The Bible,

The
Qut'arr
-rnd Science
ThE l3iblE
f
ThE Quran
and kiEnc:e
Maurice Buceille
fhe Bible,
The
Qut'art
arrd Science
ul,aBlble
le Coran et le Science"
TIIE TNCT,Y SCBIPTUBES
EXAMINED IN THE LICET
OF UODEBN KNOWI,EDGE
Trenslatd from the [tench
by
Ahdalr It Prnncll
rnd
Thc Anthe
Maurice BucaiDe
The l3ible
f
The Quran
and kienf:e
"La Bible, Ie Coran et la Science"
THE HOLY SCRIPTURES
EXAMINED IN THE LIGHT
OF MODERN KNOWLEDGE
Translated fromthe French
by
,Alastair D. PalmeD
and
The Auth..
FRENCE EDITIONS
Firrt Freneh Edition, May 19?6
"L,a
Bibler le Coran et le Science"
F ourth French Edition, September 197?
Publisherr Seghers, I Rue FalguiEre
,76726
Paris, Cedex 18.
ARABIC TBANSLATION
(in print)
Publirtrers Dsr Al Ma'arif, 1119 Corniche El Nil, Cairo, Egypt.
FRENCH EDITIONS
First French Edition, May 1976
"La Bible, Ie Coran et Ie Science"
Fourth French Edition, September 1977
Publishers Seghers, 3 Rue Falguiere, 75725 Paris, Cedex 15.
ARABIC TRANSLATION (in print)
Publishers Dar Al Ma'arif, 1119 Corniehe El Nil, Cairo, Egypt.
Toreword
In his objeetive study of the texts, Maurice
Bucaille
clears
&rvay
many
preconceived ideas about the Old Testament,
the
Gospels
and the
Qur'an.
He tries, in this collection
of Writings,
to
separate what belongs to Revelation
from what is the
product of
error or human
interpretation. His study sheds new light on the
Holy Seriptures.
At the end of a
gripping account,
he
places the
Believer before a
point of eardinal importance:
the continuity
of
a Revelation emanating
from the same God,
with modes of ex-
pression that differ in the course of time. It leads us to
meditate
,rpott those factors which, in our day, should spiritually
unite-
rather than divide-Jews, Christians
and Muslims.
As a surgeon, Maurice
Bucaille has often beeir in a situation
urhere he was able to examine not only
people's bodies, but their
souls. This is how he was struck by the existence of Muslim
piety
and by aspects of Islam which remain unknown
to the vast ma-
jority
of non-Muslims. In his search for explanations
which
are
otherwise
difficult to obtain, he learnt Arabic and studied
the
Qur'an.
In it, he was surprised
to find statements on natural
phe-
nomena whose meaning can only be understood
through
modern
scientifc knowledge.
He theri turned to the
question of the authenticity of the writ'
ings
that constitute the Holy Scriptures
of the monotheistic
re-
ligions. Finally, in the case of the Bible,
he proceeded to a eon-
frontation
between these writings and scientific data.
The
results of his research into the Judeo-Christian
Revelation
and the
Qur'an
are set out in this book.
Fo..ewo..d
In his objective study of the texts, Maurice Bucaille clears
away many preconceived ideas about the Olrl Testament, the
Gospels and the Qur'an. He tries, in this collection of Writings, to
separate what belongs to Revelation from what is the product of
error or human interpretation. His study sheds new light on the
Holy Scriptures. At the end of a gripping account, he places the
Believer before a point of cardinal importance: the continuity of
a Revelation emanating from the same God, with modes of ex-
pression that differ in the course of time. It leads us to meditate
upon those factors which, in our day, should spiritually unite-
rather than divide-Jews, Christians and Muslims.
As a surgeon, Maurice Bucaille has often been in a situation
where he was able to examine not only people's bodies, but their
souls. This is how he was struck by the existence of Muslim piety
and by aspects of Islam which remain unknown to the vast ma-
jority of non-Muslims. In his search for explanations which are
otherwise difficult to obtain, he learnt Arabic and studied the
Qur'an. In it, he was surprised to find statements on natural phe-
nomena whose meaning can only be understood through modern
scientifc knowledge.
He then turned to the question of the authenticity of the writ-
ings that constitute the Holy Scriptures of the monotheistic re-
ligions. Finally, in the case of the Bible, he proceeded to a con-
frontation between these writings and scientific data.
The results of his research into the Judeo-Christian Revelation
and the Qur'an are set out in this book.
CONTTENTS
ITiITRODUCTION
OLD TESTAMENT
I. General
Outlines
Origins
of the Bible
IL The Books
of the OId Testament
Th.e Torah or Pentateuch
Ttre Historical
Books
The ProPhetic
Books
The Books
of PoetrY and Wisdom
UI. fire Old Testament
and Scienoe
Findings
The Creation
of the World
The Date of the World's
Creation
and
Date of Man's Appearance
on Earth
The Flood
IV. Position of christian
Authors
with regard to
Scientific
Error
in the Biblical
Texts'
A Critical
Examination
V. Conclusions
THE GOSPELS
I. Introduction
II. Historical
Reminder. Judeo-christianity
and
Saint
Paul
III. The Four Gospels.
Sources
and History
The GosPel
According
to Matthew
The GosPel
Aecording
to
Mark
i
1
4
7
10
14
L7
18
21
22
29
32
3S
42
44
44
49
64
58
6B
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
i
OLD TESTAMENT
I. General Outlines
1
Origins of the Bible
4
II. The Books of the Old Testament
7
Th.e Torah or Pentateuch
10
The Historical Books
14
The Prophetic Books
17
The Books of Poetry and Wisdom
18
III. The Old Testament and Science Findings
21
The Creation of the World
22
The Date of the World's Creation and
Date of Man's Appearance on Earth
29
The Flood
32
IV. Position of Christian Authors with regard to
Scientific Error in the Biblical Texts.
A Critical Examination
36
V. Conclusions
42
THE GOSPELS
44
I. Introduction
44
II. Historical Reminder. J udeo-Christianity and
Saint Paul
49
III. The Four Gospels. Sources and History
54
The Gospel According to Matthew
58
The Gospel According to Mark
63
The Gospel According to Luke
The Gospel According to John
Sources of the
Gospels
History
of the Texts
The
Gospels and Modern Science. The
Gehealogies
of Jesus
The Genealogies of Jesus
Critical Examination
of the Texts
Commentaries
of Modern Experts in Exegesis
Contradictions
and Improbabilities
in the
Descriptions
Descriptions
of the Passion
John's Gospel does not describe
the
Institution
of the Eucharist
Appearances
of Jesus Raised from the Dead
Ascension
of Jesus
Jesus's Last Dialogues. The
paraclete
of
John's
Gospel
Conclusions
THE
QIIR' AN
AND MODERN
SCIEN;E
I. Introduction
II. Authenti ci ty
of the
eur' an.
How It Came
to be Written
III'. The creation of the Heavens
and the Earth
Differences
f'om and Resemblances
to the
Biblical
Description
The
Qur'an
does not lav dorvn a seflnenee
for
the Creation of the Earth and Heavens
The Basic Process
of the Formation
of the
Univer.se and the Resulting
Composition of
the Worlds
Some
Modern Scientific
Data
concerning
the
Formation
of the Univer.se
rv.
V.
66
68
TI
77
82
88
88
92
VI .
94
94
95
98
100
10?
107
110
110
r26
138
138
137
139
L42
The Gospel According to Luke 66
The Gospel According to John 68
Sources of the Gospels 71
History of the Texts 77
IV. The Gospels and Modern Science. The
Genealogies of Jesus 82
The Genealogies of Jesus 83
Critical Examination of the Texts 88
Commentaries of Modern Experts in Exegesis 92
V. Contradictions and Improbabilities in the
Descriptions 94
Descriptions of the Passion 94
John's Gospel does not describe the
Institution of the Eucharist 95
Appearances of Jesus Raised from the Dead 98
Ascension of Jesus 100
Jesus's Last Dialogues. The Paraclete of
John's Gospel 102
VI. Conclusions 107
THE QUR'AN AND MODERN SCIENCE 110
I. Introduction 110
II. Authenticity of the Qur'an. How It Came
to be Written 126
III. The Creation of the Heavens and the Earth 133
Differences from and Resemblances to the
Biblical Description 133
The Qur'an does not lay down a RPJlIlp.nr.p. for
the Creation of the Earth and Heavens 137
The Basic Process of the Formation of the
Universe and the Resulting Composition of
the Worlds
139
Some Modern Scientific Data concerning the
Formation of the Universe
142
Confrontation
with the Data in the
Qur'an
concerning
the Creation
t47
Answers
to Certain Objections
149
IV. Astronomy
in the
Qur'an
A. General
Reflections
concerning
the Sky
B. Nature
of HeavenlY
Bodies
C. CelestialOrganizations
D. Evolution
of the
Heavens
E. The Conquest
of SPace
V. The Earth
A.
Verses Containing
General
Statements
B. The Water
CYcle and the Seas
C' The Earth's Relief
D. The Earth's AtmosPhere
VI. The Animal and Vegetable
Kingdoms
A. The Origins
of Life
B. The Vegetable
Kingdom
C.
The Animal
Kingdom
VII. Human ReProduction
Reminder
of Certaiu
Basic Conccpts
Httman
Reproduction
in the
Qur'an
The
Qur'an
and Sex Education
QUR' ANI C
AND BI BLI CAL
NARRATI ONS
I. General
Outlines
Parallel :
Qur'an/Gospels
and- I\fodertt
Knorvledge
Parallel :
Qur'an/Old
Testament
and
Modern
l{nowledge
II. The Fl ood
The Biblical
Nan'ation of the Flood
and the
Cri ti ci sm
Level ed
at i t-A Renri ncl et'
The Narrati ou
of the Fl ood
contai ned
i rr
the
Qur'an
161
t6z
155
158
166
16?
170
1?0
1?8
180
18?
185
185
187
190
t 98
198
199
207
211
211
211
213
zL4
2r4
zr6
Confrontation with the Data in the Qur'an
concerning the Creation
147
Answers to Certain Objections
149
IV. Astronomy in the Qur'an
151
A. General Reflections concerning the Sky 152
B. Nature of Heavenly Bodies
155
C. Celestial Organizations
158
D. Evolution of the Heavens
165
E. The Conquest of Space
167
V. The Earth
170
A. Verses Containing General Statements 170
B. The Water Cycle and the Seas
173
C. The Earth's Relief
180
D. The Earth's Atmosphere
182
VI. The Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms
185
A. The Origins of Life
185
B. The Vegetable Kingdom
187
c. The Animal Kingdom
190
VII. Human Reproduction
198
Reminder of Certain Basic Concepts
198
Human Reproduction in the Qur'an
199
The Qur'an and Sex Education
207
QUR'ANIC AND BIBLICAL NARRATIONS
211
I. General Outlines
211
Parallel: Qur'an/Gospels and- :Model'll
Knowledge
211
Parallel: Qur'an/Old Testament and
Modern Knowledge
213
n. The Flood
214
The Biblical Narration of the Flood and the
Criticism Leveled at it-A Reminder
214
The Narration of the Flood contained in
the Qur'an
216
III. The Exodus
The Exodus
according
to the Bible
The Exodus
according to the
eurran
Confrontation
between
Scriptural Data
and Modern Knowledge
1. Examination
of certain
details
contained in
the Narrations
2. The
point
oceupied
by the Exodus in
the history of the Pharaohs
219
220
?,2L
224
224
228
3. Ramesses
II, Pharaoh
of the Oppression;
Merneptah,
Pharaoh
of the Eiodus
Zgl
4. The description
contained
in the Holy
Scripture of the
pharaoh's
death
during the Exodus
Zg7
5. Pharaoh
Merneptah's
Mummy
Zgg
QUR'AN,
HADITHS
AND MODERN
SCIENCE
':42
GENERAL
CONCLUSIONS
24g
TRANSLITERATION
OF THE
ARABIC
INTO LATIN
CHARACTERS
258
III. The Exodus
219
The Exodus according to the Bible
220
The Exodus according to the Quran
221
Confrontation between Scriptural Data
and Modern Knowledge
224
1. Examination of certain details
contained in the Narrations
224
2. The point occupied by the Exodus in
the history of the Pharaohs
228
8. Ramesses II, Pharaoh of the Oppression.;
Merneptah, Pharaoh of the Exodus 231
4. The description contained in the Holy
Scripture of the Pharaoh's death
during the Exodus
237
5. Pharaoh Merneptah's Mummy
239
QUR'AN, HADITHS AND MODERN SCIENCE
242
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
249
TRANSLITERATION OF THE ARABIC INTO LATIN
CHARACTERS
253
lntrodrrction
Eseh of the three monotheistic
religions
possesE its own collec'
tion of scriptures.
For the fsithful-be
they Jews, christisns
or
Muslir.s,-these
documents
constitute
the foundation
of
their
belief. For them they are the materisl
transcription
-o!
s divine
Revelation;
directly, 8{t in the case of Abraham
and Moses,
who
received the commendments
from God Himself,
or indireetly'
as
in the cgse of Jesus and
Muhammad,
the first of whom
stated
that he was speaking
in the name of the Father, and the scond
of whom transmitted
to men the Revelation
imparted
to him
by
Archangpl Gabriel.
If wJtake
into consideration
the obiective facts of religious
history, we must
place the Old
Testament,
the Gospels
and the
Qut'an'on
the same level as being collections
of written
Revela-
tion. Although
this attitude
is in
principle held by
Musliml'
the
fsithful
in the West under the
predominantly Judeo-Christian
influence
refuse to ascribe
to the
Qur'an
the charactcr
of a book
of Revelation.
Sueh an attitude
may be explained
by the
position each
reli-
gious eommunity
adopt"
to**"ds
the other two with
regprd to
the Scriptures.
Judaism
has as its holy book
the Hebraic Bible'
This difiers
from the old Testament
of the christians
in that the
lattcr have
included several books whieh did not exist in Hebrew.
In
practice'
this divergence
hardly makes any difference
to the doctrine'
Ju-
daism does not howuue" admit
any
revelation
subsequent
to its
own.
Christianity
has taken
the Hebraic
Bible for itself and
added
a few supplements
to it. It has not however
accepted
all the
pub-
lished
writings
destined to make known
to men the
Mission
of
Jesus.
The church
has made
incisive
cuts in the
profusion of
books
relating
the life and teachings
of Jesus'
It has only
pre-
served a limited number
of writings
in the
New Testament'
the
most
importdnt
of which are the four Canonic
Gospels'
Christian'
ity takes no account of any revelation
subsequent
to Jesus
and
his Apostles.
It therefore
rules out the
Qur'an'
Inkodudion
Each of the three monotheistic religions possess its own collec-
tion of Scriptures. For the faithful-be they Jews, Christians or
Musli1Tls-these documents constitute the foundation of their
belief. For them they are the material transcription of a divine
Revelation; directly, as in the ease of Abraham and Moses, who
received the commandments from God Himself, or indirectly, as
in the ease of Jesus and Muhammad, the first of whom stated
that he was speaking in the name of the Father, and the second
of whom transmitted to men the Revelation imparted to him by
Archangel Gabriel.
If we take into consideration the objective facts of religious
history, we must place the Old Testament, the Gospels and the
Qur'an on the same level as being collections of written Revela-
tion. Although this attitude is in principle held by Muslims, the
faithful in the West under the predominantly Judeo-Christian
influence refuse to ascribe to the Qur'an the character of a book
of Revelation.
Such an attitude may be explained by the position eachreli-
gious community adopts towards the other two with regard to
the Scriptures.
Judaism has as its holy book the Hebraic Bible. This differs
from the Old Testament of the Christians in that the latter have
included several books which did not exist in Hebrew. In practice,
this divergence hardly makes any difference to the doctrine. Ju-
daism does not however admit any revelation subsequent to its
own.
Christianity has taken the Hebraic Bible for itself and added
a few supplements to it. It has not however accepted all the pub-
lished writings destined to make known to men the Mission of
Jesus. The Church has made incisive cuts in the profusion of
books relating the life and teachings of Jesus. It has only pre-
served a limited number of writings in the New Testament, the
most important of which are the four Canonic Gospels. Christian..
ity takes no account of any revelation subsequent to Jesus and
his Apostles. It therefore rules out the Qur'an.
fi
THE BIBLE,
TIrE
QITR
AN AND SCIENCE
The
Qur'anic
Revelation
Bppeared
six centuries afhr Jesus. It
nesumes
numerous
data found in the Hebraic
Bible
and the GoE-
pels
since it guotes
very frequenily
from the
,Torah,r
and ilre
'Gorpels.'
The
Qut'an
direets au Mustims
to believe
in the
scrip,
turee
tttat
precede
it
(sura
4, verte ls6). rt stresses the impor-
tant position
occupied
in the
Bevelation
by God's emissaries,
s-uch
as Noah, Abratram,
Moses,
the
prophets
aud
Jesus, to whom they
"Ilrylt
a special position.
His birth
is described in the
eur'an,
and likewise in the
Gospels, as a supernatural
event. Mary-is also
-given
a speeial placg
as indicated
bv the fact that sura ig U*"",
her.name.
fire above facts
concerning
Islem
are not generally
known
in
the west. This is hardry
surprising,
when we eonsider the way
so msny generations
in the West were instructed
in the religious
problems
faeing humanity and the
ignorance
in which they were
kept about anything
related to Isram.
The
use of such terms
as
'Mohammedan
religion'
and
'Mohammedans'
has been instru-
mental-even
to the present
day-in
maintaining
the false notion
that beliefs
were involved that
were spread
ty ttre work of man
among:
which
God (in
the christian
sense)
hla no place.
Many
cultivated people
today are interested
in the philosophical,
social
and political
aspects
of Isram,
but they
do not pause
to inquire
about the Islamic
Reveration
itself,
as indeed
thlv should.
In what contempt
the Muslims
are held by certain
christian
circles ! I experienced
this when r tried to start an exchange
of ideas arislng
from I comparative
analysis
of Biblicar and
Qut'anic stories on the same
theme. I nnted
a systematic refusal,
evln fqp the purposes
of simpre reflection,
to take any
account of
what
the
Qur'an
had
to say on the
subject in hand. rt i* as if a
quote
from the
Qur'an were a reference
to the Devil !
A noticeable
chang:e
seems however
to be under way these days
at the highest le'els
of the christian world. The
office for Non-
christian Affairs
at the vatican has produced
a document result-
ing from the second
vatican
council under the French tiile
Orientation^s pour
un diul,ogue entre
Chrdtiens
et Musulmnruz
1. what is meant
by Torah
are the first five books of the Bible, in other
words the Pentateueh
of Moses (Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus,
Numberc
and Deuteronomy).
Z. Pub. Ancora,
Rome.
u
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The Qur'anic Revelation appeared six centuries after Jesus. It
resumes numerous data found in the Hebraic Bible and the G0s-
pels since it quotes very frequently from the 'Torah'! and
'Gospels.' The Qur'an directs all Muslims to believe in the Scrip..
tures that precede it (sura 4, verse 186). It stresses the impor-
tant positi"on occupied in the Revelation by God's emissaries, such
as Noah, Abraham, Moses, the Prophets and Jesus, to whom they
allocate a special position. His birth is described in the Qur'an,
and likewise in the Gospels, as a supernatural event. Mary is also
given a special place, as indicated by the fact that sura 19 bears
her name.
The above facts concerning Islam are not generally known in
the West. This is hardly surprising, when we consider the way
SO many generations in the West were instructed in the religious
problems facing humanity and the ignorance in which they were
kept about anything related to Islam. The use of such terms as
'Mohammedan religion' and 'Mohammedans' has been instru-
mentaI-even to the present day-in maintaining the false notion
that beliefs were involved that were spread by the work of man
among which God (in the Christian sense) had no place. Many
cultivated people today are interested in the philosophical, social
and political aspects of Islam, but they do not pause to inquire
about the Islamic Revelation itself, as indeed they should.
In what contempt the Muslims are held by certain Christian
circles! I experienced this when I tried to start an exchange
of ideas arising from a comparative analysis of Biblical and
Qur'anic stories on the same theme. I noted a systematic refusal,
even fo; the purposes of simple reflection, to take any account of
what the Qur'an had to say on the subject in hand. It is as if a
quote from the Qur'an were a reference to the Devil !
A noticeable change seems however to be under way these days
at the highest levels of the Christian world. The Office for Non-
Christian Affairs at the Vatican has produced a document result-
ing from the Second Vatican Council under the French title
Orientatio'RS pour un dialogue entre Chretiens et Musulrnans
2
1. What is meant by Torah are the first five books of the Bible, in other
words the Pentateuch of Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers
and Deuteronomy).
2. Pub. Ancora, Rome.
lnfiodnrcfun
lll
(orientations for a Dialogue between christians
and Muslims) '
third French edition
dated 19?0,
which bears witness
to the
pro-
found change
in official attitude.
Once the document
has invited
the
reader to clear away the
"out-dated
image,
inherited
from
the
past, or distortd
by
prejudice and slander"
that Christians
have of Islam, the Vatican document
proceeds to "recognize
the
past injustice towards the Muslims for which the West,
rvith its
bnti*U*n
education, is to blame'. It also criticizes the miscon-
ceptions Christians
h*ve been under concerning
Muslim
fatalism'
Islemic legalism,
fanaticism,
etc. It stresses belief in unity of
God and ieminds us how surprised
the audience
was at the
Muslim
University
of Al Azhar, Cairo,
when Cardinal
Koenig
proclaimed this unity at the Great Mosque
during an official con-
ference in March, 1969. It reminds us also that the vatican
of-
fice in 196? invited christians
to offer their best wishes to Mus-
lims at the end of the Fast of Bamadan
with "genuine
religious
wofthtt.
such
preliminary steps towards a closer
relationship
between
the Boriran Catholic
Curia and Islam
have been follorved by
vari-
ous rlanifestations
and consolidated
by encounters
between the
two. There has been, however,
little
publicity accorded to events
of such
great importance
in the western World,
where they took
plaee and where there are ample means of communication
in the
form of
press, radio and television.
The newspapers
g'ave tittle coverag:e to the offieial visit
of
Cardinal
Pignedoli,
the President
of the Vatican Office of
Non-
Christian
Affairs, on 24th April, 1974, to King Faisal of Saudi
Arabia.
The French
newspaper Le Mond,e
on 25th April,
19?4'
dalt with it in a few lines. What momentous
news they contain,
however,
when we read how the Cardinal
conveyed to the Sover-
eign a message from Pope Paul VI expressing "the
regards of
His
Holiness,
moved by a
profound belief in the *niflcation
of
Islamic
and Christian
worlds in the worship of a single God, to
His Majesty King Faisal as supreme
head of the Islamic
world".
Six months
later, in October
19?4, the Pope received the offi-
cial visit to the Vatican
of the Grand Ulema of Saudi Arabia'
It
occasioned
a dialogue between
Christians
and
Muslims on
the
,'Cultural
Rights
of Man in l^glam".
The Vatican
ne\Yspaper'
Obseruotore
-Rom&na,
on 26th Oetober,
19?4, reported
this \is-
In&oduclion iii
(Orientations for a Dialogue between Christians and Muslims),
third French edition dated 1970, which bears witness to the pro-
found change in official attitude. Once the document has invited
the reader to clear away the "out-dated image, inherited from
the past, or distorted by prejudice and slander" that Christians
have of Islam, the Vatican document proceeds to "recognize the
past injustice towards the Muslims for which the West, with its
Christian education, is to blame". It also criticizes the miscon-
ceptions Christians have been under concerning Muslim fatalism,
Islamic legalism, fanaticism, etc. It stresses belief in unity of
God and reminds us how sUrflrised the audience was at the
Muslim University of Al Azhar, Cairo, when Cardinal Koenig
proclaimed this unity at the Great Mosque during an official con-
ference in March, 1969. It reminds us also that the Vatican Of-
fice in 1967 invited Christians to offer their best wishes to Mus-
lims at the end of the Fast of Ramadan with "genuine religious
walth".
Such preliminary steps towards a closer relationship between
the Roman Catholic Curia and Islam have been followed by vari-
ous manifestations and consolidated by encounters between the
two. There has been, however, little publicity accorded to events
of such great importance in the western world, where they took
place and where there are ample means of communication in the
form of press, radio and television.
The newspapers gave little coverage to the official visit of
Cardinal Pignedoli, the President of the Vatican Office of Non-
Christian Affairs, on 24th April, 1974, to King Faisal of Saudi
Arabia. The French newspaper Le Monde on 25th April, 1974,
dealt with it in a few lines. What momentous news they contain,
however, when we read how the Cardinal conveyed to the Sover-
eign a message from Pope Paul VI expressing "the regards of
His Holiness, moved by a profound belief in the unification of
Islamic and Christian worlds in the worship of a single God, to
His Majesty King Faisal as supreme head of the Islamic world".
Six months later, in October 1974, the Pope received the offi-
cial visit to the Vatican of the Grand Ulema of Saudi Arabia. It
occasioned a dialogue between Christians and MusHms on the
"Cultural Rights of Man in Is1am". The Vatican newspaper,
Observatore Romano, on 26th October, 1974, reported this his-
iv
THE BIBrr, THE
QITn
AN AND SCTENCE
toric event in a front page
story that took up more spece than the
rcport on the closing
day of the meeting held uy lhe synod of
Bishops in Bome.
The Grand Ulema of Saudi Arabia
were afterwards
received
by the Eeumenical
council of churctres of Geneva and by the
r,ord Bishop of strasbourg,
His Grace Etchinger.
The Bishop
invited them to
join
in midday prayer
before him in his eathe-
drsl. The fact that the event was reported seems to be more on
account of its unusual
nature than because
of its considerable
religious
signifieance.
At all events, among those whom I
ques-
tioned about this religious
manifestation,
there were very few
who replied that they were aware of it
The open-minded
attitude
pope paur
vr has towards Islam will
certainly
become a milestone in the relations
between the two
religions.
He himself
said that he was
"moved by a
profound
be-
lief in the unification
of the Islamic and
Christian worlds in the
wottship of a single
God". This reminder
of the sentiments
of the
head of the
catholic chureh concerning
Muslims is indeed neces-
siry. Far too msny
christians, brought
up in a spirit of open
hostitity, are ageinst
any reflection
about rslam on
principle.
The
vatican document
notes this with regret.
It is on accouni of this
ttrat they remain
totally ignorent
of what Islam is in reality, and
retain notions about the Islamic
Bevelation which are entirely
mistaken.
Nevertheless,
when studying an aspect
of the Revelation
of a
monotheistie
religion,
it seerna quite
in order to compare what the
other two have
to say on the same subject.
A comprehensive
study of a problem
is more interesting
than a eompartmentalized
one. The confrontation
between certain subjects
dealt with in the
scriptures and the facts of zOth century science will therefore,
in this work, inelude
all three religions. In addition it will be
useful to realize that the three rerigions
should form a tighter
block by virtue of their eloser relationship
at a time when they
are all threatened
by the onslaught
of materialism.
The notion
that science and religion
Bre incompatibre
is as equally prevalent
in countries
under the
Judeo-christian
influence
as in the world
of Islarn--+specially
in scientific
circles. If this
question
were to
be dealt with comprehensively,
a series of lengthy exposds
would
be necessarr.
rn this work, I intend to tsckle only Lr" *rpot of it:
iv THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
toric event in a front page story that took up more space than the
report on the closing day of the meeting held by the Synod of
Bishops in Rome.
The Grand mema of Saudi Arabia were afterwards received
by the Ecumenical Council of Churches of Geneva and by the
Lord Bishop of Strasbourg, His Grace EIchinger. The Bishop
invited them to join in midday prayer before him in his cathe-
dral. The fact that the event was reported seems to be more on
account of its unusual nature than because of its considerable
religious significance. At all events, among those whom I ques-
tioned about this religious manifestation, there were very few
who replied that they were aware of it.
The open-minded attitude Pope Paul VI has towards Islam will
certainly become a milestone in the relations between the two
religions. He himself said that he was "moved by a profound be-
lief in the unification of the Islamic and Christian worlds in the
worship of a single God". This reminder of the sentiments of the
head of the Catholic Church concerning Muslims is indeed neces-
sary. Far too many Christians, brought up in a spirit of open
hostility, are against any reflection about Islam on principle. The
Vatican document notes this with regret. It is on account of this
that they remain totally ignorant of what Islam is in reality, and
retain notions about the Islamic Revelation which are entirely
mistaken.
Nevertheless, when studying an aspect of the Revelation of a
monotheistic religion, it seems quite in order to compare what the
other two have to say on the same subject. A comprehensive
study of a problem is more interesting than a compartmentalized
one. The confrontation between certain subjects dealt with in the
Scriptures and the facts of 20th century science will therefore,
in this work, include all three religions. In addition it will be
useful to realize that the three religions should form a tighter
block by virtue of their closer relationship at a time when they
are all threatened by the onslaught of materialism. The notion
that science and religion are incompatible is as equally prevalent
in countries under the Judeo-Christian influence as in the world
of IsIatn--especially in scientific circles. If this question were to
be dealt with comprehensively, a series of lengthy exposes would
be necessary. In this work, I intend to tackle only one aspect of it:
lntmilrgr',ian
the examination
of the scriptures
themselves
in the light of
modern scientific knowledge.
Before
proceeding with our task, w must ask a fundamental
question t Ho* authentic are today's texts?
It is a
question which
entsils an examination
of the circumstances
surrounding
their
composition
and the way in which they have come down to us.
In the West the critical
study of the Scriptures
is something
quite reeent. For hundreds of
years people were content to accept
the Bible-both Old and New Testaments-as
it was. A reading
produced nothing more than remarks vindicating
it. It would
it"u" been a sin to level the slightest criticism
at it. The clergy
were
priviledged in that they were easily
able to have a compre-
hensive knowledge of the Bible, while the maiority
of laymen
hesrd only selected readings as
part of a sermon or the liturgy'
Raised to the level of a speeialized study, textual criticism has
been valuable
in uncovering and disseminating
problems which
sre often very serious.
How disappointing
it is therefore to read
works of a so-called critical nature which, when faced with very
real
problems of interpretation,
merely
provide passages of an
apologetical
nature by means of which the author contrives
to
hide his dilemma. Whoever
retains
his objective
iudgment
and
power of thought at such a moment will not find the improbabil-
iti*s and contradictions any the less
persistent. One can only re-
gret
an attitude which, in the face of all logical reason' upholds
cer-tain
passages in the Biblical Scriptures
even though they are
riddled
with *"*o"t. It can exercise
an extremely damaging
in-
fluence
upon the cultivated
mind with regard to belief
in God'
Experience
shows however that
even if the few are able
to dis-
tinguish fallacies of this kind, the vast majority of christians
have never taken any account of such incompatibilities
with
their
secular knowledg:e, even though
they are often very
elementary.
Islam has something
relatively
comparable to the Gospels
in
some of the Hadiths.
These are the collected sayings
of Muham-
mad and stories of his deeds.
The Gospels are nothing
other
than
this for Jesus. Some of the collections of Hadiths
were written
decsdes after the death of Muhammad'
just
as
the Gospels
were
writtcn decades
after Jesus. In both cases they
bear human
wit-
ness to events in the
past.
We
shall see how,
contrary to what
many
people
think,
the authors
of the four Canonic
Gospels
were
the examination of the Scriptures themselves in the light of
modern scientific knowledge.
Before proceeding with our task, we must ask a fundamental
question: How authentic are today's texts? It is a question which
entails an examination of the circumstances surrounding their
composition and the way in which they have come down to us.
In the Wt!st the critical study of the Scriptures is something
quite recent. For hundreds of years people were content to accept
the Bible-both Old and New Testaments-as it was. A reading
produced nothing more than remarks vindicating it. It would
have been a sin to level the slightest criticism at it. The clergy
were priviledged in that they were easily able to have a compre-
hensive knowledge of the Bible, while the majority of laymen
heard only selected readings as part of a sermon or the liturgy.
Raised to the level of a specialized study, textual criticism has
been valuable in uncovering and disseminating problems which
are often very serious. How disappointing it is therefore to read
works of a so-called critical nature which, when faced with very
real problems of interpretation, merely provide passages of an
apologetical nature by means of which the author contrives to
hide his dilemma. Whoever retains his objective judgment and
power of thought at such a moment will not find the improbabil-
ities and contradictions any the less persistent. One can only re-
gret an attitude which, in the face of all logical reason, upholds
certain passages in the Biblical Scriptures even though they are
riddled with errors. It can exercise an extremely damaging in-
fluence upon the cultivated mind with regard to belief in God.
Experience shows however that even if the few are able to dis-
tinguish fallacies of this kind, the vast majority of Christians
have never taken any account of such incompatibilities with their
secular knowledge, even though they are often very elementary.
Islam has something relatively comparable to the Gospels in
some of the Hadiths. These are the collected sayings of Muham-
mad and stories of his deeds. The Gospels are nothing other than
this for Jesus. Some of the collections of Hadiths were written
decades after the death of Muhammad, just as the Gospels were
written decades after Jesus. In both cases they bear human wit-
ness to events in the past. We shall see how, contrary to what
many people think, the authors of the four Canonic Gospels were
vl TIIE BIBLF,, TIIE
QIJn'AN
AIYD SCIENCE
not the witnesses of the events they relate. The same is true of
the Hadiths referred to at the end of this book.
Ifere the comparison must end because even if the authenticity
of such-and-such a Hadith has been discussed and is still under
discussion, in the early centuries
of the Church the problem
of
the vast number of Gospels was definitively decided. only four
of them were proclaimed
official, or eanonic, in spite of the many
points
on whieh they do not agree, and order was given
for the
rest to be concealed;
hence the term
,Apoerypha'.
Another fundamental
difference in the Scriptures of Chris-
tionity and Islam is the fact that Christianity does not have
a text which is both revealed and written down. Islam, however,
has the
Qur'an
which fits this description.
The
Qur'an
is the expression of the Revelation made to Muham-
mad by the Arehangel
Gabriel, which was immediately taken
down, and was memorized
and recited by the faithful in their
prayers,
especially during the month
of Ramadan. Muhammad
himself arranged it into suras, and these were collected soon
after the death of the Prophet, to form, under the rule of Caliph
uthman (Lz
to 24
years
after the
prophet's
death), the text we
know today.
fn contrast to this, the Christian Revelation is based on nu-
merous indirect human accounts. We do not in faet have an eye-
witness account from the life of Jesus, contrary to what many
Christians imagine.
The question
of the authenticity of the Chris-
tian and Islamic texts has thus now been formulated.
The eonfrontation
between the texts of the Scriptures and
seientific data has always provided
man with food for thought.
It was st first held that corroboration
between the scriptures
and science was a necessary
element to the authenticity
of the
sacred txt. Saint Augustine,
in Ietter
No.
gp,
which we shall
quote
later on, formally established this principle.
As seience
progressed
however it beeame clear that there were discrepancies
between Biblical Scripture and science. It was therefore
decided
that eomparison would no longer be made. Thus a situation arose
which today, we are forced to admit, puts
Biblical exegetes and
scientists in opposition to one another.
We eannot, after all, ac-
cept a divine Revelation making statements
which are totally
inaccurate. There was only one way of logieally
reeouciling ilre
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
not the witnesses of the events they relate. The same is true of
the Hadiths referred to at the end of this book.
Here the comparison must end because even if the authenticity
of such-and-such a Hadith has been discussed and is still under
discussion, in the early centuries of the Church the problem of
the vast number of Gospels was definitively decided. Only four
of them were proclaimed official, or canonic, in spite of the many
points on which they do not agree, and order was given for the
rest to be concealed; hence the term I Apocrypha'.
Another fundamental difference in the Scriptures of Chris-
tianity and Islam is the fact that Christianity does not have
a text which is both revealed and written down. Islam, however,
has the Qur'an which fits this description.
The Qur'an is the expression of the Revelation made to Muham-
mad by the Archangel Gabriel, which was immediately taken
down, and was memorized 'and recited by the faithful in their
prayers, especially during the month of Ramadan. Muhammad
himself arranged it into suras, and these were collected soon
after the death of the Prophet, to form, under the rule of Caliph
Uthman (12 to 24 years after the Prophet's death), the text we
know today.
In contrast to this, the Christian Revelation is based on nu-
merous indirect human accounts. We do not in fact have an eye-
witness account from the life of Jesus, contrary to what many
Christians imagine. The question of the authenticity of the Chris-
tian and Islamic texts has thus now been formulated.
The confrontation between the texts of the Scriptures and
scientific data has always provided man with food for thought.
It was at first held that corroboration between the scriptures
and science was a necessary element to the authenticity of the
sacred text. Saint Augustine, in letter No. 82, which we shall
quote later on, formally established this principle. As science
progressed however it became clear that there were discrepancies
between Biblical Scripture and science. It was therefore decided
that comparison would no longer be made. Thus a situation arose
which today, we are forced to admit, puts Biblical exegetes and
scientists in opposition to one another. We cannot, after all, ac-
cept a divine Revelation making statements which are totally
inaccurate. There was only one way of logieally reconciling the
Iffin
vli
two; it lay in not considering I
psssage
containing uneceeptrbh
scientific data to be
genuine.
This solution
was not adopted. In-
steed, the integrity of the text was stubbornly maintlincd rnd
e!ryerts wene obliged to adopt a
position
on the truth of the Bib
Hcal Seriptures which, for the scientist, is hardly tenrble.
Like Saint Augustine for the Bible, Islom has always essumcd
thst the data contained in the Holy Scriptures were in sgrs'
ment u/ith scientific fact. A modern examination of the Islamic
Bevelstion
has not ceused a change in this position. As we shell
gee
later on, the
Qut'an
deals with meny subiects of interest to
gcience,
far more in fact than the Bible. There is no comparison
between the limitcd number of Biblical staternents which leed to
a confrontstion with science, and the
profusion
of subiects men-
tioned in the
Qur'an
thet are of a scientific nature. None of the
latter can be contested from a scientific
point of view; this is the
basic fact that emerges fmm our study. We shall see at the end
of this work that such is not the case for the Hadiths. Thes arc
collections
of the Prophet's sayings, set aside from the
Qur'enic
Bevelation,
certsin of which are scientifically
unacceptable. fire
Hadiths in
question have been under study in accordance with
the strict
principles of the
Qurtan
which dictate that science snd
reason should elways be referred to, if necessary to deprive
them
of any authenticity.
These reflections on the scientifieally acceptable or unaccepL
able nsture of a certain Scripture
need some explanetion. It must
be strcssed that when scientific data are discussed here, whrt ic
meant is dats definitely estsblished. This considerstion rules out
any explanatory theories, once useful in illuminating a
phenome'
non and easily
dispensed with to make way for further explrnr'
tions more in keeping with scientific
progress. What I intend
to
consider here are incontrovertible
facts and even if science csn
only
provide
incomplete data, they will nevertheless be sufficiently
well established to be used without fesr of error.
Scientists do not, for example,
have even 8n approximate
date
for
man's appearance on Earth. They have however discovered
remains of human worhs which we can situate beyond a shadow
of a doubt at before the tenth millenium B.C. Hence we cannot
consider
the Biblieal reality on this subject to be competible
with
science. In the Biblical text of Genesis, the dates and
geneelogie
llllrGdacflon
vii
two; it lay in not considering a passage containinl' unacceptable
scientific data to be genuine. This solution was not adopted. In-
stead, the integrity of the text was stubbornly maintained and
experts were obliged to adopt a position on the truth of the Bib-
lical Scriptures which, for the scientist, is hardly tenable.
