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HANDBOOK OF PHONETICS
SWEET

llontJon

MACMILLA.N AND

CO.

PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF

Oxford

Clartnbon

Jlrcss

Strus

-lANDBOOK OF PHONETICS
INCLUDING A

POPULAR EXPOSITION OF

THE PRINCIPLES OF SPELLING REFORM

HENRY SWEET
President oy the Philological Society
.-luthor

of a 'History o/ English Sounds'

-c.

AT THE (Clarendon press

J!

DCCC LXXVII

\AU

rights reserved']

%
924019

PREFACE.
The
importance of phonetics
all

as

the

indispensable
that study

foundation of

study of language

whether

be purely
rally

theoretical, or practical as well

is

now gene-

Without a knowledge of the laws of whether comparative or historical is impossible, and without phonetics their study degenerates into a mere mechanical enumeration
admitted.

sound-change,

scientific philology

of letter-changes.

And now

that philologists are direct-

ing their attention more and more to the study of living

dialects

and savage languages, many of which have to be

written

down

for the first time, the absolute necessity of

a thorough practical as well as theoretical mastery of

phonetics becomes more and more evident.
stances might be quoted of the
philological facts

Many

in-

way

in

which important

and laws have been passed over or

if

misrepresented through the observer's want of phonetic

training".

Again,

our present wretched system of

modern languages is ever to be reformed, it must be on the basis of a preliminary training in general phonetics, which would at the same time lay the foundastudying
tion for a thorough practical study of the pronunciation
Schleicher's failing to

observe the Lithuanian accents, or even

is

to

comprehend them when pointed out by Kurschat,

a striking

instance.

vi

PREFACE.

and elocution of our own language subjects which are totally ignored in our present scheme of education.
Until within the last few years phonetics was hardly

recognised

as

science

in

this

country, and

it

is

to

Germany
general

that

we owe

the

first

attempt to construct a

system of sounds on a physiological basis

E. Briicke's

Grundzuge der Physiologic der Sprachlaute

(2nd

Wien, 1876). The investigation of the mechanism of the glottis in producing speech-sounds received a
ed.,

great impulse from

the use

of the laryngoscope,

first

introduced

by Garcia, whose investigations were continued in Germany with brilliant success by Czermak,

Merkel, and others.

The

latter,

in

his Anthropophonik

(1856), and in the shorter and

logie der menschlichen

more convenient Physio-

Sprache (Leipzig, 1866), has accu-

on the physiology of the vocal and accuracy stands quite alone. The purely acoustic investigation of speech-sounds begun by Bonders in Holland, and carried out more in detail
mulated a mass of
details

organs which for fulness

by Helmholz
ant influence

in

his celebrated

work Die Lehre von den

have a very import-

Toiiempfindungen

^ seems

likely to

on the progress of phonetics. The main results of German investigation have lately been summed up in a most masterly manner and in a moderate compass by Ed. Sievers in his Grundziige der Lautphysiologie
(Leipzig, 1876), which has almost entirely superseded the

older

work of

Briicke.

The

fact that the majority of those

who have worked

physiologists

at phonetics

in

Germany have been

and

physicists rather than practical linguists, naturally accounts

"

Now

accessible

to

the

English reader in Mr. A.

J.

Ellis's

translation.

PREFACE.
both for the merits and the defects of the

vil

German

school.

German
full
is,

investigation of the

sounds and of the

mechanism of the throatconsonants is in most respects very

the treatment of the vowels
Sievers, utterly inadequate,

and

satisfactory, while
latest

even in the

work of

the

vowels being arranged

according

to

their

sound,

without any regard to their formation, the result being

that vowels

which are formed by perfectly

distinct

me-

chanisms are confounded, only because they happen to

be similar in sound.
the assumption that
fit

The
all

confusion

is

made worse by
necessarily

vowel-sounds must

in

as intermediates between the supposed primitive

a,
i

vowels

and

u,

whence

that unfortunate

triangular

arrangement of the vowels which has done so much to

perpetuate error and prevent progress.

The
first

results

of

German

phonetic

investigation were

popularised in England by Professor

series

Max

INIiiller

in

the second

of his well-known Lectures on Lan-

guage (1864), who also made use of various essays by our countryman Mr. A. J. Ellis the pioneer of scientific

phonetics in England.

In 1867 Mr.
is

M. A.

Bell's Visible Speech appeared.

It

no exaggeration to say that Bell has in this work done more for phonetics than all his predecessors put
together
:

it

is

at least certain that his

system

is

the

first

which gives a
of the whole

really

adequate and comprehensive view

field

of possible sounds.
is

His analysis of

the vowel-positions

almost entirely

new and
is

original.

His system of notation, in which the mechanism of the

sounds
is

most ingeniously symbolised,

is

not only founded

on an

adequate analysis, but

also thoroughly practical

in character, providing forms not only for printing, but

b2

viil

PREFACE.
and short-hand % applicable

also for writing, both in longto all languages.

Mr.

Ellis's great

work on Early English Pronunciation,

in progress, has not only inaugu-

of which four thick volumes have been published since

1869, and which
rated the
is still

scientific

historical

study of English pronunspecifically

in-

ciation, but also contains

an immense mass of

phonetic

details,

together with the results of

German
and

vestigation,

which were not accessible to

Bell,

also

those of other phonetic observers,

among whom
to

Prince

L. L. Bonaparte takes a prominent position.

One

of

Mr.

Ellis's
is

most

important contributions

practical

phonetics

his adaptation of the ordinary

Roman

alpha-

bet for the accurate representation of minute shades of

sound, which
to

is

eff'ected

without having recourse either

new

types or

to

those diacritics which

'

make such
'

systems as the well-known

General Alphabet

of Lepsius

impracticable for ordinary use.

The

result is that

England may now boast a

its

flourish-

ing phonetic school of

own,

among whose younger

J.

members may be mentioned Dr.

Nicol, and myself.
also brought to light

A. Murray, Mr. H.
researches have

IMr. Ellis's dialectal

many

highly gifted phonetic students,

among whom

the

names of EUworthy, Hallam, and Good-

child at once suggest themselves.

As
The
atic

yet the results of Bell's investigations have

made

hardly any impression outside of England and America.

truth
is

that his 'Visible Speech'

is

too rigidly system-

and not explanatory enough

to

be readily underit

stood without oral instruction.

Bell's system of shorthand
is

Naturally, too,

is

not

described in his Universal Phono-

Stenography.

PREFACE.
perfect in
all its details,

IX

and some of the key-words from

to be

foreign lanp;uagcs
fessor

seem

wrongly chosen

*.

Pro-

Storm, of Christiania, whose practical

will

command
has care-

of sounds
fully

not easily be rivalled, and

who

studied the works of our English phoneticians, re-

presented these defects very forcibly to me, and urged

me

to write

an exposition of the main

with

results of Bell's

investigations,

such

additions

and

alterations

as

would be required to bring the book up

state of

to the present

knowledge.

only hope

it

may

induce foreign

students to turn their attention to

English phonetic work

more than they have hitherto done. As regards my qualifications for

state

the task, I

may

briefly

that

studied practically under Mr. Bell himself,

Ellis,

discussing doubtful points with him, Mr.

cially

and espeand since

with

my

fellow-student Mr.

H.

Nicol,

then have been engaged almost without intermission in

the practical study of foreign pronunciations, and have

not only carefully read the best works of foreign phoneticians, but

have also had the advantage of hearing the

pronunciation of

In order to
possible,
I

many of the writers themselves. make my statements as trustworthy

far

as

have, as

as

possible,

followed

Sievers'

excellent rule of only adducing sounds that I have heard

myself.
in

IMost of the sounds described in this

I

book occur
detail,

languages which

have studied grammatically in

several of

them

in the countries themselves,

though mostly

for very short periods.

The
*

chief points in which I differ from Bell are the

identifies

Thus he

the high vowel the

French u with my the and French close eu with the wide

(a)

mid
(a),

instead of

and analyses

German

ei

as (ehi).

X
foDowing
(v),
:

PREFACE.

his analysis of (th)

and
of
I

(dh),

and of

(f)

and
and

which

last

he considers to be divided consonants

;

his
his

glide '-theon'

his

theory

syllabification,

synthesis

generally, which

consider

inadequate.

Lastly in
(1)

many

questions of detail, such as his voiceless

in /e//, his

unaccented vowels in English, and several

has mainly been that of

of his identifications of foreign sounds.

Although
rising

my work

summaI

and

criticising the investigations

of others,

have

been able to add some original

1

results of

my

own.
'

Thus
that
it

have tried to analyse

Bell's distinction

of

primary

and 'wide' more accurately, and have

applies to

sho\^Ti

consonants,

and

not,

as

Bell

assmned, to

vowels only.
thesis are, to

Many

of

my

views on the details of syn-

some extent

at least, original, especially the

analysis

and

classification of diphthongs, the varieties

of

breathed and voiced stops, and syllabification.

plete separation of SjTithesis

The com-

from Analysis was mainly

suggested by the arrangement followed by Sievers.

Many

of the analyses and identifications of special sounds are

also new.
It

need hardly be said

that

many

of the statements
predecessors' or

in this

book

my own

whether researches
am

the result of

my

will require careful

examination by

others before they can be either fully received or rejected.

The whole

subject of intonation, especially, requires to

be thoroughly investigated by a thoroughly competent

observer, which I

very far from being,

my

natural
It is

aptitude

and

my

training being equally defective.

in this branch, in the study of voice-timbre

thesis generally, that the

work of futiue

and of synphoneticians must

be concentrated.

PREFACE.

XI
like

The
ype,'

notation

have adopted

is,

Mr.

Ellis's

PalaeI

based on the ordinary

Roman

letters,

which

ive
s
.

tned to employ more consistently than Mr.

Ellis

done, by utilising the results of his manifold experi-

-nts
I

and

practical experience.

have in most cases retained Bell's terminolog}-, which

Besides the necessary
special
for his

is

admirably clear and concise.

in

modifications

the

names of
'

sounds

have

ventured to

substitute

narrow
'

'

primary,'

and

to discard the term

mixed

in describing the
'

compoimd
'

consonants, substituting, for instance,

lip-back
the

for the

vaguer
'

'

lip-mixed,' and, lasdy, to

coin

new term

blade.'

As

this

book

is

intended mainly to serve practical

purposes, I have not attempted to

go

into the details

of physiolog>% anatomy, or acoustics, for which I must

refer to the

works of MerkeL Helmhotz, &c.

their actions.

Merkel's
didferent

works also contain excellent drawings of the

organs and
I

have not ventured on any

refer the

diagrams of the vowel-positions, and can only

that those of (e).

reader to those in 'Visible Speech*,' merely remarking

and

(se)

do not allow enough distance

palate,

between the tongue and the

consonant
misleading.
(th)
is,

and

that that of the

as Mr. Bell himself confessed to me,

ways.
to

The specimens will, I They are written

show

hope, prove useful in several

as accurately as possible, so as

the real synthesis of the languages,

and are not

' ThoseVho have not the larger work should procure the shilling pamphlet VistbU Speech for clu Million (Triibaer), whidi coutains the same diagrams and symbols together with a general sketch of the

system.

xii

PREFACE.
is

patched together, as

too often the case, by joining

words together in the artificial pronunciation of the pro-

nouncing
that

dictionaries.

I feel painfully that

many of

these
is,

specimens urgently require revision.

The

difficulty

what seems an adequate analysis

be quite inadequate a year
after,

at a given

time

may

because of the proscience.

gressivcness inseparable from a

young
'

My study
nearly

of Icelandic pronunciation, for instance, was

ten years ago,

made

when

I first

began

Visible Speech,' but

adverse circumstances have prevented

it

me

from revising

properly since, and I can only hope that the imperfec-

tions of

my

phonetic knowledge

at that

time were com-

pensated by the advantage of having acquired the sounds

while
still

young.
Spelling

The Appendix on
unacceptable
to

Reform
to

will I trust

be not

those

who wish
facts

acquire

a general
in

knowledge of the main

of phonetic science.
lers,

and principles involved

the question, without being obliged to go into the minutiae

It

may

also prove useful to travel-

missionaries

and

others,

who wish

for

some

aid in

writing the sounds of unwritten dialects or savage lan-

guages.

The proper way

to

of studying phonetics

is,

of course,

go through a regular course under a competent teacher, for phonetics can no more be acquired by mere reading than music can. Those who have no teacher must begin
with carefully analysing their
until they

own
its

natural pronunciation,
relation to the general
to

have some idea of

scale of sounds.

They can then proceed

( 51),

deduce the

pronunciation of unfamiliar sounds from their relations

to

known sounds

checking the results by a prac-

tical

study of the languages in which the

new sounds

PREFACE.
occur.

xiii

thorough study of French pronunciation under

a native will do

more than anything

the

to

free the student

from one-sided English associations and

habits.

Nor

let

him delude himself with

in

idea
at

that

he has already

acquired French pronunciation

nine cases out of ten a
little

school or elsewhere

methodical study of sounds

will

convince him that he docs not pronounce a single

correctly.

French sound

The

student should not allow himself to be disheartened

his progress

by the slowness of
his ear, for

and the obtuseness of

even the most highly gifted and best trained

are often baffled for

weeks and even months by some

will

sound which another

find quite easy both to distin-

guish by ear and to pronounce.

great deal depends

on the character of the native language, the learner naturally grafting the peculiarities

of his

pronunciation of foreign ones, as

diphthongises the long vowels in
and, again, finding those sounds
occur, or have
It is

own language on his when an Englishman French and German

which do not
pronunciation.

difficult

no analogues,

in

his

own

a great mistake to suppose that any one nation has

a special gift for acquiring sounds or foreign languages

generally.
tages.

Each nation has

its

special defects or advan-

The Russian
is at

pronunciation of German, for in(ih) for

stance,

once betrayed by the substitution of

peculiarities
:

the

t'l

and by many other

are often

in

fact,

those

Russians and Poles

fectly

who speak French and German perunable to speak their own languages
civilised

properly.

The more

and

influential a nation is
its

the worse linguists are those

who speak

language

but

when Englishmen (and even Frenchmen)

really devote

themselves to the practical study of language, they prove

XIV

PREFACE.
Dutchmen

quite equal to other nations, as, for instance,

or Russians,

who

are obliged, the former by the small-

ness of their country, the latter by their barbarism, to

learn a

number of

foreign languages.

It

cannot, of course,

be denied that some languages are a worse preparation

for the acquisition of foreign

sounds than others, but a

levels

thorough training in general phonetics soon

inequality,
gifts
its

the

and enables the learner

to develope his special

It is

independently of outward circumstances.

on
an

value as the foundation of the practical study of lanthat the claims of phonetics to be considered

guage

essential

branch of education mainly

rest.

Christiania, Aug. 27, 1877.

LIST OF

THE MORE BIPORTANT SYMBOLS EMPLOYED IN THIS WORK.

the unturned.

N.B.

Thi turned kttcrs follow immediately after

,

father.
b?<t.

g gh

</o.
.
. .

voiced (kh).
trilled (gh).

broad

(a).
(t;).

ghr

broad

ghw

labialised (gh).
(g).

}
ae
se
. . .

varieties

of (t').
,

> ^=- palatalised

men
man.
ttfrn.

[open e).

/ general
\

diacritic.

Initially for (h)

aeh
a?h

... aspirate.
. . .

opener (seh).
6ee.

Hh
i
.

open glottis.

narrow
wide
i.

i.

bh
bh;

Germafi w.
palatalised (bh).

ih

Welsh u.
Z;/(/?

(o after o).

ih
j
.

(ih).

t/ay.

you.
(j).

dh
D
e
9
e 9

then.

jh ... voiceless

A\\j
.
.

palatalised (dh).

palatal
close e.

(d).

jhw kh
kh?-

labialised [ih).

Scotch ch.
trilled (kh).

French
variety

close eu.

khw
kn
K
.

labialised (kh).

of open e. variety ofFreTuh open tn.

aspirated (k).
palatalised (k).

German
/ee.

unaccented

e.
I
,

Zee
voiceless
(1).

Ih

XVI
L
.

LIST OF SYMBOLS.
. .

pala/ai

(1).

Rh
s s/
.

voiceless (r).
.

guttural

(1).

say.

m
mh
n

way.
voiceless (m).

palatalised
fis/i.

(s).

sh
shj

iow.
voiceless (n).

palatalised (sh).
labialised (sh).
tea.

nh

sh?(;
t

n
N
O

nasality.

palatal (n).
close o.

th
thj

tMng.
palatalised (th).

open o.

tH

aspirated

(t).

oh.
oh.
.

between (o)

and
a</

(s).
{.?).

.palatal
.

(t).

between
dJ^fW

(<?)

U
uh
u
uh.

narrow
Swedish
z;/<^
Z;z'</^

u.
u.

/ 11.
(oe).

oh.
.

between (o) a</

open
between
c/>^
zf;/</(?

(Fnglish) u
(uh).

z not.
{3)

oh
ce
OS

and

(ce).

vie.
voice.

French
(oe).

eu.

Ah

whisper.

P ph.
phi

_pay.
voiceless (bh).

'A

w
wh

we.
?/iy.

palatalised (ph).

PH.
q

aspirated (p).
siw^.
voiceless (q).

w
X

labialisation.

glottal catch.

qh.
?
r

French
wide
seal.

u.

French
red.
/rzZ/f^f.

nasality.

y
z

(y).

r
rr

zh

rouiye.

/n/M (r).
voiceless (r).
(a)i
.
.

rh

length.

rhr

/n/M (rh).
palatalised
(r).

an
a-

extra length.
stress (/brce).

U
R
.

laryngal

r.

a"

extra

stress.-

LIST OF SyMIiOLS.
a:
. . .

xvn
(s),

hal/ stress.
1

'i

whispered

&c.

a
<

..level
. .

inner (away
teeth).

from

the

a > a

increasing
iliminishing
level

\ /orce. a
.
. .

onter.

inverted {cerebral).

rising
-

ri-

protruded.
siimtltaneity

./ailing
./ailing and rising
.

lone.

0/

the

two

sounds it comes between.

e'
. .
.

rising and/ailing
glide.

raised tongue.

[i]-

narrowed

lip-opening.

CONTENTS.
Preface
List of

Symbols
I.

....
of Speech

PART
PART

The Organs
Analysis.

II.

Throat Sounds
Breath, Voice, and Whisper

Other Larynx Sounds

Nasal Sounds

Narrow and Wide

Vowels

......
.....
.

lo
15

Table of Vowels, and General Remark

Acoustic Qualities of Vowels

20
25
31

Extended List of Key-Words

Consonants

Table of Consonants

34
.

The Consonants

in Detail
.

34
50
50
51

Glottal Consonants

Acoustic Qualities of Consonants

Relation of Consonants to Vowels

Sounds formed without Expiration (Clicks)

54

CONTENTS.

XIX

PART

III.

Synthesis

Special S)Tithesis
Cicneral Elements (P'orce, Quantity, Glides)
Initial

and Final Vowel-Glides (Aspirates, &c.)

.

Glide- Vowels and Diphthongs

Consonantal Diphthongs
(Consonants) Stops

....
.

Unstopped Consonants

Whispered Consonants
Other Modifications of Consonant-Glides
Glideless Combinations

Glide Consonants

General Synthesis
Syllable Division
Stress

Tones and Pitch

Connection between Force, Quantity, and Pitch
\'oice-quality (Timbre)

PART

1\.

Sound Notation

Specimens
English

French

German
Dutch
Icelandic

Swedish

Danish

The Principles of Spelling Reform

Introduction

......

(AppendLx").

169

XX
General Principles.

CONTENTS.

Choice of Letters

.....
. .

Employment

of Letters

176 i;8

Transition from and to the present Spelling

The Representation
Vowels
B,

of Sounds.

181

and

its

modifications
.

86

Unaccented Vowels

1S7

Consonants
Accent and Quantity
List of English
.

189

190
191

Symbols

New

Types

192

Special Considerations
Varieties of Pronunciation
.

193
197

International intelligibility

History and Etymology

Detailed Comparison of Glossic a,nd Romic

199
202

Specimens

209
211

Additional Notes
Errata

216

Part

I,

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.

1.

The
lungs
!*.

foundation of speech

is

breath expelled by
in

the

and variously modified

the

throat

and

mouth
2.

The
into

breath passes from the lungs through the windthe

pipe

larynx

('

Adam's apple
two

').

Across the

interior of the larynx are stretched

elastic ligaments,

the

'

vocal chords.'

They

are firmly inserted in the front

of the larynx at one end, while at the other they are fixed
to

two movable cartilaginous bodies, the

that

'

arytenoids,'

so

the space between

them, the

'glottis,'

can be
as

narrowed or closed
see, twofold,

at pleasure.

The

glottis

is,

we

consisting of the chord glottis, or glottis

cartilage glottis.

proper,

and the

be narrowed or closed independently.

also

The two glottises can The chords can

be lengthened or shortened, tightened or relaxed

degrees by means of the muscles they contain.
the
'

in various
3.

Above

true

'

glottis,

and
or
'

still
'

forming part of
glottis,

the larynx,

comes

the

'

upper

'

false

by which

the passage can be

narrowed or

partially closed.
'

On

the

top of the larynx

is

fixed a sort of valve, the

epiglottis,'

which in swallowing and in the

*

formation

of certain

The

exceptions to this general definition are very few.

'

The

most important are the

clicks

'

( 176, below).

I'

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.

is

sounds
larynx.
4.

pressed

down

so as to cover the opening of the

The
the

cavity

between the larynx and the mouth

It

is

called

'pharynx.'

can be expanded and

con-

tracted in various ways.

5.

The

roof of the

mouth

consists of

two

parts, the

soft

and the hard

palate.
'

The
uvula,'

lower pendulous extremity

of the soft palate, the

or forwards.
into
It
is

can be pressed backwards

pressed back in closing the passage

the
pressiu-e is relaxed,

the

nose.

When

as in

ordinary breathing

without

speech,

the

breath

flows

through the nose as well as the mouth.

6.

The

other extremity of the palate

is

the teeth, of which

'rim,' or place

we must

distinguish the 'edges'

bounded by and the

where they join the gums.

The gums

extend from the teeth-rim to the 'arch-rim,' behind which

comes the
'

'arch,'
'

whose

front wall

is

formed by the

teeth roots
7.

(alveolars).

Of

the tongue

we

distinguish the
'

'

back,' the middle

or

'

front,'

and the

tip or

point,'

together with the 'blade,'

which includes the upper surface of the tongue immediately

behind the

point.

'

Lower blade

'

implies,

of

course, the lower, instead of the upper surface.

8.

Besides the main positions indicated by these names,

an

indefinite

number of intermediate ones

are possible.
'

The
and
'

chief varieties are designated

outer,' inner

by the terms
outer front

inner

implying nearer the back of the mouth,

outer nearer the teeth.

Thus

the

'

'

of the

tongue
is

is

a place nearer the point than simple front,

'

and

therefore an approximation to the

blade.'

Sounds

are also modified

of the jaws, and by the

by the degree of separation movements of the lips and cheeks.

Part

II.

ANALYSIS.

THROAT SOUNDS.
Breath, Voice, and Whisper.
9.

When

the glottis

is

wide open, no sound

is

pro-

duced by the outgoing breath, except that caused by the

friction of the air in the throat,

mouth, &c.

This passive

state of the glottis is called 'breath'

(Hh)^
'

10.

The most important

which produce
(a)^i is
'

'

active
'

states of the glottis

'

are those
11.

voice

and

whisper.'

Voice

produced by the action of the breath

in

on the vocal chords

entirely closed

two ways,

(i) If the glottis

is

by the chords so

that the air can only pass

through in a series of puffs, we have that most sonorous

form of voice known as the

register' of the voice.

chest

'

voice or

'

thick

(2) If the

chords are only brought

their

close

enough together to enable

edges to vibrate,

without any closure of the glottis, that thinner quality of

voice

known

as the
its

'

head

'

voice or

'

thin register

'

is

produced, w'hich in
'

thinnest

and

shrillest

form

is

called

falsetto.'

"

The
(a),

usual diacritic

(
'

before

the modified letter

is

also oc-

casionally
''

employed
v,

to denote breath.
'

See

12 and

16,

= turned

voice.'

B 2

4
12.
If

THROAT SOUNDS.
the

chords

are

approximated without being

('a), is

allowed to vibrate, whisper (Ah),

are two degrees of whisper, the
'

produced.

There

weak

'

and the

'

medium.'
;

In the weak whisper the whole

glottis is

narrowed

in the
is

medium, which

is

the ordinary form, the chord glottis

entirely closed, so that

the breath passes only through

the cartilage glottis.

13.

The

distinctions of breath, voice,

all,

and whisper are

the

most general of

for every

sound must be uttered

with the glottis either open, narrowed, or closed, and the

same sound may be pronounced either breathed, voiced, Thus, if we press the lower lip against the upper teeth edges, we have the position of the lip-teeth consonant. If we drive the air from the lungs through
or whispered.
'

the passage thus

formed, leaving the

'

glottis

open,

we
lip-

obtain the

lip-teeth breath
till

consonant

(f ).

If the chords
*

are narrowed

voice

is

produced, we obtain the

teeth voice' consonant

(f),

(v).

If the student prolongs

will

an

and then a

(v),

without any vowel, he

soon see

that in the case of (f) the

teeth, while with (v) the

sound
sound

is
is

formed

entirely in the

distinctly

compound,

the hiss in the teeth being accompanied by a the throat.

If

murmur

in

he presses his two

first

fingers firmly

on

the glottis, he will distinctly feel a vibration in the case of

(v),

but not of

(f).

There

is

the

same

distinction
in 'then/

between

(s)

and

(z), (th)
is

as in 'thin,'

and (dh) as

14. It

of great importance to acquire a clear feeling

of the

distinction

between breath and

voice,
all

and the

student should accustom himself to sound

consonants

both with and without voice

the following are very useful.
(i)

at will.

Such exercises as
and bring

Breathe strongly through the open

glottis,

THROAT SOUNDS.
the lips

and

teeth together, concentrating the attention as

much
is

as possible

on the actions by which the sound,

itself.

(f),

produced rather than on the sound

(2)

Make
(v).

a vocal
lips

murmur, as

in the

word

'err,'

and

then bring the

and teeth together

as before,

which

produces
(3)

Prolong

(f)

and remove the

(v),

lips

from the teeth

be

the result will be simple breath, (Hh).

(4)

Repeat the process with

(a).

and the

result will

simple voice
(5)

Pass without stopping from

(v) to
(z),

(f) to (s), (th),

and

(sh),

and from
ser\ing the

(dh),
state

and

(zh) as in

'rouge,' oblips

unchanged

of the glottis while the

and tongue
(6) to
(f),

shift continually.
(f) to (v)

Pass without stopping from

and from

(v)

and so with the other consonants, observing the

in the glottis while the organic positions

change

remain

unchanged.
(7)

Try

to

form from the familiar

(Ih), (rh), (nh),

(1), (r),

(n),

(m) the

unfamiliar breathed
15.
'

(mh).

The popular and

'

the

phonetic use of the term

whisper

do not quite agree.

Whisper

in

popular lanPhonetically

guage simply means speech without voice.

but a definite contraction of the glottis.
16. In ordinar}' whispering, as

speaking whisper implies not merely absence of voice,

opposed

to loud speech,

what happens
voiceless,

is

this.

Breathed elements, being already

remain unchanged.

Voiced elements
vee

substitute

whisper (in the phonetic sense) for voice.

If

we

proin

nounce two such

that
in

syllables as

'

'

and

'

fee,' first

an

ordinary loud voice and then in a whisper,

'

we

shall find

vee

'

both consonant and vowel are changed,

6
while in
'

THROAT SOUNDS.
fee
'

only the vowel

is

changed, the consonant

It

remaining breathed as in loud speech.

must, therefore,

be understood
talk of a

in phonetic discussions that

whenever we

whispered sound we mean one that

whispered

is

pronounced

with a definite contraction of the glottis. Whether

we

talk

of a

'

whispered

(f)'

or a

'

(v)'

is

indifferent
('v)a.

both names signify the

17.
is

'lip-teeth whisper'

consonant
with

The

acoustic distinction between breath

if
is,

and whisper
(f),

not very marked, but

('v)

we compare
like (v),

('v)

we

perceive clearly that

a composite sound,

with a distinct friction in the larynx.

Whispered sounds

are also feebler than breath ones, the force of the outgoing
air

being diminished by the

glottis contraction.

Other Larynx
18.

Sounds.
the glottis
is

Glo/fal Catch (x).

When

suddenly

opened or closed on a passage of breath or

cussive effect
is

voice, a per-

produced, analogous to that of (k) or any

other

'

stopped' consonant.

The most

familiar

example
student

of

this 'glottal catch' is

an ordinary cough.
in

The

should carefully practise the glottal catch

with vowels
till

combination

he

is

able to produce (xa)

and (ax) as
any breath

easily as (ka)

and

(ak), taking care

is

not to

let

escape after the (x) in (xa), as

the case in coughing.

silently,
it

He
and
is

should then learn to shut and open the glottis

to

know by
shut.

the muscular sensation alone whether

It is

open or

easy to

test the closure of the glottis

by tapping on the throat above the larynx, which, when

*

The

('),

'

breath,'

combined with
to

(v),

which implies voice,

is

suggests something intermediate

breath and voice, which

whisper.

See

Ellis,

E. E. P. p. 1129.

THROAT SOUNDS.
the glottis
clear
is

open, produces a dull sound, when shut, a

like
its

and hollow one

bottle,

the gurgling of water being

pitch can be raised or lowered

poured into a
at

and

pleasure by retracting or advancing the tongue.

19. (x) forms

an essential element of some languages.

in

It

is

common
/lutt

Danish

after

vowels, and often disidentical.

tinguishes

words which would otherwise be

(hu'n)
is 'she,'

Thus
is
'

but /lund (hux'n)

is

'dog,' (kno'm)

come,' (kHOx'm)
it

is

'

came,' both written kom.

Accord-

ing to Mr. Bell

is

used in the Glasgow pronunciation

of Scotch as a substitute for the voiceless stops, as in

(waxehrr)
20.

=' water,' (bvxehrr)=' butter.'

If

Wktcze (Rh).

we

strongly exaggerate an ordinary'

whisper,
the
is
'

we produce

that hoarse,

wheezy sound known as

stage whisper.'

In the formation of this sound there

not only the glottis narrowing of the ordinary

is

medium
further
is

whisper, but there

also contraction of the superglottal

passage or

'

false

glottis,'

the

opening being
epiglottis.

narrowed by depression of the

a

The sound
it

common

variety of

(r),

especially

when

is

voiced

(r).

It is

the regular

sound

in

Danish, the laryngal action being

combined with
that the

retraction of the tongue

is

and rounding, so

sound

really (R

+ ghzc').
If there

(R
is

+ gh) may
'

also

be

heard in North Germany.

tion of the

trilling

'

or vibra-

upper part of the

glottis, the

Arabic Ilka (Rhr)

and

A in

(Rr) are formed.

Nasal Sounds.
21. In ordinary breathing the uvula

hangs loosely down,

and the
the

air

passes behind
In

it

through the nose as well as

the

mouth.
is

forming

all

non-nasal sounds the

uvula

pressed up so as to cover the passage into the

8
nose.
If the

THROAT SOUNDS.
open the sound becomes nasal. in exactly the same way with (b) the nasal passage is closed, with (m) Similarly, if in pronouncing the vowel (a) the
passage
is

Thus
it is

(b)

and (m) are formed

except that
open.
is

uvula

lowered,

we

obtain

the

corresponding

nasal

vowel
22.

(iin).

The pure nasal vowels, which are common in many South German dialects, must be carefully distinguished from the French nasals, in which there
is

guttural

compression as well as

nasality,
is

a combination which
the French
'

may

be denoted by

(q),
'

thus (aq)

en,'

'

an,' (og)

= 'on,'
Many
tion

(v3e^)

vin,' (oe^)

= 'un'a.
vowels with imperfect

23. There are various degrees of nasality, according as

the nose passage
is

completely or only partially open.

all their

speakers pronounce

closure of the nose passage, which gives their pronuncia-

the

so-called
in

'

nasal

twang.'

This nasality
in

is

so

common

North America, especially

New

England,

as to constitute a characteristic feature of

American pro-

nunciation.

It

is,

however, very frequent in London

English

also.

NARROW AND
all

WIDE.

24. These are very important general modifications of

sounds produced or modified

in the

mouth.

They

depend on the shape of the tongue.

In forming narrow

* The exact formation of the French nasals has long been a disputed question. The guttural element I believe to be some kind of lateral cheek (and, perhaps, pharynx) compression it is some:

what vaguely described by Mr. Bell

as consisting in a

'

semi-con-

sonant contraction of the guttural passage.'

NARROW AND
sounds there
is

WIDE.

a feeling of tenseness in that part of the

is

tongue where the sound

shape, in which

formed, the surface of the

in its natural

tongue being made more convex than

it

'wide'

is

relaxed and flattened.

This con-

vexity of the tongue naturally narrows the passage

whence
it

the name.
the

This narrowing

is

produced by

raising, not

whole body of the tongue, but only that part of

which forms, or helps to form, the sound.

Thus, starting
the passage
to the high

from the mid-wide vowel

either
(/)

(e)

we may narrow

by raising the whole body of the tongue

tongue so as
its

position,

or else by contracting the muscles in the

to

front of the

make
(i)

it

more convex, without

then raise this

otherwise changing

height.

We may
position.

narrow-mid
the tongue

(e) to the
is

high

Although
{t),

in (i)

nearer the palate than in the wide

(/)

we can
:

never change

into (i)

by simply
at the

raising the tongue

we must
narrow.

alter its

shape

same time from wide

in sound.

to

If (z)

is

raised so high as to produce a distinct

it

consonantal
25.

hiss,

will still

remain wide

The

distinction of
]\Ir.

narrow and wide applies to conBell

sonants, and not (as

assumed)

to vowels only.
in
'

The
and

distinction
'

between French and English (w)

oui

we

'

is

that the

French (w)

is

narrow, the English

{).

wide, the former being consonantized (u), the latter

In English the hisses are generally wide, in French narrow.

Narrow

(sh) in gentle

(s) may be heard hushing

first

in energetic hissing,

wide

Mr.

Bell,
it

who
due

explains

as

to tension

noticed the distinction of narrow and wide, and relaxation of the pharjn.v. I for a

this view, imagining the tension of the tongue to be something secondarj' and merely sjTnpathetic. However I afterwards noticed that the sense of phaiyngal and palatal tension was always concentrated on that part of the mouth where the sound was

long time held to

1
lO
26.

NARROW AND
The

WIDE.
one
is

distinction being a delicate

not to be

acquired practically without considerable training.

Be-

ginners are apt to confuse widening with lowering of the

tongue, especially

II

when

the

wide vowel
is

is

unfamiliar.

The

best

way

to avoid this
first

to

run through a whole

series "from

high to low,
(i,

narrow and then wide, taking,

{z, e,

for instance, first

e, ae),

then

as).

In

this

way a
s/iape

clear idea of the distinction

between changes in the

will

and
utter

in the posilion of the

tongue

be obtained.
to

27.
it

narrow vowel may be widened by trying

as lazily

and

listlessly as possible,
^.

without altering

the position of the tongue

VOWELS.
28.

vowel

may be

defined as voice (voiced breath)

modified by some definite configuration of the superglottal passages,

but without audible friction

:

^.

29. Tongue Shape

Narrow and

Wide.

The most
Wide

important general modifications are those which cause the

distinction of

narrow and wide, already described.

formed, in front sounds on the hard palate. This was a reductio ad absurdum, showing that the feeling was really imaginary. The relation was thus reversed the tongue tension was shown to be the real cause of narrowness and wideness, and the other feeling to be imaginary and secondarj'. I do not believe that the shape of the pharjTix, the approximation of the palatal arches, &c., have any effect in producing distinctive vowel sounds. * Mr. Bell told me that he tried this method with success in teaching Frenchmen the English (?) and (w). " Whispered vowels occur as integral elements of ordinary loud
:

by

speech in some native American languages. Ellis, E. E. P. p. 1194.

See Haldeman, quoted

VOWELS.
vowels arc generally denoted by
italics,

IT
thus
(/")

is

the

wide form of

(i).

30. Tongue Posiliom.

As each new

position of the

tongue produces a
infinite,
it

new
It

vowel, and as the positions are

follows that
infinite.

sounds

is

select certain definite

the number of possible vowel becomes necessary, therefore, to positions as fixed points whence to

measure the intermediate positions.

31.

The movements of

the tongue
vertical

may be

distinguished
for-

generally as horizontal

and

backwards and
horizontal
(i)
'

wards, upwards and downw-ards.

The
is

moveback

ments

produce

two

well-marked

classes,

(guttural) vowels, in

which the tongue

retracted as

much
(2)

as possible, such as (ai) in 'father,' (ui) in 'fool'; 'front' (palatal) vowels, such as
(ii)

and

in 'see,' (ae) in 'man,'

in which the tongue is advanced. The former are formed by the back of the tongue only, the point being kept

down, the
felt

latter

by the
(ai)
'

front.

The
'

distinction

is

easily
is

by pronouncing

and

(ii)

in succession.

There

also a third class, the

mixed

(gutturo-palatal) vowels,

which have an intermediate position, such as the English

(cehi) in
'

err,'

the

'German (eh)

in

'

gabe.'

Mixed vowels
tongue produce

are indicated

by the

diacritical (h).

32.

The

vertical
'

movements of
bit,'

the

various degrees of

height,' or distance

from the
is

palate.

Thus

in (/), as in

'

the front of the tongue

raised

as high

and

as close to the palate as possible without

'

causing

friction, in (ae), as in

man,'

it is

lowered as

much

as possible.

From among
'

the infinite degrees of height

mid,'

three are selected,

(as)

high,'

'

and
'

'

low.'
'

(/') is

a high,

a low vowel, while

distinctions

{e)

as in

say

is

mid vowel.
mixed,

These

apply

equally to

back,

and

12
front vowels, so

VOWELS.
we have
altogether nine cardinal vowel

positions

high-back

high-mixed

high-front

mid-back
low-back

mid-mixed
low-mixed

mid-front
low-front

Each of these positions

according as the tongue
shape.
33.
It
is

yields a different
is

vowel sound

in the

'narrow' or 'wide'

found that these nine positions correspond

very nearly with the actual distinctions

and

made in language, we admit two intermediate positions between each of them, we practically reach the limit of discrimination by ear. The intermediate heights are distinguished
that
if

as

'

lowered

'

and
which

'

raised,' thus the

'

'

lowered high-front
'

has a position below the

mid-front,'
Practically,
'

high-front,'

and above the

simple
' '

raised

is

above

the

mid-front.'
'

however, the distinction between

raised

and and

lowered

'

can hardly be carried out, and raised

(e)

lowered
the

(i)

must generally both be assumed

to represent

same half-way position. These vowels are written thus, [ei]. Or exponents may be used, whenever accessible,
(e^).

Horizontal intermediates

are defined
(,e), (,eh),

as

'inner' and 'outer,' and are indicated thus,

indicating
practically
first

both

the

same

sound.

The

student

should at
attention

neglect these minutiae, and concentrate his

on

the elementary positions.

34.

The

height of the tongue

is

partly
itself,

due

to

the

action of the muscles of the tongue

but also in a

great degree to the

start

movements of
(/)

the jaw.

Thus

if

we

from the high

position
it,

allowing the tongue to sink with

and lower the jaw, we obtain first the mid

VOWELS.
(c)

13
one.

position

and then the low

(,>)

Hence

the partial

closure of the

mouth

in forminj^ high vowels.

35.

The
is

question naturally arises,

the natural

Which of

the nine
at rest
?

positions
If

one when the organs are

we

vocalise the breath as

emitted in ordinary quiet

breathing,

without shifting the tongue in

any way, we
if

obtain an indistinct nasal

murmur, which,
if

de-nasalized

by closure of the nose passage, resolves

itself into the

mid-mixed
two
natural

(or

the

low-mixed vowel,
possible).
'

the
then,

mouth
that
{eh),

is

opened as wide as
'
'

,We

see,

the

or

'

neutral

vowels are (eh) and

both

of which are widely distributed in actual language.

36.

Rounding.
cavity

Rounding
lip

is

contraction

of

the

mouth
of
'

by

lateral

compression of the cheek passage

aperture,

and narrowing of the

labialization
.'

whence the older name

There are three principal degrees of

lip-

lip-narrowing, corresponding to the height of the tongue,

high vowels having the narrowest, low the widest

aperture.

This

is

easily
'

seen

by comparing the high(01), as

It will

back-round
in
'

(ui), as in

who,' the mid-back-round

(oi),

no/ and the low-back-round

as in

law.'

be seen that in

(ui) the lips are

is

contracted to a narrow

chink, while in (01) the opening

in (oi)

wider and broader, and

only the corners of the mouth are contracted.

It will

37.

be observed that the action of rounding

is

always concentrated on that part of the

mouth where
'lune,' the

the

vowel

is

formed.

In rounding front vowels, such as the

(y),

high-front-round

as in the

French

cheek

compression

is

concentrated chiefly on the comers of the

'

Mr. Bell says that the mechanical cause of round quality commences in the superglottal passage.' I find, however, that this is

not essential.

14 mouth and
(u) the chief

VOWELS.
that part of the cheeks immediately

behind

them, while in back vowels, such as the high-back-round

compression
is,

is

at the

back of the cheeks.

something secondary
possible to form
'

38. Lip-narrowing
in

therefore,
it

back-rounded vowels, as

is

them

entirely with

cheek-narrowing or
is,

inner rounding.'

The
by

absence of lip-rounding

however, distinctly perceptible.

is

According

to

Mr. Bell inner rounding

practised

ventriloquists as a

means

of concealing the visible action

of ordinary rounding.

39.

The

effect of

rounding may, on the other hand, be

lips,

increased by projecting (pouting) the

practically lengthens

which of course
This action

the

mouth channel by adding a

teeth.
is

resonance-chamber beyond the

generally avoided in English, but
in the Scotch (u),
tion.

may

often be observed

and generally

in continental pronuncia-

40.

The

influence of the lips

may

also be observed in

the unrounded vowels.

In the formation of the low and

(a),

mid

vowels, such as
rest,

the lips are in the 'neutral'

(i)

position of

but in forming the high

the

mouth

is

spread out at the corners, which makes the sound of the

vowel clearer

a.

This lip-spreading may, of course, be

It

applied to (a) and the other vowels as well.

may

also
in

be neglected elsewhere,

as

is

frequently

the

case

English, which dulls the effect of the high vowels.

41. If

back vowels are pronounced with lip-narrowing

alone (without inner rounding as well)

the

we do

not obtain

corresponding round vowels, but

simply muffled

had not noticed

this

till

I read the

remarks of Sievers (L. Ph.

P- 39)-

VOWELS.
varieties

15
Similarly,
if

of the ordinary sounds.

a front
result

vowel
is

is

pronounced with inner rounding only, the

simply a muffled, gutturalised front vowel, not a front

".

rounded vowel

42. Although there

height of the tongue
there

is

a natural connection between the

the degree of lip-narrowing*',

and

are

cases

of abnormal

degrees

of rounding
*

in
sol,'

Thus in Danish and Swedish (o), as in always has the same lip-narrowing as (u), and (d)
language.
'

as in

maane,'

'

mane,' has that of

(o), the

lip-narrowing being

thus in each case a degree above the height of the tongue.

Every vowel,

whether narrow
gives a total

or

wide,

is

capable

of

rounding, which

of thirty-six

elementary

vowel-sounds.

Table of Vowels and General Remarks.

43.

The

thirty-six

elementary vowels are given

in the

Whenever an unambiguous key-word could be given from any of the better known languages,
annexed
table.
it

has been added, especially from English (E.), Scotch

(Sc), French (F.),

are those

and German

(G.).

The English sounds

of the ^educated southern pronunciation, the

Scotch those of the Edinburgh pronunciation, and the

German
(N. G.),

are distinguished as

North (Hanoverian) German

(S.)

Middle (M.), and South

German

'
:

occ'

signifies occasional.

'

Cp.

37.

would e\adently be a waste of sound to narrow the back of the mouth and then allow the sound to diffuse itself in the front of the mouth, or to widen the back part of the channel and then muffle the sound by over-narrowing of the mouth channel.
^ It

i6

VOWELS.
1

low-front

man.

II

E.

Id
tc3
PI

2^
1^
1=1

r^ r

t3

X s
13 &.

O
R w

II

E 1

<

c o

Is
n

1-^

1^
8

'2 Sj

X S

P o
i.

73

X a

go

o
3
<i

o
o

ii
[to
.

>

=1

VOWFI.S.
44. Mnncs.
first,
Ill

17
'height'

naminj; the vowels,

last

and

'rounding'

comes

'

high-back-narrow-roiind,'

&c.

