Was the Black Woman the First God?

Exposing the Myth of the Matriarchal Mother Goddess (A Teaser) March !" #$ # at $%!&pm By Wesley M'hammad" (h) *ntrod'ction *t has +ecome pop'lar in some ,onscio's circles to proclaim that -The Black Woman is God". +y /hich is meant" not that the Black Woman shares in di0inity /ith the Black Man" +'t that she is the paramo'nt deity" the 1'preme and (rimary God and that the Black Man.s is +'t a secondary and deri0ati0e di0inity2 3o/ my point in this /riting is not to arg'e the merits of this ontological4theological claim2 These /ill +e addressed at a later time2 The rele0ant iss'e here today is the historical premises 'pon /hich this ontological4theological claim is +ased2 *t is arg'ed that the first god /orshipped in history is a s'preme Mother Goddess" and that /orship of a male god is a later" 's'rping phenomenon2 As these are p'rely historical claims" they m'st meet the rigoro's criteria of historical5critical method and accord /ith c'rrent historical data2 6n the contrary" the historical e0idence" /hile not necessarily speaking to the o0erall ontological4theological claims" completely contradicts the historical premises 'pon /hich these are +ased2 The empirical data" rigoro'sly analy7ed" indicates that from the earliest records di0inity /as di5theistic" i2e2 )i0inity /as +oth Male and Female complimenting each other2 ,onstr'ctions of the past /hich emphasi7e only the /orship of a Father God are as artificial as constr'ctions emphasi7ing only the /orship of a Mother Goddess2 What follo/s is not the f'll doc'ment addressing these 8'estions" +'t only a teaser2 The comprehensi0e report on my findings /ill +e made p'+lic soon" in sha Allah2 This -teaser. has as its main o+9ecti0e to lay the so'rces of my arg'ment +efore the informed p'+lic so that they can +e properly 0etted2 * in0ite those /ho make the claims that are here the o+9ect of criti8'e to do the same% make p'+lic the so'rces 'pon /hich yo'r claims are made so that they can +e 0etted +y the informed comm'nity2 1'ch academic transparency /ill go a long /ay in clearing the /aters +y disting'ishing those claims /hich are tr'ly pla'si+le from those /hich are more exotic than er'dite2 Many sorts of claims are ad0anced in order to s'pport the o0erall :The Woman is God; paradigm% +iological claims" em+ryological claims" psychological claims" etc2 * am an historian" specifically an <istorian of =eligion" so * /ill address only those historical claims2 And as an <istorian of =eligion" * can say 'ne8'i0ocally that the historical fo'ndations of this paradigm are totally 'ns'pported and 'ns'pporta+le2 For the record * and the M'slim Gods * roll /ith ha0e +een teaching that the Black Man is God and the Black Woman is Goddess for decades no/2 * ha0e a /hole chapter on the Black Goddess in my Book" The Book of God" /hich /as first p'+lished in >>?2 My *slam teaches that the Black Woman is Goddess2 * am here simply correcting the historical fallacy that claims that the Black Woman /as the first God /orshipped in history2 *n fact" the Black God and the Black Goddess /ere /orshipped together as far +ack as o'r e0idence goes2 **2 The Matriarchal Mother Goddess (aradigm *ncidentally" this -,onscio's. claim is largely deri0ati0e from a White feminist paradigm that +ecame 0ery pop'lar in the >@$.s and A$.s" tho'gh its roots are earlier and its infl'ence longer li0ing2 This is the so5called :Matriarchal Mother Goddess (aradigm;2 *n fact" it can +e arg'ed that the ne/ Black (o/er4Afrocentric BBlack Woman is GodB theology is +'t a rein0ention of the White feminist Matriarchal Mother Goddess (aradigm /ith =ed" Black and Green on2 ,oncomitant /ith this history5of5religions claim is a socio5anthropological claim% that this ancient" Mother Goddess /orshipping /orld /as also a matriarchal /orld in /hich /omen /ere not only the social e8'als of men" +'t that they /ere dominant in society and in the home" men playing a s'+ordinate role2

2C What is the Matriarchal Mother Goddess (aradigm? :The past /as a Golden Age2 6riginally" society /as matriarchal" matrilineal" matrifocal" egalitarian and peacef'l2 Women held the positions of po/er e8'al to" or greater than" that of men2 The religion of this primal stage of c'lt're /as concerned /ith -the Mother Goddess2. A time of destr'ction follo/ed2 Matriarchal (or at least matrilineal) society 'nder the Mother Goddess /as 's'rped +y the in0asion of more /arlike" male5dominated" pastoral societies /hose deity /as maleDFollo/ing the con8'est +y the pastoral" patriarchal" patrilineal societies" the Goddess religion /as s'ppressed and /omen /ere s'+ordinated to the r'le of men2 The male +ias in deity and male sec'lar po/er is reflected in ,hristianity" E'daism" and *slamDAs a res'lt of the o0erthro/ of the Goddess" conditions in modern society are terri+leD;F C Another 0ersion% :6nce 'pon a time" the many c'lt'res of this /orld /ere all part of the gynocratic (/oman5r'led) age2 (aternity had not yet +een disco0ered" and it /as tho'ght D that /omen +ore fr'it like trees G/hen they /ere ripe2 ,hild+irth /as mysterio's2 *t /as 0ital2 And it /as en0ied2 Women /ere /orshipped +eca'se of it" /ere considered s'perior +eca'se of itD2 Men /ere on the periphery Gan interchangea+le +ody of /orkers for" and /orshippers of" the female center" the principle of life2 :The disco0ery of paternity" of sex'al ca'se and child+irth effect" /as as cataclysmic for society as" say" the disco0ery of fire or the shattering of the atom2 Grad'ally" the idea of male o/nership of children took holdD2 :Gynocracy also s'ffered from the periodic in0asions of nomadic tri+esD2 The conflict +et/een the h'nters and the gro/ers /as really the conflict +et/een male5dominated and female5 dominated c'lt'res2 :D /omen grad'ally lost their freedom" mystery" and s'perior position2 For fi0e tho'sand years or more" the gynocratic age had flo/ered in peace and prod'cti0ity2 1lo/ly" in 0arying stages and in different parts of the /orld" the social order /as painf'lly re0ersed2 Women +ecame the 'nderclass" marked +y their 0isi+le differences2;F#C #2C The )'+io's 6rigins of the Myth ,ynthia Eller" (rofessor of Women.s 1t'dies and =eligio's 1t'dies" Montclair 1tate Hni0ersity2 Gentlemen and Ama7ons% The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory" ?@ 5 >$$ (Berkley% Hni0ersity of ,alifornia (ress" #$ )% :The genesis of the myth as /e kno/ it today is easy to locate2 *n ?@ " a 1/iss la/yer and scholar of the classics" Eohann Eako+ Bachofen" p'+lished a +ook titled )as M'tterrecht% Ein Hnters'ch'ng I+er die Gynaikokratie der alten Welt nach *hrer =eligiJsen 'nd =echtlichen 3at'r (:Mother right% an in0estigation of the religio's and 9'ridical character of matriarchy in the Ancient /orld;)D(rior to the p'+lication of Bachofen.s )as M'tterrecht" most of the Western /orld /as con0inced that a patriarchal family /as the original h'man society" since it /as laid o't as s'ch in the +ook of Genesis2 Bachofen /as the first to offer something 0ery different" a coherent narrati0e that ga0e /omen and goddesses primacy in an early phase of h'man history only to stip'late their complete o0erthro/ +y a later social system that fa0ored men and male gods2 <o/e0er" Bachofen did not create this 0ersion of prehistory ex nihilo2 <e had a lot of preexisting matriarchal material to /ork /ithD