Like Saint Augustine for the Bible, Islam has always assumed
that the data contained in the Holy Scriptures were in agree-
ment with scientific fact. A modern examination of the Islamic
Revelation has not caused a change in this position. As we shall
see later on, the Qur'an deals with many subjects of interest to
science, far more in fact than the Bible. There is no comparison
between the limited number of Biblical statements which lead to
a confrontation with science, and the profusion of subjects men-
tioned in the Qur'an that are of a scientific nature. None of the
latter can be contested from a scientific point of view; this is the
basic fact that emerges from our study. We shall see at the end
of this work that such is not the case for the Hadiths. These are
collections of the Prophet's saYings, set aside from the Qur'anic
Revelation, certain of which are scientifically unacceptable. The
Hadiths in question have been under study in accordance with
the strict principles of the Qur'an which dictate that science and
reason should always be referred to, if necessary to deprive them
of any authenticity.
These reflections on the scientifically acceptable or unaecept-
able nature of a certain Scripture need some explanation. It must
be stressed that when scientific data are discussed here, what is
meant is data definitely established. This consideration rules out
any explanatory theories, once useful in illuminating a phenome-
non and easily dispensed with to make way for further explana-
tions more in keeping with scientific progress. What I intend to
consider here are incontrovertible facts and even if science can
only provide incomplete data, they will nevertheless be sufficiently
well established to be used without fear of error.
Scientists do not, for example, have even an approximate date
for man's appearance on Earth. They have however discovered
remains of human works which we can situate beyond a shadow
of a doubt at before the tenth millenium B.C. Hence we cannot
consider the Biblical reality on this subject to be compatible with
science. In the Biblical text of Genesis, the dates and
THE BIBI.E, THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENGE
given
would
plaee
man's origins (i.e.
the ereation of Adsm) at
roughly thirty-seven centuries B.C. In the future, science may be
able to
provide
us with data that are more precise
than our
present
ealculations,
but we may rest assured that it wilt never
tell us that man first appeared on Earth E,?86
years
ag:o, as does
the Hebraic calendar for 1975. The Biblical
data eoncerning the
antiquity of man are therefore inaccurate.
This confrontation
with science excludes all religious prob-
lems in the true sense of the word. Science does not, for example,
have any explanation
of the process
whereby God manifested
Himself to Moses. The same may be said for the mystery sur-
rounding the manner in which
Jesus was born in the absence of
a biological father. The Scriptures moreover give
no material
explanation of such data. This present
study is concerned with
what the Scriptures tell us about extremely varied natural phe-
nomena, which they surround
to a lesser or
greater
extent with
commentaries
and explanations. With this in mind, we must nrte
the contrast between the rich abundance
of information on a
given
subject in the
Qur'anic
Revelation
anrl the modesty of the
other two revelations
on the same subject.
It was in a totally objective spirit, and without any precon-
ceived ideas that I first examined the
Qur'anic
Revelation. r was
Iooking for the degree of compatibility between the
eur'anic
text and the data of modern science. r knew from translations
that the
Qur'an
often made allusion to all sorts of natural
phe-
nomena, but I had only a summary knowledge
of it. It was only
when I examined the text very closely in Arabic that I kept a list
of them at the end of which I had to acknowledge the evidence
in front of me; the
Qur'an
did not contain a single statement
that was assailable
from a mocern scientific point
of view.
r repeated the same test for the old Testament and the Gos-
pels,
always preserving
the $ame objective ouflook. In the former
I did not even have to go
beyond the first book, Genesis, to find
statements totally out of keeping with the cast-iron
facts of
modern science,
on opening the
Gospels, one is immediately confronted with a
serious
problem.
on the first page
we find the genealogy
of Jesus,
but Matthew's text is in evident contradiction to Luke,s on the
same question.
There is a further problem
in that the latter,s
viii THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
given would place man's origins (i.e. the creation of Adam) at
roughly thirty-seven centuries B.C. In the future, science may be
able to provide us with data that are more precise than our
present calculations, but we may rest assured that it will never
tell us that man first appeared on Earth 5,736 years ago, as does
the Hebraic calendar for 1975. The Biblical data concerning the
antiquity of man are therefore inaccurate.
This confrontation with science excludes all religious prob-
lems in the true sense of the word. Science does not, for example,
have any explanation of the process whereby God manifested
Himself to Moses. The same may be said for the mystery sur-
rounding the manner in which Jesus was born in the absence of
a biological father. The Scriptures moreover give no material
explanation of such data. This present study is concerned with
what the Scriptures tell us about extremely varied natural phe-
nomena, which they surround to a lesser or greater extent with
commentaries and explanations. With this in mind, we must n)te
the contrast between the rich abundance of information on a
given subject in the Qur'anic Revelation and the modesty of the
other two revelations on the same subject.
It was in a totally objective spirit, and without any precon-
ceived ideas that I first examined the Qur'anic Revelation. I was
looking for the degree of compatibility between the Qur'anic
text and the data of modern science. I knew from translations
that the Qur'an often made allusion to all sorts of natural phe-
nomena, but I had only a summary knowledge of it. It was only
when I examined the text very closely in Arabic that I kept a list
of them at the end of which I had to acknowledge the evidence
in front of me: the Qur'an did not contain a single statement
that was assailable from a modern scientific point of view.
I repeated the same test for the Old Testament and the Gos-
pels, always preserving the same objective outlook. In the former
I did not even have to go beyond the first book, Genesis, to find
statements totally out of keeping with the cast-iron facts of
modern science.
On opening the Gospels, one is immediately confronted with a
serious problem. On the first page we find the genealogy of Jesus,
but Matthew's text is in evident contradiction to Luke's on the
same question. There is a further problem in that the latter's
Infiodwtkm
rx
data on the antiquity of man on Earth sre incompatible with
modern knowledge.
The existence of these contradictions, improbabilities
and in-
compatibilities does not seem to me to detract from the belief in
God. They involve only man's responsibility. No one can say
what the original texts might have been, or identify imaginative
editing, deliberate manipulations of them by men, or uninten-
tional modification of the Scriptures.
What strikes us today,
when we realize Biblical contradictions and incompatibilities
with well-established scientific data, is how specialists studying
the texts either
pretend
to be unaware of them, or else draw at-
tention to these defects then try to camouflage
them with dia-
lectic acrobatics. When we come to the Gospels
according to
Matthew and John, I shall
provide
examples of this brilliant use
of apologetical
turns of
phrase
by eminent experts in exegesis.
Often the attempt to camouflage an improbability
or a contra-
diction,
prudishly called a
'difficulty',
is suecessful.
This explains
why so many Christians
are unaware of the serious defects con-
tained in the Old Testament and the Gospels. The reader will
find
precise
examples of these in the first and second
parts of
this work.
In the third
ped, there is the illustration of an unusual appli-
cation of science to a holy Scripture, the contribution of modern
secular knowledge to a better understanding of certain verses in
the
Qur'an
which until now have remained enigmatic, if not
incomprehensible. Why should we be surprised at this when
we know that, for Islam, religion and science have always been
considered twin sisters? From the very beginning, Islam directed
people to cultivate science;
the applieation of this
precept
brought with it the prodigious strides in seience taken during
the
great
era of Islamic civilization, from which,
before the
Renaissance,
the West itself benefited. In the confrontation
be-
tween the Scriptures
and science a high point of understanding
has been reached owing to the light thrown on
Qur'anic
passages
by modern scientific
knowledge. Previously
these
passages were
obscure owning to the non-availability of knowledge
which could
help interpret them.
Introduction
data on the antiquity of man on Earth are incompatible with
modern knowledge.
The existence of these contradictions, improbabilities and in-
compatibilities does not seem to me to detract from the belief in
God. They involve only man's responsibility. Noone can say
what the original texts might have been, or identify imaginative
editing, deliberate manipulations of them by men, or uninten-
tional modification of the Scriptures. What strikes us today,
when we realize Biblical contradictions and incompatibilities
with well-established scientific data, is how specialists studying
the texts either pretend to be unaware of them, or else draw at-
tention to these defects then try to camouflage them with dia-
lectic acrobatics. When we come to the Gospels according to
Matthew and John, I shall provide examples of this brilliant use
of apologetical turns of phrase by eminent experts in exegesis.
Often the attempt to camouflage an improbability or a contra-
diction, prudishly called a 'difficulty', is successful. This explains
why so many Christians are unaware of the serious defects con-
tained in the Old Testament and the Gospels. The reader will
find precise examples of these in the first and second parts of
this work.
In the third part, there is the illustration of an unusual appli-
cation of science to a holy Scripture, the contribution of modern
secular knowledge to a better understanding of certain verses in
the Qur'an which until now have remained enigmatic, if not
incomprehensible. Why should we be surprised at this when
we know that, for Islam, religion and science have always been
considered twin sisters? From the very beginning, Islam directed
people to cultivate science; the application of this precept
brought with it the prodigious strides in science taken during
the great era of Islamic civilization, from which, before the
Renaissance, the West itself benefited. In the confrontation be-
tween the Scriptures and science a high point of understanding
has been reached owing to the light thrown on Qur'anic passages
by modern scientific knowledge. Previously these passages were
obscure owning to the non-availability of knowledge which could
help interpret them.
t
The Old
Testarrrcnt
General
Outlines
\Mho is the author of the Old Testsment?
One wonders how many readers of the Otd Testarnent,
if asked
the above
question,
would reply by repeating what they had
read in the introduction to their Bible. They might snswer that'
even though it was wri.tten by men inspired by the Holy GhosL
the author was God.
Sometimes, the author of the Bible's
presentation confines
himself to informing his reader of this succinct obseryation
which
puts an end to all further
questions.
Sometimes
he corrects
it by warning him that detsils may subsequently
have be+n added
to the
primitive
text by men, but that nonetheless, the litigious
character of a
passsge does not alter the
general
'truth'
that
proceeds
from it. This
'truth'
is stressed
very heavily.
The
Church Authorities answer for it, being the only body, with the
essistance of the Holy Ghost, able to enlighten the faithful on
guch
points. Since the Councils held in the Fogrth century,
it was
the Church
that issued the list of Holy Books, ratified by the
Councils
of Florence
(1441), Trent
(1546), and the First Vati-
can Council
(18?0), to form what today is known as the Canon-
Just recently, after 8o many encyclicals,
the Second Vatican
Council
published a text concerning the Revelation
which is ex-
tremely important. It took three
yesrs (1962-1965) of strenuous
I
ThE Old
TEstamEnt
Gene..al Outlines
Who is the author of the Old Testament?
One wonders how many readers of the Old Testament, if asked
the above question, would reply by repeating what they had
read in the introduction to their Bible. They might answer that,
even though it was written by men inspired by the Holy Ghost,
the author was God.
Sometimes, the author of the Bible's presentation confines
himself to informing his reader of this succinct observation
which puts an end to all further questions. Sometimes he corrects
it by warning him that details may 'Subsequently have been added
to the primitive text by men, but that nonetheless, the litigious
character of a passage does not alter the general 'truth' that
proceeds from it. This 'truth' is stressed very heavily. The
Church Authorities answer for it, being the only body, with the
assistance of the Holy Ghost, able to enlighten the faithful on
such points. Since the Councils held in the Fourth century, it was
the Church that issued the list of Holy Books, ratified by the
Councils of Florence (1441), Trent (1546), and the First Vati-
can Council (1870), to form what today is known as the Canon.
Just recently, after so many encyclicals, the Second Vatican
Council published a text concerning the Revelation which is ex-
tremely important. It took three years (1962-1965) of strenuous
1
g
THE BIBLF", TIIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
effort to
produce.
The vast majority of the Bible's readers who
find this highly reassuring information at the head of a modern
edition have been
quite
satisfied with the
guarantees
of authen-
tieity made over past
centuries and have hardly thought it
possi-
ble to debate them.
When one refers however to works written by clergymen, not
meant for mass publication,
one realizes that the question
con-
cerning the authenticity of the books in the Bible is much more
complex than one might suppose o
pri,ori.
For example, when
one consults the modern publication
in separate installments of
the Bible in French translated under the
guidance
of the Bibli-
cal School of Jerusalemr, the tone appears to be very different.
one realizes that the old Testament, like the New Testament,
raises problems
with controversial elements that, for the most
part, the authors of commentaries have not conceared.
we also find highly precise
data in more condensed studies of
a very objective nature, such as Professor Edmond Jacob's
study; The Ol d Testament (L' Anci en
Testament)' . Thi s book
gives
an excellent general
view.
Many people
are unaware, and Edmond
Jacob
points
this out,
that there were originally a number of texts and not
just
one.
Around the Thi'rd century 8.C., there were at least three forms
of the Hebrew text: the text which was to become the Masoretic
text, the text which was used, in part
at least, for the Greek
translation, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. In the First century
8.C., there was a tendency towards the establishment of a single
text, but it was tiot until a century after Christ that the Biblical
text was definitely established.
If we had had the three forrns of the text, comparison would
have been possi bl e,
and we coul d have reached an opi ni on con-
cerni ng what the ori gi nal mi ght have been. unfortunatel y, we
do not have the sl i ghtest i dea. Apart from the Dead Sea Scrol l s
(Cave
of
Qumran)
dati ng from a pre-Chri sti an
era near the
time of Jesus, a
papyrus
of the Ten Commandments of the Sec-
ond century A.D.
presenti ng
vari ati ons from the cl assi cal text,
and a few fragments from the Fifth century A.D.
(Geniza
of
1. Pub. Cerf , Pari s
2. Pub. Presses uni versi tai res de France,
pari s
,.eue
sai s-j e?" col l eeti on
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
effort to produce. The vast majority of the Bible's readers who
find this highly reassuring information at the head of a modern
edition have been quite satisfied with the guarantees of authen-
ticity made over past centuries and have hardly thought it possi-
ble to debate them.
When one refers however to works written by clergymen, not
meant for mass publication, one realizes that the question con-
cerning the authenticity of the books in the Bible is much more
complex than one might suppose a priori. For example, when
one consults the modern publication in separate installments of
the Bible in French translated under the guidance of the Bibli-
cal School of Jerusaleml, the tone appears to be very different.
One realizes that the Old Testament, like the New Testament,
raises problems with controversial elements that, for the most
part, the authors of commentaries have not concealed.
We also find highly precise data in more condensed studies of
a very objective nature, such as Professor Edmond Jacob's
study: The Old Testament (L'Ancien Testament) 2. This book
gives an excellent general view.
Many people are unaware, and Edmond Jacob points this out,
that there were originally a number of texts and not just one.
Around the Third century B.C., there were at least three forms
of the Hebrew text: the text which was to become the Masoretic
text, the text which was used, in part at least, for the Greek
translation, and the Samaritan Pentateuch. In the First century
B.C., there was a tendency towards the establishment of a single
text, but it was not until a century after Christ that the Biblical
text was definitely established.
If we had had the three forms of the text, comparison would
have been possible, and we could have reached an opinion con-
cerning what the original might have been. Unfortunately, we
do not have the slightest idea. Apart from the Dead Sea Scrolls
(Cave of Qumran) dating from a pre-Christian era near the
time of Jesus, a papyrus of the Ten Commandments of the Sec-
ond century A.D. presenting variations from the classical text,
and a few fragments from the Fifth century A.D. (Geniza of
1. Pub. Ced, Paris
2. Pub. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris "Que sais-je?" collection
Cairo), the oldest Hebrew text of the Bible dates from the Ninth
century A.D.
The Septuagint
was
probably the first translation
in Greek.
It dates from the Third eentury B.C. and was written by Jews
in Alexandria. It was on this text that the l'Iew Testament was
based. It remained authoritative until the Seventh
century
A.D.
The basic Greek texts in
general use in the Christian
world are
from the manuscripts catalogued under the title Cod'en
Vatica'mn
in the Vatiean City and Coden Sinniticus at the British
Museum,
London. They date from the Fourth century A.D'
At the beginning of the Fifth century A.D., Saint Jerome
was
able to
produce a text in latin using Hebrew documents.
It was
later to be called thle Vulgate on account of its universal
distribu-
tion after the Seventh century A.D.
For the record, we shall mention the Aramaic version and
the Syriac
(Peshitta)
version, but these are incomplete.
All of these versions
have enabled
specialists
to
piece together
so-called
'middle-of-the-road'
texts, a, sort of compromise
be-
tween the different versions. Multi-tingual
collections
have also
been
produced whieh
iuxtapose
the Hebrew, Greek,
Latin'
Syriac,
Aramaic and even Arabic versions. This is the case of
the famous Walton Bible
(London, 165?). For the sake of
completeness,
let us mention that diverging Biblical conceptions
a""
"e*ponsible
for the fact that the various Christian
churches
do not all accept exactly
the same books and have not until now
had identical
ideas on translation into the same language. The
Eatmeni,cal
Translation
of the OId Testament
is a work of uni-
fication wriiten by numerous Catholic
and Protestant experts
now
nearing completionr and should
result in a work of syn-
thesis.
Thus the humau element in the Old Testament
is seen to be
quite considerable.
It is not difficult to understand
why from
version to version, and translation to translation,
rvith all the
corrections
inevitably
resulting, it was
possible for the original
text to have been transformed
during the course of more than
two thousand
years.
l. Translator's
Note: Published December
f9?5 by Les Editions du Cerf
and l.cs Bergers et les Mages, Paris
The Old Testamen' 3
Cairo), the oldest Hebrew text of the Bible dates from the Ninth
century A.D.
The Septuagint was probably the first translation in Greek.
It dates from the Third century B.C. and was written by Jews
in Alexandria. It was on this text that the New Testament was
based. It remained authoritative until the Seventh century A.D.
The basic Greek texts in general use in the Christian world are
from the manuscripts catalogued under the title Codex Vaticanus
in the Vatican City and Codex Sinaiticus at the British Museum,
London. They date from the Fourth century A.D.
At the beginning of the Fifth century A.D., Saint Jerome was
able to produce a text in latin using Hebrew documents. It was
later to be called the Vulgate on account of its universal distribu-
tion after the Seventh century A.D.
For the record, we shall mention the Aramaic version and
the Syriac (Peshitta) version, but these are incomplete.
All of these versions have enabled specialists to piece together
so-called 'middle-of-the-road' texts, a sort of compromise be-
tween the different versions. Multi-lingual collections have also
been produced which juxtapose the Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
Syriac, Aramaic and even Arabic versions. This is the case of
the famous Walton Bible (London, 1657). For the sake of
completeness, let us mention that diverging Biblical conceptions
are responsible for the fact that the various Christian churches
do not all accept exactly the same books and have not until now
had identical ideas on translation into the same language. The
Ecumenical Translation of the Old Testament is a work of uni-
fication written by numerous Catholic and Protestant experts
now nearing completion
1
and should result in a work of syn-
thesis.
Thus the human element in the Old Testament is seen to be
quite considerable. It is not difficult to understand why from
version to version, and translation to translation, with all the
corrections inevitably resulting, it was possible for the original
text to have been transformed during the course of more than
two thousand years.
1. Translator's Note: Published December f975 by Les Editions du Cerf
and Les Bergers et les Mages, Paris
1
TIIE BBI.F,, TIIE
QI,'R'AN
AND SGAENCE
ORIGINS
OF THE BIBLE
Before it became a collection of books, it uras a folk tradition
that relied
entirely upon human memory, originally the only
means of
passing
on ideas. This tradition
was sung,.
"At an elementary
stage,
writes E. Jacob, errery people
sings;
in Israel, as elsewhere, poetry preceded prose.
Israel r"ng long
and well; Ied by circumstances
of his history to the treiehts of
ioy
and the depths of despair, taking part
with intense leeling
in all that happened
to it, for everything
in their eyes had a
sense, Israel gave
its song a wide variety
of expression".
They
sgng for the most diverse reasons and E. Jacob mentions a
number of them
to which we find the accompanying
songs in the
Bible: eating songs, harvest songs, songs connected with work,
like the famous
well song (Numbers
zL, 1r7), wedding songs,
as in the Song of Songs, and mourning
songs. In the Bible there
are numerous
songs of war and among these we find the
song
of Deborah (Judges
5, 1-32) exalting fsrael's victory
desired
and led by Yahweh
Himself, (Numbers
10, 85)
;
,,Ahd
whenever
ttre ark
(of
alliance)
set out, Moses said,
,Arise,
oh
yahweh,
snd let thy enemies
be scattered;
and let them that hate thee
flee before thee"'.
There are also the Maxims and
proverbs
(Book
of
proverbs,
Proverbs and Maxims of the Historic
Books), words of blessing
and curse, and the laws decreed to man by the
prophets
on re-
ception of their Divine mandate.
E. Jacobs notes
that these words were either passed
down
from family to family or channelled through
the sanctuaries
in
the form of an account of the history of God's chosen people.
History quickly
turned into fable,
as in the Fable of Jotham
(Judges
g,
7-z1-), where
"the trees went forth to anoint a king
over them; and they asked in turn the olive tree, the fig tree,
the vine and the bramble", which allows E. Jacob to note
..ani-
mated by the need to ttl a
good
story, the narration was not
perturbed
by subjects or times whose history was not well
known", from which he concludes:
"rt
is
proba,ble
thst what the old restament
narrates about
Moses and the patriarchs
only roughly
corresponds
to the suc-
cession of hisboric facts. The narrators
however, even at the
stage of oral trsnsmigsion,
wene able to bring into play
suctl
4 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
ORIGINS OF THE BIBLE
Before it became a collection of books, it was a folk tradition
that relied entirely upon human memory, originally the only
means of passing on ideas. This tradition was sung.
"At an elementary stage, writes E. Jacob, every people sings;
in Israel, as elsewhere, poetry preceded prose. Israel sang long
and well; led by circumstances of his history to the heights of
joy and the depths of despair, taking part with intense feeling
in all that happened to it, for everything in their eyes had a
sense, Israel gave its song a wide variety of expression". They
sang for the most diverse reasons and E. Jacob mentions a
number of them to which we find the accompanying songs in the
Bible: eating songs, harvest songs, songs connected with work,
like the famous Well Song (Numbers 21, 17), wedding songs,
as in the Song of Songs, and mourning songs. In the Bible there
are numerous songs of war and among these we find the Song
of Deborah (Judges 5, 1-32) exalting Israel's victory desired
and led by Yahweh Himself, (Numbers 10, 35) ; "And whenever
the ark (of alliance) set out, Moses said, 'Arise, oh Yahweh,
and let thy enemies be scattered; and let them that hate thee
flee before thee' ".
There are also the Maxims and Proverbs (Book of Proverbs,
Proverbs and Maxims of the Historic Books), words of blessing
and curse, and the laws decreed to man by the Prophets on re-
ception of their Divine mandate.
E. Jacobs notes that these words were either passed down
from family to family or channelled through the sanctuaries in
the form of an account of the history of God's chosen people.
History quickly turned into fable, as in the Fable of Jotham
(Judges 9, 7-21), where "the trees went forth to anoint a king
over them; and they asked in turn the olive tree, the fig tree,
the vine and the bramble", which allows E. Jacob to note "ani-
mated by the need to tell a good story, the narration was not
perturbed by subjects or times whose history was not well
known", from which he concludes :
"It is probs.ble that what the Old Testament narrates about
Moses and the patriarchs only roughly corresponds to the suc-
cession of historic facts. The narrators however, even at the
stage of oral transmission, were able to bring into play such
Trpol|dTffircnt
f
gmce
and imsgination to btend between
them hishly varied epi-
sodes, that when all is said and done, they were able to
present
ar a history thtt was fairly credible to criticsl thinkers
what
heppened at the beginning of humanity aud the world".
Therc is
good
1re88on to believe thst after the Jewish
people
settled in Canean,
et tlre end of the Thirteenth
century
B.C.,
writtns was usd to
preserve and hand down the tradition.
There
wes not however complete accurscy'
even in what to men seema
to demand the
greatest
durability, i.e. the lgws. Among these,
the trrws which sre supposed to have been written by God's own
hend, the Ten Commindments,
were transmittd in the Old
Testrment in two versions; Exodus
(20'
1-21) and Deuteronomy
(6,
130). Ttrey are the same in spirit, but the variations
are
obvious. There is elso a concern to keep a large written
record
of contracts,
letters, lists of
personalities
(Judges, high ciff
ofrcials,
genealogical tables), lists of ofrerings and
plunder. [n
thle way, archives were creatcd
which
provided documentation
for the later editing of definitive
works resulting in the books
we have todey. firus in each book there is a mixture of difterent
literary
genres: it can be left
to the specialists
to find the rea-
tons for this odd assorlrnent of documents.
The otd Testsment is a disparate
whole based upon an initially
onal tradition. It ie interesting therefore
to compere the
proeess
by which it was constituted with what could happen in another
period
and another
place at the time when a
primitive literature
waB born.
Lct ug teke, for example,
the birth of French
literature at the
time of tfue Frankish Rofatty.
The same oral
tradition
presided
over
the
presenration of important
deeds:
wars' often
in the
defense
of C'tr"istianity,
various sensational events, where heroes
distinguished
themselves,
that were destined
centuries later to
inspire court
Fffits,
chroniclers snd authors of vsrious
'cycles'.
In this wEY, ito* the Eleventh century
A.D. onwards,
these
narative
poems, in which
reality is mixed with legend, were
to sppear and constitute
the first monument
in epic
poetry'
The
most famous of all is the song of Roland
(La
Chanson
de
Roland)
a biographical
chant about a feat of arms in which
Roland
was the coilrmander
of Emperor charlemagne's
re&r-
gUerd on its wsy home from an expedition
in Sp'rin.
The sacri-
rINOldr........, 5
grace and imagination to blend between them highly varied epi-
sodes, that when all is said and done, they were able to present
as a history that was fairly credible to critical thinkers what
happened at the beginning of humanity and the world".
There is good reason to believe that after the Jewish people
settled in Canaan, at the end of the Thirteenth century B.C.,
writing was uaed to preserve and hand down the tradition. There
was not however complete accuracy, even in what to men seems
to demand the greatest durability, i.e. the laws. Among these,
the laws which are supposed to have been written by God's own
band, the Ten Commandments, were transmitted in the Old
Testament in two versions; Exodus (20, 1-21) and Deuteronomy
(6, leBO). They are the same in spirit, but the variations are
obvious. There is also a concern to keep a large written record
of contracts, letters, lists of personalities (Judges, high city
officials, genealogical tables), lists of offerings and plunder. In
this way, archives were created which provided documentation
for the later editing of detinitive works resulting in the books
we have today. Thus in each book there is a mixture of different
literary genres: it can be left to the specialists to find the rea-
IODS for this odd assortment of documents.
The Old Testament is a disparate whole based upon an initially
oral tradition. It is interesting therefore to compare the process
by which it was constituted with what could happen in another
period and another place at the time when a primitive literature
was born.
Let us take, for example, the birth of French literature at the
time of the Frankish Royalty. The same oral tradition presided
over the preservation of important deeds: wars, often in the
defense of Ohristianity, various sensational events, where heroes
distinguished themselves, that were destined centuries later to
inspire court poets, chroniclers and authors of various 'cycles'.
In this way, from the Eleventh century A.D. onwards, these
narrative poems, in which reality is mixed with legend, were
to appear and constitute the first monument in epic poetry.
The most famous of all is the Song of Roland (La Chanson de
Roland) a biographical chant about a feat of arms in which
Roland was the commander of Emperor Charlemagne's rear-
guard on its way home from an expedition in Sp:ain. The sacri-
S
THE BIBLE
TIIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
fiee of Roland is not
just
an episode invented
to meet the needs
of the story. It took place
on r5th August,
??g. In actual fact it
was &n attack by Basques living in the mountains.
This litersn'
work is not
just
legend; it has a historical
basis, but no historisn
would take it literally.
This
parallel
between
the birth of the Bible and a secular liter-
ature seems to correspond
exactly with reality.
It is in no way
meant to relegate
the whole Biblical text as we know it today to
the store of mythological
collections, as do so many
of those who
systematieally
negate the idea of God. It is
perfecfly
possible
to
believe in the reality of the Creation, God's transmission
to
Moses of the Ten commandments,
Divine intercession
in human
afrairs, e.g. at the time of solomon. This does not stop us, at tbe
same time,
from considering
that what has been conveyed to
us is the gist
of these facts, and that the detail in the description
should be subjeeted
to rigorous eritieism, the reason
toi ttris
being that the element of human participation
in the transcrip-
tion of originally oral traditions is so
great.
8 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
lice of Roland is not just an episode invented to meet the needs
of the story. It took place on 15th August, 778. In actual fact it
was an attack by Basques living in the mountains. This literary
work is not just legend; it has a historical basis, but no historian
would take it literally.
This parallel between the birth of the Bible and a secular liter-
ature seems to correspond exactly with reality. It is in no way
meant to relegate the whole Biblical text as we know it today to
the store of mythological collections, as do so many of those who
systematically negate the idea of God. It is perfectly possible to
believe in the reality of the Creation, God's transmission to
Moses of the Ten Commandments, Divine intercession in human
affairs, e.g. at the time of Solomon. This does not stop us, at the
same time, from considering that what has been conveyed to
us is the gist of these facts, and that the detail in the description
should be subjected to rigorous criticism, the reason for this
being that the element of human participation in the transcrip-
tion of originally oral traditions is so great.
ll
The Books of the
Old
Testarrrent
Ttre Old Testament is a collection of works of
greatly differing
length and many different
genres. They were written in severrl
languages over a
period of more than nine hundred
ye&rs' based
on oral traditions. Many of these works were corrected and com-
pleted in accordance with events or special requirements, often
at
periods that were very distant from one another'
This copious literature
probably flowered at the beginning of
the
Israelite Monarchy, around the Eleventh century B.C. It
was at this
period that a body of scribes appeared among the
members of the royal household. They were cultivated men
whose
r6le uras not limited to writing. The first incompiete
writings,
mentioned in the
preceding chapter, may date from this
period.
There was a special reason for writing
these works down; there
were a certain number of songs
(mentioned earlier), the
prophe-
tic oracles of Jacob and Moses, the Ten Commandments
and, on
a more
general level, the legislative texts which established
a
religious tradition before the formation of the law.
All these
texts constitute fragments scattered
here and there throughout
the various collections of the Old Testament.
It was not until a little later,
possibly during the Tenth
cen-
tury 8.C., that the so-called
'Yahvist"
text of the Pentateuch
was written. This
text was to form the backbone of the first
five books ascribed
to Moses. Later, the so-called
'Elohist'2
text
was to be added, and also the so-called
'sacerdotal'3
version.
The
So called because God is named Yahweh in this text'
So cslled
because God is named Elohim in this text'
Frorn the
preachers in the Temple at Jerusalem'
1.
2.
B.
II
ThE I300ks of thE
Old TeslalDenl
The Old Testament is a collection of works of greatly differing
length and many different genres. They were written in -several
languages over a period of more than nine hundred years, based
on oral traditions. Many of these works were corrected and com-
pleted in accordance with events or special requirements, often
at periods that were very distant from one another.
This copious literature probably flowered at the beginning of
the Israelite Monarchy, around the Eleventh century B.C. It
was at this period that a body of scribes appeared among the
members of the royal household. They were cultiVL\ted men whose
role was not limited to writing. The first incomplete writings,
mentioned in the preceding chapter, may date from this period.
There was a special reason for writing these works down; there
were a certain number of songs (mentioned earlier), the prophe-
tic oracles of Jacob and Moses, the Ten Commandments and, on
a more general level, the legislative texts which established a
religious tradition before the formation of the law. All these
texts constitute fragments scattered here and there throughout
the various collections of the Old Testament.
It was not until a little later, possibly during the Tenth cen-
tury B.C., that the so-called 'Yahvist'l text of the Pentateuch
was written. This text was to form the backbone of the first
five books ascribed to Moses. Later, the so-called 'Elohist'2 text
was to be added, and also the so-called 'Sacerdota1'3 version. The
1. So called because God is named Yahweh in this text.
2. So called because God is named Elohim in this text.
3. From the preachers in the Temple at Jerusalem.
1
g
THE BrBr
q
rHE
QUnAN
AND SCTENCE
initial Yahvist
text deals with the origins of the world up to the
death of Jacob. This taxt comes from the southern
kinsdom,
Judah,
At the end of the Ninth century and in the middle of the
Eighth century
8.C., the
prophetic
influence of Elias and Elisha
took shape
and spread. We have
their books today. This is also
the time
of the Elohist text of the
pentateuch
which
covers &
much small'er period
than the Yahvist text because it limits itself
to facts relating to Abraham, Jacob
and Joseph. The books of
Joshua and Judges date from
this time.
The Eighth century B.c. saw the appearance of the writer-
prophets:
Amos and Hosea in Israel,
and Michah in Judah.
rn 721 8.c., the fall of samaria put
an end to the Kingdom of
Israel. The Kingdom
of Judah took
over its religious heritage.
The collection of Proverbs dates from this
period,
distinguished
in particular
by the fusion into a single book of the
yahvist
and
Elohist texts of the Pentateuch;
in this way the Torah was eon-
stituted. Deuteronomy
was written at this time.
In the second half of the seventh century 8.c., the reign of
Josiah coincided
with the appearance
of the prophet
Jeremiah,
but his work did not take definitive shape until a century later.
Before the first
deportation to Babylon in Egg 8.c., there
appeared the Books of zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk.
Ezekiel was already prophesying
during this first deportation.
The fall of Jerusalem in E8? B.c. marked the beginning
of the
second deportation
which lasted
until 5Bg B.C.
The Book of Ezekiel, the last
great prophet
and the prophet
of
exile, was not arranged into its present
form until after tris aeath
by the scribes that were
to become his spiritual inlreritors.
These
same scribes were to resume
Genesis in a third version,
the so-
ealled
'Sacerdotal'
version, for the section going
from the Cre-
ation to the death of Jacob. In this way a third text
was to be
inserted into the eentral
fabric of the Yahvist
and Elohist
texts
of the Torah.
We shall see later on, in the books written roughly
two and four centuries
earlier, an aspect
of the intricacies
of
this third text. It was at this time that the Lamentations
appeared.
on the order of cyrus, the deportation
to Babylon came to an
end in 538 B.c. The Jews returned to
palestine
and the Temple
8 THE BIBLE, THE QURAN AND SCIENCE
initial Yahvist text deals with the origins of the world up to the
death of Jacob. This text comes from the southern kingdom,
Judah.
At the end of the Ninth century and in the middle of the
Eighth century B.C., the prophetic influence of Elias and Elisha
took shape and spread. We have their books today. This is also
the time of the Elohist text of the Pentateuch which covers a
much smaller period than the Yahvist text because it limits itself
to facts relating to Abraham, Jacob and Joseph. The books of
Joshua and Judges date from this time.
The Eighth century B.C. saw the appearance of the writer-
prophets: Amos and Hosea in Israel, and Michah in Judah.
In 721 B.C., the fall of Samaria put an end to the Kingdom of
Israel. The Kingdom of Judah took over its religious heritage.
The collection of Proverbs dates from this period, distinguished
in particular by the fusion into a single book of the Yahvist and
Elohist texts of the Pentateuch; in this way the Torah was con-
stituted. Deuteronomy was written at this time.
In the second half of the Seventh century B.C., the reign of
Josiah coincided with the appearance of the prophet Jeremiah,
but his work did not take definitive shape until a century later.
Before the first deportation to Babylon in 598 B.C., there
appeared the Books of Zephaniah, Nahum and Habakkuk.
Ezekiel was already prophesying during this first deportation.
The fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. marked the beginning of the
second deportation which lasted until 538 B.C.
The Book of Ezekiel. the last great prophet and the prophet of
exile, was not arranged into its present form until after his death
by the scribes that were to become his spiritual in!1eritors. These
same scribes were to resume Genesis in a third version, the so-
called 'Sacerdotal' version, for the section going from the Cre-
ation to the death of Jacob. In this way a third text was. to be
inserted into the central fabric of the Yahvist and Elohist texts
of the Torah. We shall see later on, in the books written roughly
two and four centuries earlier, an aspect of the intricacies of
this third text. It was at this time that the Lamentations
appeared.
On the order of Cyrus, the deportation to Babylon came to an
end in 538 B.C. The Jews returned to Palestine and the Temple
Tho Boob of tlp Old Ttutrlritt,
0
at Jentsalem was rebuilt. Ttre
prophets' activities began again,
resulting in the books of llaggai, Zechariah, the third book of
Isaiah, Malaehi, Daniel and Baruch
(the last being in Greek).
The
period following the deportation is also the
period of the
Books of Wisdom:
Proverbs was written definitively around 480
8.C., Job in the middle of the Fifth century 8.C., Ecclesisstes or
Koheleth dates from the Third century
8.C., as do the Song of
Songp, Chronicles
I & II, Ezra and Nehemiah; Ecclesiasticus
or
Sirah appeared
in the Seeond
century B.C.; the Book of Wisdom
and the Book of Maceabees I & II $tere written one century be-
fore Christ. The Books of Buth, Esther and Jonah are not easily
datable. The same is true for Tobit and Judith.
All these dates
are
given
on the understanding that there may have been subse-
quent
adaptations, since it was only cirea one century before
Christ
that form was first given to the writings of the Old Testa-
ment. For many this did not become definitive until one century
after Christ.
Thus the Old Testament appears as a literary monument to
the Jewish
people,
from its origins to the eoming of Christianity.
The books it consists of were written, completed and revised
between the Tenth and the First centuries B.C. This is in no
way a
personal point
of view on the history of its composition.
The essential data for this historical survey were taken from the
entry The Bi.bte in the Encyclopedia Universalis' by J. P. San-
droz, a
professor at the Dominican Faeulties, Saulchoir. To under-
stand what the Old Testament represents, it is important to
retain this information, eorrectly established today by highly
qualified
speeialists.
A Revelation is mingled in all these writings, but all we possess
today is what men have seen fit to leave us. These men manipu-
lated the texts to
please
themselves,
according to the circum-
stances they were in and the necessities they had to meet.
When these objective data are compared with those found
in
various
prefaces to Bibles destined today for mass
publication'
one realizes that facts are
presented in them
in
quite a dif-
ferent way. Fundamental facts concerning
the writing of the
books are
passed over in silenee, ambiguities
which mislead
the
reader are maintained, facts are minimalised
to such an extent
1. Pari s, 19?4 edi ti on, Vol . S,
pp. 246' 263.
T1uJ Boob of Oae Old TalGment 9
at Jerusalem was rebuilt. The prophets' activities began again,
resulting in the books of Haggai, Zechariah, the third book of
Isaiah, Malachi, Daniel and Baruch (the last being in Greek).
The period following the deportation is also the period of the
Books of Wisdom: Proverbs was written definitively around 480
B.C., Job in the middle of the Fifth century B.C., Ecclesiastes or
Koheleth dates from the Third century B.C., as do the Song of
Songs, Chronicles I & II, Ezra and Nehemiah; Ecclesiasticus or
Sirah appeared in the Second century B.C.; the Book of Wisdom
and the Book of Maccabees I & II were written one century be-
fore Christ. The Books of Ruth, Esther and Jonah are not easily
datable. The same is true for Tobit and Judith. All these dates
are given on the understanding that there may have been subse-
quent adaptations, since it was only circa one century before
Christ that form was first given to the writings of the Old Testa-
ment. For many this did not become definitive until one century
after Christ.
Thus the Old Testament appears as a literary monument to
the Jewish people, from its origins to the coming of Christianity.
The books it consists of were written, completed and revised
between the Tenth and the First centuries B.C. This is in no
way a personal point of view on the history of its composition.
The essential data for this historical survey were taken from the
entry The Bible in the Encyclopedia Universalist by J. P. San-
droz, a professor at the Dominican Faculties, Saulchoir. To under-
stand what the Old Testament represents, it is important to
retain this information, correctly established today by highly
qualified specialists.
A Revelation is mingled in all these writings, but all we possess
today is what men have seen fit to leave us. These men manipu-
lated the texts to please themselves, according to the circum-
stances they were in and the necessities they had to meet.
