Soft Skills Notes

Softskills (AS101) Monograph
SOFTSKILLS (AS 101) MONOGRAPH FOR
POLITEKNIK JOHOR BAHRU
1 for Politeknik Johor Bahru
MEMBERS FOR MONOGRAPH PREPARATION
SOFTSKILLS (AS101) MONOGRAPH FOR POLITEKNIK JOHOR BAHRU

is the result of very accurate and commitment of officials in various departments and units at the Politeknik Johor Bahru.
PATRON HAJAH NORMALA BINTI ABDULLAH Head of Department Department of Electrical Engineering
CHAIRMAN NORAH BINTI HJ. MOHD. ZAN Unit Head Continuing Education and Training Unit
SECRETARY TUAN ROZILAAZAWANI BINTI TUAN MAT Continuing Education and Training Officer
SECRETARIAT ZUBYDAH BINTI MUSTAFA AZURA @ NURUL SHUHADA BINTI DAUD HAJAH NOOR AFIZAH BINTI ATAN FARHANA BINTI SABIDIN EN. MUZZAFAR BIN SIDIN UNGKU AZIZAH BINTI UNGKU MOHD YUNOS
WRITERS AINUN JUHARIAH BINTI HUSSIN AKHMALIAH BINTI ABD. RAHIM CATHERINE NGUOI CHUILAM ERLIA BINTI NASIR FA'IZAH BINTI HAMZAH FARHANA BINTI SABIDIN HAMZAH BIN ZAKARIA HJ. NOR HAIRUL BIN PALAL HJH. NOOR AFIZAH BINTI ATAN KHALIDA BINTI KHAIRUDIN LIEW JAN FUI MARIA BINTI MOHD YATIM MAZURA BINTI MAHAT MOHD. HAFEEZ BIN ZULKAFLI MUHAMMAD ABDUL HAQ BIN AZIZ NIK INTAN BAIZURA BINTI RAMSA NORAH BINTI HJ. MOHD. ZAN NORASHIKIN BINTI AWANG KECHIK NORFAIRUS BINTI MOHD KHALID NURUL AZHANI BINTI MOHD. AZMIN NYI IMAS BINTI MUHAMAD CHONG PARAHSAKTHI A/P CHIDAMBARAM POOGANESWARI A/P SITERAM PILLAI RAHIMAWATI BINTI ABDUL RAHIM TUAN ROZILAAZAWANI BINTI TUAN MAT SYED SHIKH BIN SYED A. KADIR UMMI HABIBAH BINTI ABD RANI WIDO MES WATI BINTI SUKADI
EDITORS NORAH BINTI HJ. MOHD. ZAN TUAN ROZILAAZAWANI BINTI TUAN MAT
CONTENTS 1.0 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 1.1 Competency of Good Appearance and Personal Image 1.2 Intellectual Skills and Competencies 1.3 Resilience of Emotion and Self esteem 1.4 Positive Values 1.5 Sexual Aspects 1.6 The Importance of Religious / Spiritual Belief 1.7 The Importance of Unity in a Multiracial Society COMMUNICATIONSKILLS 2.1 Listening Skills 2.2 Effective Performance / Presentation 2.3 Competent Personality During Interviews 2.4 Meetings 2.5 Consultation Skills MANAGEMENTSKILLS 3.1 Problem Solving Skills 3.2 Time Management Skills 3.3 Customer Management Skills 3.4 Event Management Skills LEADERSHIP SKILLS 4.1 Planning Skills 4.2 Coaching Skills 4.3 Monitoring and Evaluating Skills 4.4 Culture of Teamwork 4.5 Decision Making Skills WRITINGSKILLS 5.1 Writing PRACTICING PROFESSIONAL ETHICS 6.1 Protocol and Etiquette 6.2 Accountability 6.3 Integrity 6.4 Environmental Awareness 6.5 Occupational Health and Safety
1 5 7 9 11 13 17 23 31 41 47 49
2.0
3.0
52 56 58 61
4.0
63 68 69 71 76
5.0
80
6.0
95 104 105 111 115
1.0 1.1
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Good Appearance and Personal Image Competency 1.1.1 The Importance of Good Personal Appearance We know that first impression counts. It may determine if you will get the job or who will be your friends. Your appearance says a lot about you. It's the first thing people see. We may not like it but we all draw conclusions from others appearance. It gives us a glimpse on a persons way of life. If you are well-groomed others will conclude that you have self-respect and respect for others and will be incline to listen to what you have to say. Today fashion is big thing. We arent talking about expensive clothing or extravagant styles. Actually this may attract the wrong crowed. We are talking about wearing the right thing for the right occasion. Good posture conveys a sense of dignity and optimism or it can give a different or apologetic appearance.
1.1.2
Definition: Self-Image A person's self-image is the mental picture, generally of a kind that is quite resistant to change, that depicts not only details that are potentially available to objective investigation by others (height, weight, hair color, sex, I.Q. score). A simple definition of a person's self-image is their answer to this question - "What do you believe people think about you?" A more technical term for self-image that is commonly used by social and cognitive psychologists is self-schema.
1.1.3
Poor Self-Image Poor self-image may be the result of accumulated criticisms that the people collected as a child who have led to damaging his own view of them self. Children in particular are vulnerable to accepting negative judgments from authority figures because they have yet to develop competency in evaluating such reports. Poor self image is not always caused by other people. The person may be often told they are beautiful/pretty/handsome but cannot see it in themselves.
1.2
Intellectual Skills and Competencies Our goal here is to distill relevant distinctions between the three features: skills, competencies, and commonsense. For starters let us be clear that when we talk about competencies and attendant skills, we refer to performances that classify work output within a continuum of two extremes: superb and mediocre. Skills as defined in contemporary work settings apply to a worker's ability to produce an outcome that meets or exceeds accepted standards. As the workplace undergoes redesign due to rapid technological advancements, so does the definition of skills. Occupational and industry specific skills have since held amorphous meanings; consequently, and more sadly, they no longer mean job security to those who possess them. Instead, employability skills are an emerging reality where workers are not merely expected to be technologically savvy but also competent in problem-solving, communicating, allocating resources and understanding complex interrelationships of the work environment. Employees are in a
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for Politeknik Johor Bahru
constant race with their environment-internal and external-to prove their value to the company. Further definition classifies skills according to their nature of being either hard or soft.
1.2.1
Two Types of Knowledge Management Initiatives Organizations generally approach the knowledgemanagement problem as one of two types of initiatives: Knowledge Management Initiatives for Tacit Knowledge Capture There are two types of cultural knowledge explicit and tacit (Spradley 1980, 8-10). Explicit knowledge is a broad knowledge, which can be formalized easily. It encompasses what an organization or individual already knows, and can be communicated with relative simplicity. For example, it is common knowledge that if an individual goes outside in the rain without an umbrella, he will get wet. Tacit knowledge is knowledge held usually by an individual and results from his or her experiences. The holder of the tacit knowledge is the expert on that subject matter. Oftentimes, this knowledge is transferred to others through word-of-mouth advice or other informal processes. Knowledge management infrastructures work to capture tacit information and translate that information into a stored resource for future use, eliminating second-time mistakes, avoiding redundant efforts, or to merely capture key corporate information an individual employee holds on suppliers, customers, or competitors (Angus, Patel, Harty 1998).
Knowledge Management Initiatives To Build A Knowledge Management Infrastructure: Many organizations approach knowledge management from the infrastructure perspective, working to improve the processes that drive consistent peer-to-peer communication practices, examples are, monthly telephone status meetings, e-mail distribution lists, groupware, data warehousing tools, web-based knowledge centers, etc. Utilizing and leveraging these technologies enables businesses to effectively sort, store, and disseminate explicit corporate knowledge. However, they currently fall short in the capture and dissemination of tacitknowledge. More than 90 percent of the worlds information is considered unstructured documents or documents that are not form-based. Emerging technologies are starting to improve knowledge capture for these unstructured documents, which, alongside the minds of the employees, house the lions share of tacit knowledge. However, to date the majority of infrastructure solutions are focused on explicit, rules-based knowledge capture.
1.2.2
Creative and Critical Thinking Introduction In this topic, we will discuss the importance of thinking ability towards changing ones life. Understanding the manner we think critically is giving the impact of creating some new ideas and ways. For the person to be creative, one can readily be involved in innovation towards improving ideas from what has been done.
Creativity Thinking Definition The power and the capacity of thinking in creating any new things in product, service or production
method
The understanding of creative thinking is associated with thinking transformation from the change of behavior because all process of thinking which is not followed by action could be considered as an idea that does not mean anything. Creative thinking is the basic ability possesses by each individual no matter what level of education that every individual has. No one should say, I am not a creative person because all human being is said to be a creative person. The level of creativity is not the same from one individual to another. It merely depends on ones performance and action.
Why Do We Need Creativity? According to Edward De Bono, there are three main reasons why we need creativity; a. PROBLEM SOLVING - If we cannot solve a problem then clearly there is a need for creativity. OPPORTUNITY - This means putting together what we have in a new way to create new value. This covers design and invention. SIMPLICITY - Creativity is much easier if you have to look at the situation from outside the usual framework and perception.
b.
c.
The existence of creative thinking capacity among mankind will certainly improves and upgrade the process of ones life. Examples of great achievers in implementing the creative thinking are:
Achiever J.C.R Licklider Bill Gates K. Matshushita S. Speilberg Tony Fernandes Lim Goh Tong M. Nasir
Creative Ideas Basic concept on INTERNET Computer Operational System Dual function of sockets ICT Technology in films Budget Airline Highland holidays Nusantara melody in pop music
Critical Thinking Definition Refers to higher-order higher order thinking that questions assumptions. Critical thinking is "thinking about thinking." It is a way of deciding whether a claim is true, false, or sometimes true and sometimes false, or partly true and partly false. The Th concept is somewhat contested within the field of education due to the multiple possible meanings. meanings Critical thinking employs not only logic (either formal or, much more often, informal) but also broad intellectual criteria such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, , precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance and fairness Critical Thinking Exercise E This critical thinking exercise is given to the student to see how the brain could solve this puzzle challenge.
Instruction: The "nine dots" puzzle. The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or fewer, without lifting the pen and without tracing the same line more than once.
Answer
One of many solutions to the puzzle at the beginning of this article is to go beyond the boundaries to link all dots in 4 straight lines
1.3
Resilience of Emotion and Self Esteem 1.3.1 The Importance of Managing Emotions Emotion plays a powerful role in human development. Defining emotion is difficult because it is to tell when a child or an adult is in emotional state (Izard, 2000 in Santrock 2000). However, psychologist debats how important each is in determining whether an individual is in an emotional state. So they were define emotion as feeling or affect that involves a mixture of physiological arousal (a fast heartbeat, for examples) and overt behavior (a smile or grimace, for example), (Santrock, 2000). Emotional reaction can involve changes in thinking, behavior, physiology, and expression. The effects of these changes may influence readiness to think and act in certain ways. As well as this readiness to others, thereby affecting social interaction and relationships. An emotion can be loosely defined as a reaction to personally significant events, where reaction is to include biological, cognitive, and behavioral reaction, as well as subjective feelings of pleasure or displeasure (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004). The depth of ones spiritual experience is directly related to the strength and capacity of their emotions. Our emotions are a dimension of our spirituality, which play a significant role in how we perceive all aspects of our lives and how we benefit from them. Emotions are triggered through our senses-- touching, seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting and how we perceive the world around us. Our brains interpret the incoming messages from our senses but sometimes these messages can be misinterpreted giving us a false impression of what is happening. Our perceptions are not always perfect. What we sense can move us to react in some of the following ways: Anger, Rage, Contempt Fear, Guilt Anxiety, Anticipation Sadness, Despair, Hurt Shame, Humiliation Joy, Happiness, Love, Desire, Pleasure Pride, Satisfaction, Fulfillment, Sense of Accomplishment Jealousy, Greed, Suspicion Hope, Faith, Courage Emotions such as shame, guilt, anxiety, hurtfulness and sadness are most often caused by the thoughts we perceive. They can affect our mood, cloud our judgment, and influence our decisions. A lot of what we perceive determines the limits we place on our lives. The mind feeds on what we perceive and any misconceptions can become compulsive, preventing us from finding emotional peace and strength. Our thoughts can create unnecessary pain and suffering, or a life of hope and promise for the future. By changing our perception we can change our emotions and how we feel. There are many factors that contribute to a person's success but there is none that is more significant than emotions; or to be specific - managing emotions. Just this one single element can bring about a huge difference in one's life. By mastering your emotions, you can literally conquer life. If you can handle and manage your emotions well, you can literally handle anything and everything that life throws at you! The reason for that is because often times what is holding us back are our emotions. We hold ourselves back because we are unable to deal with certain emotions or face up to uncomfortable and painful emotions. Thus, in trying to avoid all this, we unconsciously limit the actions that we take. We limit our potential.
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Just imagine what life would be like if you are no longer limited by your emotions. Imagine if you could do whatever you want, whenever you want, without having that limitation. Imagine facing any situation and being able to confidently go through it. Imagine staying calm no matter what someone else says or does to you. Imagine being able to stay in total control regardless of what is happening around you. You will become fearless and nothing in life would faze you anymore.
1.3.2
Self Interest / Self Esteem Self Interest Self-interest simply means doing what is in the best interests of ones self. As such, such behavior is instinctive and inherent in the universe, both as to humans and other life forms (Ivan Hoffman, 2004). Man's interest is defined as that which benefits his life. It is an evaluation of the facts of reality. Since the nature of man's life has particular, objective requirements, determining whether something promotes his life is a statement of fact (Landauer.J & Rowlands. J, 2001). One's interests should not be confused with one's desires. A desire is that which you wish to achieve or acquire. A desire can be subjective or irrational. One's interests, though, are objective facts of reality. They don't state what you want to achieve. They state what you should achieve to promote your life. A proper morality is based on man's self-interest. It is based on what allows him to live and flourish. Identification of his interests allows him to decide how to act, and what values to pursue. It is the measure of right and wrong (Landauer.J & Rowlands. J, 2001). Self Esteem Self esteem refers to a persons overall self evaluation (Myers, 2005). Self Esteem also referred to as self-worth or self-image. For example, aperson may perceive that she is not merely person but a good person. Of course, not all people have an overall positif image of themselves (Santrock, 2004). Self esteem can change, especially in response to transition in life. For example, when children go from elementary school to middle school, their self esteem usually drops (Hawkins & berndt, 1985 in Santrock). One person may have self esteem that is highly contingent on doing well in school and being physically attractive, whereas another may have self esteem that contingent on being loved by God and adhering to moral standarts (Crocker & Wolf, 2001). Brewer and Hewstone, 2004, defined self esteem as an evaluative response toward the self. An evaluative respons involves judgments of good or bad. Self esteem is how we feel about ourselves. It is our thoughts and feelings about us. For example: I am good looking. I feel good about myself. I am kind. I am competent. The level of our self esteem determines how we operate in life, how we interact with others, spouse, children, friends, and strangers. It determines our goals and what we strive for, our achievements, and our satisfaction and happiness in life. The importance of self esteem can be seen when we look at the relationship between healthy self esteem and other psychological traits. Self esteem and personality are closely related. Healthy self esteem is related with: Creativity Rationality Flexibility
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Willingness to admit mistakes Openness Honesty Acceptance Cooperativeness Independence
People with high self esteem tend to be more ambitious in what they want to experience in life. High self esteem people have a drive to express themselves and to communicate openly and honestly about their needs and desires. People with healthy self esteem choose healthy relationships and they recognize the value of relationships. They treat others with respect, non judgmental attitude, and fairness. The Importance of Self Esteem Self esteem is crucial and is a cornerstone of a positive attitude towards living. It is very important because it affects how you think, act and even how you relate to other people. It allows you to live life to your potential. Low self esteem means poor confidence and that also causes negative thoughts which mean that you are likely to give up easily rather than face challenges. In addition, it has a direct bearing on your happiness and wellbeing. Increasing Self Esteem Four ways to increase Self Esteem are through (Santrock, 2004): a. Identification of couses of low self esteem and domain of competence important to the selfIndividuals have the highest self esteem when they perform competently in domains that are important to them. Therefore, people should be encouraged to identify and value areas of competence. b. Emotional support and social approval c. Achievement d. Coping
1.4
Positive Values 1.4.1 Positive Values Elements What are Values? Values are beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be. Values are like an integrated compass, they help point the way to thinking and acting appropriately. They involve what is important to us. We attach values to all some of things such a politics, religion, money, sex, education, helping others, family, friends, career, cheating, self-respect and so on (Santrock, 2002). Values are psychological objects. Although we cannot see or touch them, they are every bit as real as any physical object. People may dedicate their entire lives or even give up their lives to pursue their values, as so many loyal patriots have done fighting for values of freedom, equality and human rights during the past two centuries. We all have values that determine our decisions and guide our lives. Those who value their individuality take responsibility, are self-reliant and act with self-respect. Those who value truthfulness cannot bring themselves to tell a lie. Those who value family or friendship sacrifice their personal interests for the good of others. Those who value goodness cannot bring themselves to do something they know is wrong. We express values in our relations with other people when we are loyal, reliable, honest, generous, trusting, trustworthy, feel a sense of responsibility for family, friends, co-workers, our organization, community or country. On a
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more physical level, we may place great value on cleanliness, punctuality, orderliness, accuracy, quality, and physical perfection in whatever we do. Elements of Positive Values Search Institute has identified six positive values that are central to healthy development: caring, equality and social justice, integrity, honesty, responsibility, and restraint. a. b. Caring - Feeling and exhibiting concern and empathy for others. Equality and social justice - Equality and social justice include racial and ethnic equality, reducing hunger and poverty, promoting political liberty, and freedom of thought. generally refers to the idea of creating a society or institution that is based on the principles of equality and solidarity, that understands and values human rights, and that recognizes the dignity of every human being Integrity- Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy, in that it regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs
c.
d. Honesty- Honesty refers to a facet of moral character and denotes positive, virtuous attributes such as integrity, truthfulness, and straightforwardness along with the absence of lying, cheating, or theft e. Responsibility- A duty or obligation to satisfactorily perform or complete a task (assigned by someone, or created by one's own promise or circumstances) that one must fulfill, and which has a consequent penalty for failure. Restraint- the ability to control or moderate one's impulses, passions, etc.
f.
1.4.2
The Importance of Ethical Values Ethics is a requirement for human life. It is our means of deciding a course of action. Without it, our actions would be random and aimless. There would be no way to work towards a goal because there would be no way to pick between a limitless numbers of goals. Even with an ethical standard, we may be unable to pursue our goals with the possibility of success. To the degree which a rational ethical standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish our most important values. Any flaw in our ethics will reduce our ability to be successful in our endeavors. Values and ethics are the foundation of sustainability. At the constellation of environmental ethics' center is the development of knowledge that leads to a higher quality of mind and being. The center is surrounded by sustainability-related areas of concern (social equity, economic opportunity, and environmental responsibility) and all potential actors--citizens, faculty, students, practitioners, administrators, etc. Ethical values extend to all spheres of human activity. They apply to our dealings with each other, with animals and the environment. They should govern our interactions not only in conducting research but also in commerce, employment and politics. Ethics serve to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct and provide reasons for those conclusions. Most people learn ethical norms/value at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral
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development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical values are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society? One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms/value but different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences.
1.5
Sexual Aspects 1.5.1 Sex / Gender Sensitivity Introduction In nearly all societies, men and women, boys and girls, have a different status and play different roles. Men and women behave differently, dress differently, have different attitudes and interests, and have different leisure activities. Contrary to traditionally held beliefs that these differences between male and female behavior are biologically or genetically determined, recent research has revealed that they are to a large extent socially constructed, or based on the concept of gender. Sexuality Education Objectives a. Knowledge. Information is needed. Knowledge will aid problem solving and understanding related to sexuality in the same way that knowledge helps in other matters. b. Meaning. Many people have a tough time looking objectively and knowledgeably at specific types of sexual behavior or at certain uses of language. It is necessary to develop objectivity in order to understand and deal with personal situations as well as with problems of others. Tolerance of Human Differences. We need to become aware of the multitude of differences among people. We need to get over using our own standard for other people and to stop trusting our conditioned responses for dealing with problems (Bruess & Greenberg, 1994).
c.
What is Gender? The word was used by Ann Oakley and others in the 1970s to describe those characteristics of men and women which are socially determined, in contrast to those which are biologically determined. This distinction between gender and sex has important implications, which are elaborated throughout this manual. Essentially, the distinction between gender and sex is made to emphasize that everything men and women do, and is expected of them, with the exception of their sexually distinct functions (impregnation, childbearing and breast-feeding), can change, and does change, in time and according to changing and different cultural factors. Gender is a dynamic concept. Gender roles for men and women vary greatly from one culture to another and from one social group to another within the same culture. Race, class, economic circumstances, age - all of these influences what is considered appropriate for men and women. As culture is dynamic, and socio-economic conditions change over time, so gender patterns change with them. Sudden crisis, like war or famine, can radically and rapidly change what men and women do. Sometimes, however, the old attitudes return after the crisis (as women ex-combatants in liberation struggles have found). Sometimes, the changes have a permanent impact. Sex and Gender Sex Sex, as defined by Susan Basow, is a biological term referring to people, animals, etc., being either female or male depending on their sex organs or genes. Sex also refers to the differences between individuals that make them male or female. These differences are biologically determined, e.g.:
Gender Contrary to sex, gender has social, cultural and psychological rather than biological connotations. It is defined in terms of femininity and masculinity. The proper terms for describing sex, for example, are male and female while the corresponding terms for gender are masculine and feminine. Although the latter may be independent of biological sex, masculinity pertains to the attributes that describe males in the social and cultural context. Hence, the normal male has a preponderance of masculinity, while the normal female has a preponderance of femininity (Stoller, 1994). According to Stoller, therefore, gender is the amount of masculinity or femininity found in a person. Gender also refers to subjective feelings of maleness or femaleness (i.e., femininity or masculinity), irrespective of one's sex (Basow, 1992). This is known as gender identity. It is possible to be genetically of one sex with a gender identity of another sex, e.g., transsexuals identify themselves with the gender of the opposite sex. This implies that ones gender may not necessarily be synonymous with that of ones sex. One's gender can be determined in many ways, e.g., behavior. In most societies, for example, humility, submissiveness, etc., are considered feminine behavior and women are expected to behave that way. Men, on the other hand, are expected to be dominant, aggressive, etc. Feminine Submissive Gentle Emotional Quiet Masculine Dominant Aggressive Not emotional Talkative
Other determinants of gender may include dress, gestures, occupation, social network, and especially the ROLES played by the sexes in society.
1.5.2
Types of Sexual Harassment What is Sexual Harassment? Sexual harassment means any unwelcome verbal, non-verbal, visual, psychological or physical conduct of a sexual nature that might, on reasonable grounds, be perceived by the victim as placing a condition of a sexual nature on his or her employment because of his or her sex. Sexual harassment may also consist of an unwelcome verbal, non-verbal, psychological or physical conduct of sexual nature that might, on reasonable grounds, be perceived by the victim as an insult or humiliation, or a threat to his or her well-being, and has no connection with his or her employment. Sexual harassment in the office includes work related harassment which happens outside the office. Such work related harassment may includes situations taking place at work-related social gathering or functions, conferences, workshop or training sessions and during work assignments outside the office. Sexual harassment in the course of work-related travel is also considered sexual harassment in the office. Where sexual harassment occurs as a result of employment responsibilities or relationship over the phone and through electronic media, it is also considered sexual harassment in the office. Types of Sexual Harassment There are two categories of sexual harassment, namely sexual coercion and sexual annoyance. Sexual coercion It is known as quid pro quill sexual harassment in the United States.
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Sexual Coercion is a type of harassment which has direct results in some consequence to the victim's employment. It is employment discrimination. Sexual coercion is under a condition of employment, where an openly or implicitly offer in keeping a job or getting a promotion is made by a supervisor to an employee in exchange for sexual favors. Such person normally has the power over promotion or raise of the employee. In sexual coercion, promotion and favorable job benefits will follow if an employee takes the advantage and consented to sex. On the contrary, if the employee rejects, the job benefits are denied.
Sexual annoyance It is also known as hostile environment sexual harassment. Sexual annoyance is a demeaning and unwelcome sexually related behavior that is offensive, hostile or intimidating to the victim, but has no direct connection to any job benefits. However, the annoying behavior creates an offensive working environment which affects the victim's ability to continue working. Sexual annoyance includes sexual harassment by an employee against a co-employee. Similarly, sexual harassment by a company's customer against an employee also falls into this category. Nevertheless, the definition of subjective words like unwelcome, offensive and annoying still leaves for individual interpretation by courts Differences between Verbal, Non-Verbal, Visual, Psychological and Physical Harassment Verbal harassment is in oral form and includes uncomfortable and offensive teasing, joking, questioning, jesting or making suggestive remarks or sounds, or verbal repartee. Non-verbal harassment a leer with indecent overtone, sexual activity or desire denoted by hand signal, lips licking or food eating and persistent flirting. Visual harassment covering the wall with pin-up, calendars, drawings, photographs of naked and scantily clad women or other sex-based materials and writing sex-based letter. Sexual exposure also falls under this form of sexual harassment. Psychological harassment harms a person's psychological well being and includes oppressively constant proposals for dates, repeated undesirable physical intimacy or social invitations. Physical harassment includes distasteful action such as touching of an intimate body part, patting, pinching, stroking, brushing up against the body, hugging, kissing, fondling and sexual assault. All forms of sexual harassment are behavior that elicit sexual attention
1.6
The Importance of Religious / Spiritual Belief Spiritual development is fundamental to other areas of learning since it incorporates the curiosity, the use of imagination, insight and intuition and the desire to question and to explore the meaning of experience, which underpins motivation to learn in general (David 1999). The word religion comes from the Latin word religio. The early meaning appears to have been a power of outside the individual, or a feeling relative to such a power. Religious meant a powerful place and conveyed a sense of mystery. The term also came to refer the particular pattern of worship, the religiones that was due a certain god (W.C Smith 1978). Spiritual/ Religion
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a) Beliefs - The development of personal beliefs, an appreciation that people have individual and shared beliefs in which they base their lives; a developing understanding of how beliefs contribute to personal identity. b) A sense of owe, wonder and mystery Being inspired by the natural world, mystery or human achievement. c) Experiencing feelings of transcendence. - Feeling which may give rise to belief in the existence of a divine being, or the belief that ones inner resources provide the ability to rise above everyday experiences.
d) Search for meaning and purpose Asking why me? at times of hardship or suffering; reflecting on the origins and purpose of life; responding to challenging experiences of life such as beauty, suffering and death. e) Self- knowledge. An awareness of oneself in terms of thoughts, feelings, emotions, responsibilities and experiences; a growing understanding and acceptance of individual identity, the development of self-respect. f) Relationships. - Recognizing and valuing the worth of each individual; developing a sense of community; the ability to build up relationships with others.
