EXPLORING THE PERCEPTION OF USERS OF COMMUNITY ICT CENTERS ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ICT ON POVERTY IN ETHIOPIA: A QUALITATIVE STUDY by Debretsion

Gebremichael

JELENA VUCETIC, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair JOSE M. NIEVES, PhD, Committee Member CYNTHIA CALONGNE, PhD, Committee Member

William A. Reed, PhD, Acting Dean, School of Business and Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University March 2011

UMI Number: 3445224

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

UMI 3445224 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346

 Debretsion Gebremichael, 2011

Abstract The potential and deployment of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as a development tool have raised divergent views on the relation between ICT and poverty. The purpose of this qualitative multiple-case study was to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty in the context of the impact of community ICT centers on the user community. Serving as the theoretical framework for the study were the input-processoutput contingency model of R. Benbunan-Fich, S. R. Hiltz, and L. Harasim (2005); the innovation diffusion theory of E. M. Rogers (1983); the integral and systematic view of ICT developed by R. Heeks (2002); and ICT and development of M. Torero and J. von Braun (2006). In addition, the maximum variation strategy was used to select five community ICT centers. Qualitative data were collected from focus group discussions, interviews, observations, and documents to answer three research questions related to the perception of users on the community ICT centers. Constant comparative analysis was used to analyze individual cases, and cross case analysis was conducted. The findings suggest that each community ICT center has demonstrated the benefits of using the center and these benefits have an influence on the daily life of the users. However, the benefits for individual centers were influenced by factors that were unique to each of the centers. Insights from the study have important implications on effective utilization of community ICT centers in addressing poverty. It is imperative to link community ICT centers with the development program of the community to effectively use ICT to alleviate poverty.

Dedication I would like to dedicate my dissertation to my fallen heroes of the war to topple the military regime of Ethiopia who are my role models I can aspire to attain the level of commitment I needed to continue my studies. They were sources of a constant encouragement and inspiration to me as they posses abundant supply of commitment and sense of fulfilling. To my daughters, Rahwa and Retie who supported me in my entire journey. Thank you for understanding the situation I was in and for possessing an unending patience and support. To all other family members and friends who encouraged and provided me unlimited support. I appreciate and give value to your backing.

iii

Acknowledgments There are so many to acknowledge and it should be noted up front that these acknowledgments are not made in any order of significance. All who are recognized here, and those whom I inadvertently forget to acknowledge, made their valuable contributions to me as I made my journey through this process. To each and every one of you I shall always be sincerely grateful. I want to extend my gratitude to my faculty mentor and chair, Dr. Jelena Vucetic, for inspiring me with her concerns, timely guidance, and expertise. I felt privileged to have been mentored by Dr. Jelena who made this dissertation a truly wonderful journey and experience. I also want to thank my committee members Dr. Cynthia Calongne and Dr. Jose M. Nieves for their contributions of knowledge and experience. I would like to thank my friend and colleague, Ato Teferra Waluwa for encouraging me to continue my studies and providing support when I needed it. I would like to thank Mr. Bobak for encouraging and supporting my interest to study. Ato Tessema Geda, deserve special thanks for all the support you extended during my studies and most of all volunteered to facilitate the field visit and data collection. Last, but not least, I would like to express my appreciation to the management and all research participants of the five community ICT centers where this study was conducted, I acknowledge your contributions to this study. I admire your interest and passion for the development of ICT. I gratefully acknowledge and appreciate your encouragement and cooperation with this research.

iv

Table of Contents Acknowledgments List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Rationale Research Questions Significance of the Study Definition of Terms Assumptions and Limitations Conceptual Framework Organization of the Remainder of the Study CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to ICT and Development Conceptual Models that Link ICT to Development and Poverty Reduction Assessment of Current Literature on the Effects of IT on Poverty Role of ICT Community Centers in Addressing Poverty Telecentre Models in Africa Theoretical Framework for Telecenters v iv ix x 1 1 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 10 10 11 13 13 15 22 28 35 36

Impact Assessment of Telecenters Assessment of Current Literature on Telecenters CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY Research Design Sample Setting Instrumentation Data Collection Data Analysis Validity and Reliability Ethical Considerations CHAPTER 4. RESULTS Introduction Overview of the ICT Community Centers Sources of Qualitative Data and Demographic Data of Research Participants Data Analysis and Interpretation Findings Research Question 1 Themes Economic Benefits Educational Benefits Health Benefits General Benefit of the Community ICT Centers vi

39 45 49 50 56 57 57 58 62 67 69 71 71 72 76 81 87 88 89 91 99 109 117

Common Benefits Perceived by Individuals Research Question 2 Research Question 3 Difference Between Individuals Perceptions Cross Case Analysis Summary of the Findings CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summary Findings and Related Conclusions Summary of Thematic Groups Conclusions Implications of the Research Findings Recommendations for Further Study Reflections of the Researcher REFERENCES

125 132 143 145 147 153 157 157 158 159 161 166 168 169 170 173

APPENDIX A. COMMUNITY ICT CENTERS INCLUDED IN THE RESEARCH 187 APPENDIX B. QUESTIONS FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION APPENDIX C. QUESTIONS FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (AMHARIC VERSION) APPENDIX D. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ICT APPENDIX E. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ICT CENTER APPENDIX F. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON-USER OF ICT CENTER vii 189 190 193 197 188

APPENDIX G. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON-USER OF ICT CENTER

199

APPENDIX H. OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMUNITY ICT CENTERS AND USAGE CHARACTERISICS APPENDIX I. EXCERPTS OF TRANSCRIPTS APPENDIX J. EXCERPTS OF QDA MINER 3.2 CODING APPENDIX K. RESULT OF AUTO-CODING BY WORDSTAT 6.1 APPENDIX L. FREQUENCY COUNTS FOR SUBCATEGORIES APPENDIX M. RESPONSE ON ECONOMIC BENEFITS APPENDIX N. RESPONSE ON EDUCATIONAL BENEFITS APPENDIX O. RESPONSE ON HEALTH BENEFITS APPENDIX P. RESPONSE ON GENERAL BENEFITS APPENDIX Q. RESPONSE ON UNCOMMON BENEFITS 202 206 210 214 215 217 218 219 220 221

viii

List of Tables Table 1. ICT Performance Measures Table 2. Research Question Hierarchy Table 3. Relationship of Research, Focus Group, and Interview Questions Table 4. Initial Manual Codes Developed and Used by QDA Miner 3.2 Qualitative Analysis Software 44 50 82 83

Table 5. Final Codes After Combination and Refinement of Manual and Auto-coding 85 Table 6. Frequency Counts for Categories Table 7. Frequency Counts for Subcategories Table H-1. Objectives of the Five Community ICT Centers Table H-2. Services Offered and Number of Users (July 2009-June 2010) Table H-3. Demography of Users (July 2009-June 2010) Table H-4. No. of User and Non-User Research Participants Table H-5. Educational Background of Participants 86 126 202 203 203 204 204

Table Q-1. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Economic Benefits 221 Table Q-2. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Educational Benefits Table Q-3. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Health Benefits 221 Table Q-4. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon General Benefits 222 221

ix

List of Figures

Figure 1. Conceptual framework. Figure 2. Heekss integral and systematic view of ICT. Figure 3. Torero and von Brauns ICT and development: A conceptual base. Figure 4. The relationship between development, information, and ICTs. Figure 5. Framework for analyzing different views about ICTs and their impacts. Figure 6. Telecenter performance pyramid. Figure 7. Hierarchies of criteria in evaluating telecenters impacts. Figure 8. Explanatory data display. Figure 9. Template for coding study of ICT community centers (CITC). Figure 10. Sample descriptive data display. Figure 11. Age of interviewed participants of the study. Figure 12. Frequency distribution of gender. Figure 13. Educational background of participants. Figure 14. Work status of participants. Figure 15. Clustering of benefits into thematic groupings. Figure 16. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of LA community ICT center. Figure 17. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of KY community ICT center

11 17 18 20 24 41 55 56 64 65 77 78 79 80 89 91 94

Figure 18. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of DH community ICT center. 95 Figure 19. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of TK community ICT center. 97

Figure 20. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of YY community ICT center. 98 Figure 21. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of LA community ICT center. 100

Figure 22. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of KY community ICT center. 102 Figure 23. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of DH community ICT center. 104 Figure 24. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of TK community ICT center. 106 Figure 25. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of YY community ICT center. 108 Figure 26. Analysis of responses to health benefits of LA community ICT center. Figure 27. Analysis of responses to health benefits of KY community ICT center. Figure 28. Analysis of responses to health benefits of DH community ICT center. Figure 29. Analysis of responses to health benefits of TK community ICT center. Figure 30. Analysis of responses to health benefits of YY community ICT center. Figure 31. Analysis of responses to general benefits of LA community ICT center. Figure 32. Analysis of responses to general benefits of KY community ICT center. Figure 33. Analysis of responses to general benefits of DH community ICT center. Figure 34. Analysis of responses to general benefits of TK community ICT center. Figure 35. Analysis of responses to general benefits of YY community ICT center. Figure 36. Analysis of responses against common economic benefits. Figure 37. Analysis of responses against common educational benefits. Figure 38. Analysis of responses against common health benefits. Figure 39. Analysis of responses against common general benefit. Figure 40. Aggregated response of important services. Figure 41. Response of important services against community ICT centers. Figure 42. Aggregated response of second important services. Figure 43. Response of second important service by community ICT centers. xi 110 111 113 115 116 118 120 121 123 124 127 129 130 131 133 134 135 136

Figure 44. Aggregated response of most valued IT. Figure 45. Response of most valued IT against community ICT centers. Figure 46. Aggregated response of second important IT. Figure 47. Response of the second important IT against community ICT centers. Figure 48. Aggregated response of less important services. Figure 49. Response of less important service by community ICT centers Figure 50. Aggregated response of less important IT. Figure 51. Response of less important IT by community ICT centers. Figure 52. Cross case comparison of community ICT centers on economic benefits.

137 138 139 139 140 141 142 143 148

Figure 53. Cross case comparison of community ICT centers on educational benefits. 149 Figure 54. Cross case comparison of the community ICT centers on health benefits. 151

Figure 55. Cross case comparison of the community ICT centers on general benefits. 152 Figure 56. Clustering of benefits into thematic groupings. Figure H-1. Educational background of participants. 161 205

xii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem Information and communication technology (ICT) was a basis for globalization and now is one of the features or a prerequisite for development. The progress a country registers depends on how much the socio-economic development is assisted by ICT. ICT diffusion, development and sell are a measure of the development level of a nation. For countries like Ethiopia, who are left behind in the global development, ICT, in addition, is a weapon by which they can narrow the digital divide and thereby the development gap between the developed and the developing countries. Several researches have been conducted to understand the relation between ICT and poverty. Although agreements are reached on the importance of ICT to development, there are divergent views on the relation between ICT and poverty. One of the common denominators observed in the literature is that in some aspect of the relationship of ICT and development, it seems there is a consensus. The agreed areas are: the fact that ICT is not a goal but a tool, the recognition of ICT as a driver of economic growth; and ICT as a tool to attack poverty (Batchelor, Scott, & Woolnough, 2005). The World Bank (2000b) declared that information and communication technologies hold the promise of enormous positive influence on countries' economic and social development. 1

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty But the role ICT plays in addressing poverty varies from one literature to the other. According to Kelles-Viitanen (2003), there are at least two opposing opinion camps: those that consider ICT to be the panacea for poverty reduction and those that claim that has no reasonable role in poverty reduction (p. 82). Bedi (1999) added to this view, expressed differently as, The role and impact of these technologies are still obscure (p. 3). The declared position of Kelles-Viitanen lies in between the previous two views. When Bedi (1999) addressed the different positions in respect to ICT and poverty alleviation mentions Rodgers, who argued that ICT can even widen the gap of income inequality if conditions are not right. Alampay (2006), on the other hand, grouped the views on the role of ICT in addressing poverty into three: optimist, pessimist, and middle-ground. This research, therefore, explores the link between ICTs, and poverty in developing countries. The primary focus of this research is on the exchange of information in the rural areas which is instrumental in improving their lively hood. In addition, examination of the current scenario is conducted to identify or develop ICT based on reliability, affordability and effectiveness to the rural communities. To limit the scope, the study is conducted in the context of usage of ICT community centers in Ethiopia which could facilitate in addressing or settling the gap observed.

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Background of the Study The potential and deployment of information and communication technologies (ICT) as a development tool have raised various views. The role ICT plays in addressing poverty varies from one literature to the other. In the preliminary literature review, at least two broad different camps were observed: those who declare that ICT is the panacea of poverty (Talero & Gaudette, 1995) and those that argue that ICT has no significant role in addressing poverty (Rodgers as cited in Bedi, 1999). In fact, there are few who also argue that ICT can even widen the gap of income inequality. Alampay (2006), on the other hand, grouped the views into three: optimist, pessimist, and middle-ground. According to Talero and Gaudette (1995), the use of information technologies is enhancing change in the development of economies and societies. On a more skeptical note, Rodgers (as cited in Bedi, 1999) pointed out that access to the new technologies is a function of the existing income, education, and wealth distributions. It is argued that both, the inability to access due to limited education or inappropriate language skills and the prevalence of inequalities in access will tend to exacerbate information gaps and thus increase inter-personal and inter-regional income inequality in developing countries. Haseloff (2005) also underlined that the availability of ICT does not necessarily guarantee that people are benefiting from it, confirming Gursteins (2003) concept of effective use. The variety of views expressed suggests that the role played by information and communication technologies is still inconclusive and that the discussion concerning it suffers from a lack of adequate evidence and information. The result of this research will 3

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty lay a good ground for future research by analyzing multiple-cases to discern the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. In addition, the result is expected to support in designing and promoting ICT enabled poverty alleviation programs and may contribute in developing a comprehensive perspective on the role of ICT on poverty alleviation and development. Statement of the Problem Several research studies showed the existence of relationship of ICT, development and poverty alleviation (Batchelor et al., 2005; Miller, 2006). The outcome of the research undertaken however varies in describing the role of ICT in poverty alleviation (Bedi, 1999; Kelles-Viitanen, 2003; Talero & Gaudette, 1995). Therefore, further research on this issue in the context of usage of ICT community centers could facilitate in addressing or settling the gap observed. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. To limit the scope of the study, ICT intervention will be considered as applied to community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact on the user community. The result is expected to support in designing and promoting ICT enabled poverty alleviation programs and will contribute in developing a comprehensive perspective on the role of ICT on poverty alleviation and development. The general objective of this research is to examine different ICTs deployed in varied conditions for their suitability for addressing poverty in Ethiopia and possibly by extension to other developing countries.

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Rationale Researches differ in the role played by ICT in poverty alleviation (Bedi, 1999; Kelles-Viitanen, 2003; Talero & Gaudette, 1995). As a result, conducting further research on this issue in the context of usage of ICT community centers could facilitate in addressing or settling the gap observed. Other motivation for the study was that few years back the Government and the World Bank have committed substantial amount of finance to develop ICT infrastructure and applications to change the life of the poor. Public investment in ICT infrastructure and services have increased substantially from a paltry US$29 million in 2002 to US$300 million in 2004 and US $1.5 billion in 2007-2008 (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2009). Specific among the projects financed by government and World Bank was the establishment of community ICT centers. Increases in investment have resulted in improvements in ICT infrastructure but the provision of services introduced at the community ICT centers have yet to be examined whether they benefit the community. In addition, to countries like Ethiopia where more than 80% of the citizens are rural habitants, exploring the relationship between ICT and poverty can bring a great contribution in transforming the country (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2008). On the other hand, the findings of the study will lay a good ground for future research by analyzing multiple-cases to discern the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. By studying the various scenarios of the multiple-cases, developers and users of ICT can explore for ways to maximize the benefit of ICT deployment. In addition, the result is 5

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty expected to support in designing and promoting ICT enabled poverty alleviation programs. Furthermore, the study will contribute in developing a comprehensive perspective on the role of ICT on poverty alleviation and development. Research Questions The hierarchy of the research questions was developed based on Cooper and Schindlers (2003) hierarchy of questions. Top Research Question: What is the relationship between ICT intervention and poverty alleviation in the context of poor communities? Sub-questions: 1. What is the perception of individuals on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? 2. Which services and ICTs of the community ICT centers are most important in addressing poverty? 3. What is the difference between individuals perception on the use and benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? Answers to these research questions were not conducted on Ethiopian ICT community centers prior to this study. Moreover, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) indicated that more convincing empirical evidence is required on the role ICTs play in reducing poverty (Siochr & Girard, 2005). More clarity concerning which ICTs have been effective in reducing poverty and how they were used is needed. Better understanding of which of the many dimensions of poverty ICTs are capable of reducing most is also necessary to know. Therefore, overall there is a lack of knowledge 6

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty on the role of ICT on poverty and in particular in the context of ICT community centers in Ethiopia. Significance of the Study The study lays foundation for further research that will show the relationship of ICT and poverty alleviation. By understanding the factors that influence the use of ICT, models could be developed that assist for improving the deployment and the benefit of ICT. This will contribute in maximizing the return of ICT investment on development. Furthermore, the study will contribute in developing a comprehensive perspective on the role of ICT on poverty alleviation and development. In addition, by understanding the reasons and factors that determine the effectiveness of ICT on development, stakeholders will improve the way ICT is deployed. Although many models are proposed, there is no full agreement on the role of ICT on development. With better depth of understanding the factors, existing models and approaches could be refined or new approaches could also evolve that guide ICT deployment. An immediate outcome of the study is the ability of stakeholders to influence the effective deployment of ICT. Definition of Terms ICT. The term information and communication technology (ICT) has many definitions and two of the closely similar definitions related to the purpose of the literature review are that of Torero and von Braun (2006) and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 1998) member countries.

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Torero and von Braun (2006) defined ICT to encompass both equipment and services that facilitate the electronic capture, processing, display, and transmission of information. Broadly this includes the computing industry, electronic data processing and display, telecommunication and related services, and audiovisual equipment and services (p. 3). Related to the definition of Torero and von Brauns, in 1998, OECD member countries agreed to define the ICT sector as a combination of manufacturing and services industries that capture, transmit and display data and information electronically (p. 19). In addition, in 2001, the Commission of the European Communities stated that ICTs denote a wide range of services, applications, and technologies, using various types of equipment and software, often running over telecom networks (p. 3). The definitions make a useful distinction between the equipment or manufacturing and service dimensions of the ICT which clears way for understanding the scope and breadth of ICT. Poverty. Definition of poverty was developed by development economist Sen (1999) and institutions such as the World Bank (2000b) and the Commission of the European Communities (2001). Absolute poverty, as reflected by Wolfensohn and Bourguignon (2004), is seen as the inability to achieve basic standards in nutrition, health, education, the environment, and a voice in the decisions affecting poor peoples lives (p. 8). Any individual who earns less than 1.25 USD/day is defined to be under absolute poverty. Globally, the World Bank and the UN has developed a plan that will be executed by countries to cut in half the number of poor people by 2015 (UNDP, n.d.). To 8

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty reach that goal, several development programs on agriculture, health, education, etc has been outlined which will affect income and the standard of living of the poor. ICT is one of the technologies that have a contribution in this endeavor. Poverty, as discussed by Kelles- Viitanen (2003), is a highly complex socioeconomic problem that should be tackled concurrently in various aspects. As a result, addressing poverty requires the synergy of combined efforts that produces the most sustainable results. Community ICT center/Telecenter. There are several definitions of telecenter, two among them are: one is the definition specified by Kanfi and Tulus (1998) of International Development Research Centre (IDRC) as a site with facilities to provide diverse information-based goods and services, and in addition supports social or local economic development. The second definition is the one given by Doshi and Gollakota (n.d.), who underlined that the basic element of a telecenter is a place that houses one or more computers with internet access, printer and often has webcam. According to Madon (2005), two main types of telecenter projects are identified. The first type of telecenter initiative includes smal1 phone shops which have covered parts of Africa, Latin America, and Asia. The second type of telecenter initiative offers greater scope to support socio-economic development by providing a wide variety of public and private information-based goods and services to rural communities. These telecenters (sometimes called multipurpose community telecenters) are designed to offer communication facilities, training on IT- and non-IT-related subjects, and to serve as local hubs for government information and services and for commercial activity. 9

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Assumptions and Limitations One of the limitations expected is that of data collection which will be confined to the individuals and community ICT centers identified in the study. Second major limitation might be due to some perception, the respondents might not have provided the correct information which would affect both the credibility and validity of the findings. Among the various limitations that are perceived in the study, the participants biased response might be the most serious one. Conceptual Framework The research is an exploratory study that employs a qualitative multiple-case study approach. The main area of focus will be on the effectiveness of using information and communication technology in helping poor communities in getting information that improves their standard of living. Based on the perception of users, the center of analysis will be the relationship of ICT deployment and poverty alleviation. As a result the key variable under investigation is the user perceived benefits of using ICT. The conceptual Framework developed to comprehend the scenario is depicted on Figure 1. This conceptual framework was developed as a synthesis of existing frameworks from literature. Community ICT centers are designed to provide technologybased services to communities that did not have an opportunity to access computer technology. As shown in Figure 1, the ICT community centers could not exist without appropriate ICT policy, investment, and the necessary support for the operation of the centers. Users and communities will benefit out of the center by accessing the services of the community ICT center to achieve personal and business goals. Since the outcomes of 10

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty all these issues are contingent upon various contextual and environmental factors, aspects of the input-process-output contingency model (Benbunan-Fich et al., 2005) served as the theoretical framework for the study. Factors ICT Policy ICT investment oCommunity ICT centers ICT support Activities Increased economic activity oMarketing informatio n Services Outcomes Economic benefit Social benefits oBenefits to communit y

Figure 1. Conceptual framework. Effectiveness of information and communication technology (ICT) on poverty in the context of community ICT centers The focus of the case study was on 5 community ICT centers located in several parts of Ethiopia that have been operational for at least a year. Users of the ICT community centers were interviewed on the benefits they got after the establishment of the centers. Focus of the benefit was on utilizing the ICT centers for accessing information that has brought benefit to the community. This was the bases for analyzing whether ICT can support communities in improving their standard of living. Organization of the Remainder of the Study Chapter 2 provides a review of related literature, beginning with literatures related to ICT, development, and poverty. The review continues with literatures that discuss the impact of telecenter as related to community development. It concludes with an assessment of the current literature. Chapter 3 presents the research methodology chosen 11

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty to answer the research questions, a justification for employing multiple-case qualitative methodology, the purposeful sampling plan, plans for data collection, analysis, and reporting, and concerns with reliability and validity. Chapter 4 presents the data collected from participants in the study and analysis of the data in light of the research questions. Chapter 5 briefly summarizes the purpose of the study, the research methodology, the key findings, and provides conclusions from the analyzed data found in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 also contains recommendations for further research.

12

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to ICT and Development The potential and deployment of information technology as a development tool could be taken as a universally accepted view. The 2001 United Nation's Human Development Report underscored that technological innovation is essential for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (UNDP, 2001) and recognized ICT as a technology that can play a key role in development. In addition, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS, 2004) underscored the role of ICT in supporting rural development by helping to participate in global markets; transform the provision of basic services; and increase opportunities for local development. Furthermore, Heeks (1999) underlined that hundreds of billions of dollars per year are spent on ICTs, reflecting a powerful global belief in the transformatory potential of these new technologies. According to Best and Maier (2007), there is a great promise on the effects of ICTs on development and poverty reduction in the global South. In addition, Pade, Mallinson, and Lannon (2005) stressed that ICTs play a significant role in social and economic development in developing countries. Furthermore, Sey and Fellows (2009) noted that ICTs are widely acknowledged as important resources for socioeconomic advancement in both developed and developing countries. The 2002 report of Department for International Development (DFID) discussed the roles of ICTs in regards to achieving the MDGs of eradicating extreme poverty and 13

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty hunger, and noted that ICT increases access to market information and lower transaction costs for poor farmers and traders and enhance ability of developing countries to participate in the global economy. In addition, the World Bank (2003) underscored that ICTs can help to alleviate poverty by: stimulating macroeconomic growth; making markets more efficient; improving social inclusion; and facilitating political involvement. However, according to Franklin (2006), although there is a growing body of evidence linking investment in ICTs to economic growth, but little convincing evidence on the links to pro-poor growth. As a result several studies have been conducted to examine the link between ICT and poverty. As stated by Munyua (2000), some studies have focused on information systems serving rural communities on specific sectors such as agriculture or health, instead of covering the rural community needs in a holistic manner. Several studies showed that the effects of ICT on poverty are treated in various forms from conceptual to micro investigation of the issue. It was found that poverty is a social phenomenon with a multitude of dimensions and likewise the publications examined the effects of ICT on poverty from various facets. Just as poverty had several manifestations, so was the mix of researches undertaken in studying the effect of ICT on poverty.

14

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Conceptual Models that Link ICT to Development and Poverty Reduction The relationship of ICT and poverty could be expressed in various ways. But the most important of all is a relationship conceptualized by theory, model or framework. This provides a coherent understanding of the relationship that exists. E. M. Rogers (1983) and Harris (2002) have contributed on conceptual researches on the effect of ICT on poverty. In particular, E. M. Rogers (1983) developed the base for innovation diffusion theory. The theory was applicable in diverse environments of innovations that also include the use of ICTs. It is therefore imperative in understanding the spread and use of ICTs in communities. Harris, on the other hand, developed a model that demonstrate the relationship between ICTs and development which addressed the digital divide in greater depth. This model was developed to facilitate implementation targeting community development that empowered the community to develop their own agenda for ICT-assisted development before deploying technology. As the relationship of ICT, development, and poverty was studied by researchers from several disciplines, they utilized various conceptual frameworks, approaches and models to study the subject matter. Few among them are socio-technical (Walsham, 1997); rural livelihoods framework (Ellis, 2000); design-reality gap (Heeks, 2003); capability approach (Alampay, 2006; Sen, 1999); the knowledge and information systems perspective (Engels, 1997); the sustainable livelihood framework (DFID, 2001); social construction of technology (SCOT) and actor-network theory (Kline & Pinch, 1990); and diffusion theory (Doshi & Gollakota, n.d.; E. M. Rogers, 1983).

