Coo"erative ;an+s 6ere eligible for "romotional grantBsubsid under the !cheme< /nder the !cheme, $1 "ro?ects covering an area of 1$35 ha 6ith a total cost of .s<1&<FF crores 1firmed u" b the ban+2 and subsid of .s< 1<0E crores have been sanctioned u" to -arch, 200$< ;ecause of slo6 "rogress, the !cheme 6as discontinued in 200380$< &<&<2 4a* Deductions 4a* deduction is an im"ortant financial incentive for "roduction forestr < 4he 5overnment of India announced ta* deduction to com"anies for carr ing out "ro?ects of soft6ood "lantation on degraded non8forest land11&< &<( &<(<1 Land Lease and Land Ceiling Acts Land Ceiling Acts

In India, land falls under state list and is governed b the acts "assed b states after inde"endence< Accordingl there is no uniform binding on the land holdings b individuals in various "art of the countr < .ecords in the countr indicate dis"arit and ine'ualit in distribution of land< Large number of cultivators o6ning relativel less land, 6hile big lando6ners, smaller in number o6ning larger acreage of land< It leads to dis"arities in the incomes in the rural areas< In vie6 of this, our leaders in the earlier da s thought of underta+ing land reform measures< 4he ceiling on land holdings 6as intended to meet the land needs of the landless, reduce ine'ualities in land o6nershi" so that it ma lead to develo"ment of co8o"erative rural econom , and enlarge self8em"lo ment in o6ned land as distinguished from subletting and tenant cultivation< 4he ceiling legislations 6ere initiated in man "arts of the countr in the late 50s and earl &0s< :ammu and 0ashmir 6as the first state in the countr to "ass an act< #est ;engal and then ,imachal %radesh follo6ed suit< -aharashtra "assed this Act in 1E&1< ,o6ever, the "rogress of ceiling legislation 6as disa""ointing till 1E(2< It 6as found that onl about 23 la+h acres of land 6as declared sur"lus< 7f this, about 13 la+h acres 6ere redistributed< In ;ihar, 0arnata+a, 7rissa and .a?asthan, no land 6as declared sur"lus< It

$1

6as mainl due to "artitioning of land or benami transfers< 4herefore, ne6 guidelines 6ere suggested and accordingl , 1( states amended the ceiling legislations< 4he range of ceiling varied from state to state 1!ee 4able &<12< &<(<2 Leasing of non8forest 6astelands )on8forest 6astelands distant from villages usuall lie barren, and are available in large chun+s< In the "ast, some state governments have offered barren lands, such as desert lands of .a?asthan and saline lands of /<%< and 5u?arat, on lease to industr , but the res"onse has been lu+e6arm< 4he scheme b the .a?asthan government 6as initiated in 1EE08E1, 6herein a minimum of 2000 acres 6as offered on a long8term lease, 6hereas the scheme in /<%< 6as initiated in 1E(E, but given u" after a fe6 ears for 6ant of "ro"osals< 4he 5u?arat government since 1EE$ is offering land u"to 2000 acres for reclamation, but there has been no "ositive res"onse from forest based industr < /nder this "olic non8 cultivable 6asteland including sand and saline land can be granted to ).I com"anies, co8o"erative societies, Indian industrial houses, "ublic limited com"anies and other "ersons for develo"ing the land or "lantation< !o far onl one industr has come for6ard and has been granted 31& acres for "lantation< !imilar facilities for granting leases to industr be ond ceiling limits e*ist in 4amil )adu< 4herefore, the com"laint of industr that it is being denied the o""ortunit to rehabilitate 6astelands or that land ceiling la6s are a barrier to raising "lantations is unfounded< !tates li+e .a?asthan, 5u?arat, and -adh a %radesh 6here most 6astelands are located have ade'uate "rovisions in their la6s to grant e*em"tions from ceiling in deserving cases< It has been recommended that "rivate entre"reneurs need to consider reclaiming barren non8forest lands remote from habitations through modern technolog 11(< 7ne8time sale of 'ualit seedlings b the industr to farmers has 6or+ed best in India< It is a sim"le and 'uic+ "rocess 6ith no ris+ or need to follo6 u"< 4he re'uirement of land to raise such seedlings is a small one and does not need government hel"< 4he combined sale of three com"anies11F is about 5<(5 million seedlings "er annum hel"ing the com"anies to raise revenue of .s< (2 million "er annum< 4he figure is li+el to increase in the future< 4he success has led to mushrooming of smaller nurseries selling seeds and seedlings, and the ma be covering more than 2&,000 ha "er ear 6ith im"roved clones, mostl of eucal "tus and "o"lar< Industr is thus ma+ing substantial contribution to the "roduction of 6ood on non8forest lands< &<(<3 Leasing of Degraded Forest Lands