When these objective data are compared with those found in
various prefaces to Bibles destined today for mass publication,
one realizes that facts are presented in them in quite a dif-
ferent way. Fundamental facts concerning the writing of the
books are passed over in silence, ambiguities which mislead the
reader are maintained, facts are minimalised to such an extent
1. Paris, 1974 edition, Vol. 3, pp. 246-253.
t0 IIIE BIBLE, THE
QtrR'AN
AND SCIENCE
that a false idea of reality is conveyed. A large number of
pre-
faces or introductions to the Bible misrepresent reality in this
way. In the case of books that were adapted several times
(like
the Pentateueh), it is said that eertsin details may have been
added later on. A discussion of an unimportant passage
of a
book is introduced, but crucial facts warranting lengthy expo-
sitions are
passed
over in silence. It is distressing to see such
inaccurate information on the Bible maintained for mass
publi-
cation.
THE TONAII OR PENTATEUCH
Torah is the Semitic n&me.
The Greek expression, which in English gives
us
'Pentateuch',
designates & work in five
parts;
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and Deuteronomy. These were
to form the five
primary
elements of the collection of thirty-nine
volumes that makes up
the Old Testament.
This
group
of texts deals with the origins of the world up to
the entry of the Jewish
people into
Canaan, the land promised
to them after their exile in Esypt, more precisely
until the death
of Moses. The narration of these facts serves however as a
gen-
eral framework for a description of the provisions
made for the
religious and social life of the Jewish
people,
hence the name
Law or Torah.
Judaism and Christianity for many centuries considered that
the author was Moses himself. Perhaps this affirmation was
based on the fact that God said to Moses
(Exoclus
17, L4):
"write
this (thg
defeat of Amalek) as a memorial in a book", or again,
talking of the Exodus from Egypt,
"Moses
wrote
down their
starting places" (Numbers
33, 2), and finally
"And Moses wrote
this law" (Deuteronomy
31,
g).
From the First century B.c.
onwards, the theory that Moses wrote the
pentateuch
was up-
held; Flavius Josephus and Philo of Alexandria maintain it.
Today, this theory has been completely abandoned; everybody
is in agreement on this
point.
The New Testament nevertheless
ascribes the authorship
to Moses.
paul,
in his Letter to the
Romans
(10,
5) quoting
from Leviticus, affirms that
.,Moses
writes that the man who practices
righteousness
which is based
on the law . . ." etc. John, in his
Gospel
(5,
46-47), makes Jesus
10 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
that a false idea of reality is conveyed. A large number of pre-
faces or introductions to the Bible misrepresent reality in this
way. In the case of books that were adapted several times (like
the Pentateuch), it is said that certain details may have been
added later on. A discussion of an unimportant passage of a
book is introduced, but crucial facts warranting lengthy expo-
sitions are passed over in silence. It is distressing to see such
inaccurate information on the Bible maintained for mass publi-
cation.
THE TORAH OR PENTATEUCH
Torah is the Semitic name.
The Greek expression, which in English gives us 'Pentateuch',
designates a work in five parts; Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and Deuteronomy. These were to form the five primary
elements of the collection of thirty-nine volumes that makes up
the Old Testament.
This group of texts deals with the origins of the world up to
the entry of the Jewish people into Canaan, the land promised
to them after their exile in Egypt, more precisely until the death
of Moses. The narration of these facts serves however as a gen-
eral framework for a description of the provisions made for the
religious and social life of the Jewish people, hence the name
Lawor Torah.
Judaism and Christianity for many centuries considered that
the author was Moses himself. Perhaps this affirmation was
based on the fact that God said to Moses (Exodus 17, 14) : "Write
this (the defeat of Amalek) as a memorial in a book", or again,
talking of the Exodus from Egypt, "Moses wrote down their
starting places" (Numbers 33, 2), and finally "And Moses wrote
this law" (Deuteronomy 31, 9). From the First century B.C.
onwards, the theory that Moses wrote the Pentateuch was up-
held; Flavius Josephus and Philo of Alexandria maintain it.
Today, this theory has been completely abandoned; everybody
is in agreement on this point. The New Testament nevertheless
ascribes the authorship to Moses. Paul, in his Letter to the
Romans (10, 5) quoting from Leviticus, affirms that "Moses
writes that the man who practices righteousness which is based
on the law ..." etc. John, in his Gospel (5,46-47), makes Jesus
Thc tub of tlu OldTarlunnla ll
ssy the following:
"ff
you
believed Moses,
you
would believe
me, for he wrote of me. But if
you
do not believe his writings,
how wi[
you
believe my words?" We have here an example of
editing, because the Greek word that corresponds to the original
(written
in Greekl is epi,steu,ete, so that the Evangelist is
putting
an afrruetion into Jegug's mouth
'that
is totally wrong:: the fol-
lowing demonstrates this.
I am borrowing the elements of this demonstration from
Father de Vaux, Head of the Biblical School of Jerusalem. He
prefaeed
his Frnch translation of Genesis in 1962 with a General
Introduction to the Pentateuch which eontained valuable argu-
ments. These ran contrary to the affirmations of the Evangelists
on the authorship of the work in
question.
Father de Vaux re-
minds us that the
"Jewish tradition which was followed by
Christ and his Apostles" was accepted up to the end of the
Middle Ages. The only
person
to contest this theory was Abe-
neara in the Twelfth eentury. It was in the Si:rteenth century
thst Calstadt noted that Moses could not have written the ac-
count of his ou/n desth in Deuteronomy
(84,
5-12). The author
then
quotes
other critics who refuse to ascribe to Moses a
part,
at least, of the Pentateueh. It was above all the work of Riehard
Simon, father of the Oratory, Cri,tical Historg af the Old, Testa-
rnont
(Histoire
critique du Vieux Testament) 1678, that under-
lined the chronological difficulties, the repetitions, the confusion
of the stories and stylistie diferences in the Pentateuch. The
book caused a scandal. R. Simon's line of argument was barely
followed in history books at the beginning of the Eishteenth
century. At this time, the references to antiquity very often
pro-
ceeded from what
"Moses
had written".
One can easily imagine how difficult it was to combat a legend
strengthened by Jesus himself who, as we have seen, supported
it in the New Testament. It is to Jean Astruc, Louis XV's doctor,
that we owe the decisive argument.
By
publishing in 1?63, his Conieetures on the originnl wri,t'
ings whieh it appea,rs llfoses used to eompose the Boolt of Gene$,s
(Conjectures sur les M}moires originaux dont il
parait que
Moysd s'est servi
pour composer le livre de la Genese), he
placed
the accent on the
plurality
of sources. He was
probably not the
first to have noticed it, but he did however have the courage
to
TIle Boob 01 1MOld r........, 11
say the following: "If you believed Moses, you would believe
me, for he wrote of me. But if you do not believe his writings,
how will you believe my words?" We have here an example of
editing, because the Greek word that corresponds to the original
(written in Greek) is episteuete, so that the Evangelist is putting
an affirmation into Jesus's mouth ,that is totally wrong: the fol-
lowing demonstrates this.
I am borrowing the elements of this demonstration from
Father de Vaux, Head of the Biblical School of Jerosalem. He
prefaced his French translation of Genesis in 1962 with a General
Introduction to the Pentateuch which contained valuable argu-
ments. These ran contrary to the affirmations of the Evangelists
on the authorship of the work in question. Father de Vaux re-
minds us that the "Jewish tradition which was followed by
Christ and his Apostles" was accepted up to the end of the
Middle Ages. The only person to contest this theory was Abe-
nezra in the Twelfth century. It was in the Sixteenth century
that Calstadt noted that Moses could not have written the ac-
count of his own death in Deuteronomy (34, 5-12). The author
then quotes other critics who refuse to ascribe to Moses a part,
at least, of the Pentateuch. It was above all the work of Richard
Simon, father of the Oratory, Critical History of the Old Testa-
ment (Histoire critique du Vieux Testament) 1678, that under-
lined the chronological difficulties, the repetitions, the confusion
of the stories and stylistic differences in the Pentateuch. The
book caused a scandal. R. Simon's line of argument was barely
followed in history books at the beginning of the Eighteenth
century. At this time, the references to antiquity very often pro-
ceeded from what "Moses had written".
One can easily imagine how difficult it was to combat a legend
strengthened by Jesus himself who, as we have seen, supported
it in the New Testament. It is to Jean Astruc, Louis XV's doctor,
that we owe the decisive argument.
By publishing, in 1753, his Conjectures on the original writ-
ings which it appears Moses used to compose the Book of Genesis
(Conjectures sur les Memoires originaux dont il parait que
Moyse s'est servi pour composer Ie livre de la Genese), he placed
the accent on the plurality of sources. He was probably not the
first to have noticed it, but he did however have the courage to
L2
THE BrBLF,' TIIE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
make
public
an observation of
prime
importance: two texts, each
denoted by the way in
which God was named either Yahweh or
Elohim, were
present
side by side in Genesis. The latter therefore
contained two
ju:<taposed
texts. Eichorn (1?80-l?8S)
msde the
same discovery for the other four books; then Ilgen (l?g8)
noticed that one of the texts isolated by Astruc, the one where
God is named Elohim, was itself divided into two. The Penta-
teuch literal\y fell apart.
The Nineteenth century saw an even more minute sesrch into
the sources. In 1854, four sources were recognised. They were
called the Yahvist version, the Elohist version, Deuteronorly,
and the Sacerdotal version. It was even
possible
to date them:
1) The Yahvist version was plaeed
in the Ninth century
B.C.
(written
in Judah)
2) The Elohist version was probably
a little more recent
(written
in Israel)
3) Deuteronomy was from the Eighth century B.c. for some
(E.
Jacob), and from the time of Josiah for others (Father
de Vaux)
4l The Saeerdotal version came from the
after the exile:
Sixth century B.C.
It can be seen that the arrangement of the
teuch spans at least three centuries.
The
problem
is, however, even more complex. In 1941, A. Lods
singled out three sources in the Yahvist version, four in the
Elohist version, six in Deuteronomy, nine in the Sacerdotal ver-
sion,
"not
including the additions spread out among eight differ-
ent authors" writes Father de Vaux. More reeently, it has been
thought that
"many
of the constitutions or laws contained in the
Pentateuch had parallels
outside the Bible
going
back much
further than the dates ascribed to the documents themselves"
and that "many of the stories of the Pentateuch presupposed
a
background that was different frsrn-4nd older than-the one
from which these documents were supposed to have come". This
leads on to "an interest in the formation of traditions". The
problem
then appears so complicated
that nobody knows where
he is anymore.
The multiplicity of sources brings'with it numerous disagree-
ments and repetitions. Father de Vaux
gives
examples of this
period
of exile or
text of the Penta-
12 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
make public an observation of prime importance: two texts, each
denoted by the way in which God was named either Yahweh or
Elohim, were present side by side in Genesis. The latter therefore
contained two juxtaposed texts. Eichorn (1780-1783) made the
same discovery for the other four books; then Ilgen (1798)
noticed that one of the texts isolated by Astruc, the one where
God is named Elohim, was itself divided into two. The Penta-
teuch literally fell apart.
The Nineteenth century saw an even more minute search into
the sources. In 1854, four sources were recognised. They were
called the Yahvist version, the Elohist version, Deuteronomy,
and the Sacerdotal version. It was even possible to date them
1) The Yahvist version was placed in the Ninth century
B.C. (written in Jud.ah)
2) The Elohist version was probably a little more recent
(written in Israel)
3) Deuteronomy was from the Eighth century B.C. for some
(E. Jacob), and from the time of Josiah for others (Father
de Vaux)
4) The Sacerdotal version came from the period of exile or
after the exile: Sixth century B.C.
It can be seen that the arrangement of the text of the Penta-
teuch spans at least three centuries.
The problem is, however, even more complex. In 1941, A. Lads
singled out three sources in the Yahvist version, four in the
Elohist version, six in Deuteronomy, nine in the Sacerdotal ver-
sion, "not including the additions spread out among eight differ-
ent authors" writes Father de Vaux. More recently, it has been
thought that "many of the constitutions or laws contained in the
Pentateuch had parallels outside the Bible going back much
further than the dates ascribed to the documents themselves"
and that "many of the stories of the Pentateuch presupposed a
background that was different from-and older than-the one
from which these documents were supposed to have come". This
leads on to "an interest in the formation of traditions". The
problem then appears so complicated that nobody knows where
he is anymore.
The multiplicity of sources brings' with it numerous disagree-
ments and repetitions. Father de Vaux gives examples of this
Tlu Boob oI tllc Old Teetamcnl
overlapping of trsditions in the case of the Flood, the kidnap-
ping
of Joseph, his adventures in Egypt, disagreement of names
relating to the same character, differing descriptions of impor-
tant events.
Thus the Pentateuch is shown to be formed from various tra-
ditions brought together more or less skillfully by its authors.
The latter sometimes
juxtaposed
their compilations and some-
times adapted the stories for the sake of synthesis. They allowed
improbabilities and disagreements to appear in the texts, how-
ever, whieh heve led modern man to the objective study of the
soureeg.
As far as textual criticism is concerned, the Pentateueh
pro-
vides what is probably
the most obvious example of adaptations
made by the hand of man. These were made at different times in
the history of the Jewish
people,
taken from oral traditions and
texts handed down from
preceding generations.
It was begun
in the Tenth or Ninth century B.C. rrith the Yahvist tradition
which took the story from its very beginnings. The latter
sketches fsrael's own
particular
destiny to "fit
it back into God's
Grand Design for humanity"
(Father
de Vaux). It was con-
cluded in the Sixth century B,C. rsith the Sacerdotal tradition that
is meticulous in its
preeise
rnention of dates and
genealogies.'
Father de Vaux writes that
"The
few stories this tradition
has of its own bear witness to legal
preoccupations:
Sabbatical
rest at the completion of the Creation, the alliance with Noah,
the alliance with Abraham and the circumeision, the
purchase
of the Cave of Makpela that
gave
the Patriarchs land in Canaan".
We must bear in mind that the Saeerdotal tradition dates from
the time of the deportation to Babylon and the return to Pales-
tine starting in 638 B.C. There is therefore a mixture of religious
and
purely political problems,
For Genesis alone,
the division of the Book into three sourees
has been firmly established: Father de Vaux in the commentary
to his translation lists for each source the
passages in the
present
1. We shell
gee
in the next chapter, when confronted with modern scien-
tific data, the extent of the narrative errors committed by authors of
the Sacerdotal version on the subject of the antiquity of man on Earth,
hie situation in time and the course of the Creation. They are obviously
errlort arising from manipulation of the texts.
r3 The Boob of the Old Testament 13
overlapping of traditions in the case of the Flood, the kidnap-
ping of Joseph, his adventures in Egypt, disagreement of names
relating to the same character, differing descriptions of impor-
tant events.
Thus the Pentateuch is shown to be formed from various tra- .
ditions brought together more or less skillfully by its authors.
The latter sometimes juxtaposed their compilations and some-
times adapted the stories for the sake of synthesis. They allowed
improbabilities and disagreements to appear in the texts, how-
ever, which have led modern man to the objective study of the
sources.
As far as textual criticism is concerned, the Pentateuch pro-
vides what is probably the most obvious example of adaptations
made by the hand of man. These were made at different times in
the history of the Jewish people, taken from oral traditions and
texts handed down from preceding generations. It was begun
in the Tenth or Ninth century B.C. with the Yahvist tradition
which took the story from its very beginnings. The latter
sketches Israel's own particular destiny to "fit it back into God's
Grand Design for humanity" (Father de Vaux). It was con-
cluded in the Sixth century B.C. with the Sacerdotal tradition that
is meticulous in its precise mention of dates and genealogies.
1
Father de Vaux writes that "The few stories this tradition
has of its own bear witness to legal preoccupations: Sabbatical
rest at the completion of the Creation, the alliance with Noah,
the alliance with Abraham and the circumcision, the purchase
of the Cave of Makpela that gave the Patriarchs land in Canaan".
We must bear in mind that the Sacerdotal tradition dates from
the time of the deportation to Babylon and the return to Pales-
tine starting in 538 B.C. There is therefore a mixture of religious
and purely political problems.
For Genesis alone, the division of the Book into three sources
has been firmly established: Father de Vaux in the commentary
to his translation lists for each source the passages in the present
1. We shall see in the next chapter, when confronted with modern scien-
tific data, the extent of the narrative errors committed by authors of
the Sacerdotal version on the subject of the antiquity of man on Earth,
his situation in time and the course of the Creation. They are obviously
errors arising from manipulation of the texts.
l{ TIIE BIBI,E, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
text of Genesis that rely on them. On the evidence of these data
it is
possible
to pinpoint
the contribution made by the various
Bources to any one of the ehapters. For example, in the case of
the Creation, the Flood and the period
that
goes
from the Flood
to Abraham, occupying as it does the first eleven chapters of
Genesis, we can see alternating in the Biblical text a section of
the Yahvist and a section of the Sacerdotal texts. The Elohist
text is not
present
in the first eleven chapters. The overlapping
of Yahvist and Sacerdotal contributions is here
quite
clear. For
the Creation and up to Noah
(first
five chapters), the arrange-
ment is simple: a Yahvist passage
alternates with a Sacerdotal
passage
from beginning to end of the nanation. For the Flood
and especially chapters 7 and 8 moreover, the cutting of the text
aecording to its source is narrowed down to very short
passages
and even to a single sentence. In the space of little more than
a hundred lines of English text, the text changes seventeen times.
It is from this that the improbabilities and contradictions arise
when we read the
present-day
text.
(see
Table on
page
15 for
schematic distribution of sources)
THE ITISTOruCAL BOOKS
In these books we enter into the history of the Jewish
people,
from the time they came to the Promised Land
(which
is most
likely to have been at the end of the Thirteenth century B.C.)
to the deportation to Babylon in the Sixth century B.C.
Here stress is laid upon what one might call the
'national
event' which is
presented
as the fulfilment of Divine word. In
the narration however, historical aceuraey has rather been
brushed aside: a work such as the Book of Joshua complies first
and foremost with theologieal intentions. With this in mind, E.
Jacob underlines the obvious contradiction between archaeology
and the texts in the case of the supposed destruction of Jericho
and Ay.
The Book of Judges is centered on the defense of the chosen
people against surrounding enemies and on the support
given
to
them by God. The Book was adapted several times, as Father A.
LefEvre notes with great
objectivity in his Preamble to the
Crampon Bible: the various prefaces in the text and the appen-
14 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
text of Genesis that rely on them. On the evidence of these data
it is possible to pinpoint the contribution made by the various
sources to anyone of the chapters. For example, in the case of
the Creation, the Flood and the period that goes from the Flood
to Abraham, occupying as it does the first eleven chapters of
Genesis, we can see alternating in the Biblical text a section of
the Yahvist and a section of the Sacerdotal texts. The Elohist
text is not present in the first eleven chapters. The overlapping
of Yahvist and Sacerdotal contributions is here quite clear. For
the Creation and up to Noah (first five chapters), the arrange-
ment is simple: a Yahvist passage alternates with a Sacerdotal
passage from beginning to end of the narration. For the Flood
and especially chapters 7 and 8 moreover, the cutting of the text
according to its source is narrowed down to very short passages
and even to a single sentence. In the space of little more than
a hundred lines of English text, the text changes seventeen times.
It is from this that the improbabilities and contradictions arise
when we read the present-day text. (see Table on page 15 for
schematic distribution of sources)
THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
In these books we enter into the history of the Jewish people,
from the time they came to the Promised Land (which is most
likely to have been at the end of the Thirteenth century B.C.)
to the deportation to Babylon in the Sixth century B.C.
Here stress is laid upon what one might call the 'national
event' which is presented as the fulfilment of Divine word. In
the narration however, historical accuracy has rather been
brushed aside : a work such as the Book of Joshua complies first
and foremost with theological intentions. With this in mind, E.
Jacob underlines the obvious contradiction between archaeology
and the texts in the case of the supposed destruction of Jericho
andAy.
The Book of Judges is centered on the defense of the chosen
people against surrounding enemies and on the support given to
them by God. The Book was adapted several times, as Father A.
Lefevre notes with great objectivity in his Preamble to the
Crampon Bible: the various prefaces in the text and the appen-
Tlc B@b of ,rE Olilfierrtrrrlwnt
tE
TABLE OF THE DISTBIBUTION
OF THE YAHVIST AND
SACERDOTAL TEXTS IN CHAPTERS 1 TO 11 in GENESIS)
The first figure indieates the chapter.
The second figure in brackets indicats the number of
phrases,
sometimes divided into two
parts
indicated by the letters a and b.
Letters: Y indicates Yahvist text
S indicates Sacerdotal text
Example: The fust line of the table indicates: from Chapter
1,
phrase 1 to Chapter 2,
phrase 4a, the text
published in
preeenL
day Bibles is the Sacerdotal tet(t
Clwptcr
I
2
6
6
6
7
1
7
7
7
7
7
7
T
7
8
I
I
I
8
I
I
I
s
I
10
l0
10
10
1l
l 1
phror,c
(r)
({b}
( 1)
( 11
(e)
( 1)
(6)
(?)
(rr1
(12)
( 18)
(16b)
(18)
(221
(21)
(2b)
( 8)
(6)
(184)
(18b)
(111
(20)
( 1)
(18)
(s8)
(8)
(20)
(211
(8r1
( 1)
(r0)
tn Clwptar
2
{
E
6
6
7
phrou,c
(da)
(2e1
(s2)
( 8)
(22)
(6)
(r6a)
(1?)
(2r)
(2s)
(2a)
( 10)
(nl
(1?)
(2?)
( 11
(l s1
(241
(s0)
(821
(e)
(82)
be of the way
tcxt
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y adapted
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
S
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
Y
s
men have
7
(10)
7
I
7
7
8
I
(6)
g
(Lz's
I
8
I
I
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
What simpler illustration
can there
manipulstd the Biblical Scriptures?
Ths Boob of the Old TaftJment 15
TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE YAHVIST AND
SACERDOTAL TEXTS IN CHAPTERS 1 TO 11 in GENESIS)
The first figure indicates the chapter.
The second figure in brackets indicates the number of phrases,
sometimes divided into two parts indicated by the letters a and b.
Letters: Y indicates Yahvist text
S indicates Sacerdotal text
Example: The first line of the table indicates: from Chapter
1, phrase 1 to Chapter 2, phrase 4a, the text published in present-
day Bibles is the Sacerdotal text.
CluJpter pkrfUle to CluJpter pkrfUle uzt
1 (1) 2 (4a) S
2 (4b) 4 (26) Y
5 (1) 5 (82) S
6 (1) 6 (8) Y
6 (9) 6 (22) S
7 (1) 7 (5) Y
7 (6) S
7 (7) 7 (10) Y adapted
7 (11) S
7 (12) Y
7 (18) 7 (16a) S
7 (1Gb) 7 (17) Y
7 (18) 7 (21) S
7 (22) 7 (23) Y
7 (24) 8 (2a) S
8 (2b) Y
8 (8) 8 (5) S
8 (6) 8 (12) Y
8 (18a) S
8 (18b) Y
8 (14) 8 (19) S
8 (20) 8 (22) Y
9 (1) 9 (17) S
9 (18) 9 (27) Y
9 (28) 10 (7) S
10 (8) 10 (19) Y
10 (20) 10 (23) S
ro ~ ~ w ~ Y
10 (81) 10 (32) S
11 (1) 11 (9) Y
11 (10) 11 (32) S
What simpler illustration can there be of the way men have
manipulated the Biblical Scriptures?
t0 THE BIBLE, THE
QUHAN
AND SCIENCE
dices bear witness to this. The story of Ruth is attached to the
narrations conteined in Judges.
The Book of Samuel and the two Books of Kings are above all
biographical collections concerning
Samuel, Saul, David, and
Solornon. Their historic worth is the subject of debate. From
this
point
of view E. Jacob finds numerous errors in it, beeause
there are sometimes two and even three versions of the same
event. The
prophets
Elias, Elisha and Isaiah also figure here,
mixing elements of history and legend. For other commentators,
sueh as Father A. Lefdvre, "the historical value of these books is
fundamental."
Chronicles I & II, the Book of Ebra and the Book of Nehemiah
have a, single author, called
,the
Chronicler', writing in the
Fourth century
B.c. He resumes
the whole history of the Cre-
ation up to this period,
although his genealogical
tables only
go
up to David. In actual fact, he is using above all the Book of
samuel and the Book of Kings,
"mechanically copying them out
without regard to the inconsistencies" (E.
Jacob), but he never-
theless
adds
precise
facts that have been conflrmed by archae-
ology. In these works care is taken to adapt history to the needs
of theology. E. Jacob notes that the author
,,sometimes
writes
history according to theology".
"To
explain the fact that King
Manasseh, who was a sacrilegious persecutor,
had a rong and
prosperous
reign, he postulates
a conversion of the King during
a stay in Assyria (Chronicles
II,
gg/tl)
although there is no
mention of this in any Biblical or non-Biblical souree". The Book
of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah have been severely criticised
beeause they are full of obscure points,
and because the period
they deal with
(the
Fourth century B.c.) is itself not very well
known, there being few non-Biblical
documents from it.
The Books of robit, Judith and Esther are classed among the
Historical Books. rn them very big liberties are taken w.ith
history: proper
names are changed, eharacters and events are
invented, all for the best of religious reasons. They are in fact
stories designed to serve a moral end, peppered
with historical
improbabilities and inaccuracies.
The Books of Maecabees are of
quite
a different order. They
provide
a version of events that took place
in the Second century
B.c. which is as exact a record of the history of this
period
as
18
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
dices bear witness to this. The story of Ruth is attached to the
narrations contained in Judges.
The Book of Samuel and the two Books of Kings are above all
biographical collections concerning Samuel, Saul, David, and
Solomon. Their historic worth is the subject of debate. From
this point of view E. Jacob finds numerous errors in it, because
there are sometimes two and even three versions of the same
event. The prophets Elias, Elisha and Isaiah also figure here,
mixing elements of history and legend. For other commentators,
such as Father A. Lefevre, "the historical value of these books is
fundamental."
Chronicles I & II, the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah
have a single author, called 'the Chronicler', writing in the
Fourth century B.C. He resumes the whole history of the Cre-
ation up to this period, although his genealogical tables only go
up to David. In actual fact, he is using above all the Book of
Samuel and the Book of Kings, "mechanically copying them out
without regard to the inconsistencies" (E. Jacob), but he never-
theless adds precise facts that have been confirmed by archae-
ology. In these works care is taken to adapt history to the needs
of theology. E. Jacob notes that the author "sometimes writes
history according to theology". "To explain the fact that King
Manasseh, who was a sacrilegious persecutor, had a long and
prosperous reign, he postulates a conversion of the King during
a stay in Assyria (Chronicles II, 33/11) although there is no
mention of this in any Biblical or non-Biblical source". The Book
of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah have been severely criticised
because they are full of obscure points, and because the period
they deal with (the Fourth century B.C.) is itself not very well
known, there being few non-Biblical documents from it.
The Books of Tobit, Judith and Esther are classed among the
Historical Books. In them very big liberties are taken with
history: proper names are changed, characters and events are
invented, all for the best of religious reasons. They are in fact
stories designed to serve a moral end, peppered with historical
improbabilities and inaccuracies.
The Books of Maccabees are of quite a different order. They
provide a version of events that took place in the Second century
B.C. which is as exact a record of the history of this period as
Tho Books of t E Old Tectament
17
may be found. It is for this reason that they constitute accounts
of
great
value.
The collection of books under the heading
'historical'
is there-
fore highly disparate. History is treated in both a scientific and a
whimsical fashion.
THE PNOPHETIC BOOKS
Under this heading we find the
preachings of various
prophets
who in the Old Testament have been classed separately from
the first
great prophets
such as Moses, Samuel, Elias and Elisha,
whose teachings are referued to in other books.
The
prophetic
books cover the
period from the Eiehth to the
Second century B.C.
In the Eighth century 8.C., there were the books of Amos,
Hosea, Isaiah and Michah. The first of these is famous for his
condemnation of social injustice, the second for his religious
corruption which leads him to bodily suffering
(for
being foreed
to marry a saered harlot of a
pagan
cult), like God suffering for
the degradation of His
people but still
granting them His love.
Isaiah is a figure of
political history: he is consulted by kings
and dominates events; he is the
prophet
of
grandeur. In addition
to his
personal
works, his oracles are
published by his disciples
right up until the Third century B.C.:
protests against iniquities'
fear of God's
judgement, proclamations of liberation at the time
of exile and later on the return of the Jews to Palestine. It is
certain that in the case of the second and third Isaiah, the
pro-
phetic intention is
paralleled by
political considerations that are
as clear as daylight. The
preaching
of Michah, a contemporary of
fsaiah, follows the same
general ideas.
In the Seventh century 8.C., Zephanish, Jeremiah, Nahum
and Habakhuk distinguished themselves by their
preachings.
Jeremiah became a martyr. His oracles \rvere collected by Baruch
who is also
perhaps the author sf Lamentations'
The
period of exile in Babylon at the begfnning
of the Sixth
century B.C.
gsve birth to intense
prophetic activity. Ezekiel
figures importantly as the consoler of his brothers" inspiring
hope among them. IIis visions &re famous.
The Book of Obsdish
deals with the misery of a conquered Jerusalem.
The Boob of the Old TeaftJment 17
may be found. It is for this reason that they constitute accounts
of great value.
The collection of books under the heading 'historical' is there-
fore highly disparate. History is treated in both a scientific and a
whimsical fashion.
THE PROPHETIC BOOKS
Under this heading we find the preachings of various prophets
who in the Old Testament have been classed separately from
the first great prophets such as Moses, Samuel, Elias and Elisha,
whose teachings are referred to in other books.
The prophetic books cover the period from the Eighth to the
Second century B.C.
In the Eighth century B.C., there were the books of Amos,
Hosea, Isaiah and Michah. The first of these is famous for his
condemnation of social inj ustice, the second for his religious
corruption which leads him to bodily suffering (for being forced
to marry a sacred harlot of a pagan cult), like God suffering for
the degradation of His people but still granting them His love.
Isaiah is a figure of political history: he is consulted by kings
and dominates events; he is the prophet of grandeur. In addition
to his personal works, his oracles are published by his disciples
right up until the Third century B.C.: protests against iniquities,
fear of God's judgement, proclamations of liberation at the time
of exile and later on the return of the Jews to Palestine. It is
certain that in the case of the second and third Isaiah, the pro-
phetic intention is paralleled by political considerations that are
as clear as daylight. The preaching of Michah, a contemporary of
Isaiah, follows the same general ideas.
In the Seventh century B.C., Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum
and Habakkuk distinguished themselves by their preachings.
Jeremiah became a martyr. His oracles were collected by Baruch
who is also perhaps the author of Lamentations.
The period of exile in Babylon at the beginning of the Sixth
century B.C. gave birth to intense prophetic activity. Ezekiel
figures importantly as the consoler of his brothers, inspiring
hope among them. His visions are famous. The Book of Obadiah
deals with the misery of a conquered Jerusalem.
18
THE BIBLE,
THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
After the exile, whieh came to an end in bgg 8.c.,
prophetic
activity resumed
with Haggai and Zechariah who urged the re-
eonstruction of the Temple.
When it was completed, writings
going
under the name of Malachi appeared. They contain various
oracles of a spiritual nature.
one wonders
why the Book of Jonah is included
in the pro-
phetic
books when the old Testament
does not
give
it any real
text to speak of. Jonah is a story from which one p'incipll
fact
emerges:
the necessary
submi ssi on to Di vi ne
wi l l .
Daniel
was written in three languages (Hebrew,
Aramaic and
Greek). Accordi ng
to Chri sti an eommentators,
i t i s a
,di scon-
certi ng' Apocal ypse
from an hi stori cal poi nt
of vi ew. It i s
prob-
ably a work from the Maceabaean period,
seconrl century
B.c.
Its author wished to maintain
th0 faith of his countrymen, at the
time of the
'abomina,tion
of desolation',
by convincing
them that
the moment of deliverance
was at hand. (E.
Jacobi
THE BOOKS
OF POETRY
AND WISDOM
These form
collections
of unquestionable
literary unity.
Foremost among
them are the
psalms,
the greatest
monument
to Hebrew poetry.
A large number were composed by David and
the others by priests
and levites.
Their themes are praises,
sup-
plications
and meditations,
and they served a liturgical function.
The book of Job, the book of wisdom and piety po,r
efrcellenne,
probably
dates from 400-b00 B.C.
The author of
'Lamentations'
on the fall of Jerusalem at the
beginning of the sixth century B.c. may well be Jeremiah.
we must once again mention the song of songs, allegorical
chants mostly
about Divine love, the Book of
proverbs,
a collec-
tion of the words of Solomon and other wise men of the court,
and Ecclesiastes
or Koheleth, where
earthly happiness
and wis-
dom are debated.
we have, therefore, a collection of works with highly disparate
contents written over at least seven centuries, using extremely
varied sourees
before being amalgamated
inside a single work.
How was this collection able, over the centuries,
to constitute an
18 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
After the exile, which came to an end in 538 B.C., prophetic
activity resumed with Haggai and Zechariah who urged the re
construction of the Temple. When it was completed, writings
going under the name of Malachi appeared. They contain various
oracles of a spiritual nature.
One wonders why the Book of Jonah is included in the pro-
phetic books when the Old Testament does not give it any real
text to speak of. Jonah is a story from which one principle fact
emerges: the necessary submission to Divine Will.
Daniel was written in three languages (Hebrew, Aramaic and
Greek). According to Christian commentators, it is a 'discon-
certing' Apocalypse from an historical point of view. It is prob-
ably a work from the Maccabaean period, Second century B.C.
Its author wished to maintain the faith of his countrymen, at the
time of the 'abomination of desolation', by convincing them that
the moment of deliverance was at hand. (E. Jacob)
THE BOOKS OF POETRY AND WISDOM
These form collections of unquestionable literary unity.
Foremost among them are the Psalms, the greatest monument
to Hebrew poetry. A large number were composed by David and
the others by priests and levites. Their themes are praises, sup-
plications and meditations, and they served a liturgical function.
The book of Job, the book of wisdom and piety pal' excellence,
probably dates from 400-500 B.C.
The author of 'Lamentations' on the fall of Jerusalem at the
beginning of the Sixth century B.C. may well be Jeremiah.
We must once again mention the Song of Songs, allegorical
chants mostly about Divine love, the Book of Proverbs, a collec-
tion of the words of Solomon and other wise men of the court,
and Ecclesiastes or Koheleth, where earthly happiness and wis-
dom are debated.
We have, therefore, a collection of works with highly disparate
contents written over at least seven centuries, using extremely
varied sources before being amalgamated inside a single work.
How was this collection able, over the centuries, to constitute an
Tlw Boola of thc Old Tectamrlzfi
le
inseparable whole and-with a few variations
according
to com-
lnooity-uecome
the book containing
the Judeo-christian
Reve-
lation ? This book was called
in Greek
the
'canon'
because of
the
idea of intangibilitY
it eonveYs.
The smalgam does not date from
the Christisn
period, but
from Judaism itself,
probably with a
primary stage in the Sev-
enth century B.C. before later books
were added
to those already
accepted. It is to be noted however that the first five books,
form-
ing ihe Torah or Pentateuch,
have always
been
given pride of
plice. Once the
proclamations of the
prophets
(the prediction of
a chastisement
commensurate
with misdemeanour)
had been
ful-
filled, there was no difficulty
in adding their
texts to the books
that had already
been admitted.
The same
was true for the
assurances
of hope
given by these
prophets. By the Second
century 8.C., the
'Canon'
of the
prophets had been formed.
other books,
e.g. Psalms, on account
of their liturgieal
func-
tion, were integrated along with further writings, such as Lam-
entations, the Book of Wisdom and the Book of Job'
Christianity,
which was initially Judeo-Christianity,
has been
carefully
studied-as
we shall see later on-by modern
authors,
such as Cardinal
Dani6lou.
Before it was transformed
under
Paul's
influence, Christianity
accepted
the heritage of the Old
Testament
without difficulty.
The authors
of the Gospels
ad-
hered very strictly to the latter, but whereas a
'purge'
has
been
made of the Gospels
by ruling out the
'Apoct'ypha',
the same
selection has not been deemed necessary
for the old Testament.
Everything,
or nearly everything,
has been accepted'
who
would have dared dispute any aspects of this disparate
amalgam
before the end of the Middle Ages-in
the West
at
least? The answer is nobody, or almost
nobody. From the
end
of the
Middle Ages up to the beginning
of modern times,
one or
two critics began to appear;
but, as we have already
seen, the
Church
Authorities
have always
succeeded
in having
their own
way. Nowadays,
there is without
doubt a
genuine body of textual
crilicism,
but even if ecclesiastic
specialists
have devoted
many
of their efforts
to examining
a multitude of detailed
points, they
have
preferred not to
go too deepty
into what they euphemisti-
cally call
'difficulties'.
They hardly seem disposed
to study
them
in ttre light of modern
knowledge.
They may well establish
paral-
The Boob 01 the Old Testament 19
inseparable whole and-with a few variations according to com-
munity-become the book containing the Judeo-Christian Reve-
lation? This book was called in Greek the 'canon' because of the
idea of intangibility it conveys.
The amalgam does not date from the Christian period, but
from Judaism itself, probably with a primary stage in the Sev-
enth century B.C. before later books were added to those already
accepted. It is to be noted however that the first five books, form-
ing the Torah or Pentateuch, have always been given pride of
place. Once the proclamations of the prophets (the prediction of
a chastisement commensurate with misdemeanour) had been ful-
filled, there was no difficulty in adding their texts to the books
that had already been admitted. The same was true for the
assurances of hope given by these prophets. By the Second
century B.C., the 'Canon' of the prophets had been formed.
Other books, e.g. Psalms, on account of their liturgical func-
tion, were integrated along with further writings, such as Lam-
entations, the Book of Wisdom and the Book of Job.
Christianity, which was initially Judeo-Christianity, has been
carefully studied-as we shall see later on-by modern authors,
such as Cardinal Danielou. Before it was transformed under
Paul's influence, Christianity accepted the heritage of the Old
Testament without difficulty. The authors of the Gospels ad-
hered very strictly to the latter, but whereas a 'purge' has been
made of the Gospels by ruling out the 'Apocrypha', the same
selection has not been deemed necessary for the Old Testament.
Everything, or nearly everything, has been accepted.
Who would have dared dispute any aspects of this disparate
amalgam before the end of the Middle Ages-in the West at
least? The answer is nobody, or almost nobody. From the end
of the Middle Ages up to the beginning of modern times, one or
two critics began to appear; but, as we have already seen, the
Church Authorities have always succeeded in having their own
way. Nowadays, there is without doubt a genuine body of textual
criticism, but even if ecclesiastic specialists have devoted many
of their efforts to examining a multitude of detailed points, they
have preferred not to go too deeply into what they euphemisti-
cally call 'difficulties'. They hardly seem disposed to study them
in the light of modern knowledge. They may well establish paral-
to
THE BIBLE,
THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
lels with history-principally
when history
and Biblical narra-
tion appear to be in agreement-but
so far they have not com-
mitted themselves
to be a frank and thorough
comparison
with
scientific ideas. They reslize
that this would
lead people
to con-
'test
notions about the truth of Judeo-christian
scripto"*r, which
have so far remained
undisputed.
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
leis with history-principally when history and Biblical narra-
tion appear to be in agreemeJ1lt--but so far they have not com-
mitted themselves to be a frank and thorough comparison with
scientific ideas. They realize that this would lead people to con-
.test notions about the truth of Judeo-Christian Scriptures, which
have so far remained undisputed.
lll
fhe Otd
festarnent
and
Scierrce.
Findings
Few
of the subiects dealt within the Old Testament,
and
likewise
the Gospels,
give rise to a confrontation
with the data
of modern knowledge. When an incompatibility
does occur be-
tween the Biblical text and science, however,
it is on extremely
important
points.
As we have already seen in the
preceding chapter, historical
errors were found
in the Bible and we have
quoted several
of
these
pinpointed by Jewish
and christian
experts in exegesis.