45.
all

As regards

the notation

it

may

be rcinarkeil iIku
tlie letter

mixed vowels are indicated by adding

unrounded mixed vowels
rounded mixed vowels

(h) in

the case of

to the

corresponding

front, in that of

to the corresponding

back vowel symbol.

by
italics.

Wide vowels

are generally indicated the case of the

The

only exception

is in

back

unrounded vowels, where the

of the

italics

indicate

widening

mouth channel, not by

by the
*

relaxing, but

by lowering
vowels are

the tongue.

The narrow back unrounded

turned
'

indicated
wides.

letters

of the corresponding

The

relations of the front

(a),

rounded and unrounded

(e),

vowels are suggested by

the analogy of (oe) to
(o).
(ae).

being a turned

and by

(d) is

assumed

to be a turned

46.
they

The

relations of the

symbols should be studied

till

become
is

perfectly familiar.

The

student should be

able to answer at once such questions as the following.

If (y)

unrounded, what

is

the result
(i) ?

What
is

is

the

round vowel corresponding to

If (o)

unrounded
is

and widened, or
the result.^

if (a) is

rounded and narrowed, what

47. Practical Mastery of the Voivcls.

the

While studying
to

symbols,

the

student

should

begin

acquire

practical

mastery of the sounds themselves.

This can

only be done very gradually, beginning with those sounds

which, are perfectly familiar.

One

or two sounds shoukl

till

be taken

at

a
is

time and repeated incessantly,

clearly
felt

their

mechanism

and understood.
c

Whispering

the vowels will be found a great help in analy^ing their

l8
formation.

VOWELS.
After a time the

student will

be able to

recognise each vowel solely by the muscular sensations

associated with
himself,
I
'

its

formation

he

will

be able to say
(i),'
'

to

Now my

tongue
into

is

in the position for

Now

have changed

(i)

(ih),'

&c., while not uttering the

if

slightest

sound, confident that

voiced

or

whispered

breath

is

allowed to pass through the

mouth

the required

sound
48.

will

be produced.
first
is

The

requisite for analysing the formation of

the vowels

the

power of lengthening and shortening

them without altering them in any way. In English, North German, and many other languages, short and
long vowels
If
in

differ

not only in quantity but also in quality.

we compare

the nearest conventional shorts

and longs

English, as in

bit

'

and

'

beat,"

'

not

'

and

'

naught,'

we

find that the short vowels are generally

wide

{i, o),

the long

narrow

(i,

o),

besides being generally diphthongic as well.

Hence

originally short vowels can be lengthened

and yet
for

kept quite distinct from the original longs;

instance,

(but),

'bit,'

is

quite

distinct

from
this

(biit)

'

beat.'

In the broad
originally

London pronunciation
vowels
is

lengthening of

short

extremely

common.
as
'

These
acquire

observations will
facility

perhaps help the student to

such
'

in

lengthening
'

a word
'

bit

'

without

passing into
it

beat,'

and

dog

into (daig) without

making
careful
'

into (doig).

The
will

shortening of narrow vowels, such as

difficult,

(ii)

and

(ui),

be found more Scotch

but
'

attention
'

to

the

pronunciation

of
(stk)

sick

and

book

'

as (sik)

and (buk), instead of

and

[hiik),

will

be of great assistance.
full

49. After acquiring a

command

of the separate

vowels, the student should begin to

compare them with

V'OWFLS.

19

one another, and note

instance,

their

relations.

He
feels
all.

shoulil,

for

compare

the

narrow ami wide vowel

(),

pairs,

such
the the
this

as

(i)

and

(0, (u)
difference

i^nd

until

he

clearly

common
relation
(y)
is
(i),

underlying

them
(o)

Also

rounded and unrounded, such as

and

(r).

But

most
&c.

clearly seen in the front vowels, such as

and

50.
ways.

The tongue
It is

positions

may be compared

in various

very instructive to run through a whole series

either horizontally or vertically, shifting the

tongue with

uniform speed from one extreme position to the other.

Thus,

starting

from

(?),

if

the

jaw

is
is

lowered conmaintained, an

tinuously, while
indefinite

the current of voice

number of vowel-sounds
is

is is

produced

till

broad (x)

reached

if

the tongue

stopped half-way,
(ae),

we have
the

(e).

Similarly, if

we

start
(ash),

from

and

retract

we obtain Scotch and London (a).

tongue,

first

and then the broad In moving from the mixed to

must be allowed
is

the back position the point of the tongue

to drop,

which

it

naturally does

when

the root

retracted.

Conversely, in moving from the back to the mixed position,

the tongue
the tip

must not only be advanced

in the

mouth, but
its

must
*.

also be allowed to rise slightly

from

former

depression
51.

The

student

familiar vowels.
will

can now proceed The importance of his

to

acquire

un-

previous training
follow the

now be

manifest.

He

has

only to

analogies of the changes he has already made, to produce

without

difficulty

many sounds
life.

that

he perhaps never
to

heard before in his

"
is

Thus, suppose he has learnt

If the tongiie is
'

kept down, the

outer back' position

advanced from the back position while tlie tip is formed. Cp. under 66. C 2

'20

ACOUSTIC QUALITIES OF VOWELS.

(y),

form
to

round
if

and pass with ease from (i) to (y), he only has (/) in the same way, and he will produce (y).
from a comparison of
(b)

Again,
the

and

(o)

he has learnt

medium degree
if

of rounding that belongs to a

it

mid
(a).

vowel, he only has to apply

to (e),

and he

will

have

Conversely,

he has learnt

to

unround

(o) into (c),

(o)

he

only has to apply the same process to

obtain () and (v)a,
arresting

and

(u) to

IMixed vowels are best learnt by

the nearest

the transition between

back and

front vowels.

Thus,

if

the student wishes to acquire the

Swedish (uh), he only has to pass from (u) to (y) backwards and forwards several times without intermission,

and then

to arrest his

tongue half-way'^.

52. Finally, the different processes

may be used

to

check one another.

Thus,
both

if

the student has learnt to

also

form

{a)

from
{y),

(a)

by lowering the tongue, he can

if

unround

and

operations

are

performed

correctly, they will yield precisely the

same sound.

Acoustic Qualities of Vowels.

53.
effects

We

have

hitherto

entirely

ignored the acoustic

of the vowels.

This has been done designedly.

qualification of the

The
is

first

and indispensable

phonedcian

a thorough practical knowledge of the formation of the

Mr. Bell directs the beginner to spread the lips with the finger and thumb in unrounding. I find, however, that this method, although it succeeds with front, quite fails with back vowels, as it does not remove the inner rounding. " Mr. Bell advises to attempt to blend the back and front articuI do not find that lations by pronouncing them simultaneously.
this succeeds in practice, as the

student generally

fails in

the attempt

to blend the

back and front positions.

ACOUSTIC QUALITIES OF VOUTLS.

vowels.

21

Those who

try to learn

new sounds by car Even

in

alone,

without any systematic training in the use of their vocal

organs, generally succeed only partially.

those

exceptional cases in which a naturally quick ear combined

with favourable occasions for practice enables a linguist to

acquire an accurate pronunciation of foreign languages by

imitation alone, his

knowledge

is litUe

better than that of

a parrot, for he
learnt, or to teach

is

unable to record the sounds he has

to others,

them

and the

results of his

labours perish with him.

only an average ear, and
defective ear,

In the case of those

still

who have

more of those who have a organic training is indispensable. There

flexible

can be no question that

organs well trained to-

gether with only an average ear, will yield better results

than

even an exceptionally good

ear without organic

training.

Nor must

it

be forgotten that fineness

of

ear

is

not necessarily accompanied by flexibility of the

organs.

vocal

Indeed, wliat
is,

is

commonly

called

'

an

ear for sounds,' that

depends quite as
ness of ear.

power of imitating sounds, much on organic flexibility as on finethe

'

54.

The

test

of

ear

'

by

itself is

the

power of
is

dis-

criminating and

recognising sounds.

This

an

indis-

pensable qualification for those

who wish

to write

down

sounds by
recognise
diff'erences

ear,

and must be carefully

certainty

cultivated.

To

sound with

under

the
is

various

of quantity, force, environment, &c.,

practice.

no easy
should

task,

and requires long

The

student

accustom himself
voice,
is

to repeat the diff'erent

vowels in a loud

and should compare those

that are

most

like,
if

till

he

able to distinguish them.

He

should also,

possible,

hear them pronounced by voices of different register and

22

ACOUSTIC QUALITIES OF VOWELS.

which are often confusing, especially is contrasted with a woman's or

quality, the effects of

when
child's.

man's voice

55,
tion

It will

soon be observed that vowels whose forma-!

are often very similar in sound.
if

is distinct

This
vowel

will
is,

be better understood
acoustically

we

consider

that

speaking,
the

voice

modified

by a resonance

chamber,

viz.

mouth

(the influence of the

pharynx

being for the present ignored).

the position of the tongue

Every time we change

create in reality a

we

new
a

resonance

chamber, which

moulds

the
its

voice

into

different vowel.

Every vowel can have

pitch raised or

lowered by varying the length of the vocal chords, as

when

the scale

is

sung on any one vowel.

its

But each
to the
if (i),

vowel has besides an inherent pitch of shape and

(a),

own, due
Thus,

size

of the resonance chamber.

all

and

(u) are

sung to the same

(u)
(i).

note,

we hear how
(a),

much deeper the pitch of is also much deeper than

for

is

than that of

while (a)

The

best way, however, of

is

hearing the natural pitch of the vowels

to whisper them,

the pitch of the whisper itself being invariable, the

differences

caused by the

resonance are clearly heard.

The connection between

owes
is
its

the size
is

and shape of the reso(i)

nance chamber and the pitch

high pitch
to
its

self-evident,

evidently

being formed by a narrow

(a)

channel in the front of the mouth, while the pitch of

lowered by the greater

that of (u)

size

of

its

resonance chamber,
lip-aperture, both

and
(a)

by the narrowing of the

formed
in the

and

(u) being

back of the mouth.

The

wide forms of the front and mixed vowels are lower in

pitch than the narrow ones, because of the greater width

of the

mouth

cavity,

but in the case of back vowels the

ACOUSTIC QUALiriF.S OF
wides arc higher
lowers the pitch.
llian the

I'On'ELS.

2]
naturally

narrows

".

Rounding

56.

The

following
Bell,

is

the order of the vowels in pitch,

according to Mr.
(

beginning with the lowest.

V,

V, a;
,'
'

a;
I

v,
1

u,
>

f<;
'

o, o: 0, 3
'

A;aeh, a;h; eh, eh;

i wh;

Ih, ih)
?/,

<

'

'

(oh,jh; oh,uh;

uli,

02,

oc;

<?,

o;

r j

*,

3e

e,

e;
is

i,

i.

57.

It

evident from this table that the

distinct

same

pitch

may be produced by

modifications of the same

resonance chamber, which agrees with the remark already

made, that vowels whose formation

very similar in sound
( 55).

is

distinct

are often
(i),

Thus, starting from

we

can lower
giving
(ih),

its

pitch either by retraction

of the tongue,

or by rounding, which gives (y), and con-

sequently
alike in

(ih)

and

(y)

have the same

pitch,

and are so
time

sound

that those
it

who

hear

(ih) for the first

generally imagine

to

be a round vowel.

Again, English

people

by

their

who hear (oe) for the first time generally imitate it own (xh), and German phoneticians still regard
(t3)

E. (a?h) and

as 'obscure' varieties of (oe)

and

(3).

Hence
(oh) in

also the English imitation of the

*

French (oh) or

bonne by the English

'

(v.)

in

'

bun.'

58.
(i)
(i),

It is also
(e),

important to observe that such pairs as

(o), are

and
(u)

(u)

and

as near in sound as

(i)

and

and

(m),

which

differ
is

only in narrowness and

precisely

wideness.
*
'

The

explanation

analogous to

Because,' as Mr. Bell says, 'the greater retraction of the tongue

enlarges the oral cavity.'

traction of the tongue.
to the convexity

Of

course, on Mr. Bell's theory of the

is

cause of narrowing being in the pharynx, there

no

necessary re-

is due of the tongue, which in the case of narrow front vowels practically raises, instead of retracting, the surface of the

On my

view, however, this retraction

tongue.

!i4

ACOUSTIC QUALITIES OF VOWELS.

and
(y),

that of the similarity of (ih)

namely, that the pitd

(^)

of

(i)

can be deepened either by widening into

(e), the

lowering to
cases, as
(e).

result

being nearly the same in

botl"

J
by

shown by

the French imitation of English

(i)

Hence we

get the following pairs

of vowels ex-

tremely like in sound, and consequently very liable to be

confounded

(Oand
il/)

(e);
(a)
;

(e)

and

(ae)

(u)

and and

{3)

(o)

(0)

and and

(oe)
(o).

59.

The mixed and round

:

pairs already exemplified are]

also very close

(ih)

and and

(y)
(a)
(oe)

(ih)
(eh)
(ash)

and

(y)
(9)
(ce).

(eh)
(aeh)

and and

and

60.

It

is

interesting to observe that these pairs arJ

in

often confounded even

vernacular

speech.

It

verj

seldom happens that

(ae)

three such sounds as

(e), (e),

and

are kept distinct in a language, the general rule being

that

when
or
is

the distinction of

close'

and

'

open'
is

e is

made,

(e) is the close

sound, while the open one

represented

by

(e)
it

(ae)

indifferently.

This

is

the case in English,

(e)
'

and

impossible to determine whether

'

or

(ae) is

the

commoner sound in such words as head,' then,' &c. 61. As regards the acoustic relations of mixed vowels
to their corresponding fronts

and backs,

it

must be noted
their correis

that

unrounded mixed vowels resemble more

fronts,

sponding

rounded

their

back vowels, as

indicated
their

by

the symbols.

The rounded mixed vowels owe

''

As

in

Danish.

EXTENDED LIST OF KEy-UORDS.

'

2.',

back

'

quality lo their retention of the inner rounding of

the back rounded vowels.

Extended List ok Key-Words.

62.

The

following extended
will,
it is

list

of key-words arranged

under each vowel

especially those

hoped, be useful to students,

to learn the

who have

sounds without a
as those already

master.

The

contractions are the

same

used

in the general table ( 43), with the addition

of Da.

= Danish,
I-'ach

Du. = Dutch, Sw. = S\vedish, Icel.=Icelandic.

its
]\Ir.

wide vowel follows immediately after

(high- back-narrow).

narrow.
Bell this

63.

According
('ivi).

to

vowel occurs in the Gaelic laogh

It

also occurs in

Armenian
example,

(as
in

pronounced to

me by

Prof. Sievers), for

the definite article (vz).

This vowel, which

it,

offers difliculties to those

who

are not familiar with

is

best obtained by unrounding (u), following the analogy of

the change from (o) to
(t),

and checking the

result

by

raising {v) to the high position.

64. A (high-back-wide). According to Bell in Cockney pronunciation of long 0, as in (nA[oh]) =

It

the
no.'

'

seems also

to

occur sometimes in the

(ai)

diphthong, as

in (Ai[ih])

='I,' more

commonly
(x;p)

(eh[ih]).
'

65. B (mid-back-narrow).

English

tip,'

'

come,' &c.
(ap).

Often tends to widening,

66.
'

becoming almost

a (mid-back-wide).

E
It

'father,'

'papa';
is

N. G.
to

vater,'

'mann';
in

Sw. 'man.'

This vowel

liable

considerable fluctuations.
(a),
afi

may be lowered
it

nearly to
to

Italian

and Spanish, where

(a).

is

difficult

decide between (a) and

It

may

also be

advanced

almost to the (eh) position, the point of the tongue being

25

EXTENDED LIST OF KEY-WORDS.

is

kept down, giving a sound which

ver}'
'

Uke
inner

(ae),
'

into

which

it is

easily converted

by raising the

front of

the tongue towards the palate.

is

If the point of the tongue

(^a) is

raised,

it

passes into (eh).

This
?}iatie

the regular Danish

sound, as in jnatid (m ax'n),

(m^aineh), the long sound

the short.
'

being

still

more advanced than

also towards
(^a).

It is also
'

the

sound of the long Dutch

a, as in

vader,'

xaaan.'

The

French a tends
67.

(low-back-narrow).

Frequent Sc.
ih

and pro&c., as

vincial English

sound of the
?/p
!'

in
It

'

hut,'
is

'

CMt,'

in

Sc.

'come

(km
INI.

p).

also
'

common
vat.
It

sound of short a

in

and

S. G., as in

kaffee-kanne."
a\,

Short a in Du. often has this sound, as in

may be heard long

of
'

in the vulgar
p?:iik),

London pronunciation
distinct

part,'

'

park,' as (pit,

which are

from
Sw.
long

(poik, poit).

68.

(low-back-wide).
'

Sc.

'man,' 'hat,' &c.

identifies the

long

a, as in

fader,'

'

fara.'

Mr. Bell

in Italian with (a).

69. ih (high-mixed-narrow).
a

According
'

to
'

Mr. Bell in
as (ih[i]th).
to

common American

pronunciation of
'

earth

Also in the North Welsh

tagtt,'

'

\\ur\,'

&c.

According

Mr. Bell the Russian 'jery'

70.
ih.

is (\\\n).

(high-mixed-wide).

Frequent in the E. pronun-

ciation of 'pretty,' 'j?tst' (written 'jist')

and a few other

and second vowel

words.

]Mr. Bell

distinguishes the

first

in 'fishes' as (i)

and

(ih).

71.
e,
'

eh (mid-mixed-narrow).
'.

G. Du.Dan. &c. unaccented

;

as in 'gabe,' 'gerettet'; 'dadehj'k' (daidehlehk)

It
is

'mane,'

bevare

uncertain whether the Fr.

'

que,' &c.

has

this

sound or
eh.

(a).

The sound

is

quite un-English.

72.

(mid-mixed-wide).

The

E. unaccented vowels

EXTENDED LIST OF KEy-WORDS.

in

2/

'bigger,'

'

favo?<;-,'

'

(Utack,' &c.

seem
it

to resemble this
tlie

vowel, or rather to fluctuate between

(jeh)

and

low-mixed

and (*h), but

it

is

best to regard

them as simply
in the

'voice-glides' ( 200).
'f/V

(th)

may be heard

Swedish

but apparently in rather a forward form (eh[j]), while

in the

E.

'

e)c,'

it

is

rather (,i?h[/h]) or sometimes perhaps

(a) as the first element,
(a[i'h])
is

(^a[th]).

Mr. Bell assumes

'

con-

sidering (eh)

Cockney,' but

certainly not the

ordinary educated pronunciation, although even (rt[ih])

may be heard from

Icelandic short
this
o,

the vulgar.

73. seh (low-mixcd-narrow).

as in
'

E.

'

err,'

'

bird,' &c.

The

sktimm,' seems sometimes to have

sound.

74.

h
'

(low-mixed-wide).
up,'

Frequent Sc.

'

err,'

'

b?rd.'

Cockney
75.
in
i
'

according to

Bell.

(high-front-narrow).

Long Teutonic
' '

/-sound, as
Fr.
f/n?,

G.

sieh,'

Du.

'

bi'er/

Dan.

hvHe,' Sw. 'hvila.'

{inn.
'

Short in Sc. in

build.'

'hv/dt,'

many words, such as st'ck,* 'gtve,' g^k,' Short in many Dan. words, such as 'at spHde,' The long E. i is a 'consonantal
'

diphthong'

(iij)**,

and

its

narrowness

is

often

relaxed

almost to wideness.'
76.
t
'

(high-front-widc).
'

Short
spi'Ue,'

in

E.
in

'fm,'

'

bu,'
'

in

Dan.

fik,'

at

f/nde,'

'

at S.

and

N. G.

hind,'

'baten,'

where M. and
It

G. have

(i).

Long
is

in Icel.
slightly
(e).

'vita,' 's?/nir.'

must be noted
vowel
in

that the E. (i)

lower than in the other languages, verging towards

The unaccented
cidedly
(e^).

'

pity

'

seems

to

be G.

de-

77. e (mid-front-narrow).

F.

'

ete,'

'aimer.'

'see.'

Sw.

'se,'

'sten.'

Short in Sw. 'vecka' 'skepp.'

(e)

is

See

209.

28

EXTENDED LIST OF KEY-WORDS.

towards
(i),
'

often raised

and
'

this

(e^)

is

the

regular

sound
E.
in

in Dan., so that
(e') is also
'

se

often sounds to an E. ear Uke

in
'

'see.'

common
'

Edinburgh Sc'*

Short
is

(e^)

Dan.

dette,'

hende,'

fred.'

The
is

E. sound

lower than that of the other languages,

thongic,

always diphfluctuating

and generally very feebly narrowed,

(ei[?'h])

between
N. G.

and

(ei[ih]).

78. e (mid-front-wide).
'

Occ. E. 'head,' 'end'(6i),

ende,'

Dan.

'

sted.'

Long
(se)

in in

Dan.

'

laese,'

'

trae.'

Interchanges
{e)

frequently
(t)

with
is

many

languages.
'fill,'

raised half-way to
'

heard in the Sc.

'pit,'

and Du.
ing
(i).

lid,'

'

kind,' neither of these languages possess'

Also in E.

pit^/

'

( 77).

79.
'

86 (low-front-narrow).

Usual E.
'

'

hair,' occ.

'

head,'
'

end.'
elf,'
'

Very marked
'

in Sc.
is

hmd,'

'

tell,'

and Du.

ben,'
(se).

'

in

which the position

faire.'

lower than for the E.

Fr.

pere,'
se

80.

(low-front-wide).

E.

'man,' 'hat.'
'

dialectic

Dutch (North Holland)

seems also

vader,' &c.
(aei)

Long in The Dan.

(asi)

long

(^ai)

to pass into

sometimes,

may

also be heard in the

Swabian

S.

G. pronunciation, as

in (k5eis)

'

kase.'

81.

u
'

(high-back-narrow-round).

Short

in in

Sc.

and

Du.

'book,'
?;de,'

and
Du.

'

boek,'
'

both
F.

= (buk).
'

Long
iout,'
'

G. 'gwt,'
E. long

Dan.
82.

voer.'

soi/,'

'

towr.'

(u) tends to (wiw).

(high-back-wide-round).
in 'wnd,'
'

E.

'

good,'

'

hiW.'

The
Short

N. G. (w)

ImsI,' is

rather closer than the E.

83. o (mid-back-narrow-round).
in ]\L

G.
'

'so,' 'so/m.'
'

and

S.

G.

'

oft,'

'

stock.'
'

F.

chaitd,'

peait.'

The

See Dr.

J.

A. H. Murray's
foil.

Dialect of the Southern Counties of

Scotland,' p. 106

EXTENDED LIST OF KFr-UORDS.

E. long (o)
It is

29

diphihongal and of uncertain narrowness.

is

may

also be noted that the G. (o)

..,

more

retracted

than in F. and

vhich gives
42.

it

a deeper tone.

For the

Scandinavian (o) see

84.

(mid-back-uidc-round).
'road' (short).

N. G.
in
Icel.
'

'

oft,'

'

st'jck.'

Occ. Sc.

Long
a),

hof,"
'

"konia'

(often rather lowered towards

and

in

Welsh
'

ton.'

85. o (low-back-narrow-round).
Provincial long a in G.

E.

'late,'

lo/-d,' 'fall.'

and Du. (perhaps

also

wide).

For the Scandinavian

86.

(d) see 42.

'

(low-back-wide-round).

raised towards (0),

E. not,' dog.' Often producing various intermediate sounds.

'

The
Sw.

short

open
'dtta,'

in Dan., Sw.,
(j).

lowered towards
'folk,'

and often in Icel. is (0) Examples are Dan. fclk,' maatte,'

' '

Icel.

'flokk,'

'borg.'

These

effects

may, however, be due

the Scandinavian {0)
(d) in
'

to various

degrees of rounding, and

may be

simply the wide form of the

maane.'

87.

uh

(high-mixed-narrow-round).
in
'

Swedish

and
it is

Norwegian u
ter,

h?<s,'

'

ut'

This vowel varies

in charac-

according to the degree of retraction with which

In

formed.
slightly

Sw. and Norwegian

(u).

it

often

differs

but

from

(uh)
'

may
'

often be heard in careless E.

pronunciation, thus

two

is

often (tuhiw) or (thiw).

88.

uh
word

(high -mixed -wide -round).

tt

Regular sound

of the short
latter
is

in

Sw., as in

'

?<pp,' 'Itmd,' 'rzMn.'

This

nearly identical with an occasional E. pro'

nunciation of

room.'
In what
is
is

89.

oh (mid-mixed-narrow-round).
to the (oh)-position.

called

an "affected' pronunciation of E.

'no,' &c.,the (0)

often

advanced nearly

90. oh (mid mixed-wide-round). F. short

in

-homme,'

30
Motte.'

EXTENDED LIST OF KET-IVORDS.

May
perhaps also

be

narrow.

This sound
'

may be

obtained by pronouncing such words as

follow
the

carelessly

and rapidly

(f!?l[Art']),

and then prolonging

According
to

[am^] into (oh).

91.

oh (low-mixed-narrow-round).
sound of the long a
(qohidn).
'

Mr.

Ellis this is the

'

in Austrian G., as in

euer gnaden

92. oh. (low-mixed-wide-round).

Bell this
is

According
&c.
'

to

Mr.

the

Cockney sound
Du.
'

in

'

ask,'

93.

y
'

(high-front-narrow-round).
'

F.
'

\une,'

'

aigtt.'

G.
'

'

griin,'

giite."

zuur.'

Da.

]ys.'

Short in Da.

sk^/ld,'
fiillen.'

at f?/lde,'

and often

in 'M.

and

S.

G.

'

schiitzen,'

'

There are various shades of difference

this vowel.

to

be

observed in

The N. G.

(y) is slightly retracted

towards (uh).

labialised, so that the

In Sw. and S. G. (y) is often imperfectly, (i) character is strongly marked.

94. y (high-front-wide-round).
'

N. G. hutte.

Dan.
'

t^nd,'

'

bryst.'

Icel.

'

fwU,'

'

Iwnd.'

Long
F.
'

in Icel.

hlwt,'

'mwna.'
95.
'

(mid-front-narrow-round).

'pew,'

'

vceu,'

creuse.'

M. and
S.

S.

G.
'

'

schon.'
stocke,'
'

Da.

en

o,'
'

'

at \ose.'
'

Short in
onske.'

G.

'

gotter,'

and

in Da. to

forst,'

at

The
a

Sc.

sound

in

guid

'

seems

be

(,s).

96.

(mid-front-wide-round).
interchange with
dor,'
'

F. jeudi,

sewlement
(9), 'gotten'

(liable to

(oe)).
Icel.

N. G. 'schon
'

Da.

'

en

at

gore.'

fot

'

(also

pronounced
'heuvre.'

(aehi), 73).

97. OB (low-front-narrow-round).

F.

'

flewr,'

Sw.

hora.'

Short in Da.
(3).

'

stcirst,'

'

Strom.'

Interchanges

constantly with

98.
in the

OS

(low-front-wide-round).
'

According
out
'

to
'

JNIr.

Bell

Cockney pronunciation of

(ceit),

house,' &c.

coNsoyAXTs.

31

CONSONANTS.
09.

consonant

is

the

result

of audible
in

friction,

squeezing or stopping of the breath

some

part of the
dis-

mouth
tinction

(or occasionally of the throat).

The main

between vowels and consonants is that while in the former the mouth configuration merely modifies the vocalised breath, which is therefore an essential element
of the vowels, in consonants the narrowing or stopping
of the oral passage
the state of the
is

the foundation of the sound,

is

and

glottis

something secondary.

Con-

sonants can therefore be breathed as well as voiced, the

mouth configuration alone being enough distinct sound without the help of voice.
can
all

to

produce a

Consonants
varied by

be formed with whisper.

100.

The

friction

of consonants

may be

narrowing or widening the friction channel.

'

The term

hiss

'

implies audible friction of" breath consonants, and

'

'

buzz

of voice consonants.
(i)

Consonants admit of a twofold division

place, (2) to form.

according to

101. F/ace.
( 1

By

place there are five main classes.

Back

(guttural)

formed by the root of the tongue

E.xamples are
(k) as in
'

and the
in
'

soft palate.

come,' (q)

sin^.'

(2)

Front
'

(palatal)

formed by the front (middle) of the

( j)

tongue and the roof of the mouth.

in F.

as in

'

you,'

(n) as

Boulo^/ne.'

(3)

Point, formed by the point of the tongue and

the

(generally)

upper gums or

teeth.

This

class

is

32

CONSONANTS.
called
'

commonly

dental,' but the point

of the tongue

is

not necessarily brought against the teeth.

point consonants are
(4)
(t),

Examples of

(n),

(1).

Teeth.

Teeth consonants when formed by the

point of the tongue

may be

considered as 'outer' (see

below)
teeth
'

varieties of point consonants.

There

is
'

also a

'

lip-

consonant,

(f).

When

outer point (or

point-teeth')

consonants are formed by placing the point of the tongue

between the teeth they are called

'

interdental.'
is
is

(5) Lip. S. G. IV in 'ifie,' 'wo' N. G. w'=(v) pure lip consonant.

an example of a
a 'hp-teeth' con-

sonant.

Each of
by

these positions admits of infinite subdivisions

shifting the

tongue backwards and forwards, but

to
'

it

is

amply

sufficient
*

distinguish
outer,'

three
'

varieties

of each

position,

inner,'

and

medium,' the

last

being
is

assumed as the normal

denoted thus,
(,t),

position.

The
( t).

inner variety

the outer being

special
(t-i-)

There are two

the point

tongue modifications that require

(tf)-

notice, 'inversion'
is

and 'protrusion'

In inversion

turned back towards the soft palate, so that

is

the narrowing or stopping

formed between the lower

In
lips.

edge of the tongue-point and the top of the arch.

protrusion the tip of the tongue
is

extended to the
'

Inverted consonants allow of the distinctions of

inner

and
'

'outer.'

Besides

the
'

simple

positions

there

are 'mixed'

or
the

compound consonants formed by narrowing, &c. mouth channel in two or more places at once. Thus
is

the

E. (w)

formed not only by lip-narrowing, but also by

raising the
is

back of the tongue towards the

soft palate

it

therefore a 'lip-back' consonant.

CONSONANTS.
102. Form.
(i).
is

3_^

By form

there are also five classes

in

Open

consonants arc those

which the passagt'

in

simply narrowed without any contact, such as (kh)

(s), (ih).

G. 'ach' and Sc. 'loch,'

The

restriction as to

contact applies only to the actual friction channel,

and

even then there

rent of breath
is

may be

slight contact,

provided the curin

not impeded.

Thus

forming (kh) the

uvula often touches the back of the tongue, but without

modifying the sound

in

any way, and even

sound.

in (s) the

tongue often comes into contact with the ridges of the

gums without
sonant as
(f),

influencing the

In such a conlips

on the other hand, the contact of the

and teeth has the

effect of forcing the breath to seek

channel elsewhere, namely through the interstices of the

teeth,

which form the

real friction-channel.
(f)

It is,

however,

also possible to
teeth without
(2).

form an

between the

lips

and the

any contact.
are formed by stopping the
it

Divided consonants

middle of the passage, leaving

open
'

at the sides.

The
(1).

commonest type of
(3).

this class is the

point-divided'

Stopped

(or

shut)

consonants are

formed by
(k), (d).

complete closure of the mouth passage, as in

(4).

of the
If

Nasal consonants are formed by complete closure mouth passage, the nose passage being left open.
take any stop, such as (b), and allow the air to pass

we

through the nose by lowering the soft palate, we obtain

the

corresponding nasal,

in this

case (m).
is

When

an unstopped (open or divided) consonant

it

pronounced with the nose passage open,

'nasalised,'

is

said to be
(j)
is

which

is

denoted by

(;/).

Thus

nasalised
(5).

(j).

Trills are

special

variety

of unstopped

con-

34
sonants.

CONSONANTS.
They
result

from the vibration of the

flexible

parts of the mouth, either against one another, as the lips are
trilled,

or against
trills

some

firm surface, as

when when

the tip of the tongue

trilled (r).

against the

gum

in

forming a

Their

common

character

is

due to the rapid

periodic interruption of the breath by the contact of the

\ibrating

body with
its

that against

which
its

it

is

trilled,

its

elasticity (or, in the

it

case of the uvula,

weight) causing

to

resume

former non-contact, to be again driven

back.
Trills are, therefore, intermediate

between open (and

divided)

and shut consonants.

is

Trilling

indicated by

(r),

thus (rr)

is

the trilled

(r).

Table of Coxsoxaxts.
103.

The annexed
latter

table will give a general idea of the

relations of the principal consonants

and of

their

symbols.
is

As

regards the

it \*ill

be observed that (h)

used

as a general diacritic sometimes to denote open as opposed

to shut consonants,

sometimes
with

to indicate

devocalisation.
(j),

The

front

consonants,

the exception of

are

indicated by the capitals of the small letters which stand

for the corresponding points.

The

back-divided

is

de-

noted by

(i).

The Coxsoxaxts
104.
with
full

ix

Detail.
in detail,

We

can now consider the consonants

examples.

OPEN CONSONANTS.
Open
105.
Coiisomiiils.

^f^

kh
'

(back-open).
is

The normal

(kh), as in

Sc.

and G.

loch,'

formed between the back of the tongue

soft palate.
far

and the middle of the

is

In (,kh) the narrowing

It

formed as low and as

G.

back as possible.

occurs

in several S.

dialects, especially those

of Switzerland.

If (kh) is

formed near the place where the hard palate

(kh),

begins,

we have
all

which

is

the sound of ch in Scotch

(fikh).
It

after front vowels, as in the

exclamation

must

be noted that
position

back consonants are

less

liable to

vary their

more or

according to the vowels they are

associated with, front and

mixed vowels tending

normal medium
although
natural,

to ad-

vance the

tongue from the

however,

position.

These

variations

are

not

essential.
its

The
that

inner (kh) especially, generally preserves

all

position

unchanged before
these

vowels.
varieties

It

must be
not
all

understood

different

are

formed by the same part of the back of the tongue.

The

inner and outer varieties are formed, as far as the

is

tongue

concerned, partly by shifting

partly
'

it

backwards %nd

forwards,
'

inner

'

or

by narrowing the passage by those outer parts of the back of the tongue which
'

lie

nearest

to

the

corresponding parts of the palate.

to the front consonants as well.

These remarks apply

106.
'

gh
is

(back-open-voice).
it

Frequent G. g

\n

'

tage.'

wagen,' &c., where

is

distinctly buzzed.

When

ihc

passage

widened so as

to

remove

all

buzzing, the

sound of (gh) no longer suggests (kh) or

(g),

but rather a

weak

(r)

round.

It is often difficult to

determine whether
a

the N. G. r in

fahren,'

'

hier,'

&c.
is

is

weak (gh) or a

'glide-vowel'

207).

When

(gh)

squeezed, the breath

i1

IM
I

CI,

>
1

S~

>

S^"^

-1^

"^

"^

0.

^
5

g.

"Dh

^ ^

a,
'fi

rQ

C^
"33

a ^
,^

C^

-s

g^

"5^

"

m m

^ ^ ^
n
JH,

^ ^
.
,

^
<2

u H o >

5
a,

^ ^

j2^

^_^

pg

'^>

s-

>
^

3
11,

T^

-s

-M

1-.

"c

^.

p
f*.

i-<

"S

t-

'S

hI

7i

"?

J2

M
1

cr

42

A S

X
1 1

TS
1

"^

>

s
a,

"5

rt

S
C^

-S

C/J

OPEN CONSONANTS.

37

impulse being diminished enough to prevent any buzzing,

an effect extremely
'

like (g)

is

produced, as in the

Iccl.

saga,'

'

vega.'

107. jh (front-open).

The

front consonants admit of

is

an inner and outer variety,

(jh)

formed on the

liard

palate near where the soft palate begins, the outer (jh) in

the hollow of the

arch.

(Jh) and (kh) are, therefore,

place.

formed nearly
is

in the
is

same
(jh)
is

The

essential difference

that the

former

formed by the
is

front, the latter

by the

back of the tongue,

often heard in E. in such

words as 'hue,' and

'

the regular
'

sound of
'

Icel. hj in

hjarta,'

to vary

The G. ch in between the medium

'

hja.'

ich,'

nicht,'

'

recht,'

seems

(jh)

and

(Jh).

The Norw.
'

k before front vowels

is

pronounced

(jh), as in

kenna.'

108.

(front-open-voice).

E. 'you,' G. Du. Da. &c.

j'm

'ja.'
is

This consonant

often, as in E.,
(j)

and
is

]\I.

and

S.

G. ^

weakened
buzzed.

into a vowel,

in

N. G.

often distinctly

Buzzed
(r)

(J)

is

the ordinary G.

(/

in

'

liegen,'

'

regen.'

100. rh, r (point-open).

is

The
Hence

characteristic feature of
is

that

the

fr-iction

passage

formed as much as

possible by the tip alone.

the tip generally points

upwards, and there

is

a tendency to

make

the outer front

of the tongue concave, so as to prevent any front modifification.

The tongue being

the

thus shortened, there

is

also

a tendency to

form the consonant further back than

other
is

is

the

case

with

point

consonants.

The medium
it

position for (r)

just outside the arch,

and

cannot be
outer
(

formed
is

at all in the interdental position.

( r)

The

r)

formed on the teeth-rim, the inner

within the palatal

See 2o8,

3.

38
arch.

CONSONANTS.
E. r in 'red,' 'reanng,'
(j).
is

generally niedium

(r),

sometimes

It

is

generally a weak, almost vocalic

as in
'

squeeze, but after

after (d) as in
'

(t)

try,'

and, to a less degree,

dry,'

it is

distinctly

buzzed .
in

In the western counties of England, and

inverted (r^)
is

Kent, the
is

the regular sound.

The

point

turned

back to where the fronts are formed, and the voiced breath is squeezed between the palate and the lower side
of the inverted
It
tip.

must be noticed

that

buzzed and squeezed

(r)

(r)

have
to

very different acoustic associations, buzzed

is

felt

be

allied to the sibilants, especially (sh) ^, while

squeezed

(r) is felt to

be a weakened form of
(th)

(rr).
is,

110. th (point-teeth-open),
the point.

like

(r),

formed by
lies in

The

essential difference
(th),

between them

the dentality of

which involves a more horizontal

the breath
is

position of the tongue, which has to be stretched out to

reach

the

teeth.

In

(r)

is

checked by the

upturned point, in (th) there

secondary friction along

the extended front of the tongue.

There are

several

varieties.
tip

The most
.

distinct

is

formed by pressing the

interstices of the teeth.

of the tongue against the back

of the teeth, and allowing the breath to hiss through the

There

is

also

an inner
just

(^th),

in

which there

is

no

direct contact with the teeth, the tip

being merely approximated to the

teeth-rim.

gum

behind the

Outer

(th)

would be formed by putting the

This was first noticed by Sievers (L. Ph. p. 52), who attributes the abnormal narrowing of the (r) to the preceding stops, the tongue

not having time enough to withdraw itself from the palate to prevent buzzing. Sievers notices, in the passage just referred to, that E. tried can
'' ' '

hardly be distinguished from

'

chide

'

by an unaccustomed

ear.

OPEN CONSONA NTS.

tip

39

between the
this

teeth.
it

Foreigners generally learn the (th)

doubtful whether this variety ever

in

way, but

is

occurs in E. pronunciation.
scribed
is

The

meiliuin (th)

first

de-

often

weakened by non-contact of
the hiss
like
is
'

the tip with

the teeth, the contact being generally slight,

and when the

lost,

channel
'

is
'

much widened
sounds almost

is

almost

so that

think

hink.'

The

essential

feature of all varieties of (th)

that the breath is directed

on

to the teeth with the tip of the tongue.

(th)

occurs in E., as in 'think,'

't)ing,'
6.

'faith,'

'author'; in

Icel.,

as

in

'Jjola';

and

is

the

sound of the modern

In
'

Greek

111. dii (point-teeth-open-voice).

'

E., as in
'

'

then,'

with,'

'

other'; Icel. S, as in

'

vi5,'

jiaS,'

li'Sa

';

Motlern

Greek

8,

as in 8f8a)Ka (dhcdhoka).

112. s (blade-open).

Like (th)

this

consonant owes

its

sibilance to the breath being directed

on

to the teeth, not

'

however by the
hence
;

tip itself,

but by the

'

blade

of the tongue.

This part of the tongue

front,
INIr.

may be
is

regarded as very forward

'

Bell's definition of (s) as the

front-point'
it

consonant
possible to
(th)
(s).

but this

name

ambiguous, as

is

quite

pronounce the

front (jh)

and the point

is

(rh) or

simultaneously, and the result

quite distinct from

The normal
back than
(,s)

position for
for (th), the

(s) is

on

the

gums

little

further

tongue being somewhat

is

shortened.

is

formed on the arch-rim, and

not

uncommon
'-

in E., (s)
'

on the
'

teeth,

(s)

is

the Spanish

and
113.

z,

as in

parecer,'

razon.'

z (blade-open-voice).
is

E.

'

zeal,'

F.

'

zele,'
'

N. G.
but
iis

'

wesen.' (z)

the Spanish soft

is

in

'

ciudad

(siuz'aaz).
(s),

114. six (blade-point-open)

very similar to
is

has more of the point element, which

the result of

40

CONSONANTS.
(th) but to (rh)

approximation not to
arrested

(sh)

is,

in fact, (s)

way to (rh). This is done by retracting the tongue somewhat from the (s) position, and pointing the tip more into play. it more upwards, which brings
on
its

Hence Mr.
element.

Bell's designation

of

'

point-front,* the prece-

dence of point

implying
is

predominance of the
for reasons

point

The name

ambiguous

analogous

to those stated under

(s).
is

The normal
of
(s)

position for (sh)

naturally between that

and

(rh)

near the arch.

teeth,

(,sh) is

formed inside the

(rh),

arch, (sh) near the teeth-rim.

(sh), like

cannot be

removed from them than (s) has less of the sibilant character, and consequently bears a close resemblance both to (rh) and
formed on the

and being

further

(jh).

(sh) occurs in E., as in

'

'

she,'
it

fish

';

in F., as in

'

chat,'

cacher
schon,'

';
'

and

in

G.,

where

is

generally labialised, in
in E. in the

'

fisch.'
'

Outer (sh) occurs

church,'

combina-

tion (tsh), as in

as

much forward

as (sh).

medium (t) being formed nearly The French (sh) seems to be

'pleain

more forward than the E. E. 'rouge,' 115. zh (blade-point-open-voice). (zh) sure F. 'juge,' where it is more forward,
';

E.

(dzh), as in 'judge'
It will

a.

and

be seen that the above account of the mechanism of (s) with Mr. Bell's. Mr. Bell's son however has transposed the Visible Speech symbols for (s) and (sh), and other phoneticians seem inclined to agree with him, chiefly, it appears, on the ground of the frequent development of (sh) in language out of (s) followed by (j). But I think any one who will take the trouble to pronounce (s) and (sh) before a looking-glass, throwng a light at the same time into the mouth, will not fail to see that the point of the tongue is clearly directed upwards in the change from (s) to (sh). Theories of the historical development of sounds
(sh) agrees essentially

OPEX CONSONANTS.
116.

41

ph
It
(f>.

(lip-open)

is

the

souml produced by blowinc;

to cool anything, or, in a stronger form, to blow out a

candle.

appears to be an occasional sound of modern

It is

Greek
117.
'

also a Japanese

sound

( 197).

bh
'

(lip-open-voice).
'

The M. and
/'

S.

G.

ic in

wie,'

wo,'
for

wein.'

Spanish

in

'

saber.'
it

troublesome

sound

Englishmen, who confuse

(v)

with (w) on the one

best got by blowing
to raise the

hand and with

to cool,

on the

other.

It is

and then vocalising, taking care not

into the E. (w).

back of the tongue or narrow the cheeks, both of which

together convert
it

118. f (lip-teeth-open).

E.

'

fife,'

F.

'

fief,'

&c.

This

consonant
the lower

may
lip

be formed with a strong

hiss,

by pressing

firmly against the

upper

teeth,

and thus
from

driving the breath between the teeth, or

may be weakened
lip entirely

by relaxing the pressure, or removing the

the teeth, so that the friction channel
is

formed between
is

the

teeth-edge and
(f) is

the

lip.

When

the hiss

much

weakened
(f) is

very like (ph) in sound.

also very like (th), both agreeing in directing the

(f)

breath on to the teeth, (th) by the tip of the tongue,

the edge of the
lip.-

by

119.

(lip-teeth-open-voice).
to

E.
is

'

vie,'

F.

'

vie,'

&c.

The N. G.
and F.
so that
(v),
it

in

'

wie,'

'

wo,' &c.,

weaker than the E.

little

being generally formed with very

buzz,

often strongly resembles (bh).