Degraded forestlands ma have a lo6 tree densit , but satisf the fuel6ood, fodder and livelihood needs of man "oor "eo"le, thus the are a vital source of living for the "oor11E,120< Alienation of forests 6ill, therefore, result in hardshi"s and o""ression for the local communities 6ho have historicall de"ended on such lands for meeting their basic needs<

$2

4he claim of the industr over forestlands is, therefore, against the interest of farmers and forest d6ellers121< &<F &<F<1 International Agreements 0 oto %rotocol

4he 0 oto %rotocol 6as ado"ted at the Conference of %arties 1Co%2 of the /nited )ations Frame6or+ Convention on Climate Change 1/)FCCC2 at 0 oto in 1EE(, 6herein, the develo"ed countries along 6ith some countries falling under categor of 9conomies In 4ransition 19I4s2 categori=ed as Anne*8 I countries, 6ere re'uired to reduce their emission to less than 5J of 1EE0 level b the ear 2012< Carbon se'uestration is considered as one of the im"ortant strategies under 0 oto "rotocol, through sin+ enhancement< 4he 0 oto %rotocol "otentiall offers an o""ortunit for ca"ital investment and technolog transfer for commercial forestr , under the afforestationBreforestation activities of the Clean Develo"ment -echanism 1CD-2< Carbon se'uestration through sin+ enhancement b 6a of gro6ing more trees is one of the cost8effective modes of achieving this ob?ective 122< Industriali=ed countries are allo6ed to bu carbon credits develo"ed b carbon se'uestration "ro?ects through Land8 /se, Land8/se Change and Forestr 1L/L/CF2 o"tions in develo"ing countries< /nder the 0 oto %rotocol, Anne* I countries need to invest under L/L/CF activities 6hile determining their net 5,5 emissions under allo6ed allo6ances123< It gives the industries, targeted for emitting 5,5s the fle*ibilit to continue using fossil fuels for some time, 6hich 6ill act as a buffer in the "rocess of s6itching over to more efficient energ source, if the invest in se'uestering carbon 12$< It 6ould hel" to achieve the goal of sustainable develo"ment throughout the 6orld b bringing investment from develo"ed 6orld to develo"ing countries< CD- "ro?ects in India could also lead to a large "ositive im"act on "rogrammes aimed at forest conservation and regeneration, reclamation of degraded land and socio8economic develo"emnt of rural communities in addition to global environmental benefits125< 4he investment b develo"ed countries 6ould enhance the rate of afforestationBreforestation and other additional activities to meet the biomass needs and reclaim degraded and 6astelands in the countr 12&< )o6 this is being loo+ed u"on as a ma?or benefit 6ith mar+et instruments favouring the active involvement of industr in the mechanism< 4he "otential of India is 'uite high for CD- related "ro?ects< Although it is not mandator for Indian industries to meet an sort of targets under 0 oto, the still "refer to favour this "henomenon as it strengthens their claim over 6astelands of the countr < &<E ;arriers to %roduction Forestr in India