Eohann Eako+ Bachofen

:Bachofen.s significance to matriarchal myth is greater than it first appears2 As one per'ses the many 0ersions of matriarchal myth that ha0e circ'lated since Bachofen p'+lished )as M'tterrecht" if there is a single most striking feat're" it is their a+'ndant 0ariety across all meas'res% methodology" definition of matriarchy" lessons dra/n for contemporary society" and so forth2 Gi0en this 0ariety" Bachofen ser0es as the perfect synecdoche" for Bachofen himself /as s'ch a mass of contradictory theories and passions that depending on /hat page yo' t'rn to in his oe'0re" yo' can find an idealist or a materialistK a feminist or a patriarchalistK a reactionary or a re0ol'tionary2 =adicals of the right and left +oth e0ent'ally t'rned to Bachofen +eca'se respecti0e social agendas /ere in there2 Feminists and their enemies co'ld +oth champion Bachofen +eca'se their 0arying 0isions of appropriate gender relations /ere in there2 3o one took on Bachofen.s entire program +eca'se" it seems" only Bachofen himself co'ld hold s'ch a morass of sentiments and ideas in prod'cti0e tension /ith one another2 B't anyone co'ld reach into that same morass and come 'p ith something they fo'nd 'sef'l" and this is precisely /hat later matriachalists did2 E0en /hen they had no percei0ed or real connection to Bachofen.s /ork" partisans of the myth of matriarchal prehistory ha0e contin'ed to echo Bachofenian ideas do/n thro'gh the decades to the present2 *n Bachofen can +e fo'nd most of the seeds of tho'ght that e0ent'ally coloni7ed the entire territory of matriarchal myth2; Eoan Bam+erger" Associate (rofessor of Anthropology at Wellesley ,ollege" :The Myth of Matriarchy% Why Men ='le in (rimiti0e 1ociety;% :Arg'ing mainly from poetic and fre8'ently d'+io's historical so'rcesDBachofen tried to esta+lish as moral and historical fact the primacy of -mother right.DThis ad0anced stage of mother right /as follo/ed +y a ci0il r'le +y /omen" /hich Bachofen called a -gynocracy.2 The r'le +y /omen /as o0erthro/n e0ent'ally +y the -di0ine father principle.D :*f anthropologists and scholars of classical 9'rispr'dence no longer read Bachofen" the ad0ocates of the c'rrent feminist mo0ement doD :F'lly a/are that s'ch texts as the <omeric epics /ere not /ritten as histories in the strict sense" he ne0ertheless accepted these mythological acco'nts as a relia+le reser0oir of act'al history2 *n th's mistaking myth for history" Bachofen committed /hat is e0en today a not 'ncommon error of 9'dgment2 B't /hate0er Bachofen.s conf'sions /ere" he did admit that the s'+9ect of his researches presented him /ith certain -diffic'lties2. <e sa/ that the a+sence of archaeological e0idence meant that he co'ld not s'pport his mother right hypothesis /ith solid data" and he reminded his reader that -the most elementary spade /ork remains to +e done" for the c'lt're period to /hich mother right pertains has ne0er +een serio'sly st'died2 Th's /e are entering 0irgin territory.D :1ince the p'+lication of )as M'tterrecht this -0irgin territory. has +een explored +y a horde of archaeologists and social anthropologists2 Their diligent search into the prehistory of Mediterranean c'lt'res as /ell as into the present conditions of primiti0e societies aro'nd the /orld ha0e not 'nco0ered a single 'ndisp'ted case of matriarchy2 E0en the *ro8'ois" once a stronghold for -matriarchists". t'rn o't to +e matrilineal onlyD;F&C A second important so'rce for this (aradigm is =o+ert Briffa'lt.s +ook" The Mothers% The Matriarchal Theory of 1ocial 6rigins ( >#A)2F!C Briffa'lt" +orn in 3ice in ?A&" st'died medicine at )'nedin Hni0ersity and recei0ed an M) and ,h2B in >$ " >$L2 After /orking in pri0ate practice for a /hile" he ca'ght the fe0er to /rite on iss'es of anthropology (for /hich he had no expertise) and comparati0e religion (for /hich he had no expertise)2 <is magn'm op's /as The Mothers2 <ere" Briffa'lt so'ght to pro0e that a primiti0e matriarchy (/oman r'le) 'ni0ersally preceded patriarchyK that families are a feat're only of later patriarchiesK and that there /as a 'ni0ersal /orship of a Goddess2 As an arm5chair anthropologist Briffa'lt.s /ork is dismissed +y most scholars2 B't e0en his scholarly s'pporters recogni7e that" /hile there is important information in