120.
are

Mixed Open
to

Consonants.

All the open consonants

front,

liable

be modified by some back,

or

lip

cannot be allowed to override facts that can be demonstrated by observation, and the change of (s) into (sh) under the influence of
(j)

may

(s)

be easily explained as the result of simple retraction of the towards the (j) position.

42
position.
tion
;

CONSONAXTS.

The most

general in

its

effects is lip modifica-

for lip action,

being independent of the movementd

of the tongue, can be applied to any tongue consonan^

whatever.
extent,

Back and
is

front modifications

are,

to

some
whicl

dependent on the position with which the otheJ

formed, the

element
leave the

pure

point

consonants,
free,

back and

front of the

tongue

being mos^
the
ac-j

susceptible of them. The following are some of more important mixed open consonants, arranged

cording to their leading (the

121.
(kht'.')

first)

element.

"khw (back -lip-open),

after (u), as in

(kh) naturally passes intc

'

G.

'

auch,' Sc.

sough.'

Initial

(wh)

also l)ecomes (khi/;) by giving greater

prominence

to the
ii

back element
(khj/:eHk)

in

some

Sc. dialectic pronunciations, as

'

which,' often written 'quhilk'".

122.
u, as in

ghw
'

(back-lip-open-voice).

Frequent G. g

aftet

zuge.'
(front-lip-open).
'

123.

jhw

In G. (jh) after roundec

vowels, as in

ziichtig.'

124.

shtv (blade-point-lip-open).
sell,

This

is

the usual|

sound of G.
125.
the

as in 'schiff,'

'

fisch.'

wh=phkh

(lip-back-open) differs from (khw) in

lip

preponderance of the

over

the

back

action.

E. 'which,' 'what'; Icel. 'hvit,' 'hva6.'

126.
'

(lip-back-open-voice).

The
'

E. (w) in

'

we,'

witch,' is

always wide
lip

it is

simply (u) consonantised by

Fr.

narrowing the
consonantised

passage.
(w),

ou in

oui,'

'

roi

'

(rwa), is

(u).

being thus formed from back

rounded vowels, preserves the inner rounding of those

vowels, which

is

essential

to

its

character.

The

true

See Murray, Dialect

of the

Southern Counties of Scotland,

p. ii8.

OPEN CONSONANTS.
lip-back-open-voice
the
'

43

consonant

is

formed by retracting
(bh), antl

back of the toni^ue while pronouncini;

is

the

result

quite distinct from

(\v),

whicli requires cheekto

iln-

compression as
full

well, raising the

back of the tongue

as

(u) position not being essential,

(w) might therefore

'

more

correctly be

described

the

high-back -rounilis

squeezed.'

One

result of this

cheek-compression

that

the lips are projected out instead of lying flat as in (bh),

and

this

was formerly considered

between (bh) and
although
there
(w).

to

be the cause of the

to

difference

These remarks apply

cheek-rounding
is

(wh)

also,

the

less

essential.

127.

bh;

(lip-front-open-voice).

Formed

by pro-

nouncing

(bh), at the

same time

raising the front of the

tongue towards the

(j)

position, or simply

by narrowing
is

the lip-opening of the vowel (y).

F. H in
'

This consonant

the

lui,'

'

puis.'

128. dh; (point-teeth-froni-open-voice).

is

Palatalisation

most

easily effected with the inner variety of (th)

and

(dh), in

whose formation the tongue

'vide.'

is less
is

stretched out.

This
d,

dhj),

formed without any contact,

the

Danish

soft

in

'gade,' 'gud,'

When pronounced
it

with a

stronger hiss, as in the Jutland pronunciation,

has very

much

the effect of a palatalised

softly in

(z).

It

is,

however, propalatal quality

nounced very
a

Copenhagen.
clearly

The
to

of the Danish soft

'
'

is

shown by

the fact that such

word as brod (bRSix'dh^) sounds

.

an E. ear almost
be

like (brjidh)

129.

s;,

sh/.

These consonants appear

to

common

in the Slavonic languages.

"

This (dh/) seems conclusively

to disprove

Mr.

Bell's

view of

the E. {th) being a front consonant.

44

CONSONANTS.
Divided Consonants.
130. ih.

(back-divided).

This,

to

unaccustomed

organs,
centre

is

one of the most

is

difficult

articulations.

The
the

stoppage

formed by the whole root of

tongue (which must be well pushed back), the breath

escaping between the sides of the root and the back
cheeks.
(7h) has not yet been found in any language
its

Mr. Bell compares

(i)
It
is,

sound

to the 'hiss of a waterfowl.'

I

according to Mr. Bell, the Gaelic

in

'

laogh

'

(ivi).
is

does not appear to be the Slavonic barred \ which

(1).

simply a variety of
substituted for
131.
(a).

]\Ir.

Bell saj's that

(1

gh)

is

often

Lh,

(front-divided).
(j).
it.

An

(1)

or (Ih) formed

\x

the place of
familiar with
first

A
The

difficult

articulation

for those ui

point of the tongue should in the

lortver

attempts be held firmly against the

gums, so
dorsal'
is

that the front

may

articulate

by

itself,

(l) is the Italian

INI.

gl in 'gh,' Spanish
is

U
(l).

in 'llano

'a.

The
to

G.

'

a very forward

According

Mr. Bell (Lh)

variety of defective (s) in E.,

formed apparently by

the

outer front of the tongue and the arch-rim.

132. lh, 1 (point-divided).

The

centre stop

is

formed"
just

by the

flattened tip of the tongue against the

teeth.
It

gums
is

behind the

has the

same inner and outer

There
also

varieties as the other point consonants.

an

inverted

(1),

which appears

to occur in the eastern dialects

' '

of Norway, as in the
*

name Ole

*>.

^ I

In both languages with a (j) or glide-(i) following. heard this very peculiar sound from Professor Storm of

Christiania, but

was unable

to imitate

it

sequently cannot give any analysis of

its

formation.

with certainty, and conIt sounded to

DIVIDED CONSONANTS.
I

45
free
in

lie

back and front of ihc tongue being

of
(1),
it

the

'!inati()n

is

capable of indcfuiite modification by

rations in the

shape of the mouth, both by the moveIiy

ments of the tongue and

cheek and
(1)

lip

narrowing.
elf,'
'

The

barred Slavonic

(1)

and the Dutch

in

'

iwaalf,'

'volk,'

have a deep guttural character, due to concavity

of the front and retraction of the back of the tongue.

The same
of
-tell,'

(1)

may

often be heard in the Sc. pronunciation

'twelve.'

In the F.

'elle,' 'aller,'

and, generally
is (1)

speaking, in the Continental

(1)

the front of the tongue

raised towards the palate, which raises the pitch of the

and gives
(1)

it

something of the character of

palatal

(l).

The E.
the

is

formed without
;

modification, but without

gutturality

it

is,

therefore,
.

intermediate

to

two

extremes described
(1) is

generally formed without audible friction, but

may

easily

be buzzed by spreading out the side edges of the

tongue.
(Ih) is
It
*

the

Welsh

11

in

'

llan,'
I

the Icel. Id in
after
'

hlatSa,"

in

'

bilt,'

and the French

all

final
it is

consonants, as in
'

table.'

In

these cases
is

the

high (half-palatal)
'

(1).

133. There

also a
lips

'

lip-divided

consonant, formed

by spreading out the

to

and allowing the breath or voice

any

escape

at

the coi;ners, keeping the lips firmly closed

in the middle.

This sound has not been found

in

language.

134. There are also

unilateral

'

varieties of the divided

me more like (r^) than O4.). It may have been a sound like the Japanese ([d]r), only inverted. ( 243.) * The above obscrstaions were made by me independently many vears ago. I was, therefore, very glad to find them confirmed by
Sievers (L. Ph. p. 55 foil.).

46

CONSONANTS.

consonants, in which the breath or voice escapes on one

side only.

T he Welsh by

(Ih)

is

often formed in this

way

by allowing

the breath to escape

() after

on the

right side only.

They

are indicated

the letter

A^ast7l Cojisonaiils.

135. qh,

(back-nasal),
'

(q) in E.

'

sing,'

G.

'

singen.'

Swedish
136.
'

'

sjunga,'

regn.'

This sound does not occur

the

in French.

Nh,
the
'

(front-nasal), (n)

is

Y.gn

in 'Boulogne,'
ii

vigne,'

Italian

gn

in
(l)

'

ogni,'
is

and the Spanish

(j)

in

'

nino,'

senor.'

Like

it

followed by

in all these

instances.

Very forward

(n) is the

M. G.

dorsal n.
'

137. nh,

(point-nasal).

medium
teeth.

one, formed

on
in

the
'

The E. gums
'

(n) in

nine

'

is

the

a Uttle behind the

dental
(^n),

The

F. sound

nonne

is

often
is

interdental.

In most of the Teutonic languages (n)

generally dental, often also half-dental, part of the tongue

being on the gums, part on the

the rim of the arch,
is is

teeth.

n),

formed on
(n4-)

not

uncommon

in

EngHsh.

the
(

'

cerebral
n).
is

'

n of the Indian languages. hn and kn, as

in
'

It is distinct

from

(nh)

the Icel.

hniga,'

'

hnut,'

'

knif.'

138.
this

mh,

(lip-nasal).
all

No

examples are required of

sound, the easiest of

consonants,

(mh) may be
'yes,'

heard in that inarticulate substitute for

particularly frequent in Scotch

which

is

(mmhm).

There are also varieties of undivided open consonants, such as formed on one side of the tongue. Sievers (L. Ph. p. 72) says he has heard this (sh ) in English pronunciation.
*

(sh),

NASAL AND SHUT CONSOyAXTS.

47

Xasalised Consonants.

139. jn (front-nasal-opcn-voicc) often occurs in careless

French pronunciation as a substitute

140. Other nasalised consonants

for (n).

may be formed
of
the

at

pleasure, such as (m), (sn), but the nasalised consonants

are

litde

used in

language, on account

great

expenditure of breath they involve.

Shut
141.

(stopped)

Consonants.

k
g

(back-shut) admits of the same inner and outer

(,k) is the

varieties as (kh).

Arabic kaf.

142.
e.xist in

(back-shut-voice).

This consonant does not

(k),

Dutch, except as a secondary modification of

voice stop, as in
'

when followed by a
143.
(j).

bakboord,'

'

zak-

doek" (bagboorrt, zagduk).

(front-stop).
is
still

stop formed in the

same place
1 1

as

This k

the sound of the Sanskrit ch, as

20).

first

accurately described by Mr. Ellis (E. E. P. p.

soft

The

in

Swedish, as in

'

kenna,'

is

often (xjh).
is

144.
still

(front-stop-voice).

This

the Sanskrit j, as

pronounced.

It
'

may sometimes be
gora,'

heard

in

the
(j).

Swedish

soft g, as in

which
to

is

generally simple

The

f)ij

in

'

Magyar

'

seems

be

(d).

Very advanced {j) and

dorsal consonants.

(^d)

appear to be the M. G.

145. t (point-stop).
the

The

E.

(t)

and

(d) are
(,t)

formed

in
d).

medium

position, but

are

often

also

and

French

In (t) and (d) are dental, often also interdental. most of the Teutonic languages they are either dental or
as

half-dental,

with

(1).

Inverted

(t)

and

(d)

occur

in

48 some of
(,t)

CONSONANTS.
the Indian languages, particularly in the Dravi

dian languages of the south, but are often confused with

and

(,d),

as in the present

North Indian pronunciation

and
the
(d), a-

of Sanskrit
146.
well as
position,

(Ellis,

E. E. P. p. 1096).
(t)

It is
(1)

important to observe that E.

(n), are

and

often, especially in the

medium
stop
is

practically

'blade-stops,'

that

is,

formed not merely by the point of the tongue, but by upper edge of the point and part of the upper surfac inside the point, so that these blade (t)s and (d)s ar>
' '

thr<

practically stopped (s)s.

The common

Continental half-

dental

(t) is

also a blade consonant rather advanced.

147.
(t)

(point-stop-voice).
(d).

The remarks made under

tlu-

apply equally to

Interdental (d) occurs in

Cumberland
'

dialect of E., as a substitute for (dh), as in

father.'

148. p,

(lip-stop).

These consonants require no

'

remark.
It is

also

possible to produce a

lip-teeth

'

stop,

by
lip.

covering the front of the upper teeth by the lower

The p
way^.

in the G. pf, as in

'

pfund,'

is

often formed in this

The corresponding
and
the
closely

voice consonant has a very

(bh).

soft effect,

resembles
is

According to
is

Prof.

Land b

Dutch w, which

generally (bh),

also

formed
149.

in this

way.
Stops.

Mixed

Both back and point stops may be

modified by simultaneous front contact.

li

ky (back-front-stop). This is the old-fashioned London in sky,' kind,' with which the Icel. k in kseti,' kenna,'
'

'

'

'

^ I

was glad

to find this observation of

mine confirmed by Sievers

Ellis, E. E. P. p. 1102.

(L. Ph. p. 68).

b

Uitspraak en Spelling,

p. 30.

Cp. also

TRILLED CONSONANTS.
is

49
slight (j)

identical,

(k/)
it,

always seems to generate a

like the

or glide-(i) after

simple front stops.

150. ^' (back-front-stop-voice). Old-fashioned London

sound of

(g) in

'

guide,' Icel. v in
(j).

'

geta,'

'

gaeti,'

with ihr

same after-sound of
151.
also (I/)

In a similar

way may be formed

is liable
''

(tj)

and

(d^"),

and

and

{nj),

but the result

to

be confounded

with the simple (t), (d), &c.

Trilled Consonants.

152.

khr

(back-trill).

The

uvula

lies
It
its

loosely
is

on the

tongue pointing towards the mouth.

the

driven up by

outgoing
is

air,

and

falls

again by

This

common sound

of ch in Swiss

own weight''. German and

'

other S. G. dialects.

153.

ghr
'

(back-trill-voice).

Northumbrian

burr.'

French
in

r grasseyd.'

A common

substitute for (xr) both

individually.
in
'

whole

districts, as in the

154. rhr
'

(point-trill).

M. G. Saxony, and Welsh rh, Icel. lir

'

hri'ngr,'

hross.'

F. r final after consonants, as in

{xr) is

theatre.'

155. TV (point-trill-voice),
untrilled
(r).

much commoner

than

It

is

the

regular Scotch, Irish,

It is

French,

Dutch, and Swedish sound.

tip

formed by bringing the

of the tongue loosely against the gums, and directing

a stream of voiced breath

*

on

it

at the

same

time.

The

front
p.

As was done by Mr. Ellis till the real meaning of Mr. Bell's consonants was explained to him by Mr. Nicol (E. E. P.
19).

(.k/)

Mr. Bell, on the other hand, seems not to be aware of he makes the {kj) in 'kind' to be simply an outer (k), from which it is certainly distinct. The best description and drawing of this consonant is that given by Merkel in his Physiologic der Sprache, p. 219.
1 1

&c., for

**

50
fore part of the
is

CONSONANTS.
tongue must not be
stiffened, or the
trill

impossible.

156. phr,

bhr

(lip-trill).

The

lips

must be kept

quite

relaxed and protruded.

in

This consonant does not occur

any known language.

157. All of these sounds

may be

modified in various

ways,

{rrj)

occurs in Armenian, as pronounced to

me

by Prof.

Sievers.
is

There

also a divided

trill

158. Ihr, Ir (back-divided-trill).

lation has not

This

difficult articu-

been detected

in

any language.
(1)

159. Mr. Bell also

trilled a.

states that

is

capable of being

Glottal Consonants.
160. All of these are treated under other headings.

For and

(h),

the aspirate, see 195;

for (r)

and

(x) 18

20.

Acoustic Qualities of Consonants.

161.

The consonants
it is

are

much

easier to recognise by

ear than

the vowels, as far as their

organic formation

is',

concerned, and

not

till

we come

to synthetic distinc-

tions of voice, &c., that their appreciation offers

ticular difficulty.

any par-

The main
is

practical difficulty with the

consonants themselves
certainty,

to

form them with ease and

many

of

them

offering considerable difficulties

to

to those

unaccustomed

them.

The

trills

especially

require long practice.

* It
trilled

was formerly assumed that

(r)

and

(1)

were always

necessarily

on what grounds

it is difficult

to imagine.

RELATIONS OF CONSONANTS TO VOWELS.

162.

51

The

following table shows the pitch of the chief

to Bell":

open consonants, according

wh khw Rh kh kh

?}^

rh sh s jh ih jh jh

Relations of Consonants to Vowels.

163.

The main
is,

distinction

between consonants and

All breath articu-

vowels
are

as already indicated ( 99), that consonants

independent of voice, vowels not.

lations are therefore ipsofacto consonants. lations are easily tested

\-ield

Voice
glottis
:

articuif

by opening the

they

a distinctly audible friction, they are

the friction
is

consonants.

The buzz caused by

often audible without

devocalisation, as in the case of (z)

and

(dh).
(oeh), is

164. If an open vowel, such as (a) or

to this
test,

submitted
is

we

obtain

nothing

but a sigh, which

forcibly.

inaudible except
take

when pronounced
such
is

But

if
it,

a high vowel,

as

(i),

and devocalise

we we

obtain a hiss which

a

quite distinct

enough

to stand for

weak

(jh).

The same may be

This would
(j)

said of devocalised (u)

(i)

weak (wh).

justify

us in regarding

and

(u)

themselves as weak

and

(w).

In
like

fact the

boimdary

between vowel and consonant,

different

that

between the

kingdoms of

nature,

cannot be drawn with

absolute definiteness, and there are sounds which

may

belong to either.
165. In Scotch
buzz,
the
(i)

(ii) is

often pronounced with a distinct

(j).

and
is

is

then simply a held

if

In French also

often pronounced,
(th) I

not with a buzz, at least

(f)

and

have added myself.

They

are omitted by Bell,

who

regards them as di\-ided consonants.

52

CONSONANTS.

with a distinct consonantal squeeze, so that in such a

word
stop,

as 'guerrier' (gaerje)
i

it

is difficult

to

know whether
no doubt

to call the

a vowel or a consonant.
(i) is

After a voiceless

where the
its

devocalised, there can be

as to

consonantal sound, as in 'pied' (pjhe).

'

So

also

often finally, as in 'sympathie

in 'vecu' (vekjhyi).

(-tjhi).

Similarly with (y)

166.

On

the other hand, there are

many

voice con-

sonants which

may be

regarded as vowel-like' consonants.

'

In

fact,

whenever a voice unshut consonant

distinct buzz,
it
is,

is

pro-

nounced without a

to the ear at least,

a vowel while being held.

This applies especially to the

can be buzzed,
generally

voice nasals, which are, indeed, almost incapable of being

buzzed.

(1)

also,

although

it

is

vocalic in sound.
into

Lastly, (gh)

and

(r)

can both be relaxed

free

sounds which are almost entirely

from

friction,

although they then

may

almost be regarded as vowels.

distinctly
is

But the

friction

comes out

when any one

and
if

of

these vowel-like consonants

devocalised,

they are

consonants when breathed, they must be equally so when

voiced.

In the case of

(1)

and the

nasals, although they

have a purely vowel

effect while

being held, they always

is

end with a

distinct flap

when

the contact

broken, which

unmistakeably proclaims their consonant character.

167. Positicm.

The

various

positions

of

the

open
less

voiced consonants must necessarily yield more or

distinct
all

vowel-sounds when expanded enough to remove

audible friction. The relations between the consonant and vowel positions are very important, and should be
carefully studied.

Thus, starting from the buzzed

(gh),

the student should carefully increase the distance between the back of the tongue

and the

soft palate

till

all friction

RELATIONS OF CONSONANTS TO VOWELS.

ceases
is

r^'^

he

will

thus obtain the vowel

(a).

If the

movement

made
168.

very slowly, he will form the soft (r)-like (gh),

(gra).

producing a combination which suggests

The
:

following are the

more important of

these

relations'*

,gh

gh

,gh

^ghiv

ghw
o

,ghit',w

j\v

jio

jw

correspond to

T3V8eeio
169.

oeay
and blade con-

By weakening

the different point

sonants a variety of vowels

may be

found, which are not

included in the regular scheme of vowels.

170. If

(r) is

weakened we

get a peculiar vowel-sound,

(r)

which partakes of the character of

itself

and of the
the
rest

mixed vowel
of the tongue

(seh),
is

the tip being raised while

nearly in the position for the low or

mid

mixed vowels.

Most of

the vowels

may
(r)

be modified by
cfess of point-

the tip in this way,

and we thus obtain a

modified vowels, represented by an

after the

vowel-

symbol.
get

This (r)-vowel
series

may be

retracted,

and we thus
In
the

another

of retracted-point

vowels.
(r)

Kentish pronunciation'^ the retracted

&c.,
is

of 'sparrow,'
vowel,

thus

incorporated

into

the

preceding

'sparrow' being pronounced (spair^).

171.

By weakening
is

(dh) a sound

is

produced which

has quite the effect of a dental (r)-vowel.

soft

The Danish

nearly this outer (r)-vowel, with the addition of

front modification.

172.

A weakened

(z) gives a

vowel which has the

effect

of a very forward (eh), being in fact the 'blade' vowel

'

Based on Mr.

Bell's tabulations,

As given me by Mr. Goodchild,

of II.

wilh additions of my o\vn. M. Geological Survey.

54

SOUNDS FORMED WITHOUT EXPIRATION.

to (eh),

most nearly corresponding

173.

and bearing the same

(

relation to (eh) as (z) itself does to

j).

A
It

weakened

(zh) gives the point-modified blade

vowel.

has the effect of a very forward (eh) with

(r)-quality.

something of an

All

these sounds
facility,

may

be

combined, with various degrees of

vowels.

with the other

They may
is

all

be rounded.
get (eh) with lip-rounding, which
(a).

174. If (bh)

weakened, with the tongue in the

neutral (eh) position,

is

we

about equivalent to inner

If

cheek-rounding

is

added,

we have

(oh) a.

SOUNDS FORMED WITHOUT EXPIRATION.

175. All the sounds hitherto described imply expiration.
It
is

however possible
is

to

form sounds both with

in-

spiration, as

occasionally done in

some Swiss
air

dialects

to disguise the voice'',

and without

either expiration or
in

inspiration, but solely with the help of the

the

mouth.
"

The above remarks on the

differ in

relations

between vowels and con-

sonants

some

respects from those of Mr. Bell,

who

considei's

the mixed vowels (ih), (eh), and (jeh) to be related to

(r) respectively.
It is troe that if

(z), (zh),

and

we lower

the tongue from the

weak
as

(r) position,

we

ultimately get (ceh), but the true

distinct

we have

seen,

something quite

without any raising of the point.

(eh), I get simply (j).

(r) vowel is, from (seh), which is formed Again, if I consonantise (ih) and

(ih) may, of course, be made into a weak consonant simply by devocalisation, but the result bears no resemblance to (z), but is simply a slightly gutturalised (jh). It is in fact (jh + Jh), the mouth passage being narrowed in two places at once. If strengthened by raising the intermediate portion of the

tongue,
''

it

passes entirely into (jh).

'

See Winteler,

Die Kerenzer Mundart,'

p. 5.

SOUNDS FORMED WITHOUT EXPIRATION.

176.
'

:yj

Suction-Stops' are formed in this

way by placing
and then
by the

the tongue or Ups in the

position for a stop,

sucking out the

stop;

air

between the organs which form the

pressed
strongly together

they are

thus

pressure of the air in the mouth, so that

a distinct

when separated

'smack'

is

heard.

in interjectional speech.
(J)
is

Thus,

These sounds are common if we denote suction by

is

after the

stop symbol, (pi)

an ordinary

kiss,
'

(tj)
!'

the interjection of impatience

commonly
African

written

tut

&c.

In

many

of the

South

languages

these

suctions are
as 'clicks".'

those essential elements of speech

known
and
(tt)

Thus

in the

Bushman language

(pja)

similar

combinations occur.

In the Zulu language

&c.

are

always accompanied by some other expiratory

consonant.

Thus

(q)

and

(tj) are

formed simultaneously,

the (t+) not interrupting the

(q)K

177. Other non-expiratory sounds are the implosives

(

224), where, however, the following glide

is,

or

may

be,

expiratory.

This name

is

somewhat inappropriate

'

chick

'

would describe

the sounds better.

See Bell, V. S. p^ 125, for the Zulu clicks. Other clicks from American languages are described by Haldeman, quoted in Ellis,
>

E. E. P. p. 1349.

Part

III.

SYNTHESIS.
178.

We

have

hitherto

considered
is,

sounds from a
each sound has
fixed, isolated

purely analytical point of view, that

been considered by
element.
to

itself,

as

if it

were a

But

in

language sounds are combined together

in certain

form sentences, and many sounds only occur

fixed combinations.

Hence

the necessity for synthesis as

well as analysis.
stationary point,

Analysis regards each sound as a fixed,

synthesis as

momentary point

in

stream of incessant change.

Synthesis looks mainly at

the beginning and end of each sound, as the points where

it

is

linked

on
is

to other sounds, while analysis concerns

fully

itself

only with the middle of the

developed sound*.

Synthesis

either special or general, the former dealing

with special combinations, the latter with sound-groups

generally.

The most
special
'

important general factors of synthesis, both

and

general, are force, quantity,

and the theory of

glides,'

or transitional sounds.

Compare

the remarks of Sievers, L. Ph. p. 75.

SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.

57

SPECIAL SYNTIIKSIS.
General Elements.
179. Force.
Force, like quantity, belongs essentially

10 the synthesis of

sounds, for

it is

always

relative,

always

implying comparison, either of two different sounds or of

different portions of the

are here

concerned.

Physically

same sound, with which latter we it is synonymous with

is

the force with which the breath

lungs, which
is

expelled from

the
dia-

effected

by upward pressure of the

is

phragm.

Every impulse of force

therefore attended
it

by

a distinct muscular sensation.

Acoustically
is

produces

the effect

known

as 'loudness,' which

dependent on

the size of the vibration-waves which produce the sensation

of sound.

When we
is

say therefore that one sound, or

group of sounds,
as in
'

uttered with
first

more

force than another,

syllable
is

comparing the

with the second

utterance the air

of

heavy,'

we mean
size

that in

its

expelled

from the lungs with a greater muscular

sequence the

effort, that in
is

con-

of the resulting sound-waves

greater,

producing an
180.
It

effect of greater

loudness on the ear.

must, of course, be understood that force has

( 270).

nothing to do with pitch or tone

181. Force in
its

synthetic sense

must
in

also

be carefully
friction

distinguished

from those variations

configurative

the
to

of

unstopped consonants which are due

width
of
the
is

the

var)'ing

passage.

The

friction

of

consonants
tion,

an essential element of

their organic forma-

and has no
is,

special connection with synthesis^.

There

of the friction and the force of the outgoing air

however, a certain connection between the audibility a certain definite

:

58
182.

SPECIAL SVNTHESIS.

We

have

now

to

consider the changes of force in

a single breath-impulse, as for instance in pronouncing

any vowel, such as

(ai).

force, (i) level, (2) increasing (crescendo),

Here we have three kinds of and {3) diminishsymbolised thus

ai

ing (diminuendo), which

level

may be

increasing

Si
Si
it

diminishing

In examining the force of any stress-group

help to whisper
it,

is

a great

which gets

rid of all disturbing tone-

changes.

183.

The

general tendency of language

force.

is

to

pro-

nounce with diminishing

(kcet) is

Thus

in

the (k) of

pronounced with more force than the

end of a long
force
is

(t).

Hence

also the

weaker than

that of a short

vowel,

the
the
(t)

diminishing
'

continuously

throughout.
'

Thus

of

'

cart

is

weaker than that of

cat.'

The
In

same phenomena may be observed in German French, on the other hand, the force is more
final
(t)

alsos^.

equal, the

of

'

tete,'

for instance,

being pronounced with

almost as
there
is

much

force as the initial

force.

one

but even here

no

perfectly level
as,

< may
(ai)

be heard

in

interjections,

for
it

instance,

in

denoting joyful
rise

surprise.

Here

is

accompanied with a marked

in pitch, but if

whispered the

<

is

unmistakeable.
actual

184.

The

influence of force
is

on the

synthesis
will

of language
position

extremely important.

This subject

may produce

audible friction under a

strong impulse of
itself is

breath, but not under a

weak

one.

But the position

some-

thing absolute, and

"

all articulation
all.

postulates a certain

amount of

force to be audible at

See Sievers, L. Ph. p. 115

foil.

GENERAL ELEMENTS.
be
fully

59
Here we
continuity

discussed under General Synthesis.

need only remark that the sense of unity and separation

is

mainly due

to

force.

As

a general

rule

of force gives the impression of unity, discontinuity that

of separation.
effect

Thus
(aiTI)

(fl),

(ai),

and
if

(ai),

all

have the

of single indivisible units,

prolonged ever so
like

much.
units,

But

and
is

(aiii)

sound

two

distinct

even when there

not the slightest pause between

them.

185. Quaniity.
quantity or length
:

We may

distinguish five

degrees of

very long

long
half long or

medium

short

very short,
but for practical purposes the three distinctions of long,
half-long,

and short are enough.

by
(i) after

Long

is

denoted by

(11),

half-long

the sound symbol,

and short
(i)
is

is left

unmarked.
186.

If

only two degrees are marked,

used

for long, short

being unmarked.
is

The

quantity of any one sound

its

apt to vary

according to

circumstances.

Thus

in E. final long
in

vowels, as in 'see,'
'

and before voice consonants, as

'

seize,'

are really long, while before breath consonants

cease.'

they are shortened to half-longs, as in

But
noth

in

German

full

length

is

preserved before voiceless conso' '

nants as well as voice- ones, so that the (o) in

as long as the E.
'

is

node,' not half-long as in

dialects there are

'

note.'

In
at

many Scotch

no

full

long vowels

all, all

long vowels being shortened to half-longs.

187. In

some languages, such

as F., the distinctions of

6o

SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
In French most

long and short are not clearly marked.

longs and shorts.

vowels are half-long, and are only occasionally lengthened

or shortened into
tinctly short
*

full

In French, disfinal,

accented vowels are generally

is

as

in

oui,'

which

directly

opposed

to E. usage.

188.

The

distinctions of quantity apply to consonants

as well as vowels.

Thus

in E. final

consonants are long

(hili), (hiil)

after short, short after

'

long vowels, as in

hill,'

'

heel.'

(1)

and the nasals are long before

voice,

short before voiceless consonants, as in (btlid), (bilt)=

'

build,"

'

built.'

Even

stops are lengthened finally after

short vowels, as in (bsedi)=' bad.'

practise lengthening

The

E. student should
all

and shortening consonants under

circumstances.

The

short final consonants after short

difficult.
'

vowels

will

be found

German

pronunciation, as in
'

mann,'
'

They may be heard in hat,' and still more

'

clearly in Danish, as in

ven,'

hat,'

which have a very

abrupt sound to English ears.

189. Glides^.

Synthesis

introduces us to a special

class of elements called 'glides,' or transitional sounds,

produced during the transition from one sound

Thus,
in

to the other.
(ki),

pronouncing any combination, such as

(i),

we have
This
'

not only the two sounds (k) and

in passing

but also the

to the other.
(i)

sound produced
glide
'

from one position

diff"ers

from the two extremes (k) and

it is,

in

having no fixed configuration,

all

in fact,

the intermediate positions between (k)

it

composed of and (i), through

If the

which

passes without dwelling

at

on any of them.

tongue were arrested

*
it,

any one intermediate

point, a

This term was first used by Mr. Ellis. Mr. Bell also adopted but limited its application to glide-vowels. I use it here in the
sense as Mr. Ellis.

same

GENERAL ELEMENTS.
single definite

6\

sound would be produced, and instead of

to
(i),

one uninterrupted glide from (k) one from the

there to the

we

shall

have two,

(k) to the intermediate point, another

from

(i).

190.

It

would
nor
in

clearly be impossible to symbolise

all

the
is

infinitesimal

intermediate positions of which

is it

a glide

made up
being

ever necessary, the general principle

that

all

cases

of transition

from one
:

fixed

position to another the shortest

fore,

way

is

taken

given, there-

the symbols

of the

fixed positions, the character

of the glide follows as a matter of course.

Glides are

implied

simply by the juxtaposition of the symbols of

the fixed positions

between which they

lie,

as in the case

of

(ki).

191.

Besides these essential, implied glides, there

'

is

another class of

unessential

'

glides,

which require to be

written separately.
(k) to
(i),

Thus, instead of passing direct from

the organs can

move up
(i),

to the (u) position,

(i).

and
is

without stopping there pass on to

Here

there

continuous glide from (k) to

but

it is

a roundabout glide,
(i).

and not implied by the positions of the (k) and

'

These
in the

glide- sounds

'

(glide-vowel in the present case) have a

definite,

though not a fixed configuration.

is

Thus,

present case, there

an essential glide implied from the

(k) to the (u) position,

and from there

no more a

to the (i) position,

and the

(u) position is therefore the distinct limi'i of the

it

glide-vowel, but

is

itself

fixed configuration
it

than any one of the intermediate positions between

the (k) or
series.
(i)

and

positions

like

them

it

is

simply one of a

These glide-sounds are symbolised by being

is

enclosed in brackets, thus (k[u]i), distinct from (kui), in

which the (u) position

maintained unchanged for an

62

SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.

appreciable period.
it

The

brackets are omitted whenever

can be done without causing ambiguity.

192. Glides are distinguished according as they pre-

cede or follow the sounds as

'

on

'-

and

'

off '-glides

^.

Thus
of
(i).

the glide in (ki)

Initial glides,

is

the off-glide of (k), the on-glide

(ki),

such as the on-glide of (k) in

which are only preceded by a

audible.
Final, or
'

silence, are generally in'

on-silence

glides,

such as the

off-

glide of (k) in (ik), are generally audible.

193.

The

acoustic effect of glides varies according to

the force and the rapidity with which they are pronounced.
If the transition

from one position to another

is

is

made
once
heard

very rapidly and with slight force the glide

at
all,

hardly heard
at

although any break, however

slight,

would

be heard.
if

On

the other hand, even an essential glide,

force, is often

formed slowly and with a certain

as a separate element.
(aja) there
is

Thus

in such a

combination as
first

always an essential glide from the

the (a)
is

(a) to

the

(j),

but

if

pronounced with rapidly diminish(j),

ing force, and a second force-impulse follows on the

thus
(aja), the glide is
is

not noticed at

all

whereas,

if

the

transition

made

slowly and with only a gradual alteration

offeree, the glide from the (a) to the high-front position'

is

distinctly heard,

and the

effect is (a[i]ja)^.

194.
ration
is

The

distinction

between glide and fixed configu-

not so clearly marked in the consonants as in

the vowels,
is

and

it

is

often doubtful whether a consonant

not to be considered rather a glide than a fixed element.

initial

This applies especially to

*
''

consonants, such as

(s)

The names were

first

suggested by Mr. Ellis.

is

\Miat Mr. Ellis describes as absence of glide

rather weakness of

glide.

INITIAL
and
(1)

AND FINAL VOWEL-GLIDES.

and
(la),

6 j;
is

in

(sa)

where the position

all

only

momentar)', and most of

to the aspirate

(n),

which

seems to vary
figuration
( 21 1).
".

indefinitely

between glide and fixed con-

The

breath stops are pure glides acoustically

fluctuations

These
[ ]

make

it

impossible to apply

the sign

with perfect uniformity.

VOWTLS.
Initial and Final Vowel-glides.

195. Vowels
\va} s b.

may be begun and

finished in

various

(i)

The

glottis is gradually

narrowed, passing through

the various positions for breath

and whisper

till

voice

is

produced.

This gives the 'gradual' beginning

([H]a),

which
(2)

is

the ordinary

way of beginning
kept back
at
till

a vowel.
is

The

breath

is

the glottis

closed

for voice,

which begins
This
is

once without any introductor}'

breath.

the

'

clear

beginning ([A]a), well

'

known
"

to singers,

who

are .always taught to avoid the

breath}

gradual beginning. In both these cases the stress, or force-impulse, of the

syllable begins

on the vowel.
(h)*",

If the stress begins

on the
ele-

glides they are at

once recognised as independent

ments, [h] giving

the ordinar)- 'aspirate,' or letter h,

is

while [a] developes into (x), the glottal catch, which

*>

Cp. Cp.

197.
Ellis,

E. E. P. p.

1 1

29.
it

\Vritten simply (h)

whenever

can be done without causing

ambiguity.

64
practically a

VOWELS.
stopped consonant, just as (h)
.

is

an open

consonant, or consonant-glide

196.

It is

important to observe that mere 'breath' (the

open

glottis) is

sometimes

distinct

from aspiration.

The
glottis

feeble friction of breath passing through the

is

open

heard equally in

all

the passages above the glottis, while

that of (h) is distinctly localised in the

narrowed

glottis.

197. Although (h)

is

essentially
it

transition

sound

between breath and

a
glide,

voice,
it

is

not therefore necessarily

and indeed
(h)

often happens that

some
its
;

definite
is

narrowing of the

glottis is held a

moment

before voice

formed^,

is,

however, liable to have

character

modified by the configuration of the mouth

and the
being

position for the vowel which follows the (h) being generally

assumed, or

at least prepared, while the (h) is

formed, the (h) naturally assumes the character of that

vowel.
It is in

fact the voiceless (or

it

whispered) glidec,

vowel corresponding to the vowel

easy to
follow
<i.

precedes

and

it is

tell

by the sound of the (h) what vowel

is

is

to

(h)

therefore in the glottis a consonant, in

* The distinction between the gradual vowel-beginning and (h) is a very instructive instance of the importance of force in determining the synthesis of sounds. The mere force with which the breath is driven through the narrowed glottis is of secondary importance the real distinction lies in where the force begins. In (na) we may pronounce the (h) with as much force as possible, but if a fresh impulse,however slight, begins on the (a), we hear simply (a) with the gradual beginning, whereas the gentlest stress, if it only begins on

the (h), and

is

carried

on

to the (a)

without discontinuity, gives the

effect of (na).
''

According to Czesmak
It

"

may

this is usually the case. also precede consonants, such as (1) &c.
Bell,

This was noticed by Mr.

years ago.

who communicated

it

orally to
'

me many

INITIAL
the

AND FINAL VOWEL-GLIDES.

65

mouth a

voiceless glide-vowel",
(i)

(h) before (a) has a

if

back, before

a front quality, and

exaggerated (Ha)
In Japanese

and (ni) develope into weak (kha) and

the

(jhi).

aspirate

varies in
it

this

way before

different vowels.
effect

Before high vowels

(jhii,

has a distinctly consonantal

it

phwhi),

while before mid-vowels

nei, hoi)
'.

seems

to

be

merely a strong aspirate (nai,

198. Vowels are finished in different ways analogous

to those in

which they are begun.

whisper to
breath,

(i)

By

a gradual opening of the glottis, the final glide

passing
'

through
'

which

gives

the

gradual
(2)

ending.
a cessation of expiration while the glottis
'

By

is

still

closed for voice, giving the

clear

'

ending.
(a) for

If uttered with stress, after the

(i)

vowel

example,

(2)

becomes becomes

(an),

which

is still
*

the Sanskrit visarga^,

and

(ax), the

Danish

stodtone'

( 19).

199. Final (h) has a consonantal character when pro-

nounced

forcibly, especially after the

is

high vowels.

If the

high position

relaxed slowly the consonantal hiss beif

comes

ver}'

marked, even

there

is

but

little

force

on the
voice,'

Mr.

Ellis regards thre

normal (h) as simply a jerk of the

'

without any breath.

to

Mr.

Ellis's

own

me

to differ essentially

from

my

pronunciation does not appear own. He simply reduces the

breath effect to a

minimum by
'

contracting the glottis and giving

a short impulse of force, passing on at once to the vowel, which, of course, gets rid of the breathiness which so often accompanies
'

the (h).

Mr.

Ellis's (hsl) is in
is

fact

almost ('Aa).

The only

'jerk

of the voice' I can produce

''

(xa).

I find, on referring to my notes on the pronunciation of the same Japanese gentleman who dictated the sounds to Mr. Ellis, that I wrote (khaO, (,khoi), and (nei), the last only agreeing wuth Mr. Ellis's appreciation. This will show how difficult the dis-

tinction

is.
1

ElUs, E. E. P.p.

139.

66
glide.
this

VOWELS.

The
So

Icelandic final
'i'

(i)

and

(u) are

pronounced

in

way, as in

and

'nii' (iiH,

num), almost=(iijh,

nuiwh).

also in Danish, often also in Dutch.

Glide- VoA^-ELS and Diphthongs.

200. Glide-vowels generally occur

full

in

combination with

vowels (vowels
'

formed by a fixed configuration),

will return

forming diphthongs,' to which we

immediately.

Undiphthongic glide-vowels occur however

also, the

com-

monest of which
It

is

the

'

voice-glide

'

[a],

produced by

emitting voice during the passage to or from a consonant.

has no definite relation to any one vowel, although

it

approaches most nearly to the neutral vowel (eh) or

(seh).

The

voice-glide

binations,

is an essential element of many comand often occurs as an unessential element in

such words
'together
'

as

'against' ([Ajgsenst),

'bigger' (b?g[A]),

(t[A]gaedh[A]), &c. It
in

may be

rounded, and

this

[aw]

may be heard
'

a rapid

pronunciation of such

words as

foWow'
is

diphthong

the combination of a
it.

full

vowel with a

glide-vowel before or after

Thus,

if

we

place the vocal

to
\

organs in the position for

(i),

and then allow voice

(i)

sound while passing from the

hold the
(a)

to the (a) position,

it

and
and

long enough to give

([i]a).

a fixed character, we
full (a)

have the diphthong

then pass to the

If

we begin with a we have

(i)

position, letting the voice cease as

is

soon as the

(i)

position

reached,

(a[i]).

201. These are the essential elements and conditions

of every diphthong.

The

glide-vowels can, however, be

held or lengthened into true vowels without destroying

the diphthongic character of the whole combination, pro-

GLIDE-VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.

ridcd the continuity
a[ijii
.

6"/

of stress be observed
to

184).

Thus

.)

may be prolonged
still

any

extent,

and the whole

rroup

will

be

felt

to

be one diphthong.

202. In the Quantity of diplithongs we must distinguish

between the quantity of the vowel and of the glide, which,
f

we

allow
:

only long

and short

quantity, gives

four

.arieties

(1) a[i]
(2) ai[i]

(3) a[ii]
(4) ai[ii]
2)
is

heard

in the

E.

'

say,'

and

(3)

is

the quantity of E.
'

eye.'

The

lengthening of the glide in

shortness of the vowel

eye
if

'

is

to

com-

jensate for the

both vowel

ind glide were short,

we should have

a short monosyllable,
(

ivhich is contrary to the

general character of E.
(ai), (au),

188).
(oi)

In E. the older diphthongs of the

nave short vowels

and

type

and long
(01)

glides, while the later diph-

:hongised
g;lide

(ei)

and

have the vowel long and the

short.

203.
.'aries

The

length of diphthongs before consonants in E.

according to the

consonant

Before voice conas

sonants they have the

rise,'

same length
'

when

final,

as in

'ride

'

= (3),

'save,' 'raid

= (2), but
If the

before voiceless
final

:onsonants both vowel and glide are shortened, the

:onsonant being lengthened by way of compensation, as

'rice,'

'write'; 'race,' 'rate.'

diphthongs in these
final

.vords are isolated

.vill

by suppressing the
final

consonants,

it

be found that they have an abrupt

effect, quite dif-

"erent

from that of

'

eye,' &c.
is,

204. The popular conception of a diphthong

F 2

to a

68
great extent, dependent

VOWELS.
on the associations of
written

language.

Diplithongs in which the glide precedes the

vowel, 'fore-glide diphthongs,' are generally denoted in

written language

generally

by a consonant, and hence the glide is assumed to be a consonant, or else these diph'

thongs are called

spurious,'

it

being supposed that the

is less

connection between their elements

the case of other diphthongs.

intimate than in

205. Of the diphthongs in which the glide follows the

vowel,
'

after-glide

diphthongs,' the most

(ai)

frequent

are

varieties of

what may be called the

'

and (au)

types, as

in

'

high

'

and

hot','.'

It
all

has accordingly been laid

down
i

as a general law that in

diphthongs the movement must,

as in these diphthongs, be in the direction of narrowing,

and that none others are genuine.' 206. Again, it has been assumed from the
'

spelling ai

and au that the second element of these typical diphthongs must necessarily be
that they usually stop at
(i) and (u), whereas some lower position.

the fact

is|

Until these prejudices are got rid

of, no.

one can attempt!

their;
;

the very difficult task of analysing diphthongs into

elements

^.

