DISC BRAKES

The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in motion. A brake disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon- carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade.

WORKING OF BRAKE SYSTEM

Parts of a brake
Brake systems are designed to slow the vehicles wheel movement through friction. There are primarily two brake systems, ABS and non ABS (anti-lock brake system). Both systems work on basic hydraulics and utilize a brake master cylinder (connected to the brake pedal in the car) that supplies brake fluid pressure to the front brake calipers and rear wheel cylinder or brake calipers if so equipped. The brake system requires hydraulic force that is many times greater than the force applied by the foot. This added hydraulic force is achieved by leverage multiplication. Varying the relative location of the brake master cylinder rod pivot as it relates to the lever can change the multiplying force.

Power brake systems utilize either vacuum or power steering to multiply the force without added pedal effort. In the hydraulic force multiplication method, the force, which is applied at one point, is transmitted by incompressible brake fluid to another point. This basic system consists of two pistons which are filled with brake fluid and are connected by a brake line of any length or shape. When the brake pedal is forced down brake fluid from the master cylinder is transferred to the brake caliper piston, pressurized fluid is transmitted through the brake caliper to the brake pads or shoes, which are mounted to the brake caliper or wheel cylinder.

DIFFERENT PARTS OF BRAKE DISC

They are simply made of solid cast iron, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces .The weight and power of the vehicle will determine the need for ventilated discs. The ventilated disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily-loaded front discs. Many higher performance brakes have holes drilled through them. This is known as cross-drilling. Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas.

BRAKE PADS
Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts: Adhesive and abrasive. Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the configuration and the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The properties that determine material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity. The friction coefficient for most standard pads will be in the region of .40 when used with cast iron discs. Racing pads with high iron content designed for use with cast iron brake discs reach .55 to .60 which gives a very significant increase in braking power and high temperature performance. High iron content racing pads wear down discs very quickly and usually when the pads are worn out so are the discs.

The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly, and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that replacement is needed, such as a thin piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are too thin causing the brakes to squeal, a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin, or an electronic sensor. Early brake pads contained asbestos, producing dust which should not be inhaled. Although newer pads can be made of ceramics, kevlar and other plastics, inhalation of brake dust should still be avoided regardless of material.

BRAKE SQUEAL
Sometimes a loud noise or high pitched squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced by vibration of the brake components, especially the pads and discs. This type of squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping performance. Simple techniques like adding chamfers to linings, greasing or gluing the contact between caliper and the pads, bonding insulators to pad backplate, inclusion of a brake shim between the brake pad and back plate, etc. may help to reduce squeal. Cold weather combined with high early morning humidity often makes brake-squeal worse, although the squeal stops when the lining reaches regular operating temperatures. Dust on the brakes may also cause squeal; there are many commercial brake cleaning products that can be used to remove dust and contaminants. Finally, some lining wear indicators, located either as a semi-metallic layer within the brake pad material or with an external squealer sensor, are also designed to squeal when the lining is due for replacement.

BRAKE JUDDER
Brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to severe vibrations transferred through the chassis during braking. The judder phenomenon can be classified into two distinct subgroups: hot (or thermal), or cold judder. Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer, more moderate braking from high speed where the vehicle does not come to a complete stop. It commonly occurs when a motorist decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h to about 60 km/h which results in severe vibrations being transmitted to the driver. These vibrations are the result of uneven thermal distributions,

or hot spots. Hot spots are classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate between both sides of a disc that distort it in such a way that produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges.

BRAKE DUST
When braking force is applied, the act of abrasive friction between the brake pad and the rotor wears both the rotor and pad away. The brake dust that is seen deposited on wheels, calipers and other braking system components consists mostly of rotor material. Brake dust can damage the finish of most wheels if not washed off. Generally brake pad that aggressively abrades more rotor material away, such as metallic pads, will create more brake dust.

ANTI-FRICTION MATERIALS USED IN CAR BRAKES

CAST IRON
Cast iron is derived from pig iron. The color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured, due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount ranging from 2.1 to 4 wt% and 1 to 3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel.

Cast iron properties are changed by adding various alloy elements. Silicon is the most important alloyant .

Properties:
1. Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons 2. Relatively low melting point 3. Good fluidity, castability 4. Excellent machinability 5. Resistance to deformation and wear resistance 6. Resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation

Alloying elements:
Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. After carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. Instead the carbon forms graphite which results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur, when added, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron sluggish, which causes short run defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag. Nickel is one of the most common alloyants because it refines the pearlite and graphite structure, improves toughness, and evens out hardness differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in small amounts to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin can be added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium. Copper is added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of 0.5 to 2.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and increase fluidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3 to 1% to increase chill and refine the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons.

Titanium is added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. 0.15 to 0.5% vanadium are added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.1 to 0.3% zirconium helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity. In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002 to 0.01%, to increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening effect of bismuth.

Types of Cast Iron:

1. Grey cast iron 2. White cast iron 3. Malleable cast iron 4. Ductile cast iron

Uses:
1. Cast iron bridges, buildings and textile mills 2. Pipes 3. Machines and automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads, cylinder blocks and gear boxes

GRAY IRON
Gray iron is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. It is used for housings where tensile strength is non-critical, such as internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump housings, valve bodies, electrical boxes, and decorative castings. Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake rotors.