$3

4hough the e*"enditure on afforestation b the government in its five8 ear "lans is increasing, still various on8ground "roblems continue to remain unsolved< 4here are several reasons, 6hich continue to ma+e ado"tion of "roduction forestr b Indian farmers and entre"reneurs difficult< Difference in the land ceiling limits in different states needs a mention< 4he si=e of land to be held under a single "erson is different in different states, because land falls under state list< 4his calls for ta+ing into consideration si=e of land in each state se"aratel < 4his ma+es the case for ta+ing u" "roduction forestr on a commercial level a bit difficult< Financing "la s the ne*t im"ortant role< Industries are generall interested in financing the leasing of land and other activities for ta+ing u" "roduction activities for meeting their ra6 material re'uirement b forming direct lin+s 6ith farmers< !chemes such as Investment %romotional !cheme 6ere launched 6ith all good intentions, but failed "rimaril because of slo6 "rogress being made b the financed "ro?ects< Forestr , being a long8gestation activit , needs huge investment and failure of such schemes ma+es the "otential financers 6ar of forestr "ro?ects< 4he current "olicies in India favour im"ort of 6ood for meeting the 6ood re'uirements< 9*"orts remain banned< 4his clearl mar+s that there is a great need to increase our "roduction forestr if de"endence on other countries is to be reduced< As of no6, due to "olicies favouring the im"ort of 6ood, our mar+et is o"en to outsiders< Due to increase in the number of com"etitors, the "rofit to small investors is bound to be less< 4he "rime reason is that there are no economies of scale< Instead of im"orting 6ood from other countries, the government should facilitate involving local communities and big farmers to ta+e u" commercial forestr < 4his 6ill generate additional em"lo ment o""ortunities besides "roviding financial incentives for tree gro6ing activities< 4he "resent develo"mentsD ho6ever, dis"la a ra of ho"e< India currentl is the biggest mar+et for generating Certified 9mission .eductions 1C9.s2< 4he 5overnment of India has set u" a )ational Designated Authorit 1)DA2 to ta+e u" CD- "ro?ects develo"ed in the countr < 4echnologies for forestr "ro?ects are being develo"ed and a fe6 "ro?ects have alread been a""roved under CD-< It still remains to be seen ho6 successful these schemes 6ould be< #ith the demand for ra6 material e*"ected to increase as a result of gro6ing consumerism and globali=ation, efforts need to be ta+en to ensure the success of these schemes< If the res"onse and concern of government is something to go b , then the success of these schemes is ver much "ossible, "rovided various sta+eholders are involved<

$$

Ta.)e 5."< Ce')'*! L'('t+ $* La*/ H$)/'*!+ ('* ha) ?. NE@T STEPS .egarding gro6ing timber in farmer>s o6n land, 6e need to better understand 6h that o"tion 6or+s or does not 6or+ for the "ur"ose of "roduction forestr < 4o do that, 6e 6ould be meeting 6ith forest8based industr such as #imco, ;allar"ur and I4C< #e 6ould then 6rite case studies based on our interaction 6ith the industr and the farmers< #hile this literature revie6 has been e*haustive, there is still a large sco"e to get information from literature available 6ith various government organi=ations such as the -inistries of Central and !tate 5overnments, !tate Forest De"artments, F!I, ICF.9 and ICF.9 institutions as 6ell as industr organi=ations< In addition to collecting "rimar data on "lantations, 6e need to carr out a detailed stud of the earlier studies on demand and su""l of fuel6ood and timber< /nderstanding the assum"tions used in those dis"arate studies 6ould hel" us in formulating "resent da assum"tions for estimating the demand of fuel6ood and timber< 7n the su""l side, 6e need to carr out a 6ood utili=ation surve to estimate the su""l of fuel6ood and timber in the countr < 4his 6ould also feed into the stud of timber im"orts that 6ould be carried out as "art of this "ro?ect< .egarding gro6ing timber in farmer>s o6n land, 6e need to better understand 6h that o"tion 6or+s or does not 6or+ for the "ur"ose of "roduction forestr < 4o do that, 6e 6ould be meeting 6ith forest8based industr such as #imco, ;allar"ur and I4C, the com"anies, 6hich have ta+en u" "lantation activities in the "ast and or at "resent< !ome of the "lantations have been successful 6hile some others have not 'uite succeeded in their intent< #e 6ill bee stud ing the reasons for success andBor failure, and 6ould then 6rite case studies based on our interaction 6ith the industr and the farmers< In addition, "revailing "olic constraints for "romotion of "roduction forestr 6ill be "oised against the recent enthusiasm of the Indian 5overnment to ta+e u" CD- activities in the forestr sector< #e 6ill be revie6ing the initiatives and studies ta+en u" b ICF.9 and various CD- "ro?ect develo"ers in the forestr sector<