207. The peculiarity of diphthongs

is

that their

ele-j

ments may vary almost

relations of glide

indefinitely,

if

only the general

and vowel are preserved.

laid

The

following

general laws

may be

down.

(i) Glides (that

is,

glide-vowels) before a vowel have

the effect of consonants.

(2) Back-glides before

and

after

vowels have the

effecl,
,

of

(r).
a

Examples
Bell's

[a]i, [ujce, i[D], e[a].

are,

Mr.

'glides'

as

Mr.

Ellis

has

remarked, 'merti
i

evasions of the difficulty' (E. E. P. p. 1151).

GLIDE-VOWELS A\D DIPHTHONGS.

:

69

(3) Front-glides before a vowel have the effect of [j]

[i]a, [i]aj, [ae]u.

(4) Glides

after front

vowels which have an upward

movement, and glides

the effect of

after

back vowels which have a

forward and upward, or simply forward movement, have

[i],

as in (ai), e[i], cc[e], [ae], [eh].

(5) Round-glides which move upwards (not forwards

as well) after back, or

upwards and backwards

(if

after front

vowels, have the effect of [u] as in (au),

is

the

movement

downwards

the effect

is

that of (no)

a[o], o[u], X'[u].

The

glides

may be rounded

without disturbing these

general relations.

Mixed-glides have a somewhat doubtful character.

The

high-mixed has quite

front

character in

diphthongs,

whereas the low-mixed has more

the

of the back quality,

mid-mixed being

either front or

back

in its character

according to the direction of movement.

208.

few actual examples

may now be

given of each

category-.

(2) [] frequently occurs as

([?/]aed)

a substitute for
(u),

(r),

as in

= 'red.'
it is

Before

another

as

in

([tt]?tk)=

'rook,'

not very' distinct, but

is

is still

distinctly audible.
dis-

Here there
tinction

no change of position whatever, and the

is

between glide and vowel

simply one of force,

the beginning of the {[u]u)={ui) being

pronounced with
is

weak
held a

stress,

which suddenly becomes stronger, and

at its greatest

moment

degree.

If the (ui) is prois

nounced with gradually increasing force the vowel

heard simply as a long (u).
stood that there
necessarily
is

It

must, however, be under-

nothing in the sound of ([wj^/k) that

a
in
glide.
It
is

suggests
for
(r)

only the frequent

'red,'

hearing

[?<]

such words as

where

it

is

70
distinctly audible, that

VOWELS.
prepares the ear to expect
it

in

other familiar combinations.

[ash]

or

[aeh],

or the

simple voice-glide
(r)

[a],
is

is

the
fol-

regular E. substitute for

wherever the
'

(r)

not
'

lowed by a
(dhaei[ash]),
'

vowel,

as

in

here
'

'

(hzi[agh]),
'

there

ore

'

(oi[aeh]).

In

aflfected

pronunciation

there

is

a further retraction of the glide to the (a) position.

All these substitutes for (r) are closely allied to

(gh),

weak

and
is

it

is

not always easy to determine whether the

sound
(3)
'

a consonant or a glide-vowel,
E. y
is

The
'

often

weakened

into glide-(ih), as in
(e).

you,'

young,' or perhaps also into raised

All the

front-glides

may have

the effect of a (j) before

other
the

vowels, the eifect being of course most

glide
is

marked when

closer than the vowel.

(ji) at all,

If fact ([ae]i)

would hardly

suggest
class.

but rather

(ae[i]),

according to the next

(4)

These diphthongs,
fall

as far us

the

unrounded ones
(ai)

are concerned,
(ei) type,

into

two main groups, the

first

and

the

according as the

element has a back or a

is

front character.

When

the 'vowel

(e) or

{e),

there can,

of course, be no doubt as to the character of the diphthong,

any more than when the vowel

it is

is

back one.

But when

(ae)

or

(se)

the combination has almost the effect of

a very forward diphthong of the (ai) type.

Thus

the

first

element of long a
'

'

in English, as in

'

take,' is generally
it

(e) or (e),
(ae),

but

the broad

Cockney pronunciation
is

is

and the resulting diphthong

(ai) type,

not only heard as be-:

it,

longing to the
first

but actually passes over to

(eh),

the
the

element becoming the mid-mixed

'

as

in

ordinary pronunciation of
^ I believe,

eye

'

a.

however, that those

who

thus broaden the diphthong

GLIDE-VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.

As
vowel.

already remarked,
is

the

second element of these

(i),

diphthongs

not necessarily
[i]

but

may be some

lower

Pure

or
'

[/]
'

may be
ee,

heard in the Icelandic

diphthongs, as in

nei

(ncin), 'sse' (saiH)*, also in the

common Dutch
E. the glide
Its precise
is

diphthongised

as in

'

been

'

(beiin).

In
(<).

always wide, and never seems to reach

is difficult

nature
''.

to determine, but

it

seems to

be generally (?h)
Sievers

by which he

makes out the glide in the German at to be (e)'', may however mean [e']. The broad London
between glide and
for
(?h),

(ai/h) frequently shortens the distance

vowel
(aieh),

by substituting the neutral

which makes
vowel
'

(eh)
'

giving

pie

'

sound

like

pa.'

This (h)-glide

may

also be heard in Scotch pronunciation.

is

If the

a rounded one,

ve

get various diphis

thongs of the
a

(oi)

and

(ai) type,

according as the vowel

in
'

back or front one, such as the E. diphthong

boy

(bo*'h),

and the

Icel. au, as in

'

launa

'

(bina).

Rounding of
example,
'

the glide does not alter the character of

these diphthongs.

The G.

eu in

some of

its

varieties

is

an

neu

'

being pronounced (naa) and (noa), in

closely analogous to those

N.G. (not) or rather'(no[e*]).

(5)

These diphthongs are

keep
it

in 'take,' generally

distinct

from that of
[i]

'eye,'

by making

the

first

* I

element of the latter (a) or (a). am not certain of the narrowness of the

Mr. Ellis writes

[0.
'

have sometimes thought

it

was

raised (e)

possibly both occur,

as

(')

might easily pass into

(h).

* L. Ph. p. 87. Sievers's ingenious proof, which consists in introducing two fingers into the mouth so as to form an artificial it will be found that perpalate, can also be applied to English fectly good (ai)-diphthongs can be formed under these circumstances,
:

but no

(i).

7a
just described.

VOWELS.
Like them, they
fall

into

two
first

classes,

the (ou)
is

and the (au)

type, according as the

element
Just

regarded as a rounded or an unrounded vowel.

as there is a broad (ai)-like

(oiw) varies as (om)

form of

(eii'h),

so the regular

and

(oiu),

which

last

has very

much

the effect of (au), so that {noiu)='no,' seems really to pass

into (naiti)^.
It
its
is,

however,

difficult to

distinguish be-

tween
(ai)

(oi)

with

rounding reduced to a minimum and

it

pronounced, as

often

is

in English, with half-closed

mouth.

The

first

element of the (au) type

is

often represented

by a mixed vowel,
It will
is

as in the E. hotv (haehoh).

be noticed that the glide-vowel of the (au) type

simply the neutral vowel rounded, just as that of the E.

is

(oi)-diphthong

the

unrounded

(eh).

The German au
its

in

'haus,' has, according to Sievers, (o) for

glide

(haos)
all

or (haos)^'.
in

In (oui) there

is

generally no change at

the tongue position, the lips being simply narrowed

as for {u).

The second element

slight raising

is

then the wide form of

the Scandinavian (o)^.

There may, however, occasionally

of the tongue as well.
first

be also a

Of diphthongs
approach
is

of the (iu) type, whose

element

is

front-vowel, there are

no

certain examples.
in

The
in

nearest

the

American diphthong

'new,' which

Mr. Bell writes

glide
is

(ni^/).

These diphthongs,
strictly

which the

simply the vowel rounded, of which the G. (ao)

au

is

also

an example, form,

speaking, a class by

themselves.
x^

In the pronunciation of those

'

who seem

to

make 'no'
(as),

into

element of ow becomes distinctly two diphthongs are kept perfectly distinct. Perhaps rather (haos) ?
'

now
>

the

first

'

'

so that the

'^

See

43.

CONSONANTAL
Consonantal
209. Tlie mitl-vowels
raising the
(ei)

DIPIITIIONGS.

73

Dii'iniioN(;s.

and

(01) arc
(u).

diphthongised by
If

tongue towards
(ii)

(i)

and

we attempt

to

diphthongise

and

(ui) in the
(iij),

same way, they

(uiw).
If the

necessarily

develope into consonants

are

consonants

simply squeezed, not buzzed, the combination has

a

quite

diphdiongic character, as in the usual E. pro'

nunciation of

he,'

and

'

wlio.'

There are
if

several interis

mediate stages possible.

slightly

Thus,

the vowel position

lowered, a diphthong

may

be produced simply
but
still

by moving the tongue up to a

position.

closer,

a vowel

This seems to be often the case with the

(ii).

English
final

In

'

who

'

there can be

no doubt

as to the

consonant.

In E. the vowels themselves are generally half wide,

half narrow,

though they may also be quite wide.

CONSONANTS.
210. All consonants consist of three elements, (i) the

consonant

itself,

(2) the on-glide,

and

(3) the off-glide.

Each of these elements may be

and

either voiceless or voiced,

may

be modified in various other ways.

is

Consonant

synthesis
is

most

clearly seen in the stops,

whose synthesis

at the

same time

the

most important.
Stops.

211.
in

The

great peculiarity of voiceless stops

is

that
are,

themselves they have no sound whatever, they

acoustically speaking, pure glide-sounds, which are only

audible

in

the

moment
Voice

of transition from or to some

other sound.

stops,

on the other hand, can have

74

CONSONANTS.
own
in addition to that of their

a distinct sound of their

glides,

but as stops can only be voiced by driving voiceS

breath into an air-tight chamber^, they cannot be continued for any length of time.

212. Confining our attention for the present to the

off-glide,

we may

distinguish four chief kinds of voice(i) voiceless stop

less

and voice stops:

;

and breath
glide (k[A]a)

glide
;

(k[H]a)

(2) voiceless stop

and voice

(3)

voice stop and breath glide (g[Hja); and (4) voice stop

and voice glide

spectively.

(g[A]a).

initial (k), initial

(g), final (g),

These sounds may be heard in and (g) between vowels reis left

(i) In (k[H]a), as in (ka-), the glottis

open while

the stop

is

being formed, and the chords are not brought

till

into the voice position

the

moment

of loosening the

stop, so that before the glottis has time to

form voice

there

is

a slight escape of breath between the stop and

glide

the

vowel the

from the stop to the vowel

is

breathed.
(2) In (k[A]a), as in (ga-), the glottis is in the position for voice during the stop, but without

any
is

air

being forced

through

it,

and consequently the stop

as inaudible as the stop

in the case of (k), but voice begins the

is

moment

loosened, and the glide

is

therefore voiced.

(3) In (g[H]), as in (-ag), the voice runs

vowel to the stop without break, but the

simultaneously with
the

glottis is

on from the opened

stop,

loosening of the
final (-ak).

which

causes a puff of breath, just as in

(4) In (g[A]), as in (aga), the voice runs

to

on from vowel
off-

vowel without intermission, both stop and on- and

glide being voiced.

Forming what German phoneticians

call a

'

Blahlaut.'

STOPS.
213. Consonants
witli

75
stop and breath ofT-

voiceless

glidc are called 'breath' or 'voiceless' stops;

consonants

with voiced stop are called

voiceless stop

'

voiced' stops

and those with

called
'

and voice

glide (ga-)

may be

half-

voiced' stops.

214.
are

It

appears, then, that

distinct

initial,

medial and
Initial

final (g)

really three

sounds.
(k),

(g)

is

(^[a]),

medial (g[A]), and

is

final (g[n]).

on

the other hand,

always the same

215.

(k[H])".
all
:

The

following table gives

medial, and final

the possible

com-

binations,

initial,

INITI.\L.

MEDIAL.

FINAL.

*k[H]a
*k[A]a

*ak[H]a
ak[A]a

*ak[H]
ak[A]

g[H]a
g[-^]a

ag[H]a
*ag[A]a

*ag[H]
ag[-^]

Of

these combinations those

marked
till

* occur in E.

The

others require careful practice

they are familiar.

216. (g[-^]a)

is

easily obtained
(g),

by pronouncing (aga),
initial

dweUing on the

and then dropping the

ear,

(a).

These
nasals

'

full

'

initial

voice-stops suggest the corresponding

(d[A]a),
for

to

an unaccustomed
like (na).

instance,

sounding

217. In forming (g[H]a)

exaggerate
separate
*
it

the

breath-glide,
(g).

and (ag[H]a) be and in the

(ag[H]a),

careful not to
latter

not

to

from the

and thence

(g[H]a),

The above

latest views, as

siders initial

from those of Mr. Ellis's Mr. Ellis con(g) to be always voiced, and that there is no necessary
details differ considerably
in

given

E. E. P, pp. 1097, iiii, &c.

breath-glide after

(,k).

He

therefore identifies initial (g) with

(gW),

and

initial

and medial (k) with (^[a]),

my

initial (g).

y6

CONSONANTS.
easily

may

be obtained from the familiar (ag[H]) by

(a).
is

joining on an

218. (ak[A]a)

difficult

for

E. students.
(ga-),

It

can be
it

formed by prefixing
difficult to

(a)

to

initial

although
;

is

do so without making the stop voiced

or by

sound (aka) without any breath after the stop. These half-voice stops are the regular sounds of double k, t, and p, between vowels in Danish, as in (zk[A]eh)=
trying to
'ikke,' (s3et[A]eh)='s3ette/ (d^p[A]eh)

'

dyppe'
(ag[A]).

219. There
latter is easily

still

remain

final (ak[A])
is,
'

and

The
in

formed, and
'

in fact,

sometimes heard

E. in such words as
very rapidly.
that
It is

bigger

(b%[A]),

when pronounced
as a separate

simply the influence of the spelling

the final voice
it

makes us hear syllable, even when

is

murmur
its

is

reduced to

minimum.
'

We

also hear (big[A]) as a dissyllable partly because the (g)

short,
'

whereas the regular

dissyllable
'

final (g) in
is

big

'

is

long, so

that the

(bzg[A])
If

actually shorter than the

monosyllable (b?gi[H]).

we lengthen

the (g) of (b%[A]),

making

it

into (b2gi[A]),

it

has inuch more of a

monovoiced

syllabic effect.

220. On-glides.
in

The

on-glide after a vowel

is

most languages (a[A]k[H]a), (a[A]g[A]a).

Voiceless on-glides occur in Icelandic regularly before
in (s3e[H]tta)

double voiceless stops, as

'

setta,' (fltf[H]kka)

= 'flokka.'

They may

also

be heard

in Scotch, in such

words as 'what' (who[H]t).

Initial on-glides are,
'^

of course, inaudible

when

breathed.

It

appears

'

medise,'

64 foil.) that the S. German which were formerly assumed, on the authority of Briicke,
(Sievers, L. Ph. p.

now

to be 'whispered' consonants, are really these half-voiced stops.

My
at a

own

analysis of the
still

Danish

H &c. was

time when I

believed in the S.

made some years ago, German whispered stops.

STOPS.

77
in

They may sometimes be heard voiced

as
'

such E. words

attempt

'

([A]tL"emt),

'

ago,' &c.
All stops, espe-

221.
cially

S/riss-^^/t(/t's

(Aspirated Stops).

when

voiceless, postulate a certain

compression of

the breath

behind the stop, so as

to

produce an audible

explosion
this

when

the stop

is is

removed.

On

the force of

compression, which

caused by upward pressure of

the diaphragm, the force of the glide

and consequently

the audibility of the stop mainly depend.

is

The

E. (k) &c.

generally pronounced with but

(k),

little

force, but in the

German
breath,

as

in

'

kann,'

there

is

a strong puff of
in E.

which may, however, be heard

as well in

emphatic pronunciation.

222. But even in German the force of the breath-glide

is

something secondary, due only

is

to the

compression

with which the stop

formed.

If,

however, a separate
glide
is

impulse
as

is

communicated

to the glide, the

felt

an independent element.
'

In

this

way

the Irish

and

Danish

aspirates' are formed,

distinct
in Irish

which are

identical in sound,

and

entirely

from the
'

German
'

(k)
;

in in

'

kann."

Examples are
'tale'

tell'

(tHail/i),

paper'

Danish

(tHaileh),

'penge' (pHx^qeh), 'komme' (knameh).

nothing harsh

These sounds have

about

them,

their

characteristic feature being the distinctness of their glide,

which has something of the character of the preceding

stop,

so that (kHa),

for

instance,

sounds
the

like

weak
vowel-

(kkha), &c.

The
{
is

analogies

with

different

beginnings

195) are obvious.

also possible to substitute for the breathfully

223.
glide

It

an emission of breath through the

opened

glottis,

with a separate impulse of breath, followed by

a glide on to the vowel (kHh[H]a).

This may be the one

78
form of aspiration

CONSONANTS.
in the

modern Indian languages, which

has been described as making one imagine the speakers

were out of breath .

224. Implosive Stops.
first

These Saxon German sounds were

p. 149).
t

described by INIerkel (Physiologic der Sprache,

In Saxon
&c.,

German

there

is

no

distinction

between

and

d,

both being half-voiced

(t[A]),

with the stop formed

implosively.

The implosion
air

consists in closing the glottis

position,
glottis

simultaneously with the stop

pressing the

and then comby the action

between the

stoppage and the

mouth one, by
of
its

raising the glottis like a plug

muscles and by upward pressure of the diaphragm,

as in force generally.

This action produces no sound

choky'

while the stop

is

being formed, but modifies the ofF-glide

in a very peculiar

manner, giving

it

'

effect.

225.

Sievers' description of the Tiflis

is

Armenian and
states that the

Georgian implosives
raising of the glottis

very similar.
energetic,

He

is ver}'

amounting

to fully

a half to three quarters of an inch''.

Unstopped Consonants.
226. With unstopped consonants there
in voicing the stop
*
itself,
is no difl^culty and there are many consonants,

Quoted somewhere by Rumpelt

(Natiirliches

System der Sprach-

laute).

have been gathered partly from Tilerkel's from Professor Sievers' pronunciation, who is familiar with both the Saxon and the Armenian sounds. Sievers, however, asserts that the Saxon implosives are not formed in the same way as the Armenian, although he admits a certain similarity. He thinks it possible that the Saxon implosives are formed by first compressing the air in the mouth by the usual action of the diaphragm, and then closing the glottis.
''

The above

details

description, partly

UNSTOPPED CONSOSANTS.
especially the 'vowel-like'

79

ones

( 166),

which arc only

occasionally devocalised.
are always voiced as well.

The

glides of these consonants

227. In the breath

consonant
itself

unstopped consonants both the

off-glide are breathed, as in the

and the
:

corresponding stops

(s[H]a), (as[H]a), (as[H]).

is

But the

breath-glide of the unstopped consonants

always weaker

than that of the stops, because the explosive effect of the

latter is

wanting.

228. Hence also the aspirates of these consonants are

weaker and

less

marked than those of the

the Irish
'

stops, but they

'

may be heard
(thHaidh).

in

sir,'

and

the Icelandic

})a^'

229. The voiced buzzes admit of more variety than

the voiced stops, because with

them the

different stages of

glottis-narrowing that
audible,

may
the

precede voice are distinctly

stop there
silence.
is

whereas
full

in

voiced

nothing

between

vocality

and absolute

230. In medial

(z),

as in (aza), there can be

initial

no doubt
final (z)

of the vocality of the consonant, but

and

admit of various degrees of vocality.

(i)
for

voice

The glottis only begins to when the (s) position

all

put
is

itself in the position

assumed, and consefull

quently
full

the intermediate stages between

breath and
is

voice are heard in succession while the (s) position

being maintained.
(2)
is

This

is

the 'gradual' initial

(z),

&c.

The

(z) is fully vocal

throughout

that

is,

the glottis

closed for voice simultaneously with the beginning of

(z).

the

This

is

the 'clear'

initial (z).
initial

It \\\\\

be observed that these varieties of

buzzes

are exactly analogous to the

(

two ways of beginning vowels

195)-

8o
(3)

CONSONANTS.
The
glottis
is

is

open during the formation of

This

the
j
i

consonant, and

only brought together at the

is

moment

when
(s[a]),

the off-ghde begins.

the 'half-voice' (z)

=
j
I

corresponding to

initial (ga-).

As
last

it is

not easy to

make
the

the beginning of the voice correspond exactly with

glide,
this

beginning of the

variety

is

often

modified into a compromise between (i) and

(3),

formed

by beginning
the consonant

to

narrow the

glottis

during the end of

itself,

so that the transition from breath to

voice

is

completed

just ir/ore

beginning the

glide.

231. If

we compare
itself is

these three varieties

we

find that

they

all

agree in having voiced glides, and that in (2) the

fully voiced,

consonant

in (i) gradually voiced,

and

in (3) breathed.

232.

The
to

E. (z) in

'

zeal

'

generally

only gradually voiced.

may be fully voiced, but is The half-voiced (z)

initial
(s),

seems
'

be the N. G. and Dutch

as in

'

so,'

zoo.'

To

an E. ear
(z)

it

sounds
also

like (sz).

233.

Final

may

be

either

fully

vocalised

throughout, or else gradually devocalised, passing from

voice to whisper while the consonant position
is still

being

maintained.

Both may be heard (but generally the

'

latter) in the

E.

is,'

&c.

In

final

buzzes after other voice consonants the

is

gradual devocalisation
in the final
is

very clearly
'

marked

in E.

Thus

buzz in

'bills,' 'thieves,'

adze,' &c., the vocality

of so short duration that the

final (z) is

almost a purely

whispered consonant 3.

234. In
till

this last case the glottis is

is

not

fully

opened

the consonant

finished,

which therefore consists of

voice

passing into whisper, followed by a breath-glide.

"

Cp.

236.

WHISPERED CONSONANTS.
If the transition

from voice

to breath

is

completed during

the beginning of the

consonant
las,'

itself,

we have
final

the Ice-

landic final (s),

'

is,'

'

&c.,

which sounds

like (zs).

235.

The

vowel-like consonants

when

occasionally
final (1) in
is

end

in a breath-glide.

Thus,

in

pronouncing
tongue

Icelandic, the glottis

opens

just as the

removed
final

from the palate, making the resulting flap voiceless, as in

'vel' (veil[H]),
(j) is

which sounds hke

in the

(veil-lh).

In French

pronounced

same way, as
bt/on-

in 'fille' (fij[H]).

It is

possible that in both these instances the glottis

may be
position.

opened

just

relaxing

the

consonant

Whispered Consonants.
236. Whisper being
breath

an

intermediate

stage

between

and whisper,
heads
it

is

often generated as a secondary

to the other.

effect in the transition

from one

Thus

the

English s in

'

'

is

distinctly whispered,

although the

beginning of
It

is

voiced, together with the preceding (d).

seems, however, that the (z)

may

also be

pronounced
it

uniformly whispered throughout, in which case

must be

regarded as a true \yhispered consonant (h^d'z), in which

the whisper is not

merely something secondar)-.

is

In the case of stops the whisper

itself,

inaudible in the stop

and

is

only heard in the glide.

felt

In most cases a

whispered glide would be

voice,

as a transition to or from
effect of a

and would therefore have simply the

Indeed,
it

weak breath-glide.

is

very probable that the

really

breath-glide in (k[H]a)
(k[',v]a)

and (ag[H]) may often be

and (ag['A]), or rather consist of both, the one

gliding insensibly into the other.

(ak['A]),

on the other hand, G

is

distinguishable

from

82
(ak[H]),
gcj,

CONSONANTS.
and
this

seems

to

be the pronunciation of
'

fina

dd, bb in Icelandic, as in

egg'

(se'gi).

Other
237.

IModifications of Consonant-glides.

We

have hitherto considered consonant glides

asB

modified mainly by voice, breath, and force.

are capable of other modifications.

But

thej
tht

Thus,

if

during

formation of a (k)-stop the

lips are

brought into the (phi

or (wh) position, the off-glide will

assume a

distinctlj!

labial or labio-guttural character (k[Hio]a),

which, although
If this (k[Hw]a;

not very marked,

is

is

distinctly audible.

made

into

an aspirate we obtain (knwa).

'

The forme
'

occurs in the E.

cool,' the latter in the

Danish
an

kunde
well,

(kH^(;o^neh), in both cases with

cheek-narrowing as

the rounding of the glide being nothing but

anticipa-

tion of the position of the following vowel.

238. In the same way the

gutturalised or palatalised

oflf-glide

in

(ta)

may

be

and modified

in various othei

ways.

These

effects are

mostly due to assimilation, and there-

fore of a secondary character.

Glideless Combinations.

239.
already

The
to

consistent

application
that in
is

of

the

principle

enunciated,

namely

passing

from one

sound
results

another the shortest

way

taken, occasionally

in
at

combinations which are effected without an)

all.

glide

Such combinations are impossible

in

the
oi

case of vowels, but are frequent in that of a sequence

consonants formed in the same place and differing only

GLIDELESS COMIilNATIONS.
n form.

83

Thus,

if

a nasal

is

followed by the correspondthat

is

ng voice stop, as in (nd),

>ne
to

all

required to pass from

the other

is

simply to close the nasal passage.

is

Nmilarly, in the combination (dl) the transition

made by

<imply opening the side apertures, the tip of the tongue

etaining
its

position. In such cases the absence of glides,

is

he'glideless transition,'
"tf

implied by the juxtaposition

is

the

elements of the combination, just as a glide

lecessarily implied

by the juxtaposition of two vowels.

(ts), (tsh),

240. Combinations such as

n which a stop
is

(pph), (pf), &c.,

followed by open consonants formed in

he same, or nearly the same, place, are either absolutely

:jlideless,

as in the case of (pph) or (ts)

when

the

(t) is

ilade-stop, or the glide is so insignificant as to

ically

be prac-

non-existent, as in the case of (tsh).

These com-

Dinations are very similar in sound to the simple aspirates

Ih),

(pn), &c.,

and the open consonants may almost be

egarded as substitutes for the breath-glide

>hort,

we
is

might, in

define (ppha) as (p) gliding

it

on

to (a) through the

ph) position, were

'iguration,

not that the (ph) has a definite conheld for a

which, although extremely short,

noment.
241.

:ome together
;lide,

Even when consonants formed in difi'erent places it is possible to combine them without any although in this case the gliding combination must
as the normal form.

De

regarded

Thus

the transition

Vom
t)

(k) to (t) in (akta) is effected

by removing the back

5f the

position with the point, so that there

tongue from the (k) position and then forming the is an audible

Dreath-glide (ak[H]ta).

The Swedish (akta)

is
is

pronounced
the regular
is

this

way, and the same pronunciation

one in French.

In English, on the other hand, there G

2

84
no

CONSONANTS.
glide whatever, the tip of the tongue being bioughi
is

into position before the (k) contact

loosened, so

thai
froir
is

the stoppage of the

mouth passage

is

maintained
(t)
:

the beginning of the (k) to the

end of the

all

that

heard, therefore,
glide

is

the on-glide of the (k)

All
in

and the

off

of the

(t).

combinations of consonants an
English and

effected in this

way

many

other language;

probably
(k)

in most, the glide being either entirely omitted

or else reduced to practical inaudibility.

are joined together in English in exactly the

Thus (k) and same way

is
is

(1 ai

and

(t),

while in (Ik) the (k) position

after

assumed
reduced

S(j

immediately

the

(1)
all.

that the glide

t(j

practically nothing at

The
(1)

difference

between
its

(kl

and

(Ik) is

that in (kl) the

can assume

positioij

simultaneously with the (k) without modifying

its

souncj
sounij

whereas the stop (k) would

of(l).

at

once destroy the

242. There

are,

however,

many

fine distinctions to

observed in language.
is

Thus

in the
(1)

Dutch
to the

'

volk
(k),

'

ther

a distinct voice-glide

from the

whic
Initio
|

gives the

word something of a
*

dissyllabic effect.

(kn) in German, as in

knie,' is often (k[H]n), with a

dis

tinct breath-glide, while in

Danish there

is

no

glide

an

as

initial

voiceless stops are aspirated in Danish (knr

as in (knheex)=' knse,' (nh) being sul

becomes (knh),

stituted for the simple breath-glide.

Glide Consonants.
243.

glide consonant

is

one which
or

is

only heard

its transition to or

from another element, the consonaij

at
all,

itself

being either not formed

breath.

made

inaudible

want of

GLIDE CONSONANTS.
244. Thus the
formed by
first

85
seems to be

peculiar

Japanese
tip

(r)

bringing the

of the tongue against the

u:ums without any emission of breath, and then passing

to

on
",

an untrilled

(r),

allowing voiced breath to pass at the

the tongue.

moment of removing
the

As Mr,

Ellis

remarks

Japanese

'seem

unable

to
(r)

pronounce

(r)

without

striking the palate

([d]r) or ([l]r).

first.'

This

may

be represented by
it

An unaccustomed
(r), (1),

ear hears

as

some-

thing between
all

and

(d).

The Japanese pronounce

sound, so that when a

foreign (l)s
'

and
a

(r)s as

this
it

Japanese says
like
'

little

man,'

sounds to an English ear

stop follows a vowel,
is

a literal man.'

245. In English,
breath impulse
is

when

the

often so feeble that nothing

heard but

part of the glide

on

to the consonant, the actual closure

all.

being formed without any breath at

Thus

(b/gi) be-

comes

(bi[g]).

With nasals (ra^em) becomes (m2e[A]),

onlv a nasal glide being audible.

Ellis,

E. E. P. p. 1133,

GENERAL SYNTHESIS. We
have hitherto considered the synthesis of specia
;

combinations of sounds
synthesis that apply to

there

now remain

those laws

o!

combined sounds

generally.
o.

246. The popular fourfold division of the elements

speech into
sentences,
is

letters (that

is,

sounds), syllables, words, anc

not purely phonetic, but also partly graphica

and

logical.

The

first

and most important point

is

is

tc|

see clearly that our ordinary word-division

a logical anc

not a phonetic analysis.

No amount of
it

study of the sound;'

i

only of a sentence will enable us to recognise the indi

vidual words of which
consists.

We may
words
till

write dowi

every sound, every shade of synthesis, but

be able to analyse

it

into separate

we shall nevej we know

it:
j

meaning, and even then we

postulates

shall find that word-divisioi

i

one with
division

much thought and comparison of sentence another. The fixity of our conventional word|
in

and the mechanical way

to the fact that there is
itself,

which we learn

ij

blinds us to the real complexity of the questions involve(j

in
it,

and

no word-division what

ever in language

considered simply as an aggre

gate of sounds.

247.

The
'

only division actually

made

in

language

that into

breath-groups.'

We

are unable to utter

mor

than a certain number of sounds in succession, withou

renewing the stock of

groups correspond

air

in the lungs.

These breath
inti

partially with the logical division

SYLLADLE DIVISION,
sentences: every sentence
is

Hj

necessarily a breath-group,

but every breath-group neefl not be a

complete sentence.
there

is no pause and the popular idea that we make a pause after every word is quite false. Thus, in such a sentence put on your hat,' we hear clearly the final breathas

248. Within each

breath-group

whatever,

'

glide, the

'

recoil,' as

it

is

sometimes
(t)

called,

which follows
its

the final (t)

to
'

of

hat,'

but the

of 'put' runs
in
'

glide

the following

vowel exactly as
is

the

single
'

on word
is

putting,'

and there
other

no

recoil.
.

In

put back

there

no glide 249.

at all after the (t)

The

phonetic

divisions,

of

word

and

syllable, are clearly the result

of deliberate analysis.
is

The
the

discrimination of the separate sounds of language

problem we have been working

of this work.

at in the analytical section

difficult

There remains therefore the

ques-

tion of syllable-division.

Syllable Division.
250. The audibility of language depends mainly on
vowels.
It
its

would

be'

easy enough to construct a language

composed
would be

entirely

of consonants, but such a language except

at

inaudible

very

short

distances.

Acoustically speaking, consonants are

the vowels,

mere modifiers of
would be reached

and the

ideal of distinctness

by a language in which each consonant was separated

from the next by a vowel.
251.

Hence

the ear soon learns to divide the sentences

(breath-groups) of language into groups of vowels, each

Cp.

241.

88

SYLLABLE DIVISION.
by subordinate consonants.
is

vowel being flanked

The

analysis into separate consonants

a later one, as proved

by the
252.

universal

priority

of syllabic

over

single-letter

alphabets.
It often

happens

that a vowel-like

consonant takes

the place of a vowel, or rather of a vowel

and a con(l)

sonant.

Thus
is

in English (h'tl)^'

little

'

suggests

+ the

neutral vowel

(\iu\\X).

In such a word as the Bohemian

at
all.

(kghrk) there

no vowel

253.

Some

of the breath-sibilants are audible enough

in themselves,
in

and there are

several interjectional words

which they have a

itself is

distinctly vowel-effect.

Thus

(shi)

by

used,

(psit),

&c.

and in combination with stops (sit) and The want of vocality, however, makes the ear
to

somewhat unwilling
these

recognise the syllabic value of

influence

consonants.

The

of voice in giving

syllabic effect is strikingly

shown

in the stops with final

voice glide

219).

254.
nants

It

often happens that

together, one
is

when two

vowel-like conso-

come

regarded as a vowel (wth a

consonant), the other as a consonant.

the

As a general
and
is

rule

one

that has

the

greater force (stress)

the

longest

is felt

to contain the vowel.

t>.

Thus (mn-) ^ suggest

is

(m-ehn), and (m'n) (ehm-n)

255.

We

see, then, that the

conception of a syllable

necessarily a
different

somewhat vague one, which may vary in languages, and may also be partly dependent on

the associations of the written language.

The
begin
*
*

question

now

arises,

where does each

syllable

The ( ) indicates Compare Sievers,

stress,

beginning on the preceding sound.

foil.

L. Ph. p. 26

SYLLABLE DIVISION.
256. As
mainly
uttered
ilue

8y
sense of unity
is
'

\vc

have seen

( 184), the

to

continuity of
force

force.

If

sentences were
question

with

level

throut^^hout,

the
all
:

of

syllable-division could not be raised at

we should be
able to

able to count the

the

number of
but
left

vowels, and thus determine

number of

syllables,

we should never be
ofT

settle

where one syllable

and another began, unless

we adopted purely
257.

arbitrary criteria.

We

find,

however, that the different syllables of

is

which any sound-group

various degrees of force.
is

composed

are uttered with

This

relative force

of syllables
it

called

'stress'

or

'accent.'

For the present

is

enough

to distinguish
latter

between weak and strong accent,

()

marking the
stress begins.

by a

after the

sound on which the

We

have already seen that the strength of

each separate force-impulse, such as

rate syllables

we

give to the sepa-

of any sound-group, tends to diminish pro-

gressively, until a

diminishes

progressively.

new impulse begins, which in its turn The beginning of each of

these force-impulses

Thus

the

marks the beginning of the syllable. two sound-groups (.vn-en'hm) and (Ane'ithm)
the place where the stress begins, but their
the
first

differ solely in

meaning

is
'

totally distinct,

signifying

'

a name,'

the second

an aim.'

In the

first

the stress,

quently the syllable, begins on the (n), in

the vowel.

and consethe second on

at
tall

Similarly

(Afrehih)='a try/ (Atreh?h)='

all

Rye,' (AtDrlfehihmz)=' at

times/ (Afoilm-aen)='a

man.'

258.

We

see from these examples that the beginning

is

of syllables

partly indicated

by the

ordinary-

word-

division, that is, in all cases where a word happens to begin on a syllable with a strong stress. If a word begins

90

SYLLABLE DIVISION.
syllable the

on a weak-stressed
syllable is

beginning of

its

strong

not indicated, thus 'attack' might be either

is

(Afask),

which

the

actual pronunciation,
Similarly,

or
if

(Atse-k),

which would suggest 'at Ack.'

to write
'

we were
as

atall

'

in

one word,
(and

it

might be pronounced
all,'
'

either (Afoil)

or
'

(AtO'il).
all
'

In 'at

when used

an

adverb, as in

not at

at

home,' as generally
the

pronounced), the
true syllabification,

word-division

does not indicate

which

is

(Afoil) in ordinary speech.

is,

259. The only phonetic function of word-division

therefore, to indicate
in sentences.

occasionally the

syllable-divisions

260.

It

must be noted
take

that syllabification

depends not

on mere
'

force, but

on discontinuity of
it
'

force.
is

Thus
in

in

ticket

'

and

'

the

syllabification
first

exactly the

same, the (k)

groups,
in
'

belonging to the
(k)
'

syllable

both

and although the

'

is

pronounced stronger
uttered with part

ticket

than in

'

take

it

it

does not therefore begin

is

new

syllable.

In both cases the (k)

of the same force-impulse as the preceding vowel, and the

difference in force of the
different lengths of the

two (k)s

is

simply due to the

two vowels

( 183).

To make
it

(k)

in

'

ticket

'

the beginning of the second syllable,

(ti)

would

be necessary to diminish the force of the

very rapidly,

so as to be able to begin a fresh impulse of force

the
(k);

on
just

nor need
to break the

this

impulse be

strong

only

enough

continuity of the force decrease*^.

If the (k)
*

and the following vowel are pronounced with

way
are

pronounced the short Swiss German vowels lese (Sievers, L. Ph. 116). This Swiss syllabification is best acquired by shortening the usual long gebe without increasing the force of the b (which is (p[a]) see
In this
before single consonants, as in gehe,
;

218).

STRESS.
a stronger force-impulse than the
(it),

9
the syllabification
(f/k-tt)

and the
(ii-k/t).

stress

arc

both

changed,

becoming

261.
nants
is

The

distinction

between long and double consoIn

(a'tia), (a-lia),

purely syllabic.

the consonant

positions are simply held with uniformly diminishing force

until the (a) is

reached, on which a

new impulse

begins.

In (atta) (alia) the consonants are held as long as in the

foiTuer cases, but

the

new

force- impulse begins in the

till

second half of the held consonants, without waiting

the vowel
is

reached, which, of course, breaks the sense

of continuity.

262.

The
'

distinction
'

between 'cut short'

'

(k^tsh-oit)

and
the

'

achieve

(Afshiiv),
'

outside

'

(aehohtseh^hd)
is

and

German

geziemen

(geht'siimehn),

exactly analo-

gous.

Stress.

263.

We

have already defined stress (accent) as the In speaking of the

comparative force with which the separate syllables of

a

sound-group are pronounced.

stress

of a sentence as opposed to that of single words

'

the

term

emphasis

'

is

used, but there

is

no
to

phonetic

distinction,

one of meaniiig only. 264. For practical purposes it is enough

which
is

discrimi-

nate three degrees of stress, weak,

strong.
is

medium

(secondary),

The weak
by a
().

stress
()

is

left

unmarked, the strong

symbol
of the
stress

indicated

after

the
(:).

element, and the

medium by

'Very strong' may

infinite,

be expressed by

265.
single

The

variations

of stress are

and

in

sound-group (word or sentence),

every

syllable

93

STRESS.
a different degree of stress.
'

may have
word
on the
as
stresses,

Thus, such a
speaking,

impenetrability

'

has,

roughly
fifth,

two

one strong one on the

But
if

first *.

and a medium one we pronounce bility by itself we

'
'

shall find that all three

syllables

have a different

stress,

the third being stronger than

the

second, and yet, of

'

course, weaker than the

first.

In

penetra

'

there

is

the

same

relation,

but

all

the

syllables are a
'

shade weaker

than the corresponding ones in

the syllables in the highest
:

bility.'

The

order of
i

stress

is

therefore as

follows,

being

375164
-

im

pe

ne

tra

bi

li

ty.

266. The surest way of determining the

of any two syllables
is

relative force

to

pronounce the other

syllables

mentally only, or in a whisper, pronouncing the special

syllables aloud,

and

their relative
'bility'

force wiil then

come
utter
shall

out
the

clearly.
first

Thus, taking

by

itself,

if

syllable mentally, the other

two aloud,

we we

hear that the second of them has the stronger

stress.

267. There

is

an important feature of
This

stress generally,

which

in

most cases makes any minuter symbolisation

unnecessary.
is its

of stress
or the

rhythmic character,
stress.

tendency to alternate weak and strong

is

Perfect uniformity of stress

in the separate syllables
stress
is

as unnatural as level force

would be, but the tendency of

of a
single

not,

like

that

force

impulse, to
to

decrease progressively, but

rather to

sway

and
the

fro.
first

Hence,

if

we have a group of

three
stress,

syllables,

of which has the predominant

*

we may

generally

Often on the second instead.

TONES AND PITCH.

infer that the

93
third, unless

second

will

be weaker than the

special modifications intervene.

268.
matter,

To

discriminate

degrees of stress

is

no easy

and requires considerable

training, especially

when

there are counter-distinctions of quantity, tone, &c.

The

student should carefully practise himself in analysing the

stress, first in

words, where
it

it

is is

fi.xed,

and then

in short

natural

sentences, where

not fixed, but otherwise

;

follows the

same laws

as in

words

sentences, as well as

words, always having one predominant stress, which gives

the

whole group a character of unity.

stress in

269. The distinctions of

less

some languages
French the
uniform
stress,

are

marked than
all

in others.

Thus
a
little

in

syllables

are

pronounced with
being

nearly

the

strong syllables rising onl}- a

its

above the general

level,

occurrence

also

uncertain

and

fluctuating.
train-

This makes Frenchmen unable without systematic

ing to master the accentuation of foreign languages.

Tones and Pitch".

270. Variations of pitch (or tone) depend, as already remarked, on the rapidity of the sound-vibrations, which
again depend on the length of the vocal chords.
271.

Changes of tones may proceed

either

by leaps

In singing the voice dwells without change of pitch on each note, and leaps upwards or dow-nwards to the next note as quickly as possible, so that although
or glides.
"
'

The

best treatment of this subject will be found in Mr. Bell's

Elocutionary Manual.'

94
there
is

TONES AND PITCH.

no break,
the intermediate
'

glide-tone

'

is

not

noticed.

In speech the voice only occasionally dwells

on one note, but is constantly moving upwards or downwards from One note to the other, so that the differeni
notes are simply points between which the voice
stantly gliding.
is

con-

272. There
'

are,

therefore,
:

three primary

'

forms

'

or

inflections

'

of tones

level

rising
falling

273.

The

level

tone

may be

heard in
;

'well,'

as

an

expression of musing or meditation

tions

the rising in quesfalling

or

doubtful statements;

the

in

answers,

commands,
274.

or dogmatic assertions.
to

It is also possible

have

level tones
'

connected
'

by intermediate
singing.

glide-tones, as in the

portamento
there are
syllable

in

275. Besides the simple

rise

and

fall,

com:

pound

tones, formed by uniting both in

one

the

compound

in

rising
falling

v
A
'

276. V

may be

heard

such a sentence as
A in
'

take care

when

uttered warningly ;

oh
are,

'

'oh

really,'

when

implying sarcasm.

These tones

however, best learnt

by combining
277.
syllable.
It
is

their elements.

possible to

combine three tones

a followed

in
/,

one

Thus we can have

v,

by

which

has the effect of

only somewhat

more emphatic.

278. All these tones can be varied indefinitely according

to

the

interval

through which they pass.

As

^_
j::eTieral

TOXES AND PITCH.

rule,

95

the greater the interval the

more marked

the character of the tone.

interval

Thus, a

rise

through a small

(a

second

for instance)

denotes mere enquiry,

through a large one (such as a sixth) surprise.

the semitone (minor)
interval has

Again,
but

a plaintive

effect,
its

here the
character,

less

the interval
all

the

more marked
is

minor

most of

therefore in the

simple semitone
like

or half-tone.
all

The reason
narrow range.

of this

that sadness,

un-energetic

emotions, naturally

expresses

itself in

inflections of

279.
yet

The whole

relation of tone to language has as

all

been only imperfectly studied, and

the
A.

that

can be

expected from the student in our present state of knowledge

/, \,

is

power of discriminating the four

inflections

A,

and

280. The use of tones varies greatly

guages.

in different lan-

In English the

tones express various logical

and emotional
tainty,

modifications,

such as surprise, unceris

&c.

In some languages there

a tendency to

employ one predominant tone without much regard to

its

meaning.

Thus

in

Scotch the rising tone

is

often

employed monotonously, not only

in

in questions but also

answers and statements of

facts.

In Glasgow Scotch

the falling tone predominates.

In American English the

compound
281. In
'

rise is the characteristic tone.

all

these

cases
is,

the

tones

are

functionally

sentence-tones,' that

they modify the general meaning

of the whole

sentence.

In some

languages,

however,
its own much an

such as Swedish, Lithuanian, Chinese, Siamese, and the

Indo-Chinese family generally, each word has

special

tone (rising,
it

falling,

&c.),

which

is
it

as
is

integral part of

as the sounds of which

composed,

g6
and does

TONES AND PITCH.

not, therefore, vary with the general sense of

the sentence.