The
latter have naturally
had a tendency to minimize
the importance
of such errors. They find it
quite natural for a sacred author
to
present historical fact in accordanee
with theologly and to write
iri*to.y
to suit certain
needs. We shall see further on' in the case
of the Gospel according to Matthew, the same liberties
taken
with reality and the same commentaries
aimed at making ad-
missible as reality what is in contradiction
to it. A logical
and
objective
mind cannot
be content with this
procedure.
i-to*
a logical angle, it is
possihte to single out a large number
of contradictions
and improbabilities.
The existence
of different
sourees
that might have been used in the writing
of a description
may be at the origin of two different
presentations of the same
fact.
This is not
"it;
ditr*rent adaptations,
later additions
to the
text itself, like the commentaries
added a
posteriori, then
included
in the text later on whe$ a new copy was made-these
are
per-
fectly
recognized
by specialists
in textual criticism
and very
ir"ni.tv
underlined by some of them. In the case of the Pentateuch
gl
III
The Old TeslaDlenl and
Sc:iEnf:e.
Find,uls
Few of the subjects dealt within the Old Testament, and
likewise the Gospels, give rise to a confrontation with the data
of modern knowledge. When an incompatibility does occur be-
tween the Biblical text and science, however, it is on extremely
important points.
As we have already seen in the preceding chapter, historical
errors were found in the Bible and we have quoted several of
these pinpointed by Jewish and Christian experts in exegesis. The
latter have naturally had a tendency to minimize the importance
of such errors. They find it quite natural for a sacred author to
present historical fact in accordance with theology and to write
history to suit certain needs. We shall see further on, in the case
of the Gospel according to Matthew, the same liberties taken
with reality and the same commentaries aimed at making ad-
missible as reality what is in contradiction to it. A logical and
objective mind cannot be content with this procedure.
From a logical angle, it is possible to single out a large number
of contradictions and improbabilities. The existence of different
sources that might have been used in the writing of a description
may be at the origin of two different presentations of the same
fact. This is not all; different adaptations, later additions to the
text itself, like the commentaries added a posteriori, then included
in the text later on wheJ} a new copy was made-these are per-
fectly recognized by specialists in textual criticism and very
frankly underlined by some of them. In the case of the Pentateuch
21
22
THE BIBLq THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
alone, for example, Father de vaux in the General Introduction
preceding
his translation of Genesis
(pages
lB and 14), has drawn
attention to numerous disagreements.
We shall not
quote
them
here since we shall be
quoting
several of them later on in this
study. The
general
impression one gains
is that one must not
follow the text to the letter.
Here is a very typical example:
In Genesis
(6,
B), God decides
just
before the Flood henee-
forth to limit man's lifespan
to one hundred and twenty
years,
". . . his days shall be a hundred and twenty years".
Further on
however, we note in Genesis
(ll,
r0$z) that the ten descendants
of Noah had lifespans
that range from l4g to 600
years (see
table in this chapter showing Noah's
descendants
down to Abra-
ham). The contradiction
between
these two passages
is quite
obviouq. The explanation
is elementary.
The first
passage (Gene-
sis 6, 3) is a Yahvist
text, probably
dating as we have already
seen from the Tenth century B.c. The second passage
in Genesis
(11,
10-3U) i s a much more recent text
(Si xth
century
B.C.)
from the Saeerdotal
version. This version is at the origitt if th"**
genealogies,
which are as precise
in their information on life-
spans
as they are improbable
when
taken en ?nusse.
It is in Genesis that we find the most evident incompatibilities
with modern
science. These coneern three essential points:
1) the Creation of the world
and its stages;
2l the date of the
creation of the world
ancl the date of man's
appearance
on earth;
3) the description
of the Flood.
THE CNEATION
OF THE WORLD
As Father de Vaux points
out, Genesis
,.starts
with two
juxta_
posed
descriptions
of the creation'.1. when examining
them from
the point
of view of their
eompatibility
with modern
scientifie
data, we must look at each one separately.
First Description
of the Crcatimr
The first description
occupies the first chapter
and the ver.y
first verses
of the second chapter. It is a masterpieee
of inaecu-
racy from a scientific point
of view. It must be examined
one
22
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
alone, for example, Father de Vaux in the General Introduction
preceding his translation of Genesis (pages 13 and 14), has drawn
attention to numerous disagreements. We shall not quote them
here since we shall be quoting several of them later on in this
study. The general impression one gains is that one must not
follow the text to the letter.
Here is a very typical example:
In Genesis (6, 3), God decides just before the Flood hence-
forth to limit man's lifespan to one hundred and twenty years,
"... his days shall be a hundred and twenty years". Further on
however, we note in Genesis (11, 10-32) that the ten descendants
of Noah had lifespans that range from 148 to 600 years (see
table in this chapter showing Noah's descendants down to Abra-
ham). The contradiction between these two passages is quite
obvious.. The explanation is elementary. The first passage (Gene-
sis 6, 3) is a Yahvist text, probably dating as we have already
seen from the Tenth century B.C. The second passage in Genesis
(11, 10-32) is a much more recent text (Sixth century B.C.)
from the Sacerdotal version. This version is at the origin of these
genealogies, which are as precise in their information on life-
spans as they are improbable when taken en masse.
It is in Genesis that we find the most evident incompatibilities
with modern science. These concern three essential points:
1) the Creation of the world and its stages;
2) the date of the Creation of the world and the date of man's
appearance on earth;
3) the description of the Flood.
THE CREATION OF THE WORLD
As Father de Vaux points out, Genesis "starts with two juxta-
posed descriptions of the Creation'!. When examining them from
the point of view of their compatibility with modern scientific
data, we must look at each one separately.
First Description of the Creation
The first description occupies the first chapter and the very
first verses of the second chapter. It is a masterpiece of inaccu-
racy from a scientific point of view. It must be examined one
Thc OldTetwrcnt
ud Sctercc
23
parsgmph at a time.
The text repnoduced
here is from
the Be-
vised $tandard
Version of the Bible.'
Chapter
1, verges | &21
.,In
ihe beginning
God ereated the heavens and the earth.
The
earth
*"" without
form and void, and darkness
was upon
the
fece of the deep;
and the spirit
of God was moving over the faee
of the waters."
It is
quite possible to admit that before
the Creation
of the
Earth,
what was to become
the Universe as we know it was cov-
ered
in darkness.
To mention the existence
of water at this
period
is however
quite simply
pure imagination.
We shall see in the
ifti"a
part
of tttir book how there is every indication that at the
initial stage of the formation
of the universe
a
gaseous m&ss
existed.
It is an error to
place water in it.
Verses 3 to 5:
"And
God said,
'Lt
there be light', and there was light' And
God
saw that the light was
good; and God separated
the light
from the darkness.
God called the light Day, and the darkness
he
ealled Night.
And there was evening and there was morning,
one
day."
The lish,t circulating
in the universe
is the result of complex
reaction*
itt ttt* stars. We shall come back to them in the
third
part of this work. At this stage in the Creation,
however, accord-
ing to the Bible,
the stars were not
yet formed. The
'lights'
of the
firmament
are not mentioned
in Genesis until verse 14, when they
were created
on the Fourth
day, "to
separate the day from the
night", "to
give light upon earth";
all of which is accurate'
Itls illogieal,
however,
to mention
the result
(lieht) on the first
day, when the cause of this light
was created
three days later'
The fact that the existence
of evening
and morning
is
placed on
the first day is moreover,
purely imaginary;
the existence
of
evening and
morning as elements
of a single
day is only con-
ceivabl,e after
the creation
of the earth and its rotation under
the
light of its own star, the Sun !
-verses
6 to 8
,,And
God
said,
'Let
there be a firmament
in the midst of the
waters,
and let it separate
the waters
from the waters'' And God
l --prU.
W. nl . Col l i ns
& Sons
for the Bri ti sh
and Forei gn Bi bl e Soci ety'
1952.
The Old Tatornent tJfId Science
paragraph at a time. The text reproduced here is from the Re-
vised Standard Version of the Bible.
l
Chapter 1, verses 1 & 2 :
"In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The
earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the
face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was moving over the face
of the waters."
It is quite possible to admit that before the Creation of the
Earth, what was to become the Universe as we know it was cov-
ered in darkness. To mention the existence of water at this period
is however quite simply pure imagination. We shall see in the
third part of this book how there is every indication that at the
initial stage of the formation of the universe a gaseous mass
existed. It is an error to place water in it.
Verses 3 to 5:
"And God said, 'Let there be light', and there was light. And
God saw that the light was good; and God separated the light
from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness he
called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, one
day."
The light circulating in the Universe is the result of complex
reactions in the stars. We shall come back to them in the third
part of this work. At this stage in the Creation, however, accord-
ing to the Bible, the stars were not yet formed. The 'lights' of the
firmament are not mentioned in Genesis until verse 14, when they
were created on the Fourth day, "to separate the day from the
night", "to give light upon earth"; all of which is accurate.
It is illogical, however, to mention the result (light) on the first
day, when the cause of this light was created three days later.
The fact that the existence of evening and morning is placed on
the first day is moreover, purely imaginary; the existence of
evening and morning as elements of a single day is only con-
ceivable after the creation of the earth and its rotation under the
light of its own star, the Sun!
-verses 6 to 8
"And God s2.id, 'Let there be a firmament in the midst of the
waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.' And God
1. Pub. W. M. Collins & Sons for the British and Foreign Bible Society,
1952.
,U
THE BIBT.R,
TIIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
made the firmament
and separated
the waters whieh were under
the ftrmament from the waters which were above the firmament.
And it was so. And God called the firmament
Heaven. And there
was evening and there was morning,
a second day."
The myth of the waters is continued
here with their separation
into two layers
by a firmament
that in the description
of the
Flood allows the waters above to
pass
through and iiow onto the
earth. This image of the division of the waters into two masses
is scientifically
unacceptable.
-verses
I to 13
"And God said,
'Lt
the waters under the heavens be
gathered
together
into one place,
and let the dry land appear., And it was
so. God called the dry land Earth, and the waters that were gath-
ered together
he called
seas. And God saw that it was good.
Antl
God ssid,
'r-Et
the earth put
forth vegetation, plants yielding
seed, and fruit trees
bearing fruit in which is their ***d, each
according
to its kind upon the earth.'
And it was so. The earth
brought forth vegetation, plants yielding
seed according to their
own kinds' and trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each
aecording:
to its kind. And God saw that it was
good.
And there
was evening and there was morning, a third day."
?he fact that continents
emerged at the period
in the earth's
history, when it was still covered with water, is
quite
acceptable
scientifically.
IVhat is totauy untenabre
is that a highly organized
vegetable
kingdom with reproduction
by seed could have ap-
peared
before the existence of the sun (in
Genesis it does not
appear until the fourth day), and likewise the establishment
of
alternating
nights and days.
-verses
14 to 19
"And God said,
'Let
there
be rights
in the firmaments
of the
heavens to separate the day from tight; and let them be for
signs and for seasons and for days and years,
and let them be
lights
in the firmament
of the heavens
to give
light
upon the
earth.' And it was so. And God made the two great
lights, the
greater
light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night;
tre made the stars also. And God set them in the fir'mament
of
the heavens to give
light upon earth, to rule ovei. the day and
over the night, and to separate the light from
the dar.kness. And
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
made the firmament and separated the waters which were under
the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament.
And it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven. And there
was evening and there was morning, a second day."
The myth of the waters is continued here with their separation
into two layers by a firmament that in the description of the
Flood allows the waters above to pass through and flow onto the
earth. This image of the division of the waters into two masses
is scientifically unacceptable.
-verses 9 to 13
"And God said, 'Let the waters under the heavens be gathered
together into one place, and let the dry land appear.' And it Was
so. God called the dry land Earth, and the waters that were gath-
ered together he called Seas. And God saw that it was good. And
God said, 'Let the earth put forth vegetation, plants yielding
seed, and fruit trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each
according to its kind upon the earth.' And it was so. The earth
brought forth vegetation, plants yielding seed according to their
own kinds, and trees bearing fruit in which is their seed, each
according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. And there
was evening and there was morning, a third day."
The fact that continents emerged at the period in the earth's
history, when it was still covered with water, is quite acceptable
scientifically. What is totally untenable is that a highly organized
vegetable kingdom with reproduction by seed could have ap-
peared before the existence of the sun (in Genesis it does not
appear until the fourth day), and likewise the establishment of
alternating nights and days.
-verses 14 to 19
"And God said, 'Let there be lights in the firmaments of the
heavens to separate the day from :night; and let them be for
signs and for seasons and for days and years, and let them be
lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the
earth.' And it was so. And God made the two great lights, the
greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night;
ite made the stars also. And God set them in the firmament of
the heavens to give light upon earth, to rule over the day and
over the night, and to separate the light from the darkness. And
tlu OlitTrrrtcrlrlnt onit Sdct e
It
God
ssw thst it was
good.
And there was evening
and there was
morning, a fourth
daY."
Here
the Bibtical author's description
is acceptable.
The only
criticism
one could level at this
pagssge is the
lnsition
it occu'
pies in the description
as a whole. Earth and Moon emanated,
as
ie know, from their original Btar, the Sun'
To
place the creation
of the Sun and Moon after the creation
of the Earth is contrary
to the most ftrmly estsblished
ideas on the formation
of tlre
elements
of the Solrr SYstem.
-verses
20 to 80
"Aud
God said,
'Iret
the waters bring forth swarms
of living
creatures,
and let birds fly above the esrth seross the firmament
of the heavens.' So God created the
great sea monsters and every
Iiving creature that moves, with which the waters swarm, 8c'
eording
to their kinds, and every
winged bird according
to its
kind. And God saw that it was
good. And God blessed them say-
ing,
'Be
fruitful and multiply and fill the waters
in the seas, and
let Uirds multiply on the earth.'
And there
was evening and there
was morning, a fifth day."
T|1is
passage contains assertions
which are unacceptable.
According to Genegis, the animal kingdom begpn with the ap'
peerance of creatures of the ses and winged birds. The Biblicsl
deseription informs us that it was not until the next day-as
we
shall see in the following
verses-that the earth itself was
popu-
lated by animals.
It is eertein
that the origins of life came from the sea, but this
question will not be dealt with until the third
part of this book.
F"o* ttre sea, the earth was colonized,
as it were' by the animal
kingdom.
It is from animals living on the surface of the earth,
*t d in
particular from one species of reptile which lived in the
second era, that it is thought
the birds
originated.
Numerous
biological
charaeteristics
common to both species make this de-
duction
possible. The beasts of the earth are not however
men-
tioned ut tit the sixth day in Genesis;
after the appearance of
the birds. This order of appearance,
beasts of the earth
after
birds, is not therefore acceptable.
-verses
24 to 31
,.And
God said,
'I-t
the earth bring forth living creatures
&c-
cording
to their kinds: cattle
and creeping things
and beasts of
God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was
morning, a fourth day!'
Here the Biblical author's description is acceptable. The only
criticism one could level at this passage is the position it occu-
pies in the description as a whole. Earth and Moon emanated, as
we know, from their original star, the Sun. To place the creation
of the Sun and Moon after the creation of the Earth is contrary
to the most firmly established ideas on the formation of the
elements of the Solar System.
-verses 20 to 30
"And God said, 'Let the waters bring forth swarms of living
creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the firmament
of the heavens.' So God created the great sea monsters and every
living creature that moves, with which the waters swarm, ac-
cording to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its
kind. And God saw that it was good. And God blessed them say-
ing, 'Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and
let birds multiply on the earth.' And there was evening and there
was morning, a fifth day." .
This passage contains assertions which are unacceptable.
According to Genesis, the animal kingdom began with the ap-
pearance of creatures of the sea and winged birds. The Biblical
description informs us that it was not until the next day-as we
shall see in the following verses-that the earth itself was popu-
lated by animals.
It is certain that the origins of life came from the sea, but this
question will not be dealt with until the third part of this book.
From the sea, the earth was colonized, as it were, by the animal
kingdom. It is from animals living on the surface of the earth,
and in particular from one species of reptile which lived in the
Second era, that it is thought the birds originated. Numerous
biological characteristics common to both species make this de-
duction possible. The beasts of the earth are not however men-
tioned until the sixth day in Genesis; after the appearance of
the birds. This order of appearance, beasts of the earth after
birds, is not therefore acceptable.
-verses 24 to 31
"And God said, 'Let the earth bring forth living creatures ac-
cording to their kinds: cattle and creeping things and beasts of
rO
TIIE BIBI.F,|, THE
QI'N'AN
AND SCIENGE
the earttr accordlng to their kindg.' And it was so. And God made
the beasts of the earth according
to their kinds and the catfle
according to their kinds, and everything that ereeps upon the
ground
eecordins
to its kind. And
God saw that it was
good."
"Then God said,
'Lt
us make man in our image,
afterour like-
ness; and let them have dominion (sic)
over the fish of the sea,
and over the birds of the air, and over the catile, and over all the
earth and over every creeping thins that creeps upon the earth".
"so God created man in his own image, in the image of God he
created him; male and female he created
them."
"And
God blessed
them, and God said to them,
.Be
fruitful and
multiplS and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion
over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over
every living
thing that moves upon the earth.' And God said,
'Behold,
I have given you
every plant yielding
seed which is upon
the fsce of the earth, and every
tree with seed in its fruit; you
shall have
them for food. And to every beast of the earth, and to
every bird of the air, and to everythins
that creeps on the earth,
everything
that has the breath of life,
I have
siven
every green
plant
for food." And it was so. And God saw everything
that he
had made, and behold,
i! was very good.
And there *"J evening
and there was morning,
a sixth day."
This is the description
of the culmination
of the creation. The
author lists all the living
creatures
not rnentioned
before and
describes the various kinds
of food for man and beast.
As we have seen, the enor was to place
the appearance
of
beasts of the earth after that of the birds. Man's *pp""rrnce
is
however correctly
situated
after the other species of living things.
The
Cescription of the
creation finishes
in the first three
verses of Chapter
p:
"Thus the heavens
and the earth were finished,
and all the
host
(sic)
of them. And on the seventh day God finished
his work
which he had done, and he rested
on the seventh day from all his
work
which he had done. so God blessed the seventh
day and
hallowed it, because
on it God rested from all his work which he
had done in creation;
These are the generations
of the heavens
and the ear.ilr rvhen
they were created."
This description
of the seventh day calls for some comment.
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
the earth according to their kinds.' And it was so. And God made
the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the cattle
according to their kinds, and everything that creeps upon the
ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good."
"Then God said, 'Let us make man in our image, after our like-
ness; and let them have dominion (sic) over the fish of the sea,
and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the
earth and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth".
"So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he
created him; male and female he created them."
"And God blessed them, and God said to them, 'Be fruitful and
multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion
over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over
every living thing that moves upon the earth.' And God said,
'Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed which is upon
the face of the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you
shall have them for food. And to every beast of the earth, and to
every bird of the air, and to everything that creeps on the earth,
everything that has the breath of life, I have given every green
plant for food." And it was so. And God saw everything that he
had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening
and there was morning, a sixth day."
This is the description of the culmination of the Creation. The
author lists all the living creatures not mentioned before and
describes the various kinds of food for man and beast.
As we have seen, the error was to place the appearance of
beasts of the earth after that of the birds. Man's appearance is
however correctly situated after the other species of living things.
The description of the Creation finishes in the first three
verses of Chapter 2 :
"Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the
host (sic) of them. And on the seventh day God finished his work
which he had done, and he rested on the seventh day from all his
work which he had done. So God blessed the seventh day and
hallowed it, because on it God rested from all his work which he
had done in creation;
These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when
they were created."
This description of the seventh day calls for some comment.
?I'h.OldTlrrtomlrln
crdiGiancc
n
Firstty the mesning of certain words. fire text is tsken from
the Bevised Stendard Version of the Bible mentioned above. The
word trosf, sig1nifiee here, in all
probability, the multitude
of be-
ings created. Ag for the expression
'he
rested', it is a manner of
translsUng the Hebrew word
'shabbath',
from which the Jewish
day for reet is derived, hence the expression
in English
'sabbath'.
It is
quite
clear that the
'rest'
that C'od
is said to have taken
after his six days' work is a legend. There is nevertheless &n ex-
planation for this. We must bear in mind that the description
of
the creation examined here is tsken from the so-called Sacerdotal
veruio& written by
priests and scribes who were the spiritual
suecessors of Ezekiel, the
prophet
of the exile to Babylon writing
in the Sixth century B.C. We have already seen how the
priests
took the Yahvist and Elohist versions of Genesis
and remodelled
them after their own fashion in accordanee
with their o\iln
pre-
occupations. Father
de Vaux
has written that the
'legalist'
char-
acter of these writings was very essentisl. An outline of this has
already
been
given
above.
Whereas the Yahvist text of the Creation,
written several cen-
turies before the Sacerdotal text,
makes no mention
of God's
sabbath,
taken after the fatigue
of a week's
labor, the authors
of
the sacerdotal
text bring it into their description.
They divide
the latter into separate days, with the very
precise indication
of
the days of the week. They build it around the sabbatic
day of
rest which they have to
iustify
to the faithful by
pointing out
thst God wss the first to respect it. Subseguent
to this
practical
necessity, the description
that follows has an apparently
log,ical
religious order, but in fact scientific data
permit us to
qualify the
latter as being of a whimsical nature.
The idea that successive
phases of the Creation'
as seen by the
Sacerdotal
authors
in their desire to incite
people to religious
observation,
could
have been compressed
into the space of one
week is one that cannot be defended from a scientific
point of
view. Today
we are
perfectly aware that the formation
of the
universe
and the Earth took
place in stages that lasted for very
long
periods.
(In
the third
part of the
present work, we shall
o*itt"
this
question when we come to look at the
Qur'anic
data
concernins
the Cneation).
Even if the description
came to a close
on the *veniog of the sixth day, without mentioning
the seventh
27
Firstly the meaning of certain words. The text is taken from
the Revised Standard Version of the Bible mentioned above. The
word 'host' signifies here, in all probability, the multitude of be-
ings created. As for the expression 'he rested', it is a manner of
translating the Hebrew word 'shabbath', from which the Jewish
day for rest is derived, hence the expression in English 'sabbath'.
It is quite clear that the 'rest' that God is said to have taken
after his six days' work is a legend. There is nevertheless an ex-
planation for this. We must bear in mind that the description of
the creation examined here is taken from the so-called Sacerdotal
version, written by priests and scribes who were the spiritual
successors of Ezekiel, the prophet of the exile to Babylon writing
in the Sixth century B.C. We have already seen how the priests
took the Yahvist and Elohist versions of Genesis and remodelled
them after their own fashion in accordance with their own pre-
occupations. Father de Vaux has written that the 'legalist' char-
acter of these writings was very essential. An outline of this has
already been given above.
Whereas the Yahvist text of the Creation, written several cen-
turies before the Sacerdotal text, makes no mention of God's
sabbath, taken after the fatigue of a week's labor, the authors of
the Sacerdotal text bring it into their description. They divide
the latter into separate days, with the very precise indication of
the days of the week. They build it around the sabbatic day of
rest which they have to justify to the faithful by pointing out
that God was the first to respect it. Subsequent to this practical
necessity, the description that follows has an apparently logical
religious order, but in fact scientific data permit us to qualify the
latter as being of a whimsical nature.
The idea that successive phases of the Creation, as seen by the
Sacerdotal authors in their desire to incite people to religious
observation, could have been compressed into the space of one
week is one that cannot be defended from a scientific point of
view. Today we are perfectly aware that the formation of the
Universe and the E'arth took place in stages that lasted for very
long periods. (In the third part of the present work, we shall
examine this question when we come to look at the Qur'anic data
concerning the Creation). Even if the description came to a close
on tile evening of the sixth day, without mentioning the seventh
?a
TIrE BIBLF., rEE
QIIRAITI
AND SGXB{CE
dan the
'sabbath'
when God is ssid to h^Bve rested, snd even if,
as in the
Qurhnic
description, \re'wgne perrnittod
to ttlink thrt
they w'ere in fact undefined periods
rather than actu*l day+ the
Sacerdotal description would stiu not be any mor rcceptable.
The sueeession of episodes it contains is an absolute contradiction
with elementary scientific knowledge.
It may be seen therefore that the Saeerdotal
description of the
creation stands out as an imaginative
and ingenious fabricafion.
Its purpose
was
guite
different from that of making the truth
known.
SecordDewvipfu
The second description
of the creation in Genesis follows
im-
mediately
upon the first without
cornment or transitional pas-
sage. It does not provoke
the same objections.
we must remember
that this description
is roughly
three cen-
turies older and is very short. It allows.more
space to the ereation
of man and earthly paradise
than to'the creation of the Earth
and Heavens. It mentions
this very
briefly
(chapter
E, 4biTl z
"rn the day tha,t Yahweh
God made
the earth and the heavens,
when no plant
of the field was yet
in the esrth and no herb of the
field had yet
sprung
up-for
yahweh
God had not caused it to
rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the
ground;
bu't a flood went up from earth and wstered the whole face of the
ground-then
Yahweh
God formed'man of dust from the
ground,
and breathed into his nostrils the bresth
of life; and man became
a living being."
This is the Yahvist text that appears
in the text of
presenL
day Bibles. The Sacerdotal text was added to it later on, but one
may ask if it was originally
so brief. Nobody is in a
position
to
say whether the Yahvist text has not, in the course of tirne, been
pared
down. We do not know if the few lines we
possess
represent
all that the oldest Biblieal text of the creation had to say.
The Yahvist description
does not mention the actual formation
of the Earth or the Heavens. It makes it clear that when
God
ereated man, therre was no vegetation on Earth (it
had not
yet
rained),
even though the waters of the Earth had covered its
surface. The sequel to the text confirms this;
God
planted
a
gpr-
den at the same time as man was created. The vegetable kingdom
THE BIBLE, THE QUIrAN AND SCIENCE
day, the 'sabbath' when God is said to have rested, and even if,
as in the Qur"anie description, we were permitted to think that
they were in fact undefined periods rather than actual days, the
Sacerdotal description would still not be any more acceptable.
The succession of episodes it contains is an absolute contradiction
with elementary scientific knowledge.
It may be seen therefore that the Sacerdotal description of the
Creation stands out as an imaginative and ingenious fabrication.
Its purpose was quite different from that of making the truth
known.
Second Description
The second description of the Creation in Genesis follows im-
mediately upon the first without comment or transitional pas-
sage. It does not provoke the same objections.
We must remember that this description is roughly three cen-
turies older and is very short. It allows_more space to the creation
of m'an and earthly paradise than tothe creation of the Earth
and Heavens. It mentions this very briefly (Chapter 2, 4b-7):
"In the day tha't Yahweh God made the earth and the heavens,
when no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of the
field had yet sprung up-for Yahweh God had not caused it to
rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the ground;
but a flood went up from earth and watered the whole face of the
ground-then Yahweh God formed-man of dust from the ground,
and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became
a living being."
This is the Yahvist text that appears in the text of present-
day Bibles. The Sacerdotal text was added to it later on, but one
may ask if it was originally so brief. Nobody is in a position to
say whether the Yahvist text has not, in the course of time, been
pared down. We do not know if the few lines we possess represent
all that the oldest Biblical text of the Creation had to say.
The Yahvist description does not mention the actual formation
of the garth or the He'avens. It makes it clear that when God
created man, there was no vegetation on Earth (it had not yet
rained), even though the waters of the Earth had covered its
surface. The sequel to the text confirms this: God planted a gar-
den 'at the same time as man was created. The vegetable kingdom
Trrc OldTectarrrcnt amil SctcrroD
therefore appears on Earth at the seme time as man. This is
scientifically inaccurate; man did not appear on Earth until a
long time after vegetation had been
growing
on it. We do not
know how meny hundreds of millions of
years separate the two
events.
This is the only critieigm that one can level at the Yahvist text.
The fact that it does not
place
the creation of man in time in re-
lation to the formation of the world and the earth, unlike the
Sacerdotal text, which places them in the same week, frees it
from the serious obiections raised against the latter.
THE DATE OF THE WORLD"S CNEATION AND THE
DATE OF MAATS APPEANANCE ON EANTH.
Ttre Jewish calendar, which follows the data contained in the
Old Testament,
places
the dates of the above very
precisely. The
second half of the Christian
year
1975 eorresponds to the be-
ginning
of the 5,736th
year
of the creation of the world. The
creation of man followed several days later, so that he has the
same numerieal age, counted in
years,
as in the Jewish ealendar.
There is
probably a correetion to be made on account of the fact
that time was originally calculated in lunar
years,
while the cal-
endar used in the West is based on solar
years. This correction
would have to be made if one wanted to be absolutely exact, but
as it represents only 3To, it is of very little consequenee. To sim-
plify our calculations, it is easier to disregard it. lVhat matters
here is the order of magnitude. It is therefore of little importance
if. over a thousand
years,
our ealculations are thirty
years
out.
We are nearer the truth in following this Hebraic estimate of
the creation of the world if we say that it happened roughly
thirty-seven centuries before Christ.
What does modern scienee tell us? It would be difficult to reply
to the
question
concerning the forrnation of the Universe.
All we
can
provide figures for is the era in time when the solar system
was formed. It is
possible to arrive at a reasonable approxima-
tion of this. The time between it and the
present is estimated at
four and a half billion
years. We can therefore measure the mar-
gin
separating
the firmly established
reality we know today
and
the data taken from the Old Testament. We shall expand on this
20
rise Old relttJmenl and SciBrace
therefore appears on Earth at the same time as man. This is
scientifically inaccurate; man did not appear on Earth until a
long time after vegetation had been growing on it. We do not
know how many hundreds of millions of years separate the two
events.
This is the only criticism that one can level a:t the Yahvist text.
The fact that it does not place the creation of man in time in re-
lation to the formation of the world and the earth, unlike the
Sacerdotal text, which places them in the same week, frees it
from the serious objections raised against the latter.
THE DATE OF THE CREATION AND THE
DATE OF MAN'S APPEARANCE ON EARTH.
The Jewish calendar, which follows the data contained in the
Old Testament, places the dates of the above very precisely. The
second half of the Christian year 1975 corresponds to the be-
ginning of the 5,736th year of the creation of the world. The
creation of man followed several days later, so that he has the
same numerical age, counted in years, as in the Jewish calendar.
There is probably a correction to be made on account of the fact
that time was originally calculated in lunar years, while the cal-
endar used in the West is based on solar years. This correction
would have to be made if one wanted to be absolutely exact, but
as it represents only 3%, it is of very little consequence. To sim-
plify our calculations, it is easier to disregard it. \Vhat matters
here is the order of magnitude. It is therefore of little importance
over a thousand years, our calculations are thirty years out.
We are nearer the truth in following this Hebraic estimate of
the creation of the world if we say that it happened roughly
thirty-seven centuries before Christ.
What does modern science tell us? It would be difficult to reply
to the question concerning the formation of the Universe. All we
can provide figures for is the era in time when the solar system
was formed. It is possible to arrive at a reasonable approxima-
tion of this. The time between it and the present is estimated at
four and a half billion years. We can therefore measure the mar-
gin separating the firmly established reality we know today and
the data taken from the Old Testament. We shall expand on this
30
THE BIBT.T, THE
QUR'AN
AI{D SCIENCE
in the third
pert
of the
present
work. These facts emerg from
a elose scrutiny of the Biblical text. Genesis
provides
verr
pre-
cise information
on the time that elapsed between Adam and
Abraham. For the period
from the time of Abraham to the be-
ginnings
of Christianity, the information provided
is insufficient.
It must be supported by other sources.
L From Adnmto Abtaham
Genesis
provides
extremely precise genealogical
data in Chap-
ters 4, 5, 11, 21 and 25. They concern all of Abraham's
aneestors
in direct line back to Adam. They give
the length of time each
person
lived,
the father's
age at the birth of the son and thus
make it easily possible
to ascertain the dates of birth and death
of eaeh ancestor in relation
to the creation of Adam., as the table
indicates.
All the data used in this table come from the Sacerdotal text
of Genesis, the only Biblical text
that
provides
information of
this kind. It may be deduced, according to the Bible, that Abra-
ham was born 1,948
years
after Adam.
ABRAHAM's
GENEALOGY
1. Adam
Seth
Enosch
Kenan
Mahalaleel
Jared
Enoeh
Methuselah
Lamech
10. Noah
Shem
Arpaehshad
Shelah
Eber
Peleg
date ol birth
langth date of dea,th
alter orea,tion
of af ter creation
of Adam
life of Ad,am
930 930
130
9L2 1042
236
905 1140
325 910
1235
395
895 1290
460
962 t422
622
865
98?
687
969 1656
874
TT7 1651
1056
950 2006
1556
600 2156
1658
438
2096
1693
433
2122
t72g 464
2L87
t757 239
1996
30 THE BOLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
in the third part of the present work. These facts emerge from
a close scrutiny of the Biblical text. Genesis provides very pre-
cise information on the time that elapsed between Adam and
Abraham. For the period from the time of Abraham to the be-
ginnings of Christianity, the information provided is insufficient.
It must be supported by other sources.
1. From Adam to Abraham
Genesis provides extremely precise genealogical data in Chap-
ters 4, 5, 11, 21 and 25. They concern all of Abraham's ancestors
in direct line back to Adam. They give the length of time each
person lived, the father's age at the birth of the son and thus
make it easily possible to ascertain the dates of birth and death
of each ancestor in relation to the creation of Adam., as the table
indicates.
All the data used in this table come from the Sacerdotal text
of Genesis, the only Biblical text that provides information of
this kind. It may be deduced, according to the Bible, that Abra-
ham was born 1,948 years after Adam.
ABRAHAM's GENEALOGY
date 0/ birth length date 0/ death
after creation
0/
after creation
0/ Adam life 0/ Adam
1. Adam 930 930
Seth 130 912 1042
Enosch 235 905 1140
Kenan 325 910 1235
Mahalaleel 395 895 1290
Jared 460 962 1422
Enoch 622 365 987
Methuselah 687 969 1656
Lamech 874 777 1651
10. Noah 1056 950 2006
Shem 1556 600 2156
Arpachshad 1658 438 2096
Shelah 1693 433 2122
Eber 1723 464 2187
Peleg 1757 239 1996
Trlc Oldfietfurlrpttt &d Scfgllrcc
Reu 178?
Sentg 1819
Nahor f849
Teratr 18?8
90. Abrsham 1948
239
280
148
206
t76
2. Front Abralwm to Tlw Beginning Ot Cfubtinnitrry
fire Bible does not
provide
any numerical information on this
period that might lead to such
precise estimates as those found
in Genesis on Abraham's ancestors. We must look to other
sources to estimate the time separating Abraham from Jesus.
At
present, allowing for a slight margin of error, the time of Abrs-
ham is situated at roughly eighteen cgnturies before Jesus. Com'
bined with information in Genesis
on the interval separating
Abraham and Adam, this would
place Adam at roughly thirty-
eight centuries before Jesus. This estirnat is undeniably wTong:
the orisins
of this inaccuracy arise from the mistakes in the
Bible on the Adam-Abraham
period. The Jewish
tradition still
founds its calendar on this. Nowadays, we can challenge the
traditional defenders of Biblical truth with the incompatibility
between the whimsical estimates of Jewish
priests
Jiving in the
Sixttt century B.C. and modern data. For centuries, the events
of antiquity relating to Jesus were situated in time according to
information based on these estimates.
Before modern times, editions of the Bible frequentfy
provided
the reader with a
preamble
explaining the historical sequnce
of events that had eome to
pass between the creation of the world
and the time when the books were edited. The figures vary
slightly according to the time. For example, the Clementine Vul-
ga,te,1621, gave this information, although it did
place Abraham
a little esrlier and the Creation at roughly the 40th ceritury B.C.
Walton's
polyglot Bible,
produced
in the l?th century, in addi-
tion to Biblical texts in several languagps'
gave the reader tables
similar to the one shown here for Abraham's ancestors. Almost
all the estimates coincide with the figures
given
here. With the
arrival of modern times, editors were no longer able to maintain
such whimsical chronologies
without
going
against scientific dis-
covery that
placed the Creation at a much earlier date. They were
content to abolish these tables and preambles, but they avoided
3l
20?;6
2049
r997
2083
2l?.9
TIte Old TeatDmetaI tmtl Scisnce 31
Beu 1787 239 2026
Serug 1819 230 2049
Nahor 1849 148 1997
Terah 1878 205 2083
20. Abraham 1948 175 2123
J. From Abraham to The Beginnings Of Christianity
The Bible does not provide any numerical information on this
period that might lead to such precise estimates as those found
in Genesis on Abraham's ancestors. We must look to other
sources to estimate the time separating Abraham from Jesus. At
present, allowing for a slight margin of error, the time of Abra-
ham is situated at roughly eighteen centuries before Jesus. Com-
bined with information in Genesis on the interval separating
Abraham and Adam, this would place Adam at roughly thirty-
eight centuries before Jesus. This estimate is undeniably wrong:
the origins of this inaccuracy arise from the mistakes in the
Bible on the Adam-Abraham period. The Jewish tradition still
founds its calendar on this. Nowadays, we can challenge the
traditional defenders of Biblical truth with the incompatibility
between the whimsical estimates of Jewish priests Jiving in the
Sixth century B.C. and modern data. For centuries, the events
of antiquity relating to Jesus were situated in time according to
information based on these estimates.
Before modern times, editions of the Bible frequently provided
the reader with a preamble explaining the historical sequence
of events that had come to pass between the creation of the world
and the time when the books were edited. The figures vary
slightly according to the time. For example, the Clementine Vul-
gate, 1621, gave this information, although it did place Abraham
a little earlier and the Creation at roughly the 40th ceritury B.C.
Walton's polyglot Bible, produced in the 17th century, in addi-
tion to Biblical texts in several languages, gave the reader tables
similar to the one shown here for Abraham's ancestors. Almost
all the estimates coincide with the figures given here. With the
arrival of modern times, editors were no longer able to maintain
such whimsical chronologies without going against scientific dis-
covery that placed the Creation at a much earlier date. They were
content to abolish these tables and preambles, but they avoided
38
TIIE BIBI.q
TIG
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
warning the reeder that the Biblical texts on which these ehro-
nologies were based had become obsorete and could no longer be
considered
to express the truth. They preferred
to draw a modest
veil over them, and invent
set-phra'ses
of eunning
dialeetics thet
would make acceptable
the
text as it hsd forrnerly
been, without
eny subtractions from it.
This is why the genealogies
contained in the Sacerdotal text of
the Bible &re still honoured,
even thoush in the Twentieth
cen-
tury one eannot reasonably
continue to count time on the basis
of such fiction.
Modern seientific
data do not allow us to establish the date of
man's appearance
on earth beyond a certain limit. we may be
certain that man,
with the capacity for action and intelligent
thought
that distinguishes
him from beings that appesr t,o be
ana'tomically
similar to him, existed on Earth
after a certain esti-
mable date. Nobody
however
can sey at what exact date he ap-
peared.
What we can say today is that remains have been found
of a humanity
capable of human
thought and action whose agp
may be calculated
in tens of thousands of years.
This approximate
dating refers
to the prehistoric
human
species, the most recently
discovered
beins the
Cro-Magnon Man.
There have
of course been many other discoveries
ali over the
world of remains that appear to be human. These relate
to less
highly evolved
species, and their age could be somewhere
in the
hundreds of thousands
of years.
But were they genuine
men ?
whatever
the answer
may be, scientific data are sufficienfly
precise
coneerning
the prehistoric
species like the Cro-Magnon
Man, to be able to
place
them much further back than the epoch
in which Genesis places
the first men. There is therefore an
obvious incompatibility
between
what we can derive from the
numerical
data in
Genesis about the date of man's appearance
on Earth and the firmly established facts of modern scientific
knowledge.
THE FLOOD
Chapters
s, 7 and 8 are devoted to the clescription
of the Flood.