$5

/)9% and /)FCCC 120022< /nderstanding Climate Change@ A beginner>s guide to the /) Frame6or+ Convention and its 0 oto %rotocol< /nited )ations 9nvironment %rogram Information /nit for Conventions, 5eneva, !6it=erland, /nited )ations Frame6or+ Convention on Climate Change, ;onn, 5erman < htt"@BBunfccc<intBfilesBessentialSbac+groundBa""licationB"dfBbeginnerS02Sen<"df
1

I%CC 120012< Climate Change 2001@ #or+ing 5rou" II@ Im"acts, Ada"tation and Lulnerabilit < htt"@BB666<grida<noBclimateBi"ccStarB6g2B
2

,it= !<, !mith :< 1200$2< 9stimating global im"acts from climate change< 5lobal 9nvironmental Change 1$, 201821F<
3 $

/)9%< %otential im"acts of climate change< htt"@BB666<grida<noBclimateBvitalBim"acts<htm %aul, .<, Dutta, ;<, ;hattachar a, !<, -itra, A<%<, Lal, -< 11EEE2< 0 oto agreement on greenhouse gas reduction and future global tem"erature and sea8level trends< Current !cience (&1F2, 10&E8(1<

;eg, )<, -orlot, :<C<, Davidson, 7<, 7+esse, 3< A<, 4 ani, L<, Denton, F<, 4homas, :<%<, La .overe, 9<L<, %ari+h, :<0<, %ari+h, 0< and .ahman, A<A<120022< Lin+ages bet6een climate change and sustainable develo"ment, Climate %olic 2, 12E81$$<
& (

%achauri .<0< 1200$2 Climate and humanit < 5lobal 9nvironmental Change 1$, 1018103<

!atha e, :< A<, .avindranath, )<,<11EEF2< Climate change mitigation in the energ and forestr sectors of develo"ing countries< Annual .evie6 of 9nerg and 9nvironment 23, 3F(8$3(<
F E

49.I< IndiaGs contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, htt"@BB666<teriin<orgBclimateBghg<htm

AD;< 11EEF2 AL5A!8India 1Asia Least8Cost 5reen house 5as Abatement !trateg 2, Asian Develo"ment ;an+, -anila<
10

.a6at L<, .a6at L< 120032< Climate change mitigation a""roach through "lantation forestr in India< Indian Forester 12E, FE58E0$<
11

;?ornstad, 9<, !+onhoft, A< 120022< #oof fuel or carbon sin+T As"ects of forestr in climate 'uestion< 9nvironmental and .esource 9conomics 23, $$(8$&5< 13 !ingh, .<, Lal, -< 120002< !ustainable forestr in India for carbon mitigation< Current !cience (F, 5&385&(<
12

,alsnaes, 0< 11EE&2< 4he economics of climate change mitigation in develo"ing countries< 9nerg %olic 2$,E1(8E2&<
1$

;had6al, !<, !ingh, .< 120022< Carbon se'uestration estimates for forestr o"tions under different land8use scenarios in India< Current !cience F3, 13F0813F&<
15

.avindranath, )<,<, -urth , I<0<, 120032< Clean develo"ment mechanism and forestr "ro?ects@ strateg for o"erationali=ation in India< Indian Forester 12E, &E18(0&<
1&