15

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty However, in this section, two conceptual models are considered and discussed. One is the model developed by Heeks (2002) and the second is model developed by Torero and von Braun (2006). Heeks (1999) conducted research which provides a theoretical framework for empirical studies in this area. He underlined the role of ICT as communication technology to be more pronounced than information processing or production technology. Further, Heeks (2002) developed an integral and systemic model of ICTs to facilitate a contextual view of technology in order to understand it. The conceptual model of Heeks (2002) is an information-centered approach with ICTs sitting alongside other information-handling technologies, as an integral part of an overall factoral and institutional environment that will significantly shape ICT-related impacts. This model is depicted on Figure 2.

16

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 2. Heekss integral and systematic view of ICT. From i-development not edevelopment: special issue on ICTs and development, by R. Heeks, 2002, Journal of International Development, 14(1), 111. Copyright 2002 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. Reprinted with permission. On the other hand, Torero and von Brauns (2006) framework of ICT for poverty alleviation directly addressed poverty and ICT. Torero and von Brauns broad conceptual framework examines the driving forces affecting the supply and demand for ICT. It also identifies economic and social benefits in general and poverty outcomes in particular, as summarized in the following simplified chart (Figure 3).

17

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 3. Torero and von Brauns ICT and development: A conceptual base. From Information and Communication Technologies for Development and Poverty Reduction. The Potential of Telecommunications, by M. Torero & J. von Braun (2006). Reprinted with permission. In conclusion, both models perceive ICT beyond technology in the context of broad factors. This view has strong ground as the development of ICT arguably has to encompass broad arrays of factors beyond technology. It is noted that most of the factors listed by Torero and von Brauns (2006) are incorporated in Heekss (2002) model but not vice versa. The institutional factors of Heekss are not part of the broad context of Torero and von Braun. Whereas Heekss put the factors as influencing, Torero and von Brauns define them as driving forces. Hence, both models have differences in what the factors are and their role in ICT for poverty. According to Kuriyan, Ray, and Toyama (2008), the model for ICTs for development (ICT4D) is based on increasing the well-being of the poor through marketbased solutions, and by using low-cost but advanced technologies. Recognizing the role 18

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty of ICT for development, Harris (2002), however, argued that for ICT to contribute in poverty alleviation effort, the application of ICTs should always begin with a development strategy. Subsequently, an information plan can be articulated that will be followed by a technology plan. As noted by Labelle (2005), encouraging public policies are necessary to make technologies tools for progress, but also make them socially inclusive. Furthermore, UNDP has indicated that ICT is most effective when embedded with already effective strategies for poverty reduction (Siochr & Girard, 2005). This approach is depicted on Figure 4.

19

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 4. The relationship between development, information, and ICTs. From A Framework for Poverty Alleviation With ICTs, by R. Harris, 2002. Retrieved from http://www.communities.org.ru/ci-text/harris.doc 20

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The approach followed by Harris (2002) could be taken as an approach that operationalizes the model discussed earlier. In the model, ICT development was viewed in the perspective of broad contextual factors for its implementation and Harris is prescribing the need of development strategy before the information plan which in effect calls for the need of addressing the contextual factors for implementing ICT. Furthermore, Harris (2002) declared that according to the International Labor Union (ILO), although investments in ICT are not sufficient cause for development, ICTs can have a significant effect on socio-economic development. Martin and McKeown as quoted by Harris (2002) suggest that the use of ICT is not adequate to address problems of rural areas without an integrated rural development. It is noted that unless there is minimal infrastructural development in at least transport, health, and education, it is improbable that investments from ICT alone will change rural life. Similarly, Bedi (1999) suggested that a minimum base of ICT penetration was required in order for these technologies to influence and show impact on growth. According to Doshi and Gollakota (n.d.), information gaps are one of the problems associated with rural poverty. Jacobs and Herselman (2006), on the other hand, underlined that information is critical to development; thus ICTs as tools of exchanging information are not simply a connection between people, but a linking bridge in the chain of the development process itself. Specifically, it has been argued that ICTs are used to reduce poverty (Duncombe, 2001), and open window of opportunities for economic development (World Bank, 1998). Access to information provides people with the

21

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty opportunity to support production, access markets, and engage in communication with other people (Ellis, 2000). Furthermore, Wims and Lawler (2007) stated that ICT-enabled access to information can empower the poor as the hardest obstacle to sustainable development is information poverty. According to Abraham (2007), ICTs can help in improving information flows, reducing search costs and generally contributing to market efficiency. In addition, Waverman, Meschi, and Fuss (n.d.) comprehensively examined the impact of mobile telephony on economic growth in Africa. They found that usage of mobile telephony has an encouraging result and impact on economic growth. Thus, Jacobs and Herselman (2006) concluded that ICT can contribute to development process by improving efficiency, effectiveness, and equity. However, Beardon (2005) argued that the impact of ICT-based projects has generally fallen well below the optimistic expectations. From the preceding discussion, it can be concluded that for ICT to have effect on development some conditions have to be satisfied. The first one is the recognition of ICT development as part and parcel of broad development strategy. Hence, the need of integrating ICT in the development strategy is essential. The second issue for ICT development is the requirement of minimum development bases on infrastructure and education. Unless these two factors are considered and put into effect, ICT deployment might end up in failure. Assessment of Current Literature on the Effects of IT on Poverty Research evidence indicates that public access to ICT use has led to increase in IT knowledge and aspirations (Bailey, 2009; Best, Kolko, Thakur, & Aitieva, 2007; 22

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Fedotova, 2008; Lengyel, Eranusz, Fleki, Lrincz, & Sikls, 2006; Mercer, 2006). In addition, Kumar and Best (2006) have found that the availability of e-government services at public access facilities leads to lower levels of corruption in service delivery. While some researchers have found limited evidence of employment-related benefits (Lengyel et al., 2006; Mercer, 2006; Parkinson & Lauzon, 2008; Parkinson & Ramirez, 2006), others do identify some impacts in this area. Fedotova (2008) found that participants in a job skills training course believed that the IT skills they had acquired would help in their job search, and some felt it would help them to gain a promotion. Moreover, Best et al. (2007) reported that eCenter users had acquired a job as a result of the skills they gained at the computer center. Overall, Alampay (2006) noted that there are disagreements on whether ICTs are crucial to development. Three different views categorized as optimist, pessimist, and middle-ground have emerged in the research conducted on the effects of ICT on poverty. Optimists are those who uphold the view that access and use of ICTs facilitates sustainable development (McNamara, 2000). On the other hand, an opposing view underlines that ICT can and will increase the current inequalities (Nulens, 2000). Some of the international development community argues that African governments should focus on building schools, delivering basic health care, electricity and clean water rather than on the building of costly ICT infrastructure with their limited financial resources (Mahan & Misnikov, 2004; Ngwenyama, Andoh-Baidoo, Bollou, & Morawczynski, 2006).

23

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The view from the middle-ground considers that if ICTs are applied appropriately, it can play a role in the development of a nation (Soeftestad & Sein, 2003). Furthermore, there is anecdotal evidence that indicate access to ICT can have a significant effect on changing the standard of life of the rural poor. Heeks (2002) further provided a useful framework for comparing different views about the expected impacts of ICTs in development, which is reproduced in Figure 5.

Optimism (It will be good.) Neutrality (It will be good and bad.) Pessimism (It will be bad.)

A B

Technological Contingency Social Determinism Determinism (It depends) (People cause) (Computers cause) Figure 5. Framework for analyzing different views about ICTs and their impacts. From i-development not e-development: special issue on ICTs and development, by R. Heeks, 2002, Journal of International Development, 14(1), 111. Copyright 2002 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. Reprinted with permission. Position A on Heekss (2002) framework, optimistic technological determinism, is the view that Heeks recognized as characterizing most development organizations. Heeks advocates is B, which views the types of impacts associated with technological change as both good and bad, and which sees society rather than technological factors as primary determinants of outcomes. According to Alampay (2006) more field study is necessary to help determine the validity of pessimistic, optimistic, or middle ground arguments. Although more cases are being studied, empirical evidence on the impact of such interventions is very limited in 24

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty developing countries (Bedi 1999; OFarrell, Norrish, & Scott, n.d.). According to Heeks (1999), there are questions on the real contribution of ICTs on national development. Hence, more research is needed to determine the users of ICT and the level of benefit distribution (Bedi, 1999). Furthermore, UNDP indicated that more convincing empirical evidence is required on the role ICTs play in reducing poverty (Siochr & Girard, 2005). More clarity concerning which ICTs have been effective in reducing poverty and how they were used is needed. Better understanding of which of the many dimensions of poverty ICTs are capable of reducing most is also necessary to know. One of the common denominator observed in the literatures is that in some aspect of the relationship of ICT and development, it seems there is a consensus. The agreed areas are: the fact that ICT is not a goal but a tool, the recognition of ICT as a driver of economic growth; and ICT as a tool to attack poverty (Batchelor et al., 2005). Nevertheless, Kelles-Viitanen (2003) tabled fundamental questions on the link between ICT, development, and poverty alleviation. She argued whether economic growth together with the ICTs alone will reduce poverty. She further declared that economic growth is necessary but not sufficient factor to poverty reduction. She went further to ask, If poor people do not have access to basic education, how will they take advantage of employment and income opportunities created by economic growth? If there is discrimination and social exclusion, how will the discriminated and excluded people take advantage of the expanded economic activities and share the benefits of the economic growth? (p. 7) However, the role ICT plays in addressing poverty varies from one literature to the other. According to Kelles-Viitanen (2003), there are at least two opposing opinion camps: those that consider ICT to be the panacea for poverty reduction and those that 25

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty claim that has no reasonable role in poverty reduction (p. 82). Bedi (1999) also added to this view, expressed differently as, The role and impact of these technologies are still obscure (p. 3). The declared position of Kelles-Viitanen which lies in between the previous two adds other perspective to the role of ICT on poverty. Alampay (2006), on the other hand, grouped the views into three: optimist, pessimist, and middle-ground. Similarly, Heeks (2002), although from different perspective, categorized three different positions regarding the role of ICT. When Bedi (1999) addressed the different positions in respect to ICT and poverty alleviation cited Rodgers, who argued that ICT can even widen the gap of income inequality if conditions are not right. Moreover, E. M. Rogers (1995) underscored that researches undertaken in developing countries has indicated that the diffusion of innovations has contributed in widening the socioeconomic gap among the higher and lower strata of a community. As a result, an observation has been made on the different positions and views of scholars in the role ICT can have on poverty alleviation. There are some authors who believe ICT can address poverty. Torero and von Brauns (2006) book essentially addresses the linkage between ICT and poverty alleviation. Some case studies done in Africa were also in support to this side. Opiyo and KAkumu (2006) argued that ICT can help informal sector to develop. Bjrhov (2006) supplemented this view by referring to experience of Tanzania and Kenya that shows mobile opening up business that can promote their standard of living.

26

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty There are now considerable evidences that telecommunications contributes to socioeconomic development (Conradie & Jacobs, 2003; Gomez & Hunt, 1999; Mncube, 2003); studies have shown that access to information through telecommunications can facilitate many development activities including agriculture, commerce, tourism, education, health care and social services (Gomez & Hunt, 1999; Sebusang & Masupe, 2003). Ngwenyama et al. (2006) showed that complementary investments in ICT, health and education can significantly increase development. Based on the analysis of researches addressed in this research, an observation was also noted that the researches on the effects of IT on poverty has several characteristics (a) researchers have diversified disciplines (b) poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon illustrated in various forms; so is the researches; (c) the level of analysis was diversified ranging from conceptual to micro level of investigation; and (d) the researches conducted employed diversified approaches and methods to study poverty. In conclusion, analyses suggest that the types of researches conducted on the effect of IT on poverty reflect the interdisciplinary nature of research, drawing upon a number of fields and researchers. In summary, in the literature review conducted there is a consensus on many areas of ICTs role in development; however, the role played by ICT in poverty alleviation could be taken as unsettled issue. As noted by Abraham (2007), there is considerable speculation about the correlation between investments in telecommunications and economic development. Yet, there has been very little research on whether there is a connection between ICTs and economic growth. In addition, Ramirez and Richardson 27

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty (2005) asserted that the potential benefits that telecommunication services bring to rural and remote communities are generally perceived as beneficial though their actual impact is difficult to ascertain. In relation to this, Gurstein (2003) came with a notion of effective use to address the extent to which people have access to the infrastructure and can put it to work in practical ways. Furthermore, Sey and Fellows (2009) stressed that despite the fairly long history of the deployment of public access ICTs around the world, there is still no definitive word on the utility of this approach. H. Rogers (2007) put this point as, Projects that promote ICTs for poverty alleviation are mostly innovations that are in the early stages (p. 31), which confirms that there is no consensus. Therefore, further research on this issue could facilitate in addressing the gap observed. Role of ICT Community Centers in Addressing Poverty According to a UNDP report developed by Siochr and Girard (2005), the majority of poor across the globe are still beyond affordable reach of ICTs. Furthermore, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2009) identified lack of connectivity and the cost of access as obstacles to access to information for the developing world. To address these challenges and assist developing countries bridge the digital divide, ITU underlined the need of creating public access centers such as telecenters. ICT community centers, usually called telecenters, are mushrooming in developing countries with the aim of bringing the benefits of ICT to the rural poor (Roman, 2003). Since different types of telecenters are being implemented around the world, there are various synonyms for 'telecenters'. Some examples are telecottages, 28

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty teleports, Information Kiosks, Information Centres, Multipurpose Community Telecenters (MCTs), infocommues, Community Technology Centres (CTC), etc. Due to this situation, there is not a universally accepted definition for 'telecenters' and no single definition is claimed to be completely accurate. However, a general concept or broad working definition of 'telecenters' is attempted by different groups. Telecenter is defined as a community centre that offers shared access to ICTs for the purpose of community level development and poverty reduction (Gomez & Martinez, 2001; UNDP, 2007); and as public places where community members can access a variety of ICTs and related services (Colle & Roman, 2002; Parkinson & Lauzon, 2008; Proenza, n.d.). According to Gomez, Hunt, and Lamoureux (1999), telecenters around the world share a common characteristic; they are recognized as centers used for public ICT access to achieve several development purposes. Telecenters were generally agreed to be tools and not ends in themselves. As described by the World Bank (2000a), the telecenter is a promising new model for deployment of service to communities. The view of the World Bank is shared by many other researchers, including Harris (2004) and Fuchs (1997). When applying ICTs for development, Harris emphasized the importance to target disadvantaged and marginalized groups. In addition, Fuchs proposed telecenters as a method of access to ICTs and as a solution to access difficulties in rural areas and in regions mainly occupied by the poor. Telecenters provide an alternative to the model of one-to-one individual access to a computer that predominates in the developed world. According to Jensen and 29

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Esterhuysen (2001), to meet the challenges caused by low penetration rates of new information technology, public access to communication and information services are being established through public and private programs across the developing nations. As a result, telecenters are quickly growing as a means of providing universal access in places where universal household ownership of a computer and telephone line is clearly unrealistic (Fuchs, 1997; IDRC, 1999; Proenza, Bastidas-Buch, & Montero, 2001). Parkinson and Lauzon (2008) noted that globally telecenters have become an accepted model for creating greater and more equitable access to ICTs, with the understanding that such access will in turn lead to development. According to Heeks (2008), given that poverty concentrates in rural areas, the model that fell into everyones lap was the rural telecenter. Toyama et al. (2005) also added that rural PC kiosks are one manifestation of various attempts to apply ICT for socio-economic development. Furthermore, Soriano (2007) expressed telecenters as catalysts for information and knowledge that can create opportunities and choices for rural communities. As explained by Whyte (2000) telecenters are looked at as fast and cost effective ways to provide marginalized communities with access to telecommunications and information resources. Telecenters are also a viable approach to reducing poverty, ranging from job creation, providing ICT skills, providing community with access to information on social, educational, medical and other programs (Jensen & Esterhuysen, 2001). However, Pott (2003) argued that in order to contribute to development, the

30

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty creation of telecenters had to be connected to the existing community organizations and initiatives. Kumar (2004) underscored that stemming from a movement in Europe in the 1980s; telecenters are now arguably the most common type of ICT4D project. According to Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu (2003), the telecenter idea was born in 1985 in Velmdalen, a small farming village in Sweden. In the decade that followed, cybercafs and similar Netsurfing locales proliferated everywhere imaginableranging from the Casa Del Corrigedor in Puno, Peru, to the Phlegmatic Dog in Moscow (Malloy, 2005). Fillip and Dennis (2007) noted that the increase of telecenter popularity has occurred as the use of lCT as a development tool has increased acceptance by governments, the private sector, and NGOs. According to Madon (2005), two main types of telecenter projects can be identified from the literature. The small phone shops which have a good coverage in Africa, Asia and Latin America are the first type of telecenter projects. These centers have been successful in becoming source of revenue by offering basic telephone services, fax and Internet services. However, the majority of these types of telecenters are in the main cities and towns of the developing world and there is usually no explicit commitment to wider developmental goals. The second type of telecenter initiative offers greater scope to support socioeconomic development by facilitating the provision of a wide variety of public and private information-based goods and services to rural communities. As remarked by Madon (2005), these telecenters (sometimes called multipurpose community telecenters) 31

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty are designed to offer communication facilities, training on IT- and non-IT-related subjects, and to serve as local hubs for government information and services and for commercial activity. In addition, Van Belle and Trusler (2006) defined multipurpose community telecenters as centers established to support and aid a disadvantaged group. Roman (2003) underscored that the basic objective of telecenter is to provide demand-driven communication and information services for community development. Moodley (2005) added that telecenters are usually designed to provide a combination of ICT services, ranging from email to full Internet and World Wide Web connectivity. Furthermore, Rajalekshmi (2007) stated that telecenters function as multipurpose community ICT access centers by providing e-commerce, e-governance, and other ICT services. James (2005) added that while facilities and usage vary across telecenters, all reflect the intention to address the issues of access by providing technology, develop human capacity and encourage social and economic development. According to Rao (2008), telecenters have evolved dramatically over the years in providing services from access to computers and basic ICTs to include a wide variety of communications, content and community development services. Furthermore, Best and Kumar (2008) stated that these centers provide shared public access to ICTs and services via computers and the internet. Zongo (2001) noted that telecommunication and information services at telecenters aim at a range of developmental objectives. Whyte (2000) provided a detailed explanation of telecenters as potentially including basic communication such as phone, fax, e-mail, Internet access, etc.; public and quasi-public sector services such as tele32

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty medicine, distance education, e-government, etc.; and access to information on markets, transportation, price, and much more. Furthermore, many supporters of the telecenter movement classify the services provided by telecenters as a kind of community development, and often refer to them as community telecenters (IDRC, 1999). Rao (2008), on the other hand, outlined the main category of services provided by telecenters as (a) providing access to communication facilities and IT equipment; (b) providing training in use of communication facilities and IT equipment; and (c) providing on-demand ICTs for development services. As stated by Rajalekshmi (2007), multipurpose community telecenters (MCTs) have drawn attention from development agencies and other actors in the development community, as potential vehicles for providing several social and development services, much more than expanding access to ICTs. As a result, Colle (2005) noted that among the most prominent driving forces behind the spread of ICTs and telecenters are the Millennium Development Goals. In the developing countries these centers were quickly linked to economic and social development efforts at community level. As a result, proponents of telecenters argue that telecenters are vitally necessary if the poor and marginalized are not to be left behind (Gomez & Martinez, 2001; UNDP, 2001). Furthermore, H. Rogers (2007) stated that telecenters generally claim to deliver benefits in the areas of health, education, enterprise development, and agricultural improvement. He further asserted that access to the abundant information sources and exchanges that the Internet facilitates is said to empower communities towards development activities that will lift them out of poverty. 33

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty As discussed by Ashraf, Swatman, and Hanisch (2008), a telecenter project in Bangladesh indicates that through public access to ICTs, community members gained knowledge on basic hygiene practices. Moreover, Best et al. (2007), in their evaluation of the eCenter project in Kyrgyzstan, underscored that social and economic development impacts have been observed primarily through provision of necessary business and communication services. On another similar research, Soriano (2007) concluded the study by indicating positive implications of telecenters on economic, social, and human aspects of rural poverty. Furthermore, the 1998 World Bank report underscored that a telecenter provides access to the rural poor (p. 158). Moreover, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2007) stated that telecenters all have a common goal: to serve the community and support local development. ITUs World Telecommunications Development Report of 1998 stated that telecenters could play an important role in national strategies for universal access in view of the fact that full universal service (a phone in every home) is not a realistic goal for developing countries. To summarize, the role of telecenters on development, the European parliaments document on developing countries and the ICT revolution (Pedrelli, 2001) stated that Telecenters are today considered one of the most - successful means to promote ICT diffusion in the developing countries. They increase the access of people to ICT, particularly the poor and people living in remote rural areas. The telecenters help local communities improve their business performance: they allow the local enterprises to gain access to accurate market and pricing information. Through the Internet and other information transmission systems they can become aware of new market opportunities and also benefit from the training and access to the knowledge network provided by the telecenters. Farmers can also access current 34

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty meteorological reports, information about the spread of animal and plant diseases, pests and their control. (p.54) Modley (2005) underscored that given the novelty of access to ICT and the shortage of guidelines for establishing and operating community telecenters, many research questions remain open as to how this type of innovation can bring equitable access to information resources that will contribute to sustainable development among the most disadvantaged sections of the population. As remarked by researchers (Dhingra & Misra, 2005; Rangaswamy & Toyama, 2005), often, solutions are designed without adequate consultation with the rural end-user, leading to a design-reality gap. However, despite the attention, Kuriyan and Toyama (2007) underlined that much remains unknown about these centers and rigorous studies that lead to generalisable conclusions are scarce. In addition, research conducted by Toyama et al. (2005) are skeptical of the long-term value of these centers. Telecenter Models in Africa Since the telecenter strategy was recognized by international development institutions around the world in the middle of the 1990s, pilot telecenter projects have been implemented in developing countries. According to Jensen and Esterhuysen (2001), in the last few years, many telecenter projects have sprung up throughout Africa in an effort to provide access to telephony and other ICTs to areas with the lowest access to these systems. Whyte (2000) named four distinctive telecenter models in Africa: basic telecenter, private telephone shops driven by smaller demand, cyber-cafes, and externally funded larger community multipurpose centers. These models all aim at stimulating and 35

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty responding to the demand for information and communication services that provide access to telephones, faxes, photocopying machines, email and Internet services in-order to strengthen the personnel and professional needs of the community as well as for community development. Theoretical Framework for Telecenters Rogerss Diffusion Theory Roman (2003) argued that telecenter research spans different cross-linked conceptual levels of analysis and cannot be entirely framed within the bounds of a single theoretical perspective. However, diffusion theory provides a general framework to identify relevant research areas that may integrate other theoretical perspectives. Diffusion of innovations theory (E. M. Rogers, 1983) represents an attractive point of departure for telecenter practitioners and researchers. Diffusion of Innovations is believed to be an appropriate theoretical framework for telecenters for at least three reasons: (a) the predictive potential of diffusion theory makes it important for telecenter planning and design, (b) diffusion theory offers a favorable incentive to drive telecenter research which can contribute to develop the theory, and (c) diffusion theory is versatile and flexible to suit the needs of multidisciplinary inquiry (Roman, 2003). As identified by Roman (2003), there are three aspects of diffusion theory that are relevant to telecenter application: the perceived attributes of innovations, the communication aspects of the diffusion process, and the consequences of innovation adoption.

