Topological Ideas !

in Condensed Matter Systems

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp

2014.02.09-16

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

Geometric phases in Physics

Jeeva Anandan, Joy Christian, and Kazimir Wanelik, American Journal of Physics 65, 180 (1997). 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

Falling Cats

Have you ever wondered why a falling cat always lands on her feet? ! Apparently, the problem of the cat is that due to angular momentum conservation there seems to be no way for the cat to right herself.

However, by changing her shape she can affect a rotation as a whole, a geometric effect. In the quantum world, such geometric effects give rise to additional phase factors depend only on the way the system evolves.

R. Montgomery, Commun. Math. Phys. 128, 565 (1990). 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
3 !

F ig.1

Foucaults Pendulum

The start of the pendulums rotation has shifted by a certain angle, called Hannays angle which is equal to the solid angle subtended by the pendulums axis of rotation around the globe.

M. Berry, Scientic American, December 1988. 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
4 !

What What is is the the Aharonov-BohmAharonov-BohmEffect? Effect? effect Aharonov-Bohm

=0
interference pattern in a double-slit interference pattern in a double-slit experiment when the enclosed experiment when flux B equals zerothe enclosed flux B B equals zero

B = (1 2 )/(e/h ) =
6= 0
8th of June, 2005 8th of June, 2005 Aharonov-Bohm Aharonov-Bohm

when a magnetic flux is turned on, when ainterference magnetic flux is turned the pattern gets on, the interference pattern gets B shifted shifted

C12

A dl

2 2

e 2 = h

C2

A dl

2 = ei2 2

Question:! geometric or ! topological effect?

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

)B Q = 1 + 2 = ei1 1 1 + (2 /1 )ei(e/h
5 !

e 1 = h

1 = ei1 1
A dl

C1

Magnetic monopole and Dirac string

B=A

B,0

B = g C

Images from wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_monopole 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
6 !

Anholonomy and topology

1-x = ! +y

x=!-y

1-x = ! +y x=!-y

When transported along C, P moves from y to y.

When transported along C, P moves from y to -y.

Anholonomy, e.g., sgn(y), comes from the topology of manifold.

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
7 !

Fiber bundles, connection, curvature, and topology

C = ( s2 ) ( s1 ) Connection: A ( r ) Z q ! C = 2 1 + A (r) d l ~ C12 !

Holonomy:

( s1 )

( s2 )

Curvature:
!

e ~ = A (r) F ~ !

A (r)
I

Topology

C=

e ~ F ds = ~ S

A (r) d s
8 !

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

Geometric phase in superconductors: magnetic vortex

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

GinzburgLandau theory

(r)
( r ) = | ( r ) | e i (r)

Superconducting order parameter: G-L free energy:

!

Superconducting current:

2e 2e~ 2 | | ( A) j= m ~

(x)
1 0

x
10 !

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

What if (r , ) = ?

2e 2e~ 2 | | ( A) j= m ~ supercurrent along the edge?

The kinetic energy of the edge current can be suppressed if

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

~ ~ A (r ) = = 2e 2er

11 !

Abrikosov vortex in type-II superconductors

(r , ) = | (r ) | e

STM image of Vortex lattice

~ A (r > r o , ) = 2er | (r = 0 ) | = 0

H. F. Hess et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 62, 214 (1989)

otherwise singular at r=0

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
12 !

Geometric phase in quantum mechanics: Berry phase

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

Parallel transport and anholonomy angle:

Mathematical formulation
1

X5.3

vi
2

e 2

e 2 ~

e 2

e e 1 1 e 1 v2 ~ r =0 ~ e e 1 = 1 e 1 e 2 = 0 ~ e = e e 2 e 1 = 0 2 2 4 3 1 = (e 1 + i e 2 ) Im = 0 (b) 2 rt of a vector a r from 1 to 2. It offers a way to compare v1 and v2 on is v a closed path. When the surface r is parallel transported around d = n dn i d I e v 2 uld point to a different direction from the vector. The angle of e initial 1 dn nholonomy angle. (C ) = i n dx dx C u u 1 e e 1 it follows from this requirement that e 2 = 0: xed frame ! Z i (x ) ( x ) = n ( x ) e 1 dn dn dn dn r = e e
vf
1 2

Ming-Che Chang, Berry phase in solid state physics, http://phy.ntnu.edu.tw/~changmc/Paper/Berry_IFF_FF_4.pdf

1 e = e 1 e 2 = e 2 = 0.

(C ) =

S i (3)

dx 1

dx 2

dx 2

dx 1

dx 1 dx 2

e 1 =0 is shown easily. 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 ith the complex quantum phase in the next section, let us introduce

14 !

Adiabatic theorem
i ~t ( x , t ) = H ( x , t ) X ie n t /~ H ( x ) = e ( x ) ( x , t ) = cn n ( x ) e n n n
n
t 0

a general solution: Z X (t ) = cn (t ) n (t ) ei ( t ) where n (t ) = (1/~)

c m (t ) = X
n

Time-dependent perturbation theory for t H (t ) , 0

en (t 0 ) dt 0

n ie c n h m |

i ( n m )

|n i h | H m n i = c m h m | cn e i ( n m ) en em n ,m X

" Z t # adiabatic approximation m (t 0 ) idt 0 = cm (0) ei m ( t ) c m (t ) = cm (0) exp h m ( t 0 ) |

0

n (t ) = n (t ) e

i n (t ) i n (t )

n (t ) Berry phase

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

15 !

