Determining Age at Death 13/02/2008 12:55:00

Four Factors:

• Growth and development

• Maturation

• Degeneration

• Metamorphic changes

Skeletal Growth and Development

• What factors influence skeletal growth?

o Genetics

o Hormones

 Puberty

 estrogen and testosterone

o nutrition

o disease

Types of bone formation

• Intramembranous

o Form within a membrane

o Most cranial bones

• Endochondral
 o Start as a cartilage template

o Long bones

Immature Cranium

• Fontanels

o Gaps in the skull of a newborn

o Close during life

o Usually fused at 2 years

• Ossification centers

o Frontal, occipital, mandible

Parts of a Long Bone

• Diaphysis: Shaft

• Epiphysis: end

• Metaphysis: between epiphysis and Diaphysis

• Growth plate: cartilage – permits bone growth

Ossification centers

• Where cartilage first starts to turn to bone

• Primary vs. secondary

• Epiphyseal fusion
 • Primary centers

o Initial area of ossification

o Usually during fetal development

o Metaphysis

• Secondary centers

o Appear after birth

o Epiphyses

Epiphyseal Fusion

• Known rates for different skeletal areas

• Usually complete by late teens – early twenties

• Females more advanced than males

• One way of determining age at death

Fusion of Epiphyses

• Teenage years (10-20)

• Process not an event

• Females 2 years in advance

• Elbows at 11-13 years

• Hip at 13-15
 • Ankles 14-16

• Knee 15-17

• Wrist 16-18

• Shoulder 18-21

• (Even Half-Witter Archaeologists Know Which Shovel)

• medial clavicle one of last bones to fuse 18-21 years

Age estimation: Maturation

• Subadult Age estimation

o Long bone measurements

 Up until age 10

o Appearance of ossification centers and Epiphyseal fusion

o Dental development

Long Bone Measurements

• Linear relationship between length (mm) and age (months)

• Accurate until around 10 years

• After this, problems with sex and ancestry

• Femur is the best to use for this

Haase’s Rule: Fetal Age

 • Crown-heel length of fetus in centimeters

o (length/5) = approximate age in months

• age of fetus in months

o months 1-5, square the month

o months 6-10, multiply by 5

o gives you the expected length in centimeters

Ossification Centers and Epiphyseal Fusion

• standards for appearance of centers and rate of fusion by skeletal

area

• amount of fusion used to determine juvenile age

• only a good measure through the late teens

Epiphyseal Fusion

• Beings around 8 years in females and 10 years in males

• Ends in the 20’s

o Medial end of the clavicle is the last to fuse

• Females are about 2 years in advance of males

• When is it most useful?

o Around 10 to early 20s

Dental Development
 • Most accurate age indicator in subadults

• Controlled by genetic factors

How to teeth develop?

• Crown -> roots

• 1st enamel, 2nd dentin

• continuous process – timing different for each tooth

• deciduous before permanent

• form in “crypts”

• tooth eruption

Deciduous Dentition

• Develop around 5 months in utero (in fetus)

• Start erupting around 6 months

o Incisors -> first molar -> canine -> second molar

• Fully erupted between 3-4 years (all baby teeth in by this time)

Permanent Dentition

• Begin developing around 6 months

• Start erupting around 6 years of age

o First molar doesn’t replace any of the baby teeth

 • Start replacing deciduous teeth around 7 years

o Incisors -> first premolar -> lower canines -> second

premolar, upper canines -> second molar -> third molar

• Usually complete by mid 20s

Age Estimation: Adults

• Degenerative and metamorphic changes

Adult Ageing

• More difficult and less accurate

• Degeneration

o Breaking down over time

• Metamorphic

o Pubic symphysis

o Auricular surface

 Where the sacrum attaches to the ilium and the os coxa

o Sternal end of the 4th rib

Degeneration

• Collapse of vertebrae

• Osteophytic growth

• Arthritis
 o Deterioration of joint capsules

• Loss of teeth

Rheumatoid Arthritis

• Erosive type of arthritis

Osteoarthritis

• Bone building arthritis

• Spine is the most common area

Tooth loss – edentulism

• Diet and nutrition can have a greater affect on it

Adult Ageing Techniques

• Metamorphic

o Pubic Symphysis Medial aspect

 Where the two pubic bones join in the front

 Cartilage between the two bones

Pubic Symphysis

• Changes of the symphyseal face

• Deteriorates over time

• Young
 o Ridges and furrows

• Old

o Lipping and bony growths

• Suchey-Brooks Method

o 6 phases

 standards for both male and female

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