36

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Perceived attributes of innovations. According to Roman (2003), the three most essential attributes of innovations in telecenters are relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity. While relative advantage indicates the costs and benefits associated with the adoption of an innovation, compatibility shows the perceived match of the innovation with the value system and social norms of the potential adopters, and complexity demonstrates the perceived degree of difficulty of the innovations in their understanding and use. Communication of innovation. E. M. Rogers (2003) noted that communication is the exchange of information by which new ideas are shared between individuals. As underscored by Best and Kumar (2008), communication is the very essence of diffusion of innovations (p. 13). Further, Best and Kumar noted that media and interpersonal communication are the two most useful means by which ideas are communicated. Roman (2003) suggested that while interpersonal communication is more important for the final decision to adopt, mass media are best for conveying the value of innovations. Furthermore, E. M. Rogers (2003) suggested that diffusion is associated with the existing community networks and that the concept of homophily is very important in the communication of new ideas. Homophily is similarity in socio-economic position, educational levels, etc. among individuals. According to E. M. Rogers (2003), diffusion most probably takes place more effectively in a community where individuals are similar in their socio-economic status, educational levels, beliefs, etc. Consequences of innovations. According to Roman (2003), the study of the consequences of innovations is a theoretically less developed subject probably because it 37

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty is conceptually separated from the rest of diffusion theory. Also, the subject is more unequivocally connected to evaluation concerns. E. M. Rogers (1983) stated that research on innovation consequences is admittedly challenging. The theory demonstrated how the socio-structural environment influences innovation diffusion and adoption. Diffusion of innovations, especially in the context of developing countries, tends to widen the socioeconomic gap between the higher and lower status segments of a social system (E. M. Rogers, 1983). As this research examines the effect of ICT on poverty in the context of ICT community centers, the research will focus on the consequence of adoption of diffusion theory. According to Salvador, Sherry, and Urrutia (2005), Agar (as cited in Salvador et al., 2005) discussed a networked approach in contrast to that of E. M. Rogers (as cited in Salvador et al., 2005), in which adoption happens as a result of a network of associations embedded in the daily life of the participants. In the E. M. Rogers model, which is labeled as top-down-diffusion model by Salvador et al., the technology is diffused and the perspective from the point of diffusion is assumed to be sufficient. As discussed by Salvador et al., this assumption is, by definition, an outsider's view and the technology is imbued with that view. Theory of Communication Effects Gap Roman (2003) underlined that the application of the theoretical body of the communication effects gap to understand the impact of telecenter programs makes particular sense; at least for two reasons. First, there is the concept of differential effects. 38

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty In many cases, the objective of international development programs--at least of more people-oriented and grass-roots trends in development practice is to find ways to alleviate poverty by making sure that people most in need of positive change are reached. Therefore, many scholars study how to reach lower status groups, so that communication programs mitigate the already wide knowledge and communication effects gaps existent in developing countries. Second, the theory of communication effects gap has an underlying normative and practical value. Although research in this area is prone to bring about important policy implications, its supporting theoretical body may also help shape communication strategies. In other words, Roman (2003) noted that communication effects gap is a kind of normative conceptualization oriented to action, or a practical theory of communication that can serve as a useful approach to conceptualize and design telecenter practice and research. Impact Assessment of Telecenters Many believe that telecenters provide an opportunity to gain access to the global economy. Others view is that centers can skew benefits and create unintended consequences. Hence, Telecenter impact assessments are expected to provide answers to questions whether ICTs produces benefits to the users and communities they serve or not. According to Rothenberg-Aalami and Pal (2005), impact assessment is needed to validate the assumption that technology can and will play a key role in narrowing the technological gap. Benjamin (2000) described the causal chain by which telecenters can be theorized to have a positive impact on development as a rather long and tenuous one expressed as 39

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty telecenters access to ICTs provide services assist development Madon (2005) stated that the launching of numerous telecenter initiatives in the developing world has been paralleled by significant efforts to develop performance criteria and evaluation frameworks to assess their impact. Early work on this is fairly recent, including Emberg's (1998) suggestions for an evaluative framework, a guidebook on the subject by Whyte (2000), and a collaborative effort by Stoll, Menou, Camacho, and Khelladi (2002) based upon several workshops and online collaborations. However, Madon (2005) declared that while telecenter projects have been running for several years now, evaluation of their impact has been an enormously eclectic process, largely devoid of systematic research and planning (p. 413). In addition, Rothenberg-Aalami and Pal (2005) also stated that there is no agreed upon assessment on the impact of telecenters given the variety of telecenter experiences and communities served. Badshah, Khan, and Garrido (2005) underscored that assessing the value of telecenters must consider several aspects of performance measurement. As shown in the telecenter performance pyramid (Figure 6), value of the community ICT centers can be assessed by employing four dimensions of performance measurement: organizational capacity, operational capacity, strategic impacts and mission impacts (Badshah et al., 2005).

40

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Education, Social & Economic Development

Mission By user By activity Strategic Goals Process Services offered Operational Hardware Software Telecom Expertise Financial Organizational

Figure 6. Telecenter performance pyramid. Adapted from United Nations ICTs Task Force. Connected for Development. Information Kiosks and Sustainability, by A. Badshah, S. Khan, and M. Garrido, 2005. As discussed by Badshah et al. (2005), each level of the performance pyramid is dependent upon the other level and in line with this the operational processes and services are dependent upon having reasonable organizational resources. An operational framework is the basis for fulfilling strategic goals needs and the longer-term missionbased impacts are driven by the success of the strategic goals. The top two aspects of the performance pyramid indicated the outcomes of the telecenter. The first outcome is evaluated in terms of strategic goals impacts which indicate that the accomplishment of the telecenter project's goals in benefiting communities and having them take advantage

41

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty of the community ICT center services. The strategic objectives of the telecenter determines the strategic goals of a telecenter project. The second outcome is evaluated by taking into account mission impacts which reflect the ability of the telecenter to impact broader educational, social, and economic development goals. As mission impacts are less tangible and longer term in nature than other outcomes, measurement at the mission level is the most difficult. In addition, several factors influence impacts at the mission level. However, by using the approach followed in building the performance pyramid, it is possible to show the relationships between the telecenter and mission impacts. Problems with evaluation. Measuring the impact of community ICT centers is challenging and H. Rogers (2007) discussed three critical problems with evaluating telecenters. Firstly, telecenters commonly vary between entrepreneurial ventures, community initiatives and development projects. This gives rise to a diversity of assorted indicators that are required to assess the project; both qualitative and quantitative. Secondly, telecenter outcomes occur at various levels, from the individual, to community, national and international levels. Appreciating outcomes at each of these levels presents a challenge to evaluators whose scope may be restricted by narrow perspectives, insufficient tools or limited resources. Thirdly, telecenter projects are one type of human development infrastructure where evaluation is highly dependent on time of deployment and usage. Badshah et al. (2005) also underlined that telecenter projects involve various stakeholders other than the direct users of the telecenters. Also measuring the centers 42

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty value created on development are much broader than the normal business measures of profitability and other related measures of financial value. Measuring Impact of Telecenters According to Badshah et al. (2005), to properly measure value of telecenters, a multi-dimensional set of performance measures is required. Furthermore, Badshah et al. identified internal and external stakeholders of telecenters. While the direct users of the center directly access the services of the ICT kiosks to achieve personal or business goals, the external stakeholders of the kiosks are customers that seek the services of the ICT kiosks, but not directly for themselves. As a result, these two stakeholders differ in how they evaluated the services of the community ICT centers. While the social mission of the organization is the motivation factor for upstream stakeholders, different needs and expectations are the reason for downstream stakeholders to support community ICT centers. As downstream stakeholders are the users of the kiosk services, their objectives are more activityoriented, and they assess the community ICT centers by how their individual goals are met; rather than the achievement of broader social goals (Badshah et al., 2005). According to Badshah et al. (2005), the performance measurement approach (Table 1) can be used to develop a set of performance measures that are useful in assessing the impacts of the telecenter. By describing performance, the approach helps to determine if the community ICT centers have brought value for the stakeholders that have an interest in the success or failure of these telecenters.

43

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table 1.ICT Performance Measures Strategic goals User information Size of user community # Users (by relevant demographics) % of target population using % of local population using # new users # repeat users Activity information Average time on-line use Average time off-line use # of people taking classes # sites visited per user # look-ups per site # on-line transactions % of time system used # health consultations # government correspondence Software package usage Other equipment usage Impact measures Mission Educational development IT literacy General literacy Increase school capacity Access to information

Social development Healthier population Community safety Community building Reduced mortality Economic development Farm productivity Employment Reduced transaction costs Reduced poverty Wealth creation

Adapted from United Nations ICTs Task Force. Connected for Development. Information Kiosks and Sustainability, by A. Badshah, S. Khan, S., and M. Garrido, 2005) According to Rothenberg-Aalami and Pal (2005), both outputs and impacts are used to assess social impact. Whereas outputs are the measurable actions that result directly from the program operations, impact are the effects of the program on the social problem it was intended to address. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Virtual System Processing (2006) also added that impact of telecenters could be measured by focusing on the resulting social and economic impacts. For measuring social 44

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty impacts of telecenter on communities, health and education were taken as the main domains of social impact and for measuring economic impacts of telecenters income, changes in occupational pattern, and employment were the domains selected (UNESCO & Virtual System Processing, 2006). Assessment of Current Literature on Telecenters According to Donner (2007), the most logical source of the research on the exploration of telecenters is the established literature on ICTs and economic development. Many advocates for telecenters, however, come from the emerging field of Community Informatics. Community informatics is the application of ICTs to enable underserved populations and particularly to support local economic development, social justice, and political empowerment (S. Marshall, Taylor, & Yu, 2003). Researches contain at least two broad approaches to the role of ICTs in development. Some studies emphasize productivity- the ability to do the same or similar things faster, more frequently, or at lower cost thanks to the introduction or use of ICTs. Other studies emphasize structural or social change, where new patterns of ICT use are associated with significant transformations in the availability of information, suppliers, or customers and in the constitution of communities, networks, or organizations. Doshi and Gollakota (n.d.) underlined that most prior research has focused on supply-side factors such as connectivity, poor infrastructure, management of telecenters and high deployment costs. But demand-side approach is necessary to understand the needs and preferences of the people. In addition, studying the perception of the user and ICT use is necessary. 45

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Mukerji (2008), on the other hand, underscored that the notion of a telecenter has closely evolved with the understanding about ICTs and Development from a purely techno-economic view to that of technology being embedded in the local economic, political, institutional and sociocultural context. Overall, the emphasis of telecenter movement over time has shifted from technology to services geared towards catering all kinds of information and communication needs of the people. Furthermore, in the context of developing countries the concept of infomediary or intermediary emerged to overcome barriers of low levels of literacy and skills (Mukerji, 2008) As stated by Roman (2003), the use of telecenters for rural development is attracting the attention of academic and non-academic researchers. At this stage, telecenters are spread as pilot projects and field experiments. Therefore, the issue of project evaluation is critical. Above anything else, there is a strong interest in the effects of these projects on economic and social indicators, as impact evaluation would presumably have important policy implications. Kuriyan and Toyama (2007) have conducted an existing summary and assessment of telecenter research. It has been noted that a majority of ICT for development projects have failed either totally or partially in achieving their stated objectives. Heeks (2008) warned that there is danger of design versus reality gaps: mismatch between the assumptions and requirements built into the design and the on-the-ground realities of poor communities. As a result, researchers have proposed a number of theoretical frameworks for understanding the reasons for success or failure of such projects, 46

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty including the critical success factor model (Heeks & Bhatnagar, 1999); scenario analysis (Aichholzer, 2004); stakeholder theory (Bailur, 2007); and economic and financial sustainability models (Best & Maclay, 2002). According to Soriano (2007), although telecenters are considered as an instrument of poverty reduction, others argue that resources are better spent on roads, education, health or food security. Although some researchers have found limited evidence of employment-related benefits (Lengyel et al., 2006; Mercer, 2006; Parkinson & Lauzon, 2008; Parkinson & Ramirez, 2006), others do identify some impacts in this area. Fedotova (2008) found that participants in a job skills training course believed that the IT skills they had acquired would help in their job search. Best et al. (2007) reported that eCenter users had acquired a job as a result of the skills they gained at the computer center. Studies have not established a clear link between public access to ICTs and socioeconomic change/impacts. Because a lot of these are qualitative studies, they are not associated with indications of size of impacts. Although there are some guidelines for developing and implementing telecenters, much work is required to develop a systematic understanding of the potential and limitations of telecenters as a mechanism for social and economic development (Bailey, 2009; Colle, 2005). Generally, empirical evidence on the impacts of telecenters, and more broadly, of lCTs on development has generally found to be lacking (Gomez & Martinez, 2001; OFarrell et al., n.d.; Panos, 2002). As noted by Gomez and Reilly (2002), when it comes to evaluating what kind of benefit or development telecenters bring to a community, we are only beginning to scrape the surface (p. 1). Furthermore, Kuriyan, 47

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Toyama, and Ray (2005) suggested that there should be further empirical research to explain the link between services provided by rural community telecenters and social development. According to UNDP (2007), there is little understanding of how telecenters contribute to development or even skepticism that they are capable of doing so sustainably. As a result, telecenters have drawn researchers for the past decade and consequently, there is an increasing amount of publications on telecenters. Most of the researches conducted are case studies of relevant telecenter issues (Colle & Roman, 2001; Latchem & Walker, 2001); some are original field research (Proenza et al., 2001). In addition, there are also a number of publications specifically devoted to telecenter research (Hudson, 2001; Roman & Blattman, 2001; Whyte, 2000). Furthermore, the literature growth on information systems has turned to be an important reference for telecenter researchers in developing countries (Heeks, 2002). Many of these articles study important aspects of telecenter development but lack a solid theoretical background. On this line, McNamara (2003) underscored that the lack of convincing knowledge providing a framework for maximizing the impact of ICT projects can be partially attributed to the lack of detailed evaluations of ICT projects. In addition, Roman (2003) underlined that no particular conceptual model seems to guide telecenter planning, and no specific theory is inspiring research questions either. Furthermore, Badshah et al. (2005) underscored that telecenter is at preliminary stage of research and noted the need of intensive research on the subject.

48

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY Review of the Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. To limit the scope of the study, ICT intervention was considered as applied to community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact on the user community. The research used a qualitative multiple-case study approach to tackle the puzzle. The general objective of this research was to examine different ICTs deployed in varied conditions for their suitability for addressing poverty in Ethiopia and possibly by extension to other developing countries. Research Questions The hierarchy of the research questions was developed based on Cooper and Schindlers (2003) hierarchy of questions. The hierarchy starts with an observed business dilemma that, in turn, stimulates a management question. The management question spawns research questions. As underlined by Yin (2008), in case study questions are posed to you, the investigator, not to an interviewee (p. 86). In addition, Yin noted that the potentially relevant questions for case study research can occur at any five levels. However, in relation to the levels, Yin advised to concentrate heavily on level 2 (p. 87) for a case study research. As a result of this approach, the research questions developed are level 2 questions which will be answered by the researcher.

49

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The research method is chosen to answer the research questions, which answers the management question. Table 2 shows the research question hierarchy.

Table 2. Research Question Hierarchy

Business Dilemma Question or Statement Deployment of ICT to address poverty has a mixed outcome. Some interventions are failing to achieve the desired result and as a consequence meager resources and efforts are wasted. How can ICT be effectively utilized to address poverty?

Management Question Research Questions

1.What is the perception of individuals on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? What are the common benefits perceived by individuals using the community ICT centers? 2.Which services and ICTs of the community ICT centers are most important in addressing poverty? 2.1 Which services and ICTs are considered as the most important in addressing poverty? 2.2 Which services and ICTs are considered as the least important in addressing poverty? 3. What is the difference between individuals perception on the use and benefits of community ICT center in addressing poverty? 3.1 Which benefits identified by individuals are not commonly listed as benefits of community? 3.2 Why is there a difference between individuals perceptions on the use and benefits of community ICT centers?

Research Design The study in this dissertation was designed to determine the effectiveness of using ICT in helping poor communities in getting information and services that improve their 50

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty standard of living. Based on the perception of users, the center of analysis was the relationship of ICT deployment and poverty alleviation. Therefore, the research is an exploratory study as opposed to confirmatory theory-testing study (Creswell, 2003). According to Creswell (2003), exploratory studies are most advantageous when not much has been written about the topic or the population being studied (p. 30). As an exploratory study it requires a holistic and a flexible methodology. With the objective of collecting experiences of telecenter users the research requires an in depth study with inputs of varying perspectives and experiences from users of the community center. Thus the characteristic of this research requires the selection of a qualitative methodological approach. According to Patton (2002), qualitative methods produce a wealth of detailed information about a small number of people and cases, which increase the depth of understanding of the cases and situations studied. As a result to answer the questions developed, a qualitative multiple case study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of ICT on poverty based on users perception. In-depth interviews provided the necessary flexibility and each interview was built upon the previous one to generate and pursue a new set of inquiries. Appropriateness of Approach Exploratory Qualitative Multiple Case Study Method Any research method has to be examined in the context of the scope and depth of the study. As every area of research has its own best method, there is no one size fits all best method for all scenarios. However, this research employed a qualitative multiple case study method. The case study methodology is used because as stated by Yin (2003) 51

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty as well as Hamel, Dufour, and Fortin (1993), it satisfies the three tenets of qualitative method: describing, understanding, and explaining. According to Merriam (1998), a case study is used to uncover the phenomenon under study & related views of users and other actors. Yin (2008) further defined case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (p.18). According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003), Researchers generally do case studies for one of three purposes: to produce detailed descriptions of a phenomenon, to develop possible explanations of it, or to evaluate the phenomenon (p. 439). Yin (2008) noted that the evidence of multiple-case designs is often considered more compelling, and the overall study is therefore regarded as being more robust. Yin (2008) further added that if you want a high degree of certainty you may take five, six, or more replications. He stated that the rationale for multiple-case designs derives directly from the understanding of literal and theoretical replications. Literal replication is used to replicate a similar result of a case study while theoretical replication is used when there are contrasting theories (Yin, 2008). Thus, this research employ a qualitative multiple case study method to attain the purpose of the research. The multiple case study used two levels of sampling: sampling at the site level and at the participant level. The sampling strategy used for this study was maximum variation (Creswell, 2007). ICT community centers and users of the centers were selected on certain criteria using maximum variation strategy which allowed the representation of diverse cases and to fully describe multiple perspectives about the cases. The maximum 52

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty variation strategy (Creswell, 1998; Merriam, 2002), the process of seeking the greatest range of diversity, or variation, in the selection of participants is a strategy that promotes validity and reliability in a study. The maximum variation strategy was applied in the selection of the telecenters and participants. Each telecenter was as different as possible in characteristics such as region, ethnic diversity, and demographics. In effect the selection of the telecenters was based on a purposeful sampling to get maximum relevant information for the study. As stated by Creswell (2007), purposeful sampling will intentionally sample a group of people that can best inform the researcher about the research problem under examination (p. 118). Furthermore, Patton (2002) noted that the purpose of purposeful sampling is to select information-rich cases whose study will illuminate the questions under study (p. 46). Patton (2002) stated that qualitative findings grow out of three kinds of data collection (p. 4). In-depth, open-ended interviews; direct observation; and written documents were the three kinds of qualitative data identified by Patton. The study used questions from prior recognized researches to address validity and reliability. However, the most important factor in obtaining valid and reliable results using questionnaire is ensuring that the questions used for the interview adequately represent the research question under examination. Furthermore, after the development of the questionnaire, field test was conducted to test and improve the validity and reliability of the interview. In addition to interview, data was collected in the form of field notes gathered through direct observation. That means observation tends to eliminate the inaccuracy and 53

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty bias of some data. In the study various documents were also collected and analyzed. The documents were an invaluable addition to the data stream that serves to corroborate and augment evidence gathered from other sources. Furthermore, triangulating information obtained from the multiple sources was used so as to ensure data currency and validity. Yin (2008) argued that with data triangulation, the potential problems of construct validity can be addressed because the multiple sources of evidence essentially provide multiple measures of the same phenomenon. Hierarchies of Criteria in Evaluating Telecenters Impacts UNESCO and Virtual System Processing (2006) underlined that impact of telecenters could be measured by focusing on the resulting social and economic impacts. Economic and social impacts of telecenters are measured using several indicators. For measuring social impacts of telecenter on communities, health and education were taken as the main domains of social impact and for measuring economic impacts of telecenters income, changes in occupational pattern, and employment were the domains selected (UNESCO & Virtual System Processing, 2006). Rothenberg-Aalami and Pal (2005) indicated that social impact is comprised of both outputs and impacts. While outputs are the measurable actions that result directly from the program operations, impact are the effects of the program on the social problem it was intended to address. As a result, Figure 7 is developed to evaluate telecenter impact.

54

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Impact of Telecenter

Economic

Social

General Income

Education

Health

Agricultural income

Computer basic skills

Health facilities

Distance Learning Employment Foreign languages

Health Improvement

Figure 7. Hierarchies of criteria in evaluating telecenters impacts. From The Social-Economic Impacts of ICTs in Rural Iran, by UNESCO & Virtual System Processing (2006). .

The variables involved in addressing the role of ICT on poverty are represented by Figure 8.

55

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 8. Explanatory data display. Effectiveness of information and communication technology (ICT) on poverty in the context of community ICT centers

Sample The study was essentially a multiple case study which used two levels of sampling: sampling at the site level and at the participant level and the sampling strategy used for this study was maximum variation (Creswell, 2007, p. 126). ICT community centers and users of the centers were selected on certain criteria using maximum variation strategy which allowed the representation of diverse cases and to fully describe multiple perspectives about the cases. In effect it was a purposeful sampling to get maximum relevant information for the study. As stated by Creswell (2007), purposeful sampling will intentionally sample a group of people that can best inform the researcher about the research problem under examination (p. 118). According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling refers to selecting information-rich cases, from which one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research. The purposive sampling 56

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty enabled the researcher to identify participants who have the experience in using the community ICT center and was willing to share their experience with the researcher about the effectiveness of ICT on poverty reduction. Setting The focus of study was on 5 information and communication technology (ICT) community centers located in several parts of Ethiopia that were operational for at least a year. Users of the ICT community centers were interviewed on the benefits they got after the establishment of the centers. Focus of the benefit was on utilizing the ICT centers for poverty alleviation. This was the bases for analyzing whether ICT can support communities in improving their standard of living. Instrumentation Questionnaire was adopted to inventory the benefits of the telecenter. In addition, a focus group was employed with a type of semi-structured interview that was carried out in a group setting. The interview developed was guided by the five categories of questions namely opening, introductory, transition, key, and ending developed by Krueger (1998). Each focus group consisted of 810 people and to allow the smooth flow of conversation, participants were selected from similar socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. Researchers Role The role of the researcher in this study was multi-dimensional, and started as the designer and founder of the study. More important was the functional role, which this

57

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty section relates to. The functional role was that of moderator and administrator of the questionnaire, focus group discussions, then analyzing and interpreting the findings. Data Collection The study was undertaken in 5 different ICT community centers located in different regions of the country. A purposive sample was used in selecting five community ICT centers that meet the following criteria: 1. Center that has been operational for more than a year. 2. Relevance of the service provided to the poor community. 3. Located in diverse geographical areas. 4. Representation of different services and community. The data gathered from the sources was the bases for conducting the study on the effect of using different ICTs within the community centers; fixed telephone, internet and email. The ICT community centers in the villages shaded light on the extent to which use of ICTs contributed to effective poverty alleviation. In addition, the deployed ICTs were evaluated for the extent to which they were integrated into the daily lives of the people. The unit of analysis of this research was the community ICT centers role in addressing poverty and information was collected by interviews, focus groups discussion, direct observation, and documentation. Using multiple methods to collect data enhances the validity of case study findings through a process known as a triangulated research strategy. As stated by Yin (2008), collecting data in this way helps the researcher organize and document the case study, as in experimental studies. Yin further suggested that, in all research, consideration must be given to construct validity, internal validity, 58

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty and external validity. Thus, the multiple sources of evidence that was used in this study served as a way to ensure construct validity. According to Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), Campbell many decades ago promoted the concept of triangulation - that every method has its limitations, and multiple methods are usually needed. Triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods, data, theory, etc. Studies that depend on only one method are more vulnerable to errors linked to that particular approach. Patton (2002) also argued that triangulation in qualitative study can be attained by combining both interviewing and observations (p. 248). This resulted in the mix of data collecting methods in this researchinterviewing, observation, and document analysis. As interview was the primary source of data, interview protocol was developed with open-ended questions. Rubin and Rubins (1995) guided interview approach seems best suited for this study. The topics and issues were chosen in advance, and then structured to a certain extent. Suitable for group interviews, the interview guide approach was used to gather data from the focus group sessions. Not only does this approach keep the interaction focused, it also allows individual perspectives and experiences to emerge (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). Participants were selected with the support of the managers of the ICT community centers and were the top four frequent users of each center in total 20 frequent users were interviewed. Four non-users of the ICT community centers were also interviewed for comparing and contrasting to the experience of users of ICT community centers.

59

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Direct observation was used to understand and study the activities of the ICT community centers as related to the focus of the study. In addition, documented data of the activities of ICT community centers was also a source of data for extracting information on previous achievements and other issues related to the study. The study was essentially a multiple-case study which used questions from prior recognized researches to address validity and reliability (Ernberg & ITU, 1998). However, the most important factor in obtaining valid and reliable results using questionnaire is ensuring that the questions used for the interview adequately represent the research question under examination. Furthermore, after the development of the questionnaire, field test was conducted to test and improve the validity and reliability of the interview. The field test was also necessary to check whether the questions in local language convey the same message to the participants and to get feedback on the readability and clarity of the questionnaire items. The field test was conducted by the investigator of this research by engaging five managers of the ICT community centers who were not part of the target population for this research. In addition to interview, a focus group discussion was also employed with a type of semi-structured interview carried out in a group setting. According to Pattton (2002), the focus group method is, first and foremost, an interview (p.385), which engages a small group of people on a specific topic. In other words, a focus group is a special interview. Introducing a focus group separately from interview methods was from the consideration that characteristics and techniques are distinguished between the two. The focus group approach is not merely a discussion, although direct interactions among 60

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty participants often occur. On this line, Krueger (1994) highlighted the nuances between an interview and a focus group interview: The term interviewer tends to convey a more limited impression of two-way communication between an interviewer and an interviewee. By contrast, the focus group affords the opportunity for multiple interactions not only between the interviewer and respondent but among all participants in the group. The focus group is not a collection of simultaneous individual interviews, but rather a group discussion where the conversation flows because of the nurturing of the moderator. With the object to get high-quality data in a social context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of others, focus group interviews have helped collect valuable research data. In the focus group discussion, the emphasis was on exploring the diversity of viewpoints of the participants on the community ICT center and its role on poverty alleviation. Each focus group consisted of 8-10 people and for allowing the smooth flow of conversation, participants were selected from similar socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. Thus, separate focus groups were held for each type of group. Unique concerns and issues of each group concerning the effectiveness of ICT on poverty alleviation was the focus of the discussion. The investigator was a facilitator and a recorder of each focus group meeting and the time it took was from one and a half to two hours. Yin (2008) noted that audiotapes certainly provide a more accurate rendition of any interview than any other methods. Furthermore, data was collected in the form of field notes gathered through direct observation. That means observation tends to eliminate the inaccuracy and bias of some 61

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty data. In the study various documents were also collected and analyzed. Merriman states that many documents are easily accessible, free and contain information that would take the investigator an enormous amount of time and effort to gather otherwise (Merriman, 1998, p. 125). Documents can add another piece to the puzzle in constructing meaning from all the data that the researcher collects during field visits. The documents will be an invaluable addition to the data stream that serves to corroborate and augment evidence gathered from other sources. Yin (2003) included artifacts in the sources of evidence for case studies. According to Tellis (1997), artifacts can broaden the perspective of the researcher and provide additional contextual data. Physical and electronic artifacts were examined during field visits and, whenever possible, photographed. Notes relevant to the artifacts examined during field visits were recorded in the researchers journal as part of the field notes. Furthermore, triangulating information obtained from the multiple sources was used so as to ensure data currency and validity (Hartono, Lederer, Sethi, & Zhuang, 2003). Triangulation, mapping one set of data upon another (Silverman, 2006), was also used extensively in this study, for example, comparing the perception of users, focus group participants and non users. Reflexive journaling, as stated already, was used extensively during the study as well as during the report-writing stage. Data Analysis Cross-case synthesis was taken as analytic technique for this research (Creswell, 2007, p. 163). Yin (2008) noted that cross-case synthesis specifically applies to the analysis of multiple cases. By this technique, the findings from the five community ICT 62

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty centers were aggregated and the synthesis was more robust than a single case study research. The template for coding this research depicted on Figure 9 takes the five community ICT centers as the cases to illustrate the precode specifications. For each community ICT center, codes exist for the context and description of the community ICT center. Also, codes were developed for themes within each community ICT center, and for themes that were similar and different in cross-case analysis. Finally, codes for generalizations and assertions across all cases were developed so that people can learn from the case either for themselves or to apply to a population of cases (Creswell, 2007, p. 163). Drawing Conclusions Partially ordered cross-case matrices are the basis for the important dataformatting, data-standardizing, and data-reducing functions that support descriptive analysis of the ICT community centers. Inductive analysis was used in the qualitative inquiry approach of this research. The strategy of inductive designs was to allow the important analytical dimensions to emerge from data collected in the research without presupposing in advance what the important dimensions will be (Patton, 2002). Analysis was conducted on each ICT community center to identify patterns and themes and this was followed by comparing and contrasting relationships between the variables and cases. Predictor-outcome matrix was used to observe and analyze how several contributing factors function together in the use of ICT in development.