-o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %lan< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India, )e6 Delhi<
1(

!a*ena, )<C< 120022< 4he role of industr in 6asteland develo"ment in India< International Forestr .evie6 $, 23$823F<
1F

.avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
1E

-o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogram O India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India<
20

21

0bid<
22

!aigal, !<, Arora, ,<, .i=vi, !<!< 120022< 4he ne6 foresters@ 4he role of "rivate enter"rise in the Indian forestr sector< 9cotech !ervices, )e6 Delhi and International Institute of 9nvironment and Develo"ment, London<
23

FA7 11EE&2< 3ear ;oo+ of Forest %roducts< Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations< .ome< Muoted in -o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogram O India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India< -o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogram O India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India<
2$

25

ICF.9 120012< Forestr Dehradun, India<

2&

!tatistics India, Indian Council for Forestr

.esearch and 9ducation,

I447 120032< Indian 4imber -ar+et 9merges as %ros"ect and Challenge for 4ro"ical 4imber !ector< )e6s .elease, International 4ro"ical 4imber 7rganisation< 3o+ohama, :a"an, )ovember, 2003<
2(

C!9 11EEE2< 4he green rating "ro?ect< Do6n 4o 9arth, 31 :ul 1EEE<
2F

-o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogram O India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India<
2E

0bid<
30

D6ivedi ;<)< 11EE$2< Fuel6ood and other energ su""l and demand< International #or+sho" on India>s Forest -anagement and 9cological .evival< 49.I, )e6 Delhi<
31

.ai !<)<, Cha+rabarti !<0< 11EE&2< Demand and su""l of fuel6ood, timber and fodder in India< Forest !urve of India, -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India, )ovember 1EE&<
32

!aigal, !<, Arora, ,<, .i=vi, !<!< 120022< 4he ne6 foresters@ 4he role of "rivate enter"rise in the Indian forestr sector< 9cotech !ervices, )e6 Delhi and International Institute of 9nvironment and Develo"ment, London<
33

.avindranath, )<,<, !omashe+har, ;<!< and 5adgil, -< 11EE(2< Carbon Flo6 in Indian Forests< Climatic Change, 35, 2E(8320< 0lu6er Academic %ublishers, )etherlands<
3$

0bid.
35

0bid<
3&

ICF.9 120012< Forestr Dehradun, India<

3(

!tatistics India, Indian Council for Forestr

.esearch and 9ducation,

I447 120052< International Log %rices< 4ro"ical 4imber -ar+et .e"ort, 10B20, International 4ro"ical 4imber 7rganisation< 3o+ohama, :a"an, December, 2005<
3F

ICF.9 120012< Forestr Dehradun, India<

3E

!tatistics India, Indian Council for Forestr

.esearch and 9ducation,

0bid<

$0

I447 1200$2< Annual .evie6 and Assessment of the #orld 4imber !ituation< International 4ro"ical 4imber 7rganisation< 3o+ohama, :a"an<
$1

0bid.
$2

0bid<
$3

0bid<
$$

0bid.
45

FA7 120052< Forestr 4erminolog < De"artment of Forestr , Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome<
$&

%ande , D< 120002< Develo"ment of "lantation forestr and ?oint forest management in India< %roceedings of the International Conference on 4imber %lantation Develo"ment< Cor"orate Document .e"ositor < Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome< )ational %rogress .e"ort on Forestr in India 11E(32< Eth !ession of Asia %acific Forestr Commission< Canberra, Australia< 2082F !e"tember 1E(3< -inistr of Agriculture< 5overnment of India< )e6 Delhi< 1Muoted in %ande , D2<2
$(

$F

%ande , D< 120002< Develo"ment of "lantation forestr and ?oint forest management in india< %roceedings of the International Conference on 4imber %lantation Develo"ment< Cor"orate Document .e"ositor < Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome<
49