g) Creativity. Expressing, innermost thoughts and feelings through, for example art, music, literature and crafts; exercising the imagination, inspiration, institution and insight. h) Feelings and emotions. - These sense of being moved by beauty and kindness; hurt by injustice of aggression; a growing awareness of when it is important to control emotions and feelings; and how to learn to use such feelings as a source of growth. (Palmer, 1996)
1.6.1
The Importance of Religion in Life All those theories of religion agree on one thing: whatever the beliefs or ritual, religion may satisfy psychological needs common to all people. But some social scientists believe that religion springs from society and serves social, rather than psychological needs. Durkheim (1954), a French sociologist, pointed out that living in society makes human feel pushed and pulled by powerful forces. The forces direct their behavior, pushing them to resist what is considered wrong, pulling them to do what is considered right. These are forces of public opinion, custom and law. Religion arises out of the experience of living in social groups; religious belief and practice affirm a persons place in society, enhance feelings of community and give people confidence. Religion helps people explain various important events that occur in their lives-from weather and environment changes to loss in war to childbirth and death. The causes of many events and situation that inspire awe, terrify or generate joy may be beyond the boundaries the rational understanding for the people who experience them.
Consider the phenomenon of suicide. In the United States more than 30,000 persons take their own lives annually, according to official government statistics, on the recorded causes of deaths (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2003). Sadly, these statistics are widely believed to underestimate the actual numbers of suicides. The official doctrines of some religious, such as Islam, tend to view the act of suicide negatively. But religious clergy may help persons most directly affected by a suicide to understand and accept the event, may endow the death (and the life) of the deceased with meaning, and may assist the bereaved in the grieving process. In this way religion may provide people with an understanding of events not otherwise understandable. Religion may also provide answers to fundamental questions about human existence that can be anxiety-provoking: where did I come from? Why am I here on this earth? What is the meaning or purpose of my life? What happens to me (or my soul or my spirit) after I die? Religious belief systems offer guidance in answering such questions, giving meaning and purpose to peoples lives, especially when they are suffering. Indeed, the system of beliefs characterizing a religion often psychologically sustain people who are struggling to change the shape of their world (and thus of the world of those who will follow them) (Kenneth, 2005)
1.7
The Importance of Unity in a Multiracial Society 1.7.1 Cultural Diversity in the Context of Unity a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) Ethnic Race Languages and Dialect Foods Religious Music Art Clothing Marriage Custom
1.7.2
The Importance of Respect for the Differences in Multiracial Society Malaysia is a multiracial country. Malaysia has a population of 23.27 million consisting of 61 percent Malays, 30 percent Chinese, 8 percent Indians and 1 percent of other ethnic groups. Malaysia is unique because of its diversity of races, religions and cultures, the stability of the country and many places of interests. Besides, there are many international achievements which are the pride of our nation. Diversity of races, religions and cultures is a significant characteristic of our nation. Malaysia is a multiracial country with a rich cultural heritage. Unique to Malaysia is the 'Open House' concept where during the various cultural and religious festival like Hari Raya, Chinese New Year, Deepavali, Gawai Day and others, friends and families and even strangers would visit the homes of those who are celebrating the festival, to wish them well and enjoy the feast prepared by the hosts. Although the visitors may be from different races, they still can tolerate with each other and live under the same roof where they celebrate the festival together. This will help to strengthen the ties among themselves. Moreover, the stability and peacefulness of Malaysia is also a uniqueness of us. We live harmoniously in a country where there are no wars and conflicts among Malaysians. War is dreadful and it may deteriorate humans' lives. We are fortunate that our country is safe and runs off the war. So, people can live safely here. Somehow, Malaysia is a paradise for those Iraqis or
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Pakistanis. Besides, our country is freed from natural disasters such as earthquakes. Earthquakes may bring death and destroy many buildings. Therefore, Malaysia is unique because of the stability and peaceful environment. A multi-racial society teaches people how to respect and understand the religion and cultures of others. Therefore this leads to tolerance. It helps us to learn to become a good human being. To be good or bad does not depend on religion. Each of the great religion of the world speaks about love, peace and tolerance. In reality there no barriers between human beings, these so-called barriers are being created by human beings. Yet very often there are misunderstandings, which lead to conflict. A multi-racial society is a society where we have people of different races, ethnics living together. About 99% of the countries of the world are multi-racial. It is usually very pleasant to live in such type of societies if people know how to live together, on the contrary this can become hellish as well. A multi-racial society is a society, which is very rich in cultural heritage. People living in such type of societies get the opportunity to learn about other cultures and to adopt whatever they find beneficial for them. A multi-racial society is also a multi-linguist society so people living in such societies benefit from the richness of languages and are thus able to speak different languages. The fact that there are different races and ethnics living together in a multi-racial society there is also a wide variety of traditions, customs and festivals that are being carried out in such countries. So, in some way we can say that these countries are usually more lively and colourful than others. In a multi-racial society there is a fusion of cultures, it favourites people of different communities to get married which will biologically very good for their children. Their baby will be in good health. With the fusion of cultures food becomes national, people are able to eat a wider variety of food, learning to prepare them in different ways; for example farata, briani, Dhal puri, nasi lemak, yong tau fu, ketupat. Celebrations of festivals become national. Festivals such as Christmas, Divali, Chinese New Year, Hari Raya Puasa etc. are being celebrated by everyone in a multi-racial society. Multi-racial societies are usually very dynamic in cases in which there are no wars as people of different categories lives in peace. So, there are no violence, no wars, which is very good for the economical conditions of the country as when there are wars, the infrastructures are being destroyed and therefore there is a loss in the economical condition. It makes the country more dynamic because there are people who come from different places and this can help to develop new ideas about how to make our lives better. It is usually livelier as different festivals are being celebrated by different religion. A multi-racial society is open so, tourists feel more at ease. Having good relationship with tourist, multi-racial societies thus have the chance to have help with other countries whenever they are in need. But however, despite all this it is very pitiful to see that the majority of these societies are full of violence. In multi-racial societies very often there are misunderstandings, which lead to conflict. These misunderstandings are due to people using different languages but fortunately for countries, which have a natural language, speak more commonly that language. Respect involves treating other with kindness and concern, showing courtesy towards them. In racial integration, people of different races mingle with one another. Although we are different in religion, race, skin colour etc, we have to give respect to one another, as we are all equal inside. We must accept the fact that everyone is born the way they are and there is nothing that would
change that. We must learn to respect each other; respect doesn't come in a day, it may take years to develop. In the past, people did not have much respect for each other, with little tolerance or consideration. As former President of Singapore Yusof Bin Ishak put it, "There were people once who would tell each other to trust and work only with people of the same color of skin. A man with a different skin color was to be distrusted. Similarly if a man spoke a different language. It is wrong and foolish to think that one's own language, one's own culture and religion contains all that is worthwhile knowing. Similarly, people around the world cannot see the large variety of races and religions to be a road block on the path of racial integration and respect. If, on the other hand, we approach those differences between us with tolerance and respect, this amazing variety will turn out to be something which can help us instead. Respecting each other's race and culture prevents hatred between one another. There would not be discrimination between races hence, racial riots, wars and disputes can be avoided. Acceptance is important. That means we have to accept each other differences and focus on the brighter side of us. We must not judge a person by ones skin color. For example, many white people in the past held the ignorant belief that blacks were uncivilized and unlawful. We have to treat them like us. Respect their differences the way they are. In Malaysia, racial harmony has been and will continue to be the main theme of the government. This could only come about because of the respect people had for each other. Just walk the streets today. Mosques, temples and churches stand side by side. People of different races celebrating each others unique festivals in a way rarely seen anywhere else in the world. It is something that respect has brought about over the years, and we should all do well to learn from it. Respect, something which goes both ways, you give others the respect they deserve, and they give it back to you. This chain of respect brings about trust and concern, and that is why respect is so important in the path towards a racially integrated world. Racial discrimination was and is still a problem today in our modern world, and it is one of the main barriers between the integration of people of different races and cultures. Treating each other as equals may seem to be a overused and generic term nowadays, but we cannot underestimate the importance of such a thing. In the past, and the present, the cliche phrase, "All men are equal" was just a dream in the minds of men. To this day, many critics have slammed the idea of multiracialism and the idea of each and every one of us treating everyone as equals. In one article, "I have a nightmare" in the February 23-24 issue of the Weekend Today newspaper. It linked Barack Obama's presidential race with the infamous Martin Luther King Jr, an African American civil rights activist, saying that the popularity of senator Obama was the realization of King's dream; as quoted, The final victory of the African American civil rights movement." Yet, a continued eye opener read, Others view it - their respect for Mr. Obama notwithstanding - as a testament to its remarkable failure." The reason? The article stated that the civil rights movement was ultimately flawed, especially regarding its aims and character. It continued by saying that desegregation and integration between the black and white communities should have never been the civil rights movement's main draw. Rather, the movement should have been about demanding the respect that all humans deserve; about ending all the violence that had been aimed at the African Americans since the end of the American Civil War. The article gave numerous pieces of evidence to support its argument, but the strongest one state that Dr. King had once written in his book Why We Can't Wait that there were approximately 250% more jobless blacks than whites in 1963, and that their average income was a measly half
than that of an average white man. Then modern day figures came forth, stating that in 2004, the average income of blacks was about 62% that of whites, and that the unemployment rate of blacks stand at 10.8%, about 2.3 times that of whites. As you can see from the figures, the article has a strong reason to prove that hardly anything has changed. As discussed earlier on, systems such as meritocracy can ensure some degree of equality between races. However, the question is whether we can rely solely on such to ensure a fair and indifferent society. The answer would be no. The commitment to treat each other equally does not come from these systems, laws or other social practices, but instead comes from the community itself. Occasionally, this commitment may slip our minds, but it is important to note that no matter how the odds are stacked against us, it is of paramount importance to note how important racial equality is in creating a racially integrated society.
2.0
COMMUNICATION SKILLS Communication is the meaningful interaction with people in such a manner that the ideal thought is same and getting the feedback also. Communication is commonly defined as "the exchange of thoughts, ideas, feelings, information, opinions and knowledge". There are four important characteristics of communication: It is a 2-way process. Communication process happens between or among two or more parties. (Sender and Receiver) Communication involves exchange of ideas, feelings, information, thoughts, and knowledge. Communication involves mutuality of understanding between sender and receiver.
Communication Process According to Charles and Ronald (1971) communication process can be divided into two categories which are one way communication and two way communication. One way communication Is a process indicates a flow of information, facts, theory, from one person to another. Example : When 1 give a lecture I am talking to students. When I am the author of a book or radio announcer I am communicating to the reader or listener. An important characteristic of the one way communication is that reader or listener has or no opportunity to respond or react immediately and directly. It is a linear and limited because it occurs in a straight line from sender to receiver and serves to inform, persuade or command.
SENDER
MESSAGE
RECEIVER
Figure 2.1 : One Way Communication Process
Two way communication A two way communication indicates a flow of information, facts and theory, among and between two or more individuals. Example: Seminars conducted with graduates students under graduates in honors programs, small group discussions, and research projects involving academic colleagues. The important characteristics of two ways communication is that the sender of a message has a much greater opportunity to get immediate reactions and responses from his listener. Two-way communication always includes feedback from the receiver to the sender and lets the sender know the message has been received accurately.
Softskills (AS101) Monograph SENDER
FEEDBACK
MESSAGE
RECEIVER
Figure 2.2 : Two Way Communication Process In two-way communication, communication is negotiated. Both sender and receiver listen to each other, gather information and are willing to make changes to work together in harmony. Their intent is to negotiate a mutually satisfactory situation. Identify Communication Effectiveness Establishing and developing effective communication is important in order to be heard and change your environment according to your own thoughts. No one will guess what you want or what you think if you dont tell them, and nothing is going to change if you do not propose a change. Pablo Golub (2006) suggests seven ways/tips that will help you to succeed in communicating effectively with others. a. Have self-worth Self-worth is analogous to self-confidence. The better you feel about yourself (i.e. the more you think youre worth), the more confident youre going to be. With self-worth, you can get what you want out of every conversation. Without self-worth youll be stuck in small-talk. In order to get what you want out of a conversation, you must give the other person a chance to believe that youre worthy of their time and effort. b. Get interested in other people People have two stations which other people can listen to, WIFM (whats in it for me) and WIFO (whats in it for others). WIFM is boring for people to listen to. Most people are interested in themselves. People want to be flattered, and you can do this by letting the other person talk about him or herself, by changing the channel to WIFO. By changing the channel to WIFO, you have just led the person to feeling good about them. Since you were the one who made them feel good about themselves, they will be indebted to you and will want to pay you back by helping you out with what you wanted them to do for you. c. Open up a persons heart You can do these five different ways: Ask open-ended questions that really get the other person talking a lot. How was your day/weekend/week? What are your hobbies? What do you think of this town? If there is one wish you could wish for, what would it be? The last one might really get them thinking. Dont limit yourself to just talking about the weather. Ask questions that make them think, that they would be interested in answering, as they feel good about themselves sharing their life with someone. In this case, you! Warning: Dont just shoot many questions in a row without sharing a little bit about yourself. Doing this may make them feel uncomfortable, as they think youre like a police officer or detective trying to solve a crime.
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iii. iv. v. d.
Compliment them! However, be specific; dont just say you look nice. That doesnt mean anything, but if you say, you have a beautiful dress, it really compliments your skin color, then you have a genuine compliment. Ask a persons name when you first meet them and remember it. From then on, address them by their name at all times. Smile, you can never smile too much. Have a good sense of humor. Listen at least two times more than you talk You have two ears and one mouth for a reason. Therefore, you should listen twice as much as you speak. To show that youre listening effectively, you must ask follow-up questions. A follow-up question shows the other person that youre listening, and perhaps equally important extends the length of the conversation in a good way. For example, somebody tells you they love to hike. Ask, why do you like to hike? What is it like to hike? I was interested in hiking; could you give me some basic advice on hiking? By showing you listen, and by extending the conversation, you really open up a persons heart. Diversify yourself Learn about sports, dancing, even television shows, etc. This gives you subjects to talk about, as well as chances to meet new people. You get the chance to meet new people, plus the chance to diversify yourself, as well. It also gives you status, essential for getting the most out of any conversation. For people are more attracted to somebody who is diversified, and has a lot to talk about. Being diversified is an important commodity for anyone to have. Understand that your worth never changes You are worth a lot more than a million dollars. In fact, your worth is immeasurable. Therefore, there is no such thing as rejection as youre always worth the same no matter what. Nobody can reject you because nobody can change your worth. Moreover, dont be afraid of something (rejection) that doesnt exist. Take risks, ask for what you want, and eventually you will get what you want. Follow the step-ladder to success Imagine wanting to become the heavyweight champion of the world. First you have to beat, the lower-ranked fighters, then the contenders, and then finally rise up to face the champ. In order to face the champ you have to take those three steps in the order stated in the previous sentence.
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According to the author of article Communicating Effectively (2008), in order to communicate effectively, they are eight rule to be complied. a. Organization - The first step is to know what message you want the listener to receive. Systematically organize your thoughts so that your message will be clear and easy to understand. Unorganized thoughts can lead to misunderstandings and confuse the listener. If you don't know what message you want to convey, how can you expect the recipient of the message to know what you are trying to convey? b. Planning - Important conversations should be planned ahead of time. Think of several scenarios with different reactions and plan where you will go with each reaction. Think about the person with whom you will be communicating, taking into consideration that person's personality and behavior. Prepare a solution for each reaction so that you know beforehand how you will respond. Body Language - Non-verbal signals are a large part of the communication factor. Your facial expressions and gestures will play a role in determining the response that you will receive. Your body language must match your words for your communication to be clear. Sending mixed signals is one of the most frequent causes of miscommunication.
c.
d. Simple and Concise - The goal is to convey a certain message that creates a response. Keep your key points simple and easy to understand. If you state your point in a clear and concise manner without repeating yourself, your message will be easier for the recipient to understand. e. Respond - Often times, it is hard to separate facts from feelings. You should always respond to the person you are communicating with rather than reacting to the person emotionally. Be sure to clearly answer any questions or concerns that the person may have, and again - keep it simple. Common Ground - Try to find a common ground with the person you are communicating with. Don't place your focus on differences of opinion, but work together to find a common ground that all parties can be comfortable with. Stay Positive - Staying positive will decrease the chance that the person you are communicating with will react to you rather than respond. Negative statements more often elicit a negative reaction. Positive statements will more often elicit a positive response.
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h. Listen - The goal of effective communication is for all parties involved to come to an understanding about the topic of the conversation. It is very important that you listen to what the other person has to say and address any concerns that either of you may have. Many times, whether the person likes a change or not, they are more willing to make the change if they feel that the person communicating with them actually listens to their point of view. Shayams (2011) outline three guidelines in order to communicate effectively: a. Communicating through speech i. Be articulate. It is important to speak clearly, so that the message comes across in a way that every listener can understand. Articulate talk is talk that gets remembered because people instantly understand what it is that you are saying. It means uttering your words distinctly, preferring simpler words over more complex ones, and speaking at a level guaranteed to be heard but without coming across as too loud, overly excited, or disengaged. Avoid mumbling. Sound out the words clearly and openly, with the intent to have them heard without error. If mumbling is a defensive habit that you have fallen into out of fear of communicating, practice your message at home in front of the mirror. Discuss what you want to communicate with those you feel comfortable around first, to better develop the message in your own mind. Both the practice and the development of your words for the messaging will build your confidence. ii. Listen actively. Communication is a two-way street and requires you to listen as well as talk. Remember that while you are talking, you are not learning. In listening, you will be able to gauge how much of your message is getting through to your listeners and whether or not it is being received correctly or is being misinterpreted. It can be helpful to ask listeners to rephrase some of what you have said in their own words if they appear to be returning confused or mistaken views to you. Be vocally interesting. A monotone is not pleasing to the ear. A good communicator will use "vocal color" to enhance the communication. Norma Michael recommends raising the pitch and volume of your voice when you transition from one topic or point to another, and to increase your volume and slow down your voice whenever you are raising a special point or summing up.[2] She also recommends speaking briskly but pausing to emphasize keywords when you are requesting action.
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Organizing your communication i. Be clear from the outset as to the purpose of what you wish to convey. For example, your purpose could be to inform others, to obtain information, or to initiate action. You need to know in advance what you expect from your communication.
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ii.
Organize and clarify ideas in your mind before you attempt to communicate them. If you are feeling passionate about a topic, you may become garbled if you haven't already thought of some key points to stick to when communicating it. A good rule of thumb is to choose three main points and keep your communication focused on those. That way, if the topic wanders off course, you will be able to return to one or more of these three key points without feeling flustered. Stay on topic. Once you start addressing your three main points, make sure all facts, stories, allusions, etc., add to the conversation or debate. If you have already thought through the issues and the essence of the ideas that you wish to put across, it is likely that some pertinent phrases will stick in your mind. Do not be afraid to use these to underline your points. Even very confident and well- known speakers re-use their key lines again and again for major effect. Recognize people. Sure, you don't necessarily know the people in your audience or that new friend in your group, but they're nodding along with you and looking knowingly at you all the same. This means that they are connecting with you. So reward them with your acknowledgment.
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Communicating through body language i. Use facial expressions consciously. Aim to reflect passion and generate empathy with the listener by using soft, gentle, and aware facial expressions. Avoid negative facial expressions, such as frowns or raised eyebrows. What is or isn't negative is dependent on the context, including cultural context, so be guided by your situation. Be alert for unexpected behavior that suggests you're cross-culturally colliding, such as a clenched fist, a slouched posture, or even silence. ii. Communicate eye to eye. Eye contact establishes rapport, helps to convince that you're trustworthy, and displays interest. During a conversation or presentation, it is important to look into the other person's eyes if possible and maintain contact for a reasonable amount of time. Use breathing and pauses to your advantage. There is power in pausing. Siimon Reynolds says that pausing causes an audience to lean in and listen, their interest piqued; it helps you to emphasize your points, allowing the listener time to digest what has been said; it helps to make your communication come across as more compelling, and it makes your speech easier to listen to. Use hand gestures carefully. Be conscious of what your hands are saying as you speak: Hand gestures can be divided into open gestures (positive responses) or closed/concealed gestures (negative responses). Some hand gestures can be very effective in highlighting your points (open gestures), while others can be distracting or even offensive to some listeners, and can lead to the conversation or listening being closed down (closed gestures). Keep a check on other body language signals. Watch for wandering eyes, hands picking at fluff on your clothing, and constant sniffling. These small gestures add up and are all guaranteed to dampen the effectiveness of your message, and will result in your ceasing to engage your listeners.
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Barriers of Communication An effective communication barrier is one of the problems faced by many organizations. Many social psychologists opine that there is 50% to 70% loss of meaning while conveying the messages from a sender to a receiver. They estimate there are four basic places where communication could be interpreted wrongly. A few barriers of effective communication in an organization are given below. Physical Barriers - One of the major barriers of communication in a workplace is the physical barrier. A physical barrier in an organization includes large working areas that are physically separated from others. Other distractions that could cause a physical barrier in an organization are the environment, background noise. Language - Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and receiver is the greatest barrier to effective communication. When a person uses inappropriate words while conversing or writing, it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a receiver. Emotions - Your emotions could be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your emotions for some reason. In such cases, you tend to have trouble listening to others or understanding the message conveyed to you. A few of the emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness and fear. Lack of Subject Knowledge - If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to convey his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this could lead to a barrier to effective communication. Stress - One of the major communication barriers faced by employees in most of the organization is stress. When a person is under immense stress, he may find it difficult to understand the message, leading to communication distortion. At the time of stress, our psychological frame of mind depends on our beliefs, experiences, goals and values. Thus, we fail to realize the essence of communication. Make detailed notes orderly Notes are simply a summary of information which will help trigger your memory, about a subject, at a later date. Suggestions for taking and make detailed notes are as follows: Develop a standard method of taking including abbreviation and symbols; Write in your own words except quotation; Use color or distinctively mark ideas and concepts the lecturer emphasizes; Put your name, date and page number on your notes; Make your notes legible but remember that neatness does not increase learning; If you can afford it take notes on one side of the page. It is easily to see exactly what you have of you spread out the pages and extra comments can be made on the reverse side; Be discriminating and selective, picking key concepts, principles facts. Do not write everything down.
2.1
Listening Skills 2.1.1 Communication and Listening Skills Barriers 2.1.1.1 Listen Effectively Listening Barriers Are you a good listener? Why/ why not? What are the obstacles that stand in the way of effective listening? In order to listen and communicate effectively, we should watch out for the following listening barriers:
Environmental Distractions
Defensiveness
Listening Barriers
Assumptions Critical Evaluation of the Speaker Information Overload
Figure 2.3 : Listening Barriers a. Environmental Distractions These include cell phones, music players, TV, portable gaming consoles and others. Whenever possible, put yourself in a good environmental position for more effective listening. b. Defensiveness Defending is a primal response to feeling attacked, threatened, misunderstood or disrespected. This will normally results in never-ending argument, protest, denial and blaming. Dont view comments and criticisms as personal attack. c. Assumptions Human mind can process a lot of information especially in between conversation while the other party is still talking; we have the tendency to interrupt because we assume that we already know what the other is telling us. Always keep an open mind for effective listening and for effective learning. d. Information overload Too much stimulation or information can make it very difficult to listen with full attention. Try to focus on the relevant information, and the central points that are being conveyed. e. Critical evaluation of the speaker Do not be distracted by critical evaluations of the speaker. Focus on what they are saying - the message - rather than the messenger. (Source: http://lifetofullest.com/effective-listening-barriers/ and http://cte.uwaterloo.ca/teaching_resources/tips/)
2.1.1.2 One-way and Two-way Communication Communication can travel in two directions: one-way one or two-way.
Serves to inform, persuade or command people Eg. radio adio and television programs, public address announcements (airports, train/bus stations, stores), speeches and d lectures as well as telephone customer service recordings
Communication
One-way
Two-Way
Listener gives feedback to the speaker and lets him/her know that the message has been received accurately
Listening Strategies
Identify the listening goal