In actual faet, there are tvyo descriptions;
they have not been
placed
side by side, but are distribrited all the way through.
pas-
31 'IHE BIBLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
warning the reader that the Biblical texts on which these chro-
nologies were based had become obsolete and could no longer be
considered to express the truth. They preferred to draw a modest
veil over them, and invent set-phra"ses of cunning dialectics that
would make acceptable the text as it had formerly been, without
any subtractions from it.
This is why the genealogies contained in the Sacerdotal text of
the Bible are still honoured, even though in the Twentieth cen-
tury one cannot reasonably continue to count time on the basis
of such fiction.
Modern scientific data do not allow us to establish the date of
man's appearance on earth beyond a certain limit. We may be
certain that man, with the capacity for action and intelligent
thought that distinguishes him from beings that appear to be
anatomically similar to him, existed on Earth after a certain esti-
mable date. Nobody however can say at what exact date he ap-
peared. What we can say today is that remains have been found
of a humanity capable of human thought and action whose age
may be calculated in tens of thousands of years.
This approximate dating refers to the prehistoric human
species, the most recently discovered being the Cro-Magnon Man.
There have of course been many other discoveries all over the
world of remains that appear to be human. These relate to less
highly evolved species, and their age could be somewhere in the
hundl1!ds of thousands of years. But were they genuine men?
Whatever the answer may be, scientific data are sufficiently
precise concerning the prehistoric species like the Cro-Magnon
Man, to be able to place them much further back than the epoch
in which Genesis places the first men. There is therefore an
obvious incompatibility between what we can derive from the
numerical data in Genesis about the date of man's appearance
on Earth and the firmly established facts of modern scientific
knowledge.
THE FLOOD
Chapters 6, 7 and 8 are devoted to the description of the Flood.
In actual fact, there are two descriptions; they have not been
placed side by side, but are distributed all the way through. Pas-
Trrc O|dTgrltoment ffid Scta'nce
sages sre intertroven to
give the appearance of a coherent sue-
cession of varying episodes. In these three chapters there are, in
reali'ty, blatant contradictions; here again the explanation lies in
the existence of two
quite
distinct sources: the Yahvist and Sac-
erdotal versions.
It has been shown earlier that they formed a disparate amal-
gam;
each original text has been broken down into
paragraphs
or
phrases,
elements of one source alternating with the other,
so thst in the eourse of the complete description, lve
go from
one to another seventeen times in roughly one hundred lines of
Engilish txt
Taken as a whole, the story
goes
as follows:
Man'e corruption had beeome widespread, so God decided to
annihilate him along with all the other living creatures. He
warned Noah and told him to construct the Ark into which he
was to take his wife, his three sons and their wives, along with
other living ereaturgs. The two sources differ for the latter: one
passsge (Sacerdotal)
says that Noah was to take one
pair
of each
rpeeies; then in the
passage
that follows
(Yahvist) it is stated
that God ordered him to take seven males and seven females
from esch of the so-called
'pure'
animal speeies, and a single
pair
from the'impure' species. Further on, however, it is stated that
Noah eetually took one
pair
of each animal. Speeialists, such as
Father de Vaux, state that the
passage
in
question
is from an
adaptetion of the Yahvist description.
Bainwater is
given as the agent of the Flood in one
(Yahvist)
passage,
but in snother
(Sacerdotal),
the Flood is
given
a double
cause: rainwater and the wsters of the Earth.
The Earth was submerged right up to and above the mountain
peaks.
All life
perished.
After one
year,
when the waters had
receded, Noetr emerged from the Ark that had come to rest on
Mount Ararat.
One might add thst the Flood lasted differing lengths of time
according to the souree used: forty days for the Yahvist version
and one hundred and fifty in the Sacerdotal text.
The Yshvist version does not tell us when the event took
place
in Noah's
life, but the Sacerdotsl text tells us that he was six
hundred
years
old. The latter also
provides information in its
geuealogies that situates him in relation to Adam and Abraham.
Tlas Old TeaftJmenI and Science 33
sages are interwoven to give the appearance of a coherent suc-
cession of varying episodes. In these three chapters there are, in
reaJi.ty, blatant contradictions; here again the explanation lies in
the existence of two quite distinct sources: the Yahvist and Sac-
erdotal versions.
It has been shown earlier that they formed a disparate amal-
gam; each original text has been broken down into paragraphs
or phrases, elements of one source alternating with the other,
so that in the course of the complete description, we go from
one to another seventeen times in roughly one hundred lines of
English text.
Taken as a whole, the story goes as follows:
Man's corruption had become widespread, so God decided to
annihilate him along with all the other living creatures. He
warned Noah and told him to construct the Ark into which he
was to take his wife, his three sons and their wives, along with
other living creatures. The two sources differ for the latter: one
passage (Sacerdotal) says that Noah was to take one pair of each
SPeCies; then in the passage that follows (Yahvist) it is stated
that God ordered him to take seven males and seven females
from each of the so-called 'pure' animal species, and a single pair
from the 'impure' species. Further on, however, it is stated that
Noah actually took one pair of each animal. Specialists, such as
Father de Vawe, state that the passage in question is from an
adaptation of the Yahvist description.
Rainwater is given as the agent of the Flood in one (Yahvist)
passage, but in another (Sacerdotal), the Flood is given a double
cause: rainwater and the waters of the Earth.
The Earth was submerged right up to and above the mountain
peaks. All life perished. After one year, when the waters had
receded, Noah emerged from the Ark that had come to rest on
Mount Ararat.
One might add that the Flood lasted differing lengths of time
according to the source used: forty days for the Yahvist version
and one hundred and fifty in the Sacerdotal text.
The Yahvist version does not tell us when the event took place
in Noah's life, but the Sacerdotal text tells us that he was six
hundred years old. The latter also provides information in its
genealogies that situates him in relation to Adam and Abraham.
u THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
If we ealculate according to the information contained in Genesis,
Noah was born 1,056
years
after Adam
(see
table of Abraham's
Genealogy) and the Flood therefore took
place 1,656 years
after
the creation of Adam. In relation
to Abraham, Genesis
places
the Flood 292 years
before the birth of this Patriarch.
According to Genesis, the Flood affeeted the whole of the
human race and all living creatures created by God on the face
of the Earth were destroyed. Humanity was then reconstituted
by Noah's three sons and their wives so that when Abraham was
born roughly three centuries later, he found a humanity that was
already re-formed into separate communities. Horv eould this re-
construction have taken
place
in such a short time? This simple
observation deprives the narration of all verisimilitude.
Furthermore, historical
data show its incompatibility with
modern knowledge. Abraham is
placed
in the
period
1800-1880
8.C., and if the Flood took place,
as Genesis suggests in its
gene-
alogies, roughly three centuries before Abraham, we would have
to place
him somewhere in the Twenty-first
to Twenty-second
century B.C. Modern historical knowledge eonfirms that at this
period,
civilizations had sprung up in several parts
of the world;
for their remains have been left to
posterity.
In the ease of Esypt for example, the remains correspond to
the period preceding
the Middle Kingdom (2,100
B.C.) at roughly
the date of the First Intermediate Period before the Eleventh
Dynasty. In Babylonia it is the Third Dynasty at
Ur, We know
for certain that there was no break in these civilizations, so that
there eould have been no destruction affecting the whole of hu-
manity, as it appears in the Bible.
We cannot therefore consider that these three Biblical narra-
tions provide
man with an account of facts that correspond to
the truth. we are obliged to admit that, objectively
speaking, the
texts which have come down to u's do not represent the expresion
of reality. We may ask ourselves whether it is
possible
for God
to have revealed
anything other than the truth. It is difficult to
entertain the idea that God taught to man ideas that were not
only fictitious, but contradictory.
We naturally arrive therefore
at the
hypothesis
that distortions occurred that were made by
man or that arose from traditions passed
down from one
genera-
tion to another by word of mouth, or from the texts of these tra-
34
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
If we calculate according to the information contained in Genesis,
Noah was born 1,056 years after Adam (see table of Abraham's
Genealogy) and the Flood therefore took place 1,656 years after
the creation of Adam. In relation to Abraham, Genesis places
the Flood 292 years before the birth of this Patriarch.
According to Genesis, the Flood affected the whole of the
human race and all living creatures created by God on the face
of the Earth were destroyed. Humanity was then reconstituted
by Noah's three sons and their wives so that when Abraham was
born roughly three centuries later, he found a humanity that was
already re-formed into separate communities. How could this re-
construction have taken place in such a short time? This simple
observation deprives the narration of all verisimilitude.
Furthermore, historical data show its incompatibility with
modern knowledge. Abraham is placed in the period 1800-1850
B.C., and if the Flood took place, as Genesis suggests in its gene-
alogies, roughly three centuries before Abraham, we would have
to place him somewhere in the Twenty-first to Twenty-second
century B.C. Modern historical knowledge confirms that at this
period, civilizations had sprung up in several parts of the world;
for their remains have been left to posterity.
In the case of Egypt for example, the remains correspond to
the period preceding the Middle Kingdom (2,100 B.C.) at roughly
the date of the First Intermediate Period before the Eleventh
Dynasty. In Babylonia it is the Third Dynasty at Ur. We know
for certain that there was no break in these civilizations, so that
there could have been no destruction affecting the whole of hu-
manity, as it appears in the Biblf'.
We cannot therefore consider that these three Biblical narra-
tions provide man with an account of facts that correspond to
the truth. We are obliged to admit that, objectively speaking, the
texts which have come down to us do not represent the expresion
of reality. We may ask ourselves whether it is possible for God
to have revealed anything other than the truth. It is difficult to
entertain the idea that God taught to man ideas that were not
only fictitious, but contradictory. We naturally arrive therefore
at the hypothesis that distortions occurred that were made by
man or that arose from traditions passed down from one genera-
tion to another by word of mouth, or from the texts of these tra-
TtE OtdTedamen anitscJcrct
3f
ditions once they were written down. When one knows that r
work such as Genesis was adapted at leest twice over a
period of
not less thsn three centuries, it is hardly surprising to find im-
probabilities or descriptions
that are incompatible
with reality.
This is because the
progress msde in hum.an knowledge
has en-
abled us to know, if not everything, enough at least about certain
events to be sble to
judge
the degree of compatibility between
our knowledge and the ancient descriptions of them. There is
nothing more logical than to maintain this interpretation of Bib-
lical errors which only implicates man himself. It is a
great pity
that the majority of commentators, both Jewish and Christisn'
do not hold with it. The arguments they use nevertheless desenre
careful attention.
The Old Tetftnruml IJtItI Science 35
ditions once they were written down. When one knows that a
work such as Genesis was adapted at least twice over a period of
not less than three centuries, it is hardly surprising to find im-
probabilities or descriptions that are incompatible with reality.
This is because the progress made in hum,an knowledge has en-
abled us to know, if not everything, enough at least about certain
events to be able to judge the degree of compatibility between
our knowledge and the ancient descriptions of them. There is
nothing more logical than to maintain this interpretation of Bib-
lical errors which only implicates man himself. It is a great pity
that the majority of commentators, both Jewish and Christian,
do not hold with it. The arguments they use nevertheless deserve
careful attention.
IY
Position
Of
Christian
Authors
lfith R*grrd To
Scientific frror
ln fhe
Biblical
Texls.
A Critical fxarrrinatiorr.
One is struck by the diverse nature of Christian commentators'
reactions to the existence of these accumulated errors, improb-
abilities and contradictions.
Certain commentators acknowledge
some of them and do not hesitate in their work to tackle thorny
problems.
others pass
lightly over unacceptable
statements and
insist on defending the text word for word. The latter
try to con-
vince
people
by apologetic
declarations, heavily reinforced by
arguments which are often unexpected, in the hope that what is
logically unacceptable
will be forgotten.
In the Introduction
to his translation of Genesis, Father de
Vaux acknowledges
the existence of critical arguments and even
expands upon their cogency. Nevertheless, for him the objective
reconstitution of past
events has little interest. As he writes in
his notes, the fact that the Bible resumes
"the memory of one or
two disastrous floods of the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates,
enlarged by tradition until they took on the dimensions of a uni-
versal cataclysm" is neither here nor there;
,'the
essential thing
is, however, that the sacred author has infused into this memory
eternal teachi ngs on the
j usti ce
and mercy of God toward the
malice of man and the salvation of the righteous."
36

Position Of Ch..
4ulho..s Wilh R.eaard To
Sl:ienlific: E....o.. In The
l3iblil:al Texb.
4 C..ilil:al ExaDlination.
One is struck by the diverse nature of Christian commentators'
reactions to the existence of these accumulated errors, improb-
abilities and contradictions. Certain commentators acknowledge
some of them and do not hesitate in their work to tackle thorny
problems. Others pass lightly over unacceptable statements and
insist on defending the text word for word. The latter try to con-
vince people by apologetic declarations, heavily reinforced by
arguments which are often unexpected, in the hope that what is
logically unacceptable will be forgotten.
In the Introduction to his translation of Genesis, Father de
Vaux acknowledges the existence of critical arguments and even
expands upon their cogency. Nevertheless, for him the objective
reconstitution of events has little interest. As he writes in
his notes, the fact that the Bible resumes "the memory of one or
two disastrous floods of the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates,
enlarged by tradition until they took on the dimensions of a uni-
versal cataclysm" is neither here nor there; "the essential thing
is, however, that the sacred author has infused into this memory
eternal teachings on the justice and mercy of God toward the
malice of man and the salvation of the righteous."
36
AGr{delErrllnffir
37
In this way
justification
is found for the transformation of d
popular legend into an event of divine
proportions-and it is as
such that it is thought fit to
present
the legend to men's fsith-
following the
principle that an author has made use of it to illus-
trate religious teachings. An apologetic
position
of this kind
ius-
tifies all the liberties taken in the eomposition of writings which
are supposed to be sacred and to contain the word of God. If one
acknowledges such human interference in what is divine, all the
human manipulations of the Biblical texts will be accounted for.
If there are theological intentions, all manipulations become le-
gitimat; so that those of the
'sacerdotal'
authors of the Sixth
century are
justified,
including their legalist
preoceupations that
turned into the whimsical descriptions we have.already seen.
A large number of Christian commentators have found it more
ingenious to explain errors, improbabilities and contradictions
in Biblical descriptions by t:sing the excuse that the Biblical
authors were expressing ideas in accordance with the social fac-
tors of a different eulture or mentality. From this arose the defi-
nition of respective
'literary
genres' which was introduced into
the subtle dialecties of commentators, so that it accounts for all
difficulties. Any contradictions there are between two texts are
then explained by the difference in the way eaeh author expressed
ideas in his own
particular
'literary
genre'.
This argument is
not, of course, acknowledged by everybody because it lacks
grav-
ity. It has not entirely fallen into disuse today however, and we
shall see in the New Testament its extravagant use as an attempt
to explain blatant contradictions in the Gospels.
Another way of making acceptable what would be rejected by
logie when applied to a litigious text, is to surround the text in
question urith apologetical eonsiderations.
The reader's attention
is distracted from the crucial
problem
of the truth of the text
itself and deflected towards other
problems.
Cardinal Dani6lou's reflections on the Flood follow this mode
of expression. They appear in the review Liai,ng God
(Dieu
Vi vant)' under the ti tl e:
' Fl ood,
Bapti sm, Judgment' ,
(Ddl uge,
BWtdme,
Jugement') where he writes "The
oldest tradition of
the Church
has seen in the theology of the Flood an image of
Christ and the Church".
It is
"an
episode
of
great
significance"
1. No. 38, 1974,
pp. 95-112)
37
In this way justification is found for the transformation of a
popular legend into an event of divine proportions-and it is as
such that it is thought fit to present the legend to men's faith-
following the principle that an author has made use of it to illus...
trate religious teachings. An apologetic position of this kind jus-
tifies all the liberties taken in the composition of writings which
are supposed to be sacred and to contain the word of God. If one
acknowledges such human interference in what is divine, all the
human manipulations of the Biblical texts will be accounted for.
If there are theological intentions, all manipulations become le-
gitimate; so that those of the 'Sacerdotal' authors of the Sixth
century are justified, including their legalist preoccupations that
turned into the whimsical descriptions we have already seen.
A large number of Christian commentators have found it more
ingenious to explain errors, improbabilities and contradictions
in Biblical descriptions by psing the excuse that the Biblical
authors were expressing ideas in accordance with the social fac-
tors of a different culture or mentality. From this arose the defi-
nition of respective 'literary genres' which was introduced into
the subtle dialectics of commentators, so that it accounts for all
difficulties. Any contradictions there are between two. texts are
then explained by the difference in the way each author expressed
ideas in his own particular 'literary genre'. This argument is
not, of course, acknowledged by everybody because it lacks grav-
ity. It has not entirely fallen into disuse today however, and we
shall see in the New Testament its extravagant use as an attempt
to explain blatant contradictions in the Gospels.
Another way of making acceptable what would be rejected by
logic when applied to a litigious text, is to surround the text in
question with apologetical considerations. The reader's attention
is distracted from the crucial problem of the truth of the text
itself and deflected towards other problems.
Cardinal Danielou's reflections on the Flood follow this mode
of expression. They appear in the review Living God (Dieu
Vivant) 1 under the title: 'Flood, Baptism, Judgment', (Deluge,
Bapteme, Jugement') where he writes "The oldest tradition of
the Church has seen in the theology of the Flood an image of
Christ and the Church". It is "an episode of great significance
11
1. No. 38, 1974, pp. 95-112)
$E TIrE BrBLF,, THE
QItn'AN
AND SCTENGE
. . .
"B
judgment
striking the whole human race." Having
quoted
from Origen in his Homilies on Ezehinl, he talks of
"the
shif
wreck of the entire universe saved in the Ark", Cardinel Dan-
i6lou dwells upon the vslue of the number eight
"expressing the
number of
people
that were saved in the Ark
(Noah
and his wife,
his three son$ and their wives) ". He turns to his own use Justin's
urritings in his Dial,ogue:
"They represent the symbol of the
eighth day when christ rose from the dead" and
"Noah, the first
born of a new creation, is &n image of christ who was to do in
reality what Noah had prefigured."
He continues the comparison
between Noah on the one hand, who was saved by the ark made
of wood and the water that made it float
(
"water of the Flood
from which a new humanity was born"), and on the other, the
cross made of wood. He stresses the value of this symbolism and
concludes by underlining the
"spiritual and doctrinal wealth of
the saerament of the Flood" (sic).
There is much that one could say about such apologetical com-
parisons.
We should always remember that they are eommen-
taries on an event that it is not possible
to defend as reality,
either on a universal scale or in terms of the time in which the
Bible
places
it. with a eommentary such as Cardinsl Dani6lou's
we are back in the Middle Ages, where the text had to be accepted
as it was and any discussion, other than conformist, was off the
point.
rt is nevertheless reassuring to find that prior
to that age of
imposed obscurantism, hishly logical attitudes were adopted. one
might mention those of Saint Augustine
which
proceed
from his
thought, that was singularly advaneed for the age he lived in.
At the time of the Fathers of the Church, there must have been
problems
of textual criticism because
Saint Augustine raises
them in his letter No. 82. The most typical of them is the follow-
ing
passage:
"rt
is solely to those books of Scripture rvhich are called
'canonic'that
I have learned to
grant
such attention and respect
that I firmly believe that their authors have made no errors in
writing them. When r encounter in these books a statement which
seems to contradict reality, I am in no doubt that either the text
(of
my copy) is faulty, or that the translator has not been faith-
ful to the original, or that my understanding is deficient."
38
THE BIBLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
... u
a
judgment striking the whole human race." Having quoted
from Origen in his Homilies on Ezekiel, he talks of "the ship-
wreck of the entire universe saved in the Ark", Cardinal Dan-
ielou dwells upon the value of the number eight uexpressing the
number of people that were saved in the Ark (Noah and his wife,
his three sons and their wives)". He turns to his own use Justin's
writings in his Dialogue: UThey represent the symbol of the
eighth day when Christ rose from the dead" and "Noah, the first
born of a new creation, is an image of Christ who was to do in
reality what Noah had prefigured." He continues the comparison
between Noah on the one hand, who was saved by the ark made
of wood and the water that made it float ("water of the Flood
from which a new humanity was born"), and on the other, the
cross made of wood. He stresses the value of this symbolism and
concludes by underlining the Hspiritual and doctrinal wealth of
the sacrament of the Flood" (sic).
There is much that one could say about such apologetical com-
parisons. We should always remember that they are commen-
taries on an event that it is not possible to defend as reality,
either on a universal scale or in terms of the time in which the
Bible places it. With a commentary such as Cardinal Danielou's
we are back in the Middle Ages, where the text had to be accepted
as it was and any discussion, other than conformist, was off the
point.
It is nevertheless reassuring to find that prior to that age of
imposed obscurantism, highly logical attitudes were adopted. One
might mention those of Saint Augustine which proceed from his
thought, that was singularly advanced for the age he lived in.
At the time of the Fathers of the Church, there must have been
problems of textual criticism because Saint Augustine raises
them in his letter No. 82. The most typical of them is the follow-
ing passage:
"It is solely to those books of Scripture which are called
'canonic' that I have learned to grant such attention and respect
that I firmly believe that their authors have made no errors in
writing them. When I encounter in these books a statement which
seems to contradict reality, I am in no doubt that either the text
(of my copy) is faulty, or that the translator has not been faith-
ful to the orig:lnal, or that my understanding is deficient."
AfifificotBlolmitwfut
30
It was ineonceivable
to Saint
Augustine
that a sacred
text
might contain an error. Saint
Augustine defined
very clearly
the
dogma of infallibility when, confronted
with a
passage that
seemed
to contradict
the truth, he thought of looking for its
cause, without excluding
the hypothesis of a human
fault.
This
is the attitude of a betiever with a critical
outlook. In Saint
Au-
gustine's day, there was no
possibility of a confrontation
be-
I***tt the Biblical text and scienee. An open-mindedness
akin to
his would today eliminate
a lot of the difficulties
raised by the
confrontation
of certain Biblieal
texts with scientific knowledge.
Present-day specialists, on the contrary,
go to
great trouble to
defend the Biblical text from any accusation
of error. In his in-
troduction
to Genesis,
Father de Vaux explains the reasons com-
pelling him to defend the text at all costs, even if,
quite obviously,
it i* hirtorically or scientifieally
unacceptable.
He asks us not to
view Biblical history "according
to the rules of historical study
observed by
people today", as if the existence
of several different
ways of writing history
was possible. History,
when it is told
in
an i naccurate fashi on,
(as anyone wi l l admi t),
becomes a hi s-
torical novel. Here however, it does not have to comply with the
standards
established
by our conceptions.
The Biblieal
commen-
tator rejects any verification of Biblical
descriptions
through
geology, paleontology or
prehistorical data. "The
Bible is not
answerable
to any of these disciplines,
and were one to confront
it with the data obtained from these sciences, it would only lead
to an unreal
opposi ti on or an arti fi ci al
concordance."'
One mi ght
point out that these
reflections are made on what, in Genesis,
is
in ,ro way in harmony with modern
scientific
data-in this case
the first eleven chapters.
when however,
in the
present day, a
few descriptions
have been
perfectly verifled, in this case certain
episodes
from the time of the
patriarchs, the author does not fail
to support the truth of the Bi bl e wi th modern
knowl edge'
"The
doubt
cast upon
these
descri pti ons
shoul d
yi el d to the favorabl e
wi tness that hi story
and eastet' n
archaeol ogy
bear them' "' In
other words:
i f sci ence
i s useful i n confi rmi ng
the Bi bl i cal
de-
scription,
it is invoked,
but if it invalidates
the latter'
reference
to it is not,
Permitted.
I nt roduct i on
t o Genesi s,
Page
35'
I bi d. ,
page 34
1.
2.
ACriticDl EmmitItJeion 39
It was inconceivable to Saint Augustine that a sacred text
might contain an error. Saint Augustine defined very clearly the
dogma of infallibility when, confronted with a passage that
seemed to contradict the truth, he thought of looking for its
cause, without excluding the hypothesis of a human fault. This
is the attitude of a believer with a critical outlook. In Saint Au-
gustine's day, there was no possibility of a confrontation be-
tween the Biblical text and science. An open-mindedness akin to
his would today eliminate a lot of the difficulties raised by the
confrontation of certain Biblical texts with scientific knowledge.
Present-day specialists, on the contrary, go to great trouble to
defend the Biblical text from any accusation of error. In his in-
troduction to Genesis, Father de Vaux explains the reasons com-
pelling him to defend the text at all costs, even if, quite obviously,
it is historically or scientifically unacceptable. He asks us not to
view Biblical history "according to the rules of historical study
observed by people today", as if the existence of several different
ways of writing history was possible. History, when it is told in
an inaccurate fashion, (as anyone will admit), becomes a his-
torical novel. Here however, it does not have to comply with the
standards established by our conceptions. The Biblical commen-
tator rejects any verification of Biblical descriptions through
geology, paleontology or prehistorical data. "The Bible is not
answerable to any of these disciplines, and were one to confront
it with the data obtained from these sciences, it would only lead
to an unreal opposition or an artificial concordance."1 One might
point out that these reflections are made on what, in Genesis, is
in no way in harmony with modern scientific data-in this case
the first eleven chapters. When however, in the present day, a
few descriptions have been perfectly verified, in this case certain
episodes from the time of the patriarchs, the author does not fail
to support the truth of the Bible with modern knowledge. "The
doubt cast upon these descriptions should yield to the favorable
witness that history and eastern archaeology bear them."2 In
other words: if science is useful in confirming the Biblical de-
scription, it is invoked, but if it invalidates the latter, reference
to it is not permitted.
1. Introduction to Genesis, page 35.
2. Ibid., page 34
iIIT
THE BIBI,4 THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
To reconcile the irreconcilable,
i.e. the theory of the truth of
the Bible with the inaecurate
nature of certain faets reported in
the descriptions in the Old Testament,
modern theologians
have
applied their efforts to a revision
of the classical concepts
of
truth. It lies outside
the scope of this book to
give
a detailed
exposd of the subtle ideas that are developed
at length in works
dealing with the truth of the Bible; such as o. Loretz's work
(1972)
whet is the Truth of the Bible? (euelle
est la v6rit6
de la Bible?)r. This
judgment
concerning
science will have to
suffice:
The author remarks
that the Second vatican
council
,,has
avoided providing
rules to distinguish
between error and truth
in the Bible. Basic considerations
show that this is impossible,
because the
church cannot
determine
the truth or otherwise of
seientific methods
in such a way as to decide in principle
and on a
general
level the question
of the truth
of the
Scriptures".
rt is obvious
that the
church is not in a position
to rnake a
pronouncement
on the value of scientific
,method'
as a rneans
of
access to knowledge.
The point
here is quite
different. It is not a
question
of theories,
but of firmly established
facts. In our day
and age, it is not necessary
to be highly learned to know that the
world was not ereated
thirty-seven
or thirty-eight
centuries ago.
we know that
man did not appear
then and that the Bibricar
genealogies
on which
this estimate is based have been proven
wrong beyond
any shadow
of a doubt. The author quoted
here
must
be aware of this. His statements
on science are only aimecl
at side-stepping
the issue so that he does not have to deai with it
the way he ought to.
The reminder
of all these different attitudes
adopted by chris-
tian authors
when confronted
with the scientific
errors
of Bib-
Iical texts is a good
illustration
of the uneasiness
they engender.
It recalls
the impossibility
of defining
a logical position
other
than by reeognizing
their human
origins and the impossibility
of acknowledging
that they form part
of a Revelation.
The uneasiness prevalent
in christian
cireles concerning
the
Revelation became
elear at the second vatiean
council
tigog-
1965) where it took no less than five drafts before
there
was any
agreement
on the final text, after three years
of discussions.
It
1. P"b. L. C-nturi on, Pari s
40 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
To reconcile the irreconcilable, i.e. the theory of the truth of
the Bible with the inaccurate nature of certain facts reported in
the descriptions in the Old Testament, modern theologians have
applied their efforts to a revision of the classical concepts of
truth. It lies outside the scope of this book to give a detailed
expose of the subtle ideas that are developed at length in works
dealing with the truth of the Bible; such as O. Loretz's work
(1972) What is the Truth of the Bible? (QueUe est la Verite
de la Bible?) 1. This judgment concerning science will have to
suffice:
The author remarks that the Second Vatican Council Hhas
avoided providing rules to distinguish between error and truth
in the Bible. Basic considerations show that this is impossible,
because the Church cannot determine the truth or otherwise of
scientific methods in such a way as to decide in principle and on a
general level the question of the truth of the Scriptures".
It is obvious that the Church is not in a position to make a
pronouncement on the value of scientific 'method' as a means of
access to knowledge. The point here is quite different. It is not a
question of theories, but of firmly established facts. In our day
and age, it is not necessary to be highly learned to know that the
world was not created thirty-seven or thirty-eight centuries ago.
We know that man did not appear then and that the Biblical
genealogies on which this estimate is based have been proven
wrong beyond any shadow of a doubt. The author quoted here
rnustbe aware of this. His statements on science are only aimed
at side-stepping the issue so that he does not have to deal with it
the way he ought to.
The reminder of all these different t t i ~ u e s adopted by Chris-
tian authors when confronted with the scientific errors of Bib-
lical texts is a good illustration of the uneasiness they engender.
It recalls the impossibility of defining a logical position other
than by recognizing their human origins and the impossibility
of acknowledging that they form part of a Revelation.
The uneasiness prevalent in Christian circles concerning the
Revelation became clear at the Second Vatican Council (1962-
1965) where it took no less than five drafts before there was any
agreement on the final text, after three years of discussions. It
1. Pub. Le Centurion, Paris
AGrifirnl Erorm/lngdion
1l
was only then that
"this
painful
situation threatening to engulf
the Council"
came to an end, to use His Grace Weber's expres-
sion in his introduction to the Conciliar
Document No. 4 on the
Revelation'.
Two sentences in this document concerning
the OId Testament
(chap
IV,
page
53) describe the imperfections and obsolescence
of certain texts in a way that eannot be contested:
"fn
view of the human situation
prevailing before Christ's
foundation of salvation, the Boohs of the Old Testament enable
everybody to know who is God and who is man, and also the way
in whieh God, in his
justiee
and mercy, hehaves towards men.
These books, eaen though theA contuin material which is imper-
fect
and, obsolete, nevertheless bear witness to truly divine
teachings."
There is no better statement than the use of the adiectives
'imperfect'
and
'obsolete'
applied to certain texts, to indieate
that the latter sre open to critieism and might even be ahan'
doned; the
principle is very clearly acknowledged.
This text forms
part of a
general declaration which was defin-
itively ratified by 2,344 votes to 6; nevertheless, one might
question this almost total unanimity. In actual fact, in the
commentaries
of the official document signed by His Grace Weber,
there is one
phrase in
particular which obviously
corrects the
solemn affirmation
of the eouneil on the obsolescence of certain
texts:
"Certain
books of the Jewish Bible have a temporary
application and have something irnperfect in them."
'Obsolete',
the expression used in the official declaration,
is
hardly a synonym for
'temporary
application', to use the com-
mentator's
phrase. As for the epithet
'jewish'
which the latter
curiously
adds, it suggests
that the conciliar text only criticized
the version in Hebrew. This is not at all the case.
It is indeed
the Christian
Old Testament alone that, at the Council,
was the
object of a
judgment
eoncerning the imperfection and obsoles-
cence of certain
parts.
1. Pub. L Centurion,
1966, Paris.
A CritictJl Emmincdion 41
was only then that "this painful situation threatening to engulf
the Council" came to an end, to use His Grace Weber's expres-
sion in his introduction to the Conciliar Document No. 4 on the
Revelation1.
Two sentences in this document concerning the Old Testament
(chap IV, page 53) describe the imperfections and obsolescence
of certain texts in a way that cannot be contested:
"In view of the human situation prevailing before Christ's
foundation of salvation, the Books of t"he Old Testament enable
everybody to know who is God and who is man, and also the way
in which God, in his justice and mercy, behaves towards men.
These books, even though they contain material which is imper-
fect and obsolete, nevertheless bear witness to truly divine
teachings."
There is no better statement than the use of the adjectives
'imperfect' and 'obsolete' applied to certain texts, to indicate
that the latter are open to criticism and might even be aban-
doned; the principle is very clearly acknowledged.
This text forms part of a general declaration which was defin-
itively ratified by 2,344 votes to 6; nevertheless, one might
question this almost total unanimity. In actual fact, in the
commentaries of the official document signed by His Grace Weber,
there is one phrase in particular which obviously corrects the
solemn affirmation of the council on the obsolescence of certain
texts: "Certain books of the Jewish Bible have a temporary
application and have something imperfect in them."
'Obsolete', the expression used in the official declaration, is
hardly a synonym for 'temporary application', to use the com-
mentator's phrase. As for the epithet 'jewish' which the latter
curiously adds, it suggests that the conciliar text only criticized
the version in Hebrew. This is not at all the case. It is indeed
the Christian Old Testament alone that, at the Council, was the
object of a judgment concerning the imperfection and obsoles-
cence of certain parts.
1. Pub. Le Centurion, 1966, Paris.
Conclusiorrs
The Biblical seriptures must be examined without being em-
bellished artificially
with qualities
one would like them to have.
firey must be seen objectively as they &re. This implies not
only a knowledge
of the texts, but also of their history. The
latter makes it
possible
to form an idea of the circumstances
whieh brought about textual adaptations
over the centuries, the
slow forrnation of the eollection
that we have today, with its
numerous substrsctions
and additions.
The above makes it
quite possible
to believe that different
versions of the same description
can be found in the old Testa-
menf as well as contrsdietions,
historical
errors, improbabilities
end incompatibilities
with firmly
established scientific data. They
are
quite
natural in human
works of a very great
-age.
How
could one fail to find them in the books written in the same con-
ditions in which the Biblical text was composed
?
At s time when it was not
yet possible
to ask scientific
ques-
tions, and one could only decide on improbabilities
or contradic-
tions,ra man of
good
sense, such as Saint'Augustine,
considerecl
that
God could not teach man things that did not correspond to
reality. He therefore put
forward the
principle
that it was not
possible
for an affHrmation
contrary to the truth to be of divine
origin, and was prepared
to exclude from all the sacrecl texts
anything that appeared to him to merit exclusion on these
grounds.
Later, at a time when the ineompatibility
of eertain passages
of the Bible with
modern knowledge has been realized,
ih* *.*e
attitude has not been followed. This refusal has been so insistent
that a whole literature has sprung up, aimed at
justifying
the
42

The Biblical Scriptures must be examined without being em-
bellished artificially with qualities one would like them to have.
They must be seen objectively as they are. This implies not
only a knowledge of the texts, but also of their history. The
latter makes it possible to form an idea of the circumstances
which brought about textual adaptations over the centuries, the
slow formation of the collection that we have today, with its
numerous substractions and additions.
The above makes it quite possible to believe that different
versions of the same description can be found in the Old Testa-
ment, as well as contradictions, historical errors, improbabilities
and incompatibilities with firmly established scientific data. They
are quite natural in human works of a very great 'age. How
could one fail to find them in the books written in the same con-
ditions in which the Biblical text was composed?
At a time when it was not yet possible to ask scientific ques-
tions, and one could only decide on improbabilities or contradic-
tions"a man of good sense, such as Saint' Augustine, considered
that God could not teach man things that did not correspond to
reality. He therefore put forward the principle that it was not
possible for an affirmation contrary to the truth to be of divine
origin, and was prepared to exclude from all the sacred texts
anything that appeared to him to merit exclusion on these
grounds.
Later, at a time when the incompatibility of certain passages
of the Bible with modern knowledge has been realized, the same
attitude has not been followed. This refusal has been so insistent
that a whole literature has sprung up, aimed at justifying the
42
Gqu**
a:t
fest thtq in the face of all opposition, texts have been retained in
the Bible that hgve no reason to be there.
The Second Vatican Council
(1962-1966) hss
greatly reduced
tlis uncompromising
ettitude by introducing
reservstions about
tlts
"BmkB
of the Otd Testament"
which
"contain
material thst
is imperfect and obsolete". One wonders if this will remain a
pious wish or if it will be followed by a change in attitue towerds
ruaterial
whiclr, in the Twentieth century,
is no longer accept-
able in the books of the Bible. In ectual fact, ssve for any human
manipulation,
the lattcr were destined to be the "witness
of
tnre tcachings
coming from God".
43
fact that, in the face of all opposition, texts have been retained in
the Bible that have no reason to be there.
The second Vatican Council (1962-1965) has greatly reduced
this uncompromising attitude by introducing reservations about
the "Books of the Old Testament" which "contain material that
is imperfect and obsolete". One wonders if this will remain a
pious wish or if it will be followed by a change in attitne towards
material which, in the Twentieth century, is no longer accept-
able in the books of the Bible. In actual fact, save for any human
manipulation, the latter were destined to be the "witness of
true teachings coming from God".
I
The
Gospels
Many readers of the Gospels are embarrassed and even abashed
when they stop to think about the meaning of certsin descrip-
tions. The same is true when they make comparisonE between
difrerent versions of the same event found in several Goepels.
This obseryation is made by Father Roguet in his book Initiatian
to the Goapels
(Initiation
ir I'Evangile)'. With the rvide experi-
ense he has
gained
in his many
years
of answering
perturbed
readers' letters in e Catholic ieeklg, he has been able to asgesg
just
how
greatly
they have been worried by what they have
read. His
questioners
come from widely varying socisl and cul-
tural backgrounds. He notes that their requests for explanations
concern texts that are'considered abstruse, ineomprehensible, if
not eontradictory, absurd or scandslous'. There ean be no doubt
that a complete reading of the Gospels is likely to disturb Chris-
tians profoundly.
This obseruation is very reeent: Father Roguet's book was
published
in 19?8. Not so very long ago, the majority of Chris-
tians knew only selected sections of the Gospels that were read
during services or commented upon during serrnons. with the ex-
ception of the Protestants, it was not customary for Christians to
read the Gospels in their entirety. Books of religious instruetion
only contained extrscts; the in eutenso text hardly circulated
at
I
1. Pub. Editionr du Seuil, Parir, lg?B
u
I

Many readers of the Gospels are embarrassed and even abashed
when they stop to think about the meaning of certain descrip-
tions. The same is true when they make comparisons between
different versions of the same event found in several Gospels.
This observation is made by Father Roguet in his book Initiation
to the Gospels (Initiation a l'Evangile)t. With the wide experi-
ence he has gained in his many years of answering perturbed
readers' letters in a Catholic weekly, he has been able to assess
just how greatly they have been worried by what they have
read. His questioners come from widely varying social and cul-
tural backgrounds. He notes that their requests for explanations
concern texts that are 'considered abstruse, incomprehensible, if
not contradictory, absurd or scandalous'. There can be no doubt
that a complete reading of the Gospels is likely to disturb Chris-
tians profoundly.
This observation is very recent: Father Roguet's book was
published in 1973. Not so very long ago, the majority of Chris-
tians knew only selected sections of the Gospels that were read
during services or commented upon during sermons. With the ex-
ception of the Protestants, it was not customary for Christians to
read the Gospels in their entirety. Books of religious instruction
only contained extracts; the in extenso text hardly circulated at
1. Pub. Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1973
Th. Gorpch
15
all. At a Boman Catholie school I had eopies of the works of Virgil
and Plato, but I did not hsve the New Testament. The Greek text
of this would nevertheless hsve been very instructive: it wrs
only much later on that I reslized why they had not set ug
translations of the holy writings of Christianity. The latter
could have led us to ask our teschers
questions
they would have
found it difficult to answer.
firese discoveries, made if one has a critical ouUook during a
reading in erteriu,o of the Gospels, hsve led the Church to come
to the eid of readers by helping them overcome their
perplexity.
"Many
Christians need to learn how to read the Gospels", notes
Fether Boguet. Whether or not one a,grees with the explanations
he
gives,
it is
greatly
to the author's credit that he actually
teckles these delicate
problems.
