Blade-Element Theory for Propeller in Forward Flight.

In order to derive a Blade-Element/Momentum procedure valid for helicopter hover and vertical
climb as well as propeller static conditions and propeller forward ight, it is necessary to make a
few generalizations to the simple helicopter theory. To begin, consider the blade-element diagram
for the propeller case, and allow \

(the forward velocity) to be large relative to (or comparable to)

the rotational speed, r. We will also allow the induced velocity (

) to have a swirl component

as well as an axial one, and to a rst approximation

is induced perpendicular to the apparent

oncoming ow. We will dene
c = arctan
\

r
(1)
c

= arctan

p
\
2

+
2
r
2

p
\
2

+
2
r
2
(2)
Note that c

, the induced angle of attack, is nearly always a small angle (the exception being
under very highly loaded static conditions) whereas c is generally not small. Also note that the
angle designated as c in our earlier analysis (which we had assumed to be small for the helicopter
case) is approximately c +c

.
The axial component of the induced velocity is

cos c. (If c were small, as in the helicopter

development,
1

.) Incorporating this into the expression for the thrust obtained using the
momentum theory for an annulus of thickness dr, we arrive at
dT = 2j

cos c (\

cos c) 2r dr (3)
1
Now it is necessary to formulate an expression for the elemental thrust generated by a blade
element. First, recall that
dT = d1cos(c +c

) d1sin(c +c

), and (4)
d1 = r [d1cos(c +c

) +d1sin(c +c

)] (5)
Using the fact that c

is small and, for now, neglecting the drag component,

dT 1d1cos c (6)
where
d1 =
1
2
j

\
2

+
2
r
2

c a(0 c c

) dr (7)
We justify the neglect of the drag at this juncture since we are comparing an inviscid expression
to another inviscid expression. In eect, we are stating that the viscous drag does not aect
the magnitude of the induced velocity. This is not entirely true since the drag force causes a
negative component of thrust, thus requiring that a higher lift be produced than would be otherwise
predicted. The drag, therefore, indirectly aects the value of the induced velocity.
Equating the elemental thrust from the momentum analysis to that obtained using the blade-
element method gives
1

\
2

+
2
r
2

c a(0 c c

) = 8r

(\

cos c) (8)
Rearranging and letting

p
\
2

+
2
r
2
and making all values dimensionless leads to the
quadratic equation for the induced angle
c
2

+

`

r
+
oa\

8r
2

oa\

8r
2
(0 c) = 0 (9)
All dimensionless variables are dened as before, with `

= \

,1, o = 1c,1, and r = r,1. The

new dimensionless value, \

=
p
\
2

+
2
r
2
,1 =
q
`
2

+ r
2
. Note that if \

r, \

reduces to
r and equation 9 becomes that for the problem of the helicopter in vertical climb. Solving for c

results in
c

=
1
2

r
+
oa\

8r
2

+
s
1
4

r
+
oa\

8r
2

2
+
oa\

8r
2
(0 c) (10)
Equation 10 is general and can be used for any helicopter or propeller in axial ight (including
static loading or hover). Notice that, in this case, the induced inow ratio (Leishmens `

) is not
well-dened and it is useful to solve directly for the induced angle of attack.
Equations 10 and 7, along with an equivalent expression for d1 (=
1
2
j(\
2

+
2
r
2
)c c

dr), can
be used in equations 4 and 5 and integrated over the blades to obtain the total thrust and power
required for a given propeller under given operating conditions.
2
Prandtls Tip Loss Factor for Propellers.
To add the tip-loss factor to the propeller blade-element analysis, begin with the equivalent to
Prandtls assertion, i.e., that dT = 21j

cos c (\

cos c) 2r dr. Following the above steps

leads to the equation involving c

:
81c

(`

+c

r) r = oa

(0 c c

), (11)
which can be rearranged to yield a "quadratic" for c

. However, since 1 is a function of c

, the
equation is transcendental and must be solved through iteration or another root-nding method
(such as MATLABs fsolve fuction). Equation 11 is likely more easily solved than the equivalent
quadratic form as it avoids having a zero denominator when 1 = 0 at the blade tip. The tip-loss
function remains given as 1 =
2

arccos(exp())), where ) is given more generally as

) =
1
2
1 r
rc
where now c c +c

.
Compressibility Corrections
The correction to the lift-curve slope to account for Mach-number eects is, ideally
a =
a
0
p
1 '
2

where a
0
is the lift-curve slope for low speed (' 0.) For a propeller or rotor in vertical ight,
'

=
q
'
2

+'
2

where '

is the forward Mach number and '

is the rotational Mach number.

Using the expressions for '

and '

gives
a =
a
0
q
1 '
2
tip
\
2

(12)
Correction to the prole drag term requires knowledge of the critical Mach number for the
rotor airfoil (freestream Mach number at which sonic velocity rst occurs on the airfoil surface).
A typical correction factor can be determined by tting the c

vs Mach number curve to an

appropriate polynomial. Critical Mach number depends on the airfoil angle of attack (or c

) and
thickness. Dene = '

,'
crit
. Then a sixth-order curve t appropriate for 0.75 1.07 is
given by
c

= 14.7487 111.95 + 350.502

2
580.051
3
+ 535.651
4
261.909
5
+ 53.0095
6
(13)
3