to obtain specific information to understand the message to decide whether to continue listening
Outline predictable sequences

who-what-when-where (news stories) who-flight numberarriving/departing-gate number (airport announcements) "for [function], press [number]" (telephone recordings)
Identify the key words/phrases to listen for
(Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/listening/goalslisten.htm and http://www.cesdp.nmhu.edu/toolkit/pdfs/teacherhttp://www.cesdp.nmhu.edu/toolkit/pdfs/teacher-tools/mod1/Resource3.pdf)
ffectiveness 2.1.1.3 Communication Effectiveness Good communication starts with listening. Do you agree? Why/ why not? What makes a good speaker good in that sense? Listening is as equally important as speaking. These two skills are closely intertwined as each is critical to o the other in a communication. What do you think would happen to a group of good speakers (bad listeners instead) when they gathered for a discussion? Do you think it is possible to establish effective communication? Why/ why not?
How to be an Effective Listener? While there are many tips around for establishing effective listening skills, choose only the one that works best for you:
Review frequently what the speaker has said
Find at least one major application or conclusion from every message you hear
Tips on how to be an effective listener
Put yourself in the speakers place
Constantly ask yourself positive questions about what the speaker is saying
Listen as though you are going to be required to present the same message to a different audience later
Figure 2.4 : Establishing Effective Listening Skills (Source: http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/kline-listen/b10ch5.htm) Questions to ask yourself while listening 1. What is he saying; what does it really mean? 2. How does that relate to what he said before? 3. Where is he going; whats the point hes trying to make? 4. How is that helpful; how can I use this? 5. Does this make any sense? 6. Am I getting the whole story? 7. How does this relate to what I already know? 8. Is he leaving anything out? 9. How does this relate to what I already know? 10. Do I understand what hes saying or should I ask for clarification?
(Source:http://users.bloomfield.edu/department/tutorial/SOS_ENGLISH/SOS_Docs/files/Effective_Listening _Note-taking.pdf)
2.1.2 Communication Procedu rocedures 2.1.2.1 Oral Communication, ommunication, Writing & Graphics Method Information transfer is a common practice in real life communication. The information gathered from listening could thus be translated into both oral and written forms as well as in the form of graphics. Information Speaker Listening Listener Information Speaking/ Speaking/Writing/Drawing Writing/ Drawing
Listen & speak
Listen & write Goal: To transfer the information gathered from listening to the third party in written form Eg. Checking off items in a list, taking down lecture notes etc
Listen & draw Goal: To transfer the information gathered from listening to the third party with the help of diagrams/ pictures Eg. Drawing a route on a map etc
Goal: To transfer the information gathered from listening to the third party verbally Eg. Talking about a radio announcement with friends etc
Figure 2.5 : Information Transfer 2.1.2.2 Communicate Accurately, ccurately, Clearly and Appropriately According ccording to the Situation Listening skills are hard to develop because listening is a far more active process than simply hearing the words that someone says to you. Listening cert certainly ainly involves hearing but it also involves the participation of the listener in the conversation. By participating, the listener is: hearing the words attempting to understand the meaning providing feedback seeking clarification Query inconsistencies, if there is any
Build on a statement that the speaker makes
Give neutral response
In order to communicate with the speaker, a listener can
Repeat a question if it is not being answered
Confirm feelings with the speaker
Figure 2.6 : Listener Participation