This tone may be called

'

word-tone.'
it
i>

282. Besides the separate inflections of which

composed,

each
'

sentence,

or

sentence-group,

has

general pitch, or

key

'

of

its

own.
it is

283. For ordinary purposes

three representative keys

enough

to distinguish

high

middle

tl
L
left

low

284. The middle key may also be The high key is natural in all strong and
the low in sadness

unmarked.

joyful emotions,

and solemnity.
logical
sig-

285. Change of key has often a purely

nificance.

Thus

questions

are

naturally

uttered

in

a
in

higher

key than

answers,

and

parenthetic

clauses
facts.

a lower key than those which state the main

all

In

natural speech there

is

incessant change of key.

286. Changes of key may proceed either by leaps or

progressively.

Progressive change of key

or
\

is

indicated

by prefixing
is

to the signs of key-change.

Thus

heard in

all

cases of passion increasing to a climax.

Connection between Force, Quantity, and Pitch.

287.
length,

There

is

a natural
pitch,

connection between

force,

and high

and conversely between

pitch.

weak-

force, shortness,

and low

288.
especially

The connection between

intimate.

force

and

pitch

is

All

energetic

emotions

naturally

VOICE QIIALITV.
.'xpress

97
forcible utterance,
is

themselves

ind increased
)anied

in high tones and vehemence of emotion

always accom-

by a

rise in force

and

pitch.
is

280.
ntimate.

The

association
is,

of force and quantity

less

There
on

however, a natural tendency to pass

)ver the less

important unaccented elements of speech,

the

md

to dwell

prominent

stress-syllables,

whence

hat shortening of

unaccented long, and lengthening of

is

iccenied short syllables which

so

common

in

modern

anguages.

290.
hese

It is,

however, an entire mistake to suppose that

tendencies represent necessities, and that
stress

natural

ligh tone

and strong

can be regarded as convertible

in the bass

erms.

Just as

on the piano the lowest note

:an be struck with the

same force
it

as the highest

one

in

he treble, so in language
stress is

often
pitch,

happens

that

strong
Still

combined with low

and vice -versa.

stress.

ess

can quantity be identified with

VOICE-QU.VLITY (timbre).
291. Besides the various modifications of stress, tone,
fee.,

the quality of the voice

may be

modified through

.vhole

sentences by various glottal, pharyngal, and oral

nfluences.

292.
clear
s
'

The most important

and the
lateral
'

are

those

dull

'

qualities of the voice.

known as the The latter

its

due to

compression, the former to

absence,

rhere are, of course, various intermediate degrees, and

he dull quality

may be

exaggerated by cheek and hp

pronunciation of those badly-

Qunding, as we hear

in the

98

VOICE QUALITY.

trained singers \vho

note.

make

(a)

nearly into (0) on a high

also

This exaggerated dulling of the voice may

peculiarity, giving

be heard as an individual

what

is

com-

monly
and
is

called a

'

sepulchral' tone.

The

dull quality is the

natural expression of sadness, solemnity, or tenderness,

so employed instinctively in natural speech and

in

singing.

Among
lowing

the

many

other varieties of voice quality, which

or national peculiarities,
:

are mostly individual

the

fol-

may be

noticed

293. Narrowing of the upper

of strangulation.
It is

glottis (r) gives

an

effect

common among

Scotchmen, and
th(

combined with high key gives the pronunciation of

Saxon Germans
294.
Partial

its

peculiarly harsh character.

closure
It

of

the

mouth

is

commor

English peculiarity.

has a tendency to labialise bacl

is

vowels, and even where there

it

not actual

labialisatior

gives the vowels generally a muffled sound, so that (a)

for instance, is not easily distinguished

from

(3).

It alsc

tends to

make

the general speech nasal, for the breatl

its

being impeded in
rally

passage through the mouth, natu

seeks another through the nose.

Germans some
like other people

times say of the English, with humorous exaggeration

that they speak, not with their

mouth

but with their nose and throat.

295. Lip-influence
contraction
is

is

very

important.

General

li

a natural accompaniment of partial mout

closure and nasality, also of the dull quality of the voic(.

Conversely, the clear quality

may be made more

is

decide
in th

by spreading out the corners of the mouth, as

pronunciation
singers to give

of

(i).

This

frequently employed

bl

a laughing effect.

In

many

language;'

VOICE QUALITY.
such as Frcncli
often

99
the lips are
in

and many Scotch

in

dialects,

protruded

forming

rounded sounds, while

others, such as Englisli, the

hps are not employed more

be carefully

than

is

necessary, inner rounding being chiefly relied on.

distin-

296. These modifications must

organs of speech themselves.

guished from those which are due to peculiarities in the

Thus

defects in the palate

may cause permanent

turality,

nasality (together with a peculiar

hollowness of sound), an abnormally large tongue gut&c.

All

of these

peculiarities

are

inseparable

from the individual.

Part

IV.

SOUND-NOTATION.
297.

The
it

notation of sounds
:

is

scarcely less important

than their analysis

of notation
intelligibly
is

without a clear and consistent system

impossible to discuss phonetic questions

describe the

or

to

phonetic

structure of a

language.

298. The only perfect alphabet would evidently be one

in
it

which every symbol bore a

represented.

definite relation to the

sound

In the

Roman

alphabet these relations are

that has

entirely arbitrary,

and an alphabet
'

any claim

to

the

title

of

'

rational

must therefore discard the

'

Roman
which
all

letters entirely.

In Mr. Bell's

Visible Speech,' accordis

ingly,

an

entirely

new

set

of symbols

used,

indicate the action of the organs in every case,

the

symbols being made up of a few simple elements, which

can be combined

to

any extent.
Speech
is

If the phonetic analysis

on which
alphabet

Visible

based were

perfect,

the

itself

might, with a few alterations, easily be

made
But

practically perfect,

and capable of representing

all

possible
until

sounds whatever with the minutest accuracy.

phonetics are in a

much more advanced

state

than they are at present. Visible Speech cannot be con-

so UXD - XO TA TION.
sidcrt'd

oI

secure against the rucessity of incessant alteration

and correction.

299. The

Roman
new

alphabet,

on

the
is

other hand, not

not liable to be

being based on a phonetic analysis,

disturbed by any
discoveries.
It

has also the great

advantage of having long been in practical use both in

printing

and

writing.

300. The imperfections of the

be remedied in four ways
( 1
:

Roman

alphabet

may

by casting new types

(2)

by employing
accents, &c.

diacritics,

such as grave and acute

(3)

by employing digraphs, such as

th,

hh, &c.

(4)

by employing turned

letters, italics

and

capitals.

The same
carried out

objection applies both to (i) and (2),

to

any extent, namely

that a

when new system

utilise the means already existing before creating new ones, which involve expense and inconvenience of all kinds; and if we are to cast new types, it would be

should

simplest to discard the

take a simplified
certainly

Roman

alphabet altogether, and

form of Visible Speech, which would

be

far easier to learn

and use than any possible

alphabet.

modification

of

the

Roman
is

The
'

practical

experience of Mr. Ellis

entirely discards

decisive

on

this point.

He

such systems as Pitman's

Phonotypy,'

and

Lepsius's

'

Standard

Alphabet,'
(2),

the

best

known
on

representatives of (i)
(3)

and

and

falls

back

entirely

and

(4),

which employ only the ordinary resources

of the printing-office.
as these to

That

it is

possible with such

I\Ir.

means

form a practicable system,

'

Ellis

has clearly

shown
301.

in his

Palseotype.'

The

great defect of PaLxotype,

and the other

T02
systems
contrived

SOUND-NOTATION.
by Mr.
difficult to
Ellis,
is

their

unnecessai}

arbitrariness, especially in

the vowels, which

makes

his

symbols extremely
In the

remember ^. present work a new system has

been aimed
at,

therefore been

constructed, in which the greatest possible regularity and

consistency has
defects of the

as

far

as

the

radical

Roman

alphabet allow.

Those who know

far as

palaeotype will easily see

how

principles partly developed

by Mr.

Ellis

have been carried out consistendy as

possible.

302. Another defect of palaeotype

signs employed.
find a

is

the multiplicity of

Mr.

Ellis's

principle of attempting to
that
is

symbol

for every

sound

possible, or has
in

been described by
adaptation of the

others,

seems out of place

necessary

any

Roman

alphabet, which can only be a

All that
is is

temporary compromise.

to find

signs for the fundamental distinctions,

and the minuter

or

exceptional ones can easily be supplied by simple description.

is

Thus

if

the reader

is

once told that the Danish

(o)

formed by abnormal rounding ( 42), he simply has to remember this whenever he comes across a Danish word
with (o) in
it.

If attention

is

to

be specially called to any

*
aftei
i-

peculiarity, this

can easily be done by putting a

the symbol, to remind the reader that

some modifier

understood.

303. This system, which

based on the original

call

'

Romic
of

'

(because
letters)

Roman

values

the

'^

The most The

striking instance of this arbitrariness

is

the use of

{e

to denote the wide, while (0) denotes the

narrow sound of the

is

tw(|

vowels.

parallelism of these

two sounds
is

thus entirel

destroyed, which, as far as I know,

not the case in any othe

system, even the clumsiest.

S0UXD-i\07\l T/OX.
^uj;li

o3

probably the simplest possible for an accurate

of sounds generally,
is

lysis
)0

too

cumbersome

as well

minute for

many

practical purposes'*.

In treating
details,

relations of
!

sounds without going into minute

in

giving passages of any length in phonetic writing,

in dealing with a limited
it

and especially

number of sounds,
necessary to have

as in treating of a single language,

is

an alphabet which indicates only those broader distinctions of

sound which
in

actually correspond to distinctions

letters

of

meaning

language, and indicates them by

which can be easily written and remembered.

304. Thus, the innumerable

possible

varieties of

diphthongs

can

all

be classed under a few general categories

(au),
(oi)

such

as

(ai),

diphthongs, and

if

we simply
within

provide

unambiguous signs

for these general categories,

we can ignore the endless shades of

or application of the

difference

them, because these differences do not alter the

meaning
Again,

words

in

which they occur.

even

if

we

confine our attention to definite distinctions,

such as those of narrow and wide, close (e) and open {x)
&c.,

which maj' correspond to differences of meaning, we

that

find

each

language
in

utilises

only

a few
is

of these

distinctions.

Thus,

English, there

no

distinction

between narrow and wide in short vowels, most short

vowels being wide only, while in French
always narrow both
(i)

and

(u) are

long and short,

(i)

and

(u) being
(i)

unknown.
(f)

In Danish, on the other hand, short

distinguish

and

often

words which would otherwise be

is

This cumbrousness

sion of the radically defective

inseparable from any attempts at extenRoman alphabet. In Visible Speech,

tlie slightest

on the other hand, the most minute synthetic distinctions can be

symbolised without causing

practical inconvenience.

04

so UyD-i\0 TA TION.
Icelandic only has
(t)

identical.
(ii)

when

short, but separates

and (n) when long, often distinguishing words solely by the narrowness or wideness of the vowel. Danish has
(ii)

only

when

long, as in English also.

We
one

see from

this that the distinction

between

(i)

and

{i) is

a significant
that corre-

one

in

Danish and Icelandic; that

to real distinctions in the
it

is,

sponds

languages themselves,
all.

while in French
is

does not exist at

it

In English there

the distinction, but

is

not an independent one, being

But to write (ii), (^) in English would be superfluous, as length and narrowness, shortness and wideness go together, and if we simply write (ii) and
associated with quantity.
(i)

the quantity

would always imply the

distinctions

of

narrow and wide.

Hence we may

lay

down

as a general

rule that only those distinctions of sounds require to be

symbolised in any one language which are independently

significant
:

if

two

criteria

of significance are inseparably

associated, such as quantity

and narrowness or wideness,

a general system which

we only need
305. What

indicate
is

one of them.
is is

wanted then

capable of being modified on definite principles to suit the

requirements of special languages.

should, of course, deviate as
scientific one,
little

This general system

as possible from the
arbitrary as possible
it

and should be as
Like the

little

in

its

details.

scientific

system

should

be
''',

based on the original

Roman

values

of the

letters

supplemented by digraphs and turned

letters.
is

306. Beginning, then, with the vowels, there

difficulty

no

in

determining the general application of the

a,
as,

elementary symbols

e,

i,

o,

ce

(=Fr.

'pewr'), w, y
in 'bwt'
2
1

(=Fr.

u),
*

but signs are required for the

and

See

my

'

Histoiy of English Sounds,' pp.

foil.

so UND-NO TA 71 ON.
the allied
'

05
in

back and mixed vowels, the close French cu

'

peu,'

and the

open
little

'

0.

For the open

o,

and

for

French
of

c,

we can have
'

hesitation in adopting the

d

and

the other system,

and

in

but

'

and

'

burn,'

may be extended to the English and the German e in gabe,' &c.

'

307.

The

following will then be the different values of

I
'

each of the vowel signs in this system, which

'

will call

Broad Romic,'

in apposition

to

the scientific

Narrow

Romic,' as indicating only droad distinctions of sound.

rt

a, a.

= = V, V eh, &c. = 0=0, oh, oh. = 0,0, oh, &c. oe = ce, u = u, w, uh, u\\. y = y, ye
e.

t;,

a.

i,

i.

0,

3,

05.

The diphthongs
minuter
doubled.
italics

are expressed by al, ou,

oi,

cei,

&c.,

shades

being

disregarded.

Long vowels
).

are
in

Broad Romic words or passages are written

('
'),

or distinguished by

not inclosed in
will

308. The consonant symbols

be the same as

in

Narrow Romic, except

front

that

all

capitals are discarded, the

j,

consonants being indicated by

superfluous
letters
c

thus

Ij,

njh, &c.

The
Thus

and x

will

be employed as

convenient abbreviations of digraphs in each language.

in English c

may be used
sh,

for tsh, in

German
letter

for

kh, in

French
to

for

and so on.

Any

which

happens not

have a sound to represent in any language

I06
will

SOUND-NOTATION.
be employed in the same way.

Thus

the vowel y

is

superfluous in English, and may, therefore, be used io

represent the sound

c

(j),^* itself

denoting

cZ^A, parallel

to

^ tsh.
309.

To
it

prevent
wall often

confusion

in

comparing

different

languages,
full

be advisable either

to substitute the

spellings (tsh), &c., for the contracted ones, or else to

print the letters that are

used in special senses in

italics.

Thus var
'

'

in

Danish would remind the reader

r,
'

that the

Danish r
310.
is,

is

not the ordinary

the
'

but a laryngal sound.

Whenever

broad

symbols are inadequate

'

it
'

of course, allowable to take others from the

narrow

system.

Thus

ih

= (ih)
and

might be employed

in
for

Welsh,
special

and

(r)

might be introduced into Danish

Capitals
italics,

purposes.

however, being inconve-

nient in rapid writing,

tions

it is

best to form special combina-

when such
(i)

distinctions as those of
is

narrow and wide

are required, which

very seldom the case.

ie,

Thus

the

wide

may be
(i)

expressed by
(e).

as being intermediate in

sound
311.

to

and

The main
is

principle to be observed in

all

these

contrivances

not to disturb the general associations

is

of the

letters

more than

necessary,

and never

to lose

sight of the

importance of keeping up the international

character of both the

Narrow and the Broad system.

the

312. There
notation.

now remains

question of synthesis-

After

what has been said on the phonetic

no surprise need be felt abandonment advocated here. But, as I have remarked elsewhere ^, the abandonment of conven
value of word-division { 246)
at

finding

its

"^

In a paper on 'Words, Logic, and Grammar,' Trans, of PhiU

logical Society, 1876.

SOUND-NOTA TION.
.il

C7

word-division

by no means implies writing each

cnce as an unbroken whole.

-58)
|il

We

have already seen

it

that

word-division serves, whenever

at all,

has any
If,

Kinetic
II.

meaning

to indicate stress-division.

we

carry out this principle consistently,

making each

er-division
ss,

correspond with the beginning of a strong

(henre'

as

in

kt'uhm

hoio'm

jfstAde'),

we

shall

liuiicate the

in the

most important synthetical clement of speech simplest and clearest way possible. The () otherfor

wise

required to
the

available

mark the strong stress, will medium (secondary) stresses

if
it

thus
in

be

each

sound-group, as in (tuiw k*nAnb'Oilz), while,

the beginning of a group,
will indicate

placed at

very strong stress,

the ordinary strong stress being implied

by simple
(:)

division,

and weak
quite

stress

by non-division.

The

thus

becomes
ex-

superfluous,

and four

degrees of stress are

pressed by a single sign.

as
is

When

a sound-group begins,
a special
is

often the case,

on a weak

stress,

mark
in

is

required.

The most
soi).

convenient one

(-), as

(-dhx

masnidhAtehih

When
(:)

the sound-group begins on a

prefixed,

secondary

stress,

may be
by
(),

as in (:k^m ^p),

instead of (-) followed

required.

which would otherwise be

313. Tone would be indicated by -, / and \, &c., which would take the place of the ordinary marks of punctuation at the end of each breath-group, thus serving the double

purpose of

indicating

breath-division

IMarks of key, voice- quality, &c.,

and intonation. would be prefixed to

There are of course various degrees of For the purely accuracy required for different purposes.
each group.
practical applications of

Broad-sign mere-stress divisions,

()

with an occasional use of

when

necessary, together

Io8

SOUND-NOTATION.

with the simple tone-marks, are amply sufficient, and the

(-)

may be omitted whenever

is
;

the syllable to which

it

is
it

prefixed

one whose phonetic structure does not allow

thus, in
'

to take a strong stress

ra taan

'

= return,

we

see

at

once that
final

'

ra
'

'

cannot be an accented

syllable

because of the
314.

a.'

Whenever word-division

is

indicated

it

must be

understood to be something altogether extraneous and

subordinate, just like indicating the substantives in

German

by

capitals.

Word-division
are

is

perfectly useless to those

readers

who
:

practically familiar with

the particular

language

they do not hear any word-division in rapid

it still

speech, and require

less in

slow deliberate reading.

it

Whenever word-division is required indicated in Broad Romic by italics

otherwise are not employed at
all.

can

easily

be

or capitals, which

SPECIMENS.
ENGLISH.
The
following table will give an idea of the relations of

the English vowels to the general

scheme.
ih

B
cehi

e(ih)

ai

*h(ih)

XI

x\\{\w)

u(w)
o[o']
01

u
o{ih)

Voice-glide (a).

Voice-glide-round (am/).

The

following

list

shows the correspondence of the

with examples:
as in father.
3>

Broad Romic
aa
ae

letters,

ae
ai

ao au
e

= = = = = = =

(ai)
(a.)
(361)

had.
hair.
fly.
fall.

(ehzh)

J)

(^0
(chAZi')
(e), (36). (l-h)a

>>

wow.
head, ready.

)>

Only

in

unaccented syllables (except

in

a very few instances).

lO
ei

SPECIMENS.

=
z=

{eih)
(B),

as
})

{ft

fa/I.

(A)a

hud,
bird.

better.

99
i ii,

=
iy

(jehi)

5J

o
oi

ou u
uu,

uw

= = = = = = =

(0
(n), (ij)
{o),

)>

mi
feel.

{AIV)^

5J

folly, folloty.

(oih)

hoy.
no.

(ooO
(-)
(ui),

)>

J)

Ml
fool
aesc

(uw)

^^

In English B. R. ae and ao are used instead of

9i),

and

as being

the
deae

more convenient to write, and as symplifying system by enabling us to dispense with o altogether. and oo may, however, be employed for special comof
all

parisons.

The narrowness
the diphthongs
(ij),

E. vowels
(uw),

is

uncertain, especially
(oo^),

(ezh),

and

which

may

all

be pronounced wide, although they seem generally to be

intermediate between narrow and wide.

The narrowness
is

of (eih)

is

especially
(r)

doubtful,
its

(ij)

generally

fully

widened before

or

weakening
'

(a),

and often be(ehi'h),

comes monophthongic, (huA) = here.' and {oih) seem to be always fully wide,
(oi)
(oi).

(dehMv),

(b), (sehi),

and

seem generally
(ae) is

to preserve their narrowness, especially

(ae),

never widened into

(e)

although

it

often inter-

changes with

by imitation.
(t) is

As

regards position,
(e^)

often lowered, and regularly

syllables,

becomes

in
'

unaccented

which before con(ih).

sonants, as in

fishes,'

interchanges with

(ih) is not

uncommon

in

accented syllables also in careless speech,

Only
in

unaccented syllables.

ENGLISH.
and
is

especially

common

in

certain

words,

such

as
(Ih)

'pretty' (prjhte'), 'just' as

an adverb, as
(')

in 'jst so.'

seems
speech.

to

preponderate over
It
is,

in

rapid and careless

however,

difficult

to

separate
into (eh),

them with
if

certainly,
litde

for

(e')

naturally passes

raised a

while the front of the tongue

(t)

is

kept down, and not

allowed to rise quite into the

position.
(o),

The

position of (j)

is

often raised towards

which

it

generally reaches in the diphthong (o?h).

All the

back vowels are

liable to

be advanced towards

the

mixed

positions, especially (uw)

v.
in

and

(?<),

which often

closely

resemble the Swedish

The
(a)

only unaccented vowels

^.

E. are

(e')

and

(?h)

and

and {mv)

The second elements

from low or mid vowels

of the diphthongs which

all

start
(a),
(ij)

have a tendency towards

(o a).

hence (o?h) often becomes (oa) or perhaps

the
(j)

In

appears to be often narrow, and when the

(?[i])

(t) is

wide the sound seems to be often

with die

(i)

lowered
In (uw)
is

and the
the

(i)

raised, not necessarily as far as

is

(j).

consonant

more marked, and consequently

not

often

made

narrow, and the vowel seems to be as often

full (it)

as not.

The
the

three longs (cehi),

(ai),

and

(di),

though not marked

as diphthongs, are not purely

monophthongic, especially
front
it

two back ones, which end with a raising of the

of the tongue towards the

is

mid-mixed

position, although

not

marked enough
effect

to be written.

Indeed a

full
.

{o[\])
,

would have the

*

of (o?h).
of

The complicated scheme

is

Mr. Bell
artificial

peculiar

to

himself, and

unaccented vowels given by seems to be due solely to

elocutionary habits.

112

SPECIMENS.
are as follows
:

The consonants
R
j

th,dh

s,z
1

sh,zh

wh, w

f.v

p,b

k.g

t.d

(j) is

q
often

m
an
(ih)-glide, but
(1),
it

weakened

into

is

not
(n)

easy to distinguish between them.

(t), (d),

and

seem to be (s) and (z).

gether as

generally blade-consonants, corresponding to

As regards

the synthesis, E. consonants are joined toas possible without glides

:

much

there

is

no

(sek[H]t) or (srl[A]k),

&c.

The

only B. R. consonant letters that differ from the

:

N. R. ones are these

c
j

y X

= = = =

{^^)
(dzh)
(j)

^^ "^

church.

judge.
2/oung.
sia7.

(ks)

The
curate

following specimens are intended to give as ac-

a representation as

can of

my own
I

natural

English pronunciation

the only

one which

profess to
1

have studied with any degree of exactness.

that

may
is

note

my

(wh)

is

an

artificial

sound

for the natural (w) of.

South English.
natural

Otherwise

my

pronunciation

entirely
'i.

and untaught
rules
I

as much so as that of any savage

in

No
"

can be given for the pronunciation of those have enclosed in parentheses

the

consonants that
I

never was taught either English pronunciation or English

at school.

grammar

EXGIJ.'fll.

"i
in

B. R. notation, but

believe

always drop thcni

rapid

speech, although they

It will

come

out in slow reading.

all

be observed that
'

the pieces are divided by

in

stress,

or

baiTed,' although
is

one of the

H. R.

ones

the word-division

made by

italics.
(.).

Pauses are occasionally indicated by

A. Colloquial Phrases.
(Intended to bring out the separate elementary sounds.)
I.
1.

In Narroxu Romic.

kt^mfpAt "WBnsv
:dhise^zdhA
\

2.

thaehnd

tehihimehthv

hoehidAve'zre^

tsehnn
3.

-hij^' dBzntsiijmtA ()fiijle'tA ()toiil\f

4.
5.

hiLvrAnd dhaeiArAn 'evireHYh-aeiA

\
\

- dhe?h "kei/hm baskdhA

scn'hm deu'h

6. 7.

-dhA msenmhaeddhA
kokine'z

-hastLvrnhz hedi\

SBmifehehimz

'feuhltAdths

teqigwe'shbA

twiijndhA haeiirAndheA hedizAndhe' aeiiAw?] briijdhx

8.

-dhA

'bo/hi

ais(k)te^z

faiidhAre'ftj

wz^dntraidhA

goo'Alttl
9.

faudhA\

-behili 'onl miijnz sedie'zpA paii\

\

-ehihm kwehiht

rede'

10.

ihashAtf hehehie'zdh'ast tashAtmArA bsehAi<7t\

*
''

(i) refers only to the length of the glide. Decidedly wide because unaccented. There may be an extra strong stress either on. the

In (/hi) the

last or the

last
.

but one group, according to the feeling of the speaker.

Or

(hiJATAn).

The

(a) before the (r) in this and the next

group

is

often very slight.

Or (keihm

-baeki)I

114
11. 12.

SPECIMENS.
fihe^Aio siksie^ -fijtehzhshAd

th/qk\

whotA -pile^iuw biste'tv

13.
1

4.

-hijwAz 'piflidaeh'AwtA(v)dhA puiwlAn - we'l juwk'i3m tuiw / - ehih doohit

:

pzttitA

bedi\

noio^

\
/

15.
toiil \

djmvAb

dzhek(t)tA(')tA

f^

baekAwsTnoo'k

-n.9tA

16. -ehz'h
17.

soie^m dzhihstfAiA moio^mthntAtdhA doiiA\

sent(t)A

-ehs hehAt"ehihmdh-5et bothiwA

'skuiwlx

-hiyz tuwn'Oihize^At hoio'mv

18. -hi] treh^hIdtA tijtshdhA tshehihild dzhsehiimAn 19.
:

sevn szksthsAnb

tenA levnthsx^

20. 21.

^vh^tsh^vEn \v3zeH\

22.

-ehih thoitdhAt dhaetiwAZ Diil "dBniweMh \ - juw dzh'Edizhde^mBTi dzhBstleS-ymvd'ide'n

same
English Broad Romic.

diijd\

2.

T/ie

in

1.

ksms'pst -wansN
:

2.

dhisezdha thaad taima-iv hasdavezre taanx

fiyleta taol\

3.
4. 5.
6.
7.

-hiy d9znts"iymt9

hiiaran dhaeran -evrewhaeas

-dheikeim bsekdha seim dei\ - dha msenuh-seddha -hsetanez hed

koknez

samfaimz -feiltades tiqgvveshba twiyndha "haersndheA hedzandhe -aeawiy briydhx 8. - dha boi aas(k)tez faadharefiy wudntr'aadha goua
lid

faadhax
9.

- bai
.

"aol

miynz sedezpa paa \

or (dzheki).

- aim
syllable

'kwait rede

"

(dzhckt

.)

The

last

but one varies

rapidity of pro-

between
>

((th),

(A!f),

and

(a),

according to

the

nunciation.

Generally

(si'ksiAn).

Generally (levnsi).

EXGLISH.
;

r,

o.
I
.

- hau haicztlh'fel tauora baut

fiftco sixte

fiytaisliAd ihiqk

12.
13.

whota piteyuw laostetv

14.
15.
16.

-hiywoz puldauto(v)dho puwbn putto bed\ -wel yu\vk-9m tuw/. -ai dount nou\

rdyuwab

jekt(t)3ta
jestfara

bx'kosmouk/.

not.^ laol\

-aisaoem

moumentatdha daoa\
-liiyz

17.

-ets hait'ainidh-cet boiwa ?cnt(t)a 'skuwlx

tuwn-oizeat
18.
19.

houm

-hiy

traidta tiycdha caild

-joamonv

sevn sixthsan tena levnthsv

20.

whicwan wozetx
-ai thaotdhat dhcetwaz aol danwedh
\

21.
22.

-juw jajdema'n

jastle\

-yuwd'iden diyd

B. Prose.
(For comparison with the pronunciations given by
!Mr. Ellis,

E. E.
I

P.. p.

1206.)

In Narrow Romic.

-dhA

r/tinAR prniteMfeprAZAn teihshAnAvdhA s;shAi/';nz-

Av l*qig\ve'dzh

-beh?'h miijnzAv ksere'ktAZwh-nshAr/'nsA f/shAntb-ooHh'"'n

keh/hmdAn ni^mibA/

^And\vh-ttshmAs(t) dhseiAfAwb'ijkAm beh?hindA?t' vao^e^

tfehjhid/
:

jfwijwMdg'iVA

graefe^kAls'imibAkh/h

zcz'hshAHAvdliA

:foo'

nfte'k ele'mAnts
oio'nle'

- we'dh
viijnJAns
/

'SBmidf^

griiJAve^g

zatktne^SAnkAn

Also (zjekm
I

.).

J 1

SPECIMENS.
-Haz biijnfrAm 'oiil teh?hiin'z/ fA "ne/hshAnzAz weliAzrnde^ vidzhtiAl'z/
:

h'qi gw?ste^kAl

stjuiwdAntsn-ote^k sepiteM/
'nese^sre^

wBnAvdhAm-oo^st

- And WBnAvdhAm-oo'st -AndAz kanse^kwAiitle^

sslivd \

-dzfe^kAltAv probilehn'z
skseAsle'

evAb'ijn

hsepe'l*

2.

/ Broad Romic

(wi'ih the

word-division marked).

-6?ha ritnsn ^^rintedr'eprazsn teishsnsvc/ha saun(d)zav

/seqgwej

-6ai
/^aindsn

7wiynz9v

^aerektaz-whicann-sa

fishAnt6"outhen

9mb9/
zeishanaviha/ou netek

-3ndwh'icj??3st (^haeafoSiy/fcam baindo modefaid/

:

ifiCTywud^r'iva ^^sefekals'imbalai

elemants

-wedh

ounle 'ssmde. griysveg z3ek(t)nesan^an viynyans/

"aol

-Aaz 6iyn/ram

<aimz/
vijualz/
/

-/a weishanzaz welazrnde

:

Ziq

gwistekal styuwdAntswotek septed

'nesesre
'o^ifekaltav

wanavdhawoust

-3nd wanavc^hawoust

_problemz\

-andaz ^-onsekwantle skaeasle

-evaJ-iyn Zisepele solvd\

C.
I.

Poetry.

If I

Narrow Romic.
its

(This piece

is

given on account of

marked rhythm.)

-dhA
:

kaepite^vjuw zsehipA
\

haehiild daehAtt/infrAmdhA throio^n

:leizh bsereMe'n toipA/

ENGLISH.

- f.v gjtinAnd

loiy'n

-ehth broo'ktuHe'z slrmibAzv

-ehth shjvAdne'z tshciihn\

-eh/h lingdHe'mwf'dh nrmibAzv

- hijz

"tehjiiirAntA gei?hn

:wtdhdhA blBdiAVA
:

miliJAnnijl ainsAmeh?!! kceiiAV

strtjkshAiiHe'z fUhzhtAnd^' spseiiA
v

widhA ne?hshA-nzde^

2.

In Broad Romic.
variety of metres.)

(Showing a

(0
- and
sloule

aansad aathaframdha baaj

\.

-dhc -and
:

ould aoda ceinjethx

yiyldiq pleista nyu\v\

godful filzhim selfin "mene \veiz\

lest

'wan gud kastarashudka raptdha waaldv.

self\.
:

kamfatdhai

whot kamfatizin -miyv.

-aiv -livdmai
:

laif\

-and

dhcet\vhicai-av

dan

mei hiywidh in(h)im self meik pyuua\ - if dhaushudst neva siyrpai feisa gen v
preifamai soul\.

-bat dhau/

-maoa thiqzaa raotbai praea

whaeafoa
\.
<*

- dhandhis waald driymz ov \.

- foa whotaa

letdhai vois

raizhaika fauntanfoami deian(d) nait

men

betadhan shiypan(d) gouts

-dhat naresha blaind laifwidh indha brein/

-if nouiq goddhei
:

liftnot

hgen(d)zav praea
\

bouthfadham selvzan(d) dhouzhu kaoldham frend

evri

-foa soudha houl raund aathiz

wei

baundbai gould ceinza bautdha fiytav god\.

bat nauf'aea wel

"

\.

- aim gouiqa loq wei

.

=(

foA) or

i\w).

Il8

SPECIMENS.
dhiyz dhau siyest/
-ifin diydai gou/

-widh

-far aolmai maindez klaudedwidhs daut/

- tudhe aibnd vseleav 'ceviljon ^ \ whaea faolznot heiloa reinor eni snou \ - nor eva wind blouz laudle \ - batet laiz
:

diypni'edoud hgepe faeawidh aocaad laonz

-3n(d) bauare holouz kraundwidh sama siy\

:

whaerai-\vil hiylmiyavmai griyvas

wuwnd\.
sell

-sou sed(h)ij \ muwvdframdha

raflzhaa

-an(d)dhe baajwidh aoran

briqkl'aiks-am fulb'rested
kseral

swon^
flad

-dhat fluwtiqa waild

aeahaa deth/

pyuua kould pluwmzan teixdha

-widh swaothe webz\. loq studsaa bedeviia -re volviq mene memarez/ -tildha hal lukt wan blaek dota genstdha vaajav daon\
-ando'ndha miiadha
weiliq daida wei\

swiftle

waok ouvadha

w^estaan weiv
spiritav nait\

autavdha miste iystaan keiv/

whaer aoldha loqan(d) loun

dei lait
fiia/
\

-dhau wouvest driymzav joian

- whic meikdhiy
terebalan diia

swifcbiydhai flaitv
rsepdhai faomina

msend grei\
staari'n raotx
\

blainHwidhdhain haeadhe aizav dei

kis(h)aran tilshiybiy wiiared aut
:

dhen wondaraoa
"

sitean siyan loend

Or

'

aeviljan

'.

ENGLISH.
tociq aolwidhdhain oupveil"

wond

kom
:

loq saot

whenai rouzan

saodhv")

daon /

-when lait roud haiondha dyuwwoz gaoii'v -and nuwn lei heveon flauaioran triy/
-anddha
wiiare dei taondiu(h)iz rest/
liqgariq laikan anl-avd gest/
ai

"saidfa

dhiy
/

- dhai bradha deth keiman

-dhai swiyt

kraid

wudstdhau miy/
caild sliypdha filmeai'd

maamad

laika nuwnt'aid biy/

shaelai nesl niiadhai said/

wudstdhau miy/

-andaire plaid

nou
dethwil

not dhiy

kamwhen dhauaat ded\

suwn tuw suwn\

sliypwil

kamwhen dhauaat

fled\

-av naidha cwudai aaskdha buwn\

-ai aaskav dhiybe laved
nait

swiftbiy dhaina prouciq flaitv

kam suwn suwn \

(3)
ina driian-aitedde

sembatriy\

tuw -haepe 'haepe

-dhai braanshez naeare memba

- dhea
Or'oupyet'.

griynfe hsete

Or

'gon'.

'-'Or'niidh?'.

20

SPECIMENS.

-dha naothkan
widha

nota'n

duwdham

thruwdham \ -no3 frouzn thaoiqz gluwdham -fram badiqatdha praims

sliyte whisl

ina driian'aitedde

semba -

tuw "hsepe 'hsepe bruk\ - dhai babliqz naeare memba

-a

polouz sama luk\

swiytfa getiq
\

-bat widha

- dhei

steidhea kristal fretiq

neva neva petiq

-a bautdha

frouzn taim\

aa wudt"waa souwidh

mene

-a

jentl gaalan boi

-bat waadhar evar ene

raidhdnotat paased joi/

- ta noudha
:

ceinjan fiylit\
hiylit \

whendhariz nanta

-noa named sensta stiylitx -waz neva sedin raim\

(4)

:huw rmvindmiyaerai'waz baon\ sould evre eika graasoa kaon \

-and

leftdha next aer aolfa laon\

- mai
:

'grsenf'aadha

huw sedmai madhawoz'nou naas -and fisektmiyan meidmiy waas

-til infansebe

keima kaas
o:rsenm'adha

-mai

ENGLISH.
:

huw

lefimiyi'iimai

sevnth yiis

-9 kamfotamai modha diia -and mista poupdhe ouvasiia -mai 'faadha

:hu\v letmiy staavta baiaa jin
-til

aolmai bounz keim ihruwmai skin

agle
litl

dhen kaoldmiy

sin

-mai 'madha
:hu\vav aol aathle thiqzwud boust

-hiy heited adhaz brxtsdha moust

-an dhaeafo" meidmiy -mai aqkl

:

fiylmai poust

huw goten skreipsan endles skaoa -and aolwez leiddhamatmai daoa

-lil

menea

bita b;qai

baoa

- mai -kazn

huw tukmiy houmwhen madha -a genwidh faadhatarezaid

:

daid

blaek

shuwz kliyn naivz ran faaran waid

-mai
:huw maadmai

-stepm-adha

stelthe aacenjoiz

-and whenai

pleid kraid -whota noiz

gaalz aolwez hektar ouva boiz

-mai

-sista

:huw yuws(t)ta shaeren whotwaz main

-aoa

tukit 'aoldidhiyen klain

koz aiwaz eitan hiywaz nain

-mai bradha

=(aw).

122

SPECIMENS.
rhiiw strouktmai

hed -an sed gud

lged\

-an

geivmiy sixpansv

aol(h)iy haed/

:b9t9tdh3 staoldha koinwaz baed/

-mai "godfaadhaN
:huw greites shaeadmai soushal glaas

-bat whenm-is faocan keimta paas

-re faadmiytadha pamp

-a

laas

-mai
-thruw aoldhis

'frend

wiiare waalden briyf

huw eva simpathaizden griyf -oa shaeadmai joi -mai soulre

mai
-selfx

liyf

FRENCH.
i

eh

xhq
u
o

x,xq
y
3
oe

aq

0,oq

Oh

Observe the simpHcity of the vowel-system, the fewness

of wide vowels, the absence of unrounded back-narrow

vowels,

and the
;

full

development

of the

front-round

vowels
sented

the

absence of diphthongs (which are reprepeculiar

by consonant-combinations), and the

gutturo-nasal vowels (to which

we

will return hereafter)

everything
(e) is often

directly

opposed

to English.

raised towards

(i),

and

its

narrowness,

like.

FREyCH.
of
ire
all

125
(i)

the other vowels,

is

very marked,

and (u)

often very high,

amounting almost

to consonants, (j)

and (w).
rally

{x) and (ce) are often very low, and are geneat the

long

same

time, but there are various inter-

mediate degrees of lowering which seem to be unfixed

and arbitrary.
it

When

raised towards the

(e)

mid-position,

is

not easy to distinguish them from

call

and

(a),

which
is

French grammarians
the
to

'moyen-ouvert.'

(eh)
it

not

same sound
which

as in the Teutonic languages":

seems

be the outer sound (eh), and appears to interchange

it

with (a),
(a)

closely resembles.
(a),

generally tends towards

whether written a or
long,
(o)

(',

but

is

sometimes

full

(a)

when

and

(0)

are
this

generally
is

advanced towards the mixed position, and

especially noticeable with short (0),

which often seems

to

be regular (oh).

The

nasal vowels vary greatly

aeh^, ehq, cehq,
Tzq

(Bell).

aq, zq,

ohq

(Bell).

ia^^^MH.

xq,
oq,

deq

ohq

(Bell),

The correspondence of
is

the

French Broad Romic

letters

as follows

aq
se

= = =
= =

(a)

as in
n
>)

chat.
dent.

(aq)
(). ()
(36^)

pere, dette
vin.
etc.

seq

))

(e)

>)

phoneticians,

Professor Storm, of Christiania, one of the most acute of living told me that the French (eh) is distinct from the
e,

Norwegian unaccented

which he

identifies with the

German.

124
9

SPECIMENS.
(eh)
(3)

que.

pew.

3q
i

{sehq)
(i)

Uni.

(o)
(oq)
(o),

beau.
son.

oq
ce

(oh)

or, dotte.

(ce)> (3)

veuf, veMvage.

(y)
:

lime.

The

consonants are
JhJ
rhr,rr

k.g

^
\4
n

s,z

shjzh

wh,w

f,v

p,b

(ph/)

and

(hhj) also occur.

Note
is

the absence of (h)^

and

(q).

Otherwise there

a certain similarity between the French and English

system, both rejecting (kh) and developing fully the blade

consonants.
All

the

consonants

are
(bhj).

narrow, which

is

especially

noticeable in (w)

and
sh,

The
are

point and blade open!

the
(n)

consonants

(r,

s,

&c.)

more forward than

English ones.

For

(rr) (gh?-) is often substituted,

(yn).
is
;

sometimes seems to become

'^

fully long.

Written double to distinguish it from 9 = (eh), which Full long (a) must be written aaa, if necessary marking of quantity is practically unimportant.
'''

never

but the

This sound is, however, often formed involuntarily by Frenchmen. I have heard it in the exclamation (hoi) for (oi), in (fleho) for
(fleo)

=flemi, &c.

FRESCH.
Consonant-glides are more noticeable
in

2J

in

French than
a voice-glide,

EngUsh, especially
Final voice

in

slop-combinations, (strik[H]t)=

'strict.'

stops often end in

(bag[A])

= 'bague.'
is

In passing from (n) to the next vowel

so. slowly as to

theg lide

gen erally formeJ

Final

be heard as
'

a s eparate elem ent, so that (ohN[i]o7)='oignon

!

sounds
the

UP!e(ohNJo7).
crlottis

(j)

and (n)* end

the

voicelessly,

'

being

opened
_the

at

moment
(vix-jh).

of removing the
(fiJH)

^uejroin
^vi.nh)

consonant position, so that

and

sound

like (fij-jh)

and

In Broad

Romic

2j/i=^phJ), bh={hhj).
is

nh={s).

The

quantity of the vowels ^

is

very uncertain.

The
it

only constantly short vowel

(eh),

although even

is

sometimes lengthened in such words as pes^r (pehze).

Final vowels
oui (wi).

when accented

are also often short, as in

Full long vowels are

commonest before

(rr),

and then before the hiss and buzz open consonants, as

in /aire (faeirr),

rage

(raizh).
full

Nasal vowels are short

long before consonants
Exclamations,

when

final

and accented,
{soq)

compare son
such as aA
tinctions

with
(oi),

songe (soqizh).

(ai),

ok

are generally long.

in

The

dis-

of quantity are most marked

all

final syllables.

Medially

vowels tend to half-long quantity.

(frz-a/^sse),

Compare
first

Frame

[kraqis) with Fran^ais

the
all

with

long, the

second with half-long

{aq).

In

other cases

vowels vary between short and half-long, as in E. vowels

before voiceless consonants.
tinctions of quantity

In rapid speech the disstill

become

more vague.
vowel and

In writing

French
by

it

is

best to leave the

medium

quantity unmarked,
full

denoting shortness bv
(I).

(-) after the

length

Not

(1).

''

Consonants are short.

126

SPECIMENS.
force

The
the

of the separate

syllables

is

nearly

equal

throughout, and the consonants are always uttered with

same strong

force.

Thus
(t) is

in /// the force

is

nearly

equal throughout, and the

force as in the E.
'

pronounced with the same

is

teacup,'

and there
to

none of

that rapid

diminution and sudden increase of force that characterises

the E.
to
'

take up.'
(e'-t'e),
it

Hence

an English ear

/// appears

be divided

although Englishmen speaking French

generally

make

into (e'?ht-eih).

There
same
is

is,

in fact,

no

syllabification in French, and, as the

principles are

carried out in sentences as well, there

no word-division.

Thus tin grand homme suggests (sehg- g'rra^i fohm). The word-stress is generally on the first syllablej^. The
exceptfons are words in a followed by a consoj).aiJt~or

consonants and then by

ion,

which always take the

stress
is

on the

a, as in occasion (ohk'aizjog).

When
is

the vov/el

not a the stress varies.

Exceptions occur also in other

words of

several syllables,

and there

altogether

much

uncertainty and variation.

Sentence-stress
is

very irregular.

There

is

no such
French

thing as logical emphasis,

in the E.
'

no marking of
'

antithesis, as
he.'

to give
is

and forgivt,'

not jou, but

sentence-stress

mainly emotional, not

is

logical.

Words

with which any strong feeling

associated are naturally

in other languages,

pronounced with force

but French has

in

French as

made

a pecuHar extension of this emofirst

tional principle, which consists

in accenting intensilive

This view of French accentuation was first advanced by Rapp, Physiologic der Sprache,' so far back as 1840, and again by a Frenchman, Professor C. Cassal, in the Transactions of the Philoby the logical Society, 1873-4. It is, however, not admitted
"

in his

'

majority of French philologists.