!tate of Forest .e"ort 11EEE2< Forest !urve of India< Dehradun< India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests< 5overnment of India< )e6 Delhi<
50

.a6at, L<, .a6at, L< 120032< Climate Change -itigation A""roach 4hrough %lantation Forestr in India< %ande , D< 120002< Develo"ment of "lantation forestr and ?oint forest management in India< %roceedings of the International Conference on 4imber %lantation Develo"ment< Cor"orate Document .e"ositor < Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome<
51 52

0bid< 0bid<

53

5$

.avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
55

F!I 120032< !tate of Forest .e"ort< Forest !urve of India, Dehradun, India<

5&

ICF.9 120012< Forestr !tatistics India< Indian Council for Forestr .esearch and 9ducation, Dehradun, India<
5(

FA7 120052< 5lobal Forest .esources Assessment 2005< Muoted in Cor"orate Document .e"ositor < Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome<
5F

0bid.
5E

.avindranath, )<,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< C!9 11EEF2< !tate of India>s 9nvironment< Centre for !cience and 9nvironment, )e6 Delhi< Muoted in .avindranath, )<,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India<
&0

.avindranath, )<,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India<
&1 &2

!a*ena, )< C< Chairman, #or+ing 5rou"< 17ctober, 1EEE2< .e"ort on the %ros"ects of -a+ing Degraded Forests Available to %rivate 9ntre"reneurs< %lanning Commission< 5overnment of India< )e6 Delhi
&3

< 0bid.
&$

Lal, -<, !ingh, .< 120002< Carbon se'uestration "otential of Indian forests< 9nvironmental -onitoring and Assessment &0, 315832(<
&5

-o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogram O India< -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, 5overnment of India< Muoted in .avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
&&

.avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<

&(

0bid. !aigal, !<, Arora, ,<, .i=vi, !<!< 120022< 4he ne6 foresters@ 4he role of "rivate enter"rise in the Indian forestr !ector< 9cotech !ervices, )e6 Delhi and International Institute of 9nvironment and Develo"ment, London<
&F

&E

Chundamannil, -< 1EEE< 4ea+ %lantations in 0erala@ an economic revie6, "a"er "resented to the .egional !eminar on !ite, 4echnolog and %roductivit of 4ea+ %lantation at Chiang -ai, 4hailand, 2&8 2E :anuar , 1EEE< 1Muoted in %ande , Devendra2<2 .avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
(0

%ande , D< 120002< Develo"ment of "lantation forestr and ?oint forest management in India< %roceedings of the International Conference on 4imber %lantation Develo"ment< Cor"orate Document .e"ositor < Food and Agriculture 7rganisation of the /nited )ations, .ome<
(1

I5;% 1International 5eosh"ere ;iosh"ere %rogramme2 11EEF2< 4he terrestrial carbon c cle@ Im"lications for the 0 oto %rotocol< !cience 2F0@ 13E3813E$<
(2

;ro6n, !<, !atha e, :<, Cannell, -<5<.<, 0au""i, %< 11EE&2< -anagement of forests for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions< In@ Climate change 1EE5< Im"acts, Ada"tations and -itigation of Climate Change< .<4< #atson, -<C< Uin o6era, .<,< -oss, and D<:< Do++en 1eds2< #or+ing 5rou" II, !econd Assessment .e"ort of the I%CC< Cambridge /niversit %ress, ((38(E(<
(3

Dabas, -<, ;hatia, !< 11EE&2< Carbon se'uestration through Afforestation@ .ole of 4ro"ical Industrial %lantations< Ambio 25152, 32(8330<
($

I%CC 11EE52< 5uidelines for greenhouse gas inventor 6or+boo+, Lolume 2, -odule 5 8 Land /se Change and Forestr , .e"ort "re"ared b /)9%, 79CD, I9A and I%CC, 5<185<$5<
(5 (&

0bid. Chaturvedi, A<)< 11EE$2< !e'uestration of atmos"heric carbon in Indian forests< Ambio 23, $&08$&1<