Response Techniques Listening is an interaction between the speaker and the listener. Thus, failing to give appropriate response to the speaker might hinder the real communication. The table below thus outlines some response techniques that could be used by the listener in order to communicate effectively with the speaker. Table 2.1 : Response Techniques Technique Purpose Using a question to understand exactly what the speaker means in general or by a particular phrase. An expression that encourages more information without leading the person. Building on a key word or phrase to get additional information. Example A person who is not part of the in group cant expect recognition What do you mean by in group?
Clarification
Neutrality
It sounded good at the time Uh-huh It didnt turn out that way though Oh? I was beginning to feel that my job might be phased out Uh-huh. What made you feel that? Which of your qualifications contributed to your promotion? Well, you see the old supervisor retired so the job was open I see, but which of your qualifications contributed to your promotion? That being the case, I decided to look for another job Im sorry, I seem to be confused. I thought you left that job to finish your management training. What gave me that impression? I didnt get any credit for the new system even though it was my idea and I worked over 1,000 hours on it You feel your creativity and willingness to work long hours are not appreciated? So basically it was my project all the way It was your idea, you sold it to management, and then worked out all the details, including implementation. Right?
Expansion
Repetition
Repeating your question if you did not get a satisfactory answer the first time.
Clarifying inconsistencies
Admitting that you do not understand and a clarification is needed.
Confirming feelings
Demonstrating that you have some understanding of how they feel by feeding their apparent feelings back to them.
Summarising
Summing up what has been said so far and seeking verification that this is an accurate summary.
(Source: http://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/)
2.1.3 Complete and Clear Information 2.1.3.1 Detailed Notes Orderly To take good notes, there is no need to copy down every single word from what you have heard. Be alert and attentive to the main points and use only key words or short phrases. Follow the steps below:
Have a clear purpose Recognize main ideas Select what is relevant Have a system for recording information that works for you
Figure 2.7 : Detailed Notes Orderly (Source: http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/note1.html)
Note-taking Strategies
Using consistent symbols & abbreviations Listening for structural cues (signpost/ transition words, introduction, body and summary stages) Note-taking strategies
Using concept maps/ diagrams (if applicable) Listening for phonological cues (voice change in volume, speed, emotion)
(Source: http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/pdf/notetake.pdf)
How to Organize the Notes?
1. When the main points & details are long phrases & sentences Main point Detail Detail Detail
2. When details are symbols, statistics, single words or very short phrases Main point Detail Further detail Detail
3. When the speaker tends to backtrack and give specific details on the points mentioned earlier Further detail Main point Detail Detail Further detail
4. When details precede the main point Detail Detail Detail
Main point
Detail Detail Detail
Main point
5. When the speaker does not state the main points clearly or when he/she digresses frequently MAIN POINTS Main point DETAILS Detail Detail Detail Detail Detail
Main point
(Source: Ferrer-Hanreddy, J., & Whalley, E. (1996). A listening/speaking skills book. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
2.1.3.2 Differentiate Accurately between Opinion and Fact According to the Situation In order to get the right message from a person, it is important to distinguish his/her opinions from the facts. Opinions are mere personal judgments, for example ones beliefs, values etc. Facts, on the other hand, can be proven right or wrong by comparing them with the actual data. How to Distinguish Opinions from Facts? Tip #1 In order to distinguish opinions from the facts, we could listen for the following words or phrases that may signal an opinion: I believe I feel In my opinion I think It seems to me that If I am not mistaken I might be wrong but As far as I understand / can see In my experience From my point of view Personally Personally speaking Probably I suppose I take the view that I am not sure/certain, but I am sure/certain/convinced that As I see it As far as I know From what I know
Constantly ask yourself the following questions to check whether something you have heard is a fact or opinion: Tip #2
Can you think of other questions to help you distinguish opinions from the facts?
Can this statement be proved? Does this tell a thought or feeling? Would the statement be true all of the time?
2.2
Effective Performance / Presentation 2.2.1 Sound Presentation Introduction Presentation is an event at which a new product, idea, plan etc. is described and explained. Skills are needed to plan, organize and deliver effective and persuasive presentations with confidence. Making a good oral presentation is an art that involves concern for the needs of your audience, careful planning and attention to delivery. A successful oral presentation keeps things simple: An overview of the points intended to make are given. They are presented clearly to the audience. At the end of the presentation what has been said is summarized. The Presentation Process a. Find out about your audience. b. Be clear about your topic and purpose. c. Choose the structure of your presentation. d. Prepare the content. e. Prepare the visual aids. f. Rehearse the presentation. g. Check the venue and equipment. h. Deliver the presentation. i. Handle questions. The Audience Firstly, know the reasons for presenting and consider the following questions. Who is my audience? What does the audience already know about the topic? What do you want the audience to know? What do you want the audience to feel? What do you want your audience to do? Presenting Ideas Orally Plan your presentation by writing down a clearly defined objective. This will save time, get you organized and sound credible when presenting. Include an introduction to outline the points you intend to cover and a conclusion to review the main points. Make difficult points easier to understand. Give many examples and repeat the same thing several times. Topic and Content If you are already assigned a topic or have the content in written form, think about what you want to achieve. Are you going to inform your audience, inspire them to think about your topic or convince them of a particular point of view? If you need to find a topic then choose one based on the factors below. Your own background and knowledge. Interests of your audience. Purpose and occasion of the oral presentation. When preparing the content think of your key points, how to support them and how to make it easy for the audience to understand. Content must fit within the time limit and hold the interest and attention of the audience. Simplify or summarize technical explanations. Leave time to include examples and illustrations for your points, introduction and conclusion and questions or comments.
The Structure of Presentations Presentations consist of an introduction, which prepares the audience for what you will say in the body of the talk, the body and a conclusion which reminds them of the key points. Expressions Used for Introductions Greetings Good morning/afternoon/evening ladies and gentlemen. Hello/Hi everyone. Thank you for being here today. Ladies and gentlemen. Welcome to Let me start by introducing myself. My name is I am Im the Its nice to see all of you Im grateful that you could come/be here today I think my topic today will interest you The title/topic/subject of todays presentation/talk is Today, Id like to speak/talk about Im going to talk about The objective of this presentation is This talk will give you some information on The purpose of this talk is to I would like to talk about/explain/describe Do you know that Have you ever heard of Are you aware of the fact that What do you know about Ive divided my presentation into four main parts / sections. Firstly/ Secondly/ Then/ NextAfter that.../ Finally, I will speak about /examine The presentation will take / last about.minutes. I will be speaking for aboutminutes.
Introducing yourself
Relating to the audience
Introducing the topic
Explaining the objective
Asking questions
Previewing the Main Parts / Main points Mentioning the Duration Of The Presentation
Expressions Used for the Body of the Presentation Introducing the First Main Point Moving to a New Section / Point Lets begin / start with the first point Right, now I would like to explain We have just seen how,, now lets look at Now, Id like to turn to This brings me to the third and last point In addition to this, Another thing to consider is
Adding / Contrasting /
Summarizing ideas
A further / additional point is However / Although / On the other hand / So / Thus / Therefore / As a result
Introducing a Visual Aid
Lets take a look at this picture / photograph / map /chart The second / third / next / final slide shows This slide shows / illustrates / demonstrates / refers to Here we can see Id like to emphasize / draw attention to / stress that / Its important to understand / know / that One important part / section / point is Do you understand? Is that clear? Are there / Do you have any questions?
Focusing Attention
Checking with the Audience
Expressions Used for Conclusions Signalling the end Well, I think Ive covered everything Thats all I have to say about Right, thats just about everything To sum up In brief Lets go through the main points / issues again Before I end, let me just go over Let me summarize . The main points Ive covered are In conclusion / To conclude, Id like to say Id like to finish by saying So, I would like to suggest that In my opinion, Perhaps, you would like to share your views / suggestions on the issues We can now see that It can now be seen This presentation has shown you Thank you Thank you for listening / your attention I hope that this presentation / talk has been useful
Summarizing
Concluding
Recommending
Restating the purpose
Closing / Thanking audience
Delivering a Presentation When delivering a presentation, pay attention to the following areas to improve your presentation skills: Voice Quality - Volume - Speed and Fluency - Clarity - Pronunciation Time Limit Gestures and Posture Involving the Audience - Maintain eye contact - Ask for feedback - Look confident and in control Question and Answer Sessions Using Notes Using Appropriate Visual Aids to Enhance Presentation Visual aids help make a presentation more interesting and lively as well as, support a message. Good visual aids add interest, clarity and credibility to the presentation. The audience will be attentive if good visual aids are used, as one picture represents a thousand words. Visual aids can also help your audiences remember the important points of your message. In addition, they give the speaker more confidence. Visual aids can be used to: Reinforce a point. Illustrate a relationship between ideas. Show information patterns or pictures. Present figures, graphs or charts. Summarize key points. Help the audience follow passages or quotations. You should know the various kinds of visual aids, their preparation and the best ways to use them. Tips for Preparing and Using Visual Aids Explain the visuals you use ual Keep extra copies of all visuals Supplement words
Prepare in advance
Time the way you use visuals
Visual aids
Keep them simple Use large print
Use colour for accent
Use meaningful visual aids
Figure 2.8 : Visual Aids

Donts: Do not read. Do not talk to the prop, talk to the audience. Do not expose the visual aid for a long time. Do not stand in front of the audience and block their view. Do not use a flip chart in a large room or with over 50 people in the audience. Do not just display visual aids if you cannot describe and explain their content and purpose. Do not pass out items to the audience during your speech / presentation.
Types of Visual Aids 1 Objects Real objects or something representing a concept can be used. Objects can clarify and emphasize the points. If the real item is too large, too small or too cumbersome to actually show during your presentation, models or a depiction of the actual item would be a good representation. The speaker himself can demonstrate and act as a visual aid. An enlarged photograph or poster can help the audience to visualize exactly what you describe. Slide projections are easy to read and visually very pleasing. Transparencies are cheap, easy to produce and user-friendly. A presentation, supplemented with a well chosen, carefully edited video segment can be very effective. The flip chart can be very interactive. The presenter can write lists as the audience calls answers to your questions. Pages in advance can be prepared. The whole flip chart can be moved to a better spot in the room at any time. Pages can be torn and pasted around the room. Handouts are helpful for your audience. They should contain only an outline of your main points. References should be included in the handouts so that the audience can follow up on them later. Write on the board before the presentation begins or write words/short phrases during the presentation. Come prepared with the right pens and write in large neat handwriting. Use the PowerPoint programme to produce beautiful pictures and graphics.
Models
3 4
The speaker Photographs and Posters Slides Transparencies Videos
5 6 7
Flip Chart Sheets
Handouts
10
Whiteboards
11
Computer-Generated Graphics
2.2.2
Latest Technology Presentation is much more interesting, attractive and effective if the latest technology is used such as, Computer-Generated Graphics, Slides and Videotapes, and Multimedia Presentations. When used the finished product is professional looking. Beautiful graphics are produced for your speeches by many software packages. A multitude of pictures and graphics can be created. Some software programs even help speakers prepare notes and excellent visual aids. Computer-Generated Graphics It is a diagram, chart, graph or the like created with the aid of a computer. Using a computer, computer-generated graphics can be created for your speeches. These graphics can include anything from simple diagrams to highly sophisticated full-colour charts and graphs. When used in classroom speeches, computer-generated graphics are usually presented on transparencies that can be shown with an overhead projector. Using a laser printer, the graphic can be printed directly on a transparency. You can also design your visual aid on a computer and then have it enlarged and printed directly from disk. Slides and Videotapes Slides and Videotapes can be extremely effective as visual aids. The detail, immediacy and vividness of them are hard to match. This is why they are so often used in business speeches and other kinds of professional presentations as well as in classroom speeches. Slides can be converted into full-colour transparencies that can be shown in a lighted room with an overhead projector. This makes it much easier to integrate slides with the rest of a speech. Multimedia Presentations There are presentation software programs such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Adobe Persuasion and Corel Presentation. They create computer-generated graphics that can be used in speeches. These programs also allow a speaker to produce multimedia presentations that combines charts and graphs, slides and photographs, even animations, video clips and sound in the same talk. Although each multimedia presentation program operates differently, all allow you to import a wide range of material for use in a speech. Photographs from the internet can be downloaded to your computer for use with your other visual aids. In addition, photographs from the books or magazines can be transferred to a disk using a scanner. Moreover, video clips, including sound, can be imported from the movies for presentation in your speech. Once the images and sounds are stored in your computer they can be called up in any order you want for presentation in your speech. In addition, photographs, slides, animations, video clips, and other visuals can be programmed to appear automatically at present times. Thus, you are free to concentrate on communicating with your audience. Moreover, a link to the internet right on your visual aid can be created by you. The visual aid can be connected to information anywhere in the world, when the mouse is clicked. During the speech, the computer is used to control the order, content, and timing of your multimedia presentation. The computer is connected to a television monitor, a large screen video projector, a digital light projection (DLP) unit, or an LCD projector. Some systems have a wireless mouse or remote control that lets you move through your presentation with a minimum of fuss.
2.3
Effective Public Speaking What is Effective Public Speaking? According to Zakahi (1998), public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured deliberate1 manner intended to inform, influence/ entertain audience. In order for any public speaking to be effective, the audience should gain knowledge or are somewhat be effected (positively) by the speech. The following are the five elements in public speaking:
Topic of speech Type of speech The intended2 message
Background of audience/Interest and age group Know what they want, need and know.
WHO is saying WHAT to WHOM using what MEDIUM EFFECTS

Who is giving the speech? Their background / field of expertise / The strategies in delivering the speech The Visual Aids used The approaches The reaction of the audience Know whether the Objectives reached/Messages delivered
GLOSSARY Deliberate1: Done on purpose/ planned. Intended 2 : what you plan or trying to achieve. matter3 : a subject that you need to deal with.
What is the Purpose of Public ublic Speaking?
MOTIVATION
public public speaking is one of the best ways to increase one's motivation level . The The use of motivational words and suitable intonation would often affect the audience's self esteem . Those Those who often use public speaking for this purpose are: motivational speakers, spiritual leaders and etc
INFLUENCE
Some Some speakers approach the audience with a determination to influence the audience to change their perception and gain their trust in a matter3. Those Those who carry out public speaking for this purpose are politicians, world leaders, spritual leaders and etc.
PERSUASION
public public speaking is a tool in persuading the audience to buy what you have put out for them through your speech. " to buy here means to believe" Those Those who often use public speaking for this purpose are sales managers, prosecuters/defense lawyers and etc
INFORMING
public public speaking is a very effective and fast form of communication in conveying information, ideas and message. Those Those who often use public speaking for this purposes are lecturers, paper presenters, scientist, linguist and etc
ENTERTAINMENT
Public speaking is often a form of entertainment. This can be merely for the fun of sharing interest facts or entertaining people with their witty humour. Those Those who often use public speaking for this purposes are comedians, stage acts, and etc.
2.3.1
Deliver the Speech peech Well The one thing about communication is the feedback or how the audience /listeners interpret and respond to the speech. Sometimes we might say something with a different meaning but those whom are listening to us may interpret the idea/message differently. This T will cause miscommunication and in public speaking it may lead to a bored, angry, irritated, and confused audience. Therefore a good or an effective speaker needs to have the following questions in check: a) What to do before a speech? b) What to do during durin a speech?
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What to do before a speech?

ANALYSE THE AUDIENCE We must always know for whom the intended speech is for. We must know their background so that the materials and the topic chosen are suitable. Different audience may respond differently to the same topic. Sometimes it can work out for you but if it doesnt, you are in a lot of trouble. SO GET TO KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE AND GET THEIR BACKGROUNDS CHECKED.
ETHICS AND PUBLIC SPEAKING A good public speaker must be audience centred, present good and well organised ideas, choose the right words, deliver a message well The speaker should also approach the audience in a friendly and confident manner. Try to put a little more effort and commitment in organising the ideas, improving your body language and gestures as these attributes can take you a long way.
SELECTING A TOPIC AND A PURPOSE We must know our audience as mentioned before. We must know or learn how to analyse the audience reaction (Attitudinal Analyses). This can be done before the real speech day. Try talking to a group of friends and see how they respond to you. Analyse their reaction and try to find out why they responded that way. Example: when you were talking a friend started whispering to another friend. Try to find out why? Were they bored or whether they find the way you speak is amusing Or whether you stood the entire hour talking with your fly open (muahahaha) *learn to crack jokes* If the audiences response is not good, try to intelligently change your approach and words but stick to the topic and purpose.
1.
DESIGN YOUR SPEECH There are four steps in designing your speech. Selecting and narrowing your topic Audience background, occasion, background and interest Brainstorm and list out as many ideas as possible Choose the topic you CAN speak on. Determine your purpose *check out the notes on purpose of a speech Developing your central idea It is known as the thesis statement. It is like atopic statement or a declarative statement. The summary on the entire speech. Determine your main ideas Main idea should be divided into logical divisions which are: MAIN IDEA, SUPPORTING DETAILS, EXAMPLES to support the central ideas.
2.
3.
4.
What to do during a speech?