FRENCH.
vords such as /rh, as in
jlice
'

127
'

trcs-bien,'

guere,' 'quel sup-

&c.

and then

in

accenting

modifying
,

words
il

generally,
"HiS

such as the negative pas, &c.

as in

'

n'est

ici.'

But there

is
it

great

laxity

and

arbitrariness
to dis-

generally,

which makes

difllcult for

Frenchmen
in

.riminate force either in their

Stress
in

own

or in foreign languages.

and quantity are independent

(bavair;-)
is

French,
first

Thus
second
(eh)
is,

bavard

and

finir (finiirr), the

vowel in

each word
full-long

half-long

and accented
fully

(strong), the

and unaccented, or rather

half-strong,

however, almost always both

short and weak-stressed.

There

is

also a certain rhythmic tendency both in stress

it is

and quantity, although

10

not well defined, which leads

the alternation of strong

and weak

stress,

long and

short quantity in various degrees.

Tone
doubt
is

is

very

rudimentary.

Although question and

rise,

is

generally expressed by a

French intonation

more emotional than logical. The tone in French generally runs straight on in one direction, and appears to be more level than in E. The rising tone is
otherwise
often used in simple statements.

Altogether French
plete

is

characterised by the almost

com-

absence of synthesis distinctions, and the existing

distinctions

may be

disregarded without materially affectof the context.

ing the

intelligibility

These wants

are,

however,

fully

compensated by the

clear, energetic articu-

lation of the consonants, the purity of the vowels,

and the

sonorousness of the nasal vowels.

No

language combines

power and harmony with elegance and brevity more successfully

than French.
following

In the

specimens

the

marks of quantity
in

and stress must be taken to represent

many

cases

128
possibilities only,

SPECIMENS.
not necessities, nor are they introduced

uniformly throughout.

The

sentences are divided into as

short groups as possible without any reference to stress,

which

The is marked by () in the body of the groups. unmarked syllables must be understood to be uttered with medium force, but the mark of medium force (:) has been
occasionally introduced especially to call attention to cases

of equal

stress,

and

as a reminder in other cases.

is

It

must

be remembered that (eh)

stressed, except

generally quite short and weak-

when

specially

marked.

""'^ix^.^"",,

A. Sentences.
keskseksa-.
i

k"eh-vulevu.

ilfoto'p'arj-a-va^"

kehzhrrehturrna-parri-.

zhehv:walarrka"2sjel.

kelai'zhave-vu-.
kaeis.

ila-vae^'ita^'-paise-.
kelceir?-aei's.
.

iJelene.

zhn-erriae^.

ilefairr.

de ' peshe ' vudvuzabi - j e so^rpubafom*.

ilpar?'Idy ne.

zhehvufr^-efuvwairr.

us-ohmnu'rasegita^'.

vuvuziprrehnef'oirrgoshma^'.
ilnek'ynoeirr.

zheydybohnceir?\
lehta^'sehrrmetobo.
ohna'parrledlaplbhjiedybota^'.

10

lehta^ize'klaeirr.
j>

\
t^

ila^'-mag'ikaeh^'.

05'nivwagut.

setai^'nbhj'i'ja.

zhaneasc.

^*j.

vwalabh/izhuirr kehzhehnsbly'isorrti"'.
Iwazivteelamaeirrdeht-ulevis.
lehsohlseijsehlseiv.

15

illbhjiarrag'idylaparraeiJH.

prretemwaynfoejdpapjhe.

setsehg-boku'-doeilH.

nu'nusohmlie-damitjhe' forrte-trrwatma^".
pur-rkwhanparrlevup:ak'eskkila^saeNH.
.

k"eh-pphjizhfaeirrpurrvu-.

ila^seNlehlataeg'.

zhehmvebeN[i]e.

20

FRENCH.
ichvjx'(7(lyteaitrh?-.

129

lohl\vhailselil2civ.

bczIm(jrnehso7pavnvzosprk(ii)taiklh pur/viizrt'ytv^^idihr'.

English TramJaliou.
:

who(t)d3yuw wont

\.

whot
\.

izct\.

almost foostre toonta pares

-ai siydho rcinb"ou\.

-hau ouIdayuwN.
auldest
\.

hiycz ouvd twcntc

\.

-hiyzdhe
whotsdha
5

:\vhot'izct\
;aim\.

(:

whotsdho ma;to\).

nstheqx.

-ets

leit\.

:meik heiston dres\,

-hiy spiyxthruwez
-ail

110117. \.

-hez pals biyts faast\. - whaer aawin-au \.

-ets ounle*\v3n\.

shouyuw
\.

"evrethiqN.

- yuw gou3 bautet vcre aokwadle

-aivh'sed laks.

10
pru\vveq\.
fain

-dha wedhaz
wedha \.

kliiax.

-dha wedhszem

-dhaaz -won miseqx.

-dhei taoktavdha reinan

-ets taiasam\.

-yuw
tiafavet
\.

kaants'iia

taol\.

-aiv hcede

-ets nau

cit

deizsi'nsaivbiyn eibltag'ou aut\.

aidlnezezdha madharav aol vaisezv.

15

-dha
koin
\.

"san

raizezx.

-hiaz

peidem

baekendha

seim

emphasis in any language

uggcsts to

an instructive instance of what would be entirely false but French. The sense is, of course, they have not come to hear^oj/, but the play,' but French accent
This
is

w you'^.
;han (vuz")
>f

an English ear, they have not come to hear you (but to There is no necessity for accenting (afyta^idrhr) any more
'

the essential

point to be observed

is

the meaninglessness

the accent.

130

SPECIMENS.
-itsa
'fain

lendmia shiytav peipav.

vju\v\

-wia
:

vere intametle

baunden frenshepx
:

whaidountyuw spiyks.
\vho(t)d3zij tiyc\.

whotkanai duwfayuwv.

-hiy

tiycez laetenx.

-aim

goueqt;
2<

beidh\

- ai kamframdhs
:

- dha kaatn raizez \. dhiyz piyplav not kamtadha thiiatata hiia 'yuw
thiista
\.

B. Prose.
-Ieh-m:ar/-ki-net3epurrta5''- p'azsehnohmdehzheni"
iletgesava^'/

maesiava^^sag-spesi-alite"
/

amwa^kojinvceja-plerj-ae^isi

yngTrajida-bili-te

pursaerrtaegizuvrraizh

S'a2izy-tili-t<

okyn/
do^nuzorrojizase-suvag'-ljadparrleplyt'airr/

e-ki'avaeta-psorrbe

zhyska-la-paisjo^'

zhyska^la*

m"ohnoh"-mani-

led idserrnjaeirrzanedsohnegzistag'is

shoze-t'n-agizh/
^..-..^e-jj^i-netsep'azaeh^dekohtelem'wa^misterrja

dehsoh-norr-

ga^ni-z-aisjo^oidsoh-nymoeirr /
m9i\gTre\ovrgcei]dsoqn-oq edsaf or7-tyn
/

ilnavsezhamsesogizheasmanje

^
.

rrehmeto^tuzhuin-zolrti/idmseg'

sehd'eTraqizhmaqdaqs&-

a'bi'tydx

apsorrbe-parrdeze-tyd tr/^itoserrjaiz ta^itofrrivol/

e-doh-naqprreskehtuzhuirrlaprrerfe-rrag'isa'selsi"
ilavaes"i-bice(^ko5'iplike
/

saviaegitenjoeir/-

c..

illavaetohpstrrye

dehtaydehp-rrohzhe dehfa^itiezi

^
/

dehkyrri-ozi-tez edehspeky-laisj 92iz8e5itclek[H]tyael

civivUti

FRENCH.
kilnavaezh*amcc-trruvc-lta</detrmrr3/

131

eofjikorrmwaq sehlhhji-delTrddhqsa.vafjfckoqs'^

C.

Poetry

{in

French Broad Romic).

kaptiforivaazhdymaor
aqgaerjekurbesuscefaer
dizoe\

zhavurwazaqkaor

wazozaenmidxzivaer
iroqdael katesperaaqs

sbhizhyskaqscebrylaqklima \
saqdutvukitelafraaqs
\
/

d3moqpa?jn3Tn9parle\'upa

dapphitrwazaqzhavukoqzhyyr
damaportoeraqsuvniir

dyvaloq umaviopsky}T
sabsrsxdaqduzavniir \

odetuurdynokishmin
aflopyyrsudafrcelila

vuzavevynotrshomin

dasvaloqnamaparlevupa /

GERMAN.
only
*

The pronunciation here given is that of Hanover, the one of which I have enough knowledge. It is
The
ordinan.' spelling of the first

marquis n'etait pourtant pas un

raais

homme

Lc paragraph is as follows de genie. II etait savant,

'

savant sans specialite, a moins qu'on ne veuille appeler ainsi une grande habilite pour certains ouvrages sans utilite aucune. dont nous aurons assez souvent lieu de parler plus tard, et qui avaien:

absorbe jusqu'a la passion, jusqu'a la monomanie, les dix demieres

annees de son e.xistence.'

132
virtually

SPECIMENS.
Middle-German
population.
as

pronounced

by

Low-

German

ii

eh

ei

a(i)

UI

yi

u
!

y
a(.)

OI

Diphthongs:

(ae), (ao), {oe).

Observe the simplicity of the system and the fewness

and

distinctness

of

its

diphthongs.

Also

the

absence
is

of low vowels.

The
finally,

only analogy with English

the
(a),

widening of the short vowels.

cannot occur

but are

Wide vowels, except made narrow, as in

the

proper names Lilt

(h'li).

Olio (oto).

Short narrow vowels

occur also occasionally as the result of shortening.

{i)

and

(u) are not lowered, as in English, towards the

mid-positions,
(a),

and consequently have a closer sound.

especially

when

long, tends towards (a).

The

bact-

round vowels are

sound.

fully retracted,

which gives them a deep

also
slightly

The

front-rounds

are

retracted

towards the mid-posiiion, which deepens their tone.

In the schools an

artificial distinction
e,

seems

to

be made
(ei),

between long a and

second
(ei).

the

first

being pronounced

the

In the diphthongs both elements are short under al

circumstances.
are uncertain.

The second elements of the diphthongsP The real sounds may be (z'h) or e^ and {\w)
'

GERMAN.
-

^^^
(a^-'),

in

English.
(oe*)

Certainly such a pronunciation as

foreign.

\\i''),

would not be detected as

consonants
often
final

The

ii\V(.'l-like

generate
syllables,

voice -glide

re
l;s

them, but only in

Nvhich

forming diph-

come
Romic

out most clearly with high vowels.

ipare
1

vi'el (fii[.\]l)

with

vi'e/e (fiileh).
:

he Broad
a aa
ai

letters are
(a)
(ai)

au
e

ee
3

93
i
ii

00
oi

= = = = = = = = = = = = = =
r=

as in
j

mcmn
nirt/aien

(a.)

>>

we/n
haws.

(ao)
(e)

>)

)>

mensch.
see.

(ei)

(eh), (.)
(.1)
(i)
(ii)

endf, gutter

>

schon.

>

bm.
bj'ene.

))

(o)

}>

Sonne.
so/m.
neu.
ttnd.
g?/t.

(oi) (oe)

>

)>

()
(ui)

>)

uu
}

j>

yy

= =

(y)
(yi)

>)

schrttzen.

)>

grwn.

The consonants
R,H

are

kh,gh

jhj
1

s,z

shtp

f.v

k,g
1

t,d

p,b

134
Final
(gh,
j)

SPECIMENS.
stops are

always voiceless, and voiced buzzes

('gh,
'j),

becomes whispered

with perhaps some

initial vocality.

The

voiceless stops at the beginning of a

svllable (or

word) are pronounced with greater force and

(gh) and
(j)

expenditure of breath than in English,

are

always either

buzzed or strongly squeezed.

(j).

consonants seem to be generally (jh) and

as in the other Teutonic languages, to be

The The

front

point

consonants are more forward than the English, and seem,

formed on

the

teeth-rim
(r)
is

they are therefore

not very strong,
(kh^<;)
(1)

'

half-dental.'

really [Raeh], the

tongue being in the low-mixed

position while the super-glottal contraction takes place,

which

is

(ghr)

is

also heard, especially

(ao),

on

the staged
{2i6k\\iv).

occurs after (u) and

'

as in
in

auch

is

higher

'

(more

palatal)

than

English, though not so

is

much

so as in French.
is

Initial (z)

(sa).

(zh) occurs

in

French words, but

the combination

a purely
is

artificial

sound,

(p) in

(pf)

often

the teeth-lip instead of the simple lip stop,

(v) is
is

not

strongly buzzed as in English

and French, and

often

formed so weak as very much to resemble (bh). Stops are oftener joined by glides than in EngHsh, and
in

such combinations as
distinct

initial

(kn) in hiie there

(k)

is

often
(n)

breath-glide between the

and the
letters

(k[H]nii).

The

special
:

Broad Romic consonant

are the

following

gh
"

= =

(kh), (kht';)

as in

nac/i, auc/t.
lar/.

Cgh)
(rr) in

I once

heard a strong

Hildesheim from an apparent

native.

GERMAN.
j

'35
.?a.

c
is

= = =

(j)

,is

in

(R)

7Vtlcr.
\rfi.

(jl^

reserved for the ^l. aiul S. G, (bh)

the quantity
it

N. G.

(v).

must be noted

that long vowels are

sliortened before voiceless consonants, as in English,

iu

vowel
K.
11,

in

cM

(noit), for instance,

Tw/e.

being as long as

in

ftfl(/e,

not half-long as in
to

The

short vowels
:

on the other hand,

di'/Zer

be shorter than the English

compare

(biieliR)

with the E. (bUA).

:

Final con-

mts
'uin

are always short

compare

nuifin

(man) with the

E.

= (maeni)

or (ma?m).

Vowel-like consonants are,

in

however, lengthened before voiced stops as

pare di7den (bilidehn) with haltai (haltehn).

Comtwo

Force

(stress)

and intonation are very

similar in the

languages.

In the following specimens

stops
is

(.)

is

put before voiceless

when they marked by (i)

syllables

are

pronounced
it

strongly.

The

quantity
that in

only, but

must be understood
full

all

which have not the

accent the long vowels

are

somewhat shortened.

A. Sentences.
-vas
-vi

haibmztda
\.

'^.

s[A]aigehnzzmail\

-vi

ha^st

-diizeh stRaiseh
fii.vl

~
:

volnzi m?tn"eimehn\.

s[A]^nts[A]i fcRti"]/.

-maen heR/
:

-s[A]i iRns[A]?jh gansn(t) gaiR\,

vei'j \.

vi

laqts(t)dehR

' Also (haibmzeh In these intimate or even (haimizeh .). combinations the (_2) seems to be fully vocal, not = (s[A]).
.
.

.")

136
-i)h

SPECIMENS.
s[A]uikh!yehdas
\.

buikhwx.

golitimmitnideh

moRgehns'twnidehhat - "^
\

- vo vointehR \,
hs'iRehnzehm'ail
\

- cr

voint tsvae tRepm hoikh

-ijh majhtehtsw R?/k'k'eiRehn\.

gRyisnziiinfon miiR\

dai.kvntJjhii'nin shio^inehgeh shif?jh-

tehfonehR tseiln\

-eR g^qaosdehma haozehx

:

cRHat tsvae noeeh hoezehRgeh .kaoft

English. Trafislalion.

whotavyuw gotdhaea \.
teik

- wilyuw telmiydha neimavaayuw rede/

dhis striyt/

-hau macwilyuw
S39/

widhyuws.

yuweh kwaitmes teikn\

- hau loqezdha wei \ -aim lukeqfadhs buk\.

enets
:

-dha maoneq auahaz

gould-

mauthx
liv \.

whaesdsziy

- hiy livzondhs seksnd

\.

staore \

aishad laiklafaan bask

:

gnytHimframm'iyN

luk hiiav

aikad telyuwa -prite staorea bautetx

-hiy wenta'utavdha haus\

-hiyaz baot tuw nyuw hauzez\

B. Prose.
faitehRl-end2sht(/eh

alteh

s[A]aigehn

viiehsmiir

shwaentN
:

haibmirRehn Raetsfna'enehRgeh v^sn 'maqlH'afu'jkactx

vaeldasgeh fyi[A]la'enehm s[A]aight/

:jaidehR glaobehbeh Ruitm'itda Raof/

:

-dasdi lyigeh alehs aosspmin mdijhtehN.

"

Also (aosm).

GER^fAN.
:

^7

'ms[A]ehReh eKllstchn vcRkehdfS dRaefseinlnj-aiR

KtS/

Iimii-

'

>[A]?nt
;L\

v?Rkh*jhs[A]o

tsaiRtgch

dijhlehUtnt

aosgcl.

Jass[A]/jhdigch

-shir/ktehsteh

hanitavnchs
\.

ri'jeehn

.:chRsda RinfeliR gRacfchnvyiRdeh

dehna-iki
!1

oslunl

taso

.koin/jh

niimailstsw

enidch

vat'lmiR

foiRk'aim

- bae alehm glansehiiRchR

:

vt<R-

tnntem

pf/nidqehn/

s[A]aedokhdina

.tuiRdehR

altn

folksd/jhtHq/nirnntSM gRnitgoh gaqehn\.

:jeidehfs gROiseh fyj^eh lest wiidehR leiR\.

-di Rfjhtehpoe* s[A]ii^ gla^jhtavnehm menshwn/

:

deiRs[A]/jh .taozntfeltJ'jehR fRoeehn.k'an

voicR laopwnt gRais vaksn/

s[A]iit\

-di s[A]oneh aoftmt niidehRgeiehn

-di -falshu'eh aenehm deiRin fR^mideh lenidehR - unts-[A]/jhandn b(?RgqdehR shwva^ts/

feiRt\

-dehm

h/rnihmt meiRi tai!jehnstsi<ehR hcibm veintx.

steitehRnui[A]n m/tnda Ri'n/

- s[A]ov7Rts[A]aenfehR
:

gnyigqrii[A]l

laejht
\

iaqehn/jht

Rafjhehnandas maisdesda hacmgehbiiibnehn

deims[A]aen apflbaom/'m liaosg'aRtn jeiRhjh blyit/

-wntdi fiqkqda Raof shwlaigq\

C.

Poetry

{in

Broad Romic).
^

(0
:

oo zeestdu fobr moondnsli'ain

ietstn maalaufm-aina pain\
syllables.
''

- isum

(,oe) in

two

Half-long.

138
:

SPECIMENS.
deenrczo manca mitarnaxt
piir/

-and'iizam pulther ang3waxt\

dann}'yb3r byycarnuntpa
:

tryyp zeeljhar'' frointer shiinstd'uum'iirv

ind'ainam

ax kanticd'oxauf bergssnaan liiban licta geeanx

bergash-aabmit gaistarn shveeban\

-um

-auf -viiznind'ainam demar veebanv - fon alam visnsk'valment laadn

-in dainam lauga zuntmic baadn\
(2)

:yybar alan gipfaln

-ist ruu\

-in alan

vipfaln

spyyrastd"uu

kaumai'nan haux\

di

faagalain shvaiganim valdax

vartan*uur\ balde
ruuast duu aux\

(3)
:

duu
ic

bistviai-na

'bluuma

zoo -holtunt -shaanunt Tainv

shaudic an -unt -veem'uiit

shiaictmiirins hertsHin ain\

-miiri'stalsopixdi henda

aufs
:

hauptd'iir leegan zolt\

beetantdas gotdicer halta

zoo Tainunt "shaanunt

'holt

\.

DUTCH.

'.39

DUTCH
i(')

a.

eh
reh(i)

ei

ai

JE

U(I)

y(0
31

0(1)

0(0

31

ce

The diphthongs
3u, yu.

are

aii,

sehi,

a.'h9,

iu, eiu, x-i, ui, oii,

Both elements are short, except where the

long.

first is

marked
to

The second element

(the glide-vowel)

seems

be

always narrow, as also in the diphthongised long vowels

described below.
(e^) is,

perhaps, also

(e^).

() varies

sometimes

it

is

raised to (a),

sometimes narrowed
it

to {v).

The lowering
(as).

of

(se) is

very marked, and

(s)

sometimes passes into

(ce) is
(ei),

often
(oi),

and '(eh).
(ai)

and

are
(oiu),

in

some pronunciations
(siy),

diph(rr).

thongised into

(eii),

and

but not before

Those who do not diphthongise these vowels witlen them

Compare Donders, De Physiologic dtr Spraakklanken, and Land, Over Uitspraak en Spelling. My knowledge of Dutch pronunciation was mainly acquired from personal hearing of Messrs. Donders, Land, and Kern. The only point in which I differ from them is in not considering (1) &c. in bindloon, &c. to be voiceless.

It

seems to

me

thai the glide from the

(f

= t)

to the (1)

is all

that

is

voiceless.

I40
before
(rr).

SPECIMENS.

We

thus get the two following parallel pro

nunciations^:

(0
s/een

(2)

meer

boom
door

neus

deur

= = = = = =
as in as in
'

steiin

stem.
meivr.

meirr

boium
doirr

boim.
doirr.

naiys
dairr
slot,' is
'

nais.
dairr.

Short open
{o)
;

o,

sometimes

(o),

sometimes

short close

o,

op,'

is

generally (o), often with a

peculiar guttural effect.

The
a

following are the Broad

Romic

letters

aa
aai

ee

eeu
ei

39
si

= = = = = = = = = =
nz

(a)
(ai)
,,

man.
maan.
iraai.

(Fi)

(^)
(ei), (ei), (eii)

bed.
steen, beter,

meer.

(eiu)
(eei)

\eeuw.
reis, tijd.

(ce),

(eh)

dun, vader.
neus, deuv.
\ui.

(3i), (9i), aiy

(x-hi)

3U

(seha)

huis.

ii

ie

iu

= = =

V)
(ii)

niet
bier.
v^'sch.

.,

(eO
(iu)

nieuw.
of Professor

Land.

The first is that of Professor Bonders, the second The first seems to be the usual one in the

province of

Holland.

DUTCH.
o
=:
(o)
(or). (.1 ), (oiu)

141
I

as in
,,

op.

oo
ooi

ou
3

uu
ui
\

)}'

}U

= = = = = = = = = =
that
'

bo')m, bovcn, door.

nvioi.

(Oli)

>>

(ou), (ou)
(o), {0)

i>

h\aaiiw, koud.
slot.

11

(u)
(ui)
(ui)

goed.
b'jer.

boe?.

(y)

>>

minu?it.

(yO
(yu)
'

zr.
uiv.

>>

Note

oi

'

only occurs

finally,
'

ami

that the lone:

(rr).

high vowels
H

ii,'

'

uu/ and
rr

'

yy

only occur before

kh.gh

s,z

bh

f.v

k-g

t.d

p.b

(gh)
is

often (generally in the province of Holland) re-

tracted (^gh), often.with a

is

more or

less

marked

trill,

(kh)
in

often also (^kh),

(skh/r'p),
it is

and

in the

combination (skh), as
trilled,

sc/iip

often slightly

(g) occurs only

as a secondary modification of (k) before a voiced stop,

as in 'bakboord.' (t) is the

sound of

tj

and

dj,
.<;/

as in

praatje (pr?-aiTJeh), ledje (beiTJeh).

the

Similarly in

(s)

has

sound

of (sj), as in dasje (dais/jeh).

The
all

glide

from

the preceding
that the effect

vowel
is

is

clearly heard in

these words, so

almost (prraiiTJeh).
(n)
(1)

(rr) often

becomes
(sh) is

(ghr).

(1), (t), (d),

seem

to be the

same

as in English,

not being dental.

tends towards gutturality.

42

SPECIMENS.
is

heard in French words, and

an occasional sound of
'

Dutch
which

sj,

as in

'

sjouwen

.'

(bh), as in

wat,'

appears to
(w),

be sometimes a weak
is

(v),

as in North

German^,

narrow,

is

generated

when
in

a diphthong ending

in (u) is followed

by a vowel, as

nieuwe (niweh). eeiiwen

(eiwehn), blaauwe (bbweh).

It often

becomes (bh) and

follows,
(z)
is

even

(v),

which,

devocalised, as

when a voiceless consonant in gehuwd (ghehnyft). Initial

and
(f[A]),

and

(v)

are half-voiced, (s[a])

and often pass

into (s)

and

(f).

The
always

glide

from the preceding vowel on to

distinct, as in the colloquial

(j)

and (w)

is

made

pronunciations

of Leiden

(lae[i]jeh)

and

houde?i (ho'[u]\veh),

and

in nieuwe,

fraaije, &c.

Specimens.
I.

Sentences.

-e'kk'an

nit

bhakhteh(n)\
:

-hu
/
:

ghaitehtf[A]-an daikhv

gheifmehehn le'khtx
:

bhat skheiltyx
heil "bhsel
\

haepjeh ghutgha slaipeh(n)

daqky \

-e'kk'anmehn bukn'it f[A]e'nideh(n)

-ehn

stomehkhH'aeideVit hdantse'z doebehl stom\

-haei keik oivehrrdeh myirr\

-y
:

f[A]rre^nt

kbham

s[A]firr laitteh rroekhs

-hsei dr?-oqks[A]ehn ghlase^n

em

taigh sehatx

ghaideh daur oipehnd"un

- deh bhe^nidc^z nairrAt bh3esteh(n)gheh

drraiit

-ehn joqmaensf[A]an
*

ghu[i]jeh haehazehx

According

to

Donders.

Land only allows

(sj).

Perhaps

(sjj)

may
''

also be heard.

of a

Land makes weak (v).

it

a lip-teeth-stop, which has very

much

the sound

DUTCH.
-ileh kju niaigcUloh Ixliinxitlon moigliehlchk
:

14

>

''zelirri-ts

niusf[A]an daikh/
\

- [aJI f[A]rnstehn snciul

-[aJi
Mi

spxMtmeh

s[A]*'ir/'datf'k

xluill)h-s\

muilehkHXude'z ceh-oddeh(n) bhxkli^'hcli r/ivhoinit\ - [aJic's heil moii bht-irr \

-hcci h.mts[A]e'kha-ndeh

.{ujwchgheh bhoimcli(n)\a

2.

Poetry (Jn Broad Rornic).

rolteht loevan

ihugha nughbk
:

daesgha rastan landmans heen

dizan zaabgh lot / - hu kleen / omgh-een koonaqsk-roon zou gheev9n\

:

laagha razdbra veerddan

bf

:vaneht hookhsta koonoqshofx.

:

alsan buurzan heighand osan

-at ghliempant koutard'oorda klont

:

vanzan erfabkan ghront

ienda lywtdar hoogha bosan
/
:

voortz'it trekan

ofzan ghraan

-at veddar^ klaaimet ghoudba laadan

The ordinary spelling is 'Ik kan niet wachten. Hoe gaat het van daag? Geef mij een licht. Wat scheelt u? Heb je goed geslapen? Heel wel, dank u. Ik kan mijn bock niet vinden. Een stommigkeit in't HoUandsch is dubbel stom. Hij keek over de muur. Uw vriend kwam zeerlaat terug. Hij dronk zijn glas in een teug uit. Ga de deur open doen. De wind is naar bet westen gedraaid. En Jong niensch van goede huize. De koude maakt de
:

luiheid onmogelijk.

Is er iets

sneeuwt.

Het

spijt

mij zeer dat ik uit was.

weg geruimd. oude gewoonten.'

den
^

Het

is

nieuws van daag?, Het vriest en Die moeilijkheid is uit Hij houdt zich aan de heel mooi weer.

Or

'

vettar

'

(?).

144
:

SPECIMENS.
ofzan ghlada

mobkujan
blei

eevan bstakh eevan

ondart ghraazsnvantar zei

:

ienan bokhtagh dal hoort lujan

stat
\

toonma danoo arma

zalkan well"3St zalkan skhat

ICELANDIC.
ii

i(i)

ei[i]

a(i)

ei

X
UI
2/C)
0(1)
9(1)

oi[u]

The diphthongs The first elements

(j)

are:

ai[i],

ai[u],

ei[i],

oi[u],

ai[i].

are short before double consonants,

is

after a

consonant

often

weakened

into a vowel,

and

forms a

diphthong with the following vowel, as

in /I'

(f[i]ei), vi7Ja (vil[i]a).

These glide-vowels may

all

be wide,

as

it

is

not easy to distinguish between narrow and wide

glides.
(a)
"

and

(ai)

tend towards
spelling of the

(a),

which

is

the

common

The ordinary

first six lines is:

Hoe

genoeglijk rolt het leven

des gei'usten landmans heen,

hoe kleen, geen koningskroon zou geven Lage rust braveert den lof van het lioogste koningshof.
die zijn zalig lot,

om

ICELANDIC.
1

14.3

in

unaccented syllables.
/>///i,'

Short

(i) is

hoard

in

the

ination tng, as in
-

= (thniqig)

or,

perhaps, somc-

(thH'qig).

Short (u) occurs before ng, and other

(x*)

inations as well, as in lil/ {v\\\).

and

{c)

seem

icrchange, and there

may perhaps be an
There
is

(ce) for (a),

hich (aeh) seems also to occur.

id
vj),

a tendency

(ei)

and
is,

(01) in a voice-glide, giving (ei[A])

and

which

however, very

slight,

(oiu)

often be-

;omes (om).
0),

(0)

and

(01)

are sometimes lowered towards

as in

Swedish and Danish.

voicelessly,

The high vowels always end

)eing

the glottis

opened before the tongue is lowered, so that / (im) md d (aiuH) sound like (iijh) and (aiuwh). In the case
)f
It

(u) there

seems

to

be often a consonantal lip-narrowing

moment of opening the glottis. The following are the Broad Romic
the

letters:

aa
ai

au
e

ee
ei

33
si

ia
ii

ie

= = = = = = = = = = = = =

(a), (a)

in

manna,
taka.

(ai)
(aii), (ai)

\xw, bo?kr

vaeng.

(am), (au)

^d;

diii,

()
(.1)
.

menn.
net.
eiv\,

(eii), (ei)

reyna

einn.

(^)
(ai)
(3ii), (ai)
(').

skcimm.
fut.

skaut

ha?<st, long,

(i;

mi'nnt,

mynd

t>2ng.

00
(")

vm,
vUa,

byli.
fyrir.

'
to

Short {\) may be denoted by doubling, ii, leaving the shortness be inferred from the two consonants following.

146
o
00

SPECIMENS.

ou u

uu
y

yy

= = = = = = =

(0)
(01)

as in

gott.

koma.
%bb; osk.
wng,
\\ix%.

(oiu), (ou)

(u)
(UI)

wlf.

(y)
(yi)

pp, husMm

mnn.
are
:

The consonants
H
(kh),gh jhj

rhr.rr
lh,l

th,dh

wh,(w)

f.y

l<,g

t,(i

p,b
(mh),in

(qb),q

nh,n

Those enclosed

in

are secondary formations, whi(

only occur in certain combinations.

Consonants written double are pronounced double wh(

medial.

When final,
is

double stops are long, other consonan

are short.

(gh)

strongly squeezed with very

little

buzz, so that
(all original!

closely resembles (g).

front), (k)

Before certain vowels

and

(g)

become (k*T) and

(g),

(g*D), written for co

ai
(

venience (k) and

with simultaneous outer back

(qh)

inner front stoppage,

and

(q) only occur before

and

(g),

never alone.
often so

(j) is

weak
It

that

it is

not easy to distinguish

j

from a vowel.
after a
(vil[i]a).
(1), (t),

seems

to

be generally a glide-vow

consonant, as in _//

(f[i]i),

fekk

(f[i]e[H]ki),

vu

(n),

&c.

seem

to

be half-dental, with the

tip

ICELANDIC.
le

147
often formed without

tongue on

tlie

tceth-rim.
tlie

(clli) is

ontact,

which makes
is

buzz ahnost inaudible.

For (wh) (kv)

s

substituted in

some

parts of Iceland,

in //<'6

(whaidh) or

(kvaidli).

(kht<^)

seems also

to

ccur.

(w)

is

narrow

it

arises

from (gh), as in

/Jti^a,

which

irough (l[i]uighH'a)
I

becomes
and
(v)

(l[ijuiwa), whicli is the usual

renunciation,

(f)

are

often

pronounced with

peble friction, so that (v) resembles (bh).

Initial
(jh),
(Ih),

and (nh) seem

(Ihlaidha).

to

become
(th)
is

vocal just

efore the glide to the vowel begins, so that (Ihaidha)

\la6a
lere
1

sounds

like

Initial

aspirated,

being an independent stress on the breath-glide, as

,

J>ab (thHaidh)

Final
'cing
Ih),

{rr), (1), (n),

and (m) end

(llh).

voicelessly, the glottis

is

opened

just before the

tongue

removed, so that

as in 7v/,

sounds Hke

Final (gh), as in dag,

lecomes ('gh).
gg, dd,

and hh are half-voiced when medial, as

in

vagga

vakk[A]a).
3
s

When

final,

as in egg, the off-glide seems

(ae'gi).

be whispered (aeki['A]) or
in oil,

is (tilh)

when

final,
^.
is

and apparendy

(ti'l)

when

medial, as in/alla

Similarly

nn

after original

long vowels and diphthongs

Jia/bi,

tmh) and
lounced
arts)

(ti'n).

Sagbi,
(saki'dh?),

&c., are generally pro-

either

(hapidh?),

or

else

(in

some

(saghidz), (havidi).
tt,

kk,

s in flokk (flonki),

and fp are always preceded by a breath-glide, of various degrees of force, which is

between
kk. Sec.

he chief distinction

and

gg,

&c.when

final.

This was pointed out to

me by Mr. Magnusson,

of Cambridge,

uite lately.
'

Perhaps

(tilh) also.

148

SPECI3IENS.
on-and-off glides
of front consonants are
vei

The
distinct.

Thus

dogt

(boijz)

sounds Hke

(boi[i]ji),

gst

(GZiiti) like (ojaiiti).

The
letters
:

following are the principal Broad

Romic

consonai

kh
kj

gh
si

gk
gkj

qh
jh
rh
Ih

dt

nh

mh
bp

= = = = = = = = = = = = = =

kh
(K)

as in
>)

a^ta.

^-enna, ^^osa.

(gh)
(o)

J)

sa^a.
^reta, graeti.

)j

(kkM),
(kk[a])

(--gi)

11

va^g'a, &gg.

>)

Iwia.
lawg't.

(qh)
O'h)

)5

>)

hjL
Tiring, hart.

(rhr)
(Ih)
(tt[A]), (- dl)

>)

])

7j?a3a, biZt.

hocZcZum,

0(ic?.

(nh)

J>

Anut,

^'wif,

beiwt.

(mh)

J)

ja/wt (jamht).

(PPW), (- bi)

)>

ga66a, ga66.

A. Prose.
I
.

Old

Icelandic.

-hin thrWidhi
dhyrr \

ausserrs'auserr kati'ladh2/rraerr 'npjw'

-han
uin\

biirrau hi'mini/

ithairrssem heiittrr noi[u]wa

han

xrziidhyrrHixrixr gaiqigy vims/

ok

stzti'lij

s[i]aiuok selid \

-au
:

hanskal

heiitatil saiif'airraoktil veiidha\.

/

hanserrsvau siidhighyrrokf [i]eis"aitlh

OLD ICELANDIC.

149

-.\tH-anmau Gciva theiim aiidh lanidafirdhyrr biisaPirv

Lrraunan

heiitau'lth aesv

invarr y[H]pif'aitl[A]yrn
- Lii

vainaHeiimym/
haiin<r>-

vain/r/- Gtslydliyh'an goulh^yiiym

-ok toiukyi moiutat

leiittrr \

aiusaG/slK|ig7/th"anxr/-

-hanvar/'dhat sai[H]timxdh goull)^n?/niokv,>in/m

n[i]<>rrdh?/r/-au

thaiu komi/XTr -skaidlu' heiitirr\

dou[H]ttir;' th[i]assa jaityns \

skaidh/vj'lH'aiva

buist'aidh

thanxrr

au[HJtHapi'dhi

aidh?rj'Hcennarr\
:

thaitaerrau f[i].)tilym na[H]kivorrymth-ain-saem heiittrr

hrri/imH"eiim?/rr\

-aen n[i]srrdhyr?-vn veirran'aiirr saiiv

-thsigh sai[H]tt?/stau thait/
:

atthsighs'Kzlidy veirra niiy* naiit!/rri thrr^/imh'eiimi/

niij/at

-senthau aidhrrarr
-en?eTr
"[ijati'li'n?/ /

noi[u]\vafuini/m
aftyrrtA

n[i]arrdhyrrkoim

noi[u]\vat"uinaav

-thau kvaidhhan th[H]aetta\

leiidherrz-^rak f[i]3tilh \

varhrkacek leiqiotv
naiityrr eiinarr nni/\

ulva th[H]at?/rr
m[i]eirr th[H]ou[H]ttt iti'li/rrveim.

:jhau saiqigvi svainav

-thau kvaidh skaidhi th[H]aetta\

sorv^aaek
saiivar;-

mau[H]ttat

bGedh[i]ym au

fyki'ls

pTj-mi iiiTrirr\
*

Not diphthongic.

150
:

SPECIMENS.
saiumzk
veik^/rr

aeirrav viidhi

Keimyrr

morrgyn wherr[i]an maiurr\

- thau foiurr skaidhi 2/[H]piau
f [i]ati'k't
f

-ok -ok

biki'dhn thmimh'eiimz"
faerrHon m[i]aikau
SKiityrr diin'\
heiiUr?*

skiidhymokmsedh boigha/
*

-ok
-hon

anidyrrg'vyidherdhyrr 9nid^rrd'iis

2.

Modern

Icelandic (in

Broad Romic).

(Unaccented
-ii
:

ii

= (i).)

fierir

gammla daagha/ msrgym hyndrydh aurym /

riikyr boundi-ii sailiqgsdaalsfuqgy
\.

bjoum-J99gh

-han

autti

nokkyr bsdtnh/
tiln-emdir tveir sienirv.

-o(gh)eeTy

ekkji vietam-en whaadhth'eir jheety/

kaddymvjerthauth'vii adtnouro sveinx.

-theirv'oory baudhir ebpnilei-ir menenth'ou ouMikjir

"

The

following

is

the ordinary spelling of the beginning of

text

:
Hinn
JjriSi

Ass er sa er kalla^r er Njor'Sr;

hann byr a himni. J^ar sem heitir Noatiin hann rae'Sr fyrir gongu vinds, ok stillir sja ok eld a hann skal heita til saefara ok til veiSa. Hann er sva au^igr ok fessell, at hann ma gefa j^eim auS landa eSr lausafjar er a hann heita til {^ess.

Hann var uppfceddr i Vanaheimum, en Vanir gislu"Su hann goSunum, ok toku i mot at Asagislingu ])ann er Hoenir heitir; hann varS at ssett meS goSunum ok Vonum.

OLD ICELANDIC.
adtnourvar hrcistinvaadhyro miekjidtlf-ierir sjcorv

Ijl

eidtnvar haigliyro spaakyro ciq<;jin hreistimaadhyr

ftir

lhviivoor}-their

mjaogh

ouliikjirii

lynd\

adtnourvar gleedhim"aadhyr \
-o
'iivnix

gaavsighadh leikjymmedh sveinym

thaarur

daa-

-o

mailhtytheiro'ft

moutmedh

sjeervidh staapa than/

-er stendyr niedhyrvidh auna/

ands'painis bainymii tuqgy/

-sem
:

kadtladhyrer tuqgys'taapi

\.

vaarthadh skjemtynth"eirra-au veetrym

- adh
:

rennasjeereftir hardhfennin'iedhyrav

staapanym

th\iihaner haur

mjaagh

o niedhyrau eiradtnarii kriqg

gjekk

\,

oft

miekjidh -aumedh kadtlo haureisti

\

kriqgym tuqgystaapa-ii rakkrynym

:

*
\

ovar adtnourth-aar oftast fremstyrii flokkji

B. Poetry.
I
.

Old

Icelandic.

s[i]eir?-hon

3/[H]pik-oima

Ser hon

uppkoma

adhrry smni
j^rrdhorr ai[i]ji
idh[i]agT;-aiina\

o6ru

sinni

jor6 or oegi
iSjagroena

*"

(ki).

The

ordinary spelling of the beginning

fvrir
;

is

I
i

gamla daga,

Sc-elingsdalstungu

Ekki vita og Svein.

synir.

bjo mjog rikur bondi hann atti nokkur bom. og eru til nefndir tveir menn hvaS J'cir hetu, og kbllum ver pa ))vi Amor

morgum hundiuS arum,

152
fati'la

SPECIMENS.
fossarr/
falla forsar,

fliigh?/rr ati'n
:

hvirr

fl/'gr

orn

yfir,

saiuserrau

f[i]ati'li

sa er a

fjalli

fiska veiidh2rr\
jheirr staenidyn- balidrri

fiska veiSir.

H6t

stendr Baldri

-ov

brr?/KK[.v]m m[i]?idh3/rr

of bruggin mjo8r,
skirar veigar,

SKiirrarr veiigharr
k'kk[A]2/rr SKalidi/rr uvirr\

liggr skjoldr yfir;

-aen aiusm-ei[i]irr

en asmegir
i

- i oiwaiint

ofvaeni

ndiidhygh saki'dhak\
nuim"?/insek th[H]ei[i]a\
f[i]eiok f[i]arrvi

nau9ug sag8ak, nu mun ek fjegja. F^ ok

fjorvi

rrainhti fi'rrdha
:

Kmid

raenti fyr6a

kind

sauH^n grrimmi grrae[H]pp?/rr

nvirthau gaity
serrnan va^?dhadh^

sahinn grimmi greppr

yfir J)a gotu,

er

hann var8a6i,
komask.

naiudhz eiqIG^ kxiikyrr

na3i eingi kvikr

koimask \

Modem
-ii

Icelandic {in

Broad Rojnic).

morgynroodhans mindym
broosir viedh\

myynadhu

sviivyrmedh syymarvindym
siiqgyrii fygkla kliedh\

-au beedhi bloumgra stranda -migh bliidhast dreimir nhos\

kvaldvindara'dhmjeer anda
:

ou

siinileghrar

kos

SWEDISIf.

ij3

SWEDISH.
il

eh

e(i)

a
ai

.h[i]

x(i)

uhi

yi

h
,
1

y
(>)

o'(0
O'l

ce(i)
1

j'

The diphthongs
(a)

are

eh[t], o[i], 9[t],

besides (a[i])

and (a[Mh]), which only occur

tends to
(a),

in foreign words.
(ae)

especially in unaccented syllables,

(e)

and
(a)
:

(oe),

both long and short, interchange with

and

they are

commonest before
Hke

(r).
(i)

()

and

{y) are very

(o') is (o)

close, so that they are very

and

(y).

rounding of
the
(')

(u),

and
is

(o^) is (o)

+ rounding of (o).
lip

Note

that

in this case

not meant to imply any raising of the

opening.

tongue, but simply a narrowing of the

(ai) (ai)

For

also occurs.
letters are
:

The Broad Roinic

a

aa
ai

au
oe

ae
e

ee
ei

= = = = = = = = =

(a), (a)

as in

fflUa.

(i) (at)

taga.

Ma;.
,,

(a?<h)
(=e), {e)
(aei), (ei)

J?<gusti.
herre,

en van

bera, dta.

e
ei

,,

skepp.
sten.
n^',

,,

(ehO

mig.

154
3

SPECIMENS.

93
9i
1

ii

oo
ao
oi

uu
}

yy
H

= = = = = = = = = = = = = =

(.), (ce)

(eh) as in
)i

rost, forst

vi

{n), (oei )
{9i)

sno, smor.
fro/d.

)>

(0
(iO

ting.

j>

vin.

(oO
(oh)
(0^)

j>

hon, foster.
sol.

>

)>

komma, lang
ga,
stq/.

(oh)
i^H)

konung.

>>

(h)
(uhi)
(y)
(yi)

j>

wng.
wt.

})

5>

lycka.

ny.

sh

f,v

k>g

t.d

p.b

m
is,

The Swedish consonant system

identical with the English.

as far as

it

goes,

English and Swedish are the

final

only Teutonic languages that have

(1), (t),

voiced

stops.
half-

(d),

and

(n) appear, however, to

be dental or

dental,

(r) is trilled at

the beginning of a stress syllable,

it is

as in n'i.

After a long vowel, as \x\far,fara,

;

gene-

rally untrilled

gdrd,

it is

and when a consonant follows, as in barn, so weak and short as to be almost inaudible to
After short vowels
it is

a foreign

ear.

trilled,

often only

weakly, as in forra, barm.

rally identified with the

The

soft

in keyuia is
it

gene-

English

(tsh),

but

appears some-

SWEDISH.
limes to be (TJh), the forward variety of which
distinguishable from (tsh).
identified with
(j),

155
is

hardly

Soft y, as in g'ura,

is

generally

but

it

is

often

(nj)''.