Anholonomy in quantum mechanics:

Berry phase
fast variables

slow variables

H (r, p; R, P)

| (t ) i = e

i n ( R ) i /~

t 0

dt e n (R ( t ))

| n ; Ri

n (t ) = i h n | n i + * I I n dR = A dR n (C ) = i n| R C C * + n A (R) = i n | Berry connection R + Z * Z n n ~ d2R n (C ) = i || d2R = F R S R S ~ (R) = R A (R) Berry curvature F

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
16 !

2 the vector potential 2and the magnetic eld of a mathematical as he direction ofstructure the solenoid is our time-dependent parameter R . In x Theenergy location of the monopole is at the origin of the parameter space, tion of the solenoid is neglected. When the solenoid rotates 1 1 cos Table 2: Analogy between electromagnetism and quantum Aare (17) eracy occurs. The strength of the monopole (1/2 ) equals the value of theanholonomy = genstates 2 B sin arger spinsalso). That is why the Berry connection and theat Berry curvature Electromagnetism quantum Fig. 2: A long solenoid hinged the origin is slowlyanholonomy rotating around th i 1 B e eld. sin cosF vector potential A (r ) Berry connection (R) the 2 2 the spin atthis the origin aligns with the uniform magnetic eldA inside = . (18) the Berry potential and the Berry In picture, the Berry phase is , | ; B = . (16) = 2 i 2B Berry curvature F(R) magnetic eld B(r) e sin cos 2 passing through a loop 2 C in parameter he Berry eld space. It is easy to magnetic monopole point degeneracy A short note: It is possible to rephrase the anholonomy of the quantum s

X5.6 . 2 , cos , 0) he rotation axis = ( sin is both z and B L ). Therefore, spin feels aR uniform magneticto eld that Berry curvature F( ) perpendicular etic eld B(r) the electron H= + B B, (15) of the Berry connection and in Eqs. (12) and (13), one 2I the Berry curvature This example is a point slight generalization of the spin-in-magneticetic monopole degeneracy d Ihis are the angular momentum and the moment inertia of the solenoid, respecA spin in a rotating z in 1984 paper. The Hamiltonian ofsolenoid this of spin-in-solenoid system Berry phase (C ) etic ux ( C ) he Bohr magneton is B = e /2mc. 1the 1 cos ic eld B along the direction of solenoid is our time-dependent parameter R. In 2 A = (17) L atic limit, H the = rotation energy the solenoid rotates sin is neglected. When the solenoid + B of 2 B ,B (15) 2I from the ( , ) , the spin eigenstates arespin-up ned, for example, (-down) states | by a rotation 1 B S ar momentum and the moment of inertia of the solenoid, respecF = . (18) = ( sin tation axis , cos , 0) is perpendicular to both z and B . i 2 e sin cos 2 B 2 2 = /= n is |= 2mc. , |; B . (16) +; e B

B connection and e Berry the Berry curvature in Eqs. ei sin cos (12) and (13), one

ematical structure as the vector potential and the magnetic eld of a Berry phase (C ) magnetic ux ( C ) ical theory of ber bundles, which deals with geometrical spaces that ca location of the monopole is1at the origin of thespace parameter space, into a product (the ber space times the base space), but g (C ),topology. (19) (C ) the = The M othe bius band is the simplest example of such a geometr occurs. The strength of monopole ( 1 / 2 ) equals value of the 2 These states canone-dimensional be obtained, for example, from the spin-up (-down) states | product of two spaces but globally it is not (because ( /and spins also). That is why the Berry connection the Berry curvature i 2) = ( sin , cos , 0) is perpendicular to e , in which the rotation axis case, the ber is the space of the quantum phase (R) and the base is t olid angle subtended by loop C with respect to the origin. The similarity Using the denitions of the Berry connection and the Berry curvature in Eqs. ( Berry potential and the Berry eld. In this the transport, Berry phase is ceptpicture, of the parallel the connection, and the curvature all can obtains f Berry phase and electromagnetism is summarized in Table 2. in the language of ber It bundles [4]. Furthermore, there is also a topolo erry eld passing through a loop C in parameter space. is easy to (C ) = (C ), (19) F =
.

1the 1 cos called the Chern he fast motion is only half of the story. When the quantum state of fast the Euler characteristic) for the ber bundle, which is A = Ming-Che Chang, Berry phase in solid state physics, http://phy.ntnu.edu.tw/~changmc/Paper/Berry_IFF_FF_4.pdf 2 B sin The analogy between geometric anholonomyand quantum anholonom 1 1 ! 7 2014 KIAS-SNUthere Physics Winter Camp, erry phase, will be 2014.02.09-16 an interesting back action to the slow motion. 1 B ble 1.

lectronic interactions, as long as one replaces the one-particle states in the density functional theory. X5.12 phase andItBloch state: degreeBerry of ion displacement. varies from 0 to 1 as the ions shift l state to a nal state. The difference of polarizations between these Electric polarization dP/d, where P Unit cell q P ( ) = V i | r| i .
+

(a)

(33)
P
(b)
+

lled Bloch states i (with -dependence) and V is the volume of te crystal, the expectation value of r is ill-dened. Therefore, we rst, and let V when the mathematical expression becomes
P

ons of the Schr odinger equation, H | i = p2 + V |i = i |i , 2m

(c)

(34)

Fig. 6: An one-dimensional solid with innite length. Different choices ential. From Eq. (34), different it is not electric difcult to show that, for ((a), j = (b)). i, one polarization vectors On the other hand, the ch Electric polarization in a periodic solid is does not depend on the choice of the unit cell (c).