this mammoth three 0ol'me /ork" it is fra'ght /ith methodological and fact'al errors" and its main thesis has +een dispro0en +y more recent archaeological and anthropological data2 Gordon =attray Taylor" /ho sees the contin'ing 0al'e of The Mothers" yet admits% :the ad0ance of archaeology /ent far to/ards confirming (the skepticism of Briffa'lt.s critics)2 *t /as o+ser0ed that agric'lt'ral peoples" dri0en +y press'res o't of Asia Minor into the steppe co'ntry" +ecame pastoral 5 /hich is 9'st the contrary of /hat Briffa'lt asserts to +e the normal processDBriffa'lt did himself m'ch disser0ice +y claiming too m'ch% it /as in the nat're of the man to prefer the s/eeping generali7ation" and he lo0ed to shock the 'nimaginati0e o't of their preconceptions2 <is data do not 9'stify him in making the assertion that matriarchy al/ays and e0ery/here preceded patriarchyD*t m'st +e concl'ded that he is open to criticism in matters of detail2 <e not infre8'ently contradicts himself" and sometimes 'ses a fact to pro0e one thing at one stage and s'pport an e8'ally pla'si+le +'t 8'ite different 0ie/ at a later point2 <e is sometimes g'ilty of selecting his references to pro0e his point and glossing o0er those /hich are incompati+le /ith it2;FLC &2C Where do /e stand today? What are the historical merits of this Matriarchal (aradigm? ,ynthia Eller" Associate (rofessor of =eligion and Women.s 1t'dies at Montclair 1tate Hni0ersity" The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory% Why an *n0ented (ast Won.t Gi0e Women a F't're% :matriarchal myth fails completely on historical gro'nds2 E0idence from prehistoric times is comparati0ely sparse" and hard to interpret concl'si0ely2 <o/e0er" e0en taking these diffic'lties into acco'nt" /hat e0idence /e do ha0e does not s'pport the thesis that prehistory /as matriarchal and goddess5/orshippingDThe myth of matriarchal history is an impressi0eDho'se of cards2 The cards of /hich it is +'ilt are not totally flimsy2 1ome are pla'si+le interpretations of historical and artefact'al data2 B't others are patently a+s'rd2 They are either +ad interpretations of the a0aila+le data" or assertions +ased on no data at all2 Taken together" the entire str'ct're is 'nsta+le" and if there /ere not things stronger than archaeological or historical e0idence holding them 'p5things like passionate hope and religio's faith5it /o'ld +e in imminent danger of collapse2;F@C :the findings that early t/entieth5cent'ry anthropologists +ro'ght +ack from the field did not s'pport mother right2 1imply p't" no matriarchies /ere fo'ndK no gro'p marriage /as fo'ndK no promisc'o's horded /ere fo'ndK and /here matriliny /as disco0ered" its characteristics rarely fit the profile that e0ol'tionary anthropology had laid o't for it2;FAC 1herry Beth 6rtner" c'lt'ral anthropologist and )isting'ished (rofessor of Anthropology at H,MA% :The search for a gen'inely egalitarian" let alone matriarchal" c'lt're has pro0ed fr'itless2;F?C )r2 Eoan B2 To/nsend" (rofessor Emerit's in Anthropology" Hni0ersity of Manito+a% :Matriarchy in this senseGthe r'le of /omen as a classGdoes not exist in any ethnographic" historic or prehistoric societies /e kno/ of2;F>C ***2 The Myth of the (aramo'nt Mother Goddess in <istory 2C Was the /orld originally /orshipers of a s'preme Mother Goddess" as the Matriarchal Mother Goddess (aradigm claims? )r2 M'cy Goodison" <onorary =esearch Fello/ at Hni0ersity ,ollege Mondon and ,hristine )r2 Morris" Me0entis Mect'rer in Greek Archaeology at Trinity ,ollege )'+lin%

N=ecent decades ha0e seen the emergence of a ne/ mo0ement /hich claims that h'man society and religion +egan /ith the /orship of a Goddess in a peace5lo0ing" egalitarian" matriarchal society" and that female di0inities e0ery/here represent s'r0i0als of this early mode of religio's expression2 A stream of +ooks +y non5specialists" artists" psychotherapists" feminists and amate'r historians has dra/n attention to po/erf'l and often neglected ancient images of the female2 These many 0oices ha0e together +een termed the BGoddess mo0ementBDtheir treatment of the archaeological e0idence ranges from the caref'l to the ca0alierD :Goddess /riters ha0e adopted the nineteenth5cent'ry consens's of mainstream (male) scholarship" despite the fact that the 'nderlying c'lt'ral e0ol'tionary theories ha0e +een cast into the -d'st+in of long disp'ted anthropological ideas.D,ontemporary /riters often o0erlook the fact that the existence of a -Mother Goddess. in prehistory /as a matter of consens's from the late nineteenth cent'ry on/ards for many male scholars /ho fo'nd this image compati+le /ith their sense of the female as a primiti0e" -nat'ral." sex'al" maternal +eing 'tterly di0orced from their -rational. male /orld2 *t seems strange that this is a ta+ /hich some /omen no/ /ant to pick 'p2 Altho'gh these same 8'alities are no/ redefined as positi0e" the Goddess literat're still frames its disc'ssion in terms of the male4female polari7ation /hich o'r society imposes2 E'st as matriarchy is patriarchy in re0erse" so too the Goddess c'rio'sly reflects the monotheistic God of ,hristianityD :*n the r'sh to reclaim female history Goddess /riters ha0e not addressed the complexity and di0ersity of the archaeological recordK in the search for eternal 0erities they ha0e failed to engage /ith its fl'idity2 By pl'cking o't only those ancient artefacts (sic) /hose faces fit their theory" they ha0e not engaged /ith the primary e0idence in a /ay that respects its context2;F $C )r2 Eoan B2 To/nsend" (rofessor Emerit's in Anthropology" Hni0ersity of Manito+a% NThe existence of a B'ni0ersalB or Mediterranean4E'ropean5/ide Goddess religion" /hich is claimed to ha0e existed from the Hpper (aleolithic thro'gh the 3eolithic and +eyond" cannot +e 0alidated2 The s'pposition that there existed a peacef'l matrilineal4matrilocal organi7ation and4or matriarchy as a political organi7ation in these areas d'ring that period is also 'nfo'nded222'nfort'nately the literat're dealing /ith the c'lt of Nthe GoddessN and her relationship to female s'premacy of the past222is often fo'nded on extremely poor research2 M'ch is taken from archaeological data" /ith little 'nderstanding of prehistory or archaeology2 6n the +asis of selected material finds" ass'mptions are dra/nK then spec'lations and concl'sions are dra/n from those ass'mptions2221adly" it is this kind of pse'do5history that many /omen listen to" partly +eca'se it is so readily a0aila+le" and +eca'se it appeals to them +y gi0ing the ill'sion of an effecti0e means of ac8'iring social and political po/er in contemporary society2NF C #2C (oor Methodology :*n almost all of its 0ariants" the Goddess mo0ement has appealed to and 'ses archaeological materials" especially those that it claims to +e images of females% female fig'rines or stat'ettes and female motifs on ceramics or other media2;F #C (rofessor =onald <'tton" )epartment of <istorical 1t'dies" Hni0ersity of Bristol" England% : >$& Eane Ellen <arrison com+ined (the myth of matriarchal prehistory) /ith that of the Great Goddess to prod'ce a f'll5+lo/n 0ision of ho/ prehistoric so'theastern E'rope sho'ld ha0e +een2 A ma9or fig're among British classicists" she /as the pi0ot of a /ell5kno/n gro'p of ,am+ridge scholars2 <er /ork" +oth cele+rated and contro0ersial" posited the pre0io's existence of a peacef'l and intensely creati0e /oman5centered ci0ili7ation" in /hich h'mans" li0ing in harmony /ith nat're and their emotions" /orshipped a single female deityD*n <arrison.s 0ision" male deities existed only as sons and consorts of the Great GoddessDFollo/ing her /ork" the idea of a matristic early E'rope /hich had 0enerated s'ch a deity /as de0eloped in +ooks +y amate'r scholars s'ch as =o+ert Briffa'lt.s The mothers ( >#A) and =o+ert Gra0es The /hite