63

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

In Depth portrait Of CITC

CITC Context

CITC Description

Within-CITC Theme analysis

Themes

Generalizations

CITC 1

CITC 1

CITC 1

Similarity

Difference

CITC 2

CITC 2

CITC 2

CITC 3

CITC 3

CITC 3

CITC 4

CITC 4

CITC 4

CITC 5

CITC 5

CITC 5

Figure 9. Template for coding study of ICT community centers (CITC).

Data of the research was displayed by using the approach of Miles and Huberman (1994). By display it is meant that a visual format that presents information systematically, so the user can draw valid conclusions and take needed action (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 91). As identified by Miles and Huberman, formats for displaying qualitative data fall into two major families: matrices and networks. Figure 10 depicts sample descriptive data display that was used in the study.

64

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Factors ICT policy ICT infrastructure Business model Skill Management Technical support Services offered Entrepreneurship Information provided User 1 Encouraging Reliable Public-private Moderate Non-existence Inadequate Fax, copier Lacking Government information User 2 Prohibitive Unreliable Public Low Effective Adequate Telephone, internet Strong Health information

Figure 10. Sample descriptive data display. Effectiveness of information and communication technology (ICT) on poverty in the context of community ICT centers Computer Application Strategy Software package QDA Miner V. 2.0 (Lewins & Silver, 2008) was planned to use to conduct comparison, identify potential clusters of cases, and has adequate variable and data storage capacity. In reality, software package QDA Miner 3.2 and WordStat 6.1 were used in this research. As there was some quantitative data like frequency to appear in the study, the statistical capability was also an added feature for the choice of the software package. The Researchers Role The researcher integrated qualitative data throughout the research process. The integration in data collection process involved combining open-ended questions of an interview with open ended questions of focus group discussion. During the data 65

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty analysis process, the researchers role was interpreting and analyzing the evolved and developed qualitative themes or codes (Creswell, 2003). The role of the researcher in qualitative research was to address concerns that emphasize the relationship between the researcher and the participants. Creswell (2003) cited the following practices as part of the role of the qualitative researcher 1. Position himself or herself and bring personal values into the study 2. Focus on a single concept or phenomenon 3. Study the context or setting of participants 4. Collaborate with participants and collect participant meanings 5. Make interpretations of the data and validate the accuracy of findings (p. 19) As an instrument of data collection in the study it is necessary for the researcher to have an ongoing means of separating impressions, feelings, and early interpretations from descriptions (Hatch, 2002, p. 86) as data are collected. Reflexivity is the researchers ability to systematically acknowledge and reflect upon personal biases, values, prejudices, and views (Creswell, 2003; Merriam, 2002) as the researcher becomes an instrument of data collection and a participant in the research. Reflexivity brings an honest and open self to the study that is aware of the need to bracket (Hatch, 2002; Merriam, 2002), or separate, personal biases and document the potential influence of personal values. A research journal of field notes, personal reactions, and other raw data (Hatch, 2002) was maintained throughout the course of the study. This journal served as the primary means of bracketing personal biases, values, prejudices, and views (Creswell, 66

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 2003; Merriam, 2002) identified by the researcher. As C. Marshall and Rossman (2006) pointed out, writing notes, reflective memos, thoughts and insights is invaluable for generating the unusual insights that move the analysis from the mundane and obvious to the creative (p.161). Validity and Reliability In the research, major issues of concern in regard to bias and validity emanate from the researcher and the participants of the research. The research was conducted on one of the World Bank funded projects where the researcher has not a direct responsibility but a general management stake. Hence, bias of interpretation and analysis of the data and situation could surface during the research and this implies that interpretive validity will be a question. In addition, second major limitation could emerge from the participants due to some perception by which they might not provide the correct information which would affect both the credibility and validity of the findings. The participants could also incline to tell what the researcher wants to hear which will jeopardize the credibility of the study. Yin (2008) indicated that quality of any research design can be judged by certain logical tests. According to U.S. Government Accountability Office (as cited in Yin, 2008), concepts that have been offered for these tests include trustworthiness, credibility, confirmability, and data dependability. In case study research, the four tests have been summarized as construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability (Yin, 2008). According to Yin, to increase construct validity, three tactics are used in case study research. The first is the use of multiple sources of evidence, the second tactic is to 67

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty establish a chain of evidence, and the third tactic is to have the draft case study report reviewed by key informants (p. 42). Internal validity is mainly a concern for explanatory case studies which is not the scope of this research. External validity on the other hand deals with the problem of knowing whether a studys findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case study (Yin, 2008). The objective of reliability is to be sure that, if a later investigator followed the same procedures as described by any earlier investigator and conducted the same case study all over again, the later investigator should arrive at the same findings and conclusions (Yin, 2008). The researcher increased the reliability of the design by listening to audio taped interviews multiple times. In addition, the transcriptions are stored electronically on a computer file. In this study, credibility was addressed using several techniques. Field test was undertaken to review the research questions and the structured questionnaire to establish the credibility and trustworthiness of the study. Other techniques used were persistent observation, the purpose of which was to identify those characteristics or elements in each ICT community centers that were most salient to the issue of concern. Triangulation or the use of multiple cases, methods, and sources of evidence was also used to add to the credibility of the study. Gall et al. (2003) noted that using multiple methods to collect data about a phenomenon can enhance the validity of case study findings through a process called triangulation (p. 447). Yin (2008) also noted that findings or conclusions in case studies are likely to be more accurate and convincing if they derive from different sources of information and collection methods. 68

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The researcher enhanced transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. In addition, generalizability was increased by studying five cases and attempt was made to relate it to studies conducted elsewhere to find any thread of generalizability. The study is dependable as the outlined approach will be instrumental in replicating the study elsewhere. Furthermore, the researcher is responsible for describing the changes that occur in the setting and how these changes affected the way the research approached the study. To enhance confirmability the researcher documented the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study (Trochim, 2006, p. 2). Ethical Considerations As the research involves human participants, participants privacy, dignity, wellbeing, and freedom were safeguarded. To guarantee these, the next guidelines were followed: (a) explanation was given to potential participants as to the purpose and nature of the research so they can freely choose whether or not to become involved; (b) participants were informed on their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study; and (c) obtained informed consent from organizations and individuals that participate in the study. To avoid any ethical issues to arise during the research, the researcher acquired the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval to avoid any violation of human rights. The researcher developed an informed consent form for participants to sign for literate participants or oral commitment for those who are illiterate before they engage in the

69

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty research. The form acknowledges that participants rights have been protected during data collection (Creswell, 2003). Yin (2008) underlined that the basic skills required for a case study are the ability to ask good questions and interpret the answers, to be a good listener, to be adaptive and flexible, to have a firm grasp of the issues being studied, and to be unbiased by preconceived notions. Yin further related case study fieldwork with the role of detectives. The researcher of this study is qualified to conduct the present study as a result of being a PhD candidate and being guided and supervised by a doctoral committee. In addition, the researcher has more than 15 years of experience in managing several IT projects and has some experience in contributing research articles for academic journals. Furthermore, the researcher has the skills outlined by Yin as a consequence of several trainings and field experience in the human and electronic intelligence both as an officer and a manager. Currently, the researcher is a Director General of ICT development agency which lays a good ground for understanding the issues around ICT usage for development in real life projects and other engagements. Furthermore, the researchers code of ethics was based on integrity when conducting research, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and presenting findings. Conclusions were driven by the data only and not by expectations. In addition, when writing the research report, the researcher avoided using any biased language against persons because of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age (Creswell, 2003).

70

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS Introduction This study was conducted to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty and the general objective of this research was to examine different ICTs deployed in varied conditions for their suitability for addressing poverty in Ethiopia. In this chapter an analysis of the data gathered throughout the study is presented. The sources of data collected in this study were drawn primarily from an on-site focus group discussion and interviews with users and non-users of the community ICT centers. Observation notes were also taken during focus group discussion and interviews. In addition, a review of the archival records was conducted on documents, such as the periodical performance reports of the centers and the consultant reports of the centers. Data from the Information and Communication Technology Assisted Development (ICTAD) project which established the community ICT centers were also collected, to provide a context for the study. The data from each of these sources were triangulated into a detailed analysis of each of the five cases. Finally, the data generated by the study were organized and analyzed based on the research questions and related themes. The study addresses the following questions: 1. What is the perception of individuals on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? 71

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 2. Which services and ICTs of the community ICT centers are most important in addressing poverty? 3. What is the difference between the individuals perception on the use and the benefits of the community ICT centers in addressing poverty? This chapter presents a detailed description of each case, the themes that emerged from the cases, and a cross-case analysis. The chapter is organized into four sections. The first section describes the five community ICT centers. In the second section, the data analysis and interpretation is reviewed and the resulting data display of categories and sub-categories is presented. In the third section, a synthesis of the findings of the five cases is presented in the context of each of the three research questions. In the fourth section, the cross-case analysis and summary of Chapter 4 are presented. Overview of the ICT Community Centers Community ICT centers from five different regions and parts of Ethiopia provided the diversity mix for this study. One community ICT center was from pastoralist region and another one from the capital city. The remaining three community ICT centers represent different regions and communities with different culture, language, and lifestyle. The context was further defined in that the five community ICT centers consist of two youth centers, one pastoralist, one environment based center, and one health (HIV) association center. The five community ICT centers visited during the course of this study were DH, KY, LA, TK, and YY ICT center. The community ICT centers were visited during May, June, and July 2010. 72

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty DH Community ICT Center The DH Community ICT center was established in July 2008 with the initiation of DH branch in collaboration with the Health Bureau and the technical, financial and advisory support of the Ethiopian Information and Communication Technology Development Agency (EICTDA, 2009) ICT Assisted Development project management unit (PMU). The center has been established with the overall objectives of providing access to ICT and assisting communities to improve their livelihood through the use of appropriate ICT that facilitates increased access to markets, development information and public services (EICTDA, 2009). The center operates in a space provided by the Kebele (local) administration equipped with different ICT equipments (Computers, photocopy machine, printer, fax machine, binding machine, and LCD projector) and furniture. The ICT community center offers computer training, Internet, photocopy, secretarial, fax, binding, scanning and telephone services. In addition, the library, recreational services (TV, cafeteria, indoor and out-door games) and information on HIV/AIDS and reproductive health are provided at the center. KY ICT Center The KY Town Youth Association ICT center was established in August 2008 with the initiation of the KY Town Youth Association facilitated through the Woreda (district) Bureau of Capacity Building and the technical, financial and advisory support of the EICTDA, ICT Assisted Development PMU (EICTDA, 2009). 73

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty KY Town Youth Association ICT center was established with the overall objectives of providing ICT access to the youth and the disadvantaged to enhance their involvement and contribution towards the socio-economic development of the country. The center provides computer training, Internet, photocopy, telephone, secretarial, binding, recreational (TV show, cafeteria, indoor outdoor games) and library services to the members of the association as well as to the local community with affordable payment, up to date information on job opportunities, education, health, and psychological counseling. LA Community ICT Center The LA community ICT center was established in September 2008 with the initiation of LA irrigation farmers cooperative facilitated through the regional bureau of capacity building and the technical, financial and advisory support of EICTDA, ICT Assisted Development PMU (EICTDA, 2009). The LA irrigation farmers cooperative was established in 2004 with the objective of creating an agro-pastoralist community and sustainable livelihood. The association has 20 members and undertakes its farming activity on 100 hectares of land. The ICT center has been established with the overall objectives of providing ICT access to the youth and the disadvantaged to enhance their involvement and contribution towards the socio-economic development of the country. The center is operating in the place provided by the LA irrigation farmers cooperative and financial support of ICTAD and equipped with different ICT equipments (computers, photocopy machine, printer, fax machine, binding machine, LCD projector) and furniture. 74

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty TK Youth Community ICT Center The TK Youth Community ICT Center was established in November 2008 with the technical financial and advisory support provided by EICTDA, ICT Assisted development PMU (EICTDA, 2009). The TK youth community ICT center was established with the overall objective of providing ICT access to the youth and the disadvantaged to enhance their involvement and contribution towards the socio economic development of the country with a special focus on environmental protection. The center is housed in the room provided by the TK and cleaned youth association and different ICT equipment (computers, photocopy, printer, fax, binding machine, LCD projector and furniture) are put in place. The center is located in a residential area where most dwellers are from low income group. The center is housed in the heart of a village where the association under which the center is established has achieved an exemplary task by changing an accumulated garbage area into a horticultural garden. The place is also an ideal spot for environmental education. YY ICT Center The YY Community ICT Center was established in October 2009 with the technical financial and advisory support provided by EICTDA, ICT Assisted development PMU (EICTDA, 2009). The goal of the youth center aims at proper leisure time activities and giving adolescents the opportunity to learn through ICT, access national and global information, and become informed and responsible citizens.

75

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The ICT services at the center include computer training, Internet, and secretarial services. Overall, the five community ICT centers provided several services to the community in the vicinity of the center. Based on the annual report from the community ICT centers, the utilization of the ICT community centers in terms of service that they offer and the demography of users of the ICT community centers are added in Appendix H. Sources of Qualitative Data and Demographic Data of Research Participants For each community ICT center, two focus group discussions, four user and four non user interviews were conducted. Participants of this multiple-case study were heterogeneous and consisted of people who differed in age, gender, educational backgrounds, and work status. While the age of the participants ranged from 18 to 65 years, 65% of the participants age ranges in 18-30 years old (Figure 11).

76

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 11. Age of interviewed participants of the study. In terms of gender mix the interviewed users and non users were 27 male and 13 female and 30% of user participants were female while 35% of non users participants were female (Figure 12).

77

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

28 26 24 22 20 18

Count

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Male
LA KY

Gender
DH TK YY

Female

Figure 12. Frequency distribution of gender. There was also a variation in the educational levels of the interviewed participants. Most of the interviewees (60%) had either secondary or vocational level education. However, 10% of the participants had never been in school and as a result couldnt read and write (Figure 13).

78

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Frequency distribution of education
None Pre-primary Primary

Education

Lower secondary Upper secondary Post-secondary non-tertiary

First stage of tertiary 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Frequency

Figure 13. Educational background of participants. Whilst 75% of the interviewees were employed, 25% were either students or unemployed (Figure 14).

79

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 14. Work status of participants. Regarding focus group composition, in each community ICT center there were two groups one composed of employed and elders and the second one composed of students, unemployed and youth. The ten focus groups each have participants in the range of 7 - 11 numbers of participants. Overall, the ten focus group discussions involved 94 participants out of which 36% were female participants. Focus group discussion was conducted after each participant demonstrated their willingness to participate in the discussion. During the entire study, with the exception of one all the participants agreed, gave their views and comments and stayed until the end of the discussion. Interviews were conducted via face to face on each site. Out of 40 interviewees 30 gave signed and 8 verbal consent to be interviewed. 8 participants who gave verbal 80

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty consent are all non users and 4 of them cannot read and write. The remaining two of the participants agreed to sign but the consent form was returned unsigned. Almost all interviewees and all group discussion participants allowed the interviews to be audio taped. All group discussions and 39 out of the 40 interviews were recorded except one who responded in writing. During the research, two recorders were ready and no equipment malfunctioned. All interviews and focus group discussion were conducted by the researcher. At the conclusion of all interviews, the tape recorded data consisted of approximately 1523 minutes of interviews, & was transcribed into 220 pages of text (Appendix I provides part of the transcripts) In addition, the researcher took hand written notes during all focus group discussion meetings and interviews and transcribed the notes immediately after the conclusion of the interview. Data Analysis and Interpretation Data from focus group discussions, interviews, observations, and documents were organized electronically for each community ICT centers in four large files using Microsoft Office Word 2007. As a result, a very large body of information was amassed during the three months in which data was collected. Organization of Qualitative Data Each focus group and interview question was designed to investigate particular aspects of the community ICT center participating in the study. Table 3 maps each focus group and interview question with its related research question.

81

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table 3. Relationship of Research, Focus Group, and Interview Questions
Research question 1.What is the perception of individuals on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? What are the common benefits perceived by individuals using the community ICT centers? 2.Which services and ICTs of the community ICT centers are most important in addressing poverty? 2.1 Which services and ICTs are considered as the most important in addressing poverty? 2.2 Which services and ICTs are considered as the least important in addressing poverty? 2, 3 Section 2: 1 Section 2: 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Focus group question 1 Users question Section 2: 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 Non-users question Section 2: 2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 14, 15

5, 6, 7

Section 3: 1, 2, 3, 4

Section 2: 6, 16

Section 2: 5

Interviews and Focus Group Discussion All contents of the transcribed interviews were read by the researcher while listening to the tapes to insure that all data was captured as accurately as possible. Once checking was complete the initial analysis of the interview data began. The documents which were initially saved as MS word files were imported to QDA Miner 3.2 qualitative software for analysis. Each focus group discussion and interview was segmented by question number and coded using QDA Miner 3.2 and WordStat 6.1 qualitative analysis software.

82

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty This phase of analysis was accomplished via a number of repeated and thorough readings (Creswell, 1998) of the focus group discussion and interview data set for the purpose of detecting key words, phrases, or repeating sequences of words. An excerpt from the focus group discussion and interview in which QDA Miner 3.2 software features were used is included in Appendix J. The categories developed at the initial stage of the study for capturing the impact of the community ICT centers are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Initial Manual Codes Developed and Used by QDA Miner 3.2 Qualitative Analysis Software
Category 1. Economic Outputs/Codes General Income Employment Agricultural income Saving computer skills Distance learning foreign languages Health Improvement Health facilities

2. 3.

Education Health

Initially, coding was done manually by employing QDA Miner 3.2 coding capability. Subsequent to this the automated coding system of WordStat 6.1 was used to check the accuracy and capture segments that were missed with manual coding. Appendix K provides table of codes developed by employing auto coding feature of WordStat 6.1.

83

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Following the automated coding result, revision and refinement was done on the manual coding. As a result, two new categories (general benefit and general interest) emerged and some new subcategories as compared to the initial design. While the general interest category mainly represents expectations and interests of non-users of the center, general benefits reflect the perceptions on the benefits of the centers by both user and non user participants. Finally, the codes were grouped following the research design with the added new thematic areas (Table 5).

84

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table 5. Final Codes After Combination and Refinement of Manual and Auto-coding
Category Economy Subcategory/Code Agri Income Employment General Income Promotion Saving Education Computer skill Distance Education Foreign language General Knowledge Scholarship School support Health Health facility Health Improvement Knowledge and Skill General Benefit Access Communication Secretarial services General interest Information about economy Information about education Information about health Information from friends Market needs Private centers Seek information Seek treatment Travel to get access

As stated by Gall et al. (2003), recording the number of times a code is observed or frequency counts may be beneficial when conducting research. In line with this, the frequency counts, number of cases and the percentages of cases related to the categories developed in relation to focus group discussions and the interview transcripts are depicted in Table 6. 85

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table 6. Frequency Counts for Categories

Frequency Education General benefit Economy General interests Health 273 185 224 161 52 No. Cases 48 48 42 37 31 % Cases 96.00% 96.00% 84.00% 74.00% 62.00%

Note: Cases in the analysis software refers to participants of the research. One focus group is also included as one participant and hence one case in the software analysis.

Overall, education and general benefit were the two highly rated categories of benefits of the community ICT centers (96% of the participants). Next follows economic benefits (84%) and health benefits (62%). Frequency Counts for Subcategories The frequency counts, number of cases and the percentages of cases related to the subcategories developed in relation to focus group discussions and the interview transcripts are depicted in Appendix L. From the subcategories, access was taken as the highest general benefit obtained from the community ICT centers (86%). Following to access saving was considered as the highest economic benefit of the ICT centers (74%). The least perceived benefit from the designed outputs was health improvement (12%). Under the category of education, the highest rated benefit was found to be acquiring computer skill (66%). While for health category, getting health knowledge and skill got 58% of participants, information about economy (34%) got the highest return from the general interests category.

86

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Observations Each community ICT center was visited and data collected on the context and general situation of the center. In addition, the researcher wrote as many notes as possible in a researchers field journal during interviews and focus group discussions. All observation data was transcribed and recorded in the electronic file for observations as soon as possible after returning from the field visits. Documents Documents and reports were collected and examined during each field visit by the researcher. The study utilized documents pertaining to the community ICT centers objectives and history, annual reports and policy documents, print and electronic newspapers, as well as empirical data collected from previous studies. Thus, document analysis was also utilized to provide the complete answers to all the research questions asked. In summary throughout the analysis of the data a number of analytic strategies as identified by Creswell (1998) were utilized. These strategies included writing memos and comments, reducing information, counting frequency of codes, relating categories, highlighting certain information in the description, displaying findings in tables and figures, and comparing cases. Findings The findings are presented in the context of each of the three research questions. In an effort to enhance the robustness of the study, and add to the validity and reliability of the study community ICT centers were selected from different regions and community. 87

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty That is to say, the strategy of maximum variation (Creswell, 2007) was employed. In addition, participants represent various educational background, work status, age and gender. Research Question 1 What is the Perception of Individuals on the Benefits of Community ICT Centers in Addressing Poverty? Research question 1 is the core question of the study and yielded the most complex set of perceptions on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty. The purpose of the study was to explore the role of ICT in poverty. During the coding and re-coding process as no new codes emerged, an organizational structure for perceptions of individuals became apparent. All codes excluding general interests of non users could be organized into three groups with a fourth category called General Benefits. This organization is illustrated in Figure 15.

88

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Impact of Telecenter

General Benefits

Economic

Social

Access

Agricultural income

Education

Health

communication

General Income

General Knowledge

Computer basic skills

Health facilities

Secretarial Services

Job Promotion

Scholarship

Distance Learning

Health Improvement

Employment

Saving

Schooling Support

Foreign languages

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 15. Clustering of benefits into thematic groupings. Themes Themes emerged from the analysis of the data collected on the perceptions of individuals on the benefits of the community ICT center. The themes were: Agri income. Incomes obtained by selling agricultural products by using the services of the community ICT center. Employment. Employment opportunity registered as a result of using the services provided at the center. General income. Income obtained by conducting IT enabled owned business (secretarial services and/or computer maintenance) after taking computer training at the community ICT center.

89

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Job promotion. Promotion in job assignment and salary that was a result of skill development at the center. Saving. Saving noted as a result of using the services at the center. Computer literacy and skill. Computer knowhow and skill developed as a result of the trainings provided at the center. Distance education. Distance learning conducted by using the services of the center. Foreign language. Foreign language taught by using the services of the center. General knowledge. An added or new general knowledge obtained from the center. Scholarship. An opportunity to pursue further studies abroad by using the services at the center. School support. Support given to school education by way of the services provided at the community ICT centers to teachers and students. Health facility. Health facility accessed as a result of the operation of the center. Health improvement. Health improvement observed as a result of using the services of the center. Health knowledge and skill. Getting health related knowledge and skill of diseases, and their treatment from the center. Access. ICT access facilitated by the center. Communication. The ability to exchange information locally and internationally for work, social, and personal matter by using the services at the center. Secretarial services. Provision of services like writing, printing, binding, copying, etcat the center. 90

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Analysis of each case study against participants responses will begin with economic benefits, and proceed to education, health, and general benefits. Economic Benefits LA Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the economic benefits obtained from the services of LA community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses indicated that affordability of the services and the resulting saving was the highest benefit (80% of respondents) obtained from the LA community ICT center. The next economic benefit identified was agri income (60% of respondents). The aggregated analysis of the economic benefit perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 16.

Count

Job promotion

General Income

Employment
LA

Agri Income

Saving

Figure 16. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of LA community ICT center.