This is the Bloch equation for spin precession, in which H/ n plays th 18 ! 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 magnetic eld.

ill-dened V i an = j | | i . (i j ) j |

quantity! (35)

has n = ), the mathematical expression becomes (40) V (k rst, andV let V k when i 2 /a 1 by the i | p | matrix V very similar i another i j dard to convert the elements of r to those of p : Start with elp ofprocedure this equation and one to Eq. (35) (just replace the s ij | e j ) | i . ( njk i= j| = j | | i . (35) (i ) j | i | r| . = (3 n j dk d . P = ji-state i and the j -state we nally [get ( == x, i y, p z )/m, and sandwich it betweenm k elation, r , H ] the 2 ons of the Schr odinger equation, 0 0 n u Therefore, we get an useful identity, |dcan is the thehelp Berry curvature for the n -th band the parameter of this Eq. (36) becomes thein following expression derived by Resta [13 |V identity, | P qc.c.With

j i

q andnlet m system at rst, considertheory. a2 nite V when the mathematica in the density functional Ming-Che Chang has = ( k ) , over lled Bloch states i (with -dependence) and V is the volume of V k i degree of ion displacement. It varies from 0 to 1 as the ions shift well-dened. = we | i . (3 ( ) j |Therefore, j| i jV innite crystal, the expectation value of r is ill-dened. nk for j = i, one From Eq. (34), of it is not difcult to show that, alcrystal state to potential. a nalThe state. The difference polarizations between these Bloch states are solutions of the becomes Schr odinger equation, em at rst, and let V when the mathematical expression Therefore, dP/d,and where quation another one very similar to Eq. (35) (just replace the i s by id j | V P q V u u n | i 2 where | is curvature the n-th ban |j Berry = + H.c. . for (3 t ( = x, zSchr ) ( k= j| c.c. |i. (35) j j |i solutions ofy, the o dinger i |rthe p k ) equation, qi V (33) i + j V H i j = i |r|i . d P ( ) = i | i = |i = i |i , spaceVof 2 k and (Cf. Eq. (13)). 2 m p i u nk u nk u nk u n k matrix elements Hiq | i = is a + V | i = i |i , to (34) There standard procedure convert the of r to those of p: Start with t Let us take a one-dimensional system as an example. Assuming the lattice c = | | | V | dV P commutation q 2m k relation, j i [ r ,H i pV /m ,and sandwich it between the i(36) -state and the j -sta Ming-Che Chang k ] = | r | = + H.c. . lled Bloch states (with -dependence) and is the volume of where V is the crystal potential. From Eq. (34), it is not difcult to sho i j i of polarization nk the difference is ( q = e ), d V (again j = i ), we can get an useful identity, i j al potential. From Eq. i(34), it is not difcult show that, Therefore, for j = i, one ite crystal,qthe expectation of r is to ill-dened. we j = i value

Berry phase theory of polarization

commutation relation, [r, H ] = i p/m, and sandwich it between the 2 /a 1 V i e u u| integrating with respect to , the resulting P is free of ambiguity, even for an innite covale n for the = | | . (35) ( ) n i | c.c. is the Berry curvature n -th band in the parameter j i i j j i | p | i i j dk d . |useful (41) P k = (again j = ), we can get an identity, P = e . k | r | = . (37) d P q | p | | V solid. i 2j i j j i 0 2 Eq. (13)). H.c. . (38) and (Cf.= n m0 j i n 2 For Bloch states, the subscripts are i = ( m, k ) and j = ( n, k ) , where m, n are the band indic d imV ( ) i j example. Assuming the lattice constant a one-dimensional system as an is a .i Then i j = i|V i |(38) p|can | q j be transformed j i and k is the Bloch momentum dened in the rst Brillouin zone. Eq. dentity, Eq. (36) becomes the following expression derived by Resta [13], |r|( e), 1 and = +2 H.c. .on each side. (36) i |The r| = integral . iis nce of polarization qj = n isV a rectangle with lengths /a jarea In the special case where the nal state of the deformation V is the same as a very elegant form, revealing its connection with the Berry curvature [14]. One rst denes 1 m i j j i i j =i of matrix elements are well-dened the volume V can be made innite. After ine around the boundary the rectangle, which gives the Berry ikr ikr dP integral q | p | | V |and i j j i H k -dependent Hamiltonian, = e He . It is the Hamiltonian of the cell-periodic functio 2 /aonly 1 . integer multiples the Berry phase can be of 2 [14]. Therefore, the p = H.c. (38) n e 2 1 ! 9 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 ik r for n h to , the the resulting P free of ambiguity, even an innite covalent ure to imV convert matrix elements of r dk to those of pn :kStart with the drespect Therefore, ( i|u ) =is p. u . That is, H = e u . It is then straightforward to show th d . (41) P = nkj nk | u nk , where n k i nkj = i With the help of this identity, Eq. (36) becomes the following expression k crystal state is uncertain by an integer charge Q.