Unfortunately,
it is not alweys
like this in many writings on the Christian Revelation.
In editions of the Bible
produced
for widespread
publication,
introductory notes more often than not set out a collection of
ideas that would tend to
persuade
the reader that the Gospels
hardly raise any
problems
eoncerning the
personalities of the
authors of the various books, the authenticity of the texts and
the truth of the descriptions. In spite of the fact that there are
so many unknowns concerning authors of whose identity we ere
not at all sure, we find a wealth of
precise information in this
kind of introductory note. Often they
present
as a certainty what
is
pure
hypothesis, or they state that such-and-sueh an evangelist
w&s an eye-witness of the events, while specialist works claim the
opposite. The time that elapsed between the end of Jesus' min-
istry and the appearance of the texts is drastically reduced. They
would have one believe that these were written by one man taken
from an oral tradition, when in fact speeialists have
pointed out
adaptations to the texts. Of course, certain difficulties of inter-
pretation are mentioned here and there, but they ride rough
shod over
glaring
contradictions that must strike anyone who
thinks about them.
In the little
glossaries one finds among the ap-
pendices complementing
a reassuring
prefacen one observes
how
improbabilities,
contradictions or blatant errors have been hid-
den or stifled under clever arguments of an apologetic nature'
This disturbing state of aftairs shows up the misleading nature
of such commentaries.
all. At a Roman Catholic school I had copies of the works of Virgil
and Plato, but I did not have the New Testament. The Greek text
of this would nevertheless have been very instructive: it was
only much later on that I realized why they had not set us
translations of the holy writings of Christianity. The latter
could have led us to ask our teachers questions they would have
found it difficult to answer.
These discoveries, made if one has a critical outlook during a
reading in extenso of the Gospels, have led the Church to come
to the aid of readers by helping them overcome their perplexity.
"Many Christians need to learn how to read the Gospels", notes
Father Roguet. Whether or not one agrees with the explanations
he gives, it is greatly to the author's credit that he actually
tackles these delicate problems. Unfortunately, it is not always
like this in many writings on the Christian Revelation.
In editions of the Bible produced for widespread publication,
introductory notes more often than not set out a collection of
ideas that would tend to persuade the reader that the Gospels
hardly raise any problems concerning the personalities of the
authors of the various books, the authenticity of the texts and
the truth of the descriptions. In spite of the fact that there are
so many unknowns concerning authors of whose identity we are
not at all sure, we find a wealth of precise information in this
kind of introductory note. Often they present as a certainty what
is pure hypothesis, or they state that such-and-such an evangelist
was an eye-witness of the events, while specialist works claim the
opposite. The time that elapsed between the end of Jesus' min-
istry and the appearance of the texts is drastically reduced. They
would have one believe that these were written by one man taken
from an oral tradition, when in fact specialists have pointed out
adaptations to the texts. Of course, certain difficulties of inter-
pretation are mentioned here and there, but they ride rough
shod over glaring contradictions that must strike anyone who
thinks about them. In the little glossaries one finds among the ap-
pendices complementing a reassuring preface, one observes how
improbabilities, contradictions or blatant errors have been hid-
den or stifled under clever arguments of an apologetic nature.
This disturbing state of affairs shows up the misleading nature
of such commentaries.
18
TIIE BIBI.E TIIE
QUN'AN
AIVD SCIENCE
The ideas to be developed in the coming pages
wilt without
doubt leave any readers still un&ware of these problems quite
amazed. Before going
into detail however, r will provide
an im-
mediate illustration
of my ideas with sn example that seems to
me quite
eonelusive.
Neither lllatthew
nor John speaks of Jesus's Aseension.
Luke
in his Gospel plaees
it on the dsy of the Resurreetion
and forty
days later in the Acts of the Aposiles of which he is said to be
the author. Mark mentions it
(without
giving
a date) in a con-
clusion considered
unauthentic today. The Ascension
therefore
has no solid seriptural
basis. commentators
nevertheless
ap-
proach
this important question
with ineredible
lightness.
A. Tricot, in his Little Dictionary of the New
Teitq,meat (petit
Dietionnaire
du Nouveau Testament)
in the crampon bibl",
(1960
edition)
r,
a work produced
for mass publicatioi,
does not
devote an entry to the Ascension.
The synopsis
of the irou, Gos-
pels (Synopse
des
Quatre
Evangiles)
by Fathers
Benoit and Bois-
mard, teachers
at the Biblical sehool of Jerusalem, (lg?z
edi-
tion)z, informs
us in volume II, pages
4El and 4sz, thattheeon-
tradietion
between
Luke's
Gospel and the Acts of the Aposiles
may be explained
by a
'literary
artifice':
this is, to say the least,
difficult to follow !
In all probability,
Father Roguet in his Ini.ti,ation to the Gos-
pel,
t973, (pg
rs?) has not been convinced by the above argu-
ment. The explanation
he gives
us is curious, to say the least:
"Here,
as in many similar cases, the problem
only appears in-
superable
if one takes Biblieal statements
literally, and forgets
their religious significance.
It is not a matter of breaking down
the factual reality into a symborism which is inconsiste]nt,
but
rather of looking
for the theological
intentions
of those revealing
these mysteries to us by providing
us with facts we can appre-
hend with our senses
and signs appr.opriate
to our incarnate
spi ri t."
How is it possible
to be satisfied by an exegesi.s of this kind.
only a
persou
who accepted
everything
uneonditionally
would
find such apologetic
set-phrases acceptable.
Pub. Descl 6e and Co., Pari s.
Pub. Edi t i ons du Cerf , Pari s
1.
a,
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The ideas to be developed in the coming pages will without
doubt leave any readers still unaware of these problems quite
amazed. Before going into detail however, I will provide an im-
mediate illustration of my ideas with an example that seems to
me quite conclusive.
Neither Matthew nor John speaks of Jesus's Ascension. Luke
in his Gospel places it on the day of the Resurrection and forty
days later in the Acts of the Apostles of which he is said to be
the author. Mark mentions it (without giving a date) in a con-
clusion considered unauthentic today. The Ascension therefore
has no solid scriptural basis. Commentators nevertheless ap-
proach this important question with incredible lightness.
A. Tricot, in his Little Dictionary of the New Testament (Petit
Dictionnaire du Nouveau Testament) in the Crampon Bible,
(1960 edition)!, a work produced for mass publication, does not
devote an entry to the Ascension. The Synopsis of the Four GOB-
pels (Synopse des Quatre Evangiles) by Fathers Benoit and Bois-
mard, teachers at the Biblical SchOOl of Jerusalem, (1972 edi-
tion)2, informs us in volume II, pages 451 and 452, that the con-
tradiction between Luke's Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles
may be explained by a 'literary artifice': this is, to say the least,
difficult to follow!
In all probability, Father Roguet in his Initiation to the Gos-
pel, 1973, (pg 187) has not been convinced by the above argu-
ment. The explanation he gives us is curious, to say the least:
"Here, as in many similar cases, the problem only appears in-
superable if one takes Biblical statements literally, and forgets
their religious significance. It is not a matter of breaking down
the factual reality into a symbolism which is inconsistent, but
rather of looking for the theological intentions of those revealing
these mysteries to us by providing us with facts we can appre-
hend with our senses and signs appropriate to onr incarnate
spirit."
How is it possible to be satisfied by an exegesis of this kind.
Only a perSOll who accepted everything unconditionally would
find such apologetic set-phrases acceptable.
1. Pub. Desclee and Co., Paris.
2. Pub. Editions du Cerf, Paris
Trra@lc
{I
Another
intenesHng ItDect of Father Roguef,r commentary
ir
his admission that there are
'mlny
similar e88es'; similsr' thst
is, to the Ascension in the Gospels.
The
problem therefore
has to
be approached as a whole, obiectively
and in depth. It would
Beem reasoneble to look for an explanation
by studying the
gon-
ditions attendant upon the writing
of the Gospels,
or the rellgious
atmosphere
prevsiling
at the time. When adaptations of the
original writings taken from oral traditions
are
pointed out' and
we seie the way texts handed down to us have been eorrupted, the
presenee of obscure, incomprehensible,
contradictorlr,
improb-
able, and even absurd
passages comes as much less of a surprise'
The same may be said of texts which are incompatible
with to-
day's
proven reality, thanks to scientific
progress. Observations
such as these denote the element
of human
participation in the
writing and modification of the texts.
Admittedly, in the last few decades, objective resesrch on the
Scriptures
has
gained
attention. In a recent book, Fnith in the
ResurTeetion, Resurrection of Fuithr
(Foi en la R6surrection,
Rdsurreetion de la foi), Father Kannengiesser, a
professor at
the Catholic Institute of Paris, outlines this
profound change in
the following terms: "The faithful are hardly aware that a revo-
lution has taken
place in methods of Biblical exegesis since the
time of Pious XII"2. The'Revolution' that the author mentions
is
therefore very recent. It is beginning to be extended to the teaeh-
ing of the faithful, in the case of certain specialists at least, who
are animated by this spirit of revival. "The overthrow of the
most assured
prospects
of the
pastoral
tradition," the author
writes, "has more or less begun with this revolution in methods
of exegesis."
Father Kannengiesser warns that
'one
should not take liter-
ally' facts reported about Jesus by the Gospels, because they are
'writings
suited to an occasion' or
'to
combat', whose authors
'are
writing down the traditions of their own community about
Jesus'. Concerning the Resurrection of Jesus, which is the sub-
ject
of his book, he stresses that none of the authors of the Gos-
pels
can claim to have been an eye-witness.
He intimates that, as
far as the rest of Jesus's
public life is concerned, the same must
Pub. Beauchesne, Col l .
' Le
Poi nt theol ogi que' , Pari s, 1974
Pi ous XII was Pope from 1989 to 1969
1.
2.
47
Another interesting aspect of Father Roguet's commentary is
his admission that there are 'many similar cases'; similar, that
is, to the Ascension in the Gospels. The problem therefore has to
be approached as a whole, objectively and in depth. It would
seem reasonable to look for an explanation by stu<Jying the eon-
ditions attendant upon the writing of the Gospels, or the religious
atmosphere prevailing at the time. When adaptations of the
original writings taken from oral traditions are pointed out, and
we see the way texts handed down to us have been corrupted, the
presence of obscure, incomprehensible, contradictory, improb-
able, and even absurd passages comes as much less of a surprise.
The same may be said of texts which are incompatible with to-
day's proven reality, thanks to scientific progress. Observations
such as these denote the element of human participation in the
writing and modification of the texts.
Admittedly, in the last few decades, objective research on the
Scriptures has gained attention. In a recent book, Faith in the
Resurrection, Resurrection of Faith
l
(Foi en la Resurrection,
Resurrection de la foi), 'Father Kannengiesser, a professor at
the Catholic Institute of Paris, outlines this profound change in
the following terms: "The faithful are hardly aware that a revo-
lution has taken place in methods of Biblical exegesis since the
time of Pious XII"2. The 'Revolution' that the author mentions is
therefore very recent. It is beginning to be extended to the teach-
ing of the faithful, in the case of certain specialists at least, who
are animated by this spirit of revival. "The overthrow of the
most assured prospects of the pastoral tradition," the author
writes, "has more or less begun with this revolution in methods
of exegesis."
Father Kannengiesser warns that 'one should not take liter-
ally' facts reported about Jesus by the Gospels, because they are
'writings suited to an occasion' or 'to combat', whose authors
'are writing down the traditions of their own community about
Jesus'. Concerning the Resurrection of Jesus, which is the sub-
ject of his book, he stresses that none of the authors of the Gos-
pels can claim to have been an eye-witness. He intimates that, as
far as the rest of Jesus's public life is concerned, the same must
1. Pub. Beauchesne, ColI. 'Le Point theologique', Paris, 1974
2. Pious XII was Pope from 1939 to 1969
{I
TTIE BIBLE TIIE
QUITAN
AND SCIENCE
be tme because,
accordins to the Gospets, none of the Aposiles-
apart from
Judas Iscariot
--left
Jesus from the moment he first
followed Him until His last earthly manifestations.
we have come a long wsy from the traditional position,
which
was once again solemnly eonfirued by the Seeond Vatican Coun-
cil only ten years
ago. This once again is resumed
by modern
works of
popularization
destined to be read by the faithful.
Little by little the truth is coming to light however.
It is not easy to
grasp,
because the weight of such a bitterly de-
fended tradition is very hearry indeed. To free oneself from it, one
has to strike at the roots of the problem,
i.e. examine first the
circumstances that marked the birth of Christianity.
48 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
be true because, according to the Gospels, none of the Apostles-
apart from Judas Iscariot--Ieft Jesus from the moment he first
followed Him until His last earthly manifestations.
We have come a long way from the traditional position, which
was once again solemnly confirmed by the Second Vatican Coun-
cil only ten years ago. This once again is resumed by modern
works of popularization destined to be read by the faithful.
Little by little the truth is coming to light however.
It is not easy to grasp, because the weight of such a bitterly de-
fended tradition is very heavy indeed. To free oneself from it, one
has to strike at the roots of the problem, Le. examine first the
circumstances that marked the birth of Christianity.
ll
Historical Renrinder
Judeo-Chrislianity
and Saint
Paul
Tfue majority of Christians believe that the Gospels
were writ-
ten by direct
witnesses of the life of Jesus and therefore consti-
tute unquestionable evidence concerning the events high-lishting
His lifJ and
preachings. One wonders, in thii
presence of such
gUarantees of authenticity,
how it is
possible to discuss the teach-
ings derived
from them and how one can cast doubt upon the
validity of the Church as an institution applying the
general
instructions Jesus
Himself
gave. Today's
popular
editions of the
Gospels contain commentaries aimed at
propagating these ideas
among the
general public.
The value the authors of the Gospels
have as eye-witnesses
is
always
presented to the faithful as axiomatic.
In the middle of
the Second century, Saint Justin did, after all, call the Gospels
the
'Memoirs
of the Apostles'. There are moreover so many de-
tails
proclaimed eoneerning the authors that it is a wonder that
one could ever doubt their accurscy; Matthew was a well-known
character'a customs officer employed at the tollgate or customs
house at Capharn&um';
it is even said that he spoke Aramaie and
Greek. Mark is also easily identifiable as Peter's colleague; there
is no doubt that he too was an eye-witness.
Luke is the
'dear
physician' of whom Paul talks: information
on him is very
pre-
eise. John is the Apostle who was always near to Jesus,
son of
Zebedee,
fisherman on the Sea of Galilee.
4g
II
Hislo.. ~ l lteRlinde..
JudEO-h..islianit"
and Saini I>aul
The majority of Christians believe that the Gospels were writ-
ten by direct witnesses of the life of Jesus and therefore consti-
tute unquestionable evidence concerning the events high-lighting
His life and preachings. One wonders, in the presence of such
guarantees of authenticity, how it is possible to discuss the teach-
ings derived from them and how one caD cast doubt upon the
validity of the Church as an institution applying the general
instructions Jesus Himself gave. Today's popular editions of the
Gospels contain commentaries aimed at propagating these ideas
among the general public.
The value the authors of the Gospels have as eye-witnesses is
always presented to the faithful as axiomatic. In the middle of
the Second century, Saint Justin did, after all, call the Gospels
the 'Memoirs of the Apostles'. There are moreover so many de-
tails proclaimed concerning the authors that it is a wonder that
one could ever doubt their accuracy; Matthew was a well-known
character 'a customs officer employed at the tollgate or customs
house at Capharnaum'; it is even said that he spoke Aramaic and
Greek. Mark is also easily identifiable as Peter's colleague; there
is DO doubt that he too was an eye-witness. Luke is the 'dear
physician' of whom Paul talks: information on him is very pre-
cise. John is the Apostle who was always near to Jesus, son of
Zebedee, fisherman on the Sea of Galilee.
49
'II
TIIE BIBI.F" TIIE
QT'N'AN
AND SCIENCE
Modern
studies on the beginnings of Ghristianity show that
this way of
presenting
things hardly
corresponds
to reality. we
shall see who the authors of the Gospels reaily were. As far as the
decades following
Jesus's mission are concerned,
it must be un-
derstood that events did not at all happen in the way they hsve
been said to have taken place
and that
peter's
arrival irt- Rome
in no rpay laid the foundations
for the Church.
on the contrary,
from the time
Jesus left earth to the second half of the second
century, there was a struggle between two factions. one was
whet one might call Pauline
christianity and the other Judeo-
Christianity. It was only very slowly that the first supplanted
th^- Becond, and Pauline
Christianity triumphed
ou"" Judeo-
CfiristianiW.
A large number of very recent works are based on eontempo-
rary discoveries
about
Christianity.
Among them we find Cardi-
nal Dani6lou's
name. In December
1g6? he published
an article in
the review studies (Etudes)
entiiled:
'A
New Representa,tion
ol
the origi,ns
of chri,stianity:
Judeo-christi,anity'. (une
vision
nouvelle
des origines
chrtiennes,
le
juddo+hristianisme).
Here
he reviews past
works, retraces
its history and enables us to
place
the appearance
of the Gospels in quite
a different eontext
from the one that emerges on reading
accounts intended for
m&ss publication.
what follows is a condensed
version
of the
essential points
made in his artiele, incruding
many quotations
from it.
After Jesus's departure, the
"litfle
group
of Apostles" formeci
a "Jewish sect that remained
faithful to the form
of worship
practised
in the Temple".
However,
when the observances
of
converts from paganism
were added to them, a
,special
system'
was offered to them,
as it were: the Council of Jerusalem in 4g
A.D. exempted
them from circumcision
and Jewish observances;
"many Judeo-christians
rejected
this concession".
This group
was quite
separate from Paul's.
What is more,
paul
and the
Judeo-Christians were in conflict over the question
of
pagans
who had turned to christianity, (the
incident of Antioch, 49
A.D.).
"For Paul , the ci rcumci si on,
sabbath, and form of wor-
ship practised
in the Temple were henceforth
old fashioned,
even for the Jews.
christianity was to free itself from its politi-
50
THE BIBLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
Modern studies on the beginnings of Christianity show that
this way of presenting things hardly corresponds to reality. We
shall see who the authors of the Gospels really were. As far as the
decades following Jesus's mission are concerned, it must be un-
derstood that events did not at all happen in the way they have
been said to have taken place and that Peter's arrival in Rome
in no way laid the foundations for the Church. On the contrary,
from the time Jesus left earth to the second half of the Second
century, there was a struggle between two factions. One was
what one might call Pauline Christianity and the other Judeo-
Christianity. It was only very slowly that the first supplanted
the second, and Pauline Christianity triumphed over Judeo-
Cfiristianity.
A large number of very recent works are based on contempo-
rary discoveries a})out Christianity. Among them we find Cardi-
nal Danielou's name. In December 1967 he published an article in
the review Studies (Etudes) entitled: fA New Representation 01
the Origins 01 Christianity: Judea-Christianity'. (Une vision
nouvelle des origines chretiennes, Ie judeo-christianisme). Here
he reviews past works, retraces its history and enables us to
place the appearance of the Gospels in quite a different context
from the one that emerges on reading accounts intended for
mass publication. What follows is a condensed version of the
essential points made in his article, including many quotations
from it.
After Jesus's departure, the "little group of Apostles" formeci
a "Jewish sect that remained faithful to the form of worshi
y
practised in the Temple". However, when the observances of
converts from paganism were added to them, a 'special system'
was offered to them, as it were: the Council of Jerusalem in 49
A.D. exempted them from circumcision and Jewish observances;
"many Judeo-Christians rejected this concession". This group
was quite separate from Paul's. What is more, Paul and the
J udeo-Christians were in conflict over the question of pagans
who had turned to Christianity, (the incident of Antioch, 49
A.D.). "For Paul, the circumcision, Sabbath, and form of wor-
ship practised in the Temple were henceforth old fashioned,
even for the Jews. Christianity was to free itself from its politi-
Hhtodcalftemhdet.Iudeo'Chfictianitg
atd SaintPaul
5l
cal-cum-religious
adherence
to Judaism
and open itself to the
Gentiles."
For those Judeo-christians
who remained
'loyal
Jews,'
Paul
was a traitor: Judeo-Christian
documents
call him an
'enemy',
accuse
him of
'tactical
double-dealing', "Until
?0
A'D.'
Judeo-Christianity
represents
the majority of the Church"
end
"Paul
remains an isolated case". The head of the community
at
that time was James,
a relation of Jesus. With
him were Peter
(at
the beginning)
and John.
"James
may be considered
to repre-
sent the Judeo-Cfuristian
camp, which deliberately
clung to Juda-
ism as opposed to Pauline Christianity."
Jesus's family
has s
very important
place in the Judeo-Christian
Church
of Jerusa-
lem.
"James's
tsUgcessor
was Simeon,
SOn Of CleOpaS,
a COuSin
of the L,ord".
cardinal
Danielou here
quotes
Judeo-christian
writings
which
express the views on Jesus of this community
which initially
formed around the apostles : the Gospel
of the Hebrews
(
coming
from a Judeo-Christian
community in Egypt),
the writings
of
Clement:
Homilies
and Recognitions,
'Hypotyposeis',
the Second
Apocalypse
of James,
the Gospel of Thomas.' "It
is to the Judeo-
Christians
that one rnust ascribe the oldest writings
of Christian
Iiterature." Cardinal Danidlou mentions
them in detail.
,,It
was not
just
in Jerusalem
and Palestine
that Judeo-chris'
tianity
predominated during the first hundred
years of
the
Church.
The Judeo-Christian
mission seems everywhere
to have
developed
before the Pauline
mission. This is certainly
the ex-
ptanation of the fact that the letters of Paul allude
to a conflict'"
bnty
were the same adversaries
he was to meet everywhere:
in
Galatia,
Corinth, Colossae,
Rome and Antioeh'
The
Syro-Palestinian
coast from Gaza
to Antioch
was Judeo-
christian
,nas
witnessed by the Acts of the Apostles
and clem-
entine
writings".
Iri Asia Minor, the existence
of Judeo-Chris-
tians is indica[ed
in Paul's letters to the Galatians
and Colossians.
Papias's
writings
give us information
about Judeo-Christianity
in ithrygia. In Gte*ce,
Paul's first letter to the Corinthisns
men-
l. One could note hel.e that all these writings were later to
be cle$ed ee
Apocryphs,
i.e. they
had to be concealed
by the victorious
church
which
war norn of Paul'a sueeess.
This Church
rfiade obvious excigionr
in the
Goepel literoture and
retained only the four canonic Goepels.
B;'toncal Reminder. Judeo-Chmtianity and Saint Paul 51
cal-cum-religious adherence to Judaism and open itself to the
Gentiles."
For those Judeo-Christians who remained 'loyal Jews,' Paul
was a traitor: Judeo-Christian documents call him an 'enemy',
accuse him of 'tactical double-dealing', ... "Until 70 A.D.,
Judeo-Christianity represents the majority of the Church" and
"Paul remains an isolated case". The head of the community at
that time was James, a relation of Jesus. With him were Peter
(at the beginning) and John. "James may be considered to repre-
sent the Judeo-Christian camp, which deliberately clung to Juda-
ism as opposed to Pauline Christianity." Jesus's family has a
very important place in the Judeo-Christian Church of Jerusa-
lem. "James's 'Successor was Simeon, son of Cleopas, a cousin
of the Lord".
Cardinal Danielou here quotes Judeo-Christian writings which
express the views on Jesus of this community which initially
formed around the apostles: the Gospel of the Hebrews (coming
from a Judeo-Christian community in Egypt), the writings of
Clement: Homilies and Recognitions, 'Hypotyposeis', the Second
Apocalypse of James, the Gospel of Thomas.] "It is to the Judeo-
Christians that one must ascribe the oldest writings of Christian
literature." Cardinal Danielou mentions them in detail.
"It was not just in Jerusalem and Palestip.e that Judeo-Chris-
tianity predominated during the first hundred years of the
Church. The Judeo-Christian mission seems everywhere to have
developed before the Pauline mission. This is certainly the ex-
planation of the fact that the letters of Paul allude to a conflict."
They were the same adversaries he was to meet everywhere: in
Galatia, Corinth, Colossae, Rome and Antioch.
The Syro-Palestinian coast from Gaza to Antioch was Judeo-
Christian "as witnessed by the Acts of the Apostles and Clem-
entine writings". IIi Asia Minor, the existence of Judeo-Chris-
tians is indicated in Paul's letters to the Galatians and Colossians.
Papias's writings give us information about Judeo-Christianity
in Phrygia. In Greece, Paul's first letter to the Corinthians men-
1. One could note here that all these writings were later to be classed as
Apocrypha, i.e. they had to be concealed by the victorious Church which
was born of Paul's success. This Church rt(ade obvious excisions in the
Gospel literature and retained only the four Canonic Gospels.
52
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
tions Judeo-christians,
espeeially
at Apoilos.
Aceording to clem-
ent's letter and the
Shepherd of Hermas, Rome
was an
,impor-
tant centre'.
For suetonius and Tacitus, the christians r.epre-
sented a Jewish seet.
cardinal Danidlou thinks
that the first
evangelization
in Africa was Judeo-christian.
The Gospel of the
Hebrews and the wri ti ngs
of cl ement of Al exandr.i a
l i nk up wi th
thi s.
It is essential to know these facts to understand
the struggle
between
communities
that formed the baekgrounrl
against whieh
the
Gospels were written.
The texts that rve have 1oday, after.
many adaptations
from the sources, began to appear around
?0
4.D., the ti me when
the two ri val communi ti es
were engaged i n
a fierce struggle,
with the Judeo-christians
still retaining the
upper hand.
With the Jewish war and the fall of Jerusalem in
70 A.D. the situation
was to be reversed. This is hory cardinal
Dani 6l ou
expl ai ns
the decl i ne:
"After the Jews had been discredited
in the Empire, the chris-
tians tended to detach themserves
from them. The Hellenistic
peoples
of christian persuasion
then gained
the upper hand:
Paul won a posthumous
victory;
Christianity
separated itself po-
litically
and sociologically
from Judaism; it became the third
people.
All the same, until the Jewish revolt
in 140 A.D., Judeo-
christianity
continued
to predominate
culturally.',
From
?0 A.D. to a peri od
someti me
before 110 A.D. the Gos-
pels
of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John were produced.
They do
not constitute
the first written
Christian documents:
the letters
of Paul date from
well before them. According
to o. culm&nn,
Paul probably
wrote his letter to the Thessalonians
in E0 A.D.
He had probably
disappeared
several years prior
to the comple-
tion of Mark's
Gospel.
Paul is the most controversial
figure in Christianity.
He was
considered
to be a traitor to Jesus's thought
by the latter's fam-
ily and by the apostles who had stayed in Jerusalem in the circle
around James.
Paul created
christianity
at the expense of those
whom Jesus had gathered
around him to spread his teachings.
He had not known
Jesus during his lifetime
and he proved
the
legitimacy of his mission by deelaring that Jesus, raised from the
dead, had
appeared to him
on the road to Damascus.
It is quite
reasonable to ask what
christianity
might have
been without
52 THE BIBLE, THE QUR' AN AND SCIENCE
tions Judeo-Christians, especially at Apollos. According to Clem-
ent's letter and the Shepherd of Hermas, Rome was an 'impor-
tant centre'. For Suetonius and Tacitus, the Christians repre
sented a Jewish sect. Cardinal Danielou thinks that the first
evangelization in Africa was Judeo-Christian. The Gospel of the
Hebrews and the writings of Clement of Alexandria link up with
this.
It is essential to know these facts to understand the struggle
between communities that formed the background against which
the Gospels were written. The texts that we have today, after
many adaptations from the sources, began to appear around 70
A.D., the time when the two rival communities were engaged in
a fierce struggle, with the Judeo-Christians still retaining the
upper hand. With the Jewish war and the fall of Jerusalem in
70 A.D. the situation was to be reversed. This is how Cardinal
Danielou explains the decline:
"After the Jews had been discredited in the Empire, the Chris-
tians tended to detach themselves from them. The Hellenistic
peoples of Christian persuasion then gained the upper hand:
Paul won a posthumous victory; Christianity separated itself po-
litically and sociologically from Judaism; it became the third
people. All the same, until the Jewish revolt in 140 A.D., Judeo-
Christianity continued to predominate culturally."
From 70 A.D. to a period sometime before 110 A.D. the Gos-
pels of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John were produced. They do
not constitute the first written Christian documents: the letters
of Paul date from well before them. According to O. Culmann,
Paul probably wrote his letter to the Thessalonians in 50 A.D.
He had probably disappeared several years prior to the comple-
tion of Mark's Gospel.
Paul is the most controversial figure in Christianity. He was
considered to be a traitor to Jesus's thought by the latter's fam-
ily and by the apostles who had stayed in Jerusalem in the circle
around James. Paul created Christianity at the expense of those
whom Jesus had gathered around him to spread his teachings.
He had not known Jesus during his lifetime and he proved the
legitimacy of his mission by declaring that Jesus, raised from the
dead, had appeared to him on the road to Damascus. It is quite
reasonable to ask what Christianity might have been without
HhroficalFremh1d,et.Itd,eo-chthtianitg
atd saint Paul
53
paul
snd one could no doubt construet
sll sorts of hypotheses
on
ihis suUject.
As far as the Gospels
are concerned
however,
it is
almost certsin
that if this atmosphere
of struggle between
com-
munities
had not existed,
we would
not have had the writings
we
possess
today.
They appeared
at a time of fierce struggle
be-
between the two communities.
These
'combat
writings"
as Father
Kannengiesser
calls
them, emerged
from the multitude
of writ-
ings on Jesus.
These occurred at the time when Paul's style of
Ctrlistianity
won through
definitively,
and created
its own
col-
Iection of official
texts. These texts constituted
the
'Canon'
which
condemned
and excluded
as unorthodox
any other
doeuments
thet were not suited to the line sdopted
by the Church.
The Judeo-Christians
have now disappeared
as a communiff
with any influence,
but one still hears
people talking about
them
under ihe
general term of
'Judaistic'.
This is how Cardinal
Danidlou
describes
their
disappearance
:
.,when
they
were cut off from
the Great church,
thst
gradu-
ally freed itself
from its Jewish
attachments,
they
petered out
very
quickly in the West. In the East however
it is
possible to
find tiaces of them in the Third and Fourth Centuries
A.D., es-
p"*i*tty in Palestine,
Arabia, Transjordania,
Syria-and
Mesopo-
tamie. Others
joined
in the orthodoxy
of the Great
Church,
at the
same time
preserving traces of Semitic
culture;
some of
these
still
persist in the churches
of Ethiopia and chaldea".
Hiatorical Reminder. /udeo-Chriatianityand Saint Paul 53
Paul and one could no doubt construct all sorts of hypotheses on
this subject. As far as the Gospels are concerned however, it is
almost certain that if this atmosphere of struggle between com-
munities had not existed, we would not have had the writings
we possess today. They appeared at a time of fierce struggle be-
between the two communities. These 'combat writings', as Father
Kannengiesser calls them, emerged from the multitude of writ-
ings on Jesus. These occurred at the time when Paul's style of
Christianity won through definitively, and created its own col-
lection of official texts. These texts constituted the 'Canon' which
condemned and excluded as unorthodox any other documents
that were not suited to the line 'adopted by the Church.
The Judeo-Christians have now disappeared as a community
with any influence, but one still hears people talking about them
under the general term of 'Judalstic'. This is how Cardinal
Danielou describes their disappearance:
"When they were cut off from the Great Church, that gradu-
ally freed itself from its Jewish attachments, they petered out
very quickly in the West. In the East however it is possible to
find traces of them in the Third and Fourth Centuries A.D., es-
pecially in Palestine, Arabia, Transjordania, Syria and Mesopo-
tamia. Others joined in the orthodoxy of the Great Church, at the
same time preserving traces of Semitic culture; some of these
still persist in the Churches of Ethiopia and Chaldea".
lll
The
Forrr
Gospels.
Sourcc$
and
History,
In the writings
that come from
the early stages of christian-
1tr'
tne Gospels are not mentioned
until long after the works of
Peul. It wes not until the middle of the
second century A.D.,
sfter 140 A.D. to be precise,
that aecounts
began to appear
con-
eerning
a collection
of Evangelic
writings. In spite of this,
.,from
lle
be$nning
of the second century
A.D., many chrigtian au-
thorg clearly
intimatc
that they knew a
great
many of
paul's
let-
ter8."
These
observations
are set out in
ttre Introduction
to the
Etumenieal
Trowlati,on
of the Biblc, Neur Testamemt (Introduc-
tion l la Traduction
oecumdnique
de la Bible, Nouveau
Teste-
ment)
edited rgzg'. They are worth
rnentioning
from the outset,
and it is uEeful to point
out here that the work referred
to is the
result of a collective
effort which
brought
together more than
bne hundred
catholic
and
protestant
specialists.
The Gospels,
later to become official, i.e. canonic, did not be-
come known
until
fairly late,
even though
they were completed
at the beginning
of the second
centu"y e.o. hccording
L flr"
Ecumenical
rranslation,
stories belonging
to them bee;'n to be
quoted
around
the middle of the second century
A.D. Neverthe-
less,
"it
is nearly
always difficult
to decide
whether the
quotations
come from written
textg that the authors had next to them or if
the latter were oontent
to evoke the
memory of fragments
of the
oral tradition."
"Before r40 A.D." we read in the commentaries
this transla-
tion of the Bible
contains,
,,there
was,
in any case, no sccount,
t. Prb. Ed*onr du cerf et Ler Bergers
et les Mages,
parig.
54
III
The Fou.. Gospels.
Sou...:es and Hislory.
In the writings that come from the early stages of Christian-
ity, the Gospels are not mentioned until long after the works of
Paul. It was not until the middle of the Second century A.D.,
after 140 A.D. to be precise, that accounts began to appear con-
cerning a collection of Evangelic writings. In spite of this, "from
the beginning of the Second century A.D., many Christian au-
thors clearly intimate that they knew a great many of Paul's let-
ters." These observations are set out in the Introduction to the
Ecumenical Tro,nalation 01 tke Bible, New Testament (Introduc-
tion a la Traduction oecumenique de la Bible, Nouveau Testa-
ment) edited 1972). They are worth mentioning from the outset,
and it is useful to point out here that the work referred to is the
result of a collective effort which brought together more than
hne hundred Catholic and Protestant specialists.
The Gospels, later to become official, Le. canonic, did not be-
come known until fairly late, even though they were completed
at the beginning of the Second century A.D. According to the
Ecumenical Translation, stories belonging to them began to be
quoted around the middle of the Second century A.D. Neverthe-
less, "it is nearly always difficult to decide whether the quotations
come from written texts that the authors had next to them or if
the latter were content to evoke the memory of fragments of the
oral tradition."
"Before 140 A.D." we read in the commentaries this transla-
tion of the Bible contains, "there was, in any case, no account
1. Pub. Editions du Cerf et Lea Bergers et les Mages, Paris.
S4
lllrcRow@h'Sorrca
ordfilffit
tU
bywhi chonemi ghthaverecognl gedaeol l ecfronofgvsngpl l c
#tings".
firie statmnt
is the opposite
of what A. Tricot
writE
(1960)
in the comlnentaty
to his translation
of the New
Tegtoment: "Very
eerly on, from the begiinning
of th9 Second
century A.D., it became a habit to say
'Goapel'
meaning the books
thet Saint Justin around
160 A.D. h8d aleo called
'Ttre
Memoirs
of the Apoetles'." Unfortunately,
assertions
of this kind anc
sgfrciently
common for the
public to have ideas on tfie date of
the Goepels
which ere mistaken.
The Gospels
did not form a c'omplete
whole
'very
eerly on';
it did not happen
until more than a centurt' after the end of
Jesus's
mission. The Ecrtmertcal
Ttawlntimt
of the Bibln esti'
mates the date the four Gospels
acguired
the status of canonic
literature at arsund 1?0 A.D.
Justin'g
statement which calls the authors
'Apostles'
is not
acceptable
either, as w shall see.
As far as the dste the Gospgls were written is concerned,
A'
Trieot ststes that Mstthew'g, Mark's
and Luke's Gospels
were
written before ?0 A.D.: but this is not acceptable,
except
perhaps
for Mark. Following
many others, thie commentator
goes out of
his way to
presnt the authors of the Gospels as the apostles or
the companiotts of Jesus.
For this reason he suggests detes of
writing tttst
place them very near to the time Jesus
lived. As for
John, *tto* A. Tricot has us believe lived until roughly 100 A.D.'
christians
have slways been used to seeing
him depicted as being
very near to Jesus on ceremonisl
occasions.
It is very difficult
however to sssert that he is the author of the Gospel
that bears
his name. For A. Tricot, as for other commentators,
the Apostle
John
(like
Matthew) was the offieislly
qualified witness
of the
fects he recounts, although the majority of critics do not sup-
port the hypothesis
which says he wrote the fourth Gospel.
If however the four Gospels
in
question cannot reasonably
be
regarded as the
'Memoirs'
of the apostles
or companions
of
Jesus, where do theY come from ?
o. culmann,
in his book The New Testament
(Le Nouveau
Testament)',
seys of this that the evangelists
were only the
,,spokesmen
of the early christian
eommunity
which wrote
down the oral tradition. For thirty or forty
years' the Gos-
1. P"b. FreEEs Uni verei tsi res
de Fr' nce, Pari s, 1967
55
by which ODe might have recognised a collection of evangelic
writings". This statement is the opposite of what A. TricOt
writes (1960) in the commentary to his translation of the New
Testament: "Very early on, from the beginning of the Second
century A.D., it became a habit to say 'Gospel' meaning the books
that Saint Justin around 150 A.D. had also called 'The Memoirs
of the Apostles'." Unfortunately, assertions of this kind are
sufticiently common for the publie to have ideas on the date of
the Gospels whieh are mistaken.
The Gospels did not form a complete whole 'very early on';
it did not happen until more than a centurY after the end of
Jesus's mission. The Ecumenical Translation of the Bible esti-
mates the date the four Gospels aequired the status of canonie
literature at around 170 A.D.
Justin's statement which calls the authors Apostles' is not
aceeptable either, as we shall see.
As far as the date the Gospels were written is eoncerned, A.
Tricot states that Matthew's, Mark's and Luke's Gospels were
written before 70 A.D.: but this is not acceptable, exeept perhaps
for Mark. Following many others, this commentator goes out of
his way to present the authors of the Gospels as the apostles or
the companions of Jesus. For this reason he suggests dates of
writing that plaee them very near to the time Jesus lived. As for
John, whom A. Tricot has us believe lived until roughly 100 A.D.,
Christians have always been used to seeing him depicted as being
very near to Jesus on ceremonial occasions. It is very difficult
however to assert that he is the author of the Gospel that bears
his name. For A. Tricot, as for other commentators, the Apostle
John (like Matthew) was the officially qualified witness of the
facts he recounts, although the majority of critics do not sup-
port the hypothesis which says he wrote the fourth Gospel.
If however the four Gospels in question cannot reasonably be
regarded as the 'Memoirs' of the apostles or companions of
Jesus, where do they come from?
O. Culmann, in his book The New Testament (Le Nouveau
Testament) \ says of this that the evangelists were only the
"spokesmen of the early Christian community which wrote
down the oral tradition. For thirty or forty years, the Gos-
1. Pub. Preases Universitaires de France, Paris, 1967
t0
TrIE BIELF,' TIIE
QUn?N
AND SCTENCE
pel
had existed as an almost exclusively
oral tradition:
the
latter only transmitted
sayings and isolated narratives.
The
evangelists
strung
them together,
eaeh in his own way ac-
cording to his own character
and theologieal preoccupations.
They linked
up the narrations
and sayings handed
down by
the prevailing
tradition.
The grouping
of Jesus's sayingr
and likewise the sequence of narratives
is made by the use
of fairly vague
linking phrases
such as
,after
this',
,when
he had'etc.
rn other words, the
.framework'
of the
synoptic
Gospelsl
is of a
purely
literary
order and is not based on
history."