goddess ( >!@)2 *n the same years" acceptance of the concept of a single prehistoric goddess contin'ed to gro/ among experts in the prehistory of Greece" the Balkans" and the 3ear EastD stat'ettes /ere reg'larly cited as e0idence that a Great Goddess" Mother Goddess" or Earth Mother had +een 0enerated all tro'gh the 1tone AgesD :1o it /as that +elief achie0ed the sort of apogee /hich comes +efore a fall2 *n >@# a yo'ng scholar" (eter Hcko" p'+lished an essay 8'estioning the interpretation of the 3ear Eastern fig'rines as images of a single female deity" and so rocked the fo'ndations of the /hole str'ct're of theoryDHckoDpressed for/ard his criti8'e at the end of the decadeK he /as 9oined +y another rising scholar" Andre/ Fleming" /ho 'nco'pled the chain of reasoning /hich had s'pported the notion of the Goddess at the other end" +y challenging the idea that the /estern E'ropean megaliths co'ld definitely +e associated /ith s'ch a c'ltD :The effect 'pon professional prehistorians /as to make most ret'rn" 8'ietly and /itho't contro0ersy" to that caref'l agnosticism as to the nat're of ancient religion /hich most had preser0ed 'ntil the >!$s2 There had +een no a+sol'te disproof of a Great Goddess" only a demonstration that the e0idence concerned admitted of alternati0e explanationsDThe change of 0ie/ took longer" of co'rse" to filter thro'gh to other disciplines /hich had a+sor+ed the former orthodoxyK it has still not reached many mem+ers of the general p'+lic2;F &C =eno/ned English archaeologist (eter E2 Hcko" :=e0ie/ of the Mother Goddess *nterpretation of the Anthropomorphic Fig'rines;% :*t isDnecessary to +oth isolate the ass'mptions on /hich the Mother Goddess interpretation is +ased and to consider ho/ the e0idence of the fig'rines themsel0esDcorrespond to the o+ser0ations of those /ho fa0o'r the Mother Goddess interpretation2 First" those /ho ha0e s'pported the Mother Goddess interpretation ha0e either treated the male fig'rines as exceptions" directly ignored them or post'lated a male associate of the Mother GoddessDB'tDif the female fig'res /ere taken as the representation of the Great Mother Goddess" the male fig'res logically represented the Great Father God2 *n no case has the accepted Mother Goddess interpretation recogni7ed the logical conse8'ences of its o/n ass'mptionsD*n shortDthe generally accepted Mother Goddess interpretation of the prehistoric anthropomorphic fig'rines lea0es se0eral feat'res of the fig'rines themsel0es /holly 'nexplained and" in addition" poses se0eral theoretical pro+lems of interpretation /hich it fails to sol0e2;F !C ;the details of prehistoric -h'man. representations O +e they free5standing fig'rines" or paintings or engra0ings on (alaeolithic ca0e /alls O had to +e conscio'sly or 'nconscio'sly s'ppressed to ena+le any -interpreter. to contin'e a'tomatically to classify s'ch representations as depictions of a /idely50enerated Mother5Goddess2;F LC )r2 Eoan B2 To/nsend" (rofessor Emerit's in Anthropology" Hni0ersity of Manito+a% :*n the paradigm of the -Mother5Goddess." fig'rines /hich are male" not5sexed" or of animals are not satisfactorily acco'nted for" altho'gh they are often in places as significant as the female fig'rines2 For no clearly 0alid reason" /hen they are disc'ssed it is often in terms of -the Goddess.s. h's+and or son2 B't if all female fig'rines represent the Great Mother Goddess" might all male fig'rines represent the Great Father God?;F @C *P2 Mands of the Matriarchal Mother Goddess? 2C Qatal <JyIk" Black Mand of Anatolia% R'intessential Goddess 1ite? :=ising from the Sonya plain in modern5day T'rkey are t/o mo'nds from /hich the 3eolithic site of QatalhJyIk (c2 A#$$5@L$$ B,) deri0es its name2 Archaeologist Eames Mellart disco0ered the site in >L? and exca0ated there from >@ to >@L2 For specialists and non5archaeologists alike"

the sensational images from his early exca0ations capt'red the imagination and o0er time inspired -Goddess.5+ased interpretations of the site2;F AC :The findings at Qatal <IyIkD/ere nothing less than spectac'lar2 Along /ith disco0eries at Eericho in (alestine" the findings changed o'r concepts of prehistory for they sho/ed that large 'r+an settlements existed in 3eolithic times2 Before these disco0eries it had +een ass'med that -ci0ili7ation. had +eg'n aro'nd &L$$ B2,2 at 1'mer5 three tho'sand years after the thri0ing to/n of Qatal <IyIk had already prod'ced most of the feat'res of a ci0ili7ed 'r+an societyDAt Qatal <IyIk /e learn that a to/n of possi+ly @"$$$ persons" containing h'ndreds of shrinesDthri0ed from aro'nd @!$$ B2,2 The shrines /ere dominated +y +'lls. horns representing the god" +y scenes of h'nting cele+rations" and +y the goddess represented anthropomorphically in plaster relief and in clay or stone c'lt stat'es2;F ?C )r2 Mynn Meskell" )epartment of Anthropology" 1tanford Hni0ersity% :the QatalhJyIk Mellart 'nearthed in the >@$s fell 'nder the s/ay of contemporary ideas s'ch as the -Mother Goddess." matriarchy" 3eolithic 'topias and c'lt'ral diff'sion2 While the images remain the same" the stories told today are grad'ally changingDThe QatalhJyIk disco0ered almost forty years ago is 0ery different to that +eing exca0ated todayD :At QatalhJyIk" according to Mellaart" she /as the -Great Goddess" mistress of life and death" protectress of /omen" patroness of the artsDat this period" there can +e no do'+t that the s'preme deity /as the Great Goddess. Fclaimed MellaartC2 <e explained a/ay the male +'ll imagery" in /all paintings and sc'lpt'res" as simply the son" consort or h's+and of the -Goddess.K as s'ch" he /as not /orshipped2 When male images /ere enco'ntered there /as a tendency to diminish their 0isi+ility and importance" since their 0ery presence threatened the monolithic theory of the -Goddess.DWhat is noticea+le in these disc'ssions is that Mellaart does not go into detail a+o't male fig'res O or the possi+ility of a -Great Father God. O tho'gh he ackno/ledged that male representations /ere 8'ite commonD :As part of a gynocentric agenda" female fig'rines and imagery ha0e +een considered to the excl'sion of male and sexless examples% this selection shaping the 0ision of a single" omnipresent female deity2 E0en if /e are /itnessing a cele+ration of the di0ine female principle" * /o'ld s'ggest that the images presented do not conform to the E'ropean notion of a -Mother Goddess.D :E0idence from 3eolithic c'lt'res has yet to pro0e social e8'ality" let alone matriarchy" and it appears to +e a fr'itless" 'nre/arding exercise" as feminist anthropologists disco0ered long agoD*n0oking the -Goddess. as an empo/ering modern constr'ction is positi0e for many people" /hereas claiming archaeological 0alidity for ancient gynocracy (i2e2 matriarchy)" social 'topia and a single -Mother Goddess. at QatalhJyIk may +e seen as pro+lematic and dangero's at this point2 The e0idence is not forthcoming" /hich pro0es antithetical to the original goals2;F >C #2C An African Matriarchy? ,heikh Anta )iop" in his important /ork the ,'lt'ral Hnity of Black Africa% The )omains of Matriarchy and of (atriarchy in ,lassical Anti8'ity ( >@&K >?>)" defines matriarchy in a pec'liar /ay" 0ery different from /hat this term and system is generally taken to mean% /omen r'le2 )iop says% :Matriarchy is not an a+sol'te and cynical tri'mph of /oman o0er manK it is a harmonio's d'alism" an association accepted +y +oth sexes" the +etter to +'ild a sedentary society /here each and e0eryone co'ld f'lly de0elop +y follo/ing the acti0ity +est s'ited to his physiological nat're2 A matriarchal rTgime" far from +eing imposed on man +y circ'mstances independent of his /ill" is accepted and defended +y him2;