((

;had6al, !<, !ingh, .< 120022< Carbon se'uestration estimates for forestr o"tions under different land8use scenarios in India< Current !cience F3 1112, 13F0813F&<
(F

Cham"ion, ,<5<, !eth, !<0< 11E&F2< A revised surve of forest t "es in India< 5overnment of India "ublication, Delhi, $0$ ""<
(E

F!I 1Forest !urve of India2 11EEE2< 4he !tate of the Forest .e"ort, -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, Dehradun, India<
F0

Dhad6al, L<0<, )a a+, !<.< 11EE32< A "reliminar estimate of biogeochemical c cle of carbon for India< !cience and Culture 5E 11 and 22, E813<
F1

Lal, -<, !ingh, .< 120002< Carbon se'uestration "otential of Indian forests< 9nvironmental -onitoring and Assessment &0, 315832(<
F2

.avindranath, )<,<, !omashe+har, ;<!< 11EE52< %otential and economics of forestr o"tions for carbon se'uestration in India< ;iomass and ;ioenerg F152, 323833&<
F3

Lal, -<, !ingh, .< 120002< Carbon se'uestration "otential of Indian forests< 9nvironmental -onitoring and Assessment &0, 315832(<
F$

%ande, %<0< 120032< Land carbon budget and se'uestration "otential of the natural forests of -adh a %radesh 1India2< Indian Forester :ul 2003, E058E1(<
F5

F!I 1Forest !urve of India2 11EFF2< 4he !tate of the Forest .e"ort 1EF(, -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, Dehradun, India<
F&

F!I 1Forest !urve of India2 11EE&2< 4he !tate of the Forest .e"ort 1EE5, -inistr of 9nvironment and Forests, Dehradun, India<
F(

%rasad, L<0<, ;adrinath, 0<L<!<, 4suruta, ,<, !udo, !<, 3onemura, !<, Cardina, :< , !tinner, ;<, -oore, .<, !tinner, D< , ,o , C< 120032< Im"lications of land use changes on carbon d namics and se'uestration O 9valuation from forestr datasets, India< 4he 9nvironmentalist 23, 1(581F(<
FF

;had6al !<, !ingh, .< 120022< Carbon se'uestration estimates for forestr o"tions under different land8use scenarios in India< Current !cience F3 1112, 13F0813F&<
FE

.avindranath, )<,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
E0 E1

0bid.

Lal, -<, !ingh, .< 120002< Carbon se'uestration "otential of Indian forests< 9nvironmental -onitoring and Assessment &0, 315832(<
E2

!ingh, 4<%<, Larala+shmi, L<, Ahlu6alia, !<0< 120002< Carbon se'uestration through farm forestr @ Cases from India< Indian Forester 12&, 125(812&$<
E3 E$

0bid. %ande , D<)< 120022< Carbon se'uestration in agroforestr s stems< Climate %olic 2, 3&(83((<

E5

!atha e, :<A<, .avindranath, )<,< 11EEF2< Climate change mitigation in the energ and the forestr sectors of develo"ing countries< Annual .evie6 of 9nerg and 9nvironment 23@3F(8$3(<
E&

.avindranath, )<,<, -urth , I<0<, !udha, %<, 5eetha, 0<)<, !angeetha, 5< 120032< Assessment of afforestation and agro8forestr as "otential CD- activities in semi8arid 4um+ur district, 0arnata+a, India< :ournal of 9nvironmental !tudies and %olic &112, $58&0<
E(

.avindranath )<,<, ,all, D<7< 11EE&2< 9stimates of feasible "roductivities of short rotation tro"ical forestr "lantations< 9nerg for !ustainable Develo"ment II152@ 1$820<
EF

!eebauer, -< 11EE22< .evie6 of !ocial Forestr %rograms in India< 5#; 5esellschaft FVr #alderhaltung und #albe6irtschaftung 5-;,, -ichelstadt, 5erman <
EE

!udha, %< 11EE(2< %lantation forestr @ Land availabilit and biomass "roduction "otential in Asia< A..%99C 4echnical .e"ort, AI4 ;ang+o+, 120 ""<
100

.avindranath )<,<, ,all, D<7< 11EE&2< 9stimates of feasible "roductivities of short rotation tro"ical forestr "lantations< 9nerg for !ustainable Develo"ment II152, 1$820<
101 102

0bid. 0bid.