The same author eontinues
as follows :
"rt must be noted
that the needs of preaching,
worship
and
teaehing,
more than biographicar
considerationsn
were what
guided
the early community
when
it wrote
down the tra-
dition of the life of Jesus. The
apostles illustrated
the truth
of the faith
t!"y were preaehing
by deseribing
the events
in the life of Jesus. Their
Be"rnons
are what caused the de-
seriptions
to be written
down. The
sayings
of Jesus were
transmitted,
in partieular,
in the teaching
of the catechism
of the early
Church."
This is exactly
how the commentators
of the Ecumen{,eal
Translation
of the Bibte (Traduction
oecumnique
de Ia Bible)
describe
the
writing
of the
Gospers:
the formation
of an orar
tradition
influenced
by the preaehingr
of Jesus,s disciples
and
other preachers;
the preservation
by
preaching
of this materiar,
which is in actual
faet found in
-
the
Gospels, by preaching,
Iiturgy,
and teaching of the faithful;
the slender por*ilititv
of
"
concrete
form given
by writings
to cttain
confessions
of faith,
sayings of Jesus, deseriptions
of the
passion
for example;
the
fact that the
evangelists
resort to various written
forms
as well
as data contained in the oral tradition.
They
resort
to these to
produce
texts which
"are suitable
for various
circles,
which meet
the needs of the
church, explain
observations
on the scriptures,
correct errors and even, on oceasion,
answer
adversaries'
objec-
tions. Thus the
evangelists,
each according
to his own ouilook,
have collected
and recorded
in writing
the material given
to them
by the oral tradition".
1. The three Goepel s of Mark, Matthew and Luke.
58
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
pel had existed as an almost exclusively oral tradition: the
latter only transmitted sayings and isolated narratives. The
evangelists strung them together, each in his own way ac-
cording to his own character and theological preoccupations.
They linked up the narrations and sayings handed down by
the prevailing tradition. The grouping of Jesus's sayings
and likewise the sequence of narratives is made by the use
of fairly vague linking phrases such as 'after this', 'when
he had' etc. In other words, the 'framework' of the Synoptic
Gospels
t
is of a purely literary order and is not based on
history."
The same author continues as follows:
''It must be noted that the needs of preaching, worship and
teaching, more than biographical considerations, were what
guided the early community when it wrote down the tra-
dition of the life of Jesus. The apostles illustrated the truth
of the faith they were preaching by describing the events
in the life of Jesus. Their sermons are what caused the de-
scriptions to be written down. The sayings of Jesus were
transmitted, in particular, in the teaching of the catechism
of the early Church."
This is exactly how the commentators of the Ecumenical
Translation of the Bible (Traduction oecum{mique de la Bible)
describe the writing of the Gospels: the formation of an oral
tradition influenced by the preachings of Jesus's disciples and
other preachers; the preservation by preaching of this material,
which is in actual fact found in the Gospels, by preaching,
liturgy, and teaching of the faithful; the slender possibility of a
concrete form given by writings to certain c0nfessions of faith,
sayings of Jesus, descriptions of the Passion for example; the
fact that the evangelists resort to various written forms as wen
as data contained in the oral tradition. They resort to these to
produce texts which "are suitable for various circles, which meet
the needs of the Church, explain observations on the Scriptures,
correct errors and even, on occasion, answer adversaries' objec-
tions. Thus the evangelists, each according to his own outlook,
have collected and recorded in writing the material given to them
by the oral tradition".
1. The three Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke.
TlcRow @qrllr,, Sowrpt sniilnb/rltg
67
This
position has been collectively adopted
by more than one
hundred experts in the exegesis of the New Testament,
botr
Catholic
snd Protestant. It diverges widely from the line estab
Iished by the Second Vatican Council in its dogmatic
constitution
on the Revelation drawn up between
1962 and 1966. This con'
ciliar document has already been
referred to once above, when
talking of the Old Testament. The Council was able to declare
of the latter that the books which compose
it
"contain
material
which is imperfect and obsolete", but it has not expressed the
same reservations about the Gospels,
On the contrary' 8s we
read in the following:
"Nobody
ean overlook the fact that, among all the Scriptures'
even those of the New Testament, the Gospels have a well-de-
senred
position of superiority. This is by virtue of the fect thst
they represent the most
pre-eminent witness to the life and
teachings of the Incafnate Word, Our Saviour.
At all times and
in all
places the Church has maintained and still meintains the
apostolic origin of the four Gospels.
What the apostles aetually
preached on Christ's
orders, both they and the men in their fol-
lowing subsequently transmitted, with the divine inspiration of
the Spirit, in writings which are the foundation of the faith, i.e.
the fourfold Gospel according to Matthew, Mark, Luke snd
John."
"Our
Holy Mother, the Church,
has firmly maintained and still
maintains with the
greatest
constancy, that these four Gospels,
which it unhesitatingly confirms are historieally authentic,
faithfully transmit
what Jesus, Son Of God, actually did and
taught during his life among
men for their eternal salvation
until the day when He was taken up into the heavens. . . The
sacred authors therefore composed the four Gospels in sueh a
way as to always
give
us true and frank information on the life
of Jesug".
This is an unambiguous
affirmation of the
fidelity with which
the Gospels
transmit the acts and sayings of Jesus'
There is hardly any compatibility
between the Council's
af-
firmation and what the authors
quoted above claim. In
particular
the following:
The Gospels
"are
not to be taken literallg" they ste
"usri'tings
sutted, tO an occASiOn" Ot "cornbat
Writingy".
Their aUthOrs "d're
This position has been collectively adopted by more than one
hundred experts in the exegesis of the New Testament, both
Catholic and Protestant. It diverges widely from the line estab-
lished by the Second Vatican Council in its dogmatic constitution
on the Revelation drawn up between 1962 and 1965. This con-
ciliar document has already been referred to once above, when
talking of the Old Testament. The Council was able to declare
of the latter that the books which compose it "contain material
which is imperfect and obsolete", but it has not expressed the
same reservations about the Gospels. On the contrary, as we
read in the following:
"Nobody can overlook the fact that, among all the Scriptures,
even those of the New Testament, the Gospels have a well-de-
served position of superiority. This is by virtue of the fact that
they represent the most pre-eminent witness to the life and
teachings of the Incarnate Word, Our Saviour. At all times and
in all places the Church has maintained and still maintains the
apostolic origin of the four Gospels. What the apostles actually
preached on Christ's orders, both they and the men in their fol-
lowing subsequently transmitted, with the divine inspiration of
the Spirit, in writings which are the foundation of the faith, i.e.
the fourfold Gospel according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and
John."
"Our Holy Mother, the Church, has firmly maintained and still
maintains with the greatest constancy, that these four Gospels,
which it unhesitatingly confirms are historically authentic,
faithfully transmit what Jesus, Son Of God, actually did and
taught during his life among men for their eternal salvation
until the day when He was taken up into the heavens.... The
sacred authors therefore composed the four Gospels in such a
way as to always give us true and frank information on the life
of Jesus".
This is an unambiguous affirmation of the fidelity with which
the Gospels transmit the acts and sayings of Jesus.
There is hardly any compatibility between the Council's af-
firmation and what the authors quoted above claim. In particular
the following:
The Gospels Hare not to be taken literally" they are uwritings
suited to an occasion" or ucombat writings". Their authors Hare
TE
THE BI8I.F' TTilE
QIJN'AN
AND SCIENCE
ufit@. d'own ttw traditiotrt
of tlwir own eoftrrnuni,ty
ctnccrning
Junt".
(Father
l(annengiesser).
The Gospels ere texts which
"are
suitable
for various
circles,
meet the neede of the church, explain
observations
on the scrip-
tutrt, eorrect
ertorB and even, on occasion,
answer
adversaries'
objections. Thus,
the evangelistE,
eaeh aecording
to his own ouL
look, hsve collected
and raecorded
in writing
th; material given
to them by the oral tradition". (Ecumeni,eal,
Translation
if n"
Biblal.
rt is quite
clear that we are here faced with contradictory
statements: the deelaration
of the Council on the one hand, and
gore
rucently
adopted attitudes
on the other. According
to the
declaration of the second vatican
couneil, a faithful account of
the actions and words of Jesus is to be found in the
cospets; but
it ia impossible
to reconeile
this with the existence in ttre text of
eontredictions,
improbabilities,
thinep which
are materially im_
posgible
or statements
which run contrgrr to firmly estabiished
rnality.
rf' on the other hand, one chooses
to regard the
Gospels as
erpressing
the personal
point
of view of those who colloLo tn*
orel treditione-
that belonged to various communities,
or ag
writingr
guited
to an occasion
or combat-writings,
it does not
oom 8a a
gurprise
to find faults in the Gospels. All these faulh
rre the sign that they were written
by men in circumstances
gueh
es
these. The writers may have b*tt quite
sincere, even
though they relate
faets without
doubting
their inaccura*y.
rn*y
provide
u$ with descriptions which
contradiet
other authors'
nrrrationE,
or are influeneed
by reasons
of religious
rivelry
be-
tween cornmunities.
They therefore present
stories about
the life
of Jesus from a completery
different angre than their adversaries.
rt hss already been shown how the historical
context
is in
herrnony
with the second approach
to the
Gospels. The data we
hsve on the txts themselves
definitively
confirms it.
THE @SPEf, ACCOrc,ING
TO MATTHEW
Mstthew's is the first of the four
Gospels as they appear in
the New Testament.
This position
is perfecily justined-by
the
faet that it is e prolongation,
as it were, of the
oltl restament.
sa
THE B18LE, TIlE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
mUng down tM troditi0ft8 of tMir own community concerning
JUUB". (Father Kannengiesser).
The Gospels are texts which "are suitable for various circles,
meet the needs of the Church, explain observations on the Scrip-
tures, correct enors and even, on occasion, answer adversaries'
objections. Thus, the evangelists, each according to his own out-
look, have collected and recorded in writing the material given
to them by the oral tradition". (Ecumenical TranBlation of the
Bible).
It is quite clear that we are here faced with contradictory
statements: the declaration of the Council on the one hand, and
more recently adopted attitudes on the other. According to the
declaration of the Second Vatican Council, a faitltful account of
the actions and words of Jesus is to be found in the Gospels; but
it is impossible to reconcile this with the existence in the text of
contradictions, improbabilities, things which are materially im-
pouible or statements which run contrary to firmly established
reality.
If, on the other hand, OBe chooses to regard the Gospels as
expressing the personal point of view of those who collected the
oral traditions that belonged to various communities, or as
writings suited to an occasion or combat-writings, it does not
come as a surprise to find faults in the Gospels. All these faults
are the sign that they were written by men in circumstances
such as these. The writers may have been quite sincere, even
though they relate facts without doubting their inaccuracy. They
provide US' with descriptions which contradict other authors'
narrations, or are influenced by reasons of religious rivalry be-
tween communities. They therefore present stories about the life
of Jesus from a completely different angle than their adversaries.
It has already been shown how the historical context is in
harmony with the second approach to the Gospels. The data we
have on the texts themselves definitively confirms it.
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MATTHEW
Matthew's is the first of the four Gospels as they appear in
the New Testament. This position is perfectly justified by the
faet that it is a prolongation, as it were, of the Old Testament.
TlpRowGrlryrlh.Sowootatdffiirltorg
50
It wss writtcn to show that
"Jesus
fulfilled the history of fsr&e!",
es the commentatorg
of the Eeu,rnenied,
Trs,nglf,,tion
af the Bibl'e
note and on whieh we shall be drawing
heavily. To do sor
Matthew constsntly
refers to
quotations from the Old Testament
which show how Jesus
acted 8s if he were the
Messiah the Jews
were awaiting.
This Gospel begns
with a
genealogy of Jesus'.
Matthew
traces
it back to Abraham
via David.
we shall
presently see the fault in
the text that most commentators
silently
ignore.
Matthew's
ob-
vious intention was nevertheless
to indicate the
general tenor of
his work straight
away by establishing
this line of descendants'
The authot .otttinues
the same line of thought
by constantly
bringing to the forefront Jesus's attitude toward Jewish
law, the
main
principles of which
(praying,
fasting,
and dispensing
char-
ity) are summarized
here.
-Jesus
addresses His teachings
first and foremost
to His own
people. This is how He speaks to the twelve Apostles: "Go
no-
whire smong the Gentiles, and enter no town of the Samaritensz
but
go rsther to the lost sheep of the house of Israel."
(Matthew
10, 6-6). "I wgs sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel"'
(Matthew L6, 24',). At the end of his Gospel,
in second
place,
Matthew extends the apostolic mission of Jesus's
first disciples
to all nations. He makes Jesus
give the following
order:
"Go
therefore and make disciples of all nations"
(Matthew 28' 19)
'
but the
primary destination
must be the
'house
of Israel'' A'
Tricot says of lhis Gospel, "Beneath
its Greek
garb, the flesh
end bones of this book are Jewish, and so is its spirit;
it has a
Jewish
feel and bears its distinctive signs".
On the basis of these observations
alone, the origins of
MattheCs
Gospel
may be
placed in the tradition
of s Judeo-
Christian
co1Rmuniff.
Aceording
to O. Culmann,
this community
"was
trying
to bresk away from Judaism
while at the same
time
p"***itg ttt" continuity
of the Old Testament'
The main
pre-
occupations
and the
genlral tenor of this Gospel
point towards
a streined situation."
1. The fact that it is in contrediction
with Luke's Gospel
will be dealt with
in a rePaf,ate
chePter.
z. The Scmeritens'ieligious
code was the Torah or Pentateuch;
they lived
in the expectation
ol th" Messiah
and were faithful to most Jewish
obreryances,
but they had built a rival Temple to the one at Jerusalem'
59
It was written to show that "Jesus fulfilled the history of Israel",
as the commentators of the Ecumenical Tra.nslation of the Bible
note and on which we shall be drawing heavily. To do so,
Matthew constantly refers to quotations from the Old Testament
which show how Jesus acted as if he were the Messiah the Jews
were awaiting.
This Gospel begins with a genealogy of Jesus
1
Matthew traces
it back to Abraham via David. We shall presently see the fault in
the text that most commentators silently ignore. Matthew's ob-
vious intention was nevertheless to indicate the general tenor of
his work straight away by establishing this line of descendants.
The author continues the same line of thought by constantly
bringing to the forefront Jesus's attitude toward Jewish law, the
main principles of which (praying, fasting, and dispensing char-
ity) are summarized here.
Jesus addresses His teachings first and foremost to His own
people. This is how He speaks to the twelve Apostles: "Go no-
where among the Gentiles, and enter no town of the Samaritans
2
but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of IsraeI." (Matthew
10,5-6). "I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel".
(Matthew 15, 24). At the end of his Gospel, in second place,
Matthew extends the apostolic mission of Jesus's first disciples
to all nations. He makes Jesus give the following order: "Go
therefore and make disciples of all nations" (Matthew 28, 19),
but the primary destination must be the ~ o u s of Israel'. A.
Tricot says of this Gospel, "Beneath its Greek garb, the flesh
and bones of this book are Jewish, and so is its spirit; it has a
Jewish feel and bears its distinctive signs".
On the basis of these observations alone, the origins of
Matthew's Gospel may be placed in the tradition of a Judeo-
Christian community. According to O. Culmann, this community
"was trying to break away fromJudaism while at the same time
preserving the continuity of the Old Testament. The main pre-
occupations and the general tenor of this Gospel point towards
a strained situation."
1. The fact that it is in contradiction with Luke's Gospel will be dealt with
in a separate chapter.
2. The Samaritans' religious code was the Torah or Pentateuch; they lived
in the expectation of the Messiah and were faithful to most Jewish
observances, but they had built a rival Temple to the one at Jerusalem.
60
THE BIBT
FT
THE
QUn?N
AND SCIENCE
There are also
political
factors to be found
in the text. The
Roman oceupation
of Palestine naturally
heightened
the desire
of this country to see itself liberated.
They prayed
for
God to
intervene
in favour of the people
He had chosen among all others,
and as their omnipotent
sovereign
who could givg direct support
to the affairs of men, as He had already
done-many times in the
course of history.
what sort of person
was Matthew
? Let us say straight away
that he is no longer
acknowredged
to be one of Jesus's compan-
ions. A. Tricot nevertheless presents
him as such in his com-
mentary
to the translation
of the New Testament,
tg60:
"Matthew alias,
Levi, was a customs
officer
employed at the toll-
gate
or customs house
at capharnaum
when
Jesus called him to
be one of His disciples."
This is the opinion
of the Fathers of the
church, origen,
Jerome
and Epiphanes.
This opinion
is no
longer
held today.
one point
which is uncontested
is that the
author is writing
"for
peopre
who speak
Greek, but nevertheress
know
Jewish customs
and the Aramaic language.,,
It would
seem that
for the commentators
of the Ecumenicar
Translation,
the origins of this Gospel are as follows:
"rt
is normally
considered
to have been written in syria, pr_
haps at Antioch (.
. .
),
or in
phoenicia,
because a great
many
Jews lived in these
countries.r (.
. .) we have indications
of a
polemic
against
the orthodox
Judaism
of the synagogue
and the
Pharasees
such
as was
manifested
at the
synagogal
assembly at
Jamina
circa 80 A.D." In such conditions,
there
are many authors
who date the first of the
Gospels at about
g0-g0
A.D.; perhaps
also a little earlier;
it is not
possible
to be absolutely
definite
about this . . . since we do not know the author's
exact name,
we
must be satisfied with
a few ouflines
traced
in the Gospel itself :
the author
can be recognized
by his profession.
He is well-versed
in Jewish writings
and traditions.
He knows, respects,
but vigor_
ously challenges
the religious
leaders
of his people.
He is a
past
master in the art of teaching
artd makins
Jesus understandable
to his listeners.
He arways
insists
on the practical
consequences
of his teachings.
He would fit fairly
well the description'
of an
t' tt t* t*" thought that the Judeo-Christian
community
that Matthes
belonged to might
just
as eeairy have been situated
at Alexandria.
o.
culmann refers
to this hypothesis
along with many otherr.
60
THE ~ THE QURAN AND SCIENCE
There are also political factors to be found in the text. The
Roman occupation of Palestine naturally heightened the desire
of this country to see itself liberated. They prayed for God to
intervene in favour of the people He had chosen among alI others,
and as their omnipotent sovereign who could i v ~ direct support
to the affairs of men, as He had already done many times in the
course of history.
What sort of person was Matthew? Let us say straight away
that he is no longer acknowledged to be one of Jesus's compan-
ions. A. Tricot nevertheless presents him as such in his com-
mentary to the translation of the New Testament, 1960:
"Matthew alias, Levi, was a customs officer employed at the toll-
gate or customs house at Capharnaum when Jesus called him to
be one of His disciples." This is the opinion of the Fathers of the
Church, Origen, Jerome and Epiphanes. This opinion is no
longer held today. One point which is uncontested is that the
author is writing "for people who speak Greek, but nevertheless
know Jewish customs and the Aramaic language."
It would seem that for the commentators of the Ecumenical
Translation, the origins of this Gospel are as follows:
"It is normally considered to have been written in Syria, per-
haps at Antioch (... ), or in Phoenicia, because a great many
Jews lived in these countries.
l
( ) we have indications of a
polemic against the orthodox Judaism of the Synagogue and the
Pharasees such as was manifested at the synagogal assembly at
Jamina circa 80 A.D." In such conditions, there are many authors
who date the first of the Gospels at about 80-90 A.D., perhaps
also a little earlier; it is not possible to be absolutely definite
about this ... since we do not know the author's exact name, we
must be satisfied with a few outlines traced in the Gospel itself:
the author can be recognized by his profession. He is well-versed
in Jewish writings and traditions. He knows, respects, but vigor-
ously challenges the religious leaders of his people. He is a past
master in the art of teaching arid making Jesus understandable
to his listeners. He always insists on the practical consequences
of his teachings. He would fit fairly well the description of an
1. It has been thought that the Judeo-Christian community that Matthew
belonged to might just as easily have been situated at Alexandria. O.
Cubnann refers to this hypothesis along with many others.
Tlw Fow Goqeh. Soutcet atd Hirtary
6l
educated Jew turned Christian;
a householder
"who
brings out of'
his treasure what is new and what is old" as Matthew says
(1g,52). This is a long way from the civil servant at Caphar-
naum, whom Mark and Luke call Levi, and who had become one
of the twelve Apostles . ' .
Everyone agrees in thinking that Matthew wrote his Gospel
using the same sources as Mark and Luke. His narration
is, as
we shall see, different on several essential
points. In spite of this'
Matthew borrowed heavily from Mark's Gospel although
the
latter was not one of Jesus's disciples
(O.
Culmann)
'
Matthew
takes very serious liberties with the text. We shall
see this when we discuss the Old Testament
in relation to the
genealogy of Jesus whieh is
placed at the beginning
of his Gospel.
He inserts into his book deseriptions
which are
quite literally
incredible. This is the adjective used in the work mentioned
above
by Father Kannengiesser
referring to an episode in the Resur-
rection; the episode of the
guard. He
points out the improbability
of the story referring to military
guards at the tomb, "these
Gentile soldiers" who
"report,
not to their hierarchical superiors,
but to the high
priests who
pay them to tell lies". He adds how-
ever: "One
must not laugh at him because
Mattherv's intention
was extremely serious. In his own way he incorporates
ancient
data from the oral tradition into his written work. The scenario
is nevertheless worthy of Jesus Christ Supersiar."'
Let us not forget that this opinion on Matthew comes from
an eminent theologian teaching at the Catholic Institute of P*ris
(Institut
Catholique
de Paris).
Matthew relates in his narration the events accompanying
the
death of Jesus' They are another example of his imaS:ination'
"And
behold,
the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from
top to bottom; and the earth shook, and the
rocks'were split; the
tombs also were opened, and many bodies of the saints who
had
fallen asleep
were raised, and coming out of tombs
after his
resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared to many"'
This
pflssage from Matthew
(27,61-53) has no corresponding
p*rt"g* in the other Gospels.
It is difficult
to see how the bodies
-ot
ttte saints in
question could have raised from the dead at the
time of Jesus's d,eath
(according to the Gospels
it was on the eve
1. An American film which
parodies the life of Jeeus'
The POUt' GOIpela. SOUt'ce, and HiltOfll 61
educated Jew turned Christian; a householder "who brings out of
his treasure what is new and what is old" as Matthew says
(13,52). This is a long way from the civil servant at Caphar-
naum, whom Mark and Luke call Levi, and who had become one
of the twelve Apostles ...
Everyone agrees in thinking that Matthew wrote his Gospel
using the same sources as Mark and Luke. His narration is, as
we shall see, different on several essential points. In spite of this,
Matthew borrowed heavily from Mark's Gospel although the
latter was not one of Jesus's disciples (0. Culmann).
Matthew takes very serious liberties with the text. We shall
see this when we discuss the Old Testament in relation to the
genealogy of Jesus which is placed at the beginning of his Gospel.
He inserts into his book descriptions which are quite literally
incredible. This is the adjective used in the work mentioned above
by Father Kannengiesser referring to an episode in the Resur-
rection; the episode of the guard. He points out the improbability
of the story referring to military guards at the tomb, "these
Gentile soldiers" who "report, not to their hierarchical superiors,
but to the high priests who pay them to tell lies". He adds how-
ever: "One must not laugh at him because Matthew's intention
was extremely serious. In his own way he incorporates ancient
data from the oral tradition into his written work. The scenario
is nevertheless worthy of Jesus Christ Superslar,!"
Let us not forget that this opinion on Matthew comes from
an eminent theologian teaching at the Catholic Institute of Paris
(Institut Catholique de Paris).
Matthew relates in his narration the events accompanying the
death of Jesus. They are another example of his imagination.
"And behold, the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from
top to bottom; and the earth shook, and the rocks were split; the
tombs also were opened, and many bodies of the saints who had
fallen asleep were raised, and coming out of tombs after his
resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared to many."
This passage from Matthew (27, 51-53) has no corresponding
passage in the other Gospels. It is difficult to see how the bodies
of the saints in question could have raised from the dead at the
time of Jesus's death (according to the Gospels it was on the eve
1. An American film which parodies the life of Jesus.
og
THE BIETE, THE
QUn
AN AND SCTENCE
of the sabbath) and only emerge
from their tombs after his res-
uveetion (according
to the same sources on the day after the
Sabbath).
fire most notable
improbabiliF
is
perhaps
to be found in Mat-
thew. It is the most difficult
to rationalize
of all that the Gospel
authors
claim
Jesus said. He relates
in chapter lz, Bg-40 the
episode
concerning
Jonah's sign:
Jesus was among the scribes and pharisees
who addressed him
in the following
terms:
"Teacher, we wish to see a sign from you.,'
But he answered
them,
"An evil and adurterous generation
seeks for a sign;
but
no sign shall be
given
to it exeept the sign of the propheiJonah.
For as Jonah was three
days and thre*
night, in the iely of the
whale, so will the son of Man be three
d"yr and three nishts in
the heart of the earth."
Jesus therefore proclaims
that he will
stay in the earth
three
days and three nights.
so Matthew,
along
with Luke and Mark,
place
the death and burial
of Jesus on the
eve of the sabbath.
This, of course, makes
the time spent
in the earth
three days
(treis
6mera,e
in the
Greek text), but this period
ean only inelude
two and not three
nights (treis
nuktas
initre
Greek texi,;.
Gospel commerrtators
frequenily
ignore
this episode.
'Father
Roguet nevertheless points
out this improbability
when he notes
that
Jesus
"only stayed in the tomb" three days (one
of them
complete)
and two
nights.
He adds however
ttrat
.,it
is a set ex-
pression
and really
means
three days". rt is disturbing
to see
commentators
reduced
to using arguments
that do not contain
any positive
meaning.
It would be much more satisfying
intellec-
tually to say that a g:ross
error
such as this was the result
of a
scribe's
mistake
!
Apart from these improbabilities,
what mosily distinguishes
lt[atthew's
Gospel is that it is the work
of a Judeo-Christian
community
in the process
of breaking
awey
from Judaism while
remaining
in line
with the ord Testameni.
From
the
point
of
view
of Judeo-christian
history
it is very important.
1Jfi 8fith-er part
of'his Gospel Matthew again refers to this episode
but
*ithout being precise
about the time (ro,
r-l). The same is true for
Luke (11,29-sz).
we shal l see rater on how i n Dl ark,
Jesus i s sai a to
heve
declared
that no sign wourd be given
to that
s*rr*""ti*
rlt*"t
8, 1t - 12) .
81 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
of the Sabbath) and only emerge from their tombs after his res-
urrection (according to the same sources on the day after the
Sabbath).
The most notable improbability is perhaps to be found in Mat-
thew. It is the most difficult to rationalize of all that the Gospel
authors claim Jesus said. He relates in chapter 12, 38-40 the
episode conceming Jonah's sign:
Jesus was among the scribes and pharisees who addressed him
in the following terms:
"Teacher, we wish to see a sign from you." But he answered
them, "An evil and adulterous generation seeks for a sign; but
no sign shall be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah.
For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of the
whale, so will the Son of Man be three days and three nights in
the heart of the earth."
Jesus therefore proclaims that he will stay in the earth three
days and three nights. So Matthew, along with Luke and Mark,
place the death and burial of Jesus on the eve of the Sabbath.
This, of course, makes the time spent in the earth three days
(treiB emeras in the Greek text), but this period can only include
two and not three nights (treis nuktas in the Greek text
l
).
Gospel commentators frequently ignore this episode. Father
Roguet nevertheless points out this improbability when he notes
that Jesus "only stayed in the tomb" three days (one of them
complete) and two nights. He adds however that "it is a set ex-
pression and really means three days". It is disturbing to see
commentators reduced to using arguments that do not contain
any positive meaning. It would be much more satisfying intellec-
tually to say that a gross error such as this was the result of a
scribe's mistake!
Apart from these improbabilities, what mostly distinguishes
Matthew's Gospel is that it is the work of a Judeo-Christian
community in the process of breaking away from Judaism while
remaining in line with the Old Testament. From the point of
view of Judeo-Christian history it is very important.
1. In another part of his Gospel Matthew again refers to this episode but
without being precise about the time (16, 1-4). The same is true for
Luke (11, 29-32). We shall see later on how in Mark, Jesus is said to
have declared that no sign would be given to that generation (Mark
8, 11-12).
Tlu tow Gorllrh. $orroar nd nfffir.V
THE GOSPEL ACCOIf,.ING
TO MANK
This is the shortest
of the four Gospels.
It is also the oldest'
but in spite of this it is not a book written
by an apostle. At best
it was written by an apostle's disciple.
O. Culmann
has written ttrat he does not consider Msrk to be
s disciple of Jesus.
The author nevertheless
points out, to those
who have misgivings shut the ascription of this Gospel
to the
Apostle Mark, that
"Matthew
and Luke would not have used
thie
Gospel in the way they did had they not known that it was indeed
based on the teachings of an apostle". This argument is in no
way decisive. O. Culmann
backs up the reseruations
he expresses
by saying that he frequently
quotes from the New Testament
the
sayings of a certain
'John
nicknamed Mark'. These
quotations
do not however mention the name of a Gospel author, and the
text of Mark itself does not name any author.
The
paucity of information on this
point
has led commentators
to dwell on details thst seem rsther extravagant:
using the
prer
text, for example, that Mark wss the only evangelist
to relate
in his deseription of the Passion the story of the
young man who
had nothing but a linen cloth about his body and, when seized,
left the linen cloth and ran away naked
(Mark t4, 6L-62)
'
they
conclude that the
young men must have been Mark, "the
faithful
disciple who tried to follow the teacher"
(Ecumenical Transla-
tion). Other commentators see in this "personal
memory a sign
of authenticity, en anonymous signature", which "proves
that
he was an eyewitness"
(O.
Culmann).
O, Culmann considers that "m&ny
turns of
phrase corroborate
the hypothesis that the author was of Jewish origin," but the
presence of Latin expressions might suggest that he had written
his Gospel in Rome. "He
addresses himself moreover
to Chris:'
tians not living in Palestine and is careful to explain
the Aramic
expressions he uses."
Tradition has indeed tended to see Mark as Peter's
companion
in Rome. It is founded on the final section of Peter's
first letter
(always supposing that he was indeed the author). Peter wrote in
his letter: "The
community
which is at Babylon, which is like-
wise chosen, sends
you greetings; and so does my son Mark." "By
Babylon,
what is
probably meant is Rome" we read in the com-
mentary to the Ecumenical
Translation. From this, the com-
Tile Four Cuper.. Sourca ad Hiatorri 83
THE GOSPEL ACCORDINC TO MAlU<
This is the shortest of the four Gospels. It is also the oldest,
but in spite of this it is not a book written by an apostle. At best
it was written by an apostle's disciple.
O. Culmann has written that he does not consider Mark to be
a disciple of Jesus. The author nevertheless points out, to those
who have misgivings about the ascription of this Gospel to the
Apostle Mark, that "Matthew and Luke would not have used this
Gospel in the way they did had they not known that it was indeed
based on the teachings of an apostle". This argument is in no
way decisive. O. Culmann backs up the reservations he expresses
by saying that he frequently quotes from the New Testament the
sayings of a certain 'John nicknamed Mark'. These quotations
do not however mention the name of a Gospel author, and the
text of Mark itself does not name any author.
The paucity of information on this point has led commentators
to dwell on details that seem rather extravagant: using the pre-
text, for example, that Mark was the only evangelist to relate
in his description of the Passion the story of the young man who
had nothing but a linen cloth about his body and, when seized,
left the linen cloth and ran away naked (Mark 14, 51-52), they
conclude that the young man must have been Mark, "the faithful
disciple who tried to follow the teacher" (Ecumenical Transla-
tion). Other commentators see in this "personal memory a sign
of authenticity, an anonymous signature", which "proves that
he was an eyewitness" (0. Culmann).
O. Culmann considers that "many turns of phrase corroborate
the hypothesis that the author was of Jewish origin," but the
presence of Latin expressions might suggest that he had written
his Gospel in Rome. "He addresses himself moreover to ..
tians not living in Palestine and is careful to explain the Aramic
expressians he uses."
Tradition has indeed tended to see Mark as Peter's companion
in Rome. It is founded on the final section of Peter's first letter
(always supposing that he was indeed the author). Peter wrote in
his letter: "The community which is at Babylon, which is like-
wise chosen, sends you greetings; and so does my son Mark." "By
Babylon, what is probably meant is Rome" we read in the com-
to the Ecumenical Translation. From this, the com-
U
THE BIBI,q THE
QUn?N
AND SCIENCE
mentators then imagine
themselves
authorized to conelude that
Mark, who was supposed
to have been with
peter
in Rome, was
the Evangelist . . .one wonders whether it
'fuas
not the same line
of reasoning
that led Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis in circa 160
4.D., to ascribe this Gospel to Mark as
.peter's
interpreter'
and
the
possible
collaborator
of
paul.
seen from this point
of view, the composition
of Mark's Gospel
could be
placed
after Peter's death, i.e. at between 66 and ?0 A.D.
for the Ecumenical
rranslation
and circa ?0 A.D. for o. Culmann.
The text itself unquestionably
rveals
a major flaw; it is writ-
ten with a total
disregard
to chronology.
Mark thereiore plaees,
at the beginning
of his narration (1,
16-20), the episode of tt*
four fishermen
whom
Jesus leads to follow him by simply saying
"I
will make you
become fishers of men", though
th;i do not
even know Him. The evangerist
shows, among other ihingr, ,
complete lack of plausibility.
As Father
Roguet has said, Mark is
'a
clumsy writer,,
.the
weakest
of *ll the evangelists';
he hardly knows how to write a
nerrative.
The commentator
reinforces
his observation
by quot-
ing a
passag:e
sbout how
the twelve Aposfles
were selected.
Here is the literal translation:
"And he went up into the hills, and called to him those whom
he desired; and they came to him. And he made that the twelve
were to be with him, and to be sent out to
preach
and have au-
thority to cast out demons;
and he made the twelve and imposed
the name
Simon on Peter" (Mark,
g,
18-16).
He contradicts
Matthew
and Luke, as has already been noted
above, with regard to the sign of Jonah. on the subject
of signs
grven
by Jesus to men ln the course of Iris mission Mark (g,
11-18) describes
an episode
that is hardly credible:
"The Pharisees came and began to argue with him, seeking
from him a sign from heaven, to test him. And he sighed deeply
in his spirit, and said,
'why
does this generation
seek a sign?
Truly, I say to
you,
no sign shall be given
to this generation.'
And
he left them, and getting
into the boat again he departed to the
other side."
There can be no doubt that this is an affirmation coming from
Jesus Himself about his intention
not to commit any act which
might appear supernatural.
Therefore the commentators
of the
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
mentators then imagine themselves authorized to conclude that
Mark, who was supposed to have been with Peter in Rome, was
the Evangelist ...One wonders whether it was not the same line
of reasoning that led Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis in circa 150
A.D., to ascribe this Gospel to Mark as IPeter's interpreter' and
the possible collaborator of Paul.
Seen from this point of view, the composition of Mark's Gospel
eould be placed after Peter's death, Le. at between 65 and 70 A.D.
for the Ecumenical Translation and circa 70 A.D. for O. Culmann.
The text itself unquestionably reveals a major flaw; it is writ-
ten with a total disregard to chronology. Mark therefore places,
at the beginning of his narration (1, 16-20), the episode of the
four fishermen whom Jesus leads to follow him by simply saying
"I will make you become fishers of men", though they do not
even know Him. The evangelist shows, among other things, a
complete lack of plausibility.
As Father Roguet has said, Mark is la clumsy writer', 'the
weakest of all the evangelists'; he hardly knows how to write a
narrative. The commentator reinforces his observation by quot-
ing a passage about how the twelve Apostles were selected.
Here is the literal translation:
"And he went up into the hills, and called to him those whom
he desired; and they came to him. And he made that the twelve
were to be with him, and to be sent out to preach and have au-
thority to cast out demons; and he made the twelve and imposed
the name Simon on Peter" (Mark, 3, 13-16).
He contradicts Matthew and Luke, as has already been noted
above, with regard to the sign of Jonah. On the subject of signs
given by Jesus to men in the c<lurse of His mission Mark (8,
11-18) describes an episode that is hardly credible:
"The Pharisees came and began to argue with him, seeking
from him a sign from heaven, to test him. And he sighed deeply
in his spirit, and said, 'Why does this generation seek a sign?
Truly, I say to you, no sign shall be given to this generation.' And
he left them, and getting into the boat again he departed to the
other side."
There can be no doubt that this is an affirmation coming from
Jesus Himself about his intention not to commit any act which
might apPear supernatural. Therefore the commentators of the
Tlw Fow Goqeb. Sornces and Hhtosg
65
Ecumenical Translation,
who are surprised that Luke says Jesus
will only
give one sign
(the sign of Jsnah;
see Matthew's Gospel),
consider it
'paradoxical'
that Mark should
say "no
sign shall
be
given
to this
generation" seeing,
8s they
note, the "miracles
that
Jesus
himself
gives
as a sign"
(
Luke 7
,22
and 1 1'20
)
-
Mark's Gospel as a whole is officially
recognised
as being
eanonic. All the same, the final section of Mark's Gospel
(16'19-
20) is considered
by modern authors to have been tacked on to
the basic work: the Ecumenical Translation
is
quite explicit
about this.
This final section is not contained in the two oldest complete
manuscripts
of the Gospels,
the Coder Vaticanus and lhe Codex
Sirnitieus that date from the Fourth century
A.D. O. Culmann
notes on this subiect
that: "More
recent Greek manuscripts
and
certain versions at this
point
added a conclusion on appearances
which is not drawn from Mark but from the other
Gospels." In
fact, the verrsions of this added ending are very numerous.
In the
texts there are long and short
versions
(both are reproduced
in
the Bible, Revised Standard
Version,
1952). Sometimes
the long
version has some additional
material.
Father Kannengiesser
makes the following comments
on the
ending:
"The
last verses must have been surpressed
when his
work was offieially
received
(or
the
popular version of it) in the
community
that
guaranteed its validity. Neither
Matthew,
Luke
ot t
fortior"a
John saw the missing section. Nevertheless,
the
gap
was unacceptable.
A long time afterwards, when the writings
of
Matthew, Luke and John, all of them similar, had been in circula-
tion, a worthy ending to Mark was composed.
Its elements
were
taken from sources
throughout
the other Gospels.
It would
be
easy to recognise
the
pieces of the
puzzle by enumerating
Mark
(16,9-20). One
would
gain a more concrete
idea of the free wsy
in which the
literary
genre of the evangelic
narration
was han-
dled until the beginnings
of the Second century A'D'"
what a blunt
gdmission
is
provided for us here, in the thoughts
of a
great theologian,
that
human manipulation
exists in the texts
of the Scriptures
!
The FOUf' GoapelB. SouFceB and HiBtOf'!/ 65
Ecumenical Translation, who are surprised that Luke says Jesus
will only give one sign (the sign of Jonah; see Matthew's Gospel),
consider it 'paradoxical' that Mark should say "no sign shall be
given to this generation" seeing, as they note, the "miracles that
Jesus himself gives as a sign" (Luke 7,22 and 11,20).
Mark's Gospel as a whole is officially recognised as being
canonic. All the same, the final section of Mark's Gospel (16,19-
20) is considered by modern authors to have been tacked on to
the basic work: the Ecumenical Translation is quite explicit
about this.
This final section is not contained in the two oldest complete
manuscripts of the Gospels, the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex
Sinaiticus that date from ~ Fourth century A.D. O. Culmann
notes on this subject that: "More recent Greek manuscripts and
certain versions at this point added a conclusion on appearances
which is not drawn from Mark but from the other Gospels." In
fact, the versions of this added ending are very numerous. In the
texts there are long and short versions (both are reproduced in
the Bible, Revised Standard Version, 1952). Sometimes the long
version has some additional material.