This :d'alist; and :harmonio's; matriarchal rTgime is f'rther descri+ed +y )iop% :*n act'al fact" it seems that in Egypt (:one of the co'ntries /here matriarchy /as most manifest;) it /as the /oman /ho inherited the political rights" +'t in as m'ch she /as nat'rally physically inferior" it /as her h's+and /ho reigned" /hile she ass'red the 'terine contin'ity of the dynasty2N )iop.s statements" :acti0ity +est s'ited to his physiological nat're"; and :+'t in as m'ch she /as nat'rally physically inferior"; are certainly contro0ersial and co'ld pro+a+ly ha0e +een said +etter2 *t is clear tho'gh that for )iop" in a :matriarchal; society men still reigned" at least politically2 This pro+lemati7es the 0ery terms matriarchy and patriarchy2 *n fact )iop often 'ses -matriarchy. /hen he really sho'ld say -matrilineal.2 As 3igerian anthropologist 1is )r2 *fe Amadi'me notes in the For/ard to )iop.s /ork% :*f these 8'eens listed +y )iop /ere f'nctioning in solely matriarchal systems" one /onders /hy they had to /ear men.s sym+ols of a'thority" like 37inga of Angola /ho dressed in men.s clothes" or <atshepso't in Egypt /ho /ore a +eard2 The masc'linism of most of these /arrior 8'eens has earned them s'ch descriptions as iron maidens and Boadiceas2; 1o for )iop" African matriarchy is 36T /hat it is generally ass'med to +e today% African societies in /hich /omen" as /omen" 'nilaterally r'le not only the domestic and economic spheres +'t the political sphere as /ell2 This pop'lar notion of matriarchy is more akin to Ama7onism" /hich according to )iop is distinctly non5African% N*n spite of the theory generally admitted" it is easy to see that the (Ama7on) society222possess nothing matriarchal% it reflects rather" altho'gh it is only a legend" the 'npitying and systematic 0engeance of one sex on another222Ama7onism" far from +eing a 0ariation of matriarchy" appears as the logical conse8'ence of the excesses of an extreme patriarchyD*f looked at closely" one can percei0e that the Ama7ons O /hether those in Africa or Asian minor O li0ed excl'si0ely among the Aryan pop'lation of nomads" practicing the most extreme form of a patriarchal rTgimeD Ama7ons indeed iss'ed from an E'rasian cradleD; *n the African matriachal system" claims )iop" men are still the po/er /ielders% Nit is the matriarchal conception /hich /ill enlighten 's in an intelligi+le fashion regarding the facts2 *t implies" indeed" a rigid d'alism in the daily life of each sex2 The socially admitted di0ision of la+o'r reser0es to the man the tasks in0ol0ing risks" po/er" force" and end'ranceK if" as a res'lt of a changed sit'ation d'e to the inter0ention of some o'tside factor 5 cessation of a state of /ar" etc222the tasks of a man came to +e /hittled do/n" so m'ch the /orse for the /omanK she /o'ld nonetheless contin'e to carry o't the ho'sehold d'ties and others reser0ed to her +y society2 For the man co'ld not relie0e her of this /itho't losing prestige in the eyes of all2 *t is in fact 'nthinka+le222that an African sho'ld share a feminine task /ith his /ife222Moreo0er this sit'ation has +een 'nchanged since ancient times222N *fe Amadi'm" Associate (rofessor" )epartment of =eligion and )epartment of =eligio's 1t'dies" in her +ook" African Matriarchal Fo'ndations% The ,ase of *g+o 1ocieties ( >?A" >>L)" does gi0e con0incing e0idence of matrifocality O a high respect and emphasis4foc's on mother and motherhood O +'t she fails to prod'ce any con0incing e0idence of an African matriarchy" certainly not an ancient one2 &2C Ancient Semet (Egypt) and the Myth of the Matriarchal Goddess )r2 Gay =o+ins" 1am'el ,andler )o++s (rofessor of Art <istory and Fac'lty ,ons'ltant for Ancient Egyptian Art in the Michael ,2 ,arlos M'se'm" Emory Hni0ersity% :the creation of the 'ni0erse /as +eg'n +y the interaction of the male and female principles