iq|r| u uq nk u nk nk u nk 2 = dP = + H.c. . (36) | V d P i j p j | i | | d (13)). i= Eq. j|i = + H.c. . H |iV = | i , (34) d VVof k k r| i| jand integration i | The is a rectangle with lengths 1 2 /a on each side i j =area i + i | p | i j d P q | p | V | i j j i 2m nk d V i j | r | = . (37) = H.c. . (3 i j ensional system as an example. Assuming the lattice constant is a . Then i j = i q 2 n to can converted a of line integral around the boundary of the rectangle, wh rocedure to convert the matrix r to those of p : Start ( with the d imV ) m i j j i =be elements ( k ) , (40) i j =i k ization is q e ), V n, [r, H ] =(phase i = p/m , and sandwich it between the i-state and the j -state ential. From Eq. (34), it is not difcult to show that, for j = i, the one matrix elements of r to thos n of a loop.procedure Therefore, n ksuch There is a standard to convert an identity, useful Now identity, fget this Eq. becomes the following expression by V Resta [13], all(36) of the matrix elements are well-dened and derived the volume can be made innite. Aft

Berry phases
!un! =!u1! !un-1!

!u2!

Berry phases ! un-1! !un! =!u1! Berry phase in a discrete form

!u4! !u3! !=1 u2! ! !un! =!u1! !un-1!

points " ! that density o points "!

!u!"

Continuum Now take limit Check that a local gauge does not affect the Berry phase: limit that density of ! =0 points "! Berry phases
March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006

March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 1

In the continuum limit:

!=1
March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006

!u!"

!=0

March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006

" Nothing physical changes for a !-dependent gauge:

( ) e
2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

i ( )

()
20 !

March APS Me

uk!

Berry phase in momentum space

!uk!

Stokes theorem: Berry curvatu Stokes theorem: Be

!uk!

=0 Berry curvature m:
Bloch function

ky

ky

2#/a

March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006

kx

2"/a

kx

2"/a

Marc

March APS Meeting, Baltimore,

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
21 !

Electric polarization in1 momentum Simplify: band, 1D space Simplify: 1 band, 1D

Simplify: 1 band, 1D

instead of

March APS Meeting

"=0

"=0

"=0
y !uk!

ky

ky

k "=1
"=1

"=1

"=1
!uk!
x

!uk!

March APS Meeting, 13 ky 0 Baltimore, 2#/ak 2#2006 /a 0 kxMarch 0 !u ! k x

k

"=0

2#/a

March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006 March APS Meeting, Baltimore, March 13 2006 2 # /a 0 k March APS Meeting, Baltimore, x
2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16
22 !