91

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at LA community ICT center came out with four economic benefits of the community ICT center out of which three are common benefits. The three commonly identified economic benefits were saving, employment, and agri income. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also included in their expectation saving and agri income as benefits of ICT usage. See Appendix M for response of research participants on economic benefits of LA community ICT center. Agricultural income was one of those identified as an economic benefit obtained from the center by focus group (2 counts, 2 cases, 100% of the focus groups) and users (2 counts, 2 cases, 50% of users). In addition, agri income was also recognized as an economic benefit of ICT by non-users (2 counts, 2 cases, 50% of non-users). Participant of focus group 1 stated that their association cultivates cotton and they acquire the information on the price and other status of the crop at the international market using internet of the center. They will only let their export happen when there will be a good price at the international market. One participate of the focus group recalled a time in which the price of one kilo of cotton being around 16 Birr (nearly 1 US dollar) and sold after delayed for some time and got 19.50 Birr (nearly 1.2 US dollar). They explained that they exported their cotton to Australia and Turkey. The researcher found that the only center where users of community ICT center were involved in export of agricultural product was LA community ICT center. A participant from focus group 2 noted that some people here use the internet as their main source of information on vacancy announcements. In terms of economic 92

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty benefit, user participant 5 noted that I got promotion in my office because of the writing skills I developed at the center. Hence, the two most important economic benefits perceived by users of LA community ICT center were affordability of the services and the resulting saving (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users) and employment opportunity (3 counts, 3 cases, 75% of users). The lowest economic benefit identified by users of the center was job promotion. Focus group participants at LA rated all the four benefits identified as the highest economic benefits they got (2 cases, 100% of focus groups). KY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of KY community ICT center data collection, indicated that affordability of the services and the resulting saving is the highest benefit (60% of respondents) obtained from the use of the ICT center. Employment opportunity (50% of respondents) was the other higher rated economic benefit. Figure 17 represents the result of the analysis on economic benefits of KY community ICT center.

93

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Count

Job promotion

General Income
KY

Employment

Saving

Figure 17. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of KY community ICT center

The data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees recognize three and four economic benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which three are common benefits. The three commonly identified economic benefits were saving, employment, and general income. See Appendix M for response of research participants on economic benefits of the center. According to data collected from the center, the two most important economic benefits perceived by users were affordability of the services and the resulting saving (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users) and employment opportunity (3 counts, 3 cases, 75% of users).

94

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty DH Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of interviews conducted at DH showed that saving was the highest benefit (90% of respondents) obtained from the DH community ICT center. The next economic benefit identified by analysis was employment opportunity (80% of respondents). Figure 18 represents the analysis of the interviews on economic benefits of DH community ICT center.

9 8 7 6

Count

5 4 3 2 1 0

Agri Income

Job promotion

General Income
DH

Employment

Saving

Figure 18. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of the DH community ICT center. While analysis of focus group discussion participants indicated four economic benefits, user interviewees came out with five benefits of DH community ICT center. Saving, employment, general income and job promotion were the economic benefits identified by both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also included in their expectation saving, employment, 95

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty and general income as an economic benefits of ICT usage. The response of research participants on economic benefits is included in Appendix M. The two most important economic benefits perceived by users were saving (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users) and employment opportunity (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users). Other economic benefits identified by users were job promotion (1 count, 1 case, 25% of users), and general income (1 case, 25% of users). TK Youth Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the economic benefits obtained from the services of TK youth community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses showed that employment opportunity was the highest benefit (80% of respondents) obtained from the ICT center. The next highest economic benefit identified was affordability of the services and the resulting saving (70% of respondents). The aggregated analyses of the perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 19.

96

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Count

Job promotion

Agri Income

General Income
TK

Saving

Employment

Figure 19. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of TK community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at TK youth community ICT center identified five and three economic benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which three are common benefits. The three commonly shared economic benefits by both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees of the TK youth Community ICT center were saving, employment, and general income. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also included in their expectation saving and employment as benefits of ICT usage. See Appendix M for response of research participants on economic benefits. Affordability of the services and the resulting saving (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users) and employment opportunity (4 cases, 100% of users) were found to be the two most important economic benefits perceived by users of TK youth community ICT center. 97

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty YY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of YY community ICT center data collection, indicated that affordability of the services and the resulting saving was the highest benefit (70% of respondents) obtained from the use of the ICT center. Employment opportunity (50% of respondents) was the other higher rated economic benefit. Figure 20 represents the result of the analysis on economic benefits of YY community ICT center.

Count

Job promotion

General Income

Agri Income
YY

Employment

Saving

Figure 20. Analysis of responses to economic benefits of YY community ICT center. The result of the data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees addressed five and three economic benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which three were common benefits. The three commonly recognized economic benefits were saving, employment, and agri income. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also included in their expectation saving, agri 98

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty income and general income as benefits of ICT usage. See Appendix M for response of research participants on economic benefits of YY community ICT center. According to data collected and processed from the center, the two most important economic benefits perceived by users of YY community ICT center were affordability of the services and the resulting saving (4 counts, 4 cases, 100% of users) and employment opportunity (3 counts, 3 cases, 75% of users). A participant of focus group 46 stated that, whenever you have the same backgrounds both in the education and work experience, having the computer training is a plus and in this regard there is a greater chance for you to get a promotion or a new post. Educational Benefits LA Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the educational benefits obtained from the services of LA community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses indicated that computer literacy and skill developed as a result of the training conducted at the community ICT center was the highest benefit (70% of respondents) obtained from the LA community ICT center. The next expected educational benefit was getting access and learn foreign languages (40% of respondents). The aggregated analyses of the perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 21.

99

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Distance Education

General Knowledge

School Education Improvement

Foreign language

Computer skill

3
LA

4 Count

Figure 21. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of LA community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at LA community ICT center perceived three educational benefits of the community ICT center out of which two were common benefits. The two commonly shared educational benefits were computer skill, and distance education. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also came out with three educational benefits of ICT usage, one of which was identified by focus group and user participants (computer skill). Furthermore, they have also added two of their general interests they expect from ICT intervention: to get supportive information about education and access to foreign language. In fact, acquiring access to foreign language got the highest expectation (4 cases, 100% of non-users). However, contrary to expectation, foreign language was not one of the benefits recognized by focus group participants and user interviewees. On the

100

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty other hand, in contrast to users and focus group participants, non-users did not mention distance education as an educational benefit. Demonstrating the benefits of the center for distance education, a user participant 5 noted that I am a student at a university in the capital city and when I missed once my exam, I contacted the university and got my exam through fax. This female user participant finally concluded that I am following my distance education program thanks to the service of the center. See Appendix N for response of participants on educational benefits of LA community ICT center. KY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of KY community ICT center data collection, indicated that computer literacy and skill was the highest benefit (70% of respondents) obtained from the use of the ICT center. School support (50% of respondents) was the next higher rated educational benefit. Figure 22 represents the result of the analysis on educational benefits of KY community ICT center.

101

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Distance Education

Scholarship

Foreign language

General Knowledge

School Education Improvement

Computer skill

3
KY

4 Count

Figure 22. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of KY community ICT center. The data analysis found out that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees perceived five and two educational benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which two were common benefits. The two commonly recognized educational benefits of the center were computer skill, and general knowledge. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also identified four educational benefits of ICT usage, two of which were recognized by both focus group and user participants. See Appendix N for response of participants on educational benefits of KY community ICT center. According to data collected and processed from the center, computer literacy and skill appeared to be the highest educational benefits accrued from KY ICT center both by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users). The school educational support appeared to be the second highest 102

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty educational benefits of the ICT center by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups). According to a teacher in focus group 12, their school has an agreement of partnership with the center to use the computer available in the center rather than purchase new ones which have become instrumental in saving the school expenses. In addition, he expressed that we have an ICT department in our school and those students who took the computer training at the center were active in their studies. Furthermore the teacher added that our students print and copy handouts, books and other academic materials with reasonable prices at the center. In addition, another participant of focus group 12 noted that rural schools also got copier service at the center. The other educational benefits were found to be general knowledge (1 case, 25% of users) for user and non user participants, and computer skill (1 case, 25% of non users) and scholarship (1 case, 25% of non-users) for non users. DH Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of interviews conducted at DH community ICT center showed that computer literacy and skill was the highest benefit (60% of respondents) obtained from the DH community ICT center. The next educational benefit identified by analysis was school educational support (50% of respondents). Figure 23 represents the analysis of the interviews on educational benefits of DH community ICT center.

103

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Scholarship

Foreign language

General Knowledge

School Education Improvement

Computer skill

2
DH

Count

Figure 23. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of DH community ICT center. While analysis of focus group discussion participants indicated four benefits, user interviewees discussed two educational benefits of DH community ICT center. Computer skill and general knowledge were the educational benefits identified by both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also came out with three educational benefits of ICT usage, one of which was recognized by focus group and user participants (general knowledge). See Appendix N for response of participants on educational benefits of DH Community ICT Center. Computer literacy and skill appeared to be the highest educational benefit accrued from the DH ICT center both by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users). During data collection, one participants of focus group 33 assessed the value of computer skill by comparing the period before and after the computer training and summed his experience by underlining that: 104

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty I can say that we were acting as if we were handicapped; we do have hands and yet we were acting as if we didn't have that and we have eyes to see but we were acting like visually impaired people. After the computer training, we were been able to have a hand to operate and an eye to see. Our hands are active and strong enough and our eyes are wide open to see the true benefit and use of the technology. In addition, school educational support appeared to be the other highest educational benefits of the ICT center (2 cases, 100% of focus groups). According to a teacher user participant 26, I used to write exam papers in hand. Now using the accessible resources of the centre I prepare exams in computers. It makes my work easy which in turn help to reduce the work burden of my secretary too. He added that Teachers with good ICT skills used ICT more and more often in a student-centered way of teaching. Moreover, according to a female student participant of focus group 24, a student who uses internet has lots of knowledge and got respect and has great confidence in class. In addition, she noted that it is better to use excel than calculator for our course work and assignment. Furthermore, acquiring general knowledge at the services of the center was also noted as an educational benefit by focus groups (1 case, 50% of focus groups). The other educational benefits from the center were found to be general knowledge for user participants (1 case, 25% of users), and non user participants (1 case, 25% of users) and scholarship for focus group discussion participants. Demonstrating the benefit of the center in scholarship, a participant of focus group 23 noted that my kids are one of the beneficiaries of this service in getting scholarship. My daughter after a frequent

105

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty communication she succeeded in getting a scholarship in South Korea. My son also got a chance to go to Switzerland for short course by using the internet at the center. TK Youth Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the educational benefits of TK youth community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses showed that computer literacy and skill was the highest benefit (70% of respondents) obtained from the ICT center. The next highest educational benefit of the center was school educational support (50% of respondents). The aggregated analyses of the perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 24.

General Knowledge

Scholarship

Foreign language

School Education Improvement

Computer skill

3
TK

4 Count

Figure 24. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of TK community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at TK youth community ICT center came out with three 106

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty educational benefits of the community ICT center out of which two are common benefits. The two commonly recognized educational benefits were computer skill, and scholarship. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also expected and identified three educational benefits of ICT usage, one of which was identified by focus group and user participants (computer skill). See Appendix N for response of participants on educational benefits of TK youth community ICT center. Overall, computer literacy and skill appeared to be the highest educational benefits of TK youth ICT center both by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users). School education support appeared to be the other highest educational benefits accrued from the ICT centers by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups). One participant of focus group 35 indicated that the students who are getting the services of the center are very active in ICT. They are even helping the other students at their class. According to a participant of focus group 35, he has made a connection/contact with an institution working on Africa's Environmental Network and this has enabled him to attend an international leadership training seminar in Denmark. The lowest educational benefit was found to be scholarship opportunity for user participants (1 case, 25% of users), and computer skill for non user participants (1 case, 25% of non-users). YY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of YY community ICT center data collection, indicated that school education support was the highest benefit (90% of respondents) obtained from 107

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty the use of the ICT center. Computer literacy and skill (60% of respondents) was the other higher rated educational benefit. Figure 25 represents the result of the analysis on educational benefits of YY community ICT center.

Distance Education

Foreign language

Scholarship

General Knowledge

Computer skill

School Education Improvement

3
YY

5 Count

Figure 25. Analysis of responses to educational benefits of YY community ICT center. The data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees recognized three and four educational benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which two were common benefits. The two commonly shared educational benefits were computer skill, and scholarship. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also identified four educational benefits of ICT usage, one of which is recognized by focus group and user participants (computer skill). See Appendix N for response of participants on educational benefits of YY community ICT center.

108

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty According to data collected and processed from the center, the two most important educational benefits perceived were computer skill both by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviewees (3 cases, 75% of users) and school education support by focus group discussion (2 case, 100% of focus groups). According to a teacher participant of focus group 46, he used the center for downloading several materials from the internet and stated that he downloaded C++ at the center which was a bit expensive to buy at the nearby town. Another participant of the same focus group also noted that, I use the internet as my reference when I carry on my educational career. This has been hardly possible when I was a student as there was no access to the internet. I am now using the center as a means to download different materials/documents from the internet with cheaper expense. In addition, non-users recognized the benefits of ICT in the development of computer skill and acquiring general knowledge at the services of the center was also noted as an educational benefit by users (2 cases, 50% of users). The lowest educational benefit was found to be distance education opportunity for user participants (1 case, 25% of users) and computer skill for non user participants (1 case, 25% of non users). Health Benefits LA Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the health benefits obtained from the services of LA community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses indicated that health knowledge and skill was the highest benefit (50% of respondents) 109

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty obtained from the LA community ICT center. The aggregated analyses of the perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 26.

Count

Health facility
LA

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 26. Analysis of responses to health benefits of LA community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at LA community ICT center came out with two and one health benefits of the community ICT center respectively and out of which one was found to be a common benefit. The one commonly shared health benefit was health knowledge and skill. In addition, non-user group participants also recognized health knowledge and skill as one of the expected benefits of ICT. See Appendix O for response of research participants on health benefits of LA community ICT center. According to a participant of focus group discussion 2, the health benefit we get is that the trainers first browse any information regarding HIV and provide the training to 110

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty us. Hence, the most important health economic benefit perceived by users of LA community ICT center was health knowledge and skill by focus group discussion (1 case, 50% of focus groups) and user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users). Health facility was another health benefit recognized by focus group participants (1 case, 50% of focus groups) only. KY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of KY community ICT center data collection indicated that health knowledge and related skill was the highest benefit (60% of respondents) of the ICT center. Health facility (40% of respondents) was the other higher rated health benefit. Figure 27 represents the result of the analysis on health benefits of KY community ICT center.

Count

Health Improvement

Health facility
KY

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 27. Analysis of responses to health benefits of KY community ICT center.

111

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees perceived two and three health benefits of the community ICT center respectively and out of which two are common benefits. The two commonly shared health benefits were health knowledge and skill, and health facility. In addition, non-user group participants identified one of the benefits recognized by user and focus group participants (knowledge and skill). See Appendix O for response of research participants on health benefits of KY community ICT center. According to data collected and processed from the center, the most important health benefit perceived by users was getting health knowledge and skill by focus group discussion (1 case, 50% of focus groups) and user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users). A participant of focus group discussion 16 noted that the center provided education of HIV, saved youth from rampant sex and protected youth from wasting time in drinking alcohol and instead spent time on useful activities. Health facility was another health benefit identified by focus group participants (2 case, 100% of focus groups) and users (2 cases, 50% of users). DH Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of interviews conducted at DH community ICT center showed that health knowledge and skill was the highest benefit (70% of respondents) obtained from the DH community ICT center. The next health related benefit recognized by analysis was the provision of health facility (20% of respondents) at the community ICT center. Figure 28 represents the analysis of the interview on health benefits of DH community ICT center. 112

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

7 6 5

Count

4 3 2 1 0

Health Improvement

Health facility
DH

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 28. Analysis of responses to health benefits of DH community ICT center. While analysis of focus group discussion participants indicated three health benefits, user interviewees came with one benefit of DH community ICT center. Health knowledge and skill was the health benefit identified by both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees. Similarly, non-user group participants identified knowledge and skill as one of the benefits of ICT usage. See Appendix O for response of research participants on health benefits of DH community ICT center. According to a participant of focus group discussion 23, using internet of the center, we were able to access international annual reports and other materials from UNAIDS. We were also communicating with Alliance International, an institution working on HIV/AIDS to raise our knowledge. As a consequence, a participant of focus group discussion 24, concluded that now we know everything about HIV AIDS, stigma and discrimination, voluntary 113

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty counseling and testing and the likes. In the sense of expressing the impact of the center, a participant from the same group underscored that as a result of the information I got from the center, I have a change of attitude on HIV positive. Now we have developed our understanding of how to care HIV positive, and feel the sense of responsibility and humanity we must have towards HIV positive. Hence, the most important health benefit perceived by users was getting health knowledge and skill by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users). Furthermore, focus group participants recognized health facility (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and health improvement (1 case, 50% of focus groups) as health benefits of the center. TK Youth Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the health benefits obtained from the services of TK youth community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses showed that health knowledge and skill was the highest health benefit (60% of respondents) of the ICT center. The aggregated analysis of the health benefit perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 29.

114

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Count

Health Improvement
TK

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 29. Analysis of responses to health benefits of TK community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at TK youth community ICT center shared their view on one and two health benefits of the community ICT center respectively and out of which one was found to be common benefit. The commonly identified health benefit of the ICT center was health knowledge and skill. See Appendix O for response of research participants on health benefits of TK youth community ICT center. According to a participant of focus group discussion 35, We have been promoting about a green plant traditional medicine called 'Artemisia' in our website. In addition, there is a way in which we get some information on ways of understanding the dosage of the different traditional medicine from abroad which would help us apply to our situation.

115

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty YY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of YY community ICT center data collection, showed that health knowledge and skill was the highest benefit (50% of respondents) obtained from the use of the ICT center. Other health related benefit identified was health improvement. Figure 30 represents the result of the analysis on health benefits of YY community ICT center.

Count

Health Improvement
YY

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 30. Analysis of responses to health benefits of YY community ICT center. The data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviews came out with one and two health benefits of the community ICT center respectively. Health knowledge and skill was commonly recognized health benefit of the center. In addition, non-user group participants identified health knowledge and skill as

116

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty one of the health benefits of ICT. See Appendix O for response of research participants on health benefits of YY community ICT center. According to data collected from the center, the most important health benefit perceived by focus group discussion (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (2 cases, 50% of users) was health knowledge and skill. General Benefit of the Community ICT Centers LA Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the general benefits obtained from the services of LA community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses indicated that access and communication are the highest benefits (90% of respondents) of LA community ICT center. The next general benefit identified was the provision of secretarial services (30% of respondents) at the community ICT center. The aggregated analysis of general benefit perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 31.

117

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

9 8 7 6

Count

5 4 3 2 1 0

secretarial services

communication
LA

access

Figure 31. Analysis of responses to general benefits of LA community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at LA community ICT center recognized three and four general benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which three are common benefits. The three commonly shared general benefits of the LA community ICT center were access, communication and secretarial services. In addition, all the general benefits identified by non-user group were similar to all the benefits identified by user group. See Appendix P for responses of research participants on general benefits of LA community ICT center. Getting ICT access was recognized as highest benefit by user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users) and focus groups (2 cases, 100% of focus groups). Similar to user interviews, the highest general benefit identified by non users was getting access (4 cases, 100% of non-users). 118

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty User participants expressed that as a result of the access they got at the center, they have saved several wastes in terms of time and finance to travel to other towns in search of access (4 cases, 100% of users). In fact, user participant 3 noted that all the hardships that we were facing traveling all those long distances are no more happening now and we are benefiting as a result of that saving money and energy. In addition, a participant from focus group 1 underscored that prior to having the internet access at the center, we had to travel 200 km all the way to Adama town to get access. Now we are communicating with anybody or any institution anywhere in the country. Previously we were using post office to send mails now fax saving time and cost. The other highest benefit was communication perceived by focus group (2 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users). Non-users also recognized and expected communication as a general benefit (4 cases, 100% of nonusers). KY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of KY community ICT center data collection, demonstrated that access was the highest benefit (80% of respondents) of the ICT center. Communication for exchange of information (70% of respondents) was the other higher rated general benefit. Figure 32 represents the result of the analysis on general benefits of KY community ICT center.

119

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Count

secretarial services

communication
KY

access

Figure 32. Analysis of responses to general benefits of KY community ICT center. The data analysis showed that both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees perceived three and four general benefits of the community ICT center respectively and three benefits were found to be common. The three commonly recognized general benefits were access, communication and secretarial services. In addition, access and communication were also identified by non-user group as general benefits of ICT use. See Appendix P for response of research participants on general benefits of KY community ICT center. According to data collected from the center, the most important general benefit perceived by users was getting access by user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users) and focus groups (1 case, 50% of focus groups). Similar to user interviews, the highest general benefit identified by non users was getting access (4 cases, 100% of non-users). The other highest benefit, communication, was recognized by focus group (2 cases, 100% 120

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty of focus groups) and by user interviews (2 cases, 50% of users). Non-users also expected communication as a general benefit (3 cases, 75% of non-users). A secretarial service was also recognized as a benefit both in focus group discussion (1 case, 50% of focus groups) and user interviews (2 cases, 50% of users). DH Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of interviews conducted at DH community ICT center showed that ICT access was the highest benefit (90% of respondents) obtained from the DH community ICT center. The next general benefit identified by analysis was communication services (70% of respondents). Figure 33 represents the analysis of the interviews on general benefits of DH community ICT center.

9 8 7 6

Count

5 4 3 2 1 0

secretarial services

communication
DH

access

Figure 33. Analysis of responses to general benefits of DH community ICT center.

121

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Analysis of focus group discussion participants and user interviewees came out with three general benefits of DH community ICT center. Access, communication and secretarial services were commonly recognized benefits by both users and focus group discussion participants. In addition, all the general benefits identified by non-user group were similar to all the benefits recognized by user group. The response of research participants on general benefits is included in Appendix P. The two most important general benefits perceived by users were getting access (3 cases, 75% of users) and communication (4 cases, 100% of users). Similar to user interviews, the highest general benefit expected by non users was getting access (4 cases, 100% of non-users) and communication (4 cases, 100% of non-users) of ICT. A secretarial service was also recognized as a benefit both in focus group discussion (1 case, 50% of focus groups), user interviews (3 cases, 75% of users) and non users (1 case, 25% of non users). TK Youth Community ICT Center Research participants had shared their perception on the general benefits obtained from the services of TK youth community ICT center. The analysis of the aggregated responses showed that ICT access was the highest benefit (80% of respondents) of the ICT center. The next highest general benefit identified was communication services (70% of respondents). The aggregated analysis of the general benefits perceptions are represented graphically in Figure 34.

122

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Count

secretarial services

communication
TK

access

Figure 34. Analysis of responses to general benefits of TK community ICT center. Based on the data analysis conducted, both focus group discussion participants and user interviewees at TK youth community ICT center perceived two general benefits of the community ICT center. One commonly shared benefit by both users and focus group discussion participants was secretarial services. In addition, all the general benefits expected by non-user group were benefits recognized by user or focus group. See Appendix P for response of research participants on general benefits of TK youth community ICT center. Overall, the most important general benefit perceived by users of TK youth community ICT center was getting ICT access (4 cases, 100% of users). Similar to user interviews, the highest general benefit identified by non users was getting access (4 cases, 100% of non-users). According to user participant 37, I have no financial capacity to take a computer training elsewhere. In line with this, user participant 39 added that had 123

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty it not been for this affordable service center, I could have delayed my training. With delay I could even have lost my interest to learn computer. YY Community ICT Center The result of the analysis of YY community ICT center data collection, demonstrated that getting ICT access was the highest benefit (90% of respondents) obtained from the use of the ICT center. Secretarial services and communication (60% of respondents) were the other higher rated general benefits. Figure 35 represents the result of the analysis on general benefits of YY community ICT center.

9 8 7 6

Count

5 4 3 2 1 0

secretarial services

communication
YY

access

Figure 35. Analysis of responses to general benefits of YY community ICT center. The data analysis indicated that both focus group discussion participants and user interviews came out with three and four general benefits of the community ICT center respectively out of which three are common benefits. The three commonly shared general 124

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty benefits were access, communication and secretarial services. In addition, all the general benefits identified by non-user group were similar to all the benefits identified by user and focus group. See Appendix P for response of research participants on general benefits of YY community ICT center. Based on the data analysis of the center, ICT access was the most important general benefit perceived by user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users), focus groups (2 cases, 100% of focus groups), and non users (3 cases, 75% of non users). According to user participant 50, he noted that: we have started to save money as we only need to pay half of that of the others. We have also started to save the amount of money we used to spend for transportation to Hawassa (town) and all the other expenses when we go there. Though we try to come as early as possible back home, there were times where we spend money for tea, coffee and food. We also saved for our work which was used to be wasted in search of ICT access. Furthermore, the other highest benefit of the center was communication recognized by focus group (1 case, 50% of focus groups) and by user interviews (4 cases, 100% of users). Common Benefits Perceived by Individuals Using the features of QDA Miner 3.2 and WordStat 6.1 analysis software, report of categories and subcategories against respondents was generated to identify the commonly stated benefits based on the frequency of responses. As a result, the benefits that have aggregate respondents of at least 50% were taken as an indication of commonly shared perception.

125

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty As a result of this exercise at the level of categories, all benefit categories of this research got greater than 50% respondents in aggregate (Refer Table 6). This implies that economy, education, health, and general benefits were perceived as common benefits by more than 50% of research participants. Overall, education and general benefit were the two highly rated benefit categories of the community ICT centers by 96% of the participants. Next follows economic benefits (84%), general interests (74%) and health benefits (62%). When common benefits are examined at the level of aggregated subcategories the common benefits shared by most respondents were: computer skill, communication, saving, employment, knowledge and skill, school education improvement and access. The frequency counts of subcategories developed in relation to focus group discussions and the interview transcripts are depicted in Table 7.

Table 7. Frequency Counts for Subcategories

Frequency Access Saving Communication Computer literacy & skill Employment Health knowledge & skill School education support 88 96 67 142 55 37 66 No. Cases 43 37 35 33 31 29 27 % Cases 86.00% 74.00% 70.00% 66.00% 62.00% 58.00% 54.00%

From the subcategories, access was taken as the highest general benefit obtained from the community ICT centers (86%). Following to access saving was considered as the highest economic benefit of the ICT centers (74%). While acquiring computer 126

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty literacy and skill (66%) was the highest rated benefit under the category of education, health knowledge and skill got the highest response in health category (58%). Common Economic Benefits Focus group discussion participants and user interviews recognized five common economic benefits. The five commonly shared economic benefits of the centers were saving, employment, agri income, job promotion and general income. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also included in their expectation four of the commonly recognized economic benefits as benefits of ICT usage. Figure 36 depicts the response of common economic benefits of the community ICT centers.