em+odied in pairs of deities2 The creator god m'st ha0e contained +oth male and female potential /hich then separated o't into the first di0ine co'ple2 Mater a female aspect of the god came to disting'ished as a goddess called -the god.s hand.DBy the Eighteenth )ynasty she /as identified /ith <athor" the goddess of sex'ality2 6ther myths /ere also 'sed to gi0e expression to the miracle of creation" and it is interesting that in these too the creator god" altho'gh logically com+ining male and female" /as 's'ally concept'ali7ed as male2;F#$C The Aryani7ation of MaBat? ! main cosmogonies (creation myths)" ranging from the 6ld to the 3e/ Singdoms and associated /ith distinct c'lt centers" capt're Semetic tho'ght on this matter% <ermopolis (Shm'n)" <eliopolis (*'n')" Memphis (*ne+o'5<ed9o') and The+es (3i/t5imn)2 While there are local distinctions" they are all complimentary and generally consistent2 E2g2" & of the ! gi0e the central cosmogonic role to a male creator god (At'm" (tah" Am'n)" /hile the !th highlights only the androgyno's nat're of the pre5cosmic /orld2 *n contrast" the sole extant cosmogony that feat'res a central female creator (3eith) is inscri+ed on the /alls of the Temple of 3eith and Shn'm at Esna" dated c2 $$ ,E" i2e2 the Graeco5=oman period /hich sa/ significant NMaBatic modifications2N ,arolyn Gra0es5Bro/n" ,'rator of the Egyptian ,enter at 1/ansea Hni0ersity% :all e0idence points to the idea that Egyptian gender /as +asically d'alistic" depending 'pon the opposites of male and femaleDhomosex'ality /as recogni7ed +'t fro/ned 'ponK androgyny among the gods /as largely a means of explaining prime0al creation2 Men /ere considered the lead actors in procreation" /ith /oman acting as <athoric enchanters" stim'lating and n'rt'ring the male seedD;F# C :Hs'ally" in Egypt" it /as men /ho /ere central to procreation2 This has gi0en rise to the idea that Egyptian society /as phallocentricDFor the Egyptians" +oth the earth and the ann'al in'ndation that fertili7ed the land /ere maleDThe /ord for -to concei0e of child. in ancient Egyptian /as the same as the /ord -to recei0e. or -to take." sho/ing the role of the /oman as simply the 0essel for the already created childDall scara+ +eetles" for example" /ere +elie0ed to +e male2 *t is only in the Graeco5=oman (eriod that a female is gi0en credit for the forming of a child2 WhileDthe male god Shn'm" the potter" is credited /ith creation and +irth of children thro'gh spinning the /heel" +y the Graeco5=oman (eriod" <athor is sometimes credited /ith spinning the /heel2; :Altho'gh kingship" that is" the holding of s'preme po/er" /as essentially masc'line" it is impossi+le to disc'ss Egyptian di0ine kingship /itho't disc'ssing /omen2 The king co'ld not r'le /itho't a female co'nterpart" and so thro'gho't Egyptian history" kings al/ays had 8'eensDthe pre0ailing idea of kingship is masc'line" hence decor'm demanded that 8'eens /ho r'led in the same /ay as kings sported +eards and engaged in the 0iolence of /arfare" as this is /hat kingship meant2 The king s'ppressed chaos and /as central to creationK only the male r'lers /ere said to ha0e carried o't the act of iri ht (doing things)" /hich may +e interpreted as meaning carrying o't acts /hich maintain cosmic orderDPery fe/ /omen /ielded a'thority as kings2 6f o0er L$$ kno/n r'lers" only fo'r /ere /omenD.R'eens. /ere royal /omen" ad9'ncts to kings" not /omen /ho held real po/er in the /ay kings did2 There /as no Egyptian /ord for -8'een." +'t rather" +'t rather" /hat /e /o'ld call -8'eens. /ere identified +y their relationship /ith the king2 They /ere -Sing.s Mother. or -Sing.s (rinciple Wife.2;F##C :*t is 'ndenia+le that in )ynastic Egypt" <athor and later *sis /ere paramo'nt female goddesses2 While not 's'rping the role of male gods" <athor and *sis /ere essential to kingship" and the s'r0i0al of the state in Egypt2 <o/e0er" /e kno/ little of the importance and f'nction of (redynastic and earlier goddessesDE0idence for a paramo'nt co/ goddess in (redynastic Egypt appears +ased 'pon three related and contesta+le ass'mptions% that +eliefs s'rro'nding <athor" or the co/ goddess of the )ynastic (eriod" can +e extended +ack/ard into the (redynastic (eriodK that depictions of cattle are to +e identified as co/ goddessesK and that /omen are associated /ith cattle2

There is clear e0idence of the sym+olic importance of cattle in (redynastic Egypt" +'t little e0idence of the partic'lar importance of the co/" as opposed to the +'llDThe first clear attestation of <athor is in the reign of Shafre of the Fo'rth )ynasty2 We cannot say that there is clear e0idence of a (redynastic co/ goddessD/hile a paramo'nt mother goddess seems 'nlikely" it also seems 'nlikely that there /ere not at least some female goddesses2 ; F#&C :1o /hat is the role of the female god? Goddesses s'ch as <athor and *sis are sometimes considered -fertility goddesses2. <o/e0er" they are notK rather" their role is to aro'se the male god" to act as a 0essel and to +e a n'rt'ring mother2 Female goddesses rarely" in themsel0es" create and /here they do" these are the prime0al goddesses and4or 0ery often a aspect of a male god2;F#!C Fekri A2 <assan" (etrie (rofessor of Archaeology" the *nstit'te of Archaeology U )epartment of Egyptology" H,M% *n the pre5dynastic 3ile Palley" :goddesses along /ith early male (ithyphallic) gods /ere con9oined /ith local territorial deitiesD; :Egyptian religion /as not excl'si0ely 'terine2 Gods and goddesses complemented each other2 <o/e0er" the role of the female goddess" and the presence of the female aspect to male deities" cannot +e ignored2 There /as no e0idence of Bachofen.s once cele+rated M'tterrecht (the notion that /omen /ere r'lers +efore men +ecame kings +y the right of their f'nction as mothers) in early Egypt2 Egypt /as r'led primarily +y male kings" e0en /ith a prominent role of the mother 8'een and mother goddess2 There is no e0idence for a matriarchy (/ith mothers as the head of the family or tri+e) or matrilineality (descent reckoned in the female line)2 3e0ertheless" the stat's of /omen in (redynastic societies /ere e8'al to that of men" as an in0estigation of f'nerary goodsDhas re0ealed2 Their sym+olic domains /ere different" +'t the si7e and /ealth of tom+s /ere compati+le2 Men and /omen /ere complementary opposites2;F#LC Mana Troy" (rofessor of Egyptology at the Hni0ersity of Hppsala in 1/eden% NWhat does this reading of the (Egyptian) mythological material tell 's a+o't the inherent 8'alities of the feminine? First of all" it esta+lishes that a feminine element is necessary in all creati0e and generati0e acts2 The feminine f'nctions as the creati0e space as +irthplace and the dynamic principle that initiates the process of transformation222The a+ility of the feminine to change form is regarded as indicati0e of the do'+le5nat're of /omen" protecti0e and n'rt'ring" +'t also dangero's and ferocio's222The feminine element is percei0ed thro'gho't ancient Egyptian history as that /hich empo/ers the male2 A kingship /itho't the acti0e incorporation of the feminine principle /as" to the Egyptian mind" 8'ite literally defenseless and impotent2NF#@C P2 ,oncl'ding Tho'ghts ,ynthia Eller" Associate (rofessor of =eligion and Women.s 1t'dies at Montclair 1tate Hni0ersity" The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory% Why an *n0ented (ast Won.t Gi0e Women a F't're% :matriarchal myth fails completely on historical gro'nds2 E0idence from prehistoric times is comparati0ely sparse" and hard to interpret concl'si0ely2 <o/e0er" e0en taking these diffic'lties into acco'nt" /hat e0idence /e do ha0e does not s'pport the thesis that prehistory /as matriarchal and goddess5/orshippingDThe myth of matriarchal history is an impressi0eDho'se of cards2 The cards of /hich it is +'ilt are not totally flimsy2 1ome are pla'si+le interpretations of historical and artifact'al data2 B't others are patently a+s'rd2 They are either +ad interpretations of the a0aila+le data" or assertions +ased on no data at all2 Taken together" the entire str'ct're is 'nsta+le" and if there /ere not things stronger than archaeological or historical e0idence holding them 'p5things like passionate hope and religio's faith5it /o'ld +e in imminent danger of collapse2; 3either the historical nor the archaeological e0idence 9'stifies any claim that the /orld once

