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A First Introduction to the Notion of Topological Space Author(s): G. Papy Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 4, No.
1, Lectures of the Comprehensive School Mathematics Project (CSMP). Conference on the Teaching of Geometry (Jun., 1971), pp. 18-30 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3482000 . Accessed: 07/02/2014 18:19
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G. PAPY
A FIRST INTRODUCTION
TO THE NOTION OF
TOPOLOGICAL SPACE
traits of the 1. The linearizationof theories,one of the most characteristic of best when the mathematics the fundaof attractiveface today, appears and integralcalculusare put in place - along mentalnotions of differential with the rest of the calculus.Infinitesimal analysisreignssupremetoday in Linearalgebraand infinitesimal nearlyall the fieldsof appliedmathematics. first elements of differential and integral calculus) calculus(includingthe at remainthe two essentialgoals of all worthwhile teachingof mathematics level. the secondary 2. In certaincountriesthe teachingof infinitesimal analysisat the secondary level beganmore than half a centuryago. In others,one is alwaysinvolved of introducingsuch a course three in the discussionof the opportuneness calculusby Newton and Leibniz. centuries afterthe discoveryof differential infinitesimal Certainuniversityprofessorsregard analysisas a privileged pursuitto be jealouslyguardedagainstprofanationat the secondarylevel. Theyimaginethattheyalone can teachthe delicatenotions of infinitesimals withoutruiningthem. No doubtthey believe,more or less conscientiously, that such notions shouldremainunderthe protectionof the elite, and that would put in peril a whole throwingthem to the whims of the uncultured precious heritage of intellectualand spiritualvalues. This typical caste reaction illustrates,by contrast, one of the golden rules of progress:all for a smallelite and finishby appeararefirstreserved importantdiscoveries ing sufficiently simpleand clearto be understoodand used by humanswho are not visited by any inspiredideas nor investedwith special talents and virtuousity. 3. Analysis at the secondarylevel has not always been an uncontested mannera bewildered successin convincingin a definitive population.Such coursesoften remindone of cook-bookrecipes,designedto be appliedwith and with no light on the inner function of this mysterious blindconfidence machinefor solving problems.Such teachingcontains nothing formative, leavesany durable nothingto provokeany profoundreactions,and scarcely notion of limit is left smotheredin metaphysical traces. The fundamental ideastoo delicateto handleand too nebulousto be put in contextwith other notions that have been alreadyclearlyestablished. mathematical
Studies in Mathematics4 (1971) 18-30. All RightsReserved Educational Dordrecht-Holland Copyright0 1971 by D. ReidelPublishing Company,
THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL
SPACE
19
4. Infinitesimal analysis- comprisingdifferential and integralcalculus- is one of the most importantdiscoveriesin the history of mathematics,of science,and of thought.Its gestationperiodwas difficult, its liberationfrom foggymetaphysical ideaswas a long and painfulwork.Thisprogressdid not consist in the solution of a single, isolatedproblem.It markedin fact the entranceinto a new universewherea multitudeof notions and conceptsoften isolated for the first time - began converging,meeting,intersecting, and mutuallyinfluencingone another in subtle interaction.Mathematical analysis is at the crossroads.The simultaneousintroductionof a large numberof new notions has created a superpositionof difficultiespartly responsible for the failuresoften incurred in the teachingof analysisboth at the secondary level and in the universities. 5. Teachinganalysisis unthinkable withoutthe explicitnotion of function. It is possibleto teach elementary geometrywithoutmakingexplicituse of this concept.Thisis whatEucliddid and whattraditional teachingcontinues to do. If it werepossibletoday to teach elementary mathematics bypassing entirelythe notion of function,thenit wouldperhapsbejustifiedto ignoreit in geometry.Sincethe notion of functionis inevitable, thereis no reasonto miss the eminentservicesit can renderin geometry.All plane transformations - translations,central and axial reflections,homotheties,rotations, - are functions.The groupsof geometry similitudes are groupsof functions. The grouplaw is composition,whichclassicalanalysishides in the theoryso badly named- of functionsof functions. 6. Ten or fifteenyearsago, duringa mathematics teachersconvention,two excellentseniorhigh school teacherscrossedswords,with greatcourtesy,on the optimumage for the introductionof the notion of function, of real valuedfunctionsof a real variable,as a matterof fact. - I tried in vain with pupils of sixteen.In spite of all precautionsand patience,the notion does not enter.The brainis not developedenough. But at seventeen,no problem;the time is ready.What was impossibleto inculcate- no matterhow hard the effort- at sixteen,penetrateswithout at seventeen. difficulty - I wonder,dear colleague,if it is possibleto be as positiveas you. Permit me to tell you that I also triedto introduce functionsat sixteen.Of course, I don't claim that all the pupils completelyassimilatedthe notion; but they didn'tall die of it, and the answersto the exercisesshowedthat they the proposedfunctions.... correctlymanipulated - Allow me, dear colleague,to be somewhatskepticalabout the importof the conclusionyou seemto draw.... But perhapsour apparent opposition