March 13

the tran tem is described by a q -independent Hamiltonian with The quantum Hall e ect was discovered q -dependent Hamiltonian: (1.19) make the following unitary transformation to obtain a g Eq. (1.19), we nd the Berry curvature g the specicL case of h = H |Wrameter = h W | i h itional (5.6) k.of Moreover, because A(t)quantum preserves the trans symmetry, q is still a good number am Let us consider a crystal under the perturbation a a q -dependent boundary condition, Eq. (1.23). To comorm et al. (1980). They found that in a strong H(001) q -dependent Hamiltonian: nd the Berry curvature t 2 tional symmetry, q is still a good quantum number and ( p + h q ) weak electric eld E , which enters into the Hamiltonian a constant of motion q = 0. It then follows from Eq. ( ply with the general formalism of the Berry phase, we i q r i q r urvature Quantum Hall effect: id state physics. understood that while the Hall conductivity of a two-dimensional e H ( q ) = e He = + V ( r ) . (1 1 hIt is usually e p a constant motion q = It then follows Eq. (3 2 hrough coupling to the A electrostatic potential the (of r ). make the following unitary transformation to obtain a0. that k satises the following equation of from motion .(q (1.20) 2m of h H= (the q , t= ) = H + ( t )) . (3.3) 2 ( + h q ) electric eld can drive electron motion in momentum obtain the equations of motion using Euler 3 iqan r electric iq r exactly quantized in equation the units of e(1.24) /h. Th 2 h Dynamics of Bloch electrons in eld h that k satises the following of motion H ( q ) = e He = + V ( r ) . h However, a uniform E means that ( r ) varies linearly q -dependent Hamiltonian: urvature ace, it does not Eq. appear in the electron velocity; the enq (r) iq r . (1.20) 2 m ons. Using (4.5) we nd that h W | i h | W i = The transformed eigenstate u = e nq (r )La is ( tization was subsequently explained by s that Eq. (1.20) is the eld generated by 3 n space and breaks the translational symmetry of the k = E . t ter gauge-invariant is simply given by (for example, see Chapter 12 of h e 2 he crystal momentum h the cell-periodic part of the Bloch function. Itlater satis ( p + h q ) k = E . (3 t the origin h = 0 (Dirac, 1931; Sakurai, based on gauge invariance, and was rystal so that Blochs theorem cannot be applied. To go i q r i q r i q r R h arg w ( k , t ). For the wavepacket energy, hcroft and Mermin, 1976b) c c The transformed eigenstate u ( r ) = e ( r ) is just H ( q ) = e He = + V ( r ) . (1.24) t h condition n q nq )round is the eld generated by the strict periodic boundary Yang, 1975), where (1.20) this di culty, the onetwo can energy let thelevels electric eld enter 2 m e Using the of relation / q / k and / topological invariance the energy bands of= ve h W | H | W i = m ( k ) B . This is expected as the cell-periodic part the Bloch function. It satises k= qthe + A (tn )(q . ) points (3.4) 0 (Dirac, 1931; Sakurai, erate. Therefore degeneracy act Using the relation / q = / k(2.5) and 1982 / t hrough a uniform vector potential A(t) that changes in ( e/ h ) E / k , the general formula for the i q r 1983; Niu et al. , 1985; Thouless et al. , . (3.1) v ( q ) = h ujust (1 the the strict periodic boundary condition n n q (r + a) = unq (r ) . The transformed eigenstate un ( r ) = e ( r ) is eady showed that the wavepacket carries an orbital q n q here the two energy levels ated by d drains of the Berry curvature ux. Inteime. Using the Peierls substitution, Hamiltonian is h q locity (e/ h) E k ,2 the general formula (2.5) for the in a/ given state kinto becomes it has blossomed an important research 2 the cell-periodic part of the Bloch function. It satises Sakurai, ry curvature over a sphere containing the the degeneracy points act etic moment m (Hamiltonian k ) that will couple to the magnetic written as eter-dependent can be simply locity in aboundary given state k becomes This condition ensures that all the eigensta u ( r + a ) = u ( r ) . (1.25) the strict periodic boundary condition rough recent progress on the semiclassical dynamics of densed matter physics. In this subsection w n q n q ( k ) e gy levels ich is the Berry phase on the sphere; we n erry curvature ux. Intexy k k Using Eq.Hence (4.5), we nd is given H (kelectrons, (q , t)). the eigenstates ofclear the timelive in the same Hilbert space. We can thus identify( 2 the Langragian x y v ( k ) = E ( k ) , 2 n n H(001) och it has been made increasingly that [ p + e A ( t )] ( k ) e oints act only on the quantization aspect of the qua n h k h r a sphere containing the H ( t ) = + V ( r ) . (3.2) BZ Brillouin zone as the parameter space of the transform vn (k )= all E eigenstates (3 u r+ a )a =of un r ) condition .pa(1.25) that Z Hamiltonian can be 2 labeled by single n (k) , to some unimportant total time-derivative terms nq ( q (elecs description is incomplete. In the presence an This boundary ensures the e m x. Intefect using the formulation developed so far h k |un ( h 1 H phase on the sphere; we Hamiltonian H ( q ), and q ) i as the basis function ( q , t ) = H ( q + A ( t )) . (3.3) have H(001) where ( k ) is the Berry curvature of the n th band c eld, an electron can an live anomalous velocity n d d = acquire 1c.(on (1.21) ink the same Hilbert space. We can thus identify the Moreover, because A t ) preserves the translaping the subscript r and ), ning the h c c Let us consider a of two-dimensional band 2 This boundary condition ensures that all the eigenstates Since the q -dependence the basis function is inher This is the time-dependent problem weband have studied in e of the S 2 to where ( k ) is the Berry curvature of the n th band: oportional the Berry curvature (Chang n Brillouin zone as the parameter space of the transformed here; we H (q , tthe ) = same Hcrystal (quantum q+ A (t)) . representation, (3.3) etry, q is still a good number and is n (k)problem, = Eq. ih k u | Berry | (k)i .condu live in Hilbert space. We can thus identify the to the Bloch various phase eects ( ast section. Transforming to the q -space n (k) k un follows from (3.6) that the Hall e the gauge-invariant momentum d Niu, 1995, 1996; Sundaram and Niu, 1999). This h e Berry curvature integrated over a closed Hamiltonian H ( q ), and | u) ( q )k iu as the basis function. n ( k ) = i h ( k ) | | un i. f motion q = 0. It then follows from Eq. (3.4) Brillouin zone as the parameter space of the transformed expected in crystals. For example, if q(k is)forced to(3 v k r ( k ) + e ( r ) e r A ( r , t ) + h k A ( k , = 1 . (1.21) n n k omalous velocity is responsible for a number of trans M n system is given by antized in the units of 2 and equals to the e roduce the gauge-invariant crystal momentum We can see that, inthe addition tothe the usual band dis Since the q -dependence of basis function is inherent Hamiltonian H ( q ), and | u ( q ) i as the basis function. in the momentum space, then Bloch state will p n k = q + A ( t ) . (3.4) rt phenomena, in particular various Hall e ects, which es the following equation of motion (5.7) (1.21) monopoles inside. This number is called We can see that, in an addition to the previously usual band disp Z sion contribution, extra term know h to the Bloch problem, various Berry phase e ects are e Since the q -dependence of the basis function is inherent up a Berry phase: 2 2 study in this section. eintegrated over a closed mber and is responsible for a(tnumber of e d k k) = q+ A ) . ) with (3.4) )= ( k B m ( k ( k ) being the e sion contribution, an extra term previously known M (k 0 0 an anomalous velocity also contributes to v ( k). 2 expected in crystals. For example, if q is forced to vary n to the Bloch problem, various Berry phase e ects are h I = , Hall conductivity ameter-dependent Hamiltonian can be simply xy k k x y a closed ects below. its of discussed 2 and equals to the k = E . (3.5) 2 h (2 ) an anomalous velocity also contributes to v. (k). (1 T turbed band energy. The equations of motion is velocity is always transverse to the electric eld, w expected in crystals. For example, if q is forced to vary n BZ in the momentum space, then the Bloch state will pick h = d q h u ( q ) | i | u ( q ) i as H ( k ( q , t )). Hence the eigenstates of the timee parameter-dependent Hamiltonian can be simply n n q n ls to the de. This number is called space, then Anomalous velocity velocity is rise always transverse to the electric eld, wh in the momentum the Bloch state will pick will give to a Hall Historically, the ano C current. up a Berry phase: s called tten as H ( k ( q , t )). Hence the eigenstates of the timent relation Hamiltonian can be labeled by a single pa-= the integration2is over the entire Br ponsible for aa number of e / q = / k and / t where up Berry phase: M (k) will give rise tohas a Hall current. Historically, anom lous velocity been obtained by Adamsthe and Bl e in Bloch bandsbecause I mber of pendent Hamiltonian can be labeled by a single pak . Moreover, A ( t ) preserves the translaWe emphasize that the path C must be closed to m ! (000) below. Let us consider a crystal under the perturbation of a r = k ( k ) , (5.8a) again we the situation where the I / k , the general formula (2.5) lous for the vevelocity hasencounter been obtained by Adams and Blou (1959); Karplus and Luttinger (1954); Kohn and meter k . Moreover, because A ( t ) preserves the transla a gauge-invariant quantity with physical signican xy mmetry, q is still a good quantum number and h k (1.26) n ak electric eld E , which enters into the Hamiltonian n =is dq hun (q )|iq |un (q )i . (1959); Karplus and Luttinger (1954); Kohn and L ve we have introduced the basic concepts is over a closed manifold. H (1957); its relation to the Berry phase was rea good dq hun (number q )tinger |iq |ture u (qis ) i .integrated (1.26) iven state k becomes n = n nal symmetry, q is still a quantum and C Generally speaking, there are two ways to generat nt of motion q = 0. It then follows from Eq. (3.4) ough the coupling to the electrostatic potential ( r ). = 2 C B by h k e E e r . (5.8b) phase for a generic system described a tinger (1957); its relation to the Berry phase was realiz much later. In Sec. V we shall rederive this term usi FIG. 3 (color online). Fermi su the Chern number in the units of e /h , i.e. onstant of motion q = 0. It then follows from Eq. (3.4) closed path in the momentum space. One can appl wever, a uniform E means that ( r ) varies linearly atises the following equation of motion 23 ! ( k ) e pendent Hamiltonian. We now consider its 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 We emphasize that the path C must be closed to make n much later. In Sec. V we shall rederive this term usin wavepacket approach. lines) and the integrated Berry cu at k satises the following equation of motion magnetic eld, which induces a cyclotron motion alon We emphasize that the path C must be closed to make space and breaks the translational symmetry of the vn (k) = E n (k) , (3.6)