103

.avindranath, )<,<, !omashe+har, ;<!<, 5adgil, -< 11EE(2< Carbon flo6 in Indian Forests< Climate Change 35@ 2E(8320<
10$ 105

-o9F 11E522< )ational Forest %olic , -inistr of 9nvironment N Forests, )e6 Delhi<

-o9F 11EF02< Forest 1Conservation2 Act, -inistr of 9nvironment N Forests, )e6 Delhi<
10& 10(

-o9F 11EFF2< )ational Forest %olic , -inistr of 9nvironment N Forests, )e6 Delhi<

-o9F 11EEE2< )ational Forestr Action %rogramme8India, -inistr of 9nvironment N Forests, )e6 Delhi<
10F 10E

0bid<

-o9F 1200$2< )ational 9nvironment %olic , -inistr of 9nvironment N Forests, )e6 Delhi<
110

%lanning Commission 11EEE2< .e"ort of #or+ing 5rou" on Leasing of Degraded Forest Lands, %lanning Commission, 5overnment of India, )e6 Delhi, India
111

%lanning Commission 120012< .e"ort of the 4as+ Force on 5reening India for Livelihood !ecurit and !ustainable Develo"ment< %lanning Commission, 5overnment of India, )e6 Delhi, :ul 2001<
112

%lanning Commission 120022 4enth Five83ear %lan, %lanning Commission, 5overnment of India, )e6 Delhi
113

%lanning Commission 120012< .e"ort of the 4as+ Force on 5reening India for Livelihood !ecurit and !ustainable Develo"ment< %lanning Commission, 5overnment of India, )e6 Delhi, :ul 2001<
11$ 115

0bid<

!a*ena, )<C< 120022< 4he role of industr in 6asteland develo"ment in India< International Forestr .evie6 $, 23$823F<
11&

11(

0bid<

!aigal, !<, 0ash a" D< 120022< .evie6 of Com"an 8Farmer %artnershi"s for the !u""l of .a6 -aterial to #ood8based Industr , 94! )e6 Delhi and II9D, London<
11F

Chambers, .<, !a*ena, )<C<, !hah 4< 11EFE2< 4o the hands of the "oor@ #ater and trees< 7*ford and I;,, )e6 Delhi and Intermediate 4echnolog , London<
119

,unter, I<.<, ,oble , -<, !male, %< 11EEF2< Afforestation of degraded land O % rrhic victor over economic, social and ecological realit T 9cological 9ngineering 10, E(810&<
120

!a*ena, )<C< 120022< 4he role of industr in 6asteland develo"ment in India< International Forestr .evie6 $, 23$823F<
121 122

)oble, I<, !choles, .<:< 120012< !in+s and 0 oto %rotocol< Climate %olic 1, 5825<

0ennett, !<A< 120022< )ational "olicies for bios"here greenhouse gas management@ Issues and o""ortunities< 9nvironmental -anagement 30, 5E58&0F<
123

,uang, C<,<, 0ronard, 5<D< 120012< 4he cost of se'uestering carbon on "rivate forest lands< Forest %olic and 9conomics 2, 13381$2<
12$

.avindranath, )<,<, -urth , I<0< 120032 Clean develo"ment mechanism and forestr "ro?ects@ strateg for o"erationali=ation in India< Indian Forester (, &E18(0&<
125

.avindranath, )< ,<, !udha, %<, .ao, !< 120012< Forestr for sustainable biomass "roduction and carbon se'uestration in India< -itigation and Ada"tation !trategies for 5lobal Change &, 233825&<
12&