20
G. PAPY
about the meaningof the terms we are comes from a misunderstanding using. We must not confuse the assimilationof the notion of function with some exercisesof manipulation whichcan be performed withoutthe notion itself being assimilated.Let us not forget that for the pupils the notion of functionis difficult,subtle, and delicate.In orderto avoid an emptyparrot-like verbalism,one must not skip over certainstages. - I believewe almostagree.Exercises with some simplenumerical functions the notion at sixteen.But, in any maywell serveto introduceprogressively case,beforethatage nothingcan be done along that line for lack of necessarymaturity. At that moment,from the rearof the room camea loud question: - From what age do you believechildrenunderstand the phrase"...has as mother..."? The question sounded very strange in a discussion on the teaching of it provokedsome grumbling,from whencefinallycame out, mathematics; the strangeanswer: badly articulated,
- From always!
A moving,naive,andmagnificent answer of the 12-to-1 fromexpertteachers 8 group, for whom - very clearly- the studentbegins at 12 (and, without doubt, ends at 18)! Modern reform of the teachingof mathematics has abolishedall those
groupings.
teachesthe notion of functionto 8-year-olds who have Today,Frdd6rique been taught modern mathematicsince the age of six. To do so she uses multicolored graphsand appropriate pedagogical techniques.[EE], [MM1], at the [EG], [EMI], [EM2], [EM3].This initiationto modem mathematics age of six [EG], [EMI], seven [EM2], eight [EM3],twelve [MM1], fifteen [EE]... should interest any teacher who has charge of introducing the notions of modem mathematics at whateverage his pupils might be. The experienceof modern reform repeatedlyconfirmsthat we are all equal before the unknown.The situationsbest able to initiate a new notion are almost independentof the age of the learner 7. At the secondarylevel * RELATION = set of couples two different FUNCTION= relationnot comprising coupleswith same firstcomponent.
Or orderedpairs.
SPACE
21
The notion of relation- naturaland without restriction- is simplerthan that of function. Functionsare "relationswith restriction". The frameof relationsimposesitself if one wishesto presentfunctionsin a contextlargeenoughto cover counterexamples whichare close enoughto the notion of function and which, at the secondarylevel, are nothing but "non-functional relations".Parallels,perpendiculars, divisibility,modular congruence, etc., attest to the unavoidable character of non-functional relations at the secondarylevel. The set-theoretic presentation putsin evidencethe conceptual link between functionsand relations; the utilizationof graphs- drawn or imaginedbringsit out in a startlingmanner.A deepcomprehension of that link facilitates intelligibility and helps the mastering of the concepts. The proposedpoint of view does not represent an extremistset-theoretic tendency.It does not definethe couple (x, y) as the set {{x}, {x, y}} (after All one ought to know about couples at the elemenWiener-Kuratowski). tary level is condensedin the definition
(x, y) = (a, b). .(x = a A y = b)-
This moderateset-theoretic-point of view, common languageof the great majority of professional mathematicians all over the world, has great pedagogicalvirtues.It bringsto the foreground, and presentsas sets - that is, as objectsof the theory- some notionswhichwereformerlykept in the background.It simplifies the theory by suppressingthe coexistence of notions whichare separated and whichare often only by subtledistinctions mutually definable. Thus, any relation is its own extension (unhappily namedby Bourbaki,its graph). - happily- restricts the abstract notionof relation.Thus Thatpresentation membership is not a set. ({(x, y) Ix e y} is a strictclass and not a set.) Later, much later, the children who will continue their mathematical studies could consider the membership from set to set as the class E= j x after Godel. {(x, y) e y} - generalizerelations without Classes of couples- or correspondences sacrificing anythingof significance. from E does not cover the membership The membership correspondence At that set to strictclass, which leads to the notion of "binarypredicate". of the binarypredicate", level it is truethat the "extension viz., "theclass of all couples satisfyingthat predicate"does not always define the predicate itself. This distinctionbetween"binarypredicate"and "extensionof that level. predicate" may be entirelyavoidedat the secondary It sufficesto think of the graphicrepresentations of functionsto realize