THE LANGUAGE AND BODY LANGUAGE It is very important to know when to use informal language and a formal language The vocabulary used must be suitable with the audience. Pick and choose the right words. *learn to be good friends with your dictionary* The intonation should be appropriate. You cant raise your voice with certain audience and vice versa with others. Try not to impress your audience with bombastic words and crucify them and get yourself into trouble as well. Be moderate. Watch out for your gestures both verbal and non verbal. It can either impress your audience or repel them.
THE FLOW OF YOUR SPEECH Always start with a proper introduction. State your thesis statement Learn to arrange your points well and each point should relate to the other. Try to explain them well but avoid going off topic. PLEASE DO NOT MEMORISE YOUR SPEECH. You can remember the key points but leave it to that. While you are speaking note the changes in the audience and see how they respond. If they seemed to be bored try to step up the pace and try to change the mood. Crack jokes and get them interested. If you are not good at jokes, before going up any stage, try watching stand up comedians shows as you can learn a few sharp and simple jokes. Remember to end your speech with a conclusion and dont leave it hanging.
2.3.2
Listeners Attention
MAKE YOUR NOTES USER FRIENDLY. Make sure your notes are easy for YOU to read. KNOW YOUR SPEECH Please know what you are talking about and try to talk about things that you know well. STAY CONNECTED Please relate to your audience from time to time. Do not talk to only three people: me, myself and I
BE REAL AND DELIBERATE If you are going to look at your notes or visual aids, try to be real, relaxed and deliberate. Do not panic.
USE SIMPLE YET EFFECTIVE VISUAL AIDS. Assist and impress your audience with simple visual aids which is not too distracting to help the audience to connect with you and your speech
DONT READ YOUR NOTES There is nothing more boring than a person reading their notes in front of you. So avoid *public speaking suicide*
DONT READ YOUR NOTES There is nothing more boring than a person reading their notes in front of you. So avoid public speaking suicide
DONT APOLOGISE Do not apologise when you need to look at you notes or your slides. Examples: Excuse me, I am very sorry, I want to take a peek at my notes ( * eyes rolling* please dont do that) Do not advertise your mistakes or flaws.
DO NOT LET FEAR CONTROL YOU Everyone will be nervous to certain degree when it comes to public speaking. It doesnt matter of that the 100th time you are standing on stage, you would be still nervous. A little fear is good but do not let it get o you head. Learn to overcome your fear or at least learn to control it.
2.4
Competent Personality During Interviews 2.4.1 Interview Preparation Preparations Before an Interview Do your homework. Research the company beforehand so that you can showcase that knowledge during the interview. This will boost your credibility with the interviewer and will help you to formulate intelligent questions to ask him or her. b. Know where you are going. Make sure to find out where the office is and how to get there. Do you know how long the trip will take? Do you have the name and phone number of the person you will be meeting with? Do you know how easy it is to park? Save yourself time and unnecessary stress by knowing these things before heading to the interview. c. Look the part. Your clothing should be neat, pressed, and professional looking. As it can be difficult to know the culture of the office environment beforehand, err on the side of conservative. Even if everyone is wearing jeans when you arrive, you are still probably better off having shown up in a suit. However, do not be afraid to inject some personality into your look, and do not neglect the details. Make sure to have a fresh haircut and clean, manicured nails. d. Rehearse beforehand. Prior to your interview, prepare answers to common questions the interviewer is likely to ask, such as What are your strengths and weaknesses?, Why do you want to work here?, Why should we hire you? and the ever popular Tell me about yourself. Conduct a mock interview with a trusted friend as practice. e. Secure your references. Find at least three key people former supervisors, colleagues, or instructors who are willing to serve as your professional references. Be sure to secure their permission beforehand, and be certain that they will speak highly of you if contacted by a potential employer. f. Arrive early. Be sure to arrive at least 15 minutes before the interview. Visit the restroom and check your appearance in the mirror. Announce yourself to the receptionist to let him or her know that you have arrived and that you have an appointment. Turn your cell phone off so it does not ring during your interview. g. Bring necessary documentation. Make a checklist of documents that you will need for the interview, and make sure that you have them in your briefcase before leaving home. These documents may include extra copies of your rsum, or portfolio of writing samples or other professional work. If you are a recent graduate, you should also bring along your college transcripts. a.
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h. Sell yourself. The interview is your chance to shine, so now is not the time to be humble. Develop a 25-second sales pitch that sings your praises. In business this is called an elevator speech, a compelling overview of why you? That can be recited in the time it takes to ride the elevator. It should include your strengths, your abilities, and what sets you uniquely apart from other applicants. i. Do not neglect to ask questions. Based on your earlier research, ask how the responsibilities of the open position relate to the companys goals and plans for the future. Interviewers are often favorably impressed by candidates who show that they are knowledgeable about the organization. j. Follow up. After the interview, do not forget to send a handwritten note or friendly email thanking the interviewer for his or her time and consideration, as well as restating your interest and commitment to the position. If you do not hear anything after one week, call to politely inquire when they will be making a final decision. Remember to keep this in mind: Every interview is a valuable learning experience. Even if you do not get this particular job, when the next interview rolls around, you will be much better prepared and more at ease with the whole process. All of which can go a long way to boosting your confidence and improving your chances of being offered the next job. Good luck!
2.4.2
Answering Questions Techniques Ways for Answering Questions During an Interview Every time you answer a question, you should analyze your listener, use supports and communicate positive form and content. This concept of positive form and positive content emphasizes on the importance of avoiding negatives by presenting yourself as positive as possible. Analyzing your audience and using supports stresses the importance of using a language appropriate for the situation. 1. Use Positive Form Names Make sure you get the name of the interviewer correctly and use it from time to time when you speak. Use the interviewers title for instance Miss, Mr., Mrs., Professor etc and last name. Never call the interviewer by his or her first name unless requested. Way of phrasing questions and answers Rather than ask what are the duties of________ position? ask What would be my duties? This form of questioning subtly plants the positive thought of you in the position. This is not presumptuous because you used the word would which indicates you are not overly sure of yourself. Good grammar The use of proper language is very crucial during an interview. Check your use of grammar and if it is impeccable, make an effort to improve it before the interview. Good diction Avoid using shortened words like gonna for going to, goin for going or any informality like yea instead of yes. Another problem is substituting, eliminating, or adding consonants for example saying Adlanta instead of Atlanta or pronounce idear instead of idea. If you have a tendency to do this, it is good to correct yourself and practise using the correct diction. Vocalized pauses Vocalized pauses will distract the listener from your message and can be annoying if you overdoing it. Therefore, avoid using uhms and ahs excessively.
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Fillers Fillers are words or phrases like you know, okay and like. Fillers do not add more information and can be distracting to the listener. The interviewer will find it hard to understand your message and the use of it should be reduced. Active verbs Use active voice when talking about what you have done or will do. For example, instead of saying The entire conference was organized by me (passive) say I organized the entire conference (active). Tentative and indecisive terms Using tentative and indecisive terms like I think, I feel and I guess will create the negative impression towards you that you are trying to leave it with the interviewer. Therefore, the use of the terms should be avoided as you want to communicate that you are a clear and purposeful candidate. 2. Use Positive Content When answering questions, you should always phrase your answers in a positive manner. Avoid the use of common negative words such as cant, shouldnt, didnt and wouldnt. These terms will lead the interviewer into negative thinking, thus do not communicate enthusiasm and optimism. An example of good and bad answer can be seen below: Question: Why do you want to leave your present job? Bad answer: After working there for three years, I dont feel Im going anywhere. The management isnt very good, I didnt get any increase in the salary and I dont have full spirit to work there anymore.... Good answer: After working there for three years, I have learned a great deal about managing people and developing new markets. But it is time for me to move to a larger organization where I can use my marketing experience in several different areas. I am ready to take on more responsibilities. This change will be a positive step in my professional growth. 3. Analyze Your Listener and Supports Vary your language according to the interviewer If the interviewer is from the personnel office with little or no background in your field or expertise, you should use language that is less technical. In other situation where the interviewer shares the common background as you, you should use a vocabulary relevant to the job in order to establish common ground as well as your credibility, but do not overdo the use of jargon. Talk about yourself and your accomplishments Do not be reluctant to talk about yourself and your accomplishments. Remember, the interviewer wants to know more about you and your potential value to him or her. The more positive information you can communicate to the interviewer, the stronger your position will be in the final hiring decision. Supports your skills and accomplishments When you state about your skills and accomplishments with supports, this will gain you advantages over individuals who do not. Supports help you to clarify your comments and add interest to the interviewer. Examples of support are like examples, illustrations, descriptions, definitions, statistics, comparisons and testimonials. Even though you may have included a few of these supports in the resume, the interview is the time to expand upon your accomplishments by using many of these supports.
Sample of Interview Questions and Answers 1. Why do you want to work in this industry? Bad answer: I love to shop. Even as a kid, I spent hours flipping through catalogues. Do not just say you like it. Anyone can do that. Focus instead on your history with that particular industry, and if you can, tell a success story. Good answer: Ive always loved shopping, but my interest in retail marketing really started when I worked at a neighborhood boutique. I knew our clothes were amazing, but that we werent marketing them properly. So I worked with management to come up with a marketing strategy that increased our sales by 25% in a year. It was great to be able to contribute positively to an industry I feel so passionate about, and to help promote a product I really believed in. 2. Tell us about yourself. Bad answer: I graduated four years ago from the University of Michigan, with a Bachelors in Biology but I decided that wasnt the right path for me. So I switched gears and got my first job, working in sales for a startup. Then I went on to work in marketing for a law firm. After that, I took a few months off to travel. Finally, I came back and worked in marketing again. And now, here I am, looking for a more challenging marketing role. Instead of giving a chronological work history, focus on your strengths and how they pertain to the role. If possible, illustrate with examples. Good answer: Im really energetic, and a great communicator. Working in sales for two years helped me build confidence, and taught me the importance of customer loyalty. Ive also got a track record of success. In my last role, I launched a company newsletter, which helped us build on our existing relationships and create new ones. Because of this, we ended up seeing a revenue increase of 10% over two years. Im also really interested in how companies can use web tools to better market themselves, and would be committed to building on your existing platform. 3. What do you think of your previous boss? Bad answer: He was completely incompetent, and a nightmare to work with, which is why Ive moved on. Remember: If you get the job, the person interviewing you will someday be your previous boss. The last thing they want is to hire someone who they know is going to badmouth them some day. Instead of trashing your former employer, stay positive, and focus on what you learned from him (no matter how awful he really was). Good answer: My last boss taught me the importance of time management, he didnt pull any punches, and was extremely deadline-driven. His no-nonsense attitude pushed me to work harder, and to meet deadlines I never even thought were possible. 4. Why are you leaving your current role? Bad answer: I cant stand my boss, or the work Im doing.
Again, stay away from badmouthing your job or employer. Focus on the positive. Good answer: Ive learned a lot from my current role, but now Im looking for a new challenge, to broaden my horizons and to gain a new skill-set all of which, I see the potential for in this job. 5. Where do you see yourself in five years? Bad answer: Relaxing on a beach in Maui, or "Doing your job. There is really no right answer to this question, but the interviewer wants to know that you are ambitious, career-oriented, and committed to a future with the company. So instead of sharing your dream for early retirement, or trying to be funny, give them an answer that illustrates your drive and commitment. Good answer: In five years Id like to have an even better understanding of this industry. Also, I really love working with people. Ultimately, Id like to be in some type of managerial role at this company, where I can use my people skills and industry knowledge to benefit the people working for me, and the company as a whole. 6. Whats your greatest weakness? Bad answer: I work too hard, or for the comedian, Blonds. This question is a great opportunity to put a positive spin on something negative, but you do not want your answer to be cliche joking or not. Instead, try to use a real example of a weakness you have learned to overcome. Good answer: Ive never been very comfortable with public speaking which, as you know, can be a hindrance in the workplace. Realizing this was a problem, I asked my previous employer if I could enroll in a speech workshop. He said yes. I took the class, and was able to overcome my lifelong fear. Since then, Ive given lots of presentations to audiences of over a 100 high level executives I still dont love it, but no one else can tell!" 7. What salary are you looking for? Bad answer: In my last job I earned $35,000 so, now Im looking for $40,000. If you can avoid it, do not give an exact number. The first person to name a price in a salary negotiation loses. Instead, re-iterate your commitment to the job itself. If you have to, give a broad range based on research you have conducted on that particular role, in your particular city. Good answer: Im more interested in the role itself than the pay. That said, Id expect to be paid the appropriate range for this role, based on my five years of experience. I also think a fair salary would bear in mind the high cost of living here in New York City.
8. Why should I hire you? Bad answer: Im the best candidate for the role. A good answer will reiterate your qualifications, and will highlight what makes you unique. Good answer: Ive been an Executive Assistant for the past ten years my boss has said time and time again that without me, the organization would fall apart. Ive also taken the time to educate myself on some of the software I regularly use (but didnt really understand the ins and outs of). Im an Excel whiz now, which means I can work faster, and take over some of what my boss would traditionally have had to do himself. Whats good enough for most people is never really good enough for me. 9. What motivates you? Bad answer: Doing a good job and being rewarded for it. It is not that this answer is wrong it is just that it wastes an opportunity. This question is practically begging you to highlight your positive attributes. So do not give a vague, generic response it tells them very little about you. Instead, try and use this question as an opportunity to give the interviewer some insight into your character, and use examples where possible. Good answer: Ive always been motivated by the challenge of meeting a tough deadline in my last role, I was responsible for a 100% success rate in terms of delivering our products on time and within budget. I know that this job is very fast-paced and deadline-driven Im more than up for the challenge. In fact, I thrive on it. 10. How would your friends describe you? Bad answer: Im a really good listener. While being a good listener is a great personality trait, your employer probably does not care all that much. It is unlikely that they are hiring you to be a shoulder to cry on. You will want to keep your answer relevant to the job you are interviewing for and as specific as possible. If you can, insert an example. Good answer: My friends would probably say that Im extremely persistent Ive never been afraid to keep going back until I get what I want. When I worked as a program developer, recruiting keynote speakers for a major tech conference, I got one rejection after another this was just the nature of the job.But I really wanted the big players so I wouldnt take no for an answer. I kept going back to them every time there was a new company on board, or some new value proposition. Eventually, many of them actually said yes the program turned out to be so great that we doubled our attendees from the year before. A lot of people might have given up after the first rejection, but its just not in my nature. If I know something is possible, I have to keep trying until I get it."
2.5
Meetings A meeting is a gathering of two or more persons in order to discuss a matter or to share ideas and experiences.
5 golden rules in Meetings

1. MEETINGS ARE FOR BUSINESS, NOT SOCIALIZING. A certain amount of small talk at the beginning and end of a meeting definitely helps to create a friendly atmosphere and build team spirit. But time is money. Make sure that participants get down to business after a few minutes of pleasantries. Also make sure that business is concluded before someone changes the subject to football again. MEETINGS SHOULD BE DEMOCRATIC IN APPROACH AND SPIRIT The only point in bringing people together for a meeting is to let them discuss an issue. If you want to announce decisions that have been made, dont do it in a meeting but find another way of communicating it. Your meeting should have a creative and open atmosphere so that your people can make interesting contributions to the discussion. TIME IS GOD IN MEETINGS Dont let a discussion run on unnecessarily. If an issue cant be resolved in this meeting, cut the discussion off and continue it in a later meeting. But if you and your colleagues have to reach a decision today, be honest and tell them that theyll have to sit there until the job is done. GIVE PEOPLE ENOUGH TIME TO PREPARE FOR A MEETING Its surprising how many chairpeople call meetings at short notice and then complain that the participants havent prepared properly. With advance notice, participants will come to your meeting having thought about your agenda, read through the background papers, prepared presentations, and come up with solutions to problems. DONT CALL MEETINGS OUTSIDE OFFICE HOURS You want participants to be enthusiastic about being at your meeting, so never schedule meetings for evenings or weekends.
2.
3.
4.
5.
minutes member's participation decision making
preparation
leader's ability to chair the meeting
purpose
EFFECTIVE MEETING
plan
Effective Meeting Guidelines
Set the objective/purpose Determine the topics and subtopics Identify the members Choose an appropriate time and day Ensure an outcome Ensure the presence of necessary documents
a a clear objective will ensure that the meeting will not waste time because the desired outcome is known known- it will not side track to other irrelevant things
proper proper planning on what is to be discussed will save time
to to avoid inclusion of the wrong people. select members who will be able to contribute or represent in the topic discussed
plan plan a meeting at a time/day convenient to the members. this is to make sure it is comfortable and free from interruptions
ensure ensure that some actions took place as a result of the meeting. ensure ensure that the objective.purpose of the meeting achieved
minutes minutes of meeting, notice, agenda, etc.
NONVERBAL SIGNALS IN MEETINGS

GOOD NONVERBAL SIGNALS * taking an open stance, facing the speaker, sitting up, listening, being attentive, smiling, head nods at appropriate junctures, taking notes BAD NONVERBAL SIGNALS * sitting outside group, avoiding eye contact, folding your arms, clicking pens, holding your head in your hands, stretching aggressively, showing impatience, eyes looking down, fingers tipping.
2.6
Consultation Skills The objective of this section is to identify a minimum set of competencies needed to be effective in consultation. Unfortunately at this juncture in the development of consultation, we cannot base this discussion solely upon research for two reasons. First, the skills of the consultant have not been extensively studied and, thus, the database is limited. Second, the search that has been produced has produced mixed result, partially because of inadequate procedures. Organizational consultants such as Kurpius et al. (1993) emphasize the importance of the preentry phase of the consulting process. They stress that, in this phase, consultants need two essential competencies: the ability to do realistic self estimates of their characteristics and skills and to communicate these skills to potential consultees. The essential skills required in the preentry/prerelationship phase are: Capability to analyze ones own strengths and weaknesses. The ability to identify consulting skills and make estimates of how these can help consultees. Marketing skills, that is, the ability to persuade others that they can benefit from consultation. Consultants need to be able to ascertain, on a preliminary basis at least, whether consultation is feasible. By feasibility is meant that the consultee has the motivation and resources needed for success (Kurpius et al, 1993). To summarize, the consultant needs a few of consultation skill such as: Active listening skills. Consultants as problem solvers; the ability to maintain the focus of the consultation process in the client thus avoiding incidental therapy. Understanding theories of individual/organizational behaviour and the ability to use that information to problem identification and goal setting. Having a working knowledge of numerous intervention related to the problems that the consultant is likely to encounter. Skills for terminating consultation processes that have been successful, that is, when goal have been attained.
2.6.1
Consultation Procedure a) Entry into an organization - Formal entry - Informal acceptance b) c) d) e) f) g) h) Initiation of a consulting relationship Assessment Problem definition and goal setting Strategy selection Implementation Evaluation Termination
2.6.2
Effective Consultation Implementation is the key phase in the consulting cycle. This is the time when the change starts to take place and people do things differently. The success of any consulting assignment hinges on the way it is implemented. Yet so often consultants reports simply gather dust and are never acted upon, or implementation takes place in the teeth of severe opposition. So why do clients fail to implement? To answer this question we must clarify what needs to be in place before implementation is likely to be successful. We feel that successful implementation depends on four factors: Ownership - The degree to which all the people responsible for implementing the change own it and are committed to it. Leadership - The degree to which senior managers are seen to be committed to the change. Capability - The degree to which people have the necessary skills to carry out implementation properly. Organization - The way the implementation phase is actually organized. The degree to which we accept ownership of change depends on:- Information about the change - Participation in the change decision - Trust in the initiator - Previous experience of change - The impact of change on our relationships - Individual personality The appropriateness of decision-making style during implementation depends on: Emotional investment of the group - If the group members have a very high level of emotional investment in the decision, a redundancy, promotion or reorganization, for example, it may be appropriate for the manager to retain a high degree of responsibility for making the decision. Time available Sometimes there genuinely is no time to involve everyone in the decision. If this is the case, however, it is important that client group member are told the reasons for the decision and helped to work through their feelings about it.
Size of the client system If the client system is very large then it may be impossible to involve everyone in every decision. In this case it may be necessary to help managers and supervisors brief people in small group, tell them the reasons for the decision, allow them to think through how they can implement their part of the change, the advantages and disadvantages for them, and how they feel about the decision. Degree of secrecy required There are some decisions which, for commercial reasons, need to be kept secret, so only a limited number of people can be involved. But these decisions are few and far between. Some organizations, and some people, treat decisions as though they are state secrets, when this really is not necessary. When it is necessary, the decision (and the need for secrecy) should be fully explained afterwards. Maturity of the group You may often be involved in helping managers to identify an appropriate decision-making style which will maximize the degree of ownership that people have. You may well find it necessary to confront the manager and/or the group where the approach being adopted is inappropriate. This can obviously be a difficult and uncomfortable confrontation and needs to be handled very gently.
However, successful implementation of change demands both commitment and leadership from the top. Successful implementation requires individual competence. Competence or capability is the ability to do something well and involves knowledge, behaviour, and feelings. Also, successful implementation requires adequate organization.
Checklist for Implementation Taking the Role of Facilitator Consultant
If you want to take a facilitating and supporting role during implementation there are some of the things you might do as well:Provide support and encouragement. Observe and give feedback. Listen and offer counselling when things go wrong. Help clients plan modifications and fine tuning. Identify human process issues which are getting in the way of successful implementation. f) Bring together parts of the client system to work on human process issues, e.g. unresolved conflict, communication breakdown, etc. g) Help people from different disciplines, or from different parts of the organization, to work together. h) Prepare groups for change. i) Carry out training and education sessions with individuals or groups. j) Work with managers and help them as they support the change process. k) Open doors to other departments where their involvement might be helpful. l) Confront inconsistencies between the plan and what actually happens. a) b) c) d) e)
3.0 3.1
MANAGEMENT SKILLS Problem Solving Skills What is Problem Solving? Problem-solving can define as a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue (Reed, 2000). The way in which people solve problems best depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other cases, creativity and insight are the best options. A problem is a situation which is experienced by an agent as different from the situation which the agent ideally would like to be in. A problem is solved by a sequence of actions that reduce the different between the initial situation and the goal (F. Heylighen, 1998). 3.1.1 Issues and Problems Types of Problems There are eight (8) different types of problem: 1. Problems Which Are Puzzles have objective solutions, and typically have known and reliable methods for resolution. The problems are technical, mechanical, financial, or mathematical in nature. The most pressing need is for expertise. Once found, the solution will be obvious to any appropriate observer. The problem can be carved up into pieces and addressed separately. And solutions can be imported (purchased, copied, stolen) from elsewhere, as in "best practices". Examples: Building a bridge across a river Process improvement on a physical manufacturing line Getting a man to the moon and back safely Designing a smaller disk drive 2. Problems That Are Too Rich are almost the exact opposite from Puzzles. While we are often certain there is at least one answer, the solution is not objective. In fact, we are typically facing a wide array of possible choices. The situation calls for a visionary or artistic effort, not a technical one. Once found, the solution will not be obvious; it may remain controversial well into implementation. Rather than expertise, the most pressing need is for judgment, intuition, innovation, even courage. Examples: Defining the vision for a business or project Designing the architectural impact of the home office building Defining the "look and feel" of the company web site Building a user interface Product design (i.e. the iMac) 3. Problems with Uncertainties are dominated by the unknown or unknowable variation in key variables. Typically solutions would vary significantly depending on some uncertain future development. The "solution" has to be contingent on future events, making for multiple possible solutions rather than one best solution. The problem solving effort has to be drawn out into the future so we can watch unfolding events and modify the solution as needed. The problem solving team cannot disperse; they have to remain engaged to oversee the adjustment of solutions as circumstances reveal themselves.
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Examples: Deciding whether to build a gas cracking plant (which takes 10 years) in the face of fluctuating foreign oil prices, uncertain access to coal, shifting regulatory policies, and political instability in the Middle East Project planning (i.e., will our suppliers come through? will someone get sick? will it rain?) Family planning (I want a boy and a girl, about a year apart) 4. Problems that are Dilemmas come from our simultaneous commitment to incompatible goals. Our efforts to maximize one undermine our success at the other. Faced with an apparent conflict of interest, the representatives of each side tend to become even more ardent advocates, which only provoke an equal escalation on the other side. Dilemmas are never really resolved, only managed more or less well. The on-going nature of dilemmas makes a process for finding solutions more valuable than any particular solution. Examples: Low price & High quality The economy of centralized services & the Customer intimacy of decentralized operations Personal freedom & Social order (In banking) The quality of the portfolio & Maintaining a certain volume of loans Wide participation & Efficient decision making 5. Problems with a Their Own emerge when enough actors behaving independently form an almost organic entity: A marketplace of buyers and sellers, employees in a company, companies in a market segment, all the supply chains feeding into a single company. All of these phenomena exhibit order and structure well outside the intentions of any one ostensibly "in charge". The organization of such systems is emergent, an unpredictable property spawned by the relationships among the players. Examples: Oscillations in complex supply chains Addressing a sour company culture Attracting staff in a tight labor market Doubling the sales force leads to reduced sales!? Using Federal tax codes to influence investment and spending habits, but it only spawns a new set of financial strategies, which creates the need for new controls, etc. 6. Problems with Many Voices are the classic conflicts of multiple stakeholders with colliding interests. While cooperation may be difficult it is also essential, since no one can proceed without the tacit permission of the others (although that power is usually expressed through a veto rather than positive support). The driving need is for a safe and equitable forum where parties can surface their interests and explore options for the most satisfying outcome for all parties concerned. Examples: Developers vs. environmentalists vs. residents deciding on where to route a freeway Negotiating product specs with a client Owners, contractors, and architects developing the specifications for a major construction project Competing companies creating industry standards to create a stable marketplace for their products Infighting among departments
7.
Problems of Our Own Making occur when someone with compelling authority makes a statement that so discrepant from the realities of the situation that the mere utterance of the statement precipitates a reaction. Such a problem may also occur when people fall into a collective delusion, or initiate a self-fulfilling prophecy. The telling feature is that the stated reality and the real reality are too different to support coherent or reasonable action. If not countered, such problems can worsen into more complex and irresolvable conflicts. Examples: A CEO calls for 60% growth despite a 30% turnover rate The senior executive team demands a forecast of double-digit growth even though the forecasting team cannot see more than 6% growth Telling your 14-year-old son that he must respect his elders at all times Imposing a TQM program onto a "command and control" culture Demanding complete documentation for new products when Engineering is swamped with new systems to design
8.
Problems that Bite is actually beyond resolution. These are the long-standing, bitter conflicts for which violence is an ever present threat. The abortion debate and the Middle East would be the prototypical examples. Beliefs have fallen into a stereotypical form, and any meaningful dialogue is extremely difficult to arrange. No one is allowed to be a neutral party, so it is hard to invoke the norms and practices of mediation or negotiation. The goal is to migrate the problem into another type, which would require the insight of a critical mass of thought leaders. Examples: The abortion debate in the US The Middle East conflict The health care system The power crisis in California in 2001 The conflict between management and labor in the US Postal Service
3.1.2
Alternative Solutions Problem Solving Cycle We engage in problem solving when we need to overcome obstacle in order to answer a question or to achieve a goal. If we can quickly retrieve an answer from memory, we do not have a problem. If we cannot retrieve an immediate answer, then we have a problem to be solved. The steps of the problem solving cycle which are include problem identification, problem definition, strategy formulation, organization of information, allocation of resources, monitoring and evaluation. In considering the steps remember also the importance of flexibility in following the various steps of the cycle. Successful problem solving may involve occasionally tolerating some ambiguity regarding how best to proceed. a. Problem identification. While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. b. Problem definition and representation Once we identify the existence of a problem, we still have to define and represent the problem well enough to understand how to solve it. For example, in preparing to write your term paper, you must define your topic well enough to determine the research you will gather and your
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overall strategy for writing your paper. The problem definition step is crucial because if you inaccurately define and represent the problem, you are much less able to solve it.
Problem identification
1
Evaluating problem
Definition of Problem
Problem solving Cycle