/orshipped a 1'preme Mother Goddess to the excl'sion of a 1'preme Father God2 This claim can +e made neither for Africa" Asia" E'rope nor the Americas2 That s'ch a claim /as made so s'ccessf'lly in times past is +eca'se Pictorian =omanticism met a discipline of anthropology that /as only in the +eginning stages of form'lating a rigoro's methodology2 1ince then" the anthropological data /itnesses to no tr'e matriarchies on earth and the archaeological data s'ggests that male gods and female goddesses /ere al/ays a part of the religio's conscio'sness of the 6riginal Man and Woman2 P*2 1o'rces <ere is a short list of so'rces that * 'se and recommend to all2 * offer this not only as a reading list for those interested in the s'+9ect" +'t as a list of so'rces 'pon /hich my arg'ments are +ased2 * in0ite O indeed * challenge O anyone and e0eryone to 0et this list of so'rces2 *n0estigate the 8'ality of the scholarly /orks here cited and the credentials and4or 8'alifications of their a'thors2 * then in0ite O indeed challenge O those /ho are of the opposite 0ie/ than that expressed in this Teaser to p'+lish yo'r so'rces so that * and other can 0et them2 That is to say% those /ho claim that the Black Woman or Mother Goddess /as the first paramo'nt deity /orshipped on this earth or /orshipped +y the 6riginal (eople and that the /orship of Father God came later to 's'rp her place" p'+lish the so'rces 'pon /hich yo' +ase this claim2 Allo/ 's to in0estigate the 8'ality of the scholarly /orks 'pon /hich yo' rely to make yo'r claims and the credentials and4or 8'alifications of their a'thors2 Hntil then" yo' all ha0e a good time /ith mine2 Mist of 1o'rces Bahn" (eter G2 :3o 1ex" (lease" We.re A'rignacians (And =esponses)"; =ock Art =esearch & ( >?@)% >>5 #$2 Bam+erger" Eoan2 :The Myth of Matriarchy% Why Men ='le in (rimiti0e 1ociety"; in Woman" ,'lt're" and 1ociety" ed2 Michelle Vim+alist =osaldo and Mo'ise Mamphere (1tanford% 1tanford Hni0ersity (ress" >A!) #@&5#?$2 )iop" ,heikh Anta2 the ,'lt'ral Hnity of Black Africa% The )omains of Matriarchy and of (atriarchy in ,lassical Anti8'ity ( >@&K >?>)2 Eller" ,ynthia2 Gentlemen and Ama7ons% The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory" ?@ 5 >$$ (Berkley% Hni0ersity of ,alifornia (ress" #$ )2 *dem2 The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory% Why an *n0ented (ast Won.t Gi0e Women a F't're (Boston% Beacon (ress" #$$$) Fleming" Andre/2 :The Myth of the Mother5Goddess"; World Archaeology ( >@>)% #!A5#@ C2

Gra0es5Bro/n" ,arolyn2 )ancing For <athor% Women in Ancient Egypt (Mondon and 3e/ Work% ,ontin''m" #$ $)2 <ayden" Brian2 :6ld E'rope% 1acred Matriarchy or ,omplimentary 6pposition?; in Archaeology and Fertility ,'lt in the Ancient Mediterranean2 (apers (resented at the First *nternational ,onference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean" the Hni0ersity of Malta #5L 1eptem+er >?L" ed2 Anthony Bonanno (Amsterdam% B2=2 GrIner ('+lishing ,o2" >?@) A5&$2 <odder" *an" :Women and Men at QatalhJyIk"; 1cientific American (Ean'ary #$$!)% AA5?&2 <'tton" =onald2 :The 3eolithic great goddess% a st'dy in modern tradition"; Anti8'ity A ( >>A)% > 5>>2 Meskell" Mynn2 :Goddesses" Gim+'tas and -3e/ Age. archaeology"; Anti8'ity @> ( >>L)% A!5?@2

6rtner" 1herry B2 :*s Female to Male as 3at're *s to ,'lt're?; in Michelle Vim+alist =osaldo and Mo'ise Mamphere (edd2)" Woman" ,'lt're" and 1ociety (1tanford% 1tanford Hni0ersity (ress" >A!) A$ Fart2X@A5?AC2 =o+ins" Gay2 Women in Ancient Egypt (,am+ridge% <ar0ard Hni0ersity (ress" >>&)2 *dem2 :A critical examination of the theory that the right to the throne of ancient Egypt passed thro'gh the female line in the ?th dynasty"; GJttinger Mis7ellen @# ( >?&)% @A" A#2 *dem" :(ro+lems ,oncerning R'eens and R'eenship in Eighteenth )ynasty Egypt"; 3*3 Eo'rnal of Gender 1t'dies in Anti8'ity & (#$$#)% #L5& (#L" #?" & )2 =oth" Ann Macy2 :Gender =oles in Ancient Egypt"; in )aniel ,2 1nell (ed2) A ,ompanion to the Ancient 3ear East (Black/ell ('+lishing" #$$L) # 5# ?2 =o'tledge" ,arolyn2 :)id Women -)o Things. in Ancient Egypt? (c2 #@$$5 $L$ B,E)"; in ,arolyn Gra0es5Bro/n (Ed2)" 1ex and Gender in Ancient Egypt2 -)on yo'r /ig for a 9oyf'l ho'r. (6xford% The ,lassical (ress of Wales" #$$?) LA5 L?2 To/nsend" Eoan B2 :The Goddess% Fact" Fallacy and =e0itali7ation Mo0ement"; in Marry <'rtado (ed2)" Goddesses in =eligions and Modern )e+ate (Atlanta GA% 1cholars (ress" >>$) A>5#$&2 Troy" Mana2 NThe Ancient Egyptian R'eenship As An *con of the 1tate"; 3*3 & (#$$#) 5##2 Hcko" (eter E2 :Mother" Are Wo' There?; ,am+ridge Archaeological Eo'rnal @ ( >>@) &$$5&$A2 *dem2 Anthropomorphic fig'rines of predynastic Egypt and neolithic ,rete /ith comparati0e material from the prehistoric 3ear East and mainland Greece (Mondon% A2 17midla" >@?)2 *dem2 :The *nterpretation of (rehistoric Anthropomorphic Fig'rines"; Eo'rnal of the =oyal Anthropological *nstit'te of Great Britain and *reland ># ( >@#)% &?5L!2 Pan 1ertima" *0an2 Black Women in Anti8'ity (3e/ark% Transaction ('+lishers" >?!)