22
G. PAPY
at the seconda= setsof couples"is unavoidable that the notion of "relations ry level. Thereforeit is that notion of relation,and that one only, that one must adopt. of othernotions of relationis uselessand harmful, A parallelpresentation as long as one cannot settle the questionsthat would meaningfully suggest and motivatesuch an effort. of "relations = sets will be definedas attributes All by-products of relations of couples".For more details see [F3]. 8. It is with respect to problemsof analysisthat set theory startedwith and integralcalculusthat set theory Cantor.It is via coursesin differential It seemsthatthe studyof topological into the universities. beganto penetrate propertiesof sets of points in the plane cannotbe avoidedin analysis.The very natureof the subjectimposes the adoption of a set-theoretic point of view. Since analysisis one of the main goals of any worthwhile teachingof at the elementary mathematics level, it is necessaryto preparethe child to adoptthatpoint of view;aboveall, one mustavoidanyteaching whichwould it. continueto reject 9. A strange small school hidden in an old castle surrounded by woods gathered togetherthe childrenthat the occupyingarmiesof that countryat war intendedto excludefrom the humancommunity.For obviousreasons, institutiondid not have at its disposal specializedperthat underground sonnelfor the different One subjectsnor for the variousages of the children. of its mathematicsteachers,freshly graduatedfrom the university,found himself - without knowing it - in an exceptionalpedagogicalsituation. in the sameweek,he had to teachstudentsrangingfromfour to Sometimes, nineteenyearsof age; a lessonto childrenof eightor nine mightbe followed by a courseto a studentof universityage. The situationwas exceptionalindeed, for it is not at all usual that the at the primarylevel and at the universamepersonteachessimultaneously teacherdoes not havethe opportunity to test at sity. Generally,the primary ten yearslater, the good or bad resultsof his teaching.Our the university, youngteacherwas in that situation,and for him time was shrunk,as it were, becausehe saw one hour later the results of his teachingin grade4 upon studentsof age 19, becausehe taughtthe 9-year-olds in the sametraditional studentshad also way he himselfwas taught,and in the way his 19-year-old been taught. One day that young teacherwas speakingabout the squareto a class of 9-year-olds.He asked the childrento draw a squareand put to them the classicalquestion,"Partitionthat squareinto four equal squares".In that
THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACE
23
story the choice of the word "partition"was perhapsto have important consequences. He was evidentlyexpectingthe answer:
with the teacher'swishesgives Expectingchildrento answerin accordance To imposethe teacher's rise to manysurprises. point of view may be a grave pedagogicalerror. While most of the childrenquicklydrew the desiredanswer,one of the best pupilsdid not drawanythingat all, and seemedlost in deepmeditation. the teacher "How is it possiblethat Isaachas not yet got the rightanswer?", lack of askedhimself.He couldnot imaginethat it was becauseof tiredness, attention, or becausehe hadn't understoodthe question.The teacherdid He wantedto learnwhythe childdid not answerand notjumpto conclusions. refusedto decidefor himself.He acceptedthe fact that the childrencould teach him how to teach them to learn. - So, Isaac,you are not the firstto give us the rightanswertoday! The questionedchild gave, from underhis beautifulblackeyelashes,one of those sidelong looks whose secret is shared by beautifulwomen and by he children.Whenhis glancehad restedon the copybooksof his classmates said: his shoulders and imperceptibly shrugged - You know very well that they don't have the rightanswer! This was the secondsurprise for the teacheron that memorable day.... But his reaction was good. Without raising his voice, without condemning answeror child, he simplyasked: - Will you come to the blackboard and explainto us why? After havingdrawnthe "wronganswer",Isaac fattenedout one point on a median
24
G. PAPY
and added
- If in the partitionthis point goes with the small squareon the left, then this smallsquarehas one point moreandthat is no longer a partitioninto equal squares.If it goes with the small squareto the right,etc. The young teacherwas taken abackby the third surprise.Realizingthat he was in a very bad position and badlyprepared for the answer,he panicked and, in a veryloud voice - as loud as his bad conscience- he shouted
-THE
POINTS ON THOSE LINES
HAVE NO IMPORTANCE!
Confronted with that dictatorial, arbitrary assertion, Isaac answered teasingly:

-
IF THOSE POINTS HAVE NO DIPORTANCE, then OK.
A quick, logical look at that answer reveals that Isaac agrees without approving. A pedagogically bad situation!
SPACE
25
Perhapsin order to ease himself out of it, the teacherhad tried what seemedto be a verygood meansto achievea verygood end. Here, alas, the goal was bad. He tried to give a motivation,an intuitive support,and an plausiblejustificationof his dogmaticassertion,"Those points apparently have no importance". "When one cuts with scissors,one doesn't ask oneself on what side the points along the cut are going". He took a sheetof paper,folded it in two, and then in two again,unfoldedit, showedthe cross,
l
I
l
I
in a veryperempcut in into two pieces,andthenin fourpieces,emphasizing Thus, he tory mannerthat "the points on those lines have no i'mportance". forcedthe childrento adopt the tailor'spoint of view, which unfortunately createdby Newton and Leibniz. does not fit the mathemati'cs Someminuteslater a new lessonwouldbringour teacherout of his dream and illusions. He would realize that he had just committeda pedagogical crime. In the next class our hero had to teach a more or less modem coursein analysis.With good sense, he consideredas known some non-infiniltesimal He did not intendto redefine notions and took them as a basis of departure. those concepts,while the squareand the circlebut to limithimselfto refining closed of notions the more square,and perhaps open square, making precise lover of An enthusiastic cases neither open nor closed. some intermediate and of technicallabels, the teacherclearlyannounced: exact references
-
DEFINITION 7. 12.32:
One calls opensquarethe set of points interiorto the squarewith the exclusionof the boundarypoints.
-
DEFINIToN
7.12.33:
26
G. PAPY
those including the set of all the pointsof the square Onecallsclosedsquare of the boundary. Makejudicioususe of knownnotionsto give precisedefinitions Marvellous! In by means of a languagewhichlacks precision.Marvellous,in abstracto! himself that classthereis only one suchstudent,but he exists,and manifests in this memorable day in the life of with humor,and causesa new surprise our young teacherby stating:
- PROPOSITION7.12.34: An open square is closed. - PROPOSITION 7.12.35: Any closed square is open.
- Certainlymy studenthas not heardwell, or he was not attentive.Let us repeatthe definition. Definition7.12.32.... Definition7.12.33.... One can ask That pedagogyof repetitionis as common as it is inefficient. a definition,a oneself by what miraclea personwho could not understand proposition, or a proof, could suddenlyperceive its intelligibilitythirty of the previousformulation. repetition secondslaterduringa word-for-word It is true that the procedureappearsfoolproof the second time around!In order to get peace, the questionedpupil shortenshis tortureby statinghe And thereis nothingmorelike a pupil who has underhas now understood. stood than one who has not, but gives the impressionthat he has. Full of again, number5 by repeating studentcausedsurprise mischief,our "unique"
word-for-word, .... - Proposition 7.12.34.... Proposition 7.12.35....