Monitoring problem
6
Constructing a strategy for a problem

3
Allocation of resources
Organizing information about a problem

4
Figure 3.1 : Problem Solving Cycle c. Strategy formulation Once the problem has been defined effectively, the next step is to plan a strategy for solving it. The strategy may involve analysis breaking down the whole of a complex problem into manageable elements. Instead, or perhaps in addition, it may involve the complementary process of synthesis putting together various elements to arrange them into something useful. In writing your term paper, you must analyze the components of your topics, research the various components, and then synthesize the topics into a rough draft of your paper. Another pair of complementary strategies involves divergent and convergent thinking. In divergent thinking, you try to generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem. Once you have considered a variety of possibilities, however, you must engage in convergent thinking, to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single, best answer or at least what you believe to be the most like solution, which you will try first. There is no single ideal strategy for addressing every problem. Instead, the optimal strategy depends on both the problem and the problem-solvers personal preferences in problem-solving methods. d. Organization of information. Once a strategy has been formulated, you are ready to organize the available information in a way that enables you to implement the strategy. Of course, throughout the problem-solving cycle, you are constantly organizing and reorganizing the available information. At this step, however, you organize the information strategically, finding a representation that best enables you to implement your strategy.
e. Resource allocation Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution. f. Monitoring Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies. g. Evaluation After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.
3.2
Time Management Skills Definition Time management is the act or process of exercising conscious control over the amount of time spent on specific activities, especially to increase efficiency or productivity. Time management may be aided by a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals.
3.2.1
Time Management Characteristics This set encompasses a wide scope of activities, and these include planning and prioritizing by objectives, managing interruptions and delegation. Planning and prioritizing by objectives Begin by writing done what you believe the main objectives of your job are. Make sure that as you are writing them you are comparing them to the overall objectives of both the organization and your department. Remember that objective differs from a task in that a task describes the action that needs to be taken whereas an objective describes the results. Managing interruptions We are all aware that we waste time, but can often not be specific about exactly how much time we waste. A recent survey showed the Top Time Wasters at work to be (ranked in order): 1. Telephone interruptions 2. People dropping by 3. Poor information 4. Problems with computers 5. Change in priorities caused by colleagues 6. Lack of organizational planning 7. Poor listening skills of others 8. Inappropriate organization structure 9. Putting thongs right that were not right first time 10. Indecision 11. Badly organized and chaired meetings 12. Distractions in the place of work
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13. Unnecessary checking on others work and your own work General tips to avoid interruptions: Dont be an interrupter yourself Meet deadlines Make as many requests as you can on paper to avoid interrupting others (the paper doesnt have to be typed) Be seen to write down actions that you have agreed to take Keep a clear desk and clean in tray so people dont feel they have to interrupt you make sure that something they wanted you to do have been done. Be firm and polite with interrupters. If you cant speak to them now, say no, say why and say when you can speak to them. Delegation Delegation is when you deliberately choose to give a member of your team the authority to carry out a piece of work that you would normally do yourself, that is part of your job description and that you are paid to do. Benefits of delegation: Delegation enables you to concentrate on those aspects of your job which require personal experience, skill and knowledge. Most of managers job should be focused on planning the future rather than organizing the present. Managers should also be concentrating on enabling others to do, not doing themselves. Delegation is good for motivation. Delegation is a way of training people. It is cheaper and more cost effective for an organization to have its managers delegating work to people on a lower salary. It is good for career development of staff.
3.2.2
Priority Tasks Lets assume that you have a list of jobs that you intend to do and that many other tasks and problems will crop up during the day. What is the best way to categorize these tasks to allow you to organize this work? If everything was either urgent and important (the top job, which you must do tight now) or non urgent and important (jobs which dont matter and you can do later) life would be simple. But in fact most jobs fall into the other two categories, shown as boxes 2 and 3 below. Table 3.1 : Priority Task Important Urgent 1 Urgent and Important Real crisis. Some avoidable if you had prepared for planned. Some unforeseeable. Also: major opportunities for pleasure or progress. DO IT NOW! 2 Urgent but unimportant Reactive jobs Rush jobs. Unexpected problems. Other peoples work. Done to avoid trouble. SPEND MINIMUM TIME ON IT OR DELEGATE IT
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Not Important
Not Urgent
3 Not Urgent but Important Can wait until tomorrow or next week, but will certainly need to be done some time. Failing to do these will mean missed opportunities. PLAN IT
4 Neither urgent nor important Tempting and easy jobs. Irrelevant jobs. Unpleasant long-term tasks.
DONT DO IT
3.2.3
Time Management Implementation A time management system that fits your needs can help you get more work done in less time. Whether your priority is more free time than you have now or better grades, effective time management can help you reach your objective, because it: Helps you put first things first. Helps you avoid time traps. Helps you anticipate opportunities. Gives you freedom and control. Helps you avoid time conflicts. Helps you avoid feeling guilty. Helps you evaluate your progress. Helps you see the big picture. Helps you see the bigger picture. Helps you to work smarter not harder. Besides helping you to manage your time right now and reach your immediate study goals, effective time management will bring long-term benefits. Learning time management skills now will help you prepare for the future. Learning how to manage your time now will develop habits and skills you can use outside of school.
3.3
Customer Management Skills Introduction What is customer service? Customer service is the process of assisting another person or persons who buys goods and services from a shop or business. A customer is the person who buys goods and services from a shop or business. Customer can be either internal or external customer. Internal customers are people within the business who depend on other parts of it. External customers are those who come to buy products.
3.3.1
Customer Needs People buy for different reason, and they are motivated to buy because of individual needs and wants. The process of buying a product or service begins with the recognition that need or wants exists. Needs are what the product or service functionally satisfies for the customer. Wants are the emotional desire for something. Although there are many different ways to characterize needs, the most widely known is Abraham Maslows need hierarchy (Figure 1) Maslow identified five basic need categories arranged in a sequence from basic lower-level needs to higher-level needs.
SelfActualization
Self fulfillment and enriching experiences Prestige, success, accomplishment, and self-esteem self Affection, friendship and acceptance
Ego Needs (Esteem) Social Needs (Belonging)
Safety and Security needs
Shelter, protection, and security
Physiological needs
Biological needs such as food, water and sleep.
Figure 3.2: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs People have the same basic needs like things they must have for survival, including food, clothing, shelter and the necessary supplies or equipment to conduct and manage their lives. Then there are the things people would like to have, they want certain things, and they buy them with money left over after their needs have been met. Once those needs and wants are established, ask yourself this key question questio What can I do for this customer? then go all out to provide the appropriate product and service.
3.3.2
Best Service Providing good customer service is essential for the survival and success of your business. It also will help to keep your customers happy. happy. Without your customers, your organization has nothing. These are few ways to provide best service to retain your customers with your organization. Commit to quality service Everyone in the company needs to work hand in hand to create a positive and memorable experience for the customer. Always try to go beyond the customer expectation. Know your product or services All the staffs must be knowledgeable about the products and services provided by the company. Knowing your products and services helps your staff to deliver better customer service. Know your customers Try to learn everything you can about your customers so you can tailor your service approach to meet their needs and buying habits. Always provide what you promise If you fail to do this, you will lose customers. For example if you guarantee a quote within 24 hours, get the quote out in a day or less. If you cant make good on your promise, apologize to the customer r and offer some type of compensation, such as discount or free delivery. Focus on making customer, not making sales Sales representative, especially those who get paid on commission tent to focus on the volume instead of the quality of the sale.
3.3.3
Establish Good Relations with Customers Good customer relation is about bringing customer back and sending them away happily. Happily as enough to pass positive feedback about your business along to others that may then try your product or service and become a repeat customer. It is where the point of contact happens. If you truly want to have good customer relationship, you will have to ensure that your business consistently does these things: Be helpful When customers ask for help, help them, preferably on the spot. You and your customer service staff should be well prepared to answer a wide range of questions. If for some reason you do not know the answer to a question, admit it and politely point them to where they can find the answer or offer to help them find out the answer and get back to them. Make it easy to complaint Complaint is needed as it helps to identify your company weaknesses. Yet, customer seldom complaint as they feel troublesome. You should invite complaint by providing mechanisms to make it easy (comment cards, forms, toll-free hot lines, customer service desk). For example on your Internet Web site, have a button for the surfer to click and generates an e-mail to you. Listen to your customer Do not lose any opportunities to listen to your customers. Let your customer talk and show him that you are listening by making the appropriate responses, such as suggesting how to solve the problem. Hence, it is essential to provide mechanisms to hear from them for example: Pre-printed forms Toll-free hotlines Email feedbacks on your web sites Interviews in person or by phone Questionnaires or survey Deal with complaints If you get a complaint, do not wait until you gather all the answers and send the reply to the customers. You should reply the customer as soon as you received the complaints and thanks your customer for the communication. Then follow up quickly to analyze the complaints. It also helps to portraits a good image to your customers. Encourage customer loyalty How can you encourage customer loyalty? For example discounts for repetitive purchases or buy one get one free or bonus gift for purchases by a given deadline. Some organizations establish their own customer club lounge to serve their customer better. It also can be done by giving queue-jumping privileges or accommodation upgrades. Conclusion Eventually, the essence of good customer service is forming a relationship with customers. Your customers are your income. If you do not treat them well, they will not come back. A happy customer tells on average 5 people about your product and service, an unhappy person tells at least 10. Which would you prefer? Nowadays, meeting customer expectations is no longer enough. Your customers must be impressed and excited. The product and service must be memorable because it is not only easier to get repeat business from happy customers it also will be less expensive.
3.4
Event Management Skills Definition Event management is the process by which an event is planned, prepared, and produced. Event Management Genre Business & Corporate Events Any event that supports business objectives, including management functions, corporate communications, training, marketing, incentives, employee relations, and customer relations, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. An event created by or for a charitable or cause-related group for the purpose of attracting revenue, support, and/or awareness, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. An event bringing buyers and sellers and interested persons together to view and/or sell products, services, and other resources to a specific industry or the general public, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. A one-time or periodic, free or ticketed performance or exhibition event created for entertainment purposes, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. A cultural celebration, either secular or religious, created by and/or for the public, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. (Many festivals include bringing buyer and seller together in a festive atmosphere.) An event comprised of or created by or for political parties, communities, or municipal or national government entities, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. A commerce-oriented event to facilitate bringing buyer and seller together or to create awareness of a commercial product or service, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. The assembly of people for the purpose of exchanging information, debate or discussion, consensus or decisions, education, and relationship building, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. A private event, by invitation only, celebrating or commemorating a cultural, religious, communal, societal, or life-cycle occasion, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events. A spectator or participatory event involving recreational or competitive sport activities, scheduled alone or in conjunction with other events.
Cause-Related Fundraising Events Exhibitions, Expositions & Fairs
&
Entertainment Leisure Events Festivals
&
Government & Civic Events Marketing Events
Meeting & Convention Events
Social/Life-Cycle Events Sports Events
3.4.1
Event Management Procedure Before planning an event, the event planner should first determine the purpose of the event. By having the purpose of the event the event planner will make all the arrangements regarding procedure below; a. b. c. d. e. Committees/staff Venue selection Catering Guests list Events itinerary
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f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m.
Budget Advertising and marketing Decorations Speakers for the event Entertainment Gifts Transportation Lodging
3.4.2
Conduct the Event Well Formulate a clear set of objectives. Keep in mind that special events are distinctive and not the same with other events, hence you have to make its distinctiveness show on the objectives for the event. The important questions that you have to ask yourself are, what is the purpose of this event, who will attend this event, when and where will this event happen, and what are needed to make this event happen? The answers to these questions must be included in the objectives. b. Timing Pick dates and times that are convenient to your attendees. Research dates are important. Are there any other events or exhibitions coming up that might conflict with your event? c. Invitations & Registration And if people do accept your invitation, you need an effective way of keeping track of them. Make sure you have an adequate registration process in place. Increasingly, for larger events, this can be web-based. d. Rehearse If you want your event to look professional, the only way to do this is to rehearse the major components of the show, particularly key speakers, performers, and your audiovisual presentations. e. Creativity If you apply your creativity and present that content in a way no one has seen before, your attendees will be talking about your event for weeks afterwards. f. Risk Management No matter how good your skills at event management, disasters sometimes strike. Make sure you have procedures in place to deal with them. It may be nothing more threatening than a speaker who doesnt show up, or it may a fire in the auditorium g. Measure Your Results To determine your level of success youll need to implement some sort of measurement process. Consider things like questionnaires and email surveys after the event. h. Plan for Success A poorly planned one can have exactly the opposite effect, damaging both credibility and revenue. The single most important factor in making your event one of the former is planning. When you begin the process of event management, make sure you allow yourself sufficient time to plan all aspects of the event thoroughly. a.
3.4.3
Event Management Effectiveness In this sub topic lecturer have to review the effectiveness of the event management, I suggest students have to organize a small event and this will help lecturer to review the event it is effective or not to the students.
4.0 4.1
LEADERSHIP SKILLS Planning Skills Planning Concept Planning is a process of setting or establishing goals and thereafter determining ways to achieve these goals. Without planning, managers will probably fail to manage their subordinates and the organizational resources efficiently.
Planning Purposes a) Provide a direction Employees in the organization will have the motivation and inspiration to work harder to overcome the barriers and achieve the goals. b) Focus on effort i. Each employee in an organization has limited resources and has various methods to implements an action. ii. Setting one common goal enables the individual to established priorities and builds commitment in utilizing limited resources effectively and efficiently. iii. Goals are important in order to control and ensure that the organization is moving towards achieving organizational goals according to the established plan. This enables managers to efficiently monitor each subordinate in their department.
c) Drive organizational planning and decision making Every employee in the organization has short term and long term goals according to their position and job designation in the organization. Therefore, setting of goals can help decisions to be made accurately in the attempt to achieve organizational goals. d) Evaluate the organization achievements Goals evaluated in a specific time frame can be used as performance standards to assists employees and managers evaluate their work performance.
4.1.1
Activity Planning Procedures Planning Process Every organizational activity must have a proper planning process to ensure that activities are implemented successfully. There are five basics stages in the planning process.
a) Setting Goals - Goals must be clear, realistic, rational, and logical and have a specific time frame. - Managers must identify what is desired or needed by the organization and target performance that has to be achieved by the organization.
SETTING GOALS
DEFINING THE CURRENT SITUATION
IDENTIFYING ASSISTANCE AND RESISTANCE
DEVELOPING A NEW SET OF PLANS AND ACTIONS
RE-EVALUATING GOALS Figure 4.1 : Planning Process
b) Defining the current situation - Ensure that financial resources, human resources and the organizations information are adequate to achieve the set goals. c) Identifying assistance and resistance Examine the internal and external organizational factors that can assist or hinder the process of achieving organizational goals Find suitable alternatives , identify available support and existing barriers and determine the solution that should be taken
d) Developing a new set of plans and actions - Identify various alternative actions, evaluate each alternative and select the best alternative that can be implemented to achieve the set goals. e) Re-evaluating goals - Involves the process of re-evaluating all the steps implemented successfully, managers must set new goals or design new plans. 4.1.2 Plan Effectively Implementation the Plan Effectively A plan must be realistic and implementable. A technique of implementation must be considered throughout the plan formulation. Specific techniques of implementation, such as preparation of the project development program, sometimes referred to as the action program or development or action strategy, are shown on the chart under recommendations. Under the implementation step, the sequence activities required for implementation is listed. During and after
implementation, the plan development must be monitored to ensure that it is accomplishing the objectives, following the development schedule and do not face any problem. If somehow problems are detected, action must be taken to bring the plan back on track. Due to that backup plan or some people call that as plan B is required. Sometimes resulting from changing circumstances such as whether, adjustment should be made to the plan but it is important to ensure any plan modification do not clash with the plan basic objectives. Planning Implementation Tools There are several tools that can be used to ensure the implementation of an event plan is going smooth such as Gantt charts, Run Sheets and Checklists. Gantt charts A Gantt chart is a graphical representation of the duration of tasks against the progression of time. It is a useful tool for planning and scheduling projects. A Gantt chart is helpful when monitoring a project's progress. It is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Some Gantt charts also show the dependency relationships between activities. Organizers use a Gantt chart to plan how long a project should take. A Gantt chart lays out the order in which the tasks need to be carried out. A Gantt chart lets you see immediately what should have been achieved at any point in time. It also lets you see how remedial action may bring the project back on course. Most Gantt charts include "milestones" which are not part of a traditional Gantt chart. Milestones are important checkpoints or interim goals for a project. It can be used to catch scheduling problems early. Below is an example of a Gantt chart.
Figure 4.2 : Gantt Chart Figure 4.2 show Gantt chart for an instrumentation project where the objective is to develop a sensor system. Milestones are marked as triangles. The diagram may be updated as the project progresses. Different bar styles are then used to indicate what proportion of the activities are finished, deviations from planned progress etc. The process of breaking a project up into a series of activities also enables you to see and evaluate it as a whole, improves your motivation and gives you confidence in your ability to complete the project as planned.
Run Sheet Generically, a run sheet is a list of procedures or events organized in temporal sequence. It contains a list of every task that needs to be done for an event. It is set up in the order the tasks will begin. It is important to give ideas and information about several things including: The person responsible for each task It may possibly include how long each task should take. It may also include a place for each person to sign when they start and/or finish. It may also include the resources needed for each task. Below is an example of a Run Sheet
8.00 am 9.00 am 10.00 am 11.00 am 12.30 pm 2.30 pm 3.00 pm 5.30 pm 5.45 pm 6.30 pm 6.45 pm
Lay dance floor and stage. Audio set up. Projection screen set up. Dance floor and stage set. Stage designer sets up stage decoration. Production meeting. Onstage set up commences (audio and video) Band set up Technical set up complete Table set up can commence Technical run- through All decoration complete Rehearsal with MC (Master of Ceremony). Band sound check. All ready External sign turned on
7.00 -7.30 pm 7.00 pm 7.15 pm 7.25 pm 7.30 pm 7.35 pm 7.40 pm 8.00 pm 8.10 pm 8.50 pm 9.15 pm 9.40 pm 10.25 pm 11.55 pm 12.00 midnight 2.30 am
Guess arrive. Pre- dinner drinks in foyer Dances arrive. Music check Pre-set lighting ON Walk in music ON Doors open. Guests move to tables. All dancers ready MC welcome. Salad served First Championship (Demonstration dance routine). Main course served. Band starts playing. Band stops. Second Championship (Demo dance routine). Guests drawn onto dance floor at the end. Dessert enters and is served. Band plays. Band stops. Award presentation. (1 award, with 2 finalists). Ms & Mr. Sparkly awarded. Dancing for guests starts. MC announces final winners (all) and last dance. Guests depart. Clean-up commences All clear. Figure 4. 3 : Run Sheet for Gala Dinner
Figure 4.3 show a complete Run Sheet for Gala Dinner. It states every detail of the program and tasks that should be done along the event.
Checklists A checklist is a control tool that ensures that the individual performing the tasks has not forgotten a single detail. Its aimed not only at preventing potential problems but also at reducing the risk of litigation if anything should go wrong. A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. A basic example is the "to do list." A more advanced checklist would be a schedule, which lays out tasks to be done according to time of day or other factors. Below is an example of a checklist for a barbeque function. One week before the barbeque Check the weather forecast Make up the guest list and call the guest Plan a menu and make a shopping list Allocate some work to friends or family Make sure your gas or charcoal is sufficient Make sure all the equipment needed is available. Make necessary arrangement if needed 2 3 days before the barbeque Arrange food and beverages Purchase paper plate, napkin and serviette and plastic utensil Get decoration, table cloth, meat, seafood etc. Prepare snacks that can be frozen The day before the barbeque Get the ice you need for the drinks Prepare your salad Marinate food or rubs to foods as required Decorate for the function and arrange the table Check and clean barbeque tools The barbeque day Set out the plates, utensil and barbeque tools Prepare side dish and fresh salad Get the garden light ready Set up a self service drink table Set up a large trash container in your cooking area Heat up your barbeque set 20 minutes before cooking Put some music on Start cooking. Figure 4.4 : Checklist for a Barbeque Function Figure 4.4 shows a Checklist for a barbeque function. It states every detail of item that need to be done before and during the event. Organizer will tick every single item that has been done.
4.2
Coaching Skills Peer Coaching and Mentoring Definition Coaching Coaching is a deep learning partnership with systematic steps to empower a person to gain courage, capabilities and commitment to achieve their goals fulfillingly. Mentoring A guidance method of giving advice, sharing wisdom & transferring of time-tested skills & knowledge to broaden a persons outlook to be more innovative in getting things done. Counselling Support process in which a counselor holds face to face talks with another person to help him or her to solve a personal problem, or help to improve that persons attitude, behavior or character. Coaching vs Mentoring Equal relationship Asking questions clarifying Holistic approach Total confidentiality No conflict of interest and Unequal relationship Telling, advising and prescribing Work and work -related issues Partial confidentiality Partial conflict of interest
Why Coaching? Empowering the students to gain courage, capabilities and commitment to achieve their goals Developing the culture of polytechnic organization that leads to successful change and development Empower the students with knowledge, skills and attitude Creating the teaching and learning process conducive and full of challenges Focus on values, beliefs, sense of purpose and shared action amongst all students within the Polytechnic System. Enhance students professional development Ground Rules to Coaching Open to new and old ideas Participate actively Willing to coach and be coached Open to feedback Connecting with Coachee Create a safe and supportive environment Ongoing respect, recognition, trust and to give and take Dont judge, criticize or have other opinion thrown at your coachee
An effective coach will give guidance to team members. The key attributes and skills that a coach should have: Active listening Asking good questions Showing empathy Using silence Providing feedback Diffusing negative emotions Balancing support and challenges
The Purpose of Coaching For Knowledge or Skills Students must know how to perform the task correctly. Towards the Process Problems are not student related but caused by environmental conditions or due to bad process when performing the task given. Resources Lack of resources or technology Motivation or Culture When students know how to perform the task but do so incorrectly.
4.3
Practise monitoring and evaluating skills (Pn. Maria) In oder to measure the effectiveness of program, it is essential to incorporate a mechanism for monitoring and evaluation. What Is Monitoring And Evaluation?
4.3.1
The Importance mportance of Monitoring Activities The Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation Activities It is important to recognise that monitoring and evaluation are not magic wands that can be waved to make problems disappear, or to cure them, or to miraculously make changes without a lot of hard work being put in by the project or organisation. organisation. In themselves, they are not a solution, but they are valuable tools. Plans are essential but they are not set in concrete (totally fixed). If they are not working, or if the circumstances change, then plans need to change too. Monitoring and evaluation are both tools which help a project or organisation know when plans are not working, and when circumstances have changed. They give management the information it needs to make decisions about the project or organisation, about changes that are necessary in strategy or plans. Monitoring and evaluation enable you to check the bottom line of development work. Evaluation and monitoring systems can be an effective way to:
Review progress
Identify problems in planning and/or implementation
Make adjustmeents to make a difference
4.3.2
ctivities Monitoring Activities
CHECK IN MEETINGS Hold weekly or monthly meetings with lead members of the team to review successes and lessons learned since the last meeting reflect, problem solve and offer additional skills training as needed. ACTIVITY REPORT FORMS Fill out form after each activity conducted, to record what happened, who attended, what went well, etc. STRATEGY SUMMARY REPORTS Write a report designed to help summarize the Activity Reports from that quarter or phase in one document for each strategy. The report should include a list of activities completed, numbers of people reached, major successes and challenges and rsponses made to build on or overcome them. QUARTERLY MEETINGS Gather the team each quarter to ensure the project on track for achieving desired outcomes.
4.3.3
Evaluate the Execution xecution of Activities
FORMATIVE carried out while activity is still going on. it helps to identify features where improvements are possiblle
SUMMATIVE carried out on completion of the project or activity.
4.4
Culture of Teamwork 4.4.1 Team Building Concept A team is a group of people working towards a common goal. Getting a group of people together does not make a team. A team develops products that are the result of the team's collective effort and involves synergy. Synergy is the property where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. 'Team Building' is the process of enabling that group of people to reach their goal. It is therefore a management issue, and the most effective form of team building is that undertaken as a form of management consultancy, rather than as pure training (though there is a role for training within a programme of team building). Team Management: The direction to a group of individuals who work wo as a unit. Effective teams are result-oriented oriented and are committed to project objectives, goals and strategies. Teamwork is defined in Webster's New World Dictionary as "a joint action by a group of people, in which each person subordinates his or her individual individual interests and opinions to the unity and efficiency of the group." This his does not mean that the individual is no longer important; however, it does mean that effective and efficient teamwork goes beyond individual accomplishments. The most effective e teamwork is produced when all the individuals involved harmonize their contributions and work towards a common goal In its simplest terms, the stages involved in team building are: To clarify the team goals To identify those issues which inhibit the team from reaching their goals To address those issues, remove the inhibitors and enable the goals to be achieved
Figure 4.5 : Better Teamwork Concepts The primary skills in this process are recognizing the right issues, and tackling them in an appropriate way and an appropriate order. Team building can also take a different form depending on the size and nature of the team. In a project environment, where team composition is continually changing, the emphasis must be on developing the skills in individuals to be effective team members. The 'scale' involved is 1 person, and the team building consultant is endeavoring to change the skills and abilities of the individual at operating within a team (or within multiple teams). A larger scale operates between teams. Where the teams do not relate well, they are called 'team islands', and it is the relationship between the teams that becomes the focus for the consultant.
4.4.2
Teamwork Culture Effective Teams Characteristics The following are eight characteristics of effective teams the were identified by Larson and LaFasto in their book titled Teamwork: What Must Go Right/What Can Go Wrong (Sage Publications 1989).
1.
The team must have a clear goal. Avoid fuzzy, motherhood statements. Team goals should call for a specific performance objective, expressed so concisely that everyone knows when the objective has been met. The team must have a results-driven structure. The team should be allowed to operate in a manner that produces results. It is often best to allow the team to develop the structure. The team must have competent team members. In the education setting this can be taken to mean that the problem given to the team should be one that the members can tackle given their level of knowledge. The team must have unified commitment. This doesn't mean that team members must agree on everything. It means that all individuals must be directing their efforts towards the goal. If an individual's efforts are going purely towards personal goals, then the team will confront this and resolve the problem.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
The team must have a collaborative climate. It is a climate of trust produced by honest, open, consistent and respectful behavior. With this climate teams perform well without it, they fail. The team must have high standards that are understood by all. Team members must know what is expected of them individually and collectively. Vague statements such as "positive attitude" and "demonstrated effort" are not good enough. The team must receive external support and encouragement. Encouragement and praise works just as well in motivating teams as it does with individuals. The team must have principled leadership. Teams usually need someone to lead the effort. Team members must know that the team leader has the position because they have good leadership skills and are working for the good of the team. The team members will be less supportive if they feel that the team leader is putting him/herself above the team, achieving personal recognition or otherwise benefiting from the position.
7.
8.
Stages of Team Growth It is important for teacher and students (the team members) to know that teams don't just form and immediately start working together to accomplish great things. There are actually stages of team growth and teams must be given time to work through the stages and become effective. Team growth can be separated into four stages. Stage 1 Forming. When a team is forming, members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. They search for their position within the group and test the leader's guidance. It is normal for little team progress to occur during this stage. Stage 2 Storming. Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the group. Members often become impatient about the lack of progress, but are still inexperienced with working as a team. Members may argue about the actions they should take because they faced with ideas that are unfamiliar to them and put them outside their comfort zones. Much of their energy is focused on each other instead of achieving the goal. Stage 3 Norming. During this stage team members accept the team and begin to reconcile differences. Emotional conflict is reduced as relationships become more cooperative. The team is able to concentrate more on their work and start to make significant progress. Stage 4 Performing. By this stage the team members have discovered and accepted each other's strengths and weaknesses, and learned what their roles are. Members are open and trusting and many good ideas are produced because they are not afraid to offer ideas and suggestions. They are comfortable using decision making tools to evaluate the ideas, prioritize tasks and solve problems. Much is accomplished and team satisfaction and loyalty is high.
Teamwork Culture Teamwork is an important aspect of the work environment. It brings coworkers together to complete jobs efficiently, effectively and often, in much less time. If you see the benefit of teamwork at your workplace, follow this guide to building a teamwork culture. Step 1 Hold events to build team spirit. A great way to build a teamwork culture is to first get team members comfortable with working with each other. You don't need to escape off to a weekend
retreat to focus on teamwork building skills though. Build teamwork culture right in your workplace through ice breaker activities, non-work related team activities, or any other activity that requires members to work together and get to know each other. This is the foundation for a great team, so it's a necessary start for building a teamwork culture. Step 2 Make teams to solve problems. A team will work together if they feel they have a worthy cause. But they also need to be capable of completing the task. When you put together teams, ensure that everyone has the right training to not only complete the task, but to also work together as a team. If a strong teamwork foundation has already been laid, then a team can focus in on the work that needs to be done and not how to work as a team. With the right expertise and training, a good team can solve a problem quickly. Step 3 Expect collaboration and compromise. Supervisors should enforce the expectation that team members collaborate and compromise in a team culture. That way, everyone will consider the thoughts and ideas of other team members and won't rush to force any personal ideas onto the team. Collaboration spawns creative thinking, which is an indispensible aspect of problem solving. Make sure that every group member strives to work together and respect the ideas of others. Step 4 Always model teamwork. Supervisors also need to model the behavior they expect in a teamwork culture. Even when a project goes awry and the team is stressed, teamwork should still be emphasized. When employees see their superiors working together as a team, they are much more likely to be open to building a teamwork culture. Step 5 Constantly review team progress. If you expect people to work as a team, then you must hold them accountable for their work. This means that constant review and revision is necessary for a team to reach the best possible solution to a project. Not only should the team always be communicating, but the supervisors should be aware of the progress of the team as well. When everyone feels accountable for their roles in a team, it puts more focus on accomplishing the task as a team. Accountability is yet another way to build a teamwork culture. Step 6 Reward and recognize those who work and succeed together. The final step in building a teamwork culture rewards the efforts of a team. When a group of employees has successfully worked together to accomplish a task, recognition or a reward is ideal to show appreciation for their efforts. Announce accomplishments at a staff meeting provide small gifts or hand out a bonus. The more incentive a team has to work well together, the easier it will be to build a teamwork culture in the work environment.
4.4.3
Obstacles in Team Building Some teams fail from the beginning and some deteriorate over time. Given below are the most relevant external and internal barriers to team success. These may help to identify the development and support needs of members that may impact on the success of teams. External Barriers to Teamwork Work load: members are often required to work on their team assignments in addition to a full workload or are given more work than they are capable of handling Team does not model the norms of behaviors that support teams in being successful Inadequate recognition for individual team members
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Team leaders do not control or release the team members adequately Teams are not given adequate resources Frequent changes in team membership Team members resist taking responsibility for tasks expected of them Teams charter is not well written
Internal Barriers to Teamwork Inadequate support from key external stakeholders Team members dont set appropriate goals for the team and do not implement a plan for reaching them Team members dont spend enough time planning how they will work together Team members dont resolve interpersonal conflict Teams members dont conduct efficient meetings Team members dont have compatible levels of problem-solving, analytic, or project management skills Team members dont know how to influence the work of other members Lack of consistent or clear team leadership Inability to make decision effectively as a group Groupthink Some teams are at risk of becoming dysfunctional as a result of groupthink. It is a process by which a group can make bad or irrational decisions. In a groupthink situation, each member of the group attempts to confirm his or her opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group. The seven (7) symptoms of decision affected by groupthink are: Incomplete survey of alternatives Incomplete survey of objectives Failure to examine risks of preferred choice Failure to re-appraise initially rejected alternatives Poor information search Selective bias in processing information at hand (see also confirmation bias) Failure to work out contingency plans Groupthink can happen in any team in their day-to-day work. It emerges when views of one or two individuals (minority) dominate the discussion. The team leader should be aware of this and avoid it. This phenomenon has a potential to affect the groups ability to objectively appraise the issues being discussed hence bias the group decisions and conclusions. Having the right core team can make or break a project. Therefore, great care should be taken when selecting team members. It might be very useful to consider the following elements: Team Size Recommended size is a team of 3-12 members. A team of 5-7 members is the best. Small teams (3 or 4 members) work faster and tend to produce results quickly, but there is less diversity. Teams greater than 7 or 8 members require an expert facilitator and the creation of sub teams to operate effectively. They have the potential for generating more ideas and be more diverse. Team Member Selection and Exclusion Criteria You need the "best and brightest" on your team, but even those people must work well together for the project to succeed. When selecting team members, give preference to individuals who are: Concerned about and committed to the common purpose and goals (interested in the project) Enthusiastic
Optimistic Creative, flexible and open minded Proactive Good team players: - Work effectively as a member of a team - Respect the values, beliefs and opinions of others - Relate to and interact effectively with individuals and groups - Are willing to cooperate to reach common goals Well respected among peers and other leaders Can devote time to the initiative.
4.5