E3)36TE1 F C Eoan B2 To/nsend" :The Goddess% Fact" Fallacy and =e0itali7ation Mo0ement"; in Marry <'rtado (ed2)" Goddesses in =eligions and Modern )e+ate (Atlanta GA% 1cholars (ress" >>$) ?$5 ? 2 F#C Gloria 1teinem" Wonder Woman" >A#)" 8'oted +y ,ynthia Eller" The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory% F&C Eoan Bam+erger" :The Myth of Matriarchy% Why Men ='le in (rimiti0e 1ociety"; in Woman" ,'lt're" and 1ociety" ed2 Michelle Vim+alist =osaldo and Mo'ise Mamphere (1tanford% 1tanford Hni0ersity (ress" >A!) #@&5#@!" #@L" #@@2 F!C =o+ert Briffa'lt" The Mothers% The Matriarchal Theory of 1ocial 6rigins (3e/ Work% The Macmillan ,ompany" >#A)2 FLC Gordon =attray Taylor" :*ntrod'ction"; in =o+ert Briffa'lt" The Mothers% The Matriarchal Theory

of 1ocial 6rigins" Edited" /ith an *ntrod'ction +y ,ordon =attray Taylor (3e/ Work% <o/ard Fertig" >>&) &" !" >2 F@C ,ynthia Eller" The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory% Why an *n0ented (ast Won.t Gi0e Women a F't're (Boston% Beacon (ress" #$$$) ? " ?$2 FAC ,ynthia Eller" Gentlemen and Ama7ons% The Myth of Matriarchal (rehistory" ?@ 5 >$$ (Berkley% Hni0ersity of ,alifornia (ress" #$ ) A?2 F?C 1herry B2 6rtner" :*s Female to Male as 3at're *s to ,'lt're?; in Michelle Vim+alist =osaldo and Mo'ise Mamphere (edd2)" Woman" ,'lt're" and 1ociety (1tanford% 1tanford Hni0ersity (ress" >A!) A$ Fart2X@A5?AC2 F>C Eoan B2 To/nsend" :The Goddess% Fact" Fallacy and =e0itali7ation Mo0ement"; in Marry <'rtado (ed2)" Goddesses in =eligions and Modern )e+ate (Atlanta GA% 1cholars (ress" >>$) ?& Fart2X A>5#$&C2 F $C M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris" NExploring Female5)i0inity% from Modern Myths to Ancient E0idence"N in Ancient Goddesses" ed2 M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris (Madison% Hni0ersity of Wisconsin" >>?) @ff2 F C Eoan B2 To/nsend" :The Goddess% Fact" Fallacy and =e0itali7ation Mo0ement"; in Marry <'rtado (ed2)" Goddesses in =eligions and Modern )e+ate (Atlanta GA% 1cholars (ress" >>$) >@5 >A2 F #C ='th Tringham and Margaret ,onkey" :=ethinking Fig'rines% A ,ritical Pie/ from Archaeology of Gim+'tas" the -Goddess. and (op'lar ,'lt're"; in Ancient Goddesses" ed2 M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris (Madison% Hni0ersity of Wisconsin" >>?) ##2 F &C =onald <'tton" :The 3eolithic great goddess% a st'dy in modern tradition"; Anti8'ity A ( >>A) >&" >@5>A2 F !C (eter E2 Hcko" Anthropomorphic fig'rines of predynastic Egypt and neolithic ,rete /ith comparati0e material from the prehistoric 3ear East and mainland Greece (Mondon% A2 17midla" >@?) ! A5! ?2 F LC (eter E2 Hcko" :Mother" Are Wo' There?; ,am+ridge Archaeological Eo'rnal @ ( >>@)% &$ Fart2X&$$5&$AC2 F @CTo/nsend" :The Goddess"; > 2 F AC Mynn Meskell" :T/in (eaks% The Archaeologies of ,atalhoy'k"; in Ancient Goddesses" ed2 M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris (Madison% Hni0ersity of Wisconsin" >>?) !@2 F ?C Anne Barstro/" :The Hses of Archeology For Women.s <istory% Eames Mallaart.s Work on the 3eolithic Goddess at Qatal <IyIk"; Feminist 1t'dies ! ( >A?)% A5?2 F >C Mynn Meskell" :T/in (eaks% The Archaeologies of ,atalhoy'k"; in Ancient Goddesses" ed2 M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris (Madison% Hni0ersity of Wisconsin" >>?) LL2 F#$C Gay =o+ins" Women in Ancient Egypt (,am+ridge% <ar0ard Hni0ersity (ress" >>&) A2 F# C ,arolyn Gra0es5Bro/n" )ancing For <athor% Women in Ancient Egypt (Mondon and 3e/ Work% ,ontin''m" #$ $) $$5 $ 2 F##C ,arolyn Gra0es5Bro/n" )ancing For <athor% Women in Ancient Egypt (Mondon and 3e/

Work% ,ontin''m" #$ $) #>5 &$2 F#&C Gra0es5Bro/n" )ancing For <athor" !" L" A" ?2 F#!C Gra0es5Bro/n" )ancing For <athor" $L2 F#LC Fekri A2 <assan" :The Earliest Goddesses of Egypt% )i0ine Mothers and ,osmic Bodies"; in Ancient Goddesses" ed2 M'cy Goodison and ,hristine Morris (Madison% Hni0ersity of Wisconsin" >>?) $ " 2