This time the teacherreactedproperly: - Very well, you enunciatetwo propositions... Prove them! his plan of attack,and before for some moments,organized Samuelreflected clearlyhis ground: the finalthrustdecidedto establish - You agree that every closed squarecomes from an open one and that everyopen squarecomes from a closed one? - Of course,answered to be interested in that the teacherwho was beginning he knewto be false. Everyopen square attemptat a proof of a proposition can be obtainedby removingthe boundaryof a closed one. - OK, then. Here is a closed square.But as the folks on the boundaryare removed,thosethat werejust behindthembecomethefirst and constitute The open squareone gets is thusclosed,and the case is the new boundary.
won.
SPACE
27
Sixth surprisefor the young teacher! This student was very intelligent.He evidentlystill is, because he has as a matterof fact. At that time professor,in chemistry, becomea university brilliant:he solvedin a veryastuteway the riddlesof plane he was extremely Yet it becamesuddenlyevidentthat his microscopicvision of the geometry. poor and strewnwith errors.The teacher plane was unbelievably Euclidean had the good taste not to develop a frontalattack on the proof. It is true but the fallacyrestedupon the was satisfactory, that its logical organization in the above answer. erroneoussentenceunderlined The young teacherdrewa squareon the blackboard
- Distance ab?
- 12 cm. - b is at 12 cm. from a on the half-line15. - Draw a point on the half-lineat 11 cm from a.
a 11
- Is that the last point strictlybeforeb? - No, there is one at 11.1.
- Is that the last one? - No, there is one at 11.2. - Is that the last one? 11.3, 11.4, ..., 11.9 were produced.
b 12
And then 11.91, 11.99, 11.999,....
28
G. PAPY
And one arrivesat the conclusionthat betweena and b thereexistsno last point strictlybeforeb. Theredoes not exist a pointjust behindthe point on the boundary!Samuelwas crestfallen.He had nothing to say, but he was
NOT CONVINCED!
for the teacherwas to learnthat The seventhsalutarysurprise To be convincedby a proof | | Not to be able to objectto that proof
Nothing is more humiliatingthan to have to capitulatebefore a logical argument when one believesone has the truth.Onlymasochistscouldprefer punishmentby logic to flagellation.Still a bachelor,our young teacherdid not know that it is useless- and extremelylackingin gallantry- to try to convincea womanby logicalreasoning.One mustneverbeat a woman"not even with a flower"saysthe proverb.It could add also: "Aboveall, not with a syllogism". - Your premisesand yourreasoning are surelyimpeccable, becauseyou are so intelligent- said a handsomewoman. But she addedimmediately, - It doesn'tpreventyour conclusionfrom being stupid! Samuelwas not at all convinced.He consideredhis teachera very naughty sophist.He admittedhe did not have the necessary perspicacity to objectto him, but HE WAS NOT CONVINCED! Happily,he suddenlynoticedon the desk the concreteevidenceof the crimecommittedduringthe previoushour. Takingbetweenhis fingersone of the cut squares,he asked candidlythis embarrassing question:(Surprise* 8!)
- Is this papersquareOPEN or cLosED?
A very enlightening answer! surprise Thereis no answerto that Machiavellian question.Papersand cardsconstitutea materialtoo coarseto illustratethe set-theoretic point of view. The pedagogicalerror committedduring the first lesson appearednow in a glaringmanner. Little Isaac had spontaneously adopted the set-theoretic point of view. of pedagogyusedby our young colleaguehad led him into the The treasures opposite directionand had preventedhim from taking the same point of
view.