pending on the particular phase choice of the eigenstate. dependent can be A labeled by a rameter kHamiltonian . Moreover, because (t) preserves

only on the quantization aspect of the quantum fect using the formulation developed so far. Let us consider a two-dimensional band insu follows from Eq. (3.6) that the Hall conductiv system is given by Z e d k , = h (2 )

single

where the integration is over the entire Brillou again we encounter the situation where the Ber ture is integrated over a closed manifold. Here the Chern number in the units of e /h, i.e., e =n . h

Therefore the Hall conductivity is quantized f

1. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic contributions se supported anomalous velocity. It will be our priin the absence of . This model also describes spiny interest here. polarized two-dimensional electron Rashba SO he intrinsic contribution to the anomalous Hall ef- gas with The above discussion does not Anomalous Hall effect: coupling, being version the SO strength andinsulators, can be regarded as an with unquantized ofcoupling the fact that, unlike in me unquantized version of quantum Hall effect 16 ntum Hall e ect.exchange The Hall conductivity is given by scattering can be important in the eld (Culcer et al. , 2003). Obviously the Two contributions to the anoma term breaks time-reversal symmetry and the system Z e2 dk us consider a generic Hamiltonian due alone to scattering: (i) the skew sc Let with spin-orbit orus. However, the -term will not xyis = ferromagnetic. f ( ) , (3.14) k kx ky h (SO) (2split )d bands the asymmetric scattering amplitu (Onoda et al. , 2006b) lead to a Hall current as it only breaksscattering the time-reversal angle between the incom in the distribution spin The SO interaction is(Smit, needed re f (k ) is symmetry the Fermi-Dirac function. 2 space. 2 tron waves 1958), and (ii) h k ll conwever, unliketo the quantum Hall eect, couple the spin andthe orbital part together. H = + anomalous (k ) ez z . The Berry (3.15) 2m e ect does curvature not require is a given nonzero Chern number of adiaby, using Eq. (1.19), band; a for a band with zero Chern number, the local pens, where 2 is the SO split gap in the energy spectrum = 9 ry curvature can be nonzero and give rise to 2 a nonzero 2 2 2 gives a Since the integration is perfomed in an 2 2 pplica h k /2m k + , and linear dispersion malous Hall conductivity. the result is not quantized in the unit = . (3.16) as the in the absence of . 2 This also describes spin2( k 2 +model 2 )3/2 polarized two-dimensional electron gas with Rashba SO ), and coupling, with being the SO coupling strength and (for a The Berry curvatures of the two energy bands have oppothe exchange eld (Culcer et al., 2003). Obviously the site sign, and breaks is highly concentrated around the gap (In term time-reversal symmetry and the system fact, the Berry curvature has thethe same formalone of the Berry of the torus. is ferromagnetic. However, -term will not curvature valley of the graphene, shown in Fig. 4). lead in to one a Hall current as it only breaks the time-reversal One can verify in that the integration ofinteraction the Berry symmetry the spin The SO is curvaneeded R space. ders (Hall contoacouple the spin orbital part Theupper Berry , is together. for the ture of full band, 2and qdq 0 refers nnot be adiacurvature is given by, using 9Eq. (1.19), and lower bands, respectively. 24 ! 2014 rent inKIAS-SNU Physics hat happens, a Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

