&

present

Shortcuts, Formulas & Tips

For MBA, Banking, Civil Services & Other Entrance Examinations
Vol. 2: Algebra & Modern Math

Quadratic and Other Equations

For a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0, its roots Sum of roots = Product of roots = Discriminant

Tip: If c = a, then roots are reciprocal of each other Tip: If b =0, then roots are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Tip: Provided a, b and c are rational If one root is p + iq, other root will be p iq If one root is p + , other root will be p Cubic equation ax3+bx2+cx+d = 0 Sum of the roots = - b/a Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = c/a Product of the roots = -d/a Biquadratic equation ax4+bx3+cx2+dx+e = 0 Sum of the roots = - b/a Sum of the product of the roots taken two at a time = c/a Sum of the product of the roots taken three at a time = -d/a Product of the roots = e/a

Condition

Nature of Roots
Complex Conjugate Real and equal

> 0 and a perfect square > 0 and not a perfect square

Rational and unequal Irrational and unequal

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Inequalities
If a > b and c > 0, a+c>b+c a-c>b-c ac > bc a/c > b/c Quadratic Inequalities (x a) (x b) > 0 (x < a) U (x > b) (x a) (x b) < 0 a<x<b For any set of positive numbers: AM GM HM a < b and x > 0, then a > b and x > 0, then Modular Inequalities |x- y| = |y - x| |x. y| = |x| . |y| |x+ y| < |x| + |y| |x+ y| > |x| - |y| (a1+a2+ .+an)/n (a1.a2. ..an)1/n If a and b are positive quantities, then {a > b} {a < b}

If a, b 0, then an > bn and 1/an< 1/bn, where n is positive.

If a,b,c,d are positive quantities, then

+ + +

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If a,b,c . k are n positive quantities and m is a natural number, then Continued >>

( ) >( ( )
(

Tip: If the sum of two or more positive quantities is constant, their product is greatest when they are equal and if their product is constant then their sum is the least when the numbers are equal. If x + y = k, then xy is greatest when x = y If xy = k, then x + y is least when x = y

(
Tip:

Tip: For any positive integer n, 2

Tip: ambncp..will be greatest when = = Tip: If a > b and both are natural numbers, then Tip: (n!)2 nn {Except }

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Logarithm
( ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Ln x means

Functions
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Domain: Set of real and finite values that the independent variable can take. Range: Set of real and finite values that the dependent variable can have corresponding to the values of the independent variable Co-Domain: Set of real and finite values that the dependent variable can have.

only one image in the Co-Domain. Every element in CoDomain has one and only one pre-image in the Domain. Many to One: If at least two elements in Domain have the same image in the co-domain. Onto Function: If for every element in the Co-Domain there is at least one pre-image in the Domain. In this case, Range = Co-Domain Into Function: If there is at least one element in the CoDomain which does not have a pre-image in the Domain. In this case, Range is a proper subset of Co-Domain. Even Function: f(x) is even if and only if f(-x) = f(x) for all values of x. The graph of such a function is symmetric about the Y-Axis Odd Function: f(x) is odd if and only if f(-x) = - f(x) for all values of x. The graph is symmetric about the origin Tip: If f(x) is an odd function and f(0) exists f(0) = 0 Continued >> Graphs

One to One: Every element in the Domain has one and Tip: Range is a subset of Co-Domain. Co-domain may or may not have values which do not have a preimage in the domain. Tip: It is not a function if for some value in the domain, the relationship gives more than one value. Eg: f(x) = (At x = 4, f(x) could be both +2 and -2) Tip: Domain cannot have any extra value ie the values at which the function does not exist.

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f(x) = |x|

If we consider f(x), it gets mirrored in the X-Axis.

If we consider f(x-2), it shifts right by 2 units.

If we consider f(x+2), it shifts left by 2 units

If we consider f(x) + 2, it shifts up by 2 units.

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If we consider f(x) 2, it shifts down by 2 units.

If we consider f(x/2) or f(x), the slope halves and the rise and fall become much flatter than earlier.

If we consider f(2x) or 2f(x) ,the slope doubles and the rise and fall become much sharper than earlier

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Set Fundamentals
The number of elements in a set is called its cardinal number and is written as n(A). A set with cardinal number 0 is called a null set while that with cardinal number is called an infinite set. Set A is said to be a subset of Set B if each and every element of Set A is also contained in Set B. Set A is said to be a proper subset of Set B if Set B has at least one element that is not contained in Set A. A set with n elements will have 2n subsets (2n 1 proper subsets) The Universal set is defined as the set of all possible objects under consideration. Tip: Any set is a subset of itself, but not a proper subset. The empty set, denoted by , is also a subset of any given set X. The empty set is always a proper subset, except of itself. Every other set is then a subset of the universal set.

