Classification of RFID systems

Prof. Robert Morelos-Zaragoza

Department of Electrical Engineering
San Jose State University

Fall 2007
 Characteristics of RFID systems
• Operating frequencies
– Inductive coupling: 100 KHz to 30 MHz
– Antenna coupling: 2.45 GHz to 5.8 GHz
• Range
– Fundamental factors affecting range are:
• Spatial accuracy of the reader
• Minimum distance between readers
• Speed of reader in interrogation zone
• Modulation type
• Security
– Industrial (closed) applications
– Public applications
Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 2
A classification of RFID systems [1]
Radio frequency

I. 1-bit
(EAS) Microwaves

Frequency divider

RFID Electromagnetic
systems

Inductive coupling

Full- and Backscatter

half-duplex

Close coupling
II. n-bit
(memory)
Electrical coupling

Inductive coupling
Sequential

SAW

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 3

 I. 1-bit (EAS) RFID systems

• A tag stores one bit of information:

– “Tag in interrogation zone” (1)
– “Tag NOT in interrogation zone” (0)
• Application: Electronic Anti-theft Surveillance
(EAS) in shops
• Components
– Reader and (optional) detector
– Tag (or security element)
– Deactivation device (optional)

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 4

 I.1 EAS using Radio Frequency
• Based on LC resonant circuits at frequency fR
• Tag is an LC circuit with a foil capacitor (which can be
destroyed with strong magnetic field)
• The reader generates an alternating magnetic field
with (sweeping) frequency fG
• Proximity of the tag causes a sympathetic oscillation
that reduces the voltage (or impedance) across the
generator
• Relative magnitude of this “dip” depends on distance
and Q factor

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 5

 Operating principle of EAS-RF
Alternating Magnetic Field

Generator Sensor
fG coil coil UHF

Transmitter EAS tag Receiver (optional)

Feedback Feedback

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 6

 I.2 EAS using microwaves
• Exploit the harmonics produced by nonlinear devices
(e.g., diodes)
• The n-th harmonic (typically n=2) is detected
• To avoid false alarms, transmitter sends a modulated
signal
• The tag uses capacitance diode to produce and
regenerate the n-th harmonic
• Tags cannot be destroyed

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 7

 Example of EAS-µWave system

Alarm Demodulator Modulator Oscillator

(1 KHz)

Receiver 4.90 GHz Transmitter

2.45 GHz
(2nd harmonic)

Antenna

Capacitance diode

1-bit tag

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 8

 I.3 EAS using frequency divider
• Operating band: 100 KHz to 135.5 KHZ
• The reader sends a magnetic field at frequency fG
• The tag uses a frequency divider to produce a
magnetic field at a frequency fG/2
• Tags cannot be destroyed

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 9

 Example of EAS - frequency divider
Power, clock fG

Tag

Reader

Divide
fG C1 C2 by 2

fG/2

fG/2
detector

Clock fG/2

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 10

 I.3 EAS – Electromagnetic type
• Operating band: 10 KHz to 20KHz
• Idea: Use strong magnetic fields in the near field (NF)
range
• Hysteresis curve (relation between magnetic field
strength H and magnetic flux B) of soft (low Br)
magnetic amorphous metal strip used
• Harmonics at the base frequency are generated by
the nonlinear relation between B and H and detected
by the reader
• Tags are available as self-adhesive strips of lengths
from 2 cm to 20 cm.
• Tags can be activated and reactivated any number of
times. Main application: Libraries
Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 11
 Typical hysteresis curve
B

Br

Saturation

Virgin
curve

Hc H

Br: Remanence (flux density at null field strength)

Hc: Coercive field strength

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 12

Harmonics in electromagnetic type
EAS systems: An example
• Given a main signal of frequency f0=20 Hz and two
signals at f1=3.5 KHz and f2=5.3 KHz, signals at the
following frequencies are generated:
q f1+f2=8.8 KHz
q f1-f2 =1.8 KHz
q f0+f1=3.52 KHz …
and so on. The reader is designed to detect the
signal at frequency f1+f2 only.