yearslater- and for our young teacher,one hourlater- it was of pedagogyto counteractin the pupils the necessaryto use new treasures effectsof the slow poison to whichthey had been exposed.
RESuLT: 10
SPACE
29
to inventa new intuitivesupportfinerthan the Naturally,it was necessary trafficlight conventionplays that role. one of the postcards.The green-red topologicalnotionsin a natural to introduce is possible it means such With way, using the children'screativity. I told elsewhere[F3] the story of the discoveryof open sets and of continuous functions. Belgium de Bruxelles, UniversitM
WORKS OF FRtDERIQUE AND PAPY
for Children House of Mathematics Booksfor children and Papy, Graphs Games,Thomasy Crowell,New York. [GG] Fr6d6rique Booksfor teachers Didier, Brussels. and Papy, L'Enfantet les Graphes, Fred6rique [EG] Englishtranslation,Algonquin,Montreal. Didier, Brussels. Futch translation(in preparation), Meulenhoff,Amsterdam. Didier, Brussels. Les Enfantset la Mathematique, Fr6derique, l) [EMl] Vol. 1 (6 years-grade 2), beingprinted [EM2] Vol. 2 (7 years-grade 3), in preparation [EM3] Vol. 3 (8 years-grade Englishtranslation,Algonquin,Montr6al. Ivac, Brussels. Papy,Minicomputer, [Ml Dutch translation,Ivac, Brussels. Ivac, Brussels. Englishtranslation(in preparation), for Teen-agers House of Mathematics Booksfor teen-agers Moderne, Didier, Brussels, Vol. 1: Ensembles-Relations, Papy, MathUmatique Les debutsde la geometrie.Le groupedes entiersrationnels. London. Englishtranslation,Collier-Macmillan, Spanishtranslation,Eudeba,Buenos-Aires. Japanesetranslation,Nippon Hyoron-Sha,Tokyo. Dutch translation,Didier,Brussels. Bucuresti. Rumaniantranslation,Tineretului, reelset vectorielplan. [MM2] Vol 2: Nombres London. Englishtranslation,Collier-Macmillan, Dutch translation,Didier,Brussels. Bucuresti. Tineretului, Rumaniantranslation, [MM3] Vol. 3: VoiciEuclide. Dutch translation,Didier, Brussels;Meulenhoff,Amsterdam. [MM5] Vol. 5: Arithmitique. [MM6] Vol. 6: Giomitrieplane. 0. Salle,Frankfurt. Mathematik, derModernen Papy,ErsteElemente [EE] 1. Heft., Klett, Stuttgart. Geometrie, derModernen [EMG] Papy,Elemente Booksfor teachers de Bruxelles. PressesUniversitaires Papy, Groupes, [G]
30
G. PAPY London. Englishtranslation,Macmillan, Italiantranslation,Feltrinelli,Milano. Dutch translation,Plantyn,Antwerpen. rdels,P.U.B. affineet nombres Papy, Geometrie Germantranslation,Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht,Gottingen. aux espacesvectoriels, P.U.B. Papy, Initiation Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht,Gottingen. Germantranslation, Dutch translation,Plantyn,Antwerpen. de l'analyse,P.U.B. PAPY, Lepremierenseignement Englishtranslation,Algonquin,Montreal. Papy, Groupoldes, Labor,Bruxelles. Germantranslation, Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht,Gottingen.
[F1] [F2] [P3] [G]

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A First Introduction to the Notion of Topological Space Author(s): G. Papy Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 4, No.

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACE

POINTS ON THOSE LINES

Confronted with that dictatorial, arbitrary assertion, Isaac answered teasingly:

IF THOSE POINTS HAVE NO DIPORTANCE, then OK.

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL

And then 11.91, 11.99, 11.999,....

THE NOTION OF TOPOLOGICAL

[F1] [F2] [P3] [G]

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