Decision Making Skills Decision making is required of everyone, individuals as well as managers. Decision making is about choosing from several options or ideas and taking action to generate a particular result. It is usually considered to be a rational and logical thinking process. Each of us makes many decisions every day. We have to decide whether and when to get up, what clothes to wear, what to eat, where to go, and how to get there, in addition to the countless job or school decisions we face. Most of these decisions fall into the routine category and do not require a great deal of analytical effort. However, sometimes we need to make critical decisions. For example : Elena, a graduates in accounting from the polytechnic was in a confusion to decide what type of accounting position to accept. As an excellent student, she had received two offers from accounting firms, one from a bank, and another from a large company. She had assured all of the prospective employers that she would let them know her decision within a week. Now she had just been offered a fifth alternative that is an assistantship in the accounting department at the university to pursue work on her masters degree. The decision Elena makes will have a signifant long range impact on her life and therefore requires greater energy than the routine decisions she ordinarily makes. Her decision making process will be similar to that used by managers in making important business decisions.
4.5.1
Decisions Making Procedure The steps shown in figure 6 represent the most common type of decision making model. It consists of the following steps: a. Recognize that there is a problem to solve or an opportunity to seize b. Develop alternative courses of action c. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative d. Select the preferred alternative and implement it e. Evaluate the decisions results and restart the process if the decision does not work
Recognize a problem or opportunity
Develop alternative courses of action
Evaluate the alternatives
Select the preferred alternative and implement it
Evaluate the decision results
Figure 4.6 : The Decision Making Process Step 1 : Recognize a problem or opportunity The first step towards a decision making process is to recognize a problem or opportunity. Obviously, there would be no need to make a decision without having a problem or opportunities. So, the first thing one has to do is to state the underlying problem that has to be solved or all the opportunities available to choose from. You also have to clearly state the outcome or goal that you desire after you have made the decision. This is a good way to start because stating your goals would help you in clarifying your thoughts. Step 2 : Develop alternative courses of action The situation of making a decision arises because there are many alternatives available for it. Hence, the next step is to develop as many alternatives as you can. Here, you do not have to restrict yourself to think about the very obvious options; rather you can use your creative skills and come out with alternatives that may look a little irrelevant. This is important because sometimes solutions can come out from these out-of-the-box ideas. You would also have to do adequate research to come up with the necessary facts that would aid in solving the problem. Step 3 : Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative This can be said to be the one of the most important stages of the decision making process. This is the stage where you have to analyze each alternative you have come up with. You have to find out the advantages and disadvantages of each option. This can be done as per the research you have done on that particular alternative. At this stage, you can also filter out the options that you think are impossible or do not serve your purpose. Rating each option with a numerical digit would also help in the filtration process. Step 4 : Select the preferred alternative and implement it This is the stage where the hard work you have put in analyzing would lead to. The evaluation process would help you in looking at the available options clearly and you have to pick which you think is the most applicable. You can also club some of the alternatives to come out with a better solution instead of just picking out any one of them. After choosing an option would be implementing the solution. This is a very crucial step because all the people involved in the implementation of a solution should know about the implications of making the decision. This is very essential for the decision to give successful result.
Step 5 : Evaluate the decisions results and restart the process if the decision does not work After the decision is made and implemented, the job is not finished. You must evaluate whether the implementation is proceeding smoothly and the desired results are being attained. It is an important step for several reasons. If problems develop, you can catch them early or even fall back to another alternative. If questions arise, you can answer them. Is everything working out? Did you think of everything? Could you have done a better job in the time you had? Should you have given it more time? What have you learned from this decision? Such a review will help you develop skills and confidence.
4.5.2
Alternative Solutions Identifying or developing alternative solutions can often be facilitated through brainstorming, a technique for enhancing creativity that encourages group members to generate as many novel idea as possible on a given topic without evaluating them. There are four principles involved: a. Dont criticize ideas while generating possible solutions Criticism during the idea generation stage inhibits thinking. Also, because discussion tends to get bogged down when early ideas are criticized, only a few ideas are generated. Freewheel Offer even seemingly wild and outrageous ideas. Although they may never be used, they may trigger some usable ideas from others. Offer as many ideas as possible Pushing for a high volume of ideas increases the probability that some of them will be effective solutions.
b.
c.
d. Combine and improve on ideas that have been offered Often the best ideas come from combinations of the ideas of others. Although brainstorming is typically done in a group, the principles can also be used by individuals. The team leader will inform the problem faced by the organization to other team members. The leader will then encourage each member to contribute as many alternative solutions as he can. For example, the organizations executives are required to meet four times a year in a brainstorming session to discuss about customer trends and ideas to increase sales.
4.5.3
Appropriate Decisions There are two major types of model regarding how leaders make decision: rational and emotional (nonrational). a) Rational model The rational model is divided into a series of steps in the form of logical sequences to find the best answer for a certain question. b) Emotional model In contrast to the rational view, this model explains that an individual does not think logically. Although the usage of this model can save time, it will produce a biased decision. Both models show several beneficial steps that can be followed and the traps that need to be avoided when making decisions. However, both models has its weaknesses as it cannot fulfill the input required by other employees, either in providing information or in implementing a decision.
The Vroom-Yetton Model The Vroom-Yetton Model provides guidelines on the extent to which subordinates are involved in decision making. There are two assumptions: i) Decision acceptance increases commitment and effectiveness of action. ii) Participation increases decision acceptance. Decision quality is the selection of the best alternative, and is particularly important when there are many alternatives. It is also important when there are serious implications for selecting (or failing to select) the best alternative. Decision acceptance is the degree to which a follower accepts a decision made by a leader. Leaders focus more on decision acceptance when decision quality is more important. Vroom and Yetton defined five different decision procedures. Two are autocratic (A1 and A2), two are consultative (C1 and C2) and one is Group based (G2).
A1 A2 C1 C2 G2
Leader takes known information and then decides alone. Leader gets information from followers, and then decides alone. Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to ideas and then decides alone. Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas and then decides alone. Leader shares problems with followers as a group and then seeks and accepts consensus agreement.
AUTOCRATIC AUTOCRATIC CONSULTATIVE CONSULTATIVE GROUP BASED
Situational factors that influence the method are relatively logical: When decision quality is important and followers possess useful information, then A1 and A2 are not the best method. When the leader sees decision quality as important but followers do not, then G2 is inappropriate. When decision quality is important, when the problem is unstructured and the leader lacks information / skill to make the decision alone, then G2 is best. When decision acceptance is important and followers are unlikely to accept an autocratic decision, then A1 and A2 are inappropriate. When decision acceptance is important but followers are likely to disagree with one another, then A1, A2 and C1 are not appropriate, because they do not give opportunity for differences to be resolved. When decision quality is not important but decision acceptance is critical, then G2 is the best method. When decision quality is important, all agree with this, and the decision is not likely to result from an autocratic decision then G2 is best.
Vroom and Yetton (1973) took the earlier generalized situational theories that noted how situational factors cause almost unpredictable leader behavior and reduced this to a more limited set of behaviors. The 'normative' aspect of the model is that it was defined more by rational logic than by long observation. The model is most likely to work when there is clear and accessible opinions about the decision quality importance and decision acceptance factors. However these are not always known with any significant confidence.
5.0 5.1
WRITING SKILLS Writing Report Writing INTRODUCTION Reports are written for a variety of reasons. Reports often lead to action; they help people to take decisions. They expect to find conclusions clearly stated and information provided to help them to take their decision. The purpose of a report is to provide information to managers in companies or organizations so that they can make plans, reach decisions or solve problems.
TYPES OF REPORTS
Type of report
Features Usually short May be included in a memo or letter, or presented orally
Purpose To present facts, data
Example Sales report Accident report Status report Staff report Maintenance report Trip report
Information report
Simple format; not fixed May use template May be less formal
Analytical or investigative report
Longer More complex Several separate sections Definite format Formal language
To study a problem To analyse information and reach some conclusions
Feasibility Study Project Proposal Evaluation Report Annual Report
To make recommendations about future actions
5.1.1
Reports Formats and Standards SAMPLE SHORT REPORT
Here is an example of a short report: DIAMOND MANAGEMENT SERVICES PROPERTY DAMAGE COMPLAINT Date Property Unit No Name of occupant Tel. No. : 7 August 2011 : Sri Gembira Condominium, Taman Rinting : 3-5-08 : Mrs. Rajeswari : 012-7232235
Nature of Complaint : The occupant called the Management Office at 9.25am on 7/8/2011. She reported two problems in the bathroom attached to the master bedroom in her unit: a) Slow drainage from the shower cubicle has been a problem for about one month. b) Water seeping from the bathroom of the unit on the floor above (Unit 3-6-08) for the past 7 days.
Action : An inspection team went to Unit 3-5-08 at 10.50am a) The slow drainage from the shower cubicle was found to have been caused by a small rubber ball stuck in the outlet pipe. This was removed. b) Water was found to be seeping from Unit 3-6-08, immediately above. The waterproof seal in the bathroom of Unit 3-6-08 appears to have failed. The bathroom ceiling in Unit 3-5-08 is damaged and will need to be replaced. Recommendations : Regulation 7(c) of the management Agreement states that the owner of each unit is responsible for physical maintenance within each unit. The owner of Unit 3-6-08 will be informed and requested to carry out repairs immediately. Reported by : Ahmad Faris, Resident Engineer
How do you select a format and use it? Purposes and types of report formats Parts of a report Specific advice for writing reports What is format? A plan of organization A means of structuring material A framework for arranging information Why should you use a format? To present your report as clearly and as concisely as possible to one reader or to a variety of audiences To signal the type of information being presented To enhance the presentation
FORMAT OF REPORTS A very simple report consists of 3 main sections: a. Front Matter b. Body c. End Matter The following features are common to almost all reports:
Cover Page Title Page Summary Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures
Front Matter
I Introduction A. Background B. Terms of Reference C. Purpose and Scope D. Methods II Findings III Conclusions IV Recommendations
Body
List of References Appendices
End matter
STAGES IN PREPARING A REPORT
Before you begin working on your report, you must first be very clear about the answers to some basic questions. Only when you have the answers can you plan what needs to be done. Q. What is the purpose of the report? A. You have been asked to prepare a formal, investigative report. That means you need to find out as much information as you can about a particular problem (i.e. investigate it), report what you found, come to some general conclusions based on what you found, and make some recommendations to improve the situation, based on your conclusions. A. As a student, your primary reader is your lecturer. Your lecturer will use your report to evaluate your performance on the course. However, you should think of a person who could make decisions based on your report and your recommendations. You can imagine that you are writing your report for that person, not your lecturer. A. Make sure you know exactly when you must hand in the final report, and do not leave things until the last minute. Plan when you will do different tasks on Gantt chart.
Q. Who are your readers?
Q. What is the deadline when the report must be completed?
Note: Many people are confused between these two words: Deadline the time or date before which a task must be completed. Dateline used by newspapers to refer to the time and place from where a reporter sends in a news report, and which appears at the beginning of an article e.g. Kuala Lumpur (Tuesday) Gantt chart (named after Henry Gantt, who invented it) is used for scheduling. It show the period of time needed to complete a project, and when and how long each stage or task will take.
In order to work as efficiently as possible, you need to understand the tasks involved in writing a report. There are six main steps to follow when preparing a report: 1. Plan the work 2. Collect the information 3. Analyse the information 4. Write the draft of the report 5. Revise the draft 6. Edit the report
Softskills (AS101) Monograph STEP 1: PLAN THE WORK
Below is a list of the tasks needed to complete a report. You can use this list to plan your work on a Gantt chart.
Step
Task Clarify the topic or issue Decide what information is needed and where it can be obtained Arrange for interviews and prepare questions Design questionnaires Plan observations Design observations forms Carry out a library and Internet search for secondary data Carry out observations and/or interviews Distribute questionnaires Summarize the data obtained from observations Tally responses to the questionnaires Prepare tables, charts and graphs Transcribe the interviews Identify main points from interviews Write the Introduction Organise the Findings into groups or categories Describe the tables, charts and graphs Write the Findings section Discuss conclusions and recommendations with your partner Write the Conclusions section Write the Recommendations section Review and revise what you have written Cut, add, change the order and rewrite where necessary Prepare the Front Matter Prepare the End Matter Edit the final draft Print the final draft of the report
Plan
Collect Data
Analyse The Data
Write the Draft
Revise Edit
Note: The steps above represent a guide to the sequence of tasks, but they do not have to be followed in a fixed order. For example, you might write the Background section before you begin collecting the data.
Softskills (AS101) Monograph STEP 2: COLLECT THE INFORMATION
Data can be divided into 2 main categories: 1. Primary Data raw data, colleted by a researcher from experiments, observations, surveys and interviews; or data which already exist that have been collected by someone else, for another purpose ( e.g. polytechnic records of students grades) Secondary Data - data which have been already been processed by someone into tables or charts, and published in books, journal articles, newspaper, etc When you write a report, you usually refer to secondary data first. You need to list all the sources you have cited in your report.
2.
STEP 3: ANALYSE THE DATA
Use reported speech. Do not need complex statistics. For open-ended questions, write down all the responses, then arrange them into groups of similar responses.
STEP 4: WRITE THE DRAFT REPORT
Describes what should be included in each part of the report and some suggestions for how to write it. Background Explains what the subject is and why it is important- definitions Terms of Reference Provides information about the background to the preparation of the report, such as what the report is about, the date, the name of the person who requested to report. Purpose and Scope Tells the reader what you want to find out Methods Tell the readers how and where you obtained the information which forms the basis for your findings. Findings Describe what you have found from your reading, observations, surveys and interviews. Conclusions Should be based on the information and data that are set out in the Findings, but they do not include statistics. Often general points that can be drawn from more than one question in the questionnaire of from other sources. Recommendations Should be detailed as possible, so that a decision maker reading the report has a clear idea of exactly what could be done.
What are the Differences between Results, Conclusions, and Recommendations? Assume that you were walking down the street, staring at the treetops, and stepped in a deep puddle while wearing expensive new shoes. What results, conclusions, and recommendations might you draw from this situation? Some suggested answers: Results: The shoes got soaking wet, the leather cracked as it dried, and the soles separated from the tops. Conclusions: These shoes were not waterproof and not meant to be worn when walking in water. In addition, the high price of the shoes is not closely linked with durability. Recommendations: In the future, the wearer of this type of shoe should watch out for puddles, not just treetops. When buying shoes, the wearer should determine the extent of the shoes waterproofing and/or any warranties on durability.
STEP 5: REVISE THE DRAFT
Revising is an important stage in the writing process. A main purpose of revising is to make your report easier for your reader to understand
STEP 6: EDIT THE FINAL REPORT
You should check Page numbers Numbering System in reports Prepare the Front Matter Acknowledgements Table of Contents Prepare the End Matter
OTHER GUIDELINES FOR WRITING REPORTS
Write the body of your report firstbefore you write the abstract: Most report writers prefer to save the mechanical elements, such as the title page and the table of contents, for the last step. Maintain consistent structure: once you determine the structure you will use, keep using it consistently throughout the report. This will make it easier for your readers to understand your report. Choose carefully the voice, mood, and tense: These depend on the rhetorical situation. Consider the expectations of your readers and the needs of your readers. For lab reports and long formal reports, most companies and most teachers prefer that you use the third person passive: "A test was run..." NOT "I ran the test..." Past tense is used for explaining procedures, and present tense is used for generalizations and for stating what the results show. For memos and letters, most companies prefer the first person active: "I have reviewed the program..." NOT "The program has been reviewed..."
5.1.2
Formal Letters What is Official Letters?? Official letter is an old form of official correspondence. An official letter is written by an individual to an organization or an organization to another organization. Official letters are written for various purposes. One writes a letter to enquire information, apply for a job, acknowledge someones work, and appreciate ones job done etc. Components In Official Letter These are the components inside the official letter.
1.
2. 3.
Senders name and address: If your stationery has a letterhead, skip this. Otherwise, type your name, address and optionally, phone number. Its also common to put your email address. Date: Type the date of your letter two to six lines below the letterhead. Three are standard. But if there is no letterhead, type it where it shown. Reference line: if the recipient specifically requests information, such as a job reference or invoice number, type it on one or two lines, immediately below the date. For example: Re: Invoice number JH23457976B.
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Recipients address: Type the name and address of the person and/or company to whom you're sending the letter, three to eight lines below the last component you typed. Four lines are standard. If you type an Attention Line (7), skip the person's name here. 7. Attention Line: Type the name of the person to whom you're sending the letter. If you type the person's name in the Inside Address (6), skip this. 8. Salutation: Type the recipient's name here. Type Mr. or Ms. [Last Name] to show respect, but don't guess spelling or gender. Some common salutations are; a. Ladies: b. Gentlemen: c. Dear Sir: d. Dear Sir or Madam: e. Dear [Full Name]: f. To Whom it May Concern: 9. Subject Line: Type the gist of your letter in all uppercase characters, either flush left or centered. Be concise on one line. 10. Body: Type two spaces between sentences. Keep it brief and to the point 11. Complimentary Close: What you type here depends on the tone and degree of formality. For example; a. Respectfully yours (very formal) b. Sincerely (typical, less formal) c. Very truly yours (polite, neutral) 12. Signature Block: Leave four blank lines after the Complimentary Close (11) to sign your name. Sign your name exactly as you type it below your signature. Title is optional depending on relevancy and degree of formality. Examples are; a. John Doe, Manager b. P. Smith Director, Technical Support c. R. T. Jones - Sr. Field Engineer 6. (Source: http://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/letters/l/bl_block_p.htm)
Useful Phrases In Official Letter There are several types of official letter such as letter of complaint, cover letter, letter of resignation etc. However, different phrases are used in official letter, depending on the purpose of the letter. Here are some useful phrases that could be served as your reference. Dear Mr. Brown Dear Ms White Dear Sir Dear Madam We are writing to inform you that to confirm to request I recently read/heard about . and would like to . Thank you for your letter of March 15 Thank you for contacting us Thank you for your letter regarding With reference to our telephone conversation yesterday We would appreciate it if you would.. Could you please send me.. In addition, I would like to receive.. I would appreciate your immediate attention to this matter Please let me know what action you propose to take.
Salutation
Starting
Referring to previous contact
Making a request
Offering help
Giving good news Giving bad news
Complaining
Apologizing
Orders
Referring to payment
Enclosing document Closing remarks
Referring to future business
Referring to future contact
Ending business letters
We would be happy to.. Would you like us to We are quite willing to.. Our company would be pleased to We are pleased to announce that I am delighted to inform you that You will be pleased to learn that We regret to inform you that Im afraid it would not be possible to Unfortunately we cannot/ we are unable to After careful consideration we have decided (not) to I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with I am writing to complain about I would like to query the transport charges which seem unusually high. We are sorry for the delay in replying I regret any inconvenience caused I would like to apologize for the delay/ the inconvenience.. Once again, I apologize for any inconvenience. We are pleased to place an order with your company for.. Please confirm receipt of our order. Your order will be processed as quickly as possible Our records show that we have not yet received payment of . According to our records Please send payment as soon as possible You will receive a credit note for the sum of I am enclosing Please find enclosed You will find enclosed If we can be of any further assistance, please let us know If I can help in any way, please do not hesitate to contact me If you require more information . For further details Thank you for taking this into consideration We look forward for a successful working relationship in the future We would be (very) pleased to do business with your company I would be happy to have an opportunity to work with your firm. I look forward to seeing you next week Looking forward to hearing from you Looking forward to receiving your comments An early reply would be appreciated Sincerely, Yours sincerely, (can be used for all clients) Regards (for those you already know)
(Source: http://www.learn-english-today.com/business-english/business-letters.html_)
5.1.3
Curriculum Vitae What is a Resume a.k.a Curriculum Vitae? - A resume is a summary of your experience, ability, and accomplishments. - A resume is not a list of everything youve done in previous positions. -A resume must show your VALUE to the new employer - A resume does not have any standardize format General Guidelines - Length: It is best to limit an entry-level resume to one typed page. Be as concise as possible in stating information in each section of your resume. - Font: Avoid fonts smaller than 10 point and larger than 12 point. -Paper: Use 8 1/2 x 11 20 lb paper. Print your resume with a laser or high quality ink-jet printer. -Use borders and bullets, but be careful not to overdo it! Preliminary Research _ Find Out * General job information * Desired qualifications and skills * Key values and words * Company Mission * Statement, etc _ Where to look * Online Company Research * Trade journals,magazines, and newsletters * Directories * Professors * Company literature http://www.write-a-resume.org/styles.asp
Styles and Types of Resumes By and large, resumes styles can be divided into three general types: Chronological Functional Combination
THE CHRONOLOGICAL RESUME This style lists your job and education history in a reverse chronological order: you begin with the most recent and work backwards. THE FUNCTIONAL RESUME This style does not follow a chronological order, and leaves out the names of employers, educational history, and all dates. Instead, this resume concentrates on your skills and abilities, and presents them in a clear, concise manner. THE COMBINATION RESUME This style combines the prime elements of both the Chronological and Functional Resumes, presenting your skills and abilities in an effective manner, while at the same time respecting the demands of employers to see some sort of job chronology.
Fundamental sections of Chronological Resume are : Your Personal Details : Name, Phone Number, Postal Address, E-mail Address Career Objective : A career objective defines your job goals. Career Accomplishments : A outline of your entire resume. It's essential to utilize this section to include your accomplishments and emphasize your worth to company. Education Details : If you have career history, mention this section below it. And if you are fresher and don't have experience, include this section 1st in your chronological resume. Mention your schools and list your degrees, courses, diplomas, major/minor, awards/honors you achieved. Work Experience : In this section, you can include your work experience, even though it was not directly job based. Stress on the profits that company had when you were working there, avoiding utilize of padding. Affiliations and Interests : If you have enough space on your resume, then only mention this section. If you have doubt whether any membership or activity will improve value to resume then the best option is not to include it. References : You need to write the following line :'References are presented on your request.' It's always better not to include the reference details. (Source: http://www.bestsampleresume.com/professional-resume/sample-1.html)
Account Sample Resume_Amy Masura
Amy Masura's Resume Fresh Graduate in Bachelor's Degree in Accountancy with CGPA 3.23 is looking for a suitable account position. Personal Information Gender Age Date of Birth Nationality Marital Status I.C or Passport Official Contact Email Mobile Tel Current Address Qualifications University Science Malaysia(USM), Malaysia (Graduation Date: May 2009) Qualification Field Of Study Major Results : Bachelor Degree : Business Management/Law: Accounting : Accountancy : 2nd Class upper
: Female : 23 : 19 Jun 1986 : Malaysia : Single : 860619-14-5227
: Amymasura@jobsbroadway.com : 012 39948390 : 03 399483903 : 28, Jalan Peruna 4/15, 58200 Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
SMK Gelugor, Malaysia (Graduation Date: December 2005) Qualification Field Of Study Major Results Work Experience JobsBroadway.com Jun 2008 ~ Nov 2008 : Primary/Secondary/High School/O-Level/SPM : Art Stream : Art : Grade A Sdn Bhd , Malaysia
Position Job Category Position Level Industry Monthly Salary Work Profile
: Account Intern : Accounting/Audit/Tax : Internship : Recruitment Firm/HR : MYR 700
Assist account executive in full set account Filing and updating weekly Ledger Account General, Debtors & Creditors Assist in all account payable and receivable Prepare and process invoices Manage vendor accounts, generating weekly on demand cheques. Prepare company accounts and tax returns for audit. Coordinated monthly payroll functions for 20+ employees Assist in monthly payroll, liaised with EPF, Socso & Cleared Income Tax Prepared Trial Balance, Balance Sheet and Profit & Loss account & Bank reconciliation in UBS Accounting System Projects Completed Collected RM30,000 from delinquent accounts Performed cost-cutting on company expenses; overall savings of RM10,000 Saved RM3,000 annually by negotiating a bulk-buying agreement. Languages (0 = Poor , 10 = Excellent) Languages Spoken English 10 Bahasa Malaysia 10 Skills Skills (Advanced) Skills (Intermediate) Skills (Beginner) Work Preference Willing To Work Shift Willing To Relocate Willing To Travel Have Own Transport Expected Monthly Salary Availability
Written 10 10
: UBS Payroll(2), MS Office(8). : Payroll calculation(1), Tax calculation(1) : UBS Accounting & Inventory (1)
: Yes : Yes : Yes : Yes : MYR 1800 : Immediately after 30 Apr 2009
Executive Summary As an accounting fresh graduate, I understand that company accounts and finance forecast has its direct impact towards company performance. With my combined training and hands-on experience during my internship, I have acquired skills in bookkeeping, accounting, payroll, costcutting, finance forecast and audit. Utilizing my computer skills, I have successfully streamlined accounting processes to increase efficiencies and reduce costs. Also, I have proven track-record in cost-cutting as well as delinquent accounts collection.
Treasurer, Outdoor Club, 2006-2007 1) In charged of clubs' finances, perform book keeping 2) Organized "Paintball Game " in campus, successfully raised fund of RM5,000 3) Involved proactively in searching sponsors for the club; received sponsored souvenirs from ELaurier for yearly off-campus events. Member, Accounting Club, 2006-2007 Involved in organizing an Accounts and Career Seminar in campus, invited Account Manager of Indal Accounting Firm as the speaker. The event attracted more than 500 accounting undergraduates from 10 universities in Malaysia.
http://my.jobsbroadway.com/sample_resume/home.php
6.0 6.1
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Protocol and Etiquette Protocol and etiquette are two important parts in our daily life. It plays a vital role in managing organizing formal or official event that vary from a simple dinner to the most complex one. 6.1.1 Protocol for Official/Formal Events Various Definitions of Protocol The forms of ceremony and etiquette observed by diplomats and heads of state (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). The formal etiquette and code of behaviour, precedence, and procedure for state and diplomatic ceremonies (Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged, 2003). Forms of ceremony and etiquette observed by diplomats and heads of state (WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. 2003-2008) Code of behaviour, manners, courtesies, conventions, customs, formalities, good form, etiquette, propriety, decorum, rules of conduct (Collins Thesaurus of the English Language Complete and Unabridged, 2002). Etymologically, from the above mentioned dictionary, the word protocol is originated from the Greek word that has the meaning of a leaf or tag attached to the first sheet of a papyrus roll. From this definition, proto is a learned prefix borrowed from Greek meaning: first, or foremost. Therefore, protocol means model, example and standard. Protocol in the Official Federal and State Events The Protocol Elements from the Scope of Event Management The order of precedence The sequence of seating The guest arrival and departure The sequence of flag Addressing VIPs Liaison officer The dress code Refreshments Government Official Events The federal event Funded by the Federal Government The state event Funded by the State Government The combination event Funded by both Federal and State Government Levels of Event International event Example: Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) Conference National event Example: Teachers Day for National Level State event Example: Selangor Youth Day
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and
District event Example: Majlis Hari Peladang Daerah Johor Bahru
Status of Event Event organized by the Government Official Event Committee Examples: Istiadat Pengkebumian Pembesar Negara, Birthday of SPB Yang Di Pertuan Agong, Sultan Brunei Official Visit Event organized by the Minister Committee Examples: National Day, World Childrens Day Event organized by the State Government Examples: Perayaan Ambang Merdeka Negeri Johor, Majlis Maulidur Rasul Negeri Melaka Event organized by the Ministry Examples: Quality Day/Teachers Day Event organized by the State Department Examples: Sabah Teachers Day Types of Event Official/Formal Event Official/formal event of the federal level and funded by the Federal Government i. Ceremonial Event Example: Istiadat Pertabalan, Istiadat Pembukaan Penggal Parlimen ii. Official Event Example: Government-organized event, Lounge-suit/baju kebangsaan Unofficial/Informal Event Simple event. For example Farewell for the Government Senior Officer Private Official Event Organized by the private company. The guest of honour are among the VIPs. Example: Majlis Perletakan Batu Asas Cyberjaya The Order of Precedence The order of precedence is considered as one of the most important element in the protocol. The failure to maintain the order of precedence is same as demeaning someones dignity. The Federal Order of Precedence Enacted by warta P.U. (B) 29 dated January 22th, 1998 Practiced in all government official/formal events To determine the list of guests/VIPs, order of precedence, time of arrival and how to address the VIPs Basic Consideration in The Order of Precedence Government Officer Position Example: Majlis Raja-raja, Mufti, Mayor and Governor of Bank Negara Designation Example: Pegawai Turus I - III Emolument The higher position means the higher pay Honorary Award Example: Tun, Tun Seri, Dato and Datuk Seri Public Position in the society Example: Head of Community/Religion Honorary Award
Addressing the VIPs The correct way on how to address the VIPs/guest of honours Used in the invitation card, tagging, envelopes, master of ceremony (MC) text and speech text. Example: YM Tengku, YB Menteri, Y.BHg. Datuk, Sahibus Samahah Mufti Bahasa Diraja Surat Pekeliling Am Sulit Bil. 3 Tahun 1993 Event attended by SPB Yang di-Pertuan Agung Event attended by Raja Melayu in every state Dress Code Pakaian Istiadat Siang/Pakaian kebangsaan Rasmi/Morning Coat Example: Coronary (Pertabalan), Mengarak panji-panji Pakaian Istiadat Malam/Pakaian Kebangsaan Rasmi/Pakaian Kebangsaan Hitam/Black Tie Example: Jamuan Negara Pakaian Kebangsaan Hitam/Black Lounge Suit Example: Official event for foreign government leaders Pakaian Kebangsaan/Lounge Suit Example: Sambutan Maal Hijrah List of Honoured Guest (VIPs) Short list according to the group of VIPs Full list according to Order of Precedence Alphabetically list Types of Invitation Single invitation Couple/spouses Mix invitation Special Invitation SPB Yang di-Pertuan Agong/DDYMM Raja/Permaisuri/TTYT Yang di-Pertua negeri Warkah dibawa mengadap YAB PM/TPM Invitation card YAB MB/KM Invitation card Invitation Card and Answer Card (RSVP Card) Enclosed together with car sticker, location map and seating allocation The invitation card normally consist of following information: a. Organizers logo b. The post of the organizer c. Guests name d. The name of event e. Venue f. Date g. Time h. Dress code i. Telephone number and fax number j. Date of arrival
k. Tentative The name of addressee should be type and reference number should be placed at the left corner The invitation card should be sent 3 weeks before the event The answer card normally consist of following information: a. Guests name (Prepare a blank space) b. Attendance status c. Signature column d. Date e. Address
Time Allocation Outstanding duration: 90 120 minutes Night event: Begins at 8.30 pm and end at 10.30 pm Afternoon event: End before Maghrib prayer The time allocation are as follows: Opening 10 minutes Performance 10 15 minutes Speech 25 35 minutes Officiate/souvenirs 20 30 minutes Refreshment 20 25 minutes Closing 5 minutes Red Carpet Prepared for the guest of honour, that are: SPB Yang di-Pertuan Agong/Raja Permaisuri Agong DYMM Raja-raja/Permaisuri/TTYT Yang di-Pertua negeri/spouse YAB PM/spouse YAB TPM/Spouse DYTM Raja Muda/Raja Puan Muda Holding Room Event that involved at least a Deputy Prime Minister To facilitate the coordination and preparation of the hall To introduce the guest of honour Back Drop Bahasa Melayu; or English for International Event Rostrum Normally, there are 3 rostrums; positioned at the left and right, and another one for Emcee. Rehearsal to review, coordinate and familiarize the event crew Emcee to announce the tentative Speech text will be prepared by the organizer Used the separate microphone and Emcee shall positioned in the conspicuous place so that Emcee can easily see the audience movement
6.1.2
Etiquette for Official/ fficial/Formal Events The basic principles of proper dinning etiquette are essential as a basic knowledge to all. This is for the purpose to avoid social em embarrassment when attending any official/formal event. Various Definitions on Ethic and Etiquette Ethic defined as a complex of moral precepts held or rules of conduct followed by an individual (Random House Dictionary, 2011). Based on the above mentioned dictionary, the word ethic is taken Greek Word Ethos The customs toms or rules governing behaviour regarded as correct or acceptable in social or official life (Collins Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged, Unabridged 2003) Rules for correct orrect or polite behaviour between people, people Conventional requirements as to proper social behavior or A prescribed code of usage in matters of ceremony (Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary, 2010) the forms, manners, and ceremonies established by convention as acceptable or required in social relations, in a profession, or in official life, the rules for such forms, manners, and ceremonies (Webster's Webster's New World College Dictionary Copyright, 2010. General Social and Dining Etiquette Rules Always respond to an invitation within a week of receiving it. If you wish to bring a guest as your partner, good dinner table etiquette demands that you should always check with the host first. If you are the one hosting the party and a guest of yours arrives with an unexpected friend, be polite & courteous with them, and speak with your inconsiderate guest at another time. Follow whatever whatever dress code is requested on the invitation or suggested by the host/hostess. Arrive at least 10 minutes early unless otherwise specified. Never arrive late! It is proper to bring a small hostess gift, one that the hostess is not obliged to use that very evening. At a dinner party, wait for the host or hostess sits down before taking your seat. If the host/hostess asks you to sit, then do. At a very formal dinner party, if there are no name cards at the table, wait until the host indicates where you should sit. The seating will typically be man man-woman-man-woman woman with the women seated to the right of the men. A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some households. The dinner guests may join in or be respectfully silent. Most prayers are made by the host before before the meal is eaten. Sometimes a toast is offered instead of a prayer. Always join in with a toast. If the host stands up during the toast, also stand up. Serving tea or coffee signifies that the formal part of the evening is over. Guests may now feel free to leave, or linger if the host or hostess encourages them to do so. After a formal dinner party, a thank you note should be sent to the hostess.
Basic Essentials of Dinner Table Etiquette The 10 Dos in Table Etiquette 1. Once seated, unfold your napkin n and use it for occasionally wiping your lips or fingers. At the end of dinner, leave the napkin tidily on the place setting. 2. It is good dinner table etiquette to serve the lady sitting to the right of the host first, then the other ladies in a clockwise direction, and lastly the gentlemen. 3. Hold the knife and fork with the handles in the palm of the hand, forefinger on top, and thumb underneath. 4. Whilst eating, you may if you wish rest the knife and fork on either side of the plate between mouthfuls. When you have finished eating, place them side by side in the center of the plate.
If the food presented to you is not to your liking, it is polite to at least make some attempt to eat a small amount of it. Or at the very least, cut it up a little, and move it around the plate! 6. It is quite acceptable to leave some food to one side of your plate if you feel as though you have eaten enough. On the other hand, don't attempt to leave your plate so clean that tha it looks as though you haven't eaten in days! 7. Desserts may be eaten with both a spoon and fork, or alternatively a fork alone if it is a cake or pastry style sweet. 8. Should a lady wish to be excused for the bathroom, it is polite for the gentlemen to stand st up as she leaves the table, sit down again, and then stand once more when she returns. 9. Always make a point of thanking the host and hostess for their hospitality before leaving. 10. It is good dinner table etiquette to send a personal thank you note to the host and hostess shortly afterwards. 5. The 10 Donts in Table Etiquette 1. NEVER start eating before a signal from the host to do so. 2. Forks should not be turned over unless being used for eating peas, sweetcorn kernels, rice or other similar foods. In whic which h case, it should be transferred to the right hand. However, at a casual buffet, or barbecue it is quite acceptable to eat with just a fork. 3. It is not generally regarded as good dinner table etiquette to use one's bread for dipping into soups or mopping up sauces. 4. Loud eating noises such as slurping and burping are very impolite. The number one sin of dinner table etiquette! 5. Talking with one's mouth full. It is not only unpleasant to watch, but could also lead to choking! Definitely not a good idea! 6. Don't stretch across the table crossing rossing other guests to reach food, wine or condiments. Instead ask a guest sitting close to pass the item to you. 7. Good dinner table etiquette sometimes involves a degree of diplomacy when it comes to the host's choice of food and wine! Even if you feel that that you can do better, don't ever offer your criticism. If you feel unable to pay any compliments, at least remain silent on the subject. 8. Picking teeth (unless toothpicks are provided) or licking fingers are very unattractive! The only exception to the la latter tter is when eating meat or poultry on the bone (such as chicken legs or ribs). In which case, a finger bowl should be provided. 9. Drinking too much wine can be very embarrassing! Where a different wine is served with each course, it is quite acceptable to not finish each glass. 10. Don't forget to make polite conversation with those guests around you. Dinner parties are not just about the food, they are intended to be a sociable occasion! How to use your silverware and dinnerware
Figure 6.1 : Silverware and Dinnerware