40 36 32

No of respondents

28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 SAVING EMPLOYMENT GENERAL INCOME AGRI INCOME

Common economic benefits

JOB PROMOTION

Figure 36. Analysis of responses against common economic benefits. Affordability of the services and the resulting saving obtained from the study appeared to be the highest commonly shared benefit of the ICT centers both in focus group discussion (36 counts, 10 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (53 127

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty counts, 20 cases, 100% of users). Another major commonly recognized economic benefit obtained from the centers was employment (25 counts, 17 cases, 85% of users) and (24 counts, 10 cases, 100% of focus groups). General income was the other commonly accepted economic benefit of the community ICT centers by users (5 counts, 4 cases, 20% of users) and focus groups (22 counts, 9 cases, 90% of focus groups). Common Educational Benefits Analysis indicated that focus group discussion participants and user interviews shared five common educational benefits. The five commonly identified educational benefits of the center were computer skill, school education improvement, distance education, general knowledge, and scholarship. In addition, the non-user group interviewees also expected six educational benefits of ICT usage, four of which were recognized by focus group and user participants. Figure 37 depicts common educational benefits of the community ICT centers.

128

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

COMPUTER SKILL

Common educational benefits

SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

FOREIGN LANGUAGE

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

SCHOLARSHIP

DISTANCE EDUCATION

12

No of respondents

16

20

24

28

32

36

Figure 37. Analysis of responses against common educational benefits. Computer literacy and skill appeared to be the highest commonly recognized educational benefits of the ICT centers both by focus group discussion (87 counts, 10 cases, 100% of focus groups) and user interviews (51 counts, 19 cases, 95% of users). The support given to school education appeared to be the second highest commonly perceived educational benefit of the ICT centers both by focus group discussion (36 counts, 9 cases, 90% of focus groups) and user interviews (25 counts, 15 cases, 75% of users). Non-users also recognize the benefits of ICT in supporting school educational programs (5 counts, 3 cases, 15% of non-users) and development of computer skill (4 counts, 4 cases, 20% of non-users). Another commonly identified educational benefit recognized by users (4 counts, 3 cases, 15% of users) and focus groups (12 counts, 5 cases, 50% of focus groups) was getting the opportunity of scholarship by using the services of the centers. 129

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Getting information about education was identified by non users (27 counts, 14 cases, 70% of non-users) as a general interest they expect to get from ICT. Common Health Benefits Focus group discussion participants and user interviews shared three common health benefits. The three common perceived health benefits of the center were health improvement, knowledge and skill, and health facility. In addition, the non user group interviewees also expected two of the benefits recognized by user and focus group participants. The identified benefits were health improvement, and knowledge and skill. Figure 38 depicts common health benefits of the community ICT centers.

30 27 24

No of respondents

21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0 KNOWLEDGE_AND_SKILL HEALTH FACILITY HEALTH IMPROVEMENT

Common health benefits

Figure 38. Analysis of responses against common health benefits. Getting knowledge and skill about health appeared to be the highest commonly perceived benefit of the ICT centers both in focus group discussion (14 counts, 8 cases, 80% of focus groups) and user interviews (17 counts, 16 cases, 80% of users). Health 130

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty facility was another commonly shared health benefit by user (2 counts, 2 cases, 10% of users) and focus group participants (6 counts, 5 cases, 50% of focus groups). Common General Benefits Focus group discussion participants and user interviews perceived three common general benefits. The three commonly shared general benefits were access, communication and secretarial services. In addition, all the general benefits expected by non-user group were similar to all the benefits recognized by user and focus group. Figure 39 depicts common general benefits of the community ICT centers.

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ACCESS

No of respondents

Common general benefits

COMMUNICATION

SECRETARIAL_SERVICES

Figure 39. Analysis of responses against common general benefit. While users recognized ICT access (34 counts, 17 cases, 85% of users), focus group participants favored communication (18 counts, 8 cases, 80% of focus groups) as the highest general benefit of the center. The second highest benefit of the center was 131

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty communication for users (27 counts, 13 cases, 65% of users), while access was for focus groups (20 counts, 7 cases, and 70% of focus groups). Secretarial services was also recognized as a benefit both in focus group discussion (15 counts, 7 cases, 70% of focus groups) and user interviews (10 counts, 8 cases, 40% of users). Similar to user interviews, the highest general benefit identified by non users was getting access (34 counts, 19 cases, 95% of non-users). Non-users also recognized and expected communication as a general benefit (22 counts, 14 cases, 70% of non-users) of ICT. Research Question 2 Which Services and ICTs of the Community ICT Centers are most Important in Addressing Poverty? Most Important Services Participants of the group discussion had much to say about their perception on the importance of the services offered at the community ICT centers. Computer training provided at the community ICT centers got the highest aggregated valued service (8 cases, 80% of focus groups). However, 10% of the respondents came with other highly valued services: secretarial and an internet services. Figure 40 depicts the aggregated response of important services.

132

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

9 8 7 6

Frequency

5 4 3 2 1 0

training

secretarial service

Services

internet

Figure 40. Aggregated response of important services. Responses gathered from all the community ICT centers demonstrated that computer training was indeed the highest rated service. Figure 41 depicts the response of important services by community ICT centers.

133

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Count

training
DH

secretarial service
LA YY KY TK

internet

Figure 41. Response of important services against community ICT centers. Participants of the group discussion had shared their perception on the second important services offered at the community ICT centers. Result of the analysis showed that secretarial services provided at the community ICT centers got the second highest valued service (5 cases, 50% of focus groups). Figure 42 depicts the aggregated response of second important services.

134

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

6

Frequency

secretarial service

Services

internet

copy

Figure 42. Aggregated response of second important services. Data analysis showed that a secretarial service was the second highest rated service by all the community ICT centers. Internet service was also rated next to secretarial services by four community ICT centers (Figure 43).

135

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

6

Count

secretarial service
LA KY

internet
DH TK YY

copy

Figure 43. Response of second important service by community ICT centers. Most Valued IT Participants of the group discussion have discussed about their perception on the importance of the ICT equipments/technologies available at the community ICT centers. As the result of the discussion, computer as an IT technological devise got the highest valued IT technology at the community ICT centers (7 cases, 70% of focus groups). Figure 44 depicts the response of most valued IT.

136

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Frequency

Computer

Technology

Internet

others

Figure 44. Aggregated response of most valued IT. Responses gathered from the community ICT centers also demonstrated that computer was indeed the highest rated IT. Figure 45 depicts the response of most valued IT against community centers.

137

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

8 7 6 5

Count

4 3 2 1 0

Computer
LA KY

Internet
DH TK YY

others

Figure 45. Response of most valued IT against community ICT centers. Participants of the group discussion had identified the second important ICT equipments/technologies available at the community ICT centers. Internet as an IT technology got the second highest valued IT technology (6 cases, 60% of focus groups). Figure 46 depicts the response of the second important IT.

138

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Frequency

Computer

Technology

Internet

others

Figure 46. Aggregated response of second important IT. Based on data gathered from all the community ICT centers, internet was the second highest rated IT. Figure 47 depicts the response of the second most valued IT by community ICT centers.
7

Count

Computer
LA KY

Internet
DH TK YY

others

Figure 47. Response of the second important IT against community ICT centers. 139

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Which Services and ICTs are Considered as the Least Important in Addressing Poverty? Least Important Services Participants of the group discussion had valued Internet services provided at the community ICT centers as the least important valued service (3 cases, 30% of focus groups). However, the respondents expressed that it was not the value of the internet service that got low rating but the availability of the service and other capacity of usage of the internet that turned it to be low valued. Binding & scanning services provided were also on the low valued list of services. Figure 48 depicts the response of less important services.

3.5

3.0

2.5

Frequency

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

binding

scanning

Services

internet

secretarial service

Fax

Figure 48. Aggregated response of less important services.

140

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Analysis of the data gathered from all the community ICT centers indicated that internet service was considered as the least provided service at three centers. Two centers valued scanning and secretarial services as least important services. Figure 49 depicts the response of less important services against community ICT centers.
4

Count

binding

scanning
LA KY

internet
DH TK YY

secretarial service

Fax

Figure 49. Response of less important service by community ICT centers Least Important IT Participants of the group discussion had shared their perception on the level of importance of the ICT equipments/technologies available at the community ICT centers. Fax as an IT technological devise at the community ICT centers got the lowest valued IT technology (3 cases, 30% of focus groups). Figure 50 depicts the response of less important IT.

141

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

3.5

3.0

2.5

Frequency

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

scanner

binder

Technology

internet

fax

others

Figure 50. Aggregated response of less important IT. The analysis of data gathered from community ICT enters indicated that three centers put fax as the least IT in importance. Scanner and internet as technology were also rated less important at two centers. Figure 51 depicts the response of less important IT against community ICT centers.

142

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

4

Count

scanner

binder
LA KY

internet
DH TK YY

fax

others

Figure 51. Response of less important IT by community ICT centers. Research Question 3 What is the Difference Between Individuals Perception on the Use and Benefits of Community ICT Center in Addressing Poverty? Uncommon Benefits Listed by Individuals Using the QDA Miner 3.2 and WordStat 6.1 analysis software, report of categories and subcategories against respondents was generated to identify benefits not commonly stated by individuals based on the frequency of responses. As a result, the response below 50% was taken as an indication of not commonly shared perception. At category level, there was not any category left unaddressed by the responses collected from the five community ICT centers. However, from the subcategories, distance education was taken as the lowest unshared benefit by respondents (8%). The other low rated benefits were: health improvement (12%) from health category; 143

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty secretarial service (40%), from general benefit category, and agri income (26%) from economic category (Appendix L). Uncommon Economic Benefits All the economic benefits recognized in this research were found to be commonly shared however; two of the benefits have a lower rate of response. Agri income and job promotion were the economic benefits that got the lowest response. Appendix Q depicts the uncommon economic benefits. Based on the analysis conducted, job promotion by users (5 counts, 3 cases, 15% of users) and focus group (9 counts, 3 cases, 30% of focus groups), and agricultural income by focus groups (14 counts, 4 cases, 40% of the focus groups) and users (4 counts, 4 cases, 20% of users) were identified as low rated economic benefits obtained from the centers. Agri income was also listed as a low rated economic benefit of ICT by non-users (4 counts, 3 cases, 15% of non-users). In relation to the community ICT centers, the lowest economic benefits recognized were job promotion (LA, DH & KY), and general income (KY and TK ). Uncommon Educational Benefits Acquiring general knowledge at the services of the centers was noted relatively low rated educational benefit by users (10 counts, 8 cases, 40% of users), focus group participants (11 counts, 3 cases, 30% of focus groups) and non-users (5 counts, 5 cases, 25% of non-users). See Appendix Q for table of the uncommon educational benefits.

144

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Conducting distance education was the other low rated educational benefit of the community ICT centers as analyzed from data of users (4 counts, 2 case, 10% of users) and focus groups (2 counts, 2 cases, 20% of focus groups). The other lowest benefits identified in relation to the community ICT centers were distance education (LA & YY), general knowledge (TK), and scholarship (TK & YY). Uncommon Health Benefits Low rated health benefit obtained from the centers was health improvement by user (5 counts, 4 cases, 20% of users) and focus groups (1 count, 1 case, 10% of focus groups). While health improvement was recognized by KY, YY, TK community centers, health facility was identified by only KY community ICT center. See Appendix Q for a table that depicts the uncommon health benefits. Uncommon General Benefits All the general benefits identified in this research were found to be commonly shared by all except that ICT access was not part of the general benefits noted by TK community ICT center. See Appendix Q for a table that depicts the uncommon general benefits. Difference Between Individuals Perceptions By design the research has implemented maximum diversity strategy and as a result, ICT centers and research participants represent diversity. Consequently, perceptions of research participants were expected to vary. Major factors observed during the study that influenced the various perceptions observed were: location of the center, demography of users (work status, age, education), and computer skill. 145

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Location of the Community ICT Center The centers were located in different regions of the country which has a great impact on their influence on the users and community around the centers. Three centers were found to be the only places with ICT access availability. The users of these centers have benefited better than the other centers where there was an access alternatives. One center that was located around cotton producer pastoralists was used for searching market information to export cotton. Hence, the difference of perceptions on the benefits of community ICT centers. Demography of Users The participants of the research had a great variety in work status, age, and education. Some of the participants were unemployed and some employed. As a result, the purpose of using the services of the center varied whether the user was an employ or not. While, employees were using the center for acquiring information related to their work and office obligations, unemployed ones used the system essentially in search of job vacancy. Some elders were using the center to reach distant family members and relatives in the country and abroad, whereas youth were using the center to download music and videos for entertainment. However, students were using the center to get reference materials for their studies and in search of scholarships and distance education. Therefore, demography of users influenced the purpose and use of the center and resulted divergent view on the benefits of community ICT center.

146

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Computer Skill Computer skill was another major factor in the use of the center. Those research participants who had relatively better computer skill were using the centers service in particular the internet to help their purpose. But some, who did not have the skill to browse the internet, could not benefit much from the center. Hence, a difference in perception also emanated from users difference in computer skill. Cross Case Analysis The cross case analysis demonstrated that all ICT centers exhibited several benefits to individuals and communities living around the centers. All centers had similar ICT equipment and nearly provide same kind of services. However, the kind and degree of the benefits they provided was varied. The variety and depth of benefits at LA community ICT center was much higher than the other centers in depth of the benefits users of the centers got. YY community ICT center followed next to LA community ICT center and then KY community ICT center. DH and TK youth community ICT centers trail behind the three centers. The first three centers were unique access centers in the area. Dependency of users on the centers and impact of the center on users was comparatively high. Prior to the operation of the centers, communities of the three centers were travelling to nearby towns for ICT access. As a result, they witnessed noticeable levels of benefits after the opening of the centers. In all the community ICT centers, affordability & the resulting saving was the highest perceived economic benefit obtained from the ICT centers. Employment opportunity was also perceived as the other highest economic benefit by interviewed 147

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty users of all community ICT centers. The lowest economic benefits identified were job promotion (LA, DH & KY ICT centers), and general income (KY, DH and TK youth ICT center). Cross case comparison was also done by employing the features of WordStat 6.1, the result essentially confirmed the analysis and conclusions made. The result is represented in Figure 52 where the size of the circle represents the magnitude of participant responses.

Figure 52. Cross case comparison of community ICT centers on economic benefits. By employing the features of WordStat 6.1, clustering of the centers was also done on the economic output and impact benefits of the centers. The result of two clusters showed that LA and YY community ICT centers belong to one group and KY, DH, and 148

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty TK youth community ICT centers to another based on the similarity they exhibited on economic benefits. Regarding educational benefits, in all the community ICT centers, computer literacy and skill was perceived as the highest educational benefit obtained from the ICT centers. General knowledge was the second highest benefit of the centers per the response of all the interviewed users of the centers. The other lowest benefits identified were distance education (LA & YY community ICT centers), general knowledge (TK youth community ICT center), and scholarship (TK youth & YY community ICT centers). The result of cross case comparison by WordStat 6.1 is depicted in Figure 53 illustrating the comparison of all centers on educational benefits.

Figure 53. Cross case comparison of community ICT centers on educational benefits. 149

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty The highest number of educational benefits (4) of ICT was identified by non users of YY and KY community ICT centers and lowest number of educational benefits (3) was identified by TK youth and LA community ICT centers. However, DH community ICT center identified three educational benefits of ICT. By employing the features of WordStat 6.1, clustering of the centers was also done on the educational output and impact benefits of the centers. The result of two clusters showed that LA youth community ICT center belonged to one group and remaining centers to another group based on the similarity they exhibited on educational benefits. In all the community ICT centers, health knowledge and skill was found out to be the highest perceived health benefit obtained from the ICT centers. While health improvement was the second highest benefit identified by three centers (KY, TK, and YY community ICT centers), health facility was identified by only one community ICT center (KY community ICT center). Only the focus group discussion at one center (DH community ICT center) identified three health benefits while focus group at KY and LA community ICT centers identified two health benefits. YY and TK youth community ICT centers identified only one health benefit. Cross case comparison was also done by employing WordStat 6.1; the result augments the analysis and conclusions made. The result is represented in Figure 54.

150

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Figure 54. Cross case comparison of the community ICT centers on health benefits. By employing the features of WordStat 6.1, clustering of the centers was done on the health output and impact benefits of the centers. The result of two clusters showed that LA, DH, TK and YY community ICT centers belonged to one group and KY community ICT center, to another group based on the similarity they exhibited on health benefits. The two general benefits recognized by all the community ICT center of the study were access and secretarial services. One community ICT center (KY) identified six general benefits of community ICT center. While the community ICT center of DH and YY recognized five of the benefits, LA community ICT center perceived four and TK youth community ICT center came with three general benefits. While three general benefits of ICT was identified by non users of community ICT centers of LA, KY, DH, and YY, TK youth community ICT center identified 2 general benefits. Communication and secretarial services was identified by all centers,

151

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty whereas access was expected benefit by all community ICT centers non-users except TK community ICT center. Cross case comparison was also done by employing WordStat 6.1, and the result is represented in Figure 55.

Figure 55. Cross case comparison of the community ICT centers on general benefits. By employing the features of WordStat 6.1, clustering of the centers was done on the general benefits of the centers. The result of two clusters indicated that DH and YY community ICT centers belonged to one group and LA, KY, and TK youth community ICT centers to another group based on the similarity they exhibited on general benefits. Five general benefits of ICT were identified by non users of LA, YY and DH community ICT centers. While TK youth community ICT center identified 4 general benefits, KY community ICT center identified 3 benefits. However, a secretarial service was identified by 3 centers (LA, DH, and YY community ICT centers).

152

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Overall, when viewed through the lens of Heekss (2002) ICT model, although the centers exhibited varied effect, this research showed that the analysis of benefit perceptions of all five centers demonstrated that ICT can have a role on poverty. Summary of the Findings Chapter 4 reviewed the findings obtained by the researcher during field studies and site visits made at LA, KY, DH, TK, and YY community ICT centers to explore the use of ICT in addressing poverty reduction. The five community ICT centers used various forms of ICT technology to provide services aimed at supporting the users and communities around the centers in their quest for information and services that influenced their daily life. Although the centers are located on varied environment, similar ICTs and services are provided in all centers. For this multiple case qualitative study, the researcher used published literature; observation field notes; focus group discussions, interviews of users and non users of the community ICT centers on the impact of ICT. Important issues and themes were identified in the findings of this study by analyzing the perception of research participants. A noticeable difference between the community ICT centers was the diversity of the areas of operation, kind of owners and the purpose and use of the services provided at the centers. At LA community ICT center the owners and managers of the center are pastoralists who started to grow mainly cotton and use the center as a tool to get information to export their agricultural product which can have a direct impact on their living by getting better price for their product. As the center is the only one in the 153

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty heartland of the desert area of LA, the availability of access in the area has brought an immediate impact on their life. Had it not been for the center, time, finance, and energy could have been wasted in search of ICT services as it used to be prior to the opening of the center. In contrast, TK community ICT center is located at the heart of the capital city, Addis Ababa and level and depth of influence on the users life is limited as there are other alternatives of ICT access and communication. A consequence of this reality may have been that the impact of TK youth community ICT center to the life of the user does not appear to be as powerful as LA community ICT center in the scope of ICT influencing poverty. Next to LA community ICT center, YY and KY community ICT centers appear to have great influence in addressing poverty by virtue of being unique centers of their kind to provide ICT service to users and community around. When viewed as a continuum across location from remote to capital city, the remote centers showed a greater benefit for users of the center and community. As a result, the findings of the research revealed that ICT has an impact on poverty and specifically on economic, educational, and health status of individuals. The study supported and complemented the notion that ICT can influence poverty provided the purpose and use of the technology is integrated with development agenda. The multiple case study conducted based on reports, observation notes, and transcripts of interviews and focus group discussions obtained in this qualitative case study, supports the following conclusions: 154

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 1. The community ICT centers were active with the focus of providing Internet and local network access and secretarial services to communities living near the centers and not local content programs. 2. Most centers served multiple functions as community resource centers. 3. Location of the center for the community greatly affected the use of ICT. The center itself should be easily accessible to provide access. 4. All centers demonstrate varied level of economic, educational, health, and general benefits. 5. In all the community ICT centers, employment opportunity, affordability & saving were the highest perceived economic benefits of the centers. 6. In all the community ICT centers, computer literacy and skill was perceived as the highest educational benefit obtained from the ICT centers. 7. In all the community ICT centers, health knowledge and skill was found out to be the highest perceived health benefit obtained from the ICT centers. 8. The two general benefits identified by all the community ICT centers of the study were ICT access and secretarial services. 9. Comparatively, all effective centers were located in remote and small town settings. As a result, the impact of TK youth community ICT center to the life of the user does not appear to be as powerful as LA community ICT center in the scope of ICT influencing poverty. 10.The community ICT centers role on poverty was the result of multiple factors.

155

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 11.The centers complemented the notion that ICT can influence poverty provided the purpose and use of the technology is integrated with development agenda. As a concluding remark, each community ICT center in this multiple case study has demonstrated benefits of using the center which have an influence in the daily life of the users. However, individual centers benefit were influenced by factors unique to each of the centers. That is to say, factors that were related to location, demography of users, computer skill, communication diffusion, and local contents in each center had their imprints on the outcome and impact of community ICT centers.

156

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The purpose of this study was to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. To limit the scope of the study, ICT intervention was considered as applied to community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact on the user community. Data examined and analyzed during the study provided answers to the research questions and underscored specific strategies used to improve the impact of ICT on poverty. The study addresses the following questions: 1. What is the perception of individuals on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty? 2. Which services and ICTs of the community ICT centers are most important in addressing poverty? 3. What is the difference between individuals perception on the use and benefits of community ICT center in addressing poverty? This chapter presents a summary and discussion of the results, the conclusions, and implications of ICT on poverty. The chapter ends with recommendations to include further research and suggestions to improve the results of the study.

157

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Summary This study explored five community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact of ICT on the user community. Chapter 1 introduces the problem and the need of research on the role of ICT on poverty. Chapter 2 contains the literature review related to ICT and development and provided assessment of current literature on the effects of IT on poverty. Chapter 3 contains the methodology, including the research procedure, collection of data, and analysis of the data. Chapter 4 presented and discussed the result of data collection. Chapter 1 Chapter 1 detailed the need for more research on the role of ICT on poverty. Chapter 1 also documented the several researches that have been conducted on the importance of ICT to development and the relation between ICT and poverty. Three research questions presented the problem to be studied. Significance of the study, limitations of the study and conceptual framework was also explained. Chapter 2 Chapter 2 presented the Literature Review. In Chapter 2, the researcher provided a review of literatures related to ICT, development, and poverty. In this chapter, the researcher analyzed literatures that discuss the impact of telecenter as related to community development and outlined an assessment of the current literature. The findings gathered from Chapter 2 provided comprehensive literature and references on the role of ICT on poverty and the effect of community ICT centers on communities.

158

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Chapter 3 Chapter 3 provided the methodology for the research study. The researcher used a qualitative multiple case study to explore the effectiveness of ICT on poverty based on users perception. According to Gall et al. (2003), Researchers generally do case studies for one of three purposes: to produce detailed descriptions of a phenomenon, to develop possible explanations of it, or to evaluate the phenomenon (p. 439). The focus of study was on 5 community ICT centers located in several parts of Ethiopia that were operational for at least a year. Data was collected from focus group discussions, interviews, direct observations, and documents at the community ICT centers. Chapter 4 Chapter 4 presented a detailed description of the five community ICT centers and analysis of the themes that emerged from the cases. In this chapter, a synthesis of the findings of the five cases was presented in the context of each of the three research questions and cross case analysis was finally dealt. Findings and Related Conclusions The conceptual models that guided this qualitative multiple case study were comprised of the models developed by Heeks (2002), Torero and von Braun (2006), the input-process-output contingency model (Benbunan-Fich et al., 2005) and E. M. Rogerss (1983) innovation diffusion theory. Overall, the potential and deployment of information technology as a development tool could be taken as a universally accepted view. However, researches indicated that ICT as development tool arguably has to encompass broad arrays of factors beyond technology. 159

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty This qualitative multiple-case study focussed on ICT intervention as applied to community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact on the user community. For this qualitative case study, the researcher used data from focus group discussions, interviews, observations, and documents detailing the role of the community ICT centers and their impact on the communities daily life. Research Question 1 Research question 1 was the core question of the study and yielded the most complex set of perceptions on the benefits of community ICT centers in addressing poverty. Research participants perceived economic, education, health, and general benefits as common benefits of the community ICT centers. Overall, education and general benefit were the two most often recognized benefit categories of the community ICT centers. Research participants underscored the value of the community ICT centers on supporting their educational needs in various forms. The researcher expected that computer skill and distance education would be the most important benefit of the community ICT centers. In congruence to the expectation, computer literacy and skill was the most often cited benefit of the centers. However, the community ICT centers had registered low benefit on distance education. During the coding process, 178 subcategories emerged. After multiple coding were done manually by employing QDA Miner 3.2 and by automated coding system of Word Stat 6.1, no new codes became apparent. Finally, the codes were grouped following the research design into thematic groups. Figure 56 displays the researchers construction of the benefits of the community ICT centers. 160

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Impact of Telecenter

General Benefits

Economic

Social

Access

Agricultural income

Education

Health

communication

General Income

General Knowledge

Computer basic skills

Health facilities

Secretarial Services

Job Promotion

Scholarship

Distance Learning

Health Improvement

Employment

Saving

Schooling Support

Foreign languages

Knowledge and Skill

Figure 56. Clustering of benefits into thematic groupings.