Magnets: Spins and geometric phases

2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

2 7 ngs and magnetic monopoles in induce dipolar power-law correlations resulting ing from the monopoles. Here, the strings are real of the spins; strings canto change length and shape (610in ). characteristic pinch-point features in neutron is a compound real- scattering and observable thanks the preformed dipoles netic Dy2Ti2O7 with of the spins; strings can change length and shape attice structure. This is a real- scattering (610). in three gnetic fractionalization in three nd south separation of north and south

O with

in characteristic pinch-point features in neutron

and observable thanks to the preformed dipoles

Spin ice crystals

162 etic m titanateDy contains magnetic 162Dy ghly lattice frustrated pyrochlore lattice ore omagnetic exchange and dipolar d dipolar tween the spins. The pyrochlore yrochlore (3D) structure built e-dimensional cture built (Fig. 1A). Spin ice is ring tetrahedra lattice when Spin ice is spins placed on the trained to point radially into or out of ed on the nd are coupled ferromagnetically o or of ase ofout Dy2 Ti2O7, through dipolar his leads to the lowest-energy spin netically obeying the ice rules of two spins gh dipolar and two out of, each tetrahedron. nergy ent to spin the physics of the proton two spins trahedron. m Berlin fr Materialien und Energie, he proton 2

NATURE | Vol 451 | 3 January 2008

local net dipole mo sense. The inverte sites with net ma neighbour monop monopoles can be tions of local neutr pair of monopoles 2 interaction, {m0 qm see Fig. 3. This interaction vacuum permeabi permittivity. It tak to infinity (that is elementary excitat fractionalizes. By taking the pic we may be though Fig. 1. Gas of deconfined magnetic monopoles. (A) The Ising there were none to that a string of dip spins are constrained to point along the direction connecting the , D-14109 Berlin, Germany. Institut fr a b antimonopole pai centers of the two tetrahedra they belong to. The lowest energy echnische Universitt Berlin, Hardenbergstr. monopoles, it is e 3 for a tetrahedron is obtained for a two-in-two-out configuration, as illustrated. There are six such dipoles remain bou n, Germany. School of Physics and Astension should van configurations with net ferromagnetic moments along one of the six equivalent 100 directions. The augh, St. Andrews, Fife KY15 9SS, UK. that of the Univers de Lquidos y Sistemas Biolgicos, CONICET, noncollinearity of the Ising axes is the source of the frustration in spin ice. In Dy2Ti2O7 the Ising crystal nd Energie, 5 the cost of creatin gentina. Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theo2 field doublet is separated from other levels by more than 100 K. Applying a field, B || [001], results in a Institut fr come equipped w Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3NP, UK. 6Maxpreference for aligning the tetrahedral magnetization with the applied field direction (arrow). In the 3D dipoles, are more rdenbergstr. Physik Komplexer Systeme, Nthnitzer Str. not always a natur 7 pyrochlore lattice, Dirac strings of flipped spins terminate on tetrahedra where magnetic monopoles en, School of Physics, University icsGermany. and Asordered ferromagn d reside. (B) The measured heat capacity per molecof Dy2Ti2O7 at zero field (open squares) is compared with ield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JZ, UK. by costly domain 5 9SS, UK. a Debye-Hckel theory for the monopoles (blue line) and the best fit to a single-tetrahedron (Bethe lattice) dimensional system pondence should be addressed. E-mail: os, CONICET, 2 yellow 7 confined. approximation (red line). The ice-blue background indicates the spin-ice regime;2the background elmholtz-berlin.de (D.J.P.M.); tennant@ re for TheoThe unusual pr indicates the paramagnetic regime. (D.A.T); 6 sag@iflysib.unlp.edu.ar (S.A.G.) states. The ice rule , UK.D.MaxJ. P. Morris et al., Dirac Strings and Magnetic Monopoles in the Spin Ice Dy2Ti2O7, Science 326, 411 (2009). enter and exit each thnitzer Str. 26 ground state, ther ! 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 of411 arbitrary size an www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 326 16 OCTOBER 2009 s, University

where Qa denotes the total magnetic charge at site a in the diamond lattice, and rab is the distance between two sites. The finite selfenergy u0/2 is required to reproduce the net nearest-neighbour interaction correctly. Equation (2)which is derived in detail in the Supplementary Informationis equivalent to the dipolar energy equation (1), up to corrections that are small everywhere, and vanish with distance at least as fast as 1/r5. We consider first the ground states of the system. The total energy is minimized if each diamond lattice site is net neutral, that is, we must orient the dumbbells so that Qa 5 0 on each site. But this is just the above-mentioned ice rule, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Thus, one of the most remarkable features of spin ice follows directly from the dumbbell model: the measured low-T entropy agrees with the Pauling entropy (which follows from the short-distance ice rules), even though the dipolar interactions are long-range. We now turn to the excited states. Naively, the most elementary excitation involves inverting a single dipole / dumbbell to generate a

Fig. 1. Gas of deconfined magnetic monopoles. (A) The Ising spins are constrained to point along the direction connecting the centers of the two tetrahedra they belong to. The lowest energy for a tetrahedron is obtained for a two-in-two-out configuration, as illustrated. There are six such configurations with net ferromagnetic moments along one of the six equivalent 100 directions. The noncollinearity of the Ising axes is the source of the frustration in spin ice. In Dy Ti O the Ising crystal field doublet is separated from other levels by more than 100 K. Applying a field, B || [001], results in a preference for aligning the tetrahedral magnetization with the applied field direction (arrow). In the 3D pyrochlore lattice, Dirac strings of flipped spins terminate on tetrahedra where magnetic monopoles