Voiceless stops are often joined by breath-glides, as in

,i<ia
IS is

(ak[H]ta).

in Icelandic,

Final high vowels often end voicclessly, and before voiceless consonants the effect

nearly that of the corresponding breath consonant, thus

(huhis)

= bus

becomes nearly (huhiwhs).

consonants
all

But these de-

vocalisations are not universal.

Written
medially.

double
Finally

are

pronounced double
after

consonants are lengthened

short vowels, as in English.

The most
tone.

characteristic feature of
in

Swedish

is its

word-

Every word

Swedish has one of two tones

^.

the

compound and

the simple

The
but
tone,

simple tone seems to

it is

have been originally a

the negation of the
either a rise or a

rise (/),

practically

merely

compound

and may therefore be

fall

according to the context.

The comfirst

pound
one

tone, which only occurs in

words of more than

syllable,

consists of a falling tone

on

the

(the

accented syllable), followed by a high tone on the next.

This high tone seems by a

glide.

to

be reached by a leap rather than

is,

The compound
two

therefore, a
It is

compound

rise

distributed over

syllables.

indicated by (v) before

it

the

accented syllable on which

begins,

and always

strongly lengthens the consonant of that syllable, unless

the vowel
is

long, as in la7ida (vlanida), dofla (vda'fita).

have often heard

it is

themselves,
its

this (d\ but as it is ignored by the Swedes impossible without long observation to determine

use.
'' '

Tonefaldet,' See Professor Storm's article Videnskabs-Selskabs Forhandlinger for 1874.

Om

in the Christiania

156
There
is

SPECIMENS.
generally a half-strong (secondary) stress

on

the

high-tone syllable.

These word-tones are crossed

plicated

in a peculiar

and comoften
:

way by

the sentence-tones

common

to language
is

generally.

In compound-toned dissyllables there

no

distinction

made between

assertion

and interrogation

thus 'talar hann Svenska?' and 'hann talar Svenska' are

(tailarnan vsveniska)

and (-han

vtalar vsveniska),

ending

with the same tone in both cases.

When

another syllable

follows the high-tone one, the high tone can either be

continued upwards or downwards.

as UlfoMigtvis

Thus, such a word

may be pronounced

either (vt'ilif:elk"ktviis /)

with the high tone on the second syllable continued up-

wards, or

(vt-2lif:elliktviis \)

with a falling tone beginning

on the high
sentences

tone.

In this way interrogative and assertive

distinguished as in other languages,
it

may be

and

even in dissyllables

is

possible to distinguish between

(vsvenska/) and (vsvenskav).

The

interval of the

compound tone
word
is

varies according to

the emphasis with which the

uttered.

A. Sentences.
:

jaskalvaira-i stainehtp"ir ^ vvekko^r.

vveidrreht3e(r) vvakkehrt.

devareht varrb"eiteh.
:

frrohn valila vseirdehns vdeilar.

:jafoer stohrnser 'vanidrra taila.

tiid(eh)n8e(r) o'nid.

hanbeh fanisehn

sto'irtbeh ho'iv.

bht^'s go^i.

-go^ vma^rro'nmm

vhserreh.

-han

tohgH9'n;>^mesit huhis.

vviisamehifilmit rrwhrni.
*

Or

etp'air.

SlVEDISIf.
:jaharfoer tshy.'llm^i?'.
varv.

157
ji/nlclK-lit

nubcli

nyt vtiulch-

vmfnin?shana:(r)

fsdit/l

varrb-citch

-:)'uhitanboh nwi-

dandeh vinnehs viqiehn vfrramigj'q.

:kanHcrn vsfh[j]jainfhivar
-vif'o'ireht vdr?v[/Jja.
pj^stehna;(r).

Etiglish Translation.
:

aishal steiendha tauna

fyuw wiyx

tha^twoza leibov.

dha

wetlhaz fains

-fram

aol

kwaotazavdha gloub\

-ais'nda staendwhen adhaz spiyk\

- dha taimza bsed

:

\.

- hiy faundems'elfen

greit streits

lets

gou \.

gud maoneqs'33 \

-hiy tukemintuez haus\

shoumitUTnai rum\

aiv kaot
msenez

"kould

\.

naube gaena nyuw

:

piiriad

baonfo
\

'toil

andwedh

auteg

zaashan

nou

prougresezs teind
:

kaenyuw telmiy whaeadha poustaofesi's/

wiy masnt weit
\

B. Prose
'

{in

Broad Romic).
lii\

hastani noordanhaaren vstilla juupmel'aqko

-msende

veevikt vgraana graano vfuuruskoogarna/

-sam

vkraanadces

bxrja

vhaidar/

-osam

vsuusa

vliika vfriska/

-am

vsammarns

vflcektara vfaoglar vleeka-id'cem

-8e"l(l)aramdeeras

shxg

vflyygafcer vnoordanstarman/

-maedan vkarparna

vkretsaii

shyynv

(e) or (eh).

158

SPECIMENS.
alt

-dsessa vskoogarfaaga bart

alt

bleekt/

veektD vmjseltshuuktfraon vveemoodatv

yjiivadae(t)en vstaempalav vhaagheetD yjuupsinnikt

-0

valvaarx.

- daen vgamla waalan vandasundar -os'ao vkomma-aevsn vdaagar/

vhasrliga vdaagar/

vsorjasbian

\.

- dao

vtaltrastan shuqariidsn vfrostklaara

vmorgonan

-dao
-dao

vhasgmaolnan
\

staoi

vpurpuro

guldaavarde

vduqkslgraana vhaidarna

luftanaer vspaenstigD lajt\

Isetsomen vflyyganda faogalx

-0
aav\

vmsennishans kropo vsinnan vliikasomba viqasdser

vdaagardao

soobn

lyysari

vreenasta

glansaavardan

vbrookiga joordanx

daer laavsn vguulnatD

vrandruuvan glaadar \

-dao vnorsheenan vflamma-i kvaeUsnx

-0

daoaerdae vhaerliktii

noordsnx

C. Poetry.

daeir
tvo'i

weksteh
no^irdehn

vuhiti vh?lidzqs go^ird

vplanita^rwhnidehr vfo'strarns vohrdx

fceri

ehi

seti

tvohso^ vshaina

- de vveksteh

vh3enliktid#?(t) vgrraina.

-den veinas"o^men

-eik

shait

frrami\

-a^S'a'men laniserH'en(n)ehs stami\

-men

vkrro'inanso^mi vinidehn shelivehr

-liksa^men jelimsm vrithnidehl velivehrx.

SWEDISH.
-den vanulrra we' stchsj'men
:n2eir v/ntchrn
:

j^iy

r/-o'is

n^snar

fl>/tisn

ko'is

m^Ti vD'irehnsv'mden rro'isehn jamniehr

i

kiu'ppehn liggehr

em.*'

dr/vmmelir

\.

-men sUVrmehn
- medHj'n^'m
-

skalkT?'{q jo'irdehn go'i

vbrr^Hitas eikehn

doh

-j' wo'irs"ohlsk"alp:>^ vh/milelm vgbida

do^ v>?pinar rro'isehn vlepipar vrr^ida*.

2.

{In

Broad

Romi'c).

see vfaoglarnas vskaara

-til

vfraemmanda land
vfaara

- de vsukkanda

-fraon vgautjoods strand \

-maed vaedrande vblanda

-sit vklaaganda juud\.
:

vaar vskoolavi vlanda

vart faarosdit buud v. -SD vroopardasn vfjaedrada

:

vskaarantil

guud\

-vii vlaemnamaed voofoo

-de

skandiska shaerx
first two stanzas Hildbgs gird
is
:

The

ordinary spelling of the

Der vaxte

uti

tvi planter under fostrarns vird. Ej Norden forr sett tva sS skbna, de vaxte herrligt i det grona.

Den

ana som en ek skot fram, och som en lans ar hennes stam, men kronan, som i vinden skalfver,
liksom en hjelm sin rundel hvalfver.

60

SPECIMENS.
-vii vtriivdasvii vvooro

-so vlykliga daer\. -ii vblommanda vHndar

:

daer vnaestatvii bykt

-bal saamiska vvindar

--

OS

waggado

tr}^kt

\.

nuu strsekkosm'oot voocsenda vrymdorvaor

flykt

vaad

yjoaravii vlseqro
:

- i noordon \
:bliir

daes pool

vdaagligon vtrseqro

:meer duqkaldaes sool\.

:vaad vbaotarat vkviida

-vi vlaemnaen graav\

-at

flyyidae vviida

guud

vviqaros gaav\
vhaclsade vbrausanda haav\

-sao vaaronos

DA XISH.

16

DANISH".
1

i(0

eh

e(i)

'

a(0

ei

u(i)

y(0
3(0
ce
3*
31

o'(i)

The diphthongs

are

a[i], a[o'],

and

.->\i]

The

first

elements are always short.

Observe the delicate distinctions of the front vowels,

and the same abnormal rounding of the back vowels as
in

Swedish.
(e)
is

always very close

is

= (e^).

So aho

forwardness of (a)

very marked, especially

The (a). when long

and

when unaccented.

In vulgar speech
(ae)

it

seems often

to pass quite into (as),

and

(oe) are

not very low, and

may perhaps interchange with (e) and (a). Final high vowels end voicelessly, as in

Icelandic.

The Broad Romic

a

letters are

aa
oe

= = =

(a)
(ai)
(se)

en mand.
at

mane,
best.

en

Compare my paper on Danish

'

Pronunciation,' in the Trans, of

the Philological Society, 1873-4.

''

as I

am not certain of the exact character of the second elements, formerly regarded them as consonants.

62
ae
ai

SPECIMENS.
(.1)

et trae.

ao

(O'l)

en maane.
et n^fyn.

au
e

(aoO
(e)
(ei)
(3),

hende, bredt.
bred.

ee
a

(eh)

forst, at give.

(91)
i

en

so.

(0
(iO

gik, hvidt.

ii

hvid.
ilk, at fz'nde.

ie

(0

(oO
(oh)
(oe)
(.1)

et gods,

ung.

oo
oe

god.
storst.

oe
oi

en

dor,

(oH)

et q/e.
et folk,

maatte.

y
yy ye
R,H
(jh),j

(y)

en skyld, nydt.
at n?/de. at skylle.

(yO
(2/)

gh
(ih),
1

thy,

dhj

sh

k.g
q

t,

p,b

Those
the
in
( )

(nh),n

m
i

are secondary formations.

full

Observe the

development of the throat-sounds.

an(
a;

numerous
(r)

varieties of point

and blade consonants,

or,

in English.

The

is

really (r)

(ghtt'),

in other words, ar

DAXfSH.
English (w) with the

63
is is

tongue retracted +

(r).

There

also a secondary voiceless lorm.

The

(K)-narro\ving

generally carried into the following vowel, to which,

is

if it

front,

it

cominunicates something of a back qualitv.

(bRaixMh) has to an English ear the effect

Hence
of
'

/'rod

broidli.'

The
'

glottal catch (x), or 'stodtonc' (s-t[.\]odli./tn:o'inch),

'

corresponds to the
'

simple tone

'

in

Swedish, the Swedish

compound tone being represented by the absence of The (x) always follows its vowel, which it the (x). shortens somewhat when long. (gh) often becomes
(ghic)
after

back-round vowels, as

in

suge (suightveh),
in

which becomes (suuweh) and then (suueh), and

(.<'gh'),

og

which also drops

(j^).

its

consonant

in

rapid speech,
is

becoming
seem
to

After
s/ge

front
(sii

vowels (gh)
(siieh).

also
(1),

often

dropped, as

in

gheh) or
(tb^')

(t),

&c.

be half-dental.

and (dhj) are formed

inaudible.

without contact, and often

become almost
(s)

Voiceless stops at the beginning of a stress syllable

are

aspirated,

except
they

when
///

precedes them.
except,

When
I'k^e

not

aspirated

arc are

half-voiced,
(tnri).

of course,

finally.

Examples
sl'df

s/i/k

(st[A]{leh),

(?k[A]eh),

(sk[A]at).

If

voiced

consonant
it,

fol-

lows an aspirated stop the aspiration passes into

it

and
are

becomes
All
final

voiceless, as in liol'ie (klh3'k[A]eh).

consonants,
is

unless

already

voiceless,

whispered, as also
as in

(gh) before a voiceless consonant,

magf (ma'ght).
consonants are short.
Vowel-like consonants
if (x)

All final

before voiced consonants are long, but

precedes,

they are short and whispered, as in mandel (max'ndehl).

The second

elements

of

diphthongs,
2

when

followed

l54

SPECIMENS,
into full vowels,

by voiced consonants, are lengthened

but without taking
a fresh

stress-impulse,

as

in

sej/e.

This

effect

is

best represented

by

(sa[i]uleh), implying

(sa[i]/i-leh).

The
to be

chief

Broad Romic consonant

:

letters that require

noted are

dh

gh
jh

kh
Ih

nh

ph
r

rh

sh
th th

= = = = = = = = = = = =

(dhj)
(gh), (ghiy)
(jh)

as in

gu(^.

da^e, og.
tjene.

(kn)
(Ih)

Z;omme.
kZokke.
k?ie.

(nh)

(ph)
(r)

jy^rvgQ.
ret.
traet.
s/ael.

(Rh)
(sh)
(thj)

landed,
^age.
se.

(tn)
(x)

In the following specimens the

laryngal r

is

written

simply

(r).

(a) is written
full stress

simply

(a).

Long

vowels which

have not the

are half-long, as usual.

A. Sentences.
:hanehrehn slaex'm o'lx'n max'n\.
al

:da5Rehs uix'RgD^iR-

deixlehs faix'U

-hun Rakt[A]ehHa'm
:hanf3^'R tjhsexnehR

ha'xnitml tHatVnpH^^fo^R sohxm'qx

eqm beidh/Reh

sk[A]eipneh

^^

(pn)

without any breath-glide after the

(p).

DANISH.

1(5-;

o^nsk[A]ylaja tnaiRma/dn frineidli/a gaiRehdcmeht s;)Mnt

sp[A](VKsmD'ix'l\

-lian ao'n-o'x'Itsa/f-Kaa(i) ytRchsin mcinjq/

fy'Rafj^R

-a

fuyglu-

nxwRmeliHam
\

siix'ghlii/1

kHUsk[Ajohnaiian/-k[A]chm^' knoiKeh

allf.''R

laqs.>'mt
:

det[A]eh o'ixr bRuighiwehs shaeli'n

:goeK 2k[A]ehnTiinch st[A]3vlehK

VR?"st'n \

alifj'R

sneivRehj^)\hR

devtlehHan zk[A]ehs-ii(gh)eh
du ha\
:

naifiii'lv

.tuak sk[AJal-

ja/haRiraistn /k[A]ch lo'k[A]ehth/m'iineh

\

o'[t]nnehdn

heileh nat

- han

Rajstch

heileh
"

vemidn RO^x'nt
/

skRiixvehRHan

rexqehlsk

The

ordinary spelling
er en slem

is

Han
fejl.

ond Mand.
til

Deres Uhr gaaer aldeles

Hun Han
et

rakte

ham Haanden
at

Tegn paa Forsoning.

fortjener ingen bedre Skjcebne.

Undskyld

]eg tager mig den Frihed, at gore

Dem

saadant Sporgsmaal.

Han
at

afholdt sig fra at ytre sin Mening, af Frygt for

fornajrme ham.
Sig
til

Kudsken,

at

han ikke maa kjore

sjelden.
altfor snsevre

altfor

langsomt.

Dette

Ord bruges
han ikke

Gjor ikke mine Stovler

over Vristen.
skal

Det

vilde

sige

Nei

til.

Tak

Du

have.

Jeg har nxsten ikke lukket mine Ojne den hele Nat.

(sUr) without any breath-glide after the {k).

66

SPECIMENS.
rejste hele

Han

Verden rundt.

Skriver han Ens;elsk?

B. Prose.
heileh

uighwehni

gsexnehmm'5t[A]eh

lileh

klhao'xs

plho^iehfs^R st[A]ohReh klhao^xs/

0^ lohnehHamsin
f iiReh \

einehst[A]eh hsest\

-so^ jaxlp st[A]o^iReh klhao^xsnami gsenme alehs-iineh

-men

0^

kHo'n eixngaxq^^m uighwehnv

\.

devaRj^'m soex'ndaigheh'n

husa\ -vo'r smselehdh/eh lileh klhao'xsmesin pniska'o^ehR aleh fex'm hsestehx

-de
-0^

vaRJo^n"us;)^

goHso^m haxns

dcexn eineh daix'ghv.

\

so'ixlehn sk[A]mehdh;ehso^ da^li(gh)

aleh klhj'k[A]ehRi
\

kH?Rk[A]ehto'ixRnehtlT/ Riqeh-

dhjehtHil kHiRk[A]eh

fo^x'lkvaRsa^ pn^/ntehdhjeh

- 0^ gikme salmehb'ohxgho^nehRai'x'Rinehn - ahaiReh pRhaestn ^ pRheik[A]eh \ -oMi SD^xpHs^ lileh klhao^xsx -deR plho^i'ehdhjehme fasxm hsesteh\
:

haexn /

HanvaRSo'fa'R no^ixehthjf

auan smaelehdly'ehi gaenme pniskehna^ Ro^pteh

hyp alehm-iineh hgesteh\

No

breath-glide from the

(t)

to the (n).

DANISH.

167

C. Poetry

(in

Broad Romic).

(0 -du vandrieqs maxnvedh saaxan -o staxnsdin raska gaxq\

SKxn bliekothouar aoxon

-0

hoaxrniin mienasaxqx

\xxn daexrhaendiina thaqksr -din laexqsabdin soxrgh\ -pho hiina guulo baqkar
stooxdh foexran ridharb'oxrgh
\

-i Icexqstfor svoxnna daagha

:

vardani glaxnsa maght

nuoerdar knhapthiel baagha

ru

iixnara(u)dns prhaght\

moeni'di

gamla thiidhar

-davardn hoixD stooxrs - D saoxsthiel ala siidhar

-D

knhaisadhafra jooxrx

-doen ieka mona vaera

-far nooghan vikieq byght\

-u

raanjathiel aera
raistasaisa trhyght\

-dcen

-fra mcenaskanas vriemlan

-vedh haaxvath

skiexltdsen laox/

-a haevadhsaimoodh hiemlan -0 mooxdhdi stjcernar smaox\

l68

SPECIMENS.

(2)

hserligha

moodhar skjolm-sax prhuuxdh/

sorghdoxqkb skruuxdh^
thselta/

gjooratha(u) haaxvaths salb'laox baelta/

hist klaexti graanars

skygath haexra(u) lyysg-rcena

steexnaerdit phansarx

iisbTaexdin jaexlma skaexrdiina lansarx

malmtoqa seenar snooxdin aaxrm \ msen khaermienarna smyekadin baaxrm

:

-ad'in iesapo laaxrs'tjaernan krhansar\

APPENDIX.
THE PRINCIPLES OF SPELLING REFORM.
INTRODUCTION.
The
almost
absolute
necessity

of phonetic

reform

is

now

universally

recognised,

not

only by

practical

teachers but also by scientific philologists.

tions that prejudice

All the objec-

and

irrational conservatism

have been

able to devise have

been

successfully met,
shall

and the only

?

question

now

is,

What system

we adopt

The

great difiiculty of arriving at any agreement

possible systems.

is

the

multiplicity of

Any

system, however

clumsy and
hient

arbitrary,

the irregularities o( the existing spelling,

which clears away only a portion of is an improveif

on

it.

Any

one, for instance,

he

likes,

can drop
nig/i/ into

the silent 7V in such words as zon'/e,

ni/e,

and make

thus getting rid of a large

stroke.

number of

irregularities

at

one

In

fact,

given a hundred

human
it

beings of

average intellect

who can

read and write,

would be

perfectly easy to turn out a

spelling, all of

hundred
less

different systems of

them more or

an improvement on the
of things

existing one.

This was

until lately the state

every

man

did what was right in his

own

eyes.

But

in the thirty

170

APPENDIX.

years that have elapsed since Messrs. Ellis and Pitman

first

began

to

work a phonetic alphabet,

practically everylast

thing has been changed, especially within the

years.

ten

The

labours of Messrs. Bell and Ellis have given

the

us a thorough analysis of the sounds of English,

history of English pronunciation
tigated

has been

fully

inves-

by Mr.

Ellis,

and a

variety of spellings have

been

practically tested.
It is

now

possible

from an examination of these various

all

systems to deduce certain general principles, by which

reform must be guided.

the problem

If there

were no such

principles,

would be a hopeless one. Nothing can be done without unanimity, and until the majority of the community are convinced of the superiority of some one
system, unanimity
is

impossible.
give an opinion

No
reform

one

is

qualified to

on

spelling

who has not

studied these general principles, and

has at least an elementary knowledge of the formation of

the sounds of the English language and their relations to

one another.

The

present remarks are intended to supply the neces-

sary information in as clear

and untechnical a form

as

possible, so as to enable the general reader to

form an

independent judgment without having to search through

an indefinite number of scattered publications.

CHOICE OF LETTERS.

171

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
Choice of Lf.tters.

The
it

object of an alphabet being to represent to the eye

the sounds of a language by

means of

written symbols,

follows that in a rational alphabet

(i)

Every simple sountl must have a

distinct

symbol, and

(2)

There must be a defmiie

symbol.

relation

between each sound

Visible the

and

its

These
Speech.'

principles are carried out in Mr. Bell's

'

In

this

alphabet each

letter
it is

symbolises

action of the vocal organs by which

formed, accord-

ing to certain fixed principles.

Thus,
c,

all is

consonants are
turned in
dif-

symbolised by a curve, like a

each consonant

which

ferent directions to indicate the place in the

is

formed,

'o

for instance,

mouth where indicates any

/>, b,

consonant foniied by the point of the tongue, such as

/.

d,

or

/;

3,

one formed by the

'

lips,
'

such as
',

or

in.

The

different varieties of

point-

',

lip-

&c. consonants

are indicated

by modifiers added

to these

fundamental

symbols.

short straight line inside the curve converts

/,

voiceless (surd) consonants, such as

p,

s,

into the cor-

responding voiced (sonant) consonants

d, b, z,
'

&c. shut
'

bar

across the opening of the curve denotes a

con-

sonant or mute.
for /

So
/>.

that

any one who knows the symbols

to recognise the

and d

is

at

once able

symbol of

b if

he knows that of

Such an alphabet

is,

to a great extent, self-interpreting.

When

the

meaning of a few

radical signs have

at once,

been

learnt,

hundreds of letters are understood

without further

173
explanation.
It is also
all

APPENDIX.
a umversai a//)ha5e/, providing sym-

bols not only for

existing, but also for all possible sounds.

The Roman

alphabet, with which English

and most
falls

other European languages are written, evidently

short of this standard.

far

In the

first

place,

its

letters

are

formed quite

arbitrarily,

and bear no

definite relation to
infer,

the sounds they indicate.

stance,

No

one would
letters

for in-

from the shape of the

/,

that

d was

nearly

related to
i)

and

that there

was the same

relation

between

and

p.

Again, the

Roman

alphabet supplies an utterly

inadequate number of symbols for the sounds of most

languages.

Although the original alphabet has

been

supplemented in modern times by the addition of such

letters as 7, v,

and w,

it

is

still

very defective, and con-

sequently distinct sounds are often confounded under one

letter in

many

languages.

The
is

difficulty

of learning the
increased by

values of the different letters

the use of capitals

also

much

and

italics,

many

of which, especially

the capitals, have entirely distinct forms.

Compare A,

a, a,

G,

g,

&c.

Besides being inadequate for the representa-

tion of the

sounds of each individual language, the

its

Roman
and

alphabet has also lost to a great extent

international character, the

universal

same

letters

being employed

to signify totally distinct sounds in diff'erent languages.

the

Compare ch in the English church with the French chat^ German ach, &c. Even in a single language one
a variety of distinct

letter or letter-group often indicates

sounds.

This

is

carried to such a pitch in English, that

letters (not

our alphabet really consists not of twenty-five

including the divergent shapes of the capitals) but of

more

than two hundred

letters

and

letter-groups,

all

of which

have to be learnt separately.

CHOICE OF LETTERS.
With a
ifusion
rational
is

173
all

alphabet like Visible Speech

this

impossible; for the connection between each

its

md
or
,

and
be

symbol

is

so intimate that the one can

in

separated from the other, as

the

Roman

where the association of sound and symbol is arbitrary and purely traditional. If Visible Speech were
habet,

as perfect in

its

practical details as in

its

general theory,

the only adequate solution of the question of spelling

reform would evidently be to adopt

it

instead of the

Roman
is

alphabet.

Unfortunately, however, Visible Speech

dependent on our knowledge of the formation of

is

sounds, and until our knowledge

yet far from being,
discoveries

perfect,

which
that

it is

as

we have no guarantee

further

may

not oblige us to modify the details of our

Until then Visible Speech

symbolisation.

must continue
perfect

to be a purely scientific alphabet, into general use

till
it

which cannot be brought

is

firmly based

on a

and

complete system of phonetic analysis, and has been tested

thoroughly in practice.

The Roman
also

alphabet,

on the other hand,

sounds.
in practice.

is

quite
It

independent of the

scientific analysis of

has

been thoroughly tested

Long

experience
legible

and many experiments have selected the most

distinct types,

and

and a

script alphabet of the

most
in

practical

character has been formed.

In fact the
not so

difficulty

of our

present English spelling

inherent defects of the

lies

much

any of the

Roman

alphabet as in our irrational

use of

it.

The immediate

practical question of Spelling

Reform

resolves itself therefore into this

By what

arrangement

of the existing alphabet can the sounds of the English

language be best represented ?

174

APPENDIX.
imperfections

The
tion
is

of the

Roman

alphabet

may

be

remedied

in various ways, but the

fundamental consideraletters

whether to confine ourselves to the existing

or to form

new

ones.

The

objections to

the
;

second

alternative are evident.

New

types are costly

they disis

turb and complicate the existing founts; and there

often
the

a difficulty in providing suitable script forms.

If,

on

other hand,

we keep

to

the

old types,

we can reform
and what
is

our orthography without expense or disturbance of the

existing machinery of the printing-offices,
of
al-

extreme importance, we are provided with a script

phabet of a thoroughly practical character.
experience of Mr. Ellis
is

The

practical

important on

this point.

After

expending much time and money

type alphabet
entirely
able.

in elaborating

a newhas

the

'

phonotypy

'

of Mr. Pitman

he

abandoned the new-type

excludes even
letters

principle as impractic-

He

with accents and diacritics,

which, being only cast for a few founts, act practically as

new

letters.

If then

we exclude new
fall

letters

as impracticable,

we

are obliged to
largely

back on digraphs, which are already

English and most other languages.
is

employed

in

The

obvious objection to them

that they violate the

natural principle of denoting every simple

sound by a

simple

sign.

In

rational
is

alphabet

such as Visible

Speech, this principle

sonants of she and

carried out consistently, the confor instance,

is.

the,

being denoted by

single letters just as that of see

But with the

Roman

alphabet, which does not claim to be rational and consistent, this principle
is 'to

cannot be carried out

our business
have, and
if

make the we can make a

best use of the materials

we

convenient and unambiguous symbol for

CHOICE OF LKTTERS.
'

175

simple sound by
irly right in

joininjj^

two

letters

doing

so.

In fact

together, wc ar.; we may consider tlic /i

in sh

and

///

simply as a diacritic written for convenience

it
//

on a

line with the letter

modifies.

It
j-

would be possible
/,

write

and

print the

above the

and

or to

make

-ine kind of
]uiid

tag, but the

expense of casting new types

nul the trouble of writing the

i\

new

letters

would not be

by any gain of ease or certainty

is,

in reading.

There
rs

however, one simple method of forming new

casting
is

without

new

types,

which

is

often very

ivenient.

This

by

Ui ruing the

letters,

thus

a,

o.

liiese

new

letters are

perfectly distinct in shape,

and are
to

easily written.

The
'

was

first

employed by Schmeller
the
it

denote the obscure t-sound in

German

gabe, &c.

Mr.

Ellis, in

his

Palajotype,' uses
bui.

to denote the allied

English sound in

great improvement would be to do

away with

capitals

entirely.

They

greatly

add

to the difficulty of learning

the alphabet, have a disfiguring

and incongruous
in

effect

among

the lower-case letters,

and serve no

useful purpose

whatever.

Proper names are always recognised

to be
is

speech
in

by the context, and do not require

writing either,
ful

marked

whose exclusive function

to give a faith-

representation of the sounds of language.

Whenever
or

general distinctions are required, they can be indicated

by the use of a

larger

or

smaller

fount,

by thick

(Clarendon) or thin type.

We thus arrive

at the

general conclusion that a reformed

alphabet must consist of the existing lower-case types, supplemented by digraphs, and, if necessary, by turned
letters.

11

APPENDIX.

Employment of Letters.
This problem may also be stated thus What values must be assigned to the letters that they may be most
easily learnt, read,

are unambiguity

and written ? The obvious requisites and consistency, and that system which
alphabet will
allow), while

combines them
defects of the

in the highest degree (as far as the radical

:-

Roman

ob-

serving the practical considerations stated in the previous

section,
is

the best.

It is clear that

the defects of our present orthography

its

are

mainly due to

disregard of these

fundamental

principles.

Ambiguity

is

shown

in the

use of one

symbol

for

several distinct sounds, as in 7nan, lane, ask, salt, or of

diiferent

symbols for one sound, as in why, wine,

eye, lie.

This
all

fault is

a violation of the fundamental principle of

rational spelling, viz. that of representing every

sound
either

by an invariable symbol (which may, however, be

a single
letter

or a digraph).
is

An
It
is,

alphabet
its

inconsistent

when
that

it

fails

to construct
principles..

and apply
will

symbols on

definite

and uniform

for instance, self-evident

a rational alphabet

indicate

diphthongs by the juxtaposition of their

oil,

elements, as in the oi of

which

is

really

composed
is

of

and

i.

But

in

English this simple principle

not

carried out with the other diphthongs.

In
its

out, for instance,

ther

is

not a trace of an
slightest

o,

nor does

second element
but.

in the
au,

degree resemble the u of

Again,
out,

which would be the proper symbol of the ou of

at
all.

does not denote a diphthong

EMPLOYMENT OF LETTERS.
The
xeatly
lUt

177
is

practical
to

effect

of

inconsistency

not

only

increase

the
their

number of
acquisition

arbitrary

symbols,
bethus

also

to

make

more
of

difficult,

ause

of

the

conflicting

associations

ideas

sngendered.

Before going any further

ind consider
;istency

it

^vill

be worth while to stop

what are the causes of the ambiguity, inconspelling.

and complexity of the present English

a definite idea of the cause,

iVhen

we have
to

we

shall

be

Detter able to devise a cure.

Up

the

sixteenth
like

century

English

spelling

was
that
all

mainly phonetic,

the

present

German.
their

At
vowels

time the words man, lane, care, father, water, were

written

with

the

same vowel because

viz.

all

had the same pronunciation,

in father.
its

that of the
^^^th

Italian
i

Similarly wine

was written

an
/ in

because

vowel really was the long sound of the

is

win, wine
again,

being pronounced as ween

now, which
its

last,

had

a pronunciation agreeing with

literature

spelling.

However, as

developed,

and the printing-press

assert
fixed,

its
till

authority, the spelling

at last
it

began to became more and more

.became entirely stationary, while the

pronunciation
so that the
i in
ee

went on changing without intermission,

of ween

came
itself

to be the long

sound of the
in

win, while wine

changed

its

long vowel into

a diphthong, as in the present English.

The a

man, &c.

changed also
say
that

in various

ways without any corresponding

spelling.

change being made

English

in the

In short we

may

our present

spelling

does not represent the

we

actually

speak, but rather the language of

the sixteenth century.

In other words, the present conis

fusion in our spelling

due to the abandonment of the

170
original

APPENDIX.

Roman
only

values of the letters, chiefly in the long

vowels

'^

The

way of curing

these evils

is

evidently to
letters.
a,
e,
i,

return to the original

Roman

values of the

li
0,
ti,

the beginner has once learnt to

pronounce

as in glass,
that

bet, bit, not,

full, he simply has to

remember

long vowels are doubled, as in (5/='beat/ and

fuiil-=.'' fool,'

and diphthongs formed by the juxtaposition

^i?

of their elements, as in

= 'boy'
the

and ^z'='high,'
of
the
original

to

be able
symbols.

to

read

at

once

majority

vowel
values
at

Of

the

consonants,

whose

have

been

mostly preserved,

little

need

be

said

present.

Of

course, the

Roman

alphabet requires to be supple-

mented, and

this is a

problem that requires much thought.

in order to attain the

plicity,

maximum

of consistency and simif

so that the

new symbols may,

to

possible, suggest

any relationship they may bear

other
at

known

ones.

Thus
the

ae

as the

symbol of the a in man

once suggests
|

a sound intermediate between the true a in father and

man really is. Further details must be reserved till we come to the analysis of the sounds of English, for, until we know what the elemene in bet,

which the a

in

tary

sounds

really are,

it is

impossible to symbolise them

intelligently.

Transition from

ant)

to the present Spelling.

We
*

have hitherto considered the question of spelling

reform solely from the point of view of those

who

learn

and

For a general sketch of the changes of English pronunciation spelling, see my History of English Sounds (Tiiibner).
'

'

TRANSITIONS OF SPEIJ./NG.
cad for the
first

79

time.

But wc have also to consider

ciuestion of the

transition

from and to the present

iography.
iuis
:

The two

points of view

may be

contrasted

[i)
\

Which system
Which
first

of spelHng will be easiest learnt by

first

child leai'ning to read for the

(2)
will

time?

come

easiest

to
?

an adult who has

aircatly learnt

on the received system

The
fully

of these two alternatives

is,

as

we have

seen,

met by the simple principle of returning

to

the

original

Roman

values of the

letters.

The

second, on

the

other hand, requires that our

new

spelling

should
but

be based not on the original values of the

letters

on some one of their present values.

distinguish

We

may, then,

two main classes of reformed

spellings, (i) the

Roman-value system, and

(2) the English-value system.

The only
'

consistent

and

practical

alphabet

on
is

the
the

English-value system that has yet been produced

Glossic
'

of Mr.
is

Ellis.

Glossic
traditional

based

on the principle of retaining the

means of expressing the sounds of English, but selecting one .among the many symbols of each
sound, and using
it

invariably to

express that

sound,
is
i,

rejecting, of course, all silent letters.

Thus

ee

taken

as the sole representation of the

sound of long
ai is written

being
'

written not only in/?^/, but also in reed, skeem,

read'

and 'scheme,' peek ='

m/ail, but also in
It

pique,' &c,

not only &c.

m?////

=
'

name,' rain
its

'

xe\gn,'

cannot be denied that from

own

point of view
It

this

system

has

considerable

advantages.

would

certainly cause the adults of the present generation less

trouble

than any

Roman-value
N
2

spelling,

for

any one

l8o

APPENDIX.
learnt to read
INIr.

who has
had
'

on the present system can

Ellis also thinks that those

read

Glossic at sight.
learnt Glossic
'

who
to

would
he

easily acquire the ordinary or

calls
it.

Nomic

spelling, as

Before attempting

settle

the relative merits of the

Roman- and

English-

value systems, as regards ease of transition to and from

the

'

Nomic

'

spelling,

it

will

be well to weigh the

follow-

ing considerations.
(i)

In both

systems a large

number of words
unchanged.

will

retain their spellings entirely or almost

The
:

following words, for instance, remain unchanged in both

best,

bend, desk, fed,

let,

men;

if, hit, fish,

wish,

in,

gift ; on,

hot, god, dog,

pot ;

oil, boil, loin,

and many

others.

Many, indeed most of the remaining words, will undergo great alterations under both systems. Let us
(2)

consider,

for

instance, that

most of our written words

are practically hieroglyphs, which

ally

we
we

recognise individu-

by

their

consonant skeletons without thinking of the

sounds they represent.

Thus,

if

substitute a

(-) for

the vowels in such words as kn-ght, wr-ck, -n-gh,

still

we

recognise them without any

difficulty,

which would

not be materially increased even by the introduction of

different vowels.

Now, on

any system whatever

all

of

phonetic spelling, these words, which

contain silent

consonants, entirely alter the shape of their skeletons,

so that whether

we

write

nite,

neit or nait, rec or rek,

inuf or
eye,

en?f,

the

results

are

equally disguised
effort.

to

the

and can only be made out by an

Any
is

possible superiority of one alphabet over another

thus
that,

very considerably reduced.

To

this

may be added

although in most cases where any superiority in point

of resemblance to

Nomic can be claimed by one system

REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS.
\or

iHl

the Other, the advantage yet the

("ilossic,

is naturally on the side Roman-value system often has the

intage

on

its side.

Thus
'

the in

'full,' 'pull,' 'put,'

'

and the

/ in

'

pique,'

machine,'

marine,'

&c.,

are

crved unchanged in the Roman-value system, while

lossic

u being used
in
ee.

to represent the

vowel

in 'but'

lot
.

be retained
be written

'full,'

and the

of 'pique,' &c. must

^\>urse
(

3) Again, the very resemblance of Glossic to

Nomic
'

causes very puzzling

'supper,'
'

confusions.
/a/er,

Thus

latter,'

.>.lJing,'

become
'

riding, super, while the

Nomic
/ai/er,

'

later,'

riding,'

super(fine),' ar'e represented

by

rti'dwg,

seitpir/em.

The
In
fact,

Roman-value
is

system,

being more remote from Nomic,

much

less liable to

such cross-associations.
to

the relation of Glossic

Nomic

is

very like that of two closely allied languages,

such as Danish and Swedish, or Spanish and Portuguese.

Although Danes and Swedes soon learn

to

understand
after

one another's languages, they hardly ever, even

years of study, succeed in speaking each other's languages

with real accuracy, the very nearness of the two languages, with their constant deviations from one another in matters

of

detail,

causing constant confusion and cross-associa-

tion.

THE REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS.

Vowels.

Vowels

are

formed by retraction of the back of the

or else they are mixed, as in

tongue, as in 'father'; by advancing the /roni of the tongue, as in

'

b/t

'

'

b/rd,'

102
in ^vhich

APPENDIX.
the tongue
front.
'

is

in a position

half-way betw^
/itgA,

back and
mid, as in

By

height they are

in
'

as in

'M

hate,' or /ozv, as
all

hat.'

The

vowels of

these three words are

front,

but the distinctions of

as well.
'

height apply to back and

the u of
front.
'

mixed vowels

Thus
is

full

'

is

high-back, just as that of

hit

'

high

All

these

vowels

may be
Thus,

further
if

modified by
'

labialization,

or rounding.

the ee of

feel

'

is

pronounced with narrowed lip-opening, we obtain the

French u
tongue

in

'

lune

'

the

high-front-round.

There are

besides other modifications caused by the shape of the

itself.

Of

the large
is

number of
in

possible vowels only a small

proportion

employed

each language.

Again,

among
is,

the special vowels of any one language

we must

distinguish between those differences which are

to

distinctive, that

which differences of meaning corre-

spond, and those which are not.

Thus
'

the

first

elements

of the diphthongs in

'

by

'

and

out

'

vary considerably
'

some people sound them broad

as
in

as in

father,'

some

thin,

'man,' with various intermediate

sounds.

yet the meaning of the words remains unchanged.

distinction

And The

between the vowels of

'

men and
'

'

man,' on

the other hand, though really slighter than that of the

different pronunciations of
'

by and
'

'

out,' is a distinctive

one.
It

often happens that two sounds, though formed in

different ways,

have nearly the same

'

effect

on

the ear.

Thus

the English vowel in

twrn

'

is

formed
'

in a totally

different

way from

the French

one

in

p^r,' the

former

being an unrounded, the

latter

a rounded vowel, and

yet they are hardly distinguishable

by an untrained

ear.

RFPRESEXTATION OF SOUNDS.
consequence
is

] (S_:}

that

two such vowels are never

same language to distinguish u\c meanings of words, and for practical purposes they nay be considered as variations of the same vowel.
;>loyed together in the

Ilonce
.v/j

we have

to

distinguish

not

so

as between groups of sounds.

distinctions of these

much between One of the most

is

jiortant
:

groups

that of

'

close

'open,' the
'

open vowels being generally formed by

by some other widening

low
ihe

position of the tongue or

mouth passage.
the

Disregarding special exceptions in individual languages,

we may assume
groups
in

following as

the chief distinctive

language generally

A.
(i) the dull-back,

Unrounded.
hu\.
father.
t//rn, father,
b?'t,

(2) the clear-back, (3) the

mixed

gab^ (German).

(4) the high-front, (5) the close-front,

(6) the open-front,

b^at.

/t/ (French).

m^n, mare, man.

B.
(7) high-back,
(8) close-back,

Rounded.

fll, f^i^l.

%o

(German).

(9) open-back,

fu'lly, fall.

(10) high-front,
(11) close-front,
( 1

lne (French).
p^z^

(French). (French).
in
'

2) open-front,

ptv/r

The vowel

in

'

turn

'

is

open-mixed, that

gabe close-mixed.
'

184

APPENDIX.
these groups the mixed (3)
is,

Of
(11,

as

remarked abovCj
(i)

almost identical in sound with the close and open front

12),

with which

latter

the
it

dull-back
is

is

often

identified,

although in

sound
11

really

intermediate

between them and the clear-back

fore,
I

(2).

In practice, therealso
suffice

the
3.

symbols

for

and 12

will

for

and
a,
I

and

u, at

once supply symbols

retains in

for 2, 4

and

7 re-

spectively.

For 10 we have only

which
e to
it still

to restore j' to

its

original

Roman
If

value,

Danish and Swedish*

we

assign

the close-front (5)

and

to the close-

back-round
tradition,

(8), in

accordance with the general European

find letters for the corresponding
(6) as at

we must

open
itself,

vowels.

For the open-front

once suggests

the a indicating openness.

For the open

(9) there is

no type ready
turned

to

hand

propose therefore to adopt the

used by Mr.
is

Ellis in his Palaeotype.

c, is

This

letter,

which
0,

really a turned
is

meant

to suggest a turned
e (11) the

which
a

impracticable.

For the rounded

turned

may be
The
last

used, and for the

We
y,

thus obtain the perfectly

9, ce.

two

at the

open sound (12) or. parallel forms i, e, se, and same time supply symbols
'

for the special English

in

'

but

(i)

and turn
'

'

(3).

Diphthongs
diphthongs

are,

of course, symbolised by the juxtaposi-

tion of their elements.

:

The
as in
jj

following are the English

ai

aisle
now;.
hoi\.
veil.

au
oi
ei

5)

3>

ou
Diphthongs
in all

!>

somI.

languages vary greatly in their con-

RFrRESENTATION OF SOUNDS.
ncnts,

8
-,

and the above combinations must be understood

simply denoting general tendencies.

literally
liiC
/

Thus

ai does

imply a combination of the a

merely a movement
in

in 'father'

and

in 'bit,' but
start,

that direction.

\\\-

may

not with a full-back vowel, but with a mixed

i,

one, which
111

may move towards

but without reaching

'
'

it:

'\

commonest pronunciation of aisle may be In the same way ei only implies a (.resented by ael. lU vowel moving upwards, and, as a matter of fact, the
fact the

starling-point

may be
Indeed
'

either close or

open
'

or even the

a of man.'
'

ei
is

often begins with a

mixed vowel,

in

which case

veil

'

confounded with
in

vile.'

Note
long
ee

that ei

and ox

English supply the place of close

and

oo,

which most English people are unable to

pronounce.

a and uu

are often diphthongised in a peculiar

way

in

English, by being

made

to

end

in the

consonants y and
(fool)

respectively,

wiin (ween) and find

becoming
pro-

wlyii and/i(U'/.

Having thus
English.

laid a general foundation,

we may

ceed to discuss some special modifications required in

As

there

is

no short close
ae

or o in English,

it is

super-

fluous to use

and
is

o to

denote the quality of sounds

whose openness

always implied by their shortness.

We

can, therefore, discard o altogether in English,

36

and employ
it

to denote the peculiar

in

'

man,' for which

would

otherwise be

difficult to find
ae

an appropriate

letter.

The
venient,

longs of

and

may be

expressed, as with the

other vowels, by doubling

aex,

oo.

But as

this is
it

incon-

and as

o is
ae

not used in English,

is

better to

denote the long of

by

ae, the separation of the letters

85

APPENDIX.
Long
o

implying length.
noted by
ao.

may, on

this

analogy, be de-

R
The consonant
either
(eriq),

AXD

ITS MODIFICATIONS.

r in English only occurs before a vowel,

in

the

same or
(faar

the next word, as

in

'erring'

'far

off'
is,

aof).