The silverware and dinnerware rule: Use the silverware farthest from your plate first. Eat to your left, drink to your right. Any food dish to the left is yours, and any glass to the right is yours. Starting with the knife, fork, or spoon that is farthest from your plate, work your way in, using one utensil for each course. The salad fork is on your outermost left, followed by your dinner fork. Your soup spoon is on your outermost right, followed by your beverage spoon, salad knife and dinner knife. Your dessert spoon and fork are above your plate or brought out with dessert. If you remember the rule to work from the outside in, you'll be fine. Use one of two methods when using the fork and knife: American Style: Knife in right hand, fork in left hand holding food. After a few bite-sized pieces of food are cut, place knife on edge of plate with blades facing in. Eat food by switching fork to right hand (unless you are left handed). A left hand, arm or elbow on the table is bad manners. Continental/European Style: Knife in right hand, fork in left hand. Eat food with fork still in left hand. The difference is that you don't switch hands-you eat with your fork in your left hand, with the prongs curving downward. Both utensils are kept in your hands with the tines pointed down throughout the entire eating process. If you take a drink, you do not just put your knife down, you put both utensils down into the resting position: cross the fork over the knife. Once used, your utensils, including the handles, must not touch the table again. Always rest forks, knives, and spoons on the side of your plate. For more formal dinners, from course to course, your tableware will be taken away and replaced as needed. To signal that your are done with the course, rest your fork, tines up, and knife blade in, with the handles resting at five o'clock an tips pointing to ten o'clock on your plate. Any unused silverware is simply left on the table. Napkin Etiquette Put your napkin in your lap shortly after you sit down. As you use it, blotting or patting your lips is preferable to a washcloth-style wipe and remember that this square cloth should never do double duty as a handkerchief. When the meal is finished, traditional etiquette says you shouldn't place your napkin on the table until the host or hostess has done so, signaling the meal's end. The practice is largely obsolete, but remembering it may come in handy if you're in a group that leans toward formality. In any event, leave the napkin to the left of the setting in loose folds, positioned so that any dirty part is out of sight. Serving Food Food is served from the left. Dishes are removed from the right. Always say please when asking for something. At a restaurant, be sure to say thank you to your server and bus boy after they have removed any used items. Butter, spreads, or dips should be transferred from the serving dish to your plate before spreading or eating. Passing Dishes or Food Pass food from the left to the right. Do not stretch across the table, crossing other guests, to reach food or condiments. If asked for the salt or pepper, pass both together, even if a table mate asks for only one of them. This is so dinner guests won't have to search for orphaned shakers.
Set any passed item, whether it's the salt and pepper shakers, a bread basket, or a butter plate, directly on the table instead of passing hand-to-hand. Never intercept a pass. Snagging a roll out of the breadbasket or taking a shake of salt when it is en route to someone else is a no-no. Always use serving utensils to serve yourself, not your personal silverware.
Eating Do not talk with food in your mouth! This is very rude and distasteful to watch! Wait until you have swallowed the food in your mouth. Always taste your food before seasoning it. Usually the hostess has gone to a lot of work making sure the food served is delicious to her standards. It is very rude to add salt and pepper before tasting the food. Don't blow on your food to cool it off. If it is too hot to eat, take the hint and wait until it cools. Always scoop food, using the proper utensil, away from you. Cut only enough food for the next mouthful (cut no more than two bites of food at a time). Eat in small bites and slowly. Do eat a little of everything on your plate. If you do not like the food and feel unable to give a compliment, just keep silent. It is acceptable to leave some food on your plate if you are full and have eaten enough. Do not "play with" your food or utensils. Never wave or point silverware. Do not hold food on the fork or spoon while talking, nor wave your silverware in the air or point with it. Try to pace your eating so that you dont finish before others are halfway through. If you are a slow eater, try to speed up a bit on this occasion so you dont hold everyone up. Never continue to eat long after others have stopped. Once used, your utensils, including the handles, must not touch the table again. Always rest forks, knives, and spoons on the side of your plate or in the bowl. If the food served is not to your liking, it is polite to at least attempt to eat a small amount of it. It is never acceptable to ask a person why they have not eaten all the food. Don't make an issue if you don't like something or can't eat it - keep silence. Even if you have dietary restrictions, it is inappropriate to request food other than that which is being served by the host at a private function. If you have serious dietary restrictions or allergies, let your host know in advance of the dinner. Etiquette Based on Sequence of Courses Bread and Butter Etiquette If you want a piece of bread and the bread basket is close to your place setting, it's perfectly fine to pick up the basket and ask, "Bread, anyone?" After everyone has been served, pick out a piece and put it on your bread plate, along with a pat or two of butter. If the butter comes in a dish, use your butter knife to scoop out a portion to deposit on the edge of the bread plate. (The bread plate is also the place to put jam or jelly, as well as any finger foods served on a communal platter.) Once you've taken a piece of bread from the basket, it's yours: Don't tear off a portion of a slice and then put the rest back in the basket. Put your bread on the bread plate. Each time you want some, break off one or two bites' worth, butter it while holding it on the plate (not in the air), and eat. Don't hold your bread in one hand and a drink in the other (the polite diner uses only one hand at a time), and don't take the last piece of bread without first offering it to others. When an uncut loaf (with cutting board and knife) is placed on the table, the host -or whoever is closest to the basket- cuts three or four slices, leaving them on the board. If manageable, the board is then passed when diners want to cut their own. First Courses Appetizers are eaten with the small fork to the left of the dinner fork. If you're having soup, the server will probably bring the soupspoon with the soup; if it is already part of the place
setting, it is to the right of the knife or knives. If a platter for sharing has been ordered -say, of antipasti or stuffed mushrooms- it is passed around the table, with each diner holding it as the person next to him serves himself, using only the serving utensils provided. Beverages Before taking a sip of water, wine, or any other beverage, blot your lips with your napkin to keep the glass from becoming soiled. And remember that the water goblet is not a substitute for a finger bowl. If you want to clean your fingers, use your napkin or, if a dish has been messy to eat, excuse yourself to clean your hands in the restroom if no finger bowl or hot towel has been provided. Main Courses The period spent eating the main course is meant to be enjoyable, but sometimes uncertainties or difficulties will creep in. Following are some of the problems that might crop up and tips for how to deal with them: The food arrives at different times. If a significant time elapses between the arrival of the respective diners' hot dishes, the host (or if there is none, the other diners) should urge the first who have been served to go ahead and eat. If everyone is having cold dishes, follow the rule of waiting until everyone is served. You want to send food back. As a rule, send a dish back only if it isn't what you ordered; itisn't cooked to order (a supposedly medium-well fillet arrives bleeding, for instance); it tastes spoiled; or you discover a hair or a pest. Just speak calmly and quietly to the server when making the request. Your side dishes come separately. When vegetables are served in individual small dishes, it's perfectly proper to eat them directly from the dish. Or, if you choose to transfer the food to your dinner plate, use a fork or spoon to carefully slide them onto the plate. You could also ask your server to transfer the side dish to your plate when he brings it. If necessary, ask for the empty dishes to be removed so that the table isn't overcrowded. You want to taste one another's food. Accepting another person's offer to taste a morsel of his dish or offering a bite of yours- is fine as long as it's handled unobtrusively. Either pass your bread plate to the person so he can put a spoonful on it or (if he's sitting close by) hold your plate toward him so that he can put the morsel on the edge. Do not hold a forkful of food to another diner's mouth, and don't ever spear something off the plate of anyone else. You're faced with unfamiliar foods. If a food you're not sure how to eat comes on a platter of appetizers -a type of sushi, perhaps, or crab in the shell- you, as a polite diner, have three choices of how to proceed: (1) Wait until someone else starts to eat and follow suit. (2) Ask how the food should be eaten (fingers or fork, for example). (3) Avoid the food altogether. You're not sure how to rest your utensils. During the meal, never place a fork or spoon you've been using directly on the table. Instead, place the utensil diagonally on the edge of your plate, not propped against it like an oar. In fact, how you place your utensils on your plate is a code to the waiter, letting him know whether you have finished a course. Condiments Condiments range from salt and pepper to the individual small dishes that accompany Chinese, Indian, and other ethnic foods.
Dessert In some place settings, a dessertspoon and fork are placed horizontally above the dinner plate. Use the fork for eating and the spoon as a pusher-or vice versa, depending on the softness of the dessert. Coffee and Tea If a waiter places a pot of coffee or tea on the table but doesn't pour, the person near should offer to do the honors, filling her own cup last. Two other points: - Do not take ice from your water glass to cool a hot drink. Just be patient. - Do not dunk doughnuts, biscotti, or anything else into your coffee.
the pot
Excusing Yourself When you need to get up to go to the restroom, it isn't necessary to say where you're going-a simple "Excuse me, please; I'll be right back" is sufficient. At other times, a brief explanation is in order: "Please excuse me while I check with the babysitter." Leaving without a word is rude. Grooming at the Table In most circumstances, it is more polite to excuse yourself and put on lipstick in the ladies' room than to do it at the table. The exception is when the restaurant has an informal atmosphere and you're among friends, in which case you can apply the lipstick quickly. What you should avoid is a primping routine--no compact, no powder. And then there's that never-to-be-broken rule: Whether you're a man or a woman, don't use a comb at a restaurant table, nor should you rearrange your hair or put your hands to it wherever food is served. Using dental floss at the table is a major never-ever. Believe it or not, some people have no qualms about doing something so private in public.
6.2
Accountability 6.2.1 Accountability Concept Definition The obligation of an individual or organization to account for its activities, accept responsibility for them, and to disclose the results in a transparent manner. It also includes the responsibility for money or other entrusted property. (Source: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/accountability.html )
Concept Accountability is a concept in ethics and governance with several meanings. It is often used synonymously with such concepts as responsibility,[1] answerability, blameworthiness, liability, and other terms associated with the expectation of account-giving. As an aspect of governance, it has been central to discussions related to problems in the public sector, nonprofit and private (corporate) worlds. In leadership roles,[2] accountability is the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility for actions, products, decisions, and policies including the administration, governance, and implementation within the scope of the role or employment position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be answerable for resulting consequences. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountability)
6.2.2
Accountability in the Implementation of Tasks
6.3
Integrity 6.3.1 Integrity Concept Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy, in that it regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word "integrity" stems from the Latin adjective integer (whole, complete). In this context, integrity is the inner sense of "wholeness" deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency of character. As such, one may judge that others "have integrity" to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold. A value system's abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation. A value system may evolve over time while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies.
6.3.2
Power Abuse and Corruption Free Work Culture
Integrity has to do with your own personal moral code or ethics. Everyone has a standard of what is moral or right, some of those standards are personal one that we hold for ourselves, and some are imposed by society. For example, you personally may not think it's wrong to cheat on your taxes, because you feel the government takes too much to begin with, however, external forces (the law) state that it is ethically wrong to do so, regardless of how you personally feel. Integrity is the adherence to the moral code whatever the source is, loosely defined it would mean that you are willing to 'do the right thing'.
Integrity is defined by Websters as a firm adherence to a code of especially moral or artistic values (INCORRUPTIBILITY,) an unimpaired condition (SOUNDNESS,) and the quality or state of being complete or undivided (COMPLETENESS.) Types: integrity of character, professional integrity. Synonyms: Honesty & Unity. Integrity involves the three Rs: Respect for self; Respect for others;
and Responsibility for all your actions.
There is a common theme among experts who have studied or written about modern leadership. That all leaders must act with integrity at all times. The first reason for acting with integrity is that subordinates are constantly observing the lead figure. A leader is the role model by which the group that they command is most influenced. Eventually this will lead to a molding or modeling of the groups behavior. This is why a leader (fire officer), must have and maintain the highest standard of character and integrity whether on or off duty. Integrity of ones character will consist of honor, virtue, allegiance, and subordination. Without integrity the fire officer can never garner the respect and confidence of junior and senior members within the department. Individual integrity is never easy, and is never suppose to be. At most it may be the most difficult of all personal qualities to hold intact because of its complicated nature and the multiplicity of it dimensions. One part of integrity is virtue, this can be considered the courage that a fire officer must possess as part of their integrity. This represents ones bravery and the endurance required to stand up against something that is deemed to be wrong, unjust, corrupt, or dangerous. The rank of a fire officer means little because there will always be pressures placed upon the fire officer to yield to influences from someone elses will as long as they are part of the line staff of the department. This pressure may come from chief officers, company officers, civilians, Governmental agencies, political figures or social/community groups. Succumbing to these types of pressures will eventually lead the fire officer to take shortcuts in order to accomplish a goal. Loyalty and trust by superiors and subordinates must be the ultimate goal for the fire officer rather than shortcuts or favors that one might receive, including possible promotional opportunities. A fire officer must be a straight shooter, if caught lying to a senior officer(s) then it is an inevitability that the people under his command will eventually lie to the fire officer. Lying only infects the honor system that exists in the fire service. This also breeds deceit, dishonesty, and insincerity among the company and its members. If allowed to manifest this will cause the firehouse to swarm like the hive full of agitated bees. Sometimes fire officers have or will be pushed into a corner by the troops. If pressured the fire officer may lie in order to get out of a jam, but the ramifications of this will not only be deep, but also far reaching. Misleading the subordinates to protect your own skin will eventually return to you tenfold. Lack of trust, lack of respect, and lack of confidence will eventually lead the fire officer down the road to self-destruction. If the officer attempts to pull the wool over a seniors eyes or if the fire officer works a shady deal in order to get something accomplished, then those under their command will assume that this is business as usual. If the organization is based upon absolute integrity of its officers, then the organization will operate as a fully functional unit. If the fire officer commits an act that is not necessarily criminal in nature, or an act that could possibly result in demotion or expulsion from the department, they must still be reprimanded or punished in accordance with the departments prescribed procedures. If no gauge for reprimand has ever been used, then the punishing officials can refer to the Douglas Factors as guidance for the initiation of punishment. Other individuals who become aware of the incident will be adversely affected if no action is taken, thus the moral fabric of the department will be damaged. At some point everyone will break a rule or
regulation, as this is only human by nature. The failure must be evaluated on whether it was intentional or unintentional and the punishment should be dealt out accordingly. But, if the fire officer fails as a person or as a representative of the department and then fails to admit mistakes or guilt, then they must be removed from their position. This is a distinction that must be maintained in all disciplinary actions within the department. And what about time spent away from the fire station. The question is am I, as a fire officer, required to abide to the same rules that govern me at work? In some departments even off duty you are a representative of the department and in reality we all are. But there are cases when someone steps beyond the norm or moral code of the department when off duty and they believe that this will not affect their employment status. Many in the fire service are unable to keep their home life together, does this reflect upon their integrity? In some cases, yes it will affect the way senior department members and subordinates judge the fire officer concerning the way they are viewed. Basically if the fire officer cannot get a grip on the conditions, which they live, how can they handle the conditions, which they must perform and work in? "No one can be happy who has been thrust outside the pale of truth. And there are two ways that one can be removed from this realm: by lying, or by being lied to." Seneca, Roman philosopher and writer How does someone develop integrity as part of his or her character? Where does integrity come from? The quality of integrity is not a trait that we are born with, rather it is learned as we go through life. Not all (great) leaders come from backgrounds that would indicate their level of integrity either, instead, during the process of learning, integrity of the individual is developed. As with fingerprints, no two people have the exact value system that we live by. Within the fire service as in the law enforcement community or the military, we find others with whom we have similar values. But, no two people have the same level of integrity even though we share common ideologies. So how does someone live by a code of conduct and standards? How does a sense of obligation develop towards others, the community, community groups, the fire service, and our country develop? This process of integrity begins when we are very young, usually taught by our parents, grandparents, neighbors, teachers, and other children whom we may have contact with. This process can also be taught by reading or by the watching of certain television programming. The process by which we develop integrity is also dependent upon our reception senses as well. How many times have we heard of families who were the cornerstone of integrity and wholesome living in the community, only to have a child who turned out to be the complete opposite, otherwise known as the demon seed? In defense of that example the reverse can be true as well, there have been some who come from families that have lacked integrity only to have a child who possesses a high level of integrity. While this does not happen often, it does happen. Development of integrity depends solely upon the moral fabric of the individual. There are four ingredients that make up the foundation for someones integrity. Without these factors joining combining together either the individuals foundation will be weak, or it will eventually crumble and disintegrate. These ingredients include: a. Receptive Ability: Can the fire officer listen to others ideas or directions? Failure as an officer occurs when one acts as an authoritarian leader. This person dominates and to a certain extent possesses a certain degree of arrogance that is above the norm. b. Flexibility: Are you, the fire officer a risk taker? Can you think outside the box? Do you have an active imagination that allows for alternative ways or ideas to be used in accomplishing the departments mission or goals? Fire officers fail when they become rigid or unbending in their way of operating or their beliefs? These are the type of officers who carry the old timers attitude or simply state, We cant do that because we have always done it this way?
c.
Humility: Can the officer put the organizations concerns ahead of your personnel interest? Or does the officer put a premium on their personnel image (glitter & gold syndrome), and do they remember where they come from? If title, image, and being the center of attention appeal more to you, than humility is one quality they do not possess.
d. Compassion: Can the officer bring himself or herself to reconcile a difference with a member of the company or department? Can they be nice to fellow firefighters and express compassion and mercy to the people to whom we provide service? But what does integrity really mean? Integrity is: Self-respect: The fire officer must first start by liking him or herself. If they are unhappy with who they are, they will be unable to show someone under their command compassion or understanding. Having self-respect for yourself will be noticed by those around you and will be appreciated. The perception of you (as a fire officer) can always be enhanced, updated and improved. It will all depend upon factors such as willingness, motivation, and career goals that you wish to accomplish. Loyalty to the departments vision and mission: As a fire officer you must first realize that without loyalty to the department and its mission your performance cannot make the department fully successful. Great strategy and innovation is not a guarantee for success, the core to success is the employee, and if you are not willing to commit yourself to the department then you are a glitch in the system. The ranks of successful companies are filled with hardworking, dedicated, skilled, honest and faithful employees like you. Honesty to yourself and others: Officers must always conduct themselves with the utmost of honesty at all times. Firefighters look up to the fire officer as an example of leadership and guidance. One way to ensure that your integrity as a fire officer is intact is to always tell the truth. By telling the truth you will never have to worry about being caught up in a lie or trying to remember just what you had said. Lying will only lower yourself worth in the mind of subordinates, superiors, or worst yet the public. Sometimes telling the truth will not make people happy, or make you the winner of a popularity contest. In some cases you may suffer from loss of grace for telling the truth, or for standing up for what is right. But as an adult we find out that this is life, and you cant please everyone all the time. But being caught in a lie means there will be a much greater need for damage control in the end. Avoidance How many employees in the fire service can state with honesty that they can trust every employee in the departments officer corps? Within the fire service there are probably more supervisors and managers that a subordinate can place their faith and trust in than in other workforce professions. This can be mainly contributed to the nature of our business, which is to help and serve others, including our own. This type of person eventually becomes a leader with a quality inbred within their skills when they ascend as an officer. But there are some in our profession that you should never turn your back on and this is true in every profession as well. One way to avoid the integrity pitfall is by retaining the quality that appears to be the most important, trust. Once a subordinate or supervisor loses the ability to put their trust in the fire officer the only effect that can follow is that of an uncontrollable vortex that spirals downward. Lack of trust is listed as the number one problem facing many leaders within the world of corporate or governmental business today, including the fire service. Take a look at Enron, WorldCom, Arthur Anderson, representatives of the House and Senate, sports athletes, and celebrities. These are only a few examples of leaders who have failed the integrity test. This has been accomplished through lying, deceit, and greed. Is the fire service exempt, no! Just look at the D.C. Fire Departments debacle that is still ongoing with its recently past chief. Untrustworthy leadership is not new thing, in fact it has been prevalent since the creation of dawn. But in order to lead an effective and efficient customer service like the fire department we cannot allow ourselves to reward questionable behavior.
Some recent studies have shown why trust has diminished and cynicism has risen: a. 74% stated that they would steal from someone who would not miss it. b. 76% of honor students in 1996 stated that they have cheated academically at some point during there studies. c. 85% stated that honest and ethical management was important to the health of the organization. d. 40% stated that honesty and ethical management was present in the organization that they are presently employed by. e. 75% of employees have observed unethical workplace conduct within the last year, of the conduct observed were deceptive practices, unsafe working conditions, and the mishandling of information. f. Employee satisfaction falls to 21% when upper management failed to deal with a supervisor accused of unethical behavior. g. Most all respondents of the survey consider themselves suspicious of their managers. "To educate a man in mind but not in morals is to educate a menace to society. Theodore Roosevelt Understanding Employees Just because we are the emergency service known as the Fire Department, doesnt necessarily mean that employee does dont expect from our leaders what others in the professional workforce expect from their supervisors. A survey conducted in New York (2001) listed the top ten skills that a supervisor should have: a. 97% of employees want supervisors who can be trusted, to make honest decisions that are value based and who understand the consequences of violating organizational beliefs and policies. b. 94% of employees want supervisors who can work with others. c. 93% of employees consider hygiene or personnel appearance (clean clothes/uniform, washed and styled hair, clean teeth, etc.) of importance. d. 88% of employees want supervisors who can communicate such as receiving, interpreting and responding appropriately using the correct verbal communication. That managers understand body language and also comprehend evaluates and supports the speaker. e. 87% wants supervisors who demonstrate understanding, are adaptable, show empathy, and politeness to others. f. 85% of employees want supervisors who show a high level of effort plus perseverance towards goal attainment. This helps employees achieve excellence when tasked with undesirable or unpleasant work assignments. g. 83% want supervisors to show self-worth and have a positive image of themselves. Also increases supervisors knowledge and skills. h. 82% believe it is important for supervisors to communicate through writing, records information and the accuracy of both. i. 81% want managers to organize ideas and who speak clearly. Appropriate communications to listeners in the correct situations or settings. Participates in groups settings and will ask questions when needed. j. 80% believe appropriate behavior should be a trademark when dealing with others. The most important figure in this survey was also the number one answer, trust and honesty (someones integrity) meant the most to employees, and I venture to say that higher level managers would feel the same if asked about lower level supervisors. Corrective measures a. In order to meet the goals and mission of the department, fire officers should deliver clear and concise messages to the firefighters. Many times verbal or written instructions are received differently and the end result is the placing of blame upon one another as to why the goal or mission was never attained. b. Fire service managers must be willing to deal with those under their command who act unethically. Failure to do so will result in loss of integrity by the fire officer.
Fire officers must be vigilant and remember that there is a constant threat to their integrity. Compromised integrity will only lead to defeat. d. As a fire officer, never make promises to subordinates or superiors that a task or goal will be accomplished or met if you know it cannot, no matter how minor the assignment is. This can only help to reinforce among the parties involved that trust within the system is either damaged or broken. Many of todays fire chiefs compromise their integrity when they must take on and act out the wishes of city managers or Mayors, even if the chief was a person of the highest moral fabric before assuming the chiefs position. Accepting the position as fire chief means that you (may) have to hold the corporate line inorder to continue your employment status. If the city fathers want to slash the fire department budget, cut staffing, or close stations, as the chief of the department you will be responsible for carrying this directive or manifesto out, no matter how unpopular it may be. By carrying out such wishes means the fire chief now has become the scapegoat or whipping boy for city managers. Accepting these recommendations without any resistance even if you disagree can kill any integrity that you had spent your whole career to build. Going against the city managers wishes may mean loss of your job, or a falling out of favor, or being ostracized by the bureaucrats. So many fire chiefs have to make many critical choices in todays politically filled arenas. The smart chief will either fight or attempt other ways of convincing the city fathers on the importance of reversing or at least modifying the decision(s) or plan that they want to see implemented. One way to succeed without seeming to be putting up a fight is by seeking change through accurate and detailed justification, something many of our fire service leaders either fail or do not know how to do. Then there is the puppet chief, who will go about granting the city fathers every wish, even though the chief knows that it is not the right thing to do for the department or the community. The puppet chief will also never have anything new to report on even if the department or service provided by them is not sufficient or may be falling apart. They will always report that the department is doing fine and there are no problems. Is there a simple answer on what to do? No. The fire chief must do what they feel is right. If the chief does not then they can continue to wear the pretty uniform with all its glitter and gold, drive around in their new Crown Victoria and continue to play the part of the pawn. Remember the pawn takes all the heat for the decisions of the city fathers. In the end the only person that will be adversely affected is the fire chief. Integrity is the most important of all qualities that a fire service leader must possess. To view everyone and the relationships that they have, how they conduct their lives, and see them as not just a number to provide staffing. This will enhance the productivity that all managers hope for. It is easier to keep ones integrity than to recover it. Firefighters and fire chiefs can see a phony, and whether they have respect for others around them. The fire officer who is fair in all their dealings will garner not only respect but also responsibility. Not being able to rise above prejudices will lead to failure. Being a prisoner to peer pressure, modus operandi, useless traditions or conventional rules will eventually lead to the loss of integrity. To see far beyond ones environment, to use proper ways and means, and to bring a task to a desirable end is the true sign of an effective leader. To discount exterior pressures is what separates leaders from followers. "Integrity without knowledge is weak and useless, and knowledge without integrity is dangerous and dreadful." Samuel Johnson
c.
6.4
Environmental Awareness 6.4.1 The Importance of Caring for the Environment The Importance of Clean Environment Environment plays an important role in our daily lives. Non-contaminated environment gives us a comfortable and cozy atmosphere. In addition to provide comfort to people, it is also to some extent will affect the activities of environmental development in the country if we do not properly maintain. The benefits of clean environment are: Human health is ensure Attract foreign tourists Fresh air is provided The stability of ecosystem Wildlife habitat on land and water reserved Prevent extinction
The Causes of Environmental Destruction Environmental destruction is caused by various parties. Industrial sector and agriculture sector is the most important sector in our country that contributes to environmental destruction. In addition, other sources are: Overused of chemical fertilizers Cutting trees widely Open burning Discharge of gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons and others. Production of toxic waste Disposal of toxic waste The Effects of Contaminated Environment Contaminated environment will harm wildlife. Among its results is as follows: Air pollution and haze The phenomenon of acid rain Odour pollution Water pollution The destruction of aquatic life Increased ambient temperature Poisoning Soil erosion and flood Spread of disease Solution for the Environment Problems Sophisticated technology has produced various types of product but this situation had cause many types of pollution. Indirectly, environment becomes the victims weather in air, sea or land. Solutions should be taken to clean up the environment from pollution. There are various ways to prevent environmental pollution. The steps can be divided into four stages: International Government Organization Individual
In the international level, organizations such as WHO (World Health Organization) and Greenpeace have been established. Both these organizations act as the monitors of pollution. WHO plays an important role in pollution control and the right set of environmental regulation? Greenpeace provide information to the public on the pollution that occurred in the world and will demonstrate if pollution occurs. Secondly, Singapore government as an example has held a variety of laws and events to enhance the quality of environment. Those who throw garbage indiscriminately will be fined and will clean the area with closely monitored by an officer. Industries that throw chemical and toxins will be summoned. Thirdly, organizations such as schools, community centers, youth clubs and companies can contribute to environmental cleanliness. School teachers should instill concern for the environment through the moral education in schools. Cleanliness competition between classes also can be held so that the students have a responsibility to the environment properties. The public centre can organize cleanliness competition among shops and neighborhoods. For the teenagers, youth club could hold newspapers collection from house to house and garbage collection on the beach during recreation. Lastly, we as individuals must play a role. Three methods that should be practiced is to use the goods that can be reused, using items made from goods reprocessed (recycled) and reduce the consumption of goods that is not required (reduce). Such attitudes can reduce the pollution of the environment. Not forgetting, the attitude of self-awareness must be present to avoid the world continue to be contaminated. Green Technology - What it is? The term "technology" refers to the application of knowledge for practical purposes. The field of "green technology" encompasses a continuously evolving group of methods and materials, from techniques for generating energy to non-toxic cleaning products. The present expectation is that this field will bring innovation and changes in daily life of similar magnitude to the "information technology" explosion over the last two decades. In these early stages, it is impossible to predict what "green technology" may eventually encompass. The goals that inform developments in this rapidly growing field include: Sustainability - meeting the needs of society in ways that can continue indefinitely into the future without damaging or depleting natural resources. In short, meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. "Cradle to cradle" design - ending the "cradle to grave" cycle of manufactured products, by creating products that can be fully reclaimed or re-used. Source reduction - reducing waste and pollution by changing patterns of production and consumption. Innovation - developing alternatives to technologies - whether fossil fuel or chemical intensive agriculture - that have been demonstrated to damage health and the environment. Viability - creating a center of economic activity around technologies and products that benefit the environment, speeding their implementation and creating new careers that truly protect the planet.
Examples of green technology subject areas: areas Energy Perhaps the most urgent issue for green technology, this includes the development of alternative fuels, new means of generating energy and energy efficiency. Green building Green building encompasses everything from the choice of building materials to where a building is located. Environmentally preferred purchasing This government innovation involves the search for products whose contents and methods of production have the smallest possib possible le impact on the environment, and mandates that these be the preferred products for government purchasing. Green chemistry The invention, design and application of chemical products and processes to reduce or to eliminate the use and generation of hazardous hazardo substances. Green nanotechnology Nanotechnology involves the manipulation of materials at the scale of the nanometer, one billionth of a meter. Some scientists believe that mastery of this subject is forthcoming that will transform the way that everything everything in the world is manufactured. "Green nanotechnology" is the application of green chemistry and green engineering principles to this field. Four Pillars of National Green Technology Policy: Energy: Seek to attain energy independence and promote efficient utilization; Environment: Conserve and minimize the impact on the environment; Economy: Enhance the national economic development through the use of technology; and Social: Improve the quality of life for all. Hygiene Hygiene refers to the set of practices perceived by a community to be associated with the preservation of health and healthy living. While in modern medical sciences there are a set of standards of hygiene recommended for different situations, what is considered hygienic or not can vary between different cultures, genders and etarian groups. groups Some regular hygienenical practices may be considered good habits by a society while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrepectful or even threatening Home and everyday life hygiene Home hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease in home (domestic) and in everyday life settings such as social settings, public transport, the work place, public places etc. Sanitation Sanitation is any system that promotes sanitary, or healthy, healthy, living conditions. It includes systems to manage waste water, storm water, solid waste, and household refuse and it also includes ensuring that people have safe drinking water and enough water for washing. Here we focus on the safe management of human excreta. Sanitation includes both the software of understanding why health problems exist and what steps people can take to address these problems, and hardware such as toilets, sewers and hand-washing washing facilities. Together, they combine to break the cycle cycle of diseases that spread when human excreta and waste are not managed properly.
Good sanitation Good sanitation refers to the appropriate behaviour and practices of the people living in a specific environment: The people know to avoid contact with human excreta and to hygienically dispose of human waste. The peoples behaviour displays a responsible attitude towards the hygiene of their families, the community and the environment. By being a responsible and hygienic individual you make sure that you do not spread diseases. Why does good sanitation matter? The cholera epidemic has focused attention on the importance of good sanitation in breaking the cycle of diseases spread by human excreta. Poor sanitation promotes the spread of health problems - including chronic diarrhoea, intestinal worms, bilharzia, hepatitis and scabies - that can lead to malnutrition and stunting, especially in small children. places extra stress on the weakened immune systems of HIV positive people, accelerating the shift to full-blown AIDS.
Energy Saver Defination Percentage of total energy input to a machine or equipment that is consumed in useful work and not wasted as useless heat. Energy saver, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to using traditional incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process. An important strategy for reducing our dependence on fossil fuels is improving energy efficiency (that is, getting more use out of the electricity we already generate). Energy efficiency measures such as advanced industrial processes and high-efficiency motors, lighting, and appliances have the potential to provide significant reductions in electricity use while saving consumers money in the long run. In Your Home Conserve Energy 1. Clean or replace air filters on your air conditioning unit at least once a month. 2. If you have central air conditioning, do not close vents in unused rooms. 3. Lower the thermostat on your water heater to 120. 4. Wrap your water heater in an insulated blanket. 5. Turn down or shut off your water heater when you will be away for extended periods. 6. Turn off unneeded lights even when leaving a room for a short time. 7. Set your refrigerator temperature at 36 to 38 and your freezer at 0 to 5 . 8. When using an oven, minimize door opening while it is in use; it reduces oven temperature by 25 to 30 every time you open the door
In Your Home Reduce Toxicity 1. Eliminate mercury from your home by purchasing items without mercury, and dispose of items containing mercury at an appropriate drop-off facility when necessary (e.g. old thermometers). 2. Learn about alternatives to household cleaning items that do not use hazardous chemicals. 3. Buy the right amount of paint for the job. 4. Review labels of household cleaners you use. Consider alternatives like baking soda, scouring pads, water or a little more elbow grease. 5. When no good alternatives exist to a toxic item, find the least amount required for an effective, sanitary result. In Your Office 1. Copy and print on both sides of paper. 2. Reuse items like envelopes, folders and paper clips. 3. Use mailer sheets for interoffice mail instead of an envelope.Use mailer sheets for interoffice mail instead of an envelope. 4. Set up a bulletin board for memos instead of sending a copy to each employee. 5. Use e-mail instead of paper correspondence. 6. Use recycled paper Ways to Use Less Water 1. Check and fix any water leaks. 2. Install water-saving devices on your faucets and toilets. 3. Don't wash dishes with the water running continuously. 4. Wash and dry only full loads of laundry and dishes. 5. Follow your community's water use restrictions or guidelines.
6.5
Occupational Health and Safety 6.5.1 List occupational health and safety regulations. History, Background and Roles of DOSH and Legislation Formerly known as Machinery Section Under Mining Department. Now known as Department of Occupational Safety and Health (JKKP/DOSH). Under Ministry of Human Resources. 1878: First steam boiler inspector Mr. Givan was assigned in Taiping, Perak from 1878-1889. 1898: Selangor Steam Boilers Enactment. 1903: Perak Steam Boilers Enactment. 1908: Machinery Enactment for Federated Malay States. (Perak, Selangor, N. Sembilan & pahang). 1913: Machinery Enactment for Driven Machinery. Machinery Enactment (Ammendment and widening). Mahinery Enactment 1908. Engineers and Dredge Masters. Examination Regulations. 1953: Machinery ordinance was approve, scope across Malaya. Machinery Department was formed under the minitry of labor. 1967: Factories and Machinery Act 1967 start enforced in 1970. 1970: Machinery Department changed its name to factories and Machinery Department. 1994: Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994). The change of name from Factories and Machinery Department to Deparment of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH/JKKP). The role and mission of DOSH.
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To ensure safety, health and welfare of the workers and to protect others from the risk relating to the activities of the people working. List of acts enforce by DOSH/JKKP are:i. Factories and Machinery Act 1967. ii. Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994. iii. Parts of Petroleum (Safety Measures) Act 1984.
6.5.2
The Importance of Occupational Health and Safety Practices What is a policy? The strength of an organization. As a business direction. As a base to plan and implement activity. What is a Safety and Health Policy? A written document that states vows and commitment of an organization in managing safety and health at workplace. Why is it important? To show commitment of management. Starting point of planning and implementing OSH activities. To increase morale and motivation among workers. OSH 1994 requirement. The Elements of Safety and Health Policy Goals and vision of the organization. Example: we, at ABC Sdn. Bhd. Aiming the zero accident. Compliance to the existing regulations. Compliance to the good industrial practices. Roles and responsibilites of employees and management. Mission. Implementation of Safety and Health Policy The policy need to be read, understand and implemented by workers and managers. Therefore it has to be : Specific and consice. Simple language and not misleading, comprehensive and at least bilingual. Can be revised. Communicate and display. Signed by top management, name and date. Can measure result, example effectiveness of a program whether its reaches target or not. Achievable, practical and logical. Reasonable, in the business scope and resouceful suitable to implement the policy. Traceable, the program can be monitored and corrective action carried out.
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Softskills (AS101) Monograph

SOFTSKILLS (AS 101) MONOGRAPH FOR

POLITEKNIK JOHOR BAHRU

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MEMBERS FOR MONOGRAPH PREPARATION

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Willingness to admit mistakes Openness Honesty Acceptance Cooperativeness Independence

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Figure 2.1 : One Way Communication Process

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Softskills (AS101) Monograph

Assumptions Critical Evaluation of the Speaker Information Overload

27 for Politeknik Johor Bahru

Softskills (AS101) Monograph

Identify the listening goal

Outline predictable sequences

Identify the key words/phrases to listen for

(Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/listening/goalslisten.htm and http://www.cesdp.nmhu.edu/toolkit/pdfs/teacherhttp://www.cesdp.nmhu.edu/toolkit/pdfs/teacher-tools/mod1/Resource3.pdf)