Summary of Thematic Groups Educational Benefit As noted earlier, research participants recognized educational benefit as one of the highest benefits of the community ICT centers. Educational benefits included computer skill, school education improvement, distance education, general knowledge, and scholarship. Computer literacy and skill appeared to be the highest recognized educational benefits of the ICT centers. Similar to the finding of this research, other researchers have demonstrated that public access to ICT use has led to increase in IT knowledge and aspirations (Bailey, 2009; Best et al., 2007; Fedotova, 2008; Lengyel et al., 2006; Mercer, 161

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 2006). However, researcher unexpected the benefits of the community ICT centers in terms of the link they had with schools. The support given to school education appeared as the second highest commonly perceived educational benefit of the ICT centers. Another interesting finding was the fact that users got an opportunity of scholarship by using the services of the centers. Thus, effective community ICT centers provided educational services that benefited the users and the community in the vicinity of the community ICT centers. General Benefit Similar to educational benefit, general benefit was the other highest benefit of the community ICT centers recognized by research participants. The three general benefits were access, communication and secretarial services. Effective community ICT centers provide general services to the community around the community ICT centers. While ICT access was the highest general benefit of the center, communication was the second highest general benefit of the center. As explained by Whyte (2000) telecenters are looked at as fast and cost effective ways to provide marginalized communities with access to telecommunications and information resources. Another interesting finding the researcher did not expect was the impact of the secretarial services provided at the centers. Users recognized that the community ICT centers had made a difference by providing secretarial services. Economic Benefit Economic benefits were noted as important benefit obtained from the community ICT centers. The five economic benefits of the centers were saving, employment, agri 162

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty income, job promotion and general income. Affordability of the services and the resulting saving obtained appeared as the highest economic benefit of the ICT centers. Employment emerged as the second most recognized economic benefit of the centers. General income, job promotion and agri income also appeared as economic benefits of the community ICT centers. Similar to this research, Fedotova (2008) found that participants believed that the IT skills they had acquired would help in their job search, and some felt it would help them to gain a promotion. Moreover, Best et al. (2007) reported that eCenter users had acquired a job as a result of the skills they gained at the computer center. Health Benefit The three identified health benefits of the centers were health improvement, knowledge and skill, and health facility. Getting knowledge and skill about health was the most recognized health benefit of the community ICT centers. Related to this finding, Ashraf et al. (2008) indicated that in a telecenter project in Bangladesh community members gained knowledge on basic hygiene practices. While health facility was the other health benefit obtained by using the centers, health improvement fell far behind the recognized health benefits. Overall, the least valued benefits of the community ICT centers were found to be their impact on health benefits. Research Question 2 While computer training provided at the community ICT centers got the highest valued service, secretarial service was recognized as the second highest valued service of 163

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty the community ICT centers. On the other hand, Internet services provided at the community ICT centers was found as the least important valued service. However, the respondents expressed that it was not the value of the internet service but the availability of the service and other capacity of usage of the internet that turned it to be low valued. Binding & scanning services provided were also on the low valued list of services. In terms of the importance of ICT equipments/technologies available at the community ICT centers, computer as an IT technological devise got the highest valued IT technology. In contrast, fax as an IT technological devise at the community ICT centers got the lowest valued IT technology. Research Question 3 The third research question addressed the difference between individuals perception on the use and benefits of community ICT center in addressing poverty. Uncommon Benefits While the two economic benefits that got low recognition by research participants were agri income and job promotion, acquiring general knowledge at the services of the centers was noted as low rated educational benefit. Conducting distance education was the other low rated educational benefit of the community ICT centers. The other low rated benefit from the community ICT center was health improvement for health benefits. Causes for the Diverse Perceptions on the Benefits of Community ICT Centers Major factors observed during the study that influenced the various perceptions of research participants were: location of the center, demography of users (work status, age, education), and computer skill. 164

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Location of the community ICT center. The centers were located in different regions of the country which has a great impact of their influence on the users and community around the centers. Three centers were found to be the only places for ICT access. The users of these centers have benefited better than the other centers where there was an access alternatives. One center that was located around cotton producer pastoralists was used for searching market information to export cotton. Hence, the difference of perceptions on the benefits of community ICT centers. Demography of users. The participants of the research had a great diversity in work status, age, and education. Some of the participants were unemployed and some employed. While, employees were using the center for acquiring information related to their work and office obligations, unemployed used the system essentially in search of job vacancy. Some elders were using the center to reach distant family members and relatives in the country and abroad, whereas youth were using the center to download music and videos for entertainment. However, students were using the center to get reference materials for their studies and in search of scholarships and distance education. Therefore, demography of users influenced the purpose and use of the center and resulted divergent view on the benefits of community ICT center. Computer skill. Computer skill was another major factor in the use of the center. Those research participants who had relatively better computer skill were using the centers service in particular the internet to help their purpose. But some, who did not have the skill to browse the internet, could not benefit much from the center. Hence, a difference in perception also emanated from users difference in computer skill. 165

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Conclusions Maximum diversity strategy was implemented in this research and as a result, ICT centers and research participants represent diversity. Consequently, perceptions of research participants were expected to vary. Major factors observed during the study that influenced the various perceptions observed were: location of the center, demography of users (work status, age, education), and computer skill. The five community ICT centers who were the subject of this research used various forms of ICT technology to provide services aimed at supporting the users and communities around the centers in their quest for information and services that influenced their daily life. Although the centers are located on varied environment, similar ICTs and services are provided in all centers. ITU (2009) has identified lack of connectivity and the cost of access as obstacles to access to information for the developing world. Furthermore other studies have shown that access to information through telecommunications can facilitate many development activities including agriculture, commerce, education, and health care (Gomez & Hunt, 1999; Sebusang & Masupe, 2003). The finding of this study also adds to the declared view as the availability of the ICT access and services at the community ICT centers has demonstrated positive developmental influence. Pott (2003) argued that in order to contribute to development, the creation of telecenters had to be connected to the existing community organizations and initiatives. In line with this thought, all the community ICT centers were linked to community association which was one of the reasons for the community members to use ICT.

166

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty A noticeable difference observed between the community ICT centers was the diversity of the areas of operation, kind of owners and the purpose and use of the services provided at the centers. Furthermore, when viewed as a continuum across location from remote to capital city, the remote centers showed a greater benefit for the users. However, each community ICT center in this multiple case study has demonstrated benefits of using the center which have an influence in the daily life of the users. This finding is inconformity to the research conducted by Soriano (2007), which indicated positive implications of telecenters on economic, social, and human aspects of rural poverty. In addition, Benjamins (2000) causal chain of telecenters impact on development was also demonstrated by this research: telecenters access to ICTs provide services assist development (Benjamin) telecenters access to ICTs Computer training Employment & or job promotion (Current research) telecenters access to ICTs Internet Scholarship/export (Current research) Overall, individual centers benefits were influenced by factors unique to each of the centers. That is to say, factors that were related to location, demography of users, computer skill, communication diffusion, and local contents in each center had their imprints on the outcome and impact of community ICT centers. In conclusion, the findings of the research revealed that ICT has an impact on poverty and specifically on economic, educational, and health status of individuals. The study supported and complemented the notion that ICT can influence poverty provided the purpose and use of the technology is integrated with development agenda (Harris, 167

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 2002; Heeks, 2002). In effect, this research upholds the combined view of the middleground view that declares that if ICTs are applied appropriately, it can play a role in the development of a nation (Soeftestad & Sein, 2003) and Heekss (2002) position B, which views the types of impacts associated with technological change as both good and bad, and which sees society rather than technological factors as primary determinants of outcomes. Implications of the Research Findings The following implications are recommendations for maximizing the benefits of community ICT centers: 1. Effective community ICT centers provide services that have great demand by the community around them. The community ICT centers must deliver services by identifying the gap on ICT services demand by community which lies within the scope of the centers service provision. 2. Effective community ICT centers serve multiple functions for the community. 3. Effective community ICT centers are located at the heart of their user community. The centers should be easily accessible to provide an ICT access. 4. Effectiveness of community ICT centers are demonstrated in various forms. The most notable forms of effectiveness are illustrated by economic, educational, health, and general benefits. 5. Effective community ICT centers are instruments of poverty alleviation by providing services that influence the economic status of the community. Affordability & saving, employment, job promotion, general income and agri 168

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty income are forms of economic benefits of the community ICT centers. 6. Effective community ICT centers demonstrate educational benefits to the community living around the centers. Educational benefits can be in the form of computer literacy and skill, scholarship, distance education, foreign language, and school education support. 7. Effective community ICT centers can bring health benefits to the community. Health knowledge and skill, health facility, and health improvement are health benefits of the community ICT centers. 8. Effective community ICT centers provide access and secretarial services to the community. 9. The effectiveness of the community ICT centers are influenced by geographic location. The centers in remote and small town settings demonstrate higher impact of ICT on poverty. 10.The effectiveness of community ICT centers on poverty is the result of multiple factors. 11.Effective community ICT centers are integrated with development agenda to influence poverty. Recommendations for Further Study Based on the findings of this qualitative multiple case study, the following areas for further study are recommended: 1. Future research should focus on understanding the percentage of beneficiary as opposed to users of the center and community nearby. 169

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 2. Other stakeholders might be interviewed with the same interview instrument to determine if the benefits recognized are similar from other users point of view. 3. Since possible reasons for diverse perception of ICT benefits emerged in the research, an interesting study could be designed to examine the level of influence of the reasons in the role of ICT on poverty. 4. Future research should include more community ICT centers in different environmental settings. One such study might be to look at the benefits of ICT in community ICT centers serving farmers. Would there be similar benefits to the findings of this research? Would the findings be different had the research been conducted in private ICT centers? 5. As remote community ICT centers demonstrate higher impact on poverty, researches that give special emphasis for rural community ICT centers must be encouraged and given high priority. 6. Finally, results of the present study imply that some benefits of the community ICT centers were more important than others. A quantitative method can be used to conduct a survey to rank the level of importance of the community ICT center benefits. In addition, analysis could be conducted to determine whether there is correlation between ICT and poverty alleviation intervention. Reflections of the Researcher As an instrument of data collection in this multiple case study the researcher was also a participant in the research process. From this perspective it was necessary for the researcher to isolate personal feelings, biases, and interpretations during data collection 170

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty and analysis. A researchers observation note was maintained for this purpose. By virtue of the researchers managerial postion, the researcher had a keen curiosity in the theory of ICT for development and particularly as it relates to poverty allevation. This interest stems from at least five years of working in high managerial positions of ICT departments. In addition, the researcher brought the following assumptions to the study (a) that data collection will be confined to the individuals and community ICT centers identified in the study; and (b) the respondents might not provide the correct information which would affect both the credibility and validity of the findings. These assumptions remained important through the duration of the study as the researcher made every effort to ensure the benfits of the cmmunity ICT centers was adequatedly captured. Furthermore, the hope of the researcher is that the assumptions possible effect was mitigated through the process of triangulating multiple sources of data (Creswell, 1998; Yin, 2003). During the course of this study, the researcher arrived at the realization that the benefits of ICT are much more dependent on various factors. The analysis of the data for these five cases made this abundantly clear to the researcher. In view of geographic positions, community ICT centers located in remote areas had greately affected the life of users. In addition, the community ICT centers success in benefiting the community is not entirely dependent on the quality of service provided by the centers but it also depends on computer skill, demography, and status of employment.

171

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty In a nut shell, the research results of this study support the findings of other scholars such as Heeks (2002) and Benbunan-Fich et al. (2005), who wrote that ICTs impact is influenced by other environmental and institutional factors. Moreover, when viewed through the lens of Heekss ICT model, although the centers exhibited varied effect, this research showed that the analysis of benefit perceptions of all five centers demonstrated that ICT can have a role on poverty. In conclusion, the results of this study will help other researchers study the effects of ICT on poverty as demonstrated by five community ICT centers. Those who undertake community ICT centers development program need to know how the centers could turn to a great resource that have an impact on attacking poverty.

172

REFERENCES Abraham, R. (2007). Mobile phones and economic development: Evidence from the fishing industry in India. Information Technologies & International Development, 4(1), 517. Aichholzer, G. (2004). Scenarios of e-Government in 2010 and implications for strategy design. Electronic Journal of e-Government, 2(1), 110. Retrieved from http://www.ejeg.com/issue/download.html?idIssue=4 Alampay, E. (2006). Beyond access to ICTs: Measuring capabilities in the information society. International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 2(3), 4 22. Retrieved from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=196 Ashraf, M., Swatman, P., & Hanisch, J. (2008, June). An extended framework to investigate ICT impact on development at the micro (community) level. Paper presented at 16th European Conference on Information Systems, Galway, Ireland. Badshah, A., Khan, S., & Garrido, M. (Eds.). (2005). Connected for development: Information kiosks and sustainability (ICT Task Force Series 4). New York, NY: Secretariat of the United Nations ICT Task Force. Bailey, A. (2009). Issues affecting the social sustainability of telecentres in developing contexts: A field study of sixteen telecentres in Jamaica. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 36(4), 118. Bailur, S. (2007). Using stakeholder theory to analyze telecenter projects. Information Technologies & International Development, 3(3), 6180. Batchelor, S., Scott, N., & Woolnough, D. (2005). Good practice paper on ICTs for economic growth and poverty reduction. Journal of Development Assistance Committee, 6(3), 2795. Beardon, H. (with Munyampeta, F., Rout, S., & Williams, G. M.). (2005). ICT for development: Empowerment or exploitation? London, England: Action Aid. Retrieved from http://www.actionaid.org.uk/_content/documents/ICTpo.pdf Bedi, A. S. (1999). The role of information and communication technologies in economic development (ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 7). Retrieved from http://www.zef.de/fileadmin/webfiles/downloads/zef_dp/zef_dp7-99.pdf

173

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Benbunan-Fich, R., Hiltz, S. R., & Harasim, L. (2005). The online interaction learning model: An integrated theoretical framework for learning networks. In S. R. Hiltz & R. Goldman (Eds.), Learning together online: Research on asynchronous learning networks (pp. 1937). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Benjamin, P. (2000). Telecentre 2000 report: Literature review. Johannesburg, South Africa: University of Witswatersrand. Best, M., Kolko, B., Thakur, D., & Aitieva, M. (2007). Assessment of economic growth impacts of the eCenters Project in Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved from http://mikeb.inta.gatech.edu/uploads/papers/Kyrgyzstan.eCenters.pdf Best, M., & Kumar, R. (2008). Sustainability failures of rural telecenters: Challenges from Sustainable Access in Rural India (SARI) Project. Information Technologies and International Development, 4(4), 3145. Best, M., & Maclay, C. (2002). Community Internet access in rural areas: Solving the economic sustainability puzzle. In The Global Information Technology Report 2001-2002: Readiness for the networked world. Cambridge, MA: Centre for International Development, Harvard University. Best, M., & Maier, S. (2007). Gender and ICT use in rural South India. Gender Technology and Development, 11(2), 137155. Bjrhov, M. (2006). Mobile against poverty. Telecommunications [International Ed.], 40(11), 3436. Colle, R. D. (2005). Memo to telecentre planners. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 21(1), 113. Colle, R. D., & Roman, R. (2001). Telecenters for rural development: Critical perspectives and visions for the future. Journal of Development Communications, 12(2). Colle, R. D., & Roman, R. (2002). Handbook for telecenter staffs. Retrieved from http://ip.cals.cornell.edu/commdev/handbook.cfm Commission of the European Communities. (2001). Information and communication technologies in development: The role of ICTs in EC development policy (Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament). Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/development/icenter/repository/ com2001_0770en01_en.pdf Conradie, D. P., & Jacobs, S. J. (2003, February). Challenges encountered when using ICTs in support of development in rural African communities. Engineering Management, 3033. 174

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2003). Business research methods. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage. Department for International Development (DFID). (2001). Sustainable livelihood guidance sheets. London, England: Author. Department for International Development (DFID). (2002). The significance of information and communication technologies for reducing poverty. Retrieved from http://www.digitale-chancen.de/transfer/downloads/MD369.pdf Dhingra, A., & Misra, D. C. (2005). Information needs assessment model (INAM) for identifying the information needs of rural communities. Information Technologies and International Development, 2(2), 77-78. Donner, J. (2007). The use of mobile phones by microentrepreneurs in Kigali, Rwanda: Changes to social and business networks. Information Technologies & International Development, 3(2), 319. Doshi, K., & Gollakota, K. (n.d.). Diffusion of technological innovation in rural areas. Retrieved from http://worldbenefit.case.edu/global-forum/file/Doshi/Doshi%20 Gollakota.pdf Duncombe, R. A. (2001). Information, technology, and small, medium and micro enterprise development in Botswana. Doctoral dissertation, Institute for Development Policy and Management, Botswana, Malawi. Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. England: Oxford University Press. Engels, P. (1997). The social organization of innovation: A focus on stakeholder interaction. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Royal Tropical Institute.

175

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Ernberg, J., & International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (1998, October). Integrated rural development and universal accessTowards a framework for evaluation of multipurpose community telecentre pilot projects implemented by ITU and its partners. Paper presented at Partnerships and Participation in Telecommunications for Rural Development: Exploring What Works and Why Conference, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Ethiopian Information and Communication Technology Development Agency (EICTDA) (2009). Community ICT centers in Ethiopia: ICT assisted development project management unit (PMU). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Author. Etta, F. E., & Parvyn-Wamahiu, S. (2003). The experience with community telecentres (Information and Communication Technologies for Development in Africa, Vol. 2). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2008). Summary and statistical report of the 2007 population and housing census. New York, NY: United Nations Population Fund. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2009). National information and communication technology policy and strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Author. Fedotova, E. (2008). Eskills: Catalyst to opportunity. Baltic IT&T Review, 3. Retrieved from http://www.ebaltics.com/00705601 Fillip, B., & Dennis, F. (2007). Making the connection: Scaling telecenters for development. Retrieved from http://connection.aed.org/index.htm Franklin, M. (2006). Suggested best practice for pursuing development and poverty reduction through national ICT strategies. Journal of Eastern Caribbean Studies, 31(4), 85104. Fuchs, R. (1997). If you have a lemon, make lemonade: A guide to the start-up of the African multipurpose community telecentre pilot projects. Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/files/15772/10848007181If_you_have_a_lemon_ma ke_a_lemonade.pdf/If%2Byou%2Bhave%2Ba%2Blemon%2Bmake%2Ba%2Ble monade.pdf Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2003). Educational research: An introduction (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Gomez, R., & Hunt, P. (1999). Telecentre evaluation: A global perspective. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

176

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Gomez, R., Hunt, P., & Lamoureux, E. (1999). Focus on telecentres: How can they contribute to social development? Latin American Review of Communication, 1, 18. Gomez, R., & Martinez, J. (2001). The Internet . . .Why? And what for? Thoughts on information and communication technologies for development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre & Fundacion Accesso. Gomez, R., & Reilly, K. (2002). Comparing approaches: Telecentre evaluation experiences in Asia and Latin America. International Information and Library Review, 34(1), 5778. Gurstein, M. (2003). Effective use: A community informatics strategy beyond the digital divide. First Monday, 8(12). Hamel, J., Dufour, S., & Fortin, D. (1993). Case study methods (Qualitative Research Methods Series, Vol. 32). London, England: Sage. Harris, R. W. (2002). A framework for poverty alleviation with ICTs. Retrieved from http://www.communities.org.ru/ci-text/harris.doc Harris, R. W. (2004). Information and communication technologies for poverty alleviation. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)Asian-Pacific Development Information Program (APDIP). Hartono, E., Lederer, A. L., Sethi, V., & Zhuang, Y. (2003). Key predictors of the implementation of strategic information systems plans. Special Interest Group of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) on Management Information Systems (SIGMIS) Database, 34(3), 4153. Haseloff, A. M. (2005). Cybercafs and their potential as community development tools in India. The Journal of Community Informatics, 1(3), 5364. Hatch, J. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany: State University of New York Press. Heeks, R. (1999). Information and communication technologies, poverty and development (Development Informatics Working Paper Series No. 5). Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/NISPAcee/ UNPAN015539.pdf Heeks, R. (2002). i-development not e-development: Special issue on ICTs and development. Journal of International Development, 14(1), 111.

177

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Heeks, R. (2003). Most e-government-for-development projects fail: How can risks be reduced? (iGovernment Working Paper Series No. 14). Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/NISPAcee/UNPAN01548 8.pdf Heeks, R. (2008). ICT4D 2.0: The next phase of applying ICT for international development. Computer, 41(6), 2633. Heeks, R., & Bhatnagar, S. C. (1999). Understanding success and failure in information age reform. In R. Heeks (Ed.), Reinventing government in the Information Age: International practice in IT-enabled public sector reform (pp. 4974). London, England: Routledge. Retrieved from http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/~subhash/pdfs/ ReinventingGovInInfoAge.pdf Hudson, H. (2001). Telecentre evaluation: Issues and strategies. In C. Latchem & D. Walker (Eds.), Telecentres: Case studies and key issues. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved from http://www.col. org/telecentres International Development Research Centre (IDRC). (1999). Internet for all: The promise of telecentres in Africa (IDRC Briefing 3). Retrieved from http://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/ dspace/bitstream/10625/30940/1/114393.pdf International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (1998). World telecommunication development report. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2009). Telecentres. Retrieved from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/telecentre/index.html Jacobs, S. J., & Herselman, M. E. (2006). Information access for development: A case study at a rural community centre in South Africa. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 3, 295306.Retrieved from http://informingscience. org/proceedings/InSITE2006/IISITJaco113.pdf James, J. (2005). Information technology and development. London, England: Routledge. Jensen, M., & Esterhuysen, A. (2001). The community telecentre cookbook for Africa: Recipes for self-sustainability: How to establish a multipurpose community telecentre in Africa (Report No. CI-2001/W/S/2). Paris, France: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Kanfi, S., & Tulus, F. (1998). Telecentres. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre. Kelles-Viitanen, A. (2003). The role of ICT in poverty reduction. Retrieved from http://www.etla.fi/files/895_FES_03_1_role_of_ict.pdf 178

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Kline, R., & Pinch, T. (1990). The social construction of technology. In D. MacKenzie & J. Wajcman (Eds.), The social shaping of technology (pp.113115). Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus group interviews: A practical guide for applied research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Krueger, R. A. (1998). Developing questions for focus groups (Focus Group Kit 3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kumar, R. (2004). eChoupals: A study on the financial sustainability of village Internet centers in rural Madhya Pradesh. Information Technologies and International Development, 1(3), 4573. Kumar, R., & Best, M. (2006). Social impact and diffusion of telecenter use: A study from the sustainable access in rural India project. The Journal of Community Informatics, 2(3, Special Iss.). Available from http://www.ictregulationtoolkit.org/ en/Publication.3544.html Kuriyan, R., Ray, I., & Toyama, K. (2008). Information and communication technologies for development: The bottom of the pyramid model in practice. The Information Society, 24(2), 93104. Kuriyan, R., & Toyama, K. (2007). Review of research on rural PC kiosks. Retrieved from http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/india/projects/ruralkiosks/ Kiosks%20Research.doc Kuriyan, R., Toyama, K., & Ray, I. (2005). Integrating social development and financial sustainability: The social and political challenges of kiosks. Available at http://www.ictregulationtoolkit.org/en/Publication.3541.html Labelle, R. (2005). ICT policy formulation and e-strategy development: A comprehensive guidebook (UNDP-APDIP ICT4D Series). New Delhi, India: Elsevier. Latchem, C., & Walker, D. (2001). Perspectives on distance education: Telecentres: Case studies and key issues. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved from http://www.col.org/ PublicationDocuments/pub_PS_Telecentres_complete.pdf Lengyel, G., Eranusz, E., Fleki, D., Lrincz, L., & Sikls, V. (2006). The Csernfa experiment: On the attempt to deploy computers and Internet in a small Hungarian village. The Journal of Community Informatics, 2(3, Special Iss.). Lewins, A., & Silver, C. (2008). Using software in qualitative research: A step-by-step guide. London, England: Sage. 179

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Madon, S. (2005). Governance lessons from the experience of telecenters in Kerala. European Journal of Information Systems, 14(4), 401416. Mahan, A., & Misnikov, Y. (2004). Introduction: Basic principles from lessons learned. In A. Mahan (Ed.), How to build open information societies: A collection of best practices and know-how. Bratislava, Slovak Republic: United Nations Development Programme & Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Malloy, T. K. (2005). Cybercafes from Cyberia to the Phlegmatic Dog. World and I, 20(1). Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Marshall, S., Taylor, W., & Yu, X. (2003). Closing the digital divide: Transforming regional economies and communities with information technology. London, England: Praeger. McNamara, K. S. (2000, March/April). Why be wired? The importance of access to ICTs. TechKnowLogia. Retrieved from http://www.techknowlogia.org/TKL_ Articles/PDF/87.pdf McNamara, K. S. (2003). Information and communication technologies, poverty and development: Learning from experience. Retrieved from http://www.infodev.org/ en/Document.17.PDF Mercer, C. (2006). Telecentres and transformations: Modernizing Tanzania through the Internet. African Affairs,105(419), 243264. Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Miller, D. (2006). The unpredictable mobile phone. BT Technology Journal, 24(3), 41 48. Mncube, S. S. (2003). The role of information in development. Midrand, South Africa: Development Bank of Southern Africa.

180

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Moodley, S. (2005). The promise of e-development? A critical assessment of the state ICT for poverty reduction discourse in South Africa. Perspectives on Global Development & Technology, 4(1), 126. Mukerji, M. (2008). Telecentres in rural India: Emergence and a typology. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 35, 113. Munyua, H. (2000). Information and communication technologies for rural development and food security: Lessons from field experiences in developing countries. CAB International, Africa Regional Centre. Ngwenyama, O., Andoh-Baidoo, F. K., Bollou, F., & Morawczynski, O. (2006). Is there a relationship between ICT, health, education and development? An empirical analysis of five West African countries from 1997-2003. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 23, 111. Nulens, G. (2000). Information technology in Africa: The policy of the World Bank. In C. Avgerou & G. Walsham (Eds.), Information technology in context: Studies from the perspective of developing countries (pp. 61, 451471). Aldershot, England: Ashgate. OFarrell, C., Norrish, P., & Scott, A. (n.d.). Information and communication technologies for sustainable livelihoods: Preliminary study, AprilNov 1999. Retrieved from http://www.reading.ac.uk/idc/researchfiles/ICTBreifingDoc%20 Mar00.PDF Opiyo, R. O., & KAkumu, O. A. (2006). ICT application in the informal sector: The case of the Kariokor market MSE cluster in Nairobi. Urban Forum, 17(3), 241 261. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (1998). The OECD definition of the ICT sector. Paris, France: Author. Pade, C., Mallinson, B., & Lannon, J. (2005). The use of information and communication technologies for rural development and poverty alleviation in developing countries: An investigation of gender specific agricultural development. The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication, 6, 421. Panos. (2002). Panos mini-briefings on ICTs-enabled communication strategies for social change. London, England: Author. Parkinson, S., & Lauzon, A. C. (2008). The impact of the Internet on local social equity: A study of a telecenter in Aguablanca, Colombia. Information Technologies & International Development, 4(3), 2138.