When
'

not

followed

by a
it

vowel, that

either

by a pause or a consonant,
er of
father.'
'

is

weakened
9 is

into a

the
' '

After aa and dd the

'

absorbed, as in
'

bar

'

(baa),
first

farther

(faadha),

'

her

(hoe),

heard

'

(hoed), the
father/

two being indistinguishable

sometimes dropped
'

from

'

baa

'

and

9 is

after

ao, especially before a consonant, as in

floor,'

'

floored,'

although the

full Jlaod,

Jfaoad are most usual in careful

the
a is final.

speech, especially
9 is

when

After other vowels

the r
*

preserved throughout, also

when
'

is
"

sounded as
(aead),

full

consonant

compare

'

air

(aea),

aired

and

'airy' (aeari) with 'far off' (faar aof), 'her

own' (hoer

oun), and

'

flooring

'

(flaoriq).

The
changes

following table will give a general idea of these

:

faar aof (far off)

faa

faadha (farther).

hoer oun (her own)

fiiariq (fearing)

hoe
fiia

hoed
ae9d

(heard).

fiiad (feared).

aeariq (airing)

aea

(aired).

muuariq (mooring)
flaoriq (flooring)
faiariq (firing)
flauari (flowery, floury)
leiariq (layering)

muu9
flaoa
faia

muusd (moored).
flaoad (floored).
faiad (fired).

flaua
leia

flauad (flowered)
leiad (layered).

louariq (lowering)

l0U3

louad (lowered).

REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS.
Note
that eh(r)

187

and

o?(r) in rapid, especially in vulgar

ae<>(r)

peech, often pass into

and

ao3(r).

When
(liori),
'

is

preceded by a short vowel, as

9 is

in

'

hurry

merry' (mcri), no

generated.

Unaccented Vowels.

The two
IS

chief unaccented vowels in English are

0.
'

and

together with the rarer

The former may be

which
it

regarded

a shortened

oe,

as in

her,' into

always passes
really

when emphasised or prolonged, but it is but a voice murmur without any definite

nothing

configuration.
e,

The

i is

an intermediate vowel between

i.

and

and might
either as a

as well be written e as

It
e.

may be regarded
a
:

very open

or a very close

The

following are examples of

atemt (attempt),
(to-day).

apouz (oppose), apon (upon), tadei

(patience),

soufa (sofa),
koerat (carrot).

menshan (mention), peishons

faadha (father), ona (honour), mezha (measure).

faowad (forward), shepad (shepherd).

feivarit (favourite),
a is often
9 is

mezhariq (measuring).
I, n, and m d and followed by
;

dropped before
t

always
or n
:

when

the

preceded by
(metal),

or

med

gaadn (garden), gaadniq (gardening),

matn (mutton).
iivl (evil),

loukl (local), simbl (cymbal, symbol).

is follow

When

two or more unaccented as or

one

another, one of

them

is

often thrown out, as in

88

APPENDIX.
(history),
feiv(9)rit

hist(a)ri

(favourite),

vedzh-

nabl

(vegetable).
i is

less

common

than

9.

It is

most usual as a weakeni

ing of front vowels, especially

piti (pity),

when

or y

is

written

msndi (Monday).

divaid (divide), ditekt (detect).

rabbit (rabbit), fishiz (fishes), abiliti (ability).
It
is

the regular unaccented vowel before

is

dzh, even

when a

written

vilidzh (village), kseridzh (carriage), kolidzh (college).

In rapid speech
final.

i is

apt to pass into

9,

except when

Unaccented

in ordinary speech
it

is

simply
are

rounded.

When

dwelt on

becomes

ou.

Examples

pateito (potato), folo (follow), felo (fellow).

In rapid speech

this o

passes into

a.

These vowels occur

also in unaccented monosyllables.

Compare
go
' '

'

man

'

(a

maen) with
'

'

against
'

'

(agenst),

'

to

(t3

gou) with
'

'

to-day

(ta dei),
'

for all

'

(far aol) with

'

forgive

(fagiv),

'

of course

(av kaoas) with

offence

'.

(afens).

the

and

to

have two distinct unaccented forms.

d,

Before

consonants they both have

while before vowels they

:

assume

the fuller forms dhi

(the

and tu

dha men
ta
It

man), dhi enami (the enemy),

gou
was,

(to go), tu enta (to enter).

I believe, first
is

noticed by Mr. Ellis that

full
it

'

that

as a demonstrative

always

dhdet,

while as a con:

junction and relative pronoun

becomes dhdi

ai

nou

REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS.
dliat

189
that that

dhcet dhot dlixt

mxn
true).

scz

iz

truu

(I

know

ihat that

man

says

is

Consonants.

As regards
'

the use of the letters there can be

no quesg, h, k,
1,

'>n

about the values of the following:

r, s, t, V,

b, d,

f,

n, p,

w,
q,

z.

This leaves
which
is

c, j,

x undisposed
its

of.

We
we can
For

also have y,
If

not required as a vowel-symbol in English.

to retain

wc allow y

present value,

also retain y

as a convenient abbreviation of dzh.

^-7t

we have

ch,

which, by the omission of the superfluous

h,

can be re-

duced
<l

to simple

c.

We

thus have c and j perfectly parallel.

may

very well be taken to represent the back nasal ng,

as Mr. Ellis has

done

in his Palaeotype.

lastly, if
all

emks s

ployed at
in the

all,

must

in consistency

be extended to

language, not only in such words as six, but also

in

rex (wrecks), cex (cheques), &c.

These contractions

fully

counterbalance the necessity

th

of retaining the digraphs

and

sh, to

which must of

course be added dh and zh.

into

n-h is ver}' generally

it

made

in

Southern English, but

is

well to

keep up the
in such

distinction

on the chance of
(

its

being afterwards revived.

The

breath yh

= German

'ic/t')

sometimes occurs

words as 'hue' (yhuu), more commonly, however, proTiyuu, with a separate h before the y. Consonants are often dropped in English. Thus the h of the personal pronouns is generally dropped when they come after a verb, and are unaccented, as in at sao im (I

nounced

saw him).

Saw
is

her and soar are both pronounced sao9.

generally dropped before a consonant, as

The d

of and

190
in c3i
is

APPENDIX.
n
cdin 9geti (cut

and come

again),
t

dropped also on account of the

where the vowel and n (p. 187 above).

Thus, many

Assimilations also occur in rapid speech.

people

who pronounce
most
(n),

the q of 'going,' &c. quite dis-

tinctly in

cases, regularly

change the back

In

into the

point nasal
(t,

when

it is

followed by a point consonant

.

d, n), as in
i

gouin

t?

(going to

.).

I can't go
is

the

is

generally dropped,
(j

and the point nasal

into the

often

assimilated to the

ai kaaq gou.

by being made

back nasal j

Accent and Qvantity.

The

chief accent or stress in each w-ord

may be marked
:

by () following the letter

accent,

on which

the accent begins

dg-enst (against),y%-7V (forgive).

To

indicate the secondary

when

necessary,

(:)

may be used:

(inconvenience),

disL-rdkbb'iliti

(destructibility).

i:nkmvnnyms These
Ellis.
it

very convenient marks were introduced by Mr.

practice the accent need only be

In

marked when

is

on

some other than the first syllable. marked xn/ouiogrcB/ (photograph).

hit

Thus

it

need not be

Unaccented vowels are always shortened.

gouz (he goes)
vowel
this
is

Thus
it iz

hit in
(it is

much

shorter than in

hii

he), but its

is

quite distinct
is

from the regular short

in

'

hit.'

As
i

shortening

always implied by the want

:

of accent,
that the

it need not be marked hi gouz would imply was pronounced as in hit.'

'

Emphasis, or the accent of a word in a sentence as

distinguished from that of a syllable in a word,

by a

()

before the word.

'it,'

is marked Such subordinate monosyllables

as 'he,' 'she,'

'and,'

'if,'

'to,' 'for,' &c.,

are

assumed

REPRESEyTATIOy OF SOUNDS.
be unaccented unless thus markcil.
>h between hii gouz
.

19I
tlius
tlistin-

We

and

//

I'z

/iii\

between hii
l>uk not -liiz

hdtz nuii
(it

(he has

my
his).

book) and

// iz

-mai

is

my

piH)k,

not

Principal words, such as

nouns, non-

.ni\iliary
tiill

verbs and adjectives, which regularly receive a

accent,

may be marked
second

in the

same way whenever

is

they are

made

exceptionally emphatic, thus ai -fyg'iv yii

syllable

indicates that the

oipg'iv

uttered with

extra emphasis.

List of English Symbols.

The

following table gives a complete

in the
'

list

of the English

vowel symbols

Romic system
'

propose, together

with those consonant ones which require elucidation, with

examples.

A.

Vcavch.
after,

aa

papa,

far, glass,

aemt.

[Before
is

and

./'

or before two (pronounced) consonants aa

sometimes

shortened, and sometimes

de
:

becomes

de

glaes, sen/.]

man.
:

ae
at

aerate, bear, fare.

[Always followed by

3.]

Isa/ah, a/sle,

wme.

ao

extraordinary, broad, more.

au
e
:

Faust, noiv, noun.

red.
:

ei
t
:

they, veil,
i\\,

name.

fishes.
:

It,
:

iy

machme,

fed.

not, cloth, cross, soft.

[Often becomes ao before

(h,

s,

and/:

klaolh, kraos, sao/l^

193
oi
:

APPENDIX.
hoy, hoiX.
:

ou

B.OW, soul, stone.

fwll,

u
a

pwt, good.
:

MM,
:

MW
p,

tritth, rue, fool.

;

come

father, here.

oe

her,

t.u7"n,

heard.

B. Consonanls. C
:

church, catch.
:

dh
j q
: :

then, with.

judge, gentle.
sing, finger.
:

sh
th

fish.

fAink.
siaj,

X
y

'.

wrecks.

2/oung.
:

zh

rouge, pleasure.

New
exclusion

Types.
at first, their

Although new types should be avoided

is

only a practical consideration, not a matter

is

of principle, and there

no reason why they should not

afterwards be introduced by degrees.

ij

Thus Mr. Pitman's

it

is

unquestionably superior to g as a symbol of the back

its

nasal ng, for

shape at once associates

with the other

nasals n, m.

Again the Greek 6 and S (or perhaps better the Anglo-Saxon b) would do very well for th and dh,

both being easily written.

The long

and

tailed z

of

Pitman's Phonotypy are also excellent

zh.

letters for sh

and

We

should thus avoid the ambiguity of such words

as pothuk (pothook), which at present can only be avoided

by writing pct-huk.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Varieties of Pronunciation.
It is

clear that as

soon as spelling ceases

of pronunciation
'

to

adapt

itself

to

existing varieties
'

whether
'

'collo-

quialisms,'

vulgarisms,' or

provincialisms

it

ceases to

be phonetic.
Spelling apart from the sounds
perly speaking,
it

represents has, pro-

no meaning, no existence whatever.

at

A
any

picture of a

man

once suggests the idea

'

man

'

to

one,

and the sounds represented by

all

the letter-group

man

suggest the same idea to

the letters m, a,

English-speaking people, but

not ideas.
After

a time, of course,

n only suggest sounds, we learn to associate

it

ideas w-ith letterthis is

groups without thinking of the sounds, but

sarily
far

neces-

a secondary process, although

the

may be
letters

carried so

that

connection
a

between the
extent

and

their in

sounds becomes to
short, the

great

forgotten

till,

spelling

becomes unphomtic,

as in the present

English.
object of

The
all

only

way

to cure these evils

which

is

the
its

spelling reform

if

is

to restore spelling to

only legitimate function, that of symbolising sounds.

It

follows necessarily that

two people have

different
If

pronunciations, their spellings must also be different.

A, w^ho pronounces gldes (glass), gdel

is

(girl), iidh} (either),

to

be compelled to write glaas,

so,

goel, aidh?

because

pronounces

phonetic spelling becomes a mere mockery,

and

is

really

which writes knight and

no more phonetic than the present system, 'jcright because people pronounced

194

APPENDIX.

SO three hundred years ago, although half of the letters are

absolutely

unmeaning now.
fact,

As

a matter of

these differences, which hardly ever

cause the slightest

difficulty

even in the most rapid speech,

and, indeed, generally pass quite unheeded, cannot possibly cause any difficulty to the reader,

who

has time
if

to

consider deliberately the meaning of any passage,

sary.

nec
tc

When

divergences

of pronunciation

increase

such a degree as to

make

a faithful phonetic representa-

tion of them unintelligible, or nearly so, to those acquainted

only with the standard form of speech,

it is

certain that the

spoken pronunciation
In
is

itself will

prove

still

more

difficult.

fact,
it

one of the worst features of a

loses
all

fixed orthographj

that

control of pronunciation,

and thus

in-

directly proves the cause of

such changes as have comin the last few

pletely

changed the character of English

centuries.

If those careless speakers of the seventeentl

to

century

who used
as write

drop the

initial

consonants
to

in such

words

and know had been obliged

it

omit them
thf

in writing

as well as in speech,

is

probable that

change would have been nipped

in the bud,
is

and peopk
a delusion

would have seen

unless based
ciation.

that uniformity of spelling

on a corresponding uniformity of pronunand

/-in

The

history of A

modern times

is

an

instructive
z

instance of

how
the

pronunciation
It
is

may be
if

controlled by

changing

spelling.

certain that

English had beer

as completel}

left to itself

sound h would have been

it

lost in the

standard language as

has been in most o

'ouse
easil}

the dialects.

But the
itself

distinction

between house and

although in

a comparatively slight one, being

marked

in writing, such spellings as 'ouse

came

to be usee

SPEC! A
n

I.

COSSIDIIK A TI OSS.

Vj

novels, &c.

as

an easy way of suggesting a vulgar

peaker.

The

result

was

to

produce a purely

artificial
its

eaction against the natural tendency to drop the h,

etention being
)f

now

considered an almost

infallible

test

education and refinement.

The weakening

of/' into a
it,

'Owel, anil its

absorption into the vowel that precedes

illhough really quite as injurious to the force and intelligi)ility

of the language as the dropping of

//,

not being

easily

marked

in writing,

passes unheeded, and, indeed,

.vhatever

ew people realise the fact that they make no difference between such words as father and farther.
if

[ndced,

such a reformed spelling as Glossic

artificial distinctions

is

adopted,

n which these
s

are

still

kept up, there

no reason why

in

the

next half centur)- r

initially;
he.

may
hear,

not
for

Jtterly

disappear everywhere except

nstance,
If the

becoming

identical in

sound with

high literary cultivation of the seventeenth and

centuries,

eighteenth

and the consequent

fixity

of the

orthography, not only failed to

prevent, but positively

in pronunciation,

encouraged the most sweeping changes

it

is

certain that the

same

effects will

produce the same

causes in the future.

to the

No

one who has paid any attention

tendencies of ^English pronunciation will deny that

the

following hypothetical changes of pronunciation in

the next fifty or sixty years are all possible

and some of
in

them extremely probable (the pronunciations are given

the received spelling)
:

been

beconus
It

bane.
bine.

bane
bine

>>

barn.

boon

>)

been {through
O
2

biin)

196
Indeed,
I

APPENDIX.

many of these changes

are already in progress.

have myself heard lake time pronounced in a way which

it

made
to the

sound not very unlike

class.

iike

tarm, and this from

speakers who, although not very refined, certainly belonged

upper middle

The
will

result of these

and

similar

changes

will

be that

iii

another century any fixed scheme of reform adopted now

be nearly as unphonetic as our present Nomic

It

spell-

ing.

must also be remembered

will

that

by

that

tim

England, America, and Australia

tually unintelligible languages,

be speaking mu-

owing

to their independeiH

changes of pronunciation.

The
dinate

only

way

to to

meet these

evils is

strictly to

subor

spelling

pronunciation.

One

very important

result of this will

be that instead of teaching spelling w(

shall

have

to teach pronunciation.

Our maxim
and the
to
still

will

be

'Take care of
take care of
zxidi

the pronunciation,
If
it it

spelling wil

itself.'

is

wrong

confound falhei

farther

in spelling,

must be

more wrong

tc

confound them

in pronunciation.

Then

the question o

restoring the consonantal pronunciation of r throughou

will

perhaps arise
will.

certainly

that

of arresting

furthei

change
ing

School-inspectors will examine not in spell

ing but in pronunciation, elocution, and intelligent read

subjects which

are

now

absolutely ignored as branches

firm control of pronunciatior
wil

of general education.

When a

has thus been acquired, provincialisms and vulgarisms

at last

be entirely eliminated, and one of the most impor

tant barriers

between the

different classes of society wil

thus be abolished.
It

must, however, be remembered that these results

ar(

not to be attained by the adoption of any system indif

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS.
erently that
:onsistent,

97

may

be proposed.
all

What

is

wanted

is

a simple,

and above

i7,is/tc

sj)elling,
itself to

which, within

:ertain practical limits, will

adapt

every change of

Changes of pronunciation cannot be conjolled by any spelling based on the Nomic values of the letters. There is, for instance, no reason why oo should
pronunciation.

represent the sound of long

any more than

that of long

nor consequently

why

the

vu

of 'boon' should not

dit'n

change through

//yy;i

(with the French n) into

without

any change of spelling being thought necessary, and consequently without any control of such possible changes

being exercised.

International Intelligibility.

One
values
original

very important result of a return to the

Roman
of the

of the

letters

would be the

restoration

harmony of
of

the English with the Continental

values of the letters,

acquisition

which would much

foreigners,

facilitate

the

English by

and

vice

versa.

At present, English people and foreigners have

each
other's

to learn

languages almost entirely by eye, unless"

a
native,

thoroughly
utterly at
a

taught by
loss

and consequently are

face
to

when brought

face

with

the

spoken language

in fact,

they have to learn the

a

same
with

language twice over.

English written word
his

Thus when
rig/if

German

sees the
it

he easily associates

own
is

nr///, as also the

English name with the

the
off

German

name, but

when he

hears

genuine
the

rat'/

and nam,
Conversely,

he

thrown completely
time, he at

scent.

when an Englishman comes across

the
first

the

once thinks of

German hue for his own inee, and

igS

APPENDIX.
German word
as well as in

naturally drops the k in the

the English
spelt
7211,

he were used to see the English word he would never think of dropping the k in
:

if

German.
It will,

of course, be urged by the advocates of histori-

cal

spelling that the silent letters in rig/i/

and ^nee are

All this

really valuable helps in acquiring the language.

really

amounts

to

is,

that sixteenth-century English bears

much

closer resemblance to

German

than nineteenth-

century English does, consequently that a

learn the former

an
will

German will more easily than the latter, and that Englishman who knows sixteenth-century English thereby learn German more easily. The practical
is,

result

of course, that English has to be learnt twice

over both by the English themselves and by foreigners.

The

worst of

it

is,

that instead

of learning the older

on an intelligent and systematic plan, we have it forced on us whether we really want it or not in the shape of a garbled and imperfect

stage of our language

orthography, which, instead of giving us clear ideas of

the language of the period
it

represents, only serves to

hopelessly confuse our notions of our present language.

Of course
especially,

the orthographies of

most of the Continental

;

languages require reform as well as English

Indeed, there
learn French

French,

most urgently demands a thorough change.

is no reason w'hy foreigners should not on a phonetic system, leaving the present

French spelling

to

be acquired afterwards, even

if

the

French themselves do not inaugurate a reform.

There are many

significant facts in the pronunciation

and
the

spelling of English

which show that the return

to

Roman

values of the vowels would not be by any

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS.
\ns
II

199

so violent

chan,L!;e

as

is

generally sup[)osecl.
in

without

going beyond the commonest words

vocabulary
'line,

we have whole
oblique,

classes
in

of words

like
/'

rnaritie,

antique, &c.,

which long

ns
I

its

Roman

value.

In geographical names, such as

llama, Chicago, Granada, Medina, lilessina, the accented

els
all

have the

Roman
Indeed,

values.

In

such names as
its

jh, Achaia,
ytical

Cairo, the diphthong also has

the

strict

value.

tendency

is

becoming
definite

iiMiiger and stronger to retain as

native

much
names.

as possible the

pronunciation of foreign

The

adoption of the Romic principle by the Indian government, and the reformed pronunciation of Latin, are
all

most important moves

in the

same

direction.

History and Etvjiologv.

One
spelling

of the
is

commonest arguments
it

against

phonetic

that

would destroy the

historical

and etymo-

logical value of the present system.

One

writer protests

against

it

as a

'

reckless wiping out of the whole history

it

of the language,' imagining,

appears, that as soon as

firmly estabhshed
itself,

a phonetic alphabet has once

the existing

Nomic

Hteraiure will at once disappear by

all

magic,

together

with

the

older

documents of the
It

language from Alfred to Chaucer.

need hardly be

said that a few months' study of the language of Chaucer,

or, better
all,
still,

of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels, or, best of

life

of both of them, would give what a

spent in

the mechanical employment of our

fails

Nomic orthography

to

give,

namely, some of the materials on which

a rudimentary knowledge of the history and etymology

of the

EngUsh language might be

based.

200

APPENDIX,
fact,

As a matter of
particulars

our present spelling

is

in

many
Such

a far from trustworthy guide in

etymology,

and

often,

indeed,
isla7id,

entirely

falsifies

history. sovereign,

spellings

as

author,

delight,

require

only to be mentioned, and there are hundreds of others

involving
equally gross

blunders,

many
!

of which have

actually corrupted the

spoken language

Even

if

we

carried out

that

is,

if it

were possible
consistently,

the principle
writing each
writing,
for

of etymological

spelling

by

word

in

its

primitive

Indo-Germanic form,

instance, klaipawardha for lord,

we

should

only be giving a portion of the materials of etymology.

We

should have to give in brackets or foot-notes to each

the

word
and,

Anglo-Saxon and Middle-English, together with

a brief abstract of the laws which govern the

the present English forms, the last in phonetic spelling,

lastly,

various

changes of form and meaning.

Even

if

we

arbitrarily resolve

not to trace our history further back

than the sixteenth century

we

shall

have to write each

word twice
knight,
for

over.

It

is

absurd to say that the spelling

instance,

throws light on any word in the

course, the
the

present English.

Of

word meant

is

nait.

But where do we
even hinted at?
that a

find

existence of such a

word
is

All that the spelling knight tells us

in a certain

word existed
:

form
its

in sixteenth-century

English

it

tells

us nothing about

present form.

In short, historical spelling destroys the jnaterials on

which alone history

in
'

itself

can be based.

This

is

the case

the English
its

of the

last

few centuries.

The word

name,' as

spelling indicates,

was
like

in
it.

Chaucer's time
It is

pronounced naamd, or something

although
still

now

neim,

written

'

name.'

Now

there

must

clearly

SPECIAL COySIDi:RATfO,\S.
have been
several

201

intermediate

stages

between naam?

and neim

the one word

If these

certainly did not

change

straight
in the

into the other.

changes had taken place

perfod before Chaucer,

their progress step

we should have been

in the
fails

able to trace

by step

changes of the spelling,

changes,

vhich, as

it

is,

not only

to record these

but gives the false impression that the English language,

in this

word

at

least,

has remained unchanged since the

time

of Chaucer.

Hence

the

actual

history

of

the

English language since the invention of printing has to

be investigated
quite

in a

most laborious and uncertain way,

its

independently of

written form,

so

far

as

the

sounds are concerned.

The

investigations of IMr. Ellis

have proved that 'name' passed through the following

stages
neem,
:

naam?, naain, naeaem (long of

It is

ae

in

'

man '),

naem,

tieini.

clear that if a consistent

and etymo-

logical spelling

had become

fixed in the

Indo-Germanic

languages, there would have been no Grimm's law, no

etymology, in short no philology

at all possible.
is

The
and

idea, loo, that

because etymology
it

an amusing

instructive

pursuit,

should therefore be dragged

is

into practical orthography,

about as reasonable as

it

would be
history

to insist

on every one having

INIacaulay's History

of England permanently chained round his neck, because

is

an improving study.
it

In conclusion,

may be observed
its

that

it

is

mainly

among

the class of half-taught dabblers in philology that

supporters.
All true

etymological spelling has found

philologists

nounced
and a

it

and philological bodies have uniformly deas a monstrous absurdity both from a practical
point of view.

scientific

DETAILED COT^IPARISON OF GLOSSIC AND

ROMIC.
The elementary vowel symbols
tained in the following key-words
gnat, haa, bait, caul.
net, beet, height, feud.
:

of Glossic are con-

knit.
not, cool, coal, foil, fowl,

nut, hiot {^or foot).

The

only consonants that require notice (reserving r

:

for the present) are

cAest, jest.

thm, dJien (for

Glossic
is

//len)

ru-s7i,

ronzhe (for rouge).

an attempt

to

form a phonetic system of

letters.
It

writing based
is,

on the present values of the

necessarily a
'

therefore,

compromise.
rather

As Mr.
than
in ?iu/ has

Ellis

himself remarks,
letters

Combinations
sounds.

separate

have

definite

Thus w
too,

one

sound, but the combinations

ou, eu, have

no trace

of

this

sound.'

Of

course,

when
is

the learner has once

acquired these combinations he

consistently.

taught to apply them

In fact

Glossic

depends mainly on the

pronunciation

phonetic use of a limited number of unphonetic combinations

(that
is,

combinations whose

does

not

depend on
phonetic as
learner of

that of their elements).

In Romic, on the

other hand, the

the

combinations (diphthongs, &c.) are as

actual

words themselves, so

that

the

Romic

only has to learn the values of six

COAfPARISOy OF GLOSSrC AND ROMIC.

simple

20J5

vowel-symbols, whereas

the

learner

of Glossic

has to master more

totally disconnectetl

than twenty, which are not only

and

arbitrary,

but also suggest

all

kinds
this is

of puzzling cross-associations.

Of

course, even
in

an enormous improvement on Nomic,

which

more than two hundred combinations, many of which are employed almost at random.
there are

The weakest

part

of Glossic

is

its

treatment of

r.

r in Glossic is used both for the consonant and for the vocalised r (=3), as in peer (piia), and hence must be

doubled
,

in peer ring (=piiariq), the first r indicating the

r.

the

second the true

er='err,'

&9

in

'

err,'

'

burn,'

&c.,

is

written er\

^<'r;/

'

burn.'

Hence

deterring=-

Romic
the

dit'oeriq,

on

the analogy of peerrmg.

But er before
er,

a vowel has the totally distinct value of

Romic

as in

word

fr/V/g'^:'

erring' (eriq).

Again, the
represent the

conventional

ar and or are
as

retained

to

same sounds
is

aa and au, faadhcr and

fardher, for instance, being kept distinct, although their

pronunciation

identical.

Here the phonetic character of Glossic entirely breaks down, for such distinctions as those last mentioned can
only be taught by spelling lessons.

This

is

equally the

case with such spellings as those of the final vowels in

faadher and soafa

represented
in

('

sofa

'),

where the same sound

ways.

is

two

distinct

Before

the

learner

can

decide whether to write soafa or soa/er, he must

stop and consider whether a following vowel would bring

out the r or not.

These considerations show

retains

clearly at

what a

sacrifice

of the most essential principles of phonetic writing Glossic

its

similarity to the existing spellmg.

Any

attempt

204
to

APPENDIX.
the writing of r phonetic could only produce

make

such spellings as these, which would quite defeat the

aims of the system:

saiiu (soar),

peeu

= peer),

peeuring (peering),

faadha,faadhii

(farther), soafer (sofa), ergenst,

ugeiist (against), &c.

In short, Glossic cannot be regarded as a consistently

phonetic system even on
its

own

principle of taking the

values of combinations for granted.

The

following tables have been prepared with a view

to enable the reader to judge for himself on the relations

of Glossic and

Romic

to

one another and

to

Nomic.
to re-

They

consist of t}-pical

words chosen impartially

present most of the

more important values of

the different

Nomic letters and combinations, and Romic spellings.

together with the Glossic

COMPARISOiX OF GLOSSIC AXD R()MI(\

10

A.
NOMIC.
Glossic.

VOWELS.
NOMIC.
thief
'

ROMIC.

Glossic.

RoMic,
thiif
lai

man
lane

man
lain

mxn
Icin

thcef
lei

lie

hnrc ask wall

salt
1

hair

hae.ir

aask

aask

waul
solt

waol
solt neil

on hole

on
hoal

on houl
lion

none

nun

nail
air

nail
air

aear

more word no do
soon

moar
werd noa doo
soon

maoor woed nou duu

suun

saw
ten

sau
ten

sao
ten
hii
[

gootl

guod
blud doar oath oar

gud

he

where
stern

hee whair
stern see

whaear
stoen
sii

blood door
oath oar

bbd
daoar outh aoar

see

sea

bear earth

see bair erth

sii

woe
''

woa
shoo
oil

wou
shuu
oil

baear oeth

shoe
oil

head
break
veil

hed
braik
vail

hed
brcik
veil
kii

boy
out soul

boi

boi

out
soal

key
eye

kee
ei

aut soul

ai

you
four

yoo
foar

yuu
faocr

few

feu

f)-UU

grew
in

groo
in

gruu
in

up
tune
rule

up
teun
rool berst
fuol

ap tyuun
ruul boest
ful

myth
wine
first

mith wein
ferst

mith wain
foest

burst
full

pique

peek

piik

2o6

APPEyDIX.

B.

DROPPED CONSONANTS.
RoMic.
det laem
siin

NOMIC.
debt

Glossic. det

N OM.IC.
hymn
psalm
phthisis
isle

Gi-ossic.

ROMIC.

him

him

lamb
scene

lam
seen

saam
tizis

saam
tizis

schism

sizm

sizm

gnaw
reign

nau
rain

nao
rein

eil

ail

C.

VARYING CONSONANTS.
ROMIC.
kset

NOMIC.
cat

Glossic.

NOMIC.
see as
!

Glossic.
see

ROMIC.
sii

kat
sees

cease

sns

az

3ez

ocean
chin

oashen
chin

oushan
cin

sugar
thick
this

shuoger
thik dhis

shugar
thik dhis

scheme
get

skeem
get
Joarj

skiim
get
jaoj

Thames Temz
George
ghost laugh through

temz

vex
goast
laaf

veks

vex

goust
laaf

example Xerxes

egzaampl
Zerkseez

egzaampl zoexuz

throo

thruu

COAfPARISON OF GI.OSSIC AXD ROMIC.

207

The

results

of a detailed simiy of

this

table

tonvenicntly,

though
lists,

somewhat
in which,

roughly,

may be summed up
its

the following

however, only the comtypical

monest groups are given, each represented by word

I.

II.

III.
in

IV.

Unchanged
in both.

Changed
both.

Unchanged
in Gloiiic.

Unchanged
in

Romic.
(.0
veil

(.0

ask
ten
in

(12) lane hare wall

salt

(II)

man
nail

pique
soul
full

saw
(air)

on
j

oil

sea

(stem)
see

rule

bear

head wine
hole

none good
blood

few soon oath out

up

We

see that out of a total of thirty-three typical words a half either remain

more than

unchanged or

else

undergo
remain

equally violent changes

umkr any possible

scheme 0/ reform.

Also that only a third of the whole

thirty- three

unchanged

in Glossic,

from which the two

in parentheses

ought, strictly speaking, to be excluded, as their agree-

ment with Nomic

netic consistency.

is

obtained

at

a great sacrifice of pho-

The

results

are,

of

course,

rough.

Mathematical

accuracy would require that the number of words be-

longing to each group should be counted, and the relative

May

be considered as practically unchanged.

2o8

A PPENDIX.
all

importance and frequency of each word ascertained,

of which would be a very laborious work.
It
is
is,

however, clear that the ease with which Glossic

read by those familiar with

Nomic

is

not inconsistent
It is,

with considerable divergences between the two.

therefore,

an important question

to consider

what would

be the

eftect

of the greater divergence between

first

Nomic

and Romic on the

understand Romic.

attempts of a
difference

Nomic

reader to

If the

between Glossic
to half-an-hour's
latter,

and Romic
amount, as

in ease of
it

acquirement by a Nomic reader

it

is

possible

may, only

preliminary study of the elementary symbols of the

and the principles of

question whether
it is

their combination, then

it is

a serious
interests

worth while sacrificing the

of future generations of learners to the half-hours of the

comparatively few

who have

to

make

the transition from

Nomic

to

Romic.

SrECLMEXS.
^

A. Uncontracted.
tsh, thJi in full

(Writing

and retaining vg.)

huusoue'va

hiiarith

dhiiz seiingz av main,

and duuith

him anf uu a waiz msn, whitsh bilt hiz haus ap'on a rok and dha rein dis'endid, and dha flodz keim, and dha windz bluu, and biit ap'on dhaet haus and
dham,
ai wil

laikn

it

fel

not

far

it

waz faundid ap"on

hiirith

a rok.

and evriwan dhat

duuith

dhiiz

seiingz

av main, and
a fuulish maen, rein dibiit
it.

dham

not, shael bii laikand

anfuu

whitsh

bilt hiz

haus ap'on dha sxnd:

fladz keim,
;

and dha

S'endid,

and dha

and dha windz bluu, and

:

ap'on dhset haus

and

it

fel

and

greit

waz dha

faol av

B.
[c

Contracted.
a for aa,
ii'a,

= tsh,

j =^

dzJi,

q=zng.

the

length being

implied.

The combinations

&c. are regarded as

the length of the
ei;

diphthongs and written simply

first

i^,

element being implied, as in

on

the

same
oa.)

principle aes

and ao? are simplified

"

into e9

and

a disp'yuut wans ar*ouz bifwiin dha wind and dha san,

whic waz dha stroqgar av dha tuu, and dhei

ag-riid ta

put

dha point on

'dhis

ishu, dhat whice'va suunist

meid a

2IO
trsevb
pauafal.
teik

APPENDIX.
of
iz

klouk,

shud

bi

sk-aunlid

dha mo9
iz

dha wind
blast,
hii

big'sen,
fias

and bluu widh aol

malt
;

on mein 9

kould an

az a threishyan staom
trsevla rsept iz
it

bat

dha stroqga

bluu dha klousa dha

taita
:

klouk

ar'aund im, and dha

hii

graspt
iz

widh

iz

haendz.

dhen brouk aut dha san

widh
;

welkam

biiniz hii dis-

p'oest dha veipar an dha kould

dha

traevla felt

dha jiinyal

waomth, and az dha san shon

daun, ouvak-am widh dha
Sfraund.
hiit,

braitar an braita, hii saet

and kast

hiz

klouk on dha

it

ap'iaz
faiv

dhat dhar ar in iqgland an weilz, in raund

nambaz,

milyan culdran av dha leibariq popyal-eishan,

huu mei
skuulz.

bi exp-ektid tu

afend pablik
ar sektyuali

elim*entari skuulz.

ab'aut haf dhis

wii

nambar

on dha roulz av
and entar on
dhiiz

sac

mei estimeit dhat ab'aut haf-a-m"ilyan culdran

eij

aenyuaU pas dha limit av dha skuul av

leiba.

a laif

dha

haiist

stoendad

fixt

in

skuulz,

dha
psesij

sixth stsendad, rik'waiaz

dha pyuupl

ta riid a

shaot

fram a buk oa nyuuspeipa, an

kar'ekt speliq

ta rait a

shaot thiim widh

hau meni culdran riict dhis stsendad ? ounli twenti thauznd whail dha nambar av tiicaz, ink'luudiq pyuupltiicaz, ima veri hai rik'waiamant soetnli.
p'loid iz ab'aut
fifti

not

thauznd
tiicaz
!

dhaet

iz,

tuu pyuuplz por

senam

far

evri

faiv

ounli

ab'aut

wan handrad
staoribuk, and

thauznd culdran aenyuali

eva

get

biyond dha thoed

iizi

stgendad, whic miinz dha riidiq av an

raitiq a

shaot psesij fram dha seim widh kar'ekt speliq.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
22, p. 8.

French Nasals.
compression

now doubt
the

the necessity

of any guttural

in

formation

of the

French nasals

their

deep tone may be due simply to the

greater lowering of the uvula than in South

German and

American

nasality.

28,

p. lo. noh' b.

Whispered Vowels.
vowels are
very

Professor Storm

says

that

whispered

common
in

in

the

Malagasy language of Madagascar, as

'

the tribe-name

Bets(i)m(i)s'ar(a)k(a),'

where the whispered sounds are

-'.
'

enclosed in parentheses
sion
is

Christ

'

in the

Malagasy verobserved

spelt 'Kraist,' but

'

it

ought consistently to have

as

been written

K(i)rais(i)t(ra),'

a native

to

Professor Storm.

30,

p.

1 1

Tongue Positions.
In passing from
is

Bell's
(i)

diagrams should
(e)

be compared.

to

and

(ae)

suc-

cessively, not only

the tongue lowered, but the point of

is

greatest narrowness'

also shifted further back, the size

of the resonance-chamber in the front of the mouth being

thus increased in both directions.

Hence

the ease with

which
ness a
(e) the

(a)

passes into

(as)

by

shifting the point of

narrow-

little

more forward.

It is also clear that in

forming
without
in fact,

passage

may be made
in

as narrow as for
:

(i),
is,

confounding the two sounds

an
"

the Danish (e')

(i)

formed further
final (a)
is

from the point of the tongue.

by

The

almost, or entirely, silent, as pronounced

Professor Storm.

212
58, p. 23.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
Acoustic Qualities of Vowels.

1
The Danish
to en&c.,

phonetician Jessen, for instance, goes so far as

tirely

identify

(%)

with

(e),

()

with

(ae),

sequently comes to the conclusion that 'close'

are purely relative terms,
(i)

and conand 'open'

and

(e)

being open as com(e)

pared with

is

(i),

but close as compared with

and

(ae).

69,

p. 26.

Professor Storm says that Russian 'jery'

:

certainly not nasal

as he pronounces

it, it

sounds to

me

simply as

(ih),

apparently with slight rounding.

&c. (eh) in gabe
'

71, p. 26.

The German
its

'

maj' also be

the wide (eh), although

indistinct glide-like character

It
'

makes

it

difficult to

identify with certainty.

seems

to

be quite distinct
87, p. 29.

from the French sound in

que.'

The long Swedish u seems

(yi).
is
(\i\i)

to

a Norwegian

ear to approximate to

88,

p.

29.

better exemplified in the

Nor-

wegian than the Swedish pronunciation.

The Swedish
lips

sound
in the

is,

I believe,

the English

{li)

formed with the

low-round position.
(^s) is

112, p. 39.

not quite the Spanish sound, which

has really something of a (th)-character, the blade position being modified by advancing the tip of the tongue,

which does not touch the

113, p. 39.

teeth.

The Spanish
(^z)

soft d,

according to Pro-

fessor

Storm, varies a good deal,

being

sometimes a

very

weak sound between

and
h

(dh), often being quite

mute.
117, p. 41.

The Spanish The English

full
{li)

is

not simple (bh).

See

note to

133 below.
p. 42.

126,

(w) may, as remarked in

raising the

the text, be

pronounced without
position,

back of the

tongue to the

which would give con-

ADDITIOXAL NOTES.
Miuintal
(0')

213
hears in

instead of

(//).

Professor Storm
(o') in
sj in
' '

lixnch

/oi',

loucr the

Norwegian

kone.'

129.

p. 43.

The Norwegian

sjoel' is,

according
s

IVofessor
>

Storm, identical with the Polish

= (shj).
pro-

is

Russian according to him.

p. 44.

130,

The

Slavonic barred

is,

after

all,

bably
>t,ilcd

(i),

and with secondary point-division = (1*1), as

note
b.

independently by Bell and Storm.

p. 44, p. 45.

132, 133,

See note to

244 below.
analysis, to

The
It

lip-divided-voice seems, according

to Professor Storm's pronunciation

and

be the

Spanish soft

b.

might be written
learn from
I\Ir.

(b/).

192,

p. 62.

Ellis that there is a

very interesting distinction

unaspirated

final

made between aspirated and breath-stops in some of the modern

like final (k) in
is

Indian languages, akh being pronounced

audible by cessation of outgoing breath.

English, =(ak[H]), while in ah the off-gUde

made

in-

222,

p. 77.

As

(ta)

developes into (tHa) by throwing

to the glide, so (da)
I

an independent

stress

on

becomes
con-

(dAa) by emphasising the voice-glide.

have

lately

vinced myself by personal audition of the correctness of

this

(Mr.

Ellis's) analysis

of the Indian dh &c. in dhami.

Initially,

of course, (t[A]a)=(/a developes into (tAa).

p. 82.

239,

In

some

cases there

is

not only no glide,

but the consonants are even formed simultaneously.

'open,' in

Thus

my

pronunciation, ends with an (m) and an (n)

formed simultaneously, the lip-closure of the (p) being

continued during the formation of the (n)

(oo^pn*m).
(kl) in

241, p. 83.

In such glideless combinations as

is

English, the off-glide of the (k)

calisation of the

often heard as a'devo(1),

beginning of the

which might be

214

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
(k[lh]l).

m
it

expressed by writing
to distinguish
'

This makes
(t[jh]j) in

difficult

between

(tsh)

and

such words as

nature.'

244,

p.

85.

have now, by the help of Professor

acquired
It
is

Storm's
(

directions,

the
r^.

'thick'
finished

Norwegian
oflf

132, note b above).

with

moand

mentary contact of the tongue-tip and the inside of the

arch,

the

tongue moving forwards

all

the while,

seems, therefore, to be a sort of inversion of the Japanese

r.

The second element

sound
(r-|-[l4.])

is

quite

instantaneous in
trill.

its

formation, almost like a single strong

this

would write

rather than

(r4.[d4.j),

there being

no

stoppage of the mouth passage, but only contact of the

tongue-tip.
(1)

The
3.

effect is

mainly that of

(r)

with a slight

quality.

P.

no,

1.

The vowel
oe,

in 'bird'

ought

strictly to

be

represented by
P. Ill,
1.

which

have adopted

in the

Appendix.
u.'

12.

Add

'rather the

Norwegian open

P. 123. Professor

Storm

entirely repudiates

most of the

values assigned by Bell to the French nasals, accepting

those

first

given,

which represent

my own

analysis also.
also (oej) to

He

prefers (as I

do now)

(aeq) to (aej),

and

(aeh^).

P.
'

144.
'

The
to

Icelandic unaccented

in

'monnum,'
(eh),

rfkur

seems
'

be generally simple (eh) or

to incline

and the

of

'

riki

seems
(k)

towards

(e^).

P. 146.

and

(g)

ought to have been written (kj)

149.
the correct one, for the

and

(gj) consistently with

P. 147.

The

notation

(se'gi) is

on- as well as the off-glide seems to be really whispered.

P. 153. In Swedish
written simply
'

Broad Romic

'

daaga,' &c. might be

daga,' the length of the vowel being taken

ADDITIONAL NOTES.
lor
tlic
'

21^

granted before a single consonant.

In the consonants
(sh), as

otherwise superfluous z might be used for

^.

in

/uta '=.skJHta
P. 154.
I

have since learnt that

before
(t), (d),

in natural

Swedish pro-

nunciation
iii;\king

(r)

and

(n) is slightly retracted,

(4.)

the following consonants either half

it

or else
is

-strongly (/),

is

difticult

to decide which,

and

itself

Induced to a mere
I \

glide.
after

These

assimilations take place

cry where

both

long and short vowels.

Hence

vddii (danger),
(v\'o'ida)

and vdrda

(to guard), are distinguished as

and (wo'id+a) k

P. 155. Professor
soft
(7,

Storm has heard

original
dc>i-i

this (oj)

not only for

but also

for

(j),

as

in
^.

the

song

(dji

njrtigvtl vleiva Djaigv/l

no'id4.ehn)

He

also con-

siders (xjh) to be the general pronunciation of soft k.

'

As has been done by Swedish

These
facts are generally

phoneticians themselves.

acknowledged. I believe, by Swedish philologists. My study of Swedish pronunciation was, unfortunately, made in almost complete ignorance of their works, ' Yes, I will live, I will die in the North.

ERRATA.
19,

p. 7,

11.

4,

5,/?r

read'S".

43, p. 16,

f/i;7-

(ash) y(5r

[oh] read [oh].

z.i.

80, p. 28,

1.

3,_/or ai read

90, p. 30,

1.

2,

for dotte

r^^a^/

dot.

113, p. 39,

1.

2,

for aa read

a.

236, p. 81, 279,

p.

1.

2, for

whisper read
I

\'o\cq.

95,

1.

^,/or

A A read

vA.

301, p. 102, note h,/or

307, P- 105.
1.

(e)

read
2.

{i).

1-

Z^/or
oehg-

a=

read

P. 123,

id,,

for

read ceq. read dot

[a].
<?'/
///t-

P. 124,
P. 134, P. T56,

1.

7,yc>r dotte

1.

I'Jy/or
2

.\

;Yfl(3?

1.

(Sentences),

v be/ore veidn-eht

and vakkehrt.

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