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 13

 Typical reader antenna and tag in
an electromagnetic EAS system

Coil

Column

EAS – Electromagnetic EAS – Electromagnetic

Antenna Tag

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 14

 II. n-bit RFID systems
• Tags use an electronic microchip as a data-carrying
device
• Transfer of data (communication) between reader
and tag is thus needed
• Data transfer procedures
– Full (FDX) and half (HDX) duplex procedures
• Transfer of energy from reader to tag is continuous and
independent of data flow
– Sequential (SEQ) procedures
• Transfer of energy from reader to tag takes place for a
limited period of time (power-supply pulses)
• Data transfer from tag to reader takes place between
power-supply pulses

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 15

 II.1 Inductive coupling RFID

• Power supply to an inductively coupled tag from the

energy of the magnetic field generated by the reader:

Reader Tag

fG Cr C1 C2 Chip

Ri

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 16

 Load modulation with subcarrier

• Generation of load modulation in the tag by switching

drain-source resistance of an FET

Reader Tag

fG Cr C1 C2 Chip

FET
Ri
Binary signal
BPF
Subcarrier
DEMOD

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 17

 Spectrum of load modulation
0 dB
Carrier signal of the reader
measured at the antenna coil

Intermodulation products produced by

load modulation with subcarrier

-80 dB

13.348 MHz fT=13.56 MHz 13.772 MHz

fS=212 KHz

• Applicable to ISM bands: 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz and 27.125 MHz

More on this when we discuss modulation techniques

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 18

 II.2 Backscatter coupling RFID
• Refers to RFID systems in which the spacing between
reader and tag of at least 1 m (long range systems)
• To estimate power supply at tag, the free space path
loss αF is needed (in dB):

αF = -147.6 + 20 log(r) + 20 log(f) – 10 log(GT) – 10 log(GR)

Free path loss at different frequencies with GT=1.64 (dipole) and GR=1:

Distance, r (m) 868 MHz 915 MHz 2.45 GHz

0.3 18.6 19.0 27.6
1.0 29.0 29.5 38.0
3.0 38.6 39.0 47.6
10.0 49.0 49.5 58.0

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 19

Modulated reflection cross-section

Reader P1 P’1= P1/ αF Tag

Directional
coupler

Rx C1 C2 Chip
Tx
RL
Transceiver Data
P’2= P2/ αF P2

P1: Power emitted by reader

P2: Power reflected by tag

Data transmission from tag to reader is achieved by switching

on and off in time a load resistor RL connected in parallel with
the antenna

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 20

 Reader-to-tag data transfer
• All known digital modulation procedures can be used

• There are three basic modulation formats used in

RFID
– Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
– Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
– Phase-shift keying (PSK)

• Due to its simplicity in demodulation (at the tag), most

systems use ASK modulation

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 21

 II.3 Inductive coupling SEQ RFID
• Operating frequencies: Up to 135 KHz
• Tag frequency must be matched to that of the reader
– Tags contain a so-called trimming capacitor
• Reader does not transmit continuously
• Energy transferred to tag is stored in a charging
capacitor of value
Q It
C= = ,
V Vmax − Vmin
Q=It is the charge, Vmin and Vmax are limit operating
voltages of the chip in the tag, I is the consumption
current (note typo in Ref. [1]) and t is the time required
for transmission of data from tag to reader
Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 22
 A comparison between FDX/HDX
and SEQ RFID systems
• FDX/HDX
– Power matching is needed, as power is both harvested and
consumed by the tag
• SEQ
– Voltage matching needed by tag capacitor

SEQ
voltage matching
Voltage
FDX/HDX
power matching
Power

Tag load
LOW MEDIUM HIGH impedance

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 23

Typical capacitor voltage signal in
an SEQ RFID tag
Charging
phase

Reading
phase

Discharging
phase

Vmax

Vmin

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 24

 RFID reader architectures
• Irrespective of the type of RFID system, readers
typically use a quadrature demodulator
• Four possible architectures:
– Super-heterodyne
– Direct-conversion (Homodyne)
– Low-IF
– Bandpass sampling

More on this later in the course

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 25

 An example of a reader using a
direct-conversion architecture
Rx
+7dBm leak & Receive path I
-80dBm tag
× A/D
To LNA
Q
antenna × A/D
Comp
max +7dBm
2x

Compensate path I
× D/A
Circulator PA Σ
D/A
Tx ×

computer
2x
+25dBm Q

Host
FPGA

I card
Transmit path D/A
×
PA Σ
D/A
× 2x
Q

1.2 GHz
synthesizer

Ref: MIMOSA project, STMicroelectronics . See also www.mimosa-fp6.com

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 26
 Reference
1. Finkenzeller, RFID Handbook: Fundamentals and
Applications, 2nd ed., Wiley 2003. (Chapter 3)

Fall 2007 RFID - SJSU 27