Structure:
A typical chemical composition to obtain a graphitic microstructure is 2.5 to 4.0% carbon and 1 to 3% silicon. Silicon is important to making grey iron as opposed to white cast iron, because silicon is a graphite stabilizing element in cast iron, which means it helps the alloy produce

graphite instead of iron carbides. Another factor affecting graphitization is the solidification rate; the slower the rate, the greater the tendency for graphite to form. A moderate cooling rate forms a more pearlitic matrix, while a slow cooling rate forms a more ferritic matrix. To achieve a fully ferritic matrix the alloy must be annealed. Rapid cooling partly or completely suppresses graphitization and leads to formation of cementite, which is called white iron.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Gray iron is a common engineering alloy because of its relatively low cost and good machinability, which results from the graphite lubricating the cut and breaking up the chips. It also has good galling and wear resistance because the graphite flakes self -lubricate. The graphite also gives gray iron an excellent damping capacity because it absorbs the energy. It also experiences less solidification shrinkage than other cast irons that do not form a graphite microstructure. The silicon promotes good corrosion resistance and increase fluidity when casting. Gray iron is generally considered easy to weld. Compared to the more modern iron alloys, gray iron has a low tensile strength and ductility; therefore, its impact and shock resistance is almost non-existent.

COPPER
Copper has been regarded as one of the indispensable ingredients in the brake friction materials since it provides high thermal diffusivity at the sliding interface. However, the recent regulations against environmentally hazardous ingredients limit the use of copper in the commercial friction material and much effort has been made for the alternatives. In this work, the role of the cuprous ingredients such as copper fiber, copper powder, cupric oxide (CuO), and copper sulfide (CuS) are studied using the friction materials based on commercial formulations. The investigation was performed using a full inertial brake dynamometer and 1/5 scale dynamometer for brake performance and wear test. Results showed that the cuprous ingredients played a crucial role in maintaining the stable friction film at the friction interface, resulting in improved friction stability and reduced aggressiveness against counter disk. In particular, the addition of copper fiber or copper sulfide contributed to improved friction stability during effectiveness test. The test result also showed that the friction material containing 10 wt.% of cupric oxide exhibited

better fade resistance without showing an abrupt decrease of friction coefficient during brake performance and wear tests. The addition of copper fiber showed better wear resistance compared to the friction material with cupric oxide, on the other hand, the increase of copper fiber showed an adverse effect in the wear resistance of the friction materials during wear tests up to 400C.

FRICTION MODIFIERS
Friction modifiers are added to lubricants to reduce the surface friction of the lubricated parts. Typically these are polar chemical compounds having high affinity for metal surfaces and possessing long alkyl chains. Glycerol mono-oleate is a common example of a friction modifier. Whale oil was formerly used as a friction modifier in automatic transmission fluid. This additive is needed in limited slip differentials. In case of Limited Slip Differential (LSD), the friction modifiers are designed to modify the friction characteristics of the fluid such that clutch engagement occurs when you need it for the rear differential to allow the rear wheel to rotate at differential speeds. For example- If a vehicle is on an icy road and one wheel is on ice and slipping with no traction, in a normal differential the other wheel would be left with no torque because the one wheel s spinning. In a vehicle with LSD, even though one wheel is spinning, that spinning action causes the clutch to engage the gear which produces the torque required to power the non-spinning wheel, enabling the car to move.

CARBON-CERAMIC BRAKE DISCS

The use of the carbon-ceramic material had revolutionized the brake technology: In comparison to the conventional grey cast iron brake disk the carbon-ceramic brake disk weighed round 50 per cent less reducing the unsprung mass by almost 20 kilograms. Further significant advantages are: improved brake response and fading data, high thermal stableness, no hot judder, excellent pedal feel, improved steering behavior, high abrasion resistance and thus longer life time and the advantage of avoiding almost completely brake dust. At first Porsche AG built the carbonceramic brake disk in 2001 into the 911 GT2 as series equipment. Since that time also other premium brands use the advantages of this innovative brake technology for more security and comfort. These are for example sports cars and luxury class limousines from Audi, Bentley, Bugatti and Lamborghini.

Material:
A special feature of carbon-ceramic brake disks is the ceramic composite material they are made from. Both the carbon-ceramic brake disk body and the friction layers applied to each side consist of carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide. The main matrix components are silicon carbide (SiC) and elemental silicon (Si). The reinforcement of the material is provided by carbon fibers (C). Silicon carbide, the main matrix component governs great hardness for the composite material. The carbon fibers make for high mechanical strength and provide the fracture toughness needed in technical applications.

CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup of technical ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material, whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be considered a ceramic material.

Properties:
The thermal and electrical properties of the composite are a result of its constituents, namely fibers, matrix and pores as well as their composition. The orientation of the fibers yields anisotropic data. Oxide CMCs are very good electrical insulators, and because of their high porosity their thermal insulation is much better than that of conventional oxide ceramics.

Advantages:
CMC materials overcome the major disadvantages of conventional technical ceramics, namely brittle failure and low fracture toughness, and limited thermal shock resistance. Therefore, their applications are in fields requiring reliability at high-temperatures and resistance to corrosion and wear. These include: 1. Heat shield systems for space vehicles, which are needed during the re-entry phase, where high temperatures, thermal shock conditions and heavy vibration loads take place. 2. Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers, stator vanes. 3. Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts. 4. Brake disks and brake system components, which experience extreme thermal shock. 5. Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high corrosion and wear resistance. In addition to the foregoing, CMCs can be used in applications, which employ conventional ceramics or in which metal components have limited lifetimes due to corrosion or high temperatures.

REFERENCES:
1. www.wikipedia.org 2. www.2capros.com 3. www.auto.howstuffworks.com 4. www.paper.sae.org 5. www.mobil.oil.com