Union of two sets is represented as A B and consists of elements that are present in either Set A or Set B or both. Intersection of two sets is represented as A B and consists of elements that are present in both Set A and Set B. n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) n(A B) Venn Diagram: A venn diagram is used to visually represent the relationship between various sets. What do each of the areas in the figure represent?

I only A; II A and B but not C; III Only B; IV A and C but not B; V A and B and C; VI B and C but not A; VII Only C

n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) n(A B) n(A C) n(B C) + n(A B C)

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Binomial Theorem
For some basic values: ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) )

Some basic properties

Tip: There is one more term than the power of the exponent, n. That is, there are terms in the expansion of (a + b)n. Tip: In each term, the sum of the exponents is n, the power to which the binomial is raised. Tip: The exponents of a start with n, the power of the binomial, and decrease to 0. The last term has no factor of a. The first term has no factor of b, so powers of b start with 0 and increase to n. Tip: The coefficients start at 1 and increase through certain values about half-way and then decrease through these same values back to 1. Tip: To find the remainder when (x + y)n is divided by x, find the remainder when yn is divided by x. Tip: (1+x)n 1 + nx, when x<<1

Theorem ( ) ( )

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Permutation & Combination

When two tasks are performed in succession, i.e., they are connected by an 'AND', to find the total number of ways of performing the two tasks, you have to MULTIPLY the individual number of ways. When only one of the two tasks is performed, i.e. the tasks are connected by an 'OR', to find the total number of ways of performing the two tasks you have to ADD the individual number of ways. Eg: In a shop there ared doors and w windows. Case1: If a thief wants to enter via a door or window, he can do it in (d+w) ways. Case2: If a thief enters via a door and leaves via a window, he can do it in (d x w) ways.

The first item in the line can be selected in 'n' ways AND the second in (n 1) ways AND the third in (n 2) ways AND so on. So, the total number of ways of arranging 'r' items out of 'n' is (n)(n - 1)(n 2)...(n - r + 1) =
( )

Circular arrangement of 'n' distinct items: Fix the first item and then arrange all the other items linearly with respect to the first item. This can be done in (n 1)! ways. Tip: In a necklace, it can be done in
( )

ways.

Selection of r items out of 'n' distinct items (nCr): Arrange of r items out of n = Select r items out of n and then arrange those r items on r linear positions.
n

Pr =nCr x r!

Cr =

Continued >>

Linear arrangement of r out of 'n' distinct items (nPr):

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Dearrangement If 'n' things are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can, be deranged so that none of them occupies its original place is ( ( ) )

Partitioning n similar items in No restrictions r distinct groups No group empty

n+r-1 n-1

Cr-1

Cr-1
) )

Tip: Number of ways of arranging 'n' items out of which `p' are alike, 'q' are alike, 'r' are alike in a line is given by =

n distinct items in No restrictions rn r distinct groups Arrangement in a ( group important (

n similar items in List the cases and then find out r similar groups in how many ways is each case possible n similar items in List the cases and then find out r similar groups in how many ways is each case possible

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Probability
P(A) = For Complimentary Events: P(A) + P(A) = 1 For Exhaustive Events: P(A) + P(B) +P(C) = 1 Addition Rule: P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B) B) = 0

Tip: If the probability of an event occurring is P, then the probability of that event occurring r times in n r n-r trials is = nCr x P x (1-P)

Odds Odds in favor = Odds against =

For Mutually Exclusive Events P(A P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) Multiplication Rule: P(A B) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B) P(A/B)

For Independent Events P(A/B) = P(B) and P(B/A) = P(B) P(A B) = P(A).P(B) P (A U B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A).P(B)
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Sequence, Series & Progression

Arithmetic Progression ( ( ) ) ( )

Sum of squares of first n natural numbers

( )( )

Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers

Tip: Number of terms Tip: Sum of first n odd numbers ( ) Geometric Progression Tip: Sum of first n even numbers ( ) Tip: If you have to consider 3 terms in an AP, consider {a-d,a,a+d}. If you have to consider 4 terms, consider {a-3d,a-d,a+d,a+3d} Tip: If all terms of an AP are multiplied with k or divided with k, the resultant series will also be an AP with the common difference dk or d/k respectively.
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Sum till infinite terms =

(Valid only when r<1)

Sum of first n natural numbers

( )

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