181

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Parkinson, S., & Ramirez, R. (2006). Using a sustainable livelihoods approach to assessing the impact of ICTs in development. The Journal of Community Informatics, 2(3), 116127. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). London, England: Sage. Pedrelli, M. (2001). Developing countries and the ICT revolution: Final study. Retrieved from http://www.euresearch.ch/media/IST_STOA_Dev_Countries_en_2000.pdf Pott, A. (2003). Rural development and the flow of information: Do ICTs have a role? Masters thesis, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, England. Proenza, F. J. (n.d.). Telecentre sustainabilityMyths and opportunities. Retrieved from http://www.e-forall.org/pdf/TelecenterSustainability.pdf Proenza, F. J., Bastidas-Buch, R., & Montero, G. (2001). Telecenters for socioeconomic and rural development in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. Rajalekshmi, K. G. (2007). E-governance services through telecenters: The role of human intermediary and issues of trust. Information Technologies & International Development, 4(1), 1935. Ramirez, R., & Richardson, D. (2005). Measuring the impact of telecommunication services on rural and remote communities. Telecommunications Policy, 29(4), 297319. Rangaswamy, N., & Toyama, K. (2005, July). Sociology of ICT: The myth of the hibernating village. Presentation at the 11th Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Las Vegas, NV. Rao, S. S. (2008). Social development in Indian rural communities: Adoption of telecentres. International Journal of Information Management, 28(6), 474482. Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Rogers, H. (2007, July). Telecenter evaluation in the Malaysian context. Presentation at the Fifth International Conference on Information Technology in Asia, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

182

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Roman, R. (2003). Diffusion of innovations as a theoretical framework for telecenters. Information Technologies & International Development, 1(2), 5366. Roman, R., & Blattman, C. (2001). Research for telecenter development: Obstacles and opportunities. Journal of Development Communication, 12(2), 110123. Rothenberg-Aalami, J., & Pal, J. (2005). Rural telecenter impact assessments and the political economy of ICT for development (ICT4D) (BRIE Working Paper 164). Retrieved from http://brie.berkeley.edu/publications/WP%20164revised.pdf Rubin, H. B., & Rubin, I. S. (1995). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Salvador, T., Sherry, J. W., & Urrutia, A. E. (2005). Less cyber, more caf: Enhancing existing small businesses across the digital divide with ICTs. Information Technology for Development, 11(1), 7795. Sebusang, S. E. M., & Masupe, S. (2003). ICT development in Botswana: Connectivity for rural communities. The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication, 4, 4151. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. England: Oxford University Press. Sey, A., & Fellows, M. (2009). Literature review on the impact of public access to ICTs (CIS Working Paper No. 6). Retrieved from http://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/ bitstream/10625/45566/1/132029.pdf Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Siochr, S. ., & Girard, B. (2005). Communitybased networks and innovative technologies: New models to serve and empower the poor. Retrieved from http://www.propoor-ict.net/content/pdfs/Community_Nets.pdf Soeftestad, L. T., & Sein, M. K. (2003). ICT and development: East is east and west is west and the twain may yet meet. In S. Krishna & S. Madon (Eds.), The digital challenge: Information technology in the development context (pp. 6382). Aldershot, England: Ashgate. Retrieved from http://www.supras.biz/pdf/supras_ 048_ictanddev.pdf Soriano, C. R. R. (2007). Exploring the ICT and rural poverty reduction link: Community telecenters and rural livelihoods in Wuan, China. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 32, 115.

183

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Stoll, K., Menou, M., Camacho, K., & Khelladi, Y. (2002). Draft: Learning about ICTs role in development: A framework toward a participatory, transparent, and continuous process. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Centre. Talero, E., & Gaudette, P. (1996). Harnessing information for development: A proposal for a World Bank Group strategy (World Bank Discussion Paper No. 313). Washington, DC: World Bank. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tellis, W. (1997). Introduction to case study. The Qualitative Report, 3(2). Torero, M., & von Braun, J. (2006). Information and communication technologies for development and poverty reduction: The potential of telecommunications. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Toyama, K., Kiri, K., Menon, D., Pal, J., Sethi, S., & Srinivasan, J. (2005). PC kiosk trends in rural India. E-Learning and Digital Media, 3(3), 317324. Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Qualitative validity. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualval.php United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2007). Information Economy Report 2007-2008: Science and technology for development: The new paradigm of ICT. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2001). Human development report 2001. Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/completenew1.pdf United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2007). Telecenter 2.0: Beyond piloting telecenters (Asian-Pacific Development Information Program [APDIP] eNote 14). Retrieved from http://www.apdip.net/apdipenote/14.pdf United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (n.d.). Tracking the millennium development goals. Retrieved from http://www.mdgmonitor.org/goal1.cfm United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) & Virtual System Processing. (2006). The socio-economic impacts of ICTs in rural Iran. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001497/149778e.pdf Van Belle, J. P., & Trusler, J. (2006). An interpretivist case study of a South African rural multipurpose community centre. The Journal of Community Informatics,1(2), 140157. 184

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Walsham, G. (1997). Actor-network theory and IS research: Current status and future prospects. In A. S. Lee, J. Liebenau, & J. I. DeGross (Eds.), Information systems and qualitative research (pp. 466480). London, England: Chapman & Hall. Waverman, L., Meschi, M., & Fuss, M. (n.d.). The impact of telecoms on economic growth in developing countries: The impact of mobile phones. Retrieved from http://web.si.umich.edu/tprc/papers/2005/450/L%20Waverman%20Telecoms%20Growth%20in%20Dev.%20Countries.pdf Whyte, A. (2000). Assessing community telecenters: Guidelines for researchers. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: International Development Research Center. Wims, P., & Lawler, M. (2007). Investing in ICTs in educational institutions in developing countries: An evaluation of their impact in Kenya. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology, 3(1), 522. Wolfensohn, J., & Bourguignon, F. (2004). Development and poverty reduction: Looking back, looking ahead. Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/ Resources/84797-1104785060319/lookingbacklookingahead.pdf World Bank. (1998). World Bank report. Washington, DC: Author. World Bank. (2000a). Best practice review of telecentre operations. Washington, DC: Author. World Bank. (2000b). World development report 2000/2001: Attacking poverty. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. World Bank. (2003). ICT and MDGs: A World Bank Group perspective. Retrieved from http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/ 2004/09/15/000090341_20040915091312/Rendered/PDF/278770ICT010mdgs0C omplete.pdf World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). (2004). Report of the Geneva phase of the World Summit on the Information Society. Retrieved from http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-s/md/03/wsis/doc/S03-WSIS-DOC0009!R1!PDF-E.pdf Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage. Yin, R. K. (2008). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

185

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Zongo, G. (2001). Information and communication technologies for development in Africa: Trends and overview. Turin, Italy: United Nations System Staff College.

186

APPENDIX A. COMMUNITY ICT CENTERS INCLUDED IN THE RESEARCH

Community ICT Center TK Youth Center Community ICT Center DH Youth, Elders Center Community ICT Center YY Youth Center Community ICT Center LA Pastoralists Very close Community ICT Center KY Youth, Elders Center

Type of Community Location within community Hours available to public

Weekdays 8 AM- 6 PM + Saturday 8 AM- 12:00 AM Computer training Services: Internet, email, & secretarial services

Weekdays 8 AM- 7 PM + Saturday 8 AM- 12:00 AM Computer training Services: internet, email, & secretarial services

Weekdays 8 AM- 6 PM + Saturday 8 AM- 12:00 AM Computer training Services: Internet, email, & secretarial services

Weekdays 8 AM- 6 PM + Saturday 8 AM- 12:00 AM Computer training Services: Internet, email, & secretarial service

Weekdays 8 AM- 6 PM + Saturday 8 AM- 12:00 AM Computer training Services: Internet, email, & secretarial services

Activity and Service Components

187

APPENDIX B. QUESTIONS FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION 1.What is your experience of using the community ICT center services? 2.What is the most valuable service to the community from the services offered by the community ICT center? 3.What is the most important ICT to the community from the ICTs available in the community ICT center? 4.What effect has the community ICT center on the economic development of the community? 5.What effect has the community ICT center on the educational development of the community? 6.What effect has the community ICT center on the health development of the community?

188

APPENDIX C. QUESTIONS FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (AMHARIC VERSION)

189

APPENDIX D. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ICT CENTER USER Research topic: Effectiveness of information and communication technology (ICT) on poverty: Exploring the perception of users of community ICT centers in Ethiopia on the effectiveness of the centers in addressing poverty alleviation: A qualitative study

Community ICT center: Time of interview: Date: Place: Research: The purpose of the study is to explore the role ICT plays in addressing poverty. ICT intervention will be considered as applied to community ICT centers in view of examining the consequence and impact on the user community. The findings of the study will lay a foundation for future research that will show the relationship of ICT and poverty alleviation. By understanding the factors that influence the use of ICT, models could be developed that assist for improving the deployment and the benefit of ICT. In addition, the study will contribute in developing a comprehensive perspective on the role of ICT on poverty alleviation and development.

190

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Section 1: Individual characteristics 1.Residence:__________________________ 2.Age: less than 10 years____ 10-20___21-30__31-40___41-50____51-60___over 60 years____ 3.Gender: Masculine_____ Feminine____ 4.No of family members_______ 5.Functionally literate (can you read and write): Yes____ No___ A little___ 6.Education level: None____ Pre-primary education___ Primary education____ Lower secondary____ Upper secondary education_____ Post-secondary____ non-tertiary education____ First stage of tertiary_____ Second stage of tertiary____ 7.Languages: English____ Other(indicate mother tongue)__________ 8.Labor force status: Paid employee____ Self-employed____ Unemployed_____

Section 2: Individual use of ICT at the center 1.Describe the facilities/services you used from the community ICT center? 2.What was the purpose of using facilities/services of the community ICT center? 3.In your experience, what benefits did you get from the community ICT center? 4.What would you have done if the community ICT center didnt exist? 5.Which facilities/services of the community ICT center have the least demand or unwanted? 6.Before the establishment of the ICT community center, where were you going to get service of the center?_________ Your means of transport_____ Time required one 191

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty way_______ Cost of transport (round trip)_____Average time spent away from home on these trips______ 7.How much did you save by using the community ICT center?

Section 3: User perception of Impact 1.In what way has your use of ICT community center changed your life (if at all)? 2.What effect has the community ICT center on the economic activity of the community? 3.What effect has the community ICT center on the educational activity of the community? 4.What effect has the community ICT center on the health activity of the community?

Thank you for your participation.

192

APPENDIX E. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ICT CENTER USER (AMHARIC VERSION)

193

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

194

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

195

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

196

APPENDIX F. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON-USER OF ICT CENTER Section 1: Individual characteristics 1.Residence:__________________________ 2.Age: less than 10 years____ 10-20___21-30__31-40___41-50____51-60___over 60 years____ 3.Gender: Masculine_____ Feminine____ 4.No of family members_______ 5.Functionally literate (can you read and write): Yes____ No___ A little___ 6.Education level: None____ Pre-primary education___ Primary education____ Lower secondary____ Upper secondary education_____ Post-secondary____ non-tertiary education____ First stage of tertiary_____ Second stage of tertiary____ 7.Languages: English____ Other(indicate mother tongue)__________ 8.Labor force status: Paid employee____ Self-employed____ Unemployed_____

Section 2: Individual view of ICT 1.Have you ever used IT? Yes___ No___ If yes which ICTs were you exposed to? Telephone Yes___ No___ Fax Yes___ No___ Computer Yes___ No___ 197

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Internet Yes___ No___ etc 2.What kind of information do you need? 3.What kind of information do you need most? (Could be a follow-up to question no. 2) 4.What kind of information would you like to give to other people? 5.Would you like to learn another language? Yes___ No___ Dont know___ 6.For what purposes do you need ICTs? 7.Do you listen to radio? If yes what do you like most to listen to? 8.If you dont listen to radio? Why? 9.Do you watch TV? If yes what do you like most to watch? 10.If you dont why? 11.If you had access to computer what would you use it for? 12.What other sources of information do you use? 13.To which place outside your village do you go most often? 14.Average time spent away from home on these trips? 15.Why do you go there? 16.Would you travel less if you had access to ICTs in your community?

198

APPENDIX G. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NON-USER OF ICT CENTER (AMHARIC VERSION)

199

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

200

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

201

APPENDIX H. OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMUNITY ICT CENTERS AND USAGE CHARACTERISICS

Table 0-1. Objectives of the Five Community ICT Centers No Name of the Objectives of the Center . Center 1 TK Provision of ICT access to the youth and the disadvantaged Community Enhance Youths involvement on environmental protection ICT center Provision of information on market, Job opportunities, education, health and environment 2 DH Community ICT Center Enhance access to information about HIV/AIDS and its impact Provision of secretarial services, computer training and ICT services Provision of reproductive health education and prevention of the spread of HIV/AIDS Enabling the youth to fill the gap observed in terms of leisure and entertainment Enables women to develop their attitude towards the use of ICT services Enables the youth to minimize their information gap thereby facilitate their daily activities Promote agricultural potentials of the cotton plantation project area Provide ICT access to the community Provide access to market information Provide up-to-date information on job opportunity, market, education and health Enable the youth be creative and self employed, Empowering women with the use of ICT Provide computer training, secretarial and recreational services 202

YY ICT Center

LA Community ICT Center KY Town Youth Association ICT Center

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table 0-2. Services Offered and Number of Users (July 2009-June 2010) Community ICT Centers No. Service DH KY LA Kebena 1 Computer 80 50 40 80 training 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Internet Email Telephone Photo copy Typing Printing Binding Scanning Lamenting 10 105 55 15 43 40 34 1114 484 58 212 385 31 18 32 2043 869 1106 7 11 10 105 55 15 1100 265 156 125 43

YY 72 211 211

Table 0-3. Demography of Users (July 2009-June 2010) No. Community ICT Centers DH KY Kebena YY 1 Gender Male 146 1302 156 1279 Female 2 Work status Employed Nonemployed Students 137 84 41 158 1075 866 812 699 142 90 42 166 861 979 254 848

Users at the community ICT centers of KY & YYare much higher in number than the two others. The main reason is that they are the only ICT access in the towns while the 203

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty other two have other alternatives. LA is also the only unique center at the site but didnt have a recorded data of users. Table 0-4. No. of User and Non-User Research Participants User Non user TOTAL Community ICT Participants participants Centers
LA KY DH TK YY TOTAL 4 4 4 4 4 20 4 4 4 4 4 20 8 8 8 8 8 40

Table 0-5. Educational Background of Participants

VALUE Post-secondary First stage of tertiary Lower secondary Upper secondary None non-tertiary Pre-primary Primary FREQUENCY 10 8 8 6 4 2 1 1 TOTAL PERCENT 25.00% 20.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 2.50% 2.50%

204

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Count

0 LA None Post-secondary KY Pre-primary non-tertiary DH

ICT Center

TK Lower secondary

YY Upper secondary

Primary First stage of tertiary

Figure 0-1. Educational background of participants.

205

APPENDIX I. EXCERPTS OF TRANSCRIPTS INTERVIEW OF ICT CENTER USER 1 Section 2: Individual use of ICT at the center 1.Describe the facilities/services you used from the community ICT center? fax, copier, & secretariat service. 2.What was the purpose of using facilities/services of the community ICT center? When we deal with sending information to very far places in our office we could send it quick using these technologies. We do exchange information with people and offices in Samara about work. 3.In your experience, what benefits did you get from the community ICT center? Many problems have been solved since the establishment of the center here for instance we used to travel long distance all the way up to Samara when we wanted to get such services and exchange different sorts of information. But now we can simply exchange information using the fax machine. We can also get writing services within a short time interval. We can also copy as many papers as we need using photocopy machine here. So many problems have been solved right now. We are using photo copy, computer writing and other services Fax better than sending a letter. Copier for duplicate papers. This is the only place in the locality to get IT services. Unique access. 206

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty 4.What would you have done if the community ICT center didnt exist? You dont get any of the services anywhere else it is solving many problems now. It is not helping us but other people from other districts or words are now using the service. This worked for instance has got some ten kibbles and the center is providing service to all the ten kebeles. Had it not been to the establishment of the center, there would have been many problems in our locality. We used to wait for at least four days to get transportation service and travel to the place we would like to deliver information to. We had to travel up to 150 kms to the 3rd zonal offices to get similar services. If we want to travel to Samara it about 217 kames from here. Prior to the establishment of this center we used to travel to all these localities. There were no such services here prior to the establishment of the center. We had to travel for three four hours and its costs us sixty seventy birr for a single one way trip. You may also stay there for two three days there until you finalize your work. It also costs us 35 birr if we want to travel to Awash that is again for a single one round trip. 5.Which facilities/services of the community ICT center have the least demand or unwanted? 6.Before the establishment of the ICT community center, where were you going to get service of the center? Awash/Samera_ Your means of transport bus Time required one way 3 hrs (150 km)__ Cost of transport (round trip)_70 birr_Average time spent away from home on these trips_half day_ 7.How much did you save by using the community ICT center? 207

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty -It saves money and energy .All the hardships that we were facing traveling all those long distances are no more happening now and we are benefiting as a result of that Section 3: User perception of Impact 1.In what way has your use of ICT community center changed your life (if at all)? It created great impact in my life .For instance; I am no more facing the hardships that comes as a result of traveling long distances to get access to the services. We are simply getting them all. Be it for telephone service, postal service, photo copy and others, we had to travel long distance. We are now getting the service simply and the main thing here is the serviceit is providing us with a lot of services. 2.What effect has the community ICT center on the economic activity of the community? It has many economic benefits .All the incidents /activities I was telling you were all the expenses we used to spend. For instance it is about 117 from here to Semera. You spend around 140 birr only for transportation. You can use that money for your family now. Informant:-Yes many institutions, NGOs, investors are getting different sorts of information they are using the fax machine for their daily market needs. It is creating an opportunity providing up-to-date information on the price of commodities and other market related activities. 3.What effect has the community ICT center on the educational activity of the community? Well about 30 to 40 trainees are getting their certificate from the center at a time and in this regard the youth are benefiting from the services that the center is providing. 208

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Some people who failed to have a chance of getting training due to financial constraints are now getting the training from the center. It is of great importance especially to people with lower income. They have now acquired computer training and adequately equipped with the skills. 4.What effect has the community ICT center on the health activity of the community? I dont see any importance for health .I only see its educational importance to the society.

209

APPENDIX J. EXCERPTS OF QDA MINER 3.2 CODING

Search in: [DOCUMENT] Codes: [Agri Income;Job promotion] Add variables: [ICTCENTER;GROUPMEM] CASE: LA 1 CODE: Agri Income CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/5 ICTCENTER: LA GROUPMEM: Focus Group [We are benefiting a lot. For instance, our association cultivates cotton and we acquire the information on the price and other status of the crop at the international market using the technology of the center mainly the internet. We closely follow up and monitor the global scenario of the crop and we may either delay the export of the product to get the best price possible. We will only let the export be done when there is a good price at the international market. Other investors also acquire the same service. I could therefore say that the main use of the center is providing information regarding the status of the international market. agri income].

210

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty CASE: LA 1 CODE: Agri Income CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/4 ICTCENTER: LA GROUPMEM: Focus Group [I remember once when the price of one kilo of cotton being around 16 Birr and we delayed for some time and increased to 19.50 Birr. agri income]. CASE: LA 1 CODE: Agri Income CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/4 ICTCENTER: LA GROUPMEM: Focus Group [We do sell to the international market .We do export products .We do have close contact with the exporters. agri income]. CASE: KY 15 CODE: Job promotion CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/5 ICTCENTER: KY GROUPMEM: User Group [Since I was introduced to technology, after competing with 20 for a position, I got promotion. computer skill]. CASE: KY 15 CODE: Job promotion CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/5 ICTCENTER: KY GROUPMEM: User Group [Due to my promotion, I already got 12,000 birr. saving]. 211

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty CASE: DH 23 CODE: Job promotion CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/6 ICTCENTER: DH GROUPMEM: Focus Group [I know some health practitioners who took the training here and get the{ promotion} when they submit their training certificate. There is also a woman I know who works as a manager in a certain institute and the training she took from this center is greatly assisting her. So the training is very crucial in someone's life mainly in the efforts geared towards promotion in your work.]. CASE: DH 23 CODE: Job promotion CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/5 ICTCENTER: DH GROUPMEM: Focus Group [For instance Genet is a computer professional and she got the promotion or scale up her career after business process reengineering is introduced in her organization. computer skill]. CASE: DH 23 CODE: Job promotion CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/5 ICTCENTER: DH GROUPMEM: Focus Group [In any case most people who get the training here have either get the promotion or are hired in a new job.].

212

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty CASE: DH 30 CODE: Agri Income CODER: Admin DATE: 2010/10/4 ICTCENTER: DH GROUPMEM: Non User Group [I have a farm land and I gather agricultural information like how to use irrigations and the likes from the radios and Television programs. They are my information sources of agriculture. information about economy, agri income].

213

APPENDIX K. RESULT OF AUTO-CODING BY WORDSTAT 6.1 Table of Codes Developed by Employing Auto Coding Feature of WordStat
Category Economy Code/Subcategory Agri Income Employment General Income Promotion Saving Education Computer skill Distance Education Foreign language Scholarship School Education Improvement Health Health facility Health Improvement Knowledge and Skill Other Benefit Access Communication secretarial services Number of sub- subcategories 26 14 1 6 9 7 3 2 5 36 19 14 18 9 8 1

214

APPENDIX L. FREQUENCY COUNTS FOR SUBCATEGORIES

SUBCATEGORIES ACCESS SAVING COMMUNICATION COMPUTER SKILL EMPLOYMENT KNOWLEDGE_AND_SKILL SCHOOL EDUCATION IMPROVEMENT SECRETARIAL_SERVICES INFORMATION_ABOUT_ECONOMY GENERAL INCOME SEEK_INFORMATION GENERAL KNOWLEDGE FOREIGN LANGUAGE INFORMATION_ABOUT_EDUCATION AGRI INCOME INFORMATION_ABOUT_HEALTH INFORMATION_FROM_FRIENDS TRAVEL_TO_GETACCESS SCHOLARSHIP PRIVATE_CENTERS FREQUENCY 88 96 67 142 55 37 66 30 41 33 24 26 16 28 26 21 11 17 17 11 NO. CASES 43 37 35 33 31 29 27 20 17 17 17 16 16 15 13 11 11 10 9 7 % CASES 86.00% 74.00% 70.00% 66.00% 62.00% 58.00% 54.00% 40.00% 34.00% 34.00% 34.00% 32.00% 32.00% 30.00% 26.00% 22.00% 22.00% 20.00% 18.00% 14.00%

215

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty

Appendix L Continued SUBCATEGORIES HEALTH FACILITY PROMOTION HEALTH IMPROVEMENT DISTANCE EDUCATION MARKET_NEEDS SEEK_TREATMENT FREQUENCY 8 14 7 6 6 2 NO. CASES 7 6 6 4 4 2 % CASES 14.00% 12.00% 12.00% 8.00% 8.00% 4.00%

216

APPENDIX M. RESPONSE ON ECONOMIC BENEFITS

3
No of Respondents

0 LA Agri Income Saving KY Employment information about economy DH

ICT Center

TK General Income

YY Job promotion

217

APPENDIX N. RESPONSE ON EDUCATIONAL BENEFITS

3
No of Respondents

0 LA Computer skill Scholarship KY DH

ICT Center

TK General Knowledge information about education

YY

Distance Education School Education Improvement

218

APPENDIX O. RESPONSE ON HEALTH BENEFITS

3
No of Respondents

0 LA Knowledge and Skill KY Health Improvement DH

ICT Center

TK Health facility

YY information about health

219

APPENDIX P. RESPONSE ON GENERAL BENEFITS

3
No of respondents

0 LA travel to get access private centers KY access DH

ICT Center

TK secretarial services

YY seek information

communication

220

APPENDIX Q. RESPONSE ON UNCOMMON BENEFITS

Table Q-1. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Economic Benefits

Uncommon Economic Benefits AGRI INCOME JOB PROMOTION INFORMATION_ABOUT_ECONOMY MARKET_NEEDS % of Users 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 75.00% 20.00% % of Non-users 25.00% % of Focus groups 40.00% 30.00%

Table Q-2. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Educational Benefits

Uncommon Educational Benefits GENERAL KNOWLEDGE DISTANCE EDUCATION FOREIGN LANGUAGE INFORMATION_ABOUT_EDUCATION % of Users 40.00% 10.00% 80.00% 70.00% % of Non-users 25.00% % of Focus groups 30.00% 20.00%

Table Q-3. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon Health Benefits

Uncommon Health Benefits HEALTH IMPROVEMENT INFORMATION_ABOUT_HEALTH SEEK_TREATMENT % of Users 20.00% 5.00% % of Non-users 5.00% 50.00% 10.00% % of Focus groups 10.00%

221

Effectiveness of ICT on Poverty Table Q-4. Table of Analysis of Research Participants on Uncommon General Benefits
Uncommon General Benefits PRIVATE_CENTERS SEEK_INFORMATION INFORMATION_FROM_FRIENDS % of Users 35.00% 25.00% 60.00% 55.00% % of Non-users % of Focus groups

222