0 kx

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Re sxy (W1 cm1)

Gauge elds in real and momentum spaces persions of the tight binding model with only the transfer integrals between (a) transfer sites on Kagome lattice. (a ) The case of real matrix, and (b ) 0 4 (a) the 2f ) penetrating the triangle (hexagon). Adapted 20 from Ohgushi et al. [7]. wnloaded from rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org on February 5, 2014 ur.) 2

Monopoles in momentum space SrRuO Gauge elds in realof and momentum spaces 3 5809
40 60 80 E

0 kyDownloaded from rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org on February 5, 2014

E (k) 0

N. Nagaosa et al.

k m EF

2|m| 2 more carefully the mechanism of how the nite Chern number 100 wnloaded from rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org on February 5, 2014 l is within the gap is ux f. When we focus on one of the band crossings at f = 0 120 2 4 e 2 experiment (b) st BZ, the electronic states near can be described 1 this crossing 1 s = sign( m ) (2.6) N. T = 10 K 0xy Nagaosa et al. 0 20 calculation Hamiltonian as 1 2h 1 kx ky Im sxy (W1 cm1)
2

0 of isparity anomaly [11], and also formulated based on a (b) 4 al within the gap is = kx s ky sycan +m sz (2.5) x + One dentity by H Str eda [12]. consider the three-dimensional 20 2 e the Berry curvature distribution in , ky , m ) 2 and calculate = mass sign( mis ) proportional (2.6) sxy ate scaling and the m to sin f . It is well 40 tain [9] 2h all conductivity of the Hamiltonian equation (2.5) when the k E (k) 0 60 of parity anomaly also formulated based on a and , (2.7) bn (k) =[11], 3 2 | k | dentity by Str eda [12]. One can consider the three-dimensional 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 2 012) (meV) energy , k , m ) and calculate the Berry curvature distribution in y that of a magnetic (anti)monopole sitting at the origin. The N.Nagaosa, X.Z. Yu and Y. Tokura, Gauge elds in real and momentum spaces in magnets: monopoles and skyrmions, btain [9] Figurethe 4. Dynamical anomalous Hallxed, conductivity of SrRuO3 in the terahertz re 4 = m = and is Phil. the integral of the ux over plane k z Trans. R. Soc. A 370, 58065819 (2012) 2 theoretical ttings are by the simple model of the anti-crossing near the Fermi energy 1 1 2 k 27 ! 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 0 / h when the plane crosses the (anti)monopole. uous change of 0e from Shimano et al . [19]. (Online version in colour.) (k) = 1 ky, (2.7) bn 1 kx

m = 2 meV m = 1 meV m = 2 meV m = 3 meV

Anomalous Hall effect in Nd2Mo2O7

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Gauge elds in real and momentum spaces

(a) (b) (c)
rH (106 W cm) 6

5811

6 M Nd umbrella structure rH (106 W cm) Nd 4f

H ||(100) 2K 10 K

4 2

H = 0.5 T

Jfd

Mo Mo 4d

20 K 30 K 40 K 50 K 2 60 K 70 K 80 K 90 K 0

50 T (K)

100

100 K 6 8 2 4 magnetic field (T)

10

Figure 2. Anomalous Hall effect in Nd2 Mo2 O7 . (a ) The two interpenetrating networks of tetrahedrons of Nd and Mo atoms, which are coupled antiferromagnetically with Jfd . The strong single-axis spin anisotropy of Nd spins makes the non-coplanar conguration with scalar spin chirality at low temperature. (b ) The solid angle subtended by the Nd spins is partially transferred to that of Y. Mo conduction electrons. (c )and The Hall resistivity as functionmonopoles of the magnetic eld at N.Nagaosa, X.Z. Yu and Tokura, Gauge elds in real momentum spaces ina magnets: and skyrmions, temperatures. It shows the rapid increase as the temperature is lowered (inset). Adapted Phil. Trans. R.several Soc. A 370, 58065819 (2012) from Taguchi etCamp, al. [13]. (Online version in colour.) 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter 2014.02.09-16

28 !

Skyrmion

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Gauge elds in real and momentum spaces

5815

dHS h g [j V]n g n + a[n n], (3.1) n = 2e dn conduction electron current and a is the Gilbert damping e other hand, the conduction electrons are subject to the effective eld asEffective electromagnetic elds 1 h ) i = (n vi n n e i = v i a 0 a 2e c (3.2) h c hi = [V a]i = diz (n vx n vy n). 2e se the skyrmion carries the effective magnetic ux, its motion and hence eX.Z. due to the electromagnetic induction. This e eld N.Nagaosa, Yu and Y. Tokura, Gauge elds in real and momentum spaces in magnets: monopoles and skyrmions, itional Hall R.effect to 58065819 the topological AHE due to static b as Phil. Trans. Soc. A 370, (2012) 29 ! 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16 Many other effects are predicted from equations (3.1) and (3.2)

n = M/|M| satisfy the LandauLifshitzGilbert equation [25]

Liquid crystals

http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0m/s15-08-liquid-crystals.html 2014 KIAS-SNU Physics Winter Camp, 2014.02.09-16

30 !