Father Kannengiesser makes the following comments on the
ending: "The last verses must have been surpressed when his
work was officially received (or the popular version of it) in the
community that guaranteed its validity. Neither Matthew, Luke
or a fortiori John saw the missing section. Nevertheless, the gap
was unacceptable. A long time afterwards, when the writings of
Matthew, Luke and John, all of them SImilar, had been in circula-
tion, a worthy ending to Mark was composed. Its elements were
taken from sources throughout the other Gospels. It would be
easy to recognise the pieces of the puzzle by enumerating Mark
(16,9-20). One would gain a more concrete idea of the free way
in which the literary genre of the evangelic narration was han-
dled until the beginnings of the Second century A.D."
What a blunt admission is provided for us here, in the thoughts
of a great theologian, that human manipulation exists in the texts
of the Scriptures !
6S
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING
TO LUKE
For o. culmann, Luke is a
'chronicler',
and for Father Kan-
nengiesser he is a
'true
novelist'. In his prologue
to Theophilus,
Luke warns us that he, in his turn, following on from others who
have written accounts
concerning Jesus, is going
to write a nar-
rative
of the same facts using the accounts and information of
eyewitnesses-implying
that he himself is not one-including
information
from
the apostles' preachings.
It is therefore to be
a methodical piece
of work which he introduces in the following
t erms:
"rnasmuch as many have undertaken
to compile a narrative of
the things which have been accomplished
among us,
just
as they
were delivered
to us by those wlio from the beginning were eye-
witnesses and ministers
of the word, it seemed good
to me also,
having informed myself
about all things from their beginnings,
to write an orderly account
for
you,
most excellent Thlophilus,
that you
may know the truth concerning
things of which you
have been informed,"
From the very first line
one can see all that separates Luke
from the'scribbler'
Mark to whose work we have
just
referred.
Luke's
Gospel is incontestably
a literary
work written in classical
Greek free from any barbarisms.
Luke was a cultivated
Gentile convert to Christianity. His at-
titude towards the Jews is immediately
apparent. As o. Culmann
points
out, Luke leaves
out Mark's most Judaic verses
and high-
liehts the Jews' incredulity
at Jesus's words, throwing into relief
his
good
relations
with the samaritans,
whom the Jews detested.
Matthew, on the other hand, has Jesus ask the aposiles to flee
from them. This is
just
one of many striking examples of the
fact that the evangelists make Jesus say whatever suits their
own personal
outlook. They probably
do so with sincere convic-
tion. They give
us the version of Jesus's words that is adapted
to the point
of view of their own community. How can one deriy
in the face of such evidence
that the Gospels are
,combat
writ-
ings' or
'writings
suited to an occasion',
as has been mentioned
already? The comparison between
the general
tone of Luke's
Gospel and lvlatthew's is in this respect
a
good
demonstration.
who was Luke? An attempt has been made to identify
him
with the physician
of the same name referred
to by
paul
in sev-
66 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO LUKE
For O. Culrnann, Luke is a 'chronicler', and for Father Kan-
nengiesser he is a 'true novelist'. In his prologue to Theophilus,
Luke warns us that he, in his turn, following on from others who
have written accounts concerning Jesus, is going to write a nar-
rative of the same facts using the accounts and information of
eyewitnesses-implying that he himself is not one-including
information from the apostles' preachings. It is therefore to be
a methodical piece of work which he introduces in the following
terms:
"Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile a narrative of
the things which have been accomplished among us, just as they
were delivered to us by those who from the beginning were eye-
witnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also,
having informed myself about all things from their beginnings,
to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus,
that you may know the truth concerning things of which you
have been informed."
From the very first line one can see all that separates Luke
from the 'scribbler' Mark to whose work we have just referred.
Luke's Gospel is incontestably a literary work written in classical
Greek free from any barbarisms.
Luke was a cultivated Gentile convert to Christianity. His at-
titude towards the Jews is immediately apparent. As O. Culmann
points out, Luke leaves out Mark's most Judaic verses and high-
lights the Jews' incredulity at Jesus's words, throwing into relief
his good relations with the whom the Jews detested.
Matthew, on the other hand, has Jesus ask the apostles to flee
from them. This is just one of many striking examples of the
fact that the evangelists make Jesus say whatever suits their
own personal outlook. They probably do so with sincere convic-
tion. They give us the version of Jesus's words that is adapted
to the point of view of their own community. How can one deny
in the face of such evidence that the Gospels are 'combat writ-
ings' or 'writings suited to an occasion', as has been mentioned
already? The comparison between the general tone of Luke's
Gospel and Matthew's is in this respect a good demonstration.
Who was Luke? An attempt has been made to identify him
with the physician of the same name referred to by Paul in sev-
TlnFowcorpeb'
Sourcer uldil&rltry
gI
eral of his letters. The Ecumenical
Translation notes that "sev-
eral commentators
have found
the medieal occupation
of the
author of this Gospel
confirmed
by the
precision with which he
describes the sick". This assessment
is in fact exaggerated
out
of all
proportion. Luke does not
properly speaking
'describe'
thingp of tt ir kind; "the
vocabulary
he uses is that of a cultivatcd
man of his time". There was a Luke who was Paul's travelling
companion,
but was he the same
person? O. Culmann
thinks he
was.
The date of Luke's Gospel can be estimated according to sev-
ersl factors: Luke used Mark's and Matthew's Gospels.
From
what we read in the Ecumenical
Translation, it seems that he
witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem
by Titus's
armies in ?0 A.D. The Gospel
probably dates from after
this
time. Present-day
critics situate the time it was written at circa
80-90 A.D., but several
place it at an even earlier date.
The various narrations in Luke show important differences
when compared to his
predecessofs. An outline of this has already
been
given.
The Ecumenieal Translation indicates them on
pages
181 et sec. O. Culmann,
in his book, The New Testament
(Le
Nouveau
Testament)
page
18, cites descriptions
in Luke's Gos-
pel that are not to be found anywhere else. And they are not
about minor
points
of detail.
The descriptions of Jesus's childhood are unique to Luke's Gos-
pel. Matthew describes Jesus's
ehildhood differently from Luke,
and Mark does not mention it at all'
Matthew and Luke both
provide different
genealogies of Jesus:
the contradictions are so large and the improbabilities
so
great,
from a scientific
point of view, that a special chapter of this book
has been devoted to the subject. It is possible to explain why
Matthew,
who was addressing
himself to Jews, should begin the
genealogy at Abraham, and include David in it, and that Luke,
as a converted Gentile,
should want to
go
back even farther. We
shall see however that the two
genealogies contradict eaeh other
from David onwards.
Jesus's mission is described differently
on many
points by
Luke, Matthew and Mark.
An event of such
great importance to Christilns
as the in-
stitution
of the Eucharist
gives rise to variations
between Luke
The Four GoIpeIa. SOUI'CB. and Hiatory 87
eral of his letters. The Ecumenical Translation notes that "sev-
eral commentators have found the medical occupation of the
author of this Gospel confirmed by the precision with which he
describes the sick". This assessment is in fact exaggerated out
of all proportion. Luke does not properly speaking 'describe'
things of this kind; "the vocabulary he uses is that of a cultivated
man of his time". There was a Luke who was Paul's travelling
companion, but was he the same person? O. Culmann thinks he
was.
The date of Luke's Gospel can be estimated according to sev-
eral factors: Luke used Mark's and Matthew's Gospels. From
what we read in the Ecumenical Translation, it seems that he
witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by. Titus's
armies in 70 A.D. The Gospel probably dates from after this
time. Present-day critics situate the time it was written at circa
80-90 A.D., but several place it at an even earlier date.
The various narrations in Luke show important differences
when compared to his predecessors. An outline of this has already
been given. The Ecumenical Translation indicates them on pages
181 et sec. O. Culmann, in his book, The New Testament (Le
Nouveau Testament) page 18, cites descriptions in Luke's Gos-
pel that are not to be found anywhere else. And they are not
about minor points of detail.
The descriptions of Jesus's childhood are unique to Luke's Gos-
pel. Matthew describes Jesus's childhood differently from Luke,
and Mark does not mention it at all.
Matthew and Luke both provide different genealogies of Jesus:
the contradictions are so large and the improbabilities so great,
from a scientific point of view, that a special chapter of this book
has been devoted to the subject. It is possible to explain why
Matthew, who was addressing himself to Jews, should begin the
genealogy at Abraham, and include David in it, and that Luke,
as a converted Gentile, should want to go back even farther. We
shall see however that the two genealogies contradict each other
from David onwards.
Jesus's mission is described differently on many points by
Luke, Matthew and Mark.
An event of such great importance to Christians as the in-
stitution of the Eucharist gives rise to variations between Luke
08
THE BIBL4 firE
QUn?N
aND SCTENCE
and the other two evangelists.r Father
Roguet notes in
his book
Initi'ation to the
Gospel
(Initiation
i l,Evangile) page
?8, that
the words used to institute
the Eucharist are reported
by Luke
(22,L9-24)
in a form very different
from the wording in ulttnew
(26,26'29)
and in Mark (l4,zz-24)
which is almost identical.
"on the contrary" he writes,
"the
wording
transmitted
by Luke
is very similar to that evoked by saint
paul"
(First
Letter to the
Corinthians,
11,23-96)
.
As we have
seen, in his
Gosper, Luke expresses ideas on the
subject of Jesus's Aseension
which contr*a-i*t
what he says in
the Acts of the Apostles. He is recognized
as their author and
they form an integral part
of the New Testament.
In his Gospel
he situates
the Ascension
on Easter
Day, and in the Acts forty
days later.
we already
know to what strange eommentaries
this
contradiction
has led
christian experts
in exegesis.
commentators
wishing
to be objective,
such as those of the
Ecumenical
rranslation
of the Bible, have been obliged to recog-
nise as a
general
rule
the fact that for Luke
,,the
**in preoccu-
pation
was not to write faets corresponding
to materi"l
*..u-
racy".
when Father Kannengiesser
compares
the descriptions
in
the Acts of the Apostles
written by Luke himself
with the de-
seription of similar facts on Jesus raised
from the dead by
paul,
he pronounees
the following
opinion on Luke:
,,Luke
is the most
sensitive
and literary
of the four evangelists,
he has all the qual_
ities of a true novelist".
THE
GOSPEL
ACCONDINC
TO
IOHN
John's Gospel is radically
different from the three others; to
such an extent indeed
that Father
Roguet in his book Initiation
to the
Gospel
(Initiation
i I'Evangile),
having commented on the
other three,
immediately
evokes a stariling image for the fourth.
He calls it
'
different
world'. It is indeed a unique book; differ-
ent in the arrangement
and choice of subject,
description and
speech; different
in its style, g:eography,
chronology; there are
even differences
in theological
ouilook (o.
Culmann). Jesus's
1. It is not possible
to establish a comparison with John because he does
not refer to the institution of the Eueharist during the Last
supper
prior
to the Passion.
68 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
and the other two evangelists.
1
Father Roguet notes in his book
Initiation to the Gospel (Initiation a ]'Evangile) page 75
1
that
the words used to institute the Eucharist are reported by Luke
(22,19-24) in a form very different from the wording in Matthew
(26,26-29) and in Mark (14,22-24) which is almost identical.
"On the contrary" he writes, "the wording transmitted by Luke
is very similar to that evoked by Saint Paul" (First Letter to the
Corinthians, 11,23-25).
As we have seen, in his Gospel, Luke expresses ideas on the
subject of Jesus's Ascension which contradict what he says in
the Acts of the Apostles. He is recognized as their author and
they form an integral part of the New Testament. In his Gospe]
he situates the Ascension on Easter Day, and in the Acts forty
days later. We already know to what strange commentaries this
contradiction has led Christian experts in exegesis.
Commentators wishing to be objective, such as those of the
Ecumenical Translation of the Bible, have been obliged to recog-
nise as a general rule the fact that for Luke "the main preoccu-
pation was not to write facts corresponding to material accu-
racy". When Father Kannengiesser compares the descriptions in
the Acts of the Apostles written by Luke himself with the de-
scription of similar facts on Jesus raised from the dead by Paul,
he pronounces the following opinion on Luke: "Luke is the most
sensitive and literary of the four evangelists, he has all the qual-
ities of a true novelist".
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN
John's Gospel is radically different from the three others; to
such an extent indeed that Father Roguet in his book Initiation
to the Gospel (Initiation a l'Evangile), having commented on the
other three, immediately evokes a startling image for the fourth.
He calls it ' different world'. It is indeed a unique book; differ-
ent in the arrangement and choice of subject, description and
speech; different in its style, geography, chronology; there are
even differences in theological outlook (0. Culmann). Jesus's
1. It is not possible to establish a comparison with John because he does
not refer to the institution of the Eucharist during the Last Supper
prior to the Passion.
Tlrc Fotn
@h.
Sowcet atrd Hiacorg
69
words are therefore differently recorded by John from the other
evengelists: Father Roguet notes on this that whereas the synop-
tics record Jesus's words in a style that is "striking,
much nearer
to the oral style", in John all is meditation; to sueh an extent in-
deed that
"one
sometimes wonders if Jesus
is still speaking or
whether His ideas have not imperceptibly been extended by the
Evangelist's own thoughts".
Who was the author ? This is a highly debated
question and
extremely varying opinions have been expressed on this subject.
A. Tricot snd Father Roguet belong to a camp that does not
have the slightest misgivings: John's Gospel is the work of an
eyewitness, its author is John, son of Zebedee and brother of
James. Many details are known about this apostle and are set out
in works for mass
publication.
Popular
iconography
puts him
near Jesus, as in the Last Supper
prior
to the Passion. Who eould
imagine that John's Gospel was not the work of John the Apostle
whose figure is so familiar ?
The fact that the fourth Gospel was
written so late is not a
serious argument against this opinion. The definitive
version
was
probably written around the end of the First century
A-D.
To situate the time it was written at sixty
years after Jesus
would be in keeping with an apostle who was very
young at the
time of Jesus and who lived to be almost a hundred.
Father Kannengiesser,
in his study on the Resurrection,
ar-
rives at the eonclusion that none of the New Testament authors,
gave
PaUI, can claim to have been eyewitnesses
to Jesus's Resur-
rection. John
nevertheless related the appearance
to a number of
the assembled apostles, of which he was
probably a member, in
the absence of Thomas
(Z0,Lg-24), then eight days later to the
full
group
of apostles
(20,25-29).
O. Culmann in his work The Neus Testamenf
does not subscribe
to this view.
The Ecumenieal
Translntion of the BiItIe states
that the ma-
jority
of critics do not accept the hypothesis that the Gospel
was
written
by John,
although
this
possibility cannot be entirely
ruled out. Everything
points however towards the fact that
the
text
we know today had several authors: "It is
probable that
the
Gospel
as it stands today was
put into circulation by the author's
disclples
who added
chapter 21 and very likely several
annota-
ruFour eo.peq. Source, and Hutory
69
words are therefore differently recorded by John from the other
evangelists: Father Roguet notes on this that whereas the synop-
tics record Jesus's words in a style that is "striking, much nearer
to the oral style", in John all is meditation; to such an extent in-
deed that "one sometimes wonders if Jesus is still speaking or
whether His ideas have not imperceptibly been extended by the
Evangelist's own thoughts".
Who was the author? This is a highly debated question and
extremely varying opinions have been expressed on this subject.
A. Tricot and Father Roguet belong to a camp that does not
have the slightest misgivings: John's Gospel is the work of an
eyewitness, its author is John, son of Zebedee and brother of
James. Many details are known about this apostle and are set out
in works for mass publication. Popular iconography puts him
near Jesus, as in the Last Supper prior to the Passion. Who could
imagine that John's Gospel was not the work of John the Apostle
whose figure is so familiar?
The fact that the .fourth Gospel was written so late is not a
serious argument against this opinion. The definitive version
was probably written around the end of the First century A.D.
To situate the time it was written at sixty years after Jesus
would be in keeping with an apostle who was very young at the
time of Jesus and who lived to be almost a hundred.
Father Kannengiesser, in his study on the Resurrection, ar-
rives at the conclusion that none of the New Testament authors,
save Paul, can claim to have been eyewitnesses to Jesus's Resur-
rection. John nevertheless related the appearance to a number of
the assembled apostles, of which he was probably a member, in
the -absence of Thomas (20,19-24), then eight days later to the
full group of apostles (20,25-29).
O. Culmann in his work The New Testament does not subscribe
to this view.
The Ecumenical T1'anslation of the Bible states that the ma-
jority of critics do not accept the hypothesis that the Gospel was
written by John, although this possibility cannot be entirely
ruled out. Everything points however towards the fact that the
text we know today had several authors: "It is probable that the
Gospel as it stands today was put into circulation by the author's
disciples who added chapter 21 and very likely SEveral annota-
70
THE BIBT
F,
THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
tions (i.e.
4,2 and perhaps
4,1
;
4,44;
T,g7b; l1,Z; lg,BE).
With
regard to the story of the adulterous
woman (?,69-g,ll),
*u""y-
one agrees that it is a fragment
of unknown origin inserted later
(but
nevertheless
belonging
to canonic
scripture)
".
passage
19,35 appears
&s a
'signature'
of an
.eyewitness'
(o.
culmannJ,
the only explicit
signature in the wtrole
of Johnis
Gospel; bui
commentators
believe that it was probably
added later.
O. Culmann thinks that latter additions
are obvious
in this
Gospel; such as chapter zl which is
probably
the work of a
,,dis-
ciple who may well have made slight
alterations
to the main body
of the Gospel".
It is not necessary
to mention
all the hypotheses
suggested
by
experts in exegesis.
The remarks
recorded
here **a" by the
most eminent
christian writers
on the questions
of the author-
ship of the fourth
Gospel are sufficient
to show the extent of the
confusion reigning
on the
subject of its authorship.
The historical
value of
John's stories has been eontested
to a
great
extent. The discrepancy
between
them and the other three
Gospels is quite
blatant.
o. culman
offers an explanation
for this;
he sees in
John a different
theological point
of view from the
other
evangelists.
This aim
"direcis the choice of stories
from
the Logia' recorded,
as well as the way in which they are repro-
duced
. . . Thus the author
often p"oiorg*
the lines and makes
the historical
Jesus
say what the iTolv slpirit
Itself revealed
to
Him".
This, for the exegete
in question,'is
the reason
for the
discrepancies.
It is of course quite
conceivable
that John, who was writing
after the other
evangerists,
should have
chosen certain
stories
suitable for illustrating
his own theories.
one should not be sur_
prised
by the fact that certain
deseriptions
contained in the other
Gospels are missing
in John. The Ecumenical
Translatr.on picks
out a certain number
of such instances (page
zgz).
certain gaps
hardly seem credible
however,
like the fact th"t ttr" Institution
of
the Eucharist
is not deseribed. It is unthinkable
that an episode
so basic to christianity,
one indeed that
was to be the rnainstay
of its liturgy, i"e. the mass, should not be mentioned
by John, the
most pre-eminently
meditative
evangelist.
The fact is, he limits
himself, in the narrative
of the supper prior
to the
passion,
to
1. W""drl
70
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
tions (i.e. 4,2 and perhaps 4,1; 4,44; 7,37b; 11,2; 19,35). With
regard to the story of the adulterous woman (7,53-8,11), every-
one agrees that it is a fragment of unknown origin inserted later
(but nevertheless belonging to canonic Scripture)". Passage
19,35 appears as a 'signature' of an 'eyewitness' (0. Culmann),
the only explicit signature in the whole of John's Gospel; but
commentators believe that it was probably added later.
O. Culmann thinks that latter additions are obvious in this
Gospel; such as chapter 21 which is probably the work of a "dis-
ciple who may well have made slight alterations to the main body
of the Gospel".
It is not necessary to mention all the hypotheses suggested by
experts in exegesis. The remarks recorded here made by the
most eminent Christian writers on the questions of the author-
ship of the fourth Gospel are sufficient to show the extent of the
confusion reigning on the subject of its authorship.
The historical value of John's stories has been contested to a
great extent. The discrepancy between them and the other three
Gospels is quite blatant. O. Culman offers an explanation for this;
he sees in John a different theological point of view from the
other evangelists. This aim "directs the choice of stories from
the Logia
1
recorded, as well as the way in which they are repro-
duced ... Thus the author often prolongs the lines and makes
the historical Jesus say what the Holy Spirit Itself revealed to
Him". This, for the exegete in question, is the reason for the
discrepancies.
It is of course quite conceivable that John, who was writing
after the other evangelists, should have chosen certain stories
suitable for illustrating his own theories. One should not be sur-
prised by the fact that certain descriptions contained in the other
Gospels are missing in John. The Ecumenical Translation picks
out a certain number of such instances (page 282). Certain gaps
hardly seem credible however, like the fact that the Institution of
the Eucharist is not described. It is unthinkable that an episode
so basic to Christianity, one indeed that was to be the mainstay
of its liturgy, i.e. the mass, should not be mentioned by John, the
most pre-eminfmtly meditative evangelist. The fact is, he limits
himself, in the narrative of the supper prior to the Passion, to
1. Words.
Tln Forrl' Gotpeh. Sowcet ed Hhtotg
7l
simply describing
the washing of the disciples' feet, the
predic-
tion of Judas's
betrayal and Peter's denial.
In contrast to this, there are stories which are unique
to John
and not
present in the other
three. The Ecumenical Translation
mentions these
(page
2S3). Here again, one could infer that the
three authors did not see the importance in these episodes that
John saw in them. It is difficult however not to be taken aback
when one finds in John
a description of the appearance of Jesus
ra,ised,
from
the deud, to his disciples beside the Sea of Tiberias
(John 21,1-14). The description
is nothing Iess than the repro-
duction
(with
numerous added details) of the miracle catch of
fish which Luke
(5,1-11) presents as an episode that oceurred
duri,ng ,Iesus's lif e.Inhis description
Luke alludes to the
presence
of the Apostle John
who, as tradition has it, was the evangelist.
Since this description in John's
Gospel forms
part of chapter 21,
agreed to be a later addition, one can easily imagine that the
reference to John's name in Luke could
have led to its artificial
inclusion in the fourth Gospel.
The necessity of transforming
a
description from Jesus's life to a
posthumous description in no
way
prevented the evangelical text from being manipulated.
Another important
point on which John's
Gospel differs from
the other three is in the duration of Jesus's
mission. Mark, Mat-
thew and tuke
place
it over a
period of one
year. John spreads
it over two
years.
O. Culmann notes this fact. On this subject the
Ecumenical Translation expresses the following :
"The synoptics describe a long
period in Galilee followed by a
march that was more or less prolonged towards Judea, and finally
a brief stay in Jerusalem. John, on the other hand, describes fre-
quent
journeys
from one area to another and mentions a long
stay i n Judea, especi al l y
i n Jerusal em
(1,L9-51
;
2,13-8,36; 5,1-
47; L4,20-31). He menti ons
several Passover cel ebrati ons
(2' 13;
5,1
;
6,4; 11,55) and thus suggests a mi ni stry that l asted more
than two
years".
Which
one of them should
one believe-Mark,
Matthew,
Luke
or John?
SOURCES
OF THE GOSPELS
The
general outline that has been
given here of the Gospels
and which emerges
from a critical examination
of the texts
tends
71
simply describing the washing of the disciples' feet, the predic-
tion of Judas's betrayal and Peter's denial.
In contrast to this, there are stories which are unique to John
and not present in the other three. The Ecumenical Translation
mentions these (page 283). Here again, one could infer that the
three authors did not see the importance in these episodes that
John saw in them. It is difficult however not to be taken aback
when one finds in John a description of the appearance of Jesus
raised from the dead to his disciples beside the Sea of Tiberias
(John 21,1-14). The description is nothing less than the repro-
duction (with numerous added details) of the miracle catch of
fish which Luke (5,1-11) presents as an episode that occurred
during Jesus's life. In his description Luke alludes to the presence
of the Apostle John who, as tradition has it, was the evangelist.
Since this description in John's Gospel forms part of chapter 21,
agreed to be a later addition, one can easily imagine that the
reference to John's name in Luke could have led to its artificial
inclusion in the fourth Gospel. The necessity of transforming a
description from Jesus's life to a posthumous description in no
way prevented the evangelical text from being manipulated.
Another important point on which John's Gospel differs from
the other three is in the duration of Jesus's mission. Mark, Mat-
thew and Luke place it over a period of one year. John spreads
it over two years. O. Culmann notes this fact. On this subject the
Ecumenical Translation expresses the following:
"The synoptics describe a long period in Galilee followed by a
march that was more or less prolonged towards Judea, and finally
a brief stay in Jerusalem. John, on the other hand, describes fre-
quent journeys from one area to another and mentions a long
stay in Judea, especially in Jerusalem (1,19-51; 2,13-3,36; 5,1-
47; 14,20-31). He mentions several Passover celebrations (2,13;
5,1; 6,4; 11,55) and thus suggests a ministry that lasted more
than two years".
Which one of them should one believe-Mark, Matthew, Luke
or John?
SOURCES OF THE GOSPELS
The general outline that has been given here of the Gospels
and which emerges from a critical examination of the texts tends
72
TIIE BIBT,E, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
to maku one think of a literature
which is
,,disjointed,
with a
plan
that lacks continuity"
and
,'seemingly
insuperahle
contra-
dictions". ?hese are the terms used in the
judgement
passed
on
them by the commentators
of the Ecumenical
Translation
of the
Bible.It is importan't
to refer to their authority because the con-
sequences of an appraisat
of this subject are extremely serioug.
It has already been
seen how a few notions concerning
the re-
Iigious history of the tirne when the Gospels were written helped
to explaln certain
disconcerting
aspects
of this literature ap-
parent
to the thoughtful
reader. It is necessary
to continue, how_
ever' and ascertain
what present-day
works can tell us about the
sources the Evangelists
drew on when writing
their texts. It is
also interesting
to see whether
the history
of the texts once they
were established
can help to explain certain
aspects they
present
today.
The problem
of sources
\ilas approaehed
in a very
simplistic
fashion
at the time
of the Fatheis
of the church. In the'early
centuries
of christianity,
the only source
available was the Gos-
pel
that
the complete
manuscripts provided
first, i.e. Matthew,s
Gospel. The problem
of sources only concerned Mark
and Luke
beeause
John eonstituted
a
quite
separate
case. saint Augustine
held that
Mark, who appears
second
in the traditional
order of
presentation,
had been inspired
by Matthew
and had summarized
his work. He further
considered that Luke, who
comes third in
tfte manuscripts,
had used data from
both; iri. prologue
suggests
this, and has already
been diseussed
The experts in exegesis at this per.iod
were as able as we are
to estimate
the degree of corroboration
between
the texts and find
a large
number
of verses common
to two or three
synoptics.
Today,
the commentators
of the Eeumenical
rranslatiin
of the
Bible provide
the following
figures:
verses
common to al l three synopti cs
___--_---___.-
---..--Bg0
verses common
to Mark
and Matthew
..-_-_---1?g
verses common
to Mark and Luke ---__-- _ _
100
verses common
to Matthew
and Luke
230
The verses
unique to each of the first three
Gospels are as fol-
Iows: Matthew
3S0, lllark
EB, and Luke
800.
From the Fathers
of the church until the end of the Eigh-
tcenth century
A.D., one and a half
millenia passed
without
any
71
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
to m ~ one think of a literature which is "disjointed, with a
plan that lacks continuity" and "seemingly insnperable contra-
dictions". These are the terms used in the judgement passed on
them by the commentators of the Ecumenical Translation of the
Bible. It is important to refer to their authority because the con-
sequences of an appraisal of this subject are extremely serious.
It has already been seen how a few notions concerning the re-
ligious history of the time when the Gospels were written helped
to explain certain disconcerting aspects of this literature ap-
parent to the thoughtful reader. It is necessary to continue, how-
ever, and ascertain what present-day works can tell us about the
sources the Evangelists drew on when writing their texts. It is
also interesting to see whether the history of the texts once they
were established can help to explain certain aspects they present
today.
The problem of sources was approached in a very simplistic
fashion at the time of the Fathers of the Church. In the early
centuries of Christianity, the only source available was the Gos-
pel that the complete manuscripts provided first, Le. Matthew's
Gospel. The problem of sources only concerned Mark and Luke
because John constituted a quite separate case. Saint Augustine
held that Mark, who appears second in the traditional order of
presentation, had been inspired by Matthew and had summarized
his work. He further considered that Luke, who comes third in
the manuscripts, had used data from both; his prologue suggests
this, and has already been discussed.
The experts in exegesis at this period were as able as we are
to estimate the degree of corroboration bptween the texts and find
a large number of verses common to two or three synoptics.
Today, the commentators of the Ecumenical Translation of the
Bible provide the following figures:
verses common to all three synoptics .__330
verses common to Mark and Matthew 178
verses common to Mark and Luke ._. 100
verses common to Matthew and Luke ._ .. __ . 230
The verses unique to each of the first three Gospels are as fol-
lows: Matthew 330, Mark 53, and Luke 500.
From the Fathers of the Church until the end of the Eigh-
teenth century A.D., one and a half millenia passed without any
TIu Forar, Goapch, Sotncet atrld Hhtory
73
new problems being raised on the sources of the evangelists:
people
eontinued to follow tradition. It was not until modern
times that it was realized, on the basis of these data, how each
evangelist had taken material found in the others and compiled
his own specific narration
guided by his own
personal
views.
Great weight was attached to actual collection of material for the
narration. It came from the oral traditions of the communities
from which it originated on the one hand, and from a common
written Aramaic source that has not been rediscovered on the
other. This written source could have formed a compact mass or
have been composed of many fragments of different narrations
used by each evangelist to construct his own original work.
More intensive studies in circa the last hundred
years have led
to theories which are more detailed and in time will become even
more complicated. The first of the modern theories is the so-called
'Holtzmann
Two Sources Theory',
(
1863
)
. O. Culmann and the
Ecumenical Translation explain that, according to this theory,
Matthew and Luke may have been inspired by Mark on the one
hand and on the other by a common document which has since
been lost. The first two moreover each had his own sources, This
leads to the following diagram:
Mark Comtnon Document
Matthcw' s own Luke-
.Luke'e
ou)n Eourccs
Culmann criticises the above on the following
points:
1. Mark's work, used by both Luke and Matthew, was
prob-
ably not the author's Gospel
but an earlier version.
2. The diagram does not lay enough emphasis on the oral
tradition. This appears to be of
paramount importance be-
cause it alone
preserved Jesus's words and the descriptions
of his mission during a
period of thirty or forty
years'
as each of the Evangelists
was only the spokesman
for
the Christian
community which
wrote down the oral tra'
dition.
The Four GOBpez.. Source, and HiatOf'!/ 73
new problems being raised on the sources of the evangelists:
people continued to follow tradition. It was not until modern
times that it was realized, on the basis of these data, how each
evangelist had taken material found in the others and compiled
his own specific narration guided by his own personal views.
Great weight was attached to actual collection of material for the
narration. It came from the oral traditions of the communities
from which it originated on the one hand, and from a common
written Aramaic source that has not been rediscovered on the
other. This written source could have formed a compact mass or
have been composed of many fragments of different narrations
used by each evangelist to construct his own original work.
More intensive studies in circa the last hundred years have led
to theories which are more detailed and in time will become even
more complicated. The first of the modern theories is the so-called
'Holtzmann Two Sources Theory', (1863). O. Culmann and the
Ecumenical Translation explain that, according to this theory,
Matthew and Luke may have been inspired by Mark on the one
hand and on the other by a common document which has since
been lost. The first two moreover each had his own sources. This
leads to the following diagram:
Mark Common Document
Luke-Luke's own source,
Culmann criticises the above on the following points:
1. Mark's work, used by both Luke and Matthew, was prob-
ably not the author's Gospel but an earlier version.
2. The diagram does not lay enough emphasis on the oral
tradition. This appears to be of paramount importance be-
cause it alone preserved Jesus's words and the descriptions
of his mission during a period of thirty or forty years,
as each of the Evangelists was only the spokesman for
the Christian community which wrote down the oral tra-
dition.
71
THE BIBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
This is how it is possible
to conclude that
the Gospels we
pos-
sess today are a refleetion
of what the early Christian communi-
ties knew of Jesus's life and ministry. They also mirror their
beliefs and theological
ideas, of which the evangelists
were the
spokesmen.
The latest
studies in textual criticism on the sources of the
Gospels have elearly shown an even more
complicated
formation
process
of the texts. A book by Fathers Benoit and Boismard,
both professors
at the Biblical school of Jerusalem (lg?p-lg?B),
called the Sgnopsis
of the Four Gospels (Synopse
des
quatres
Evangiles)
stresses the evolution of the text in *iag*r p"""u"l
to
the evolution
of the tradition. This implies the conquences set
out by Father Benoit in his introduction
to Father Boismard's
part
of the work. He presents
them
in the following
terms:
"(. . .) the wording and form of description
that result
from a long evolution of tradition are not as authentic as
in the original.
some readers
of this work
will
perhaps
be
surprised
or embarrassed
to learn
that eertain of Jesus's
sayings, parables,
or
predictions
of His destiny were not
expressed
in the way we read them today, but
were altered
and
adapted by those who transmitted
them to us. This may
come 8s a source
of amazement
and even scandal to those
not
used to this kind of historical
investigation."
The alterations
and adaptations
to the texts made by those
transmitting
them to us were done
in a way that Father Bois-
mard
explains by means of a highly
complex
diagram. It is a
development
of the so-ealled
'Two
Sour*** ttt*ory',
and is the
product
of examination
and comparison of the texts which it is
not possible
to summarize
here.
Tnose readers
who are interested
in obtaining
further
details should consult
the original
work
published
by Les Editions
du
Cerf,
paris.
Four basic documents-A,
B,
C and
e_represent
the original
sourcn.s of the
Gospels (see general
diagram).
page
?6.
Document
A comes
from a Judeo-christian
source. Matthew
and Mark were inspired by it.
Document B is a reinterpretation
of document A, for use in
Pagan-cum-Christian
churches:
all the evangelists were inspired
by it except Matthew.
74 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
This is how it is possible to conclude that the Gospels we pos-
sess today are a reflection of what the early Christian communi-
ties knew of Jesus's life and ministry. They also mirror their
beliefs and theological ideas, of which the evangelists were the
spokesmen.
The latest studies in textual criticism on the sources of the
Gospels have clearly shown an even more complicated formation
process of the texts. A book by Fathers Benoit and Boismard,
both professors at the Biblical School of Jerusalem (1972-1973),
called the Synopsis 01 the Four Gospels (Synopse des quatres
EvangiIes) stresses the evolution of the text in stages parallel to
the evolution of the tradition. This implies the conquences set
out by Father Benoit in his introduction to Father Boismard's
part of the work. He presents them in the following terms:
"(...) the wording and form of description that result
from a long evolution of tradition are not as authentic as
in the original. Some readers of this work will perhaps be
surprised or embarrassed to learn that certain of Jesus's
sayings, parables, or predictions of His destiny were not
expressed in the way we read them today, but were altered
and adapted by those who transmitted them to us. This may
come as a source of amazement and even scandal to those
not used to this kind of historical investigation."
The alterations and adaptations to the texts made by those
transmitting them to us were done in a way that Father Bois-
mard explains by means of a highly complex diagram. It is a
development of the so-called 'Two Sources Theory', and is the
product of examination and comparison of the texts which it is
not possible to summarize here. Tnose readers who are interested
in obtaining further details should consult the original work
published by Les Editions du Cerf, Paris.
Four basic documents-A, B, C and Q-represent the original
sources of the Gospels (see general diagram). Page 76.
Document A comes from a Judeo-Christian source. Matthew
and Mark were inspired by it.
Document B is a reinterpretation of document A, for use in
Pagan-cum-Christian churches: all the evangelists were inspired
by it except Matthew.
TlreFow Gntpcb, Sorlr.cr;t sndfl:iltor9
75
Documeut C inspired Mark, Luke and John.
Document
Q
constitutes the majority of sourees common to
Matthew and Luke; it is the
'Common
Document' in the
'Two
Sources' theory refened to earlier.
None of these basic documents led to the
production
of the
definitive texts we know boday. Between them and the final ver-
eion lay the interrrediate versions: Intermediate Matthew, Inter-
mediate Mark, Intermediate
Luke and Intermediatc John. These
four intermediste documents were to lead to the final versions of
the four Gospels, as well as to inspire the final corresponding
versions of other Gospels. One only has to consult the diagram to
see the intricate relationships the author has revealed.
The regults of this scriptural research are of
great
importance.
They show how the Gospel texts not only have a history (to
be
discussed later) but also a'pre-history', to use Father Boismard's
expression. Whst is meant is that before the final versions ap-
peared,
they underwent alterations at the Intermediate Docu-
ment stage. Thus it is possible
to explain, for example, how a
well-known story from Jesus's life, such as the miracle catch
of fish, is shown in Luke to be an event that happened during His
Iife, and in John to be one of His appearances after His
Resurrection,
The conclusion to be drawn from the above is thst rrhen we
read the Gospel, we e&n no longer be at all sure that we are read-
ing Jesus's word. Father Benoit addresses himself to the readers
of the Gospel by warning them and
giving
them the following
compensation:
"ff
the reader is obliged in more than one.pase to
grve
up the notion of hearing Jesus's voice directly, he still hears
the volce of the Church and he relies upon it as the divinely
appointed interpreter of the Master who long ago spoke to us
on earth and who notry speaks to us in His
glory".
How can one reconcile this formal statement of the inauthen-
ticity of certain texts with the
phrase
used in the dogmatic
constitution on Divine Revelation by the Second Vatican Council
assuring us to the contrary, i.e. the faithful transmission of
Jesus's words:
"These
four Gospels, which it
(the
Chureh) un-
hesitatingly confirrns are historically authentic, faithfully trans-
mit what Jesus, Son of God, actually did and taught during his
75
Document C inspired Mark, Luke and John.
Document Q constitutes the majority of sources common to
Matthew and Luke; it is the 'Common Document' in the 'Two
Sources' theory referred to earlier.
None of these basic documents led to the production of the
definitive texts we know today. Between them and the final ver-
sion lay the intermediate versions: Intermediate Matthew, Inter-
mediate Mark, Intermediate Luke and Intermediate John. These
four intermediate documents were to lead to the final versions of
the four Gospels, as well as to inspire the final corresponding
versions of other Gospels. One only has to consult the diagram to
see the intricate relationships the author has revealed.
The results of this scriptural research are of great importance.
They show how the Gospel texts not only have a history (to be
discussed later) but also a 'pre-history', to use Father Boismard's
expression. What is meant is that before the final versions ap-
peared, they underwent alterations at the Intermediate Docu-
ment stage. Thus it is possible to explain, for example, how a
well-known story from Jesus's life, such as the miracle catch
of fish, is shown in Luke to be an event that happened during His
life, and in John to be one of His appearances after His
Resurrection.
The conclusion to be drawn from the above is that when we
read the Gospel, we can no longer be at all sure that we are read-
ing Jesus's word. Father Benoit addresses himself to the readers
of the Gospel by warning them and giving them the following
compensation: "If the reader is obliged in more than one ..case to
give up the notion of hearing Jesus's voice directly, he still hears
the voice of the Church and he relies upon it as the divinely
appointed interpreter of the Master who long ago spoke to us
on earth and who now speaks to us in His glory".
How can one reconcile this formal statement of the inauthen-
ticity of certain texts with the phrase used in the dogmatic
constitution on Divine Revelation by the Second Vatican Council
assuring us to the contrary, Le. the faithful transmission of
Jesus's words: "These four Gospels, which it (the Church) un-
hesitatingly confirms are historically authentic, faithfully trans-
mit what Jesus, Son of God, actually did and taught during his
76 THE BIBTE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
life among men for their eternal salvation, until the day when
he was taken up into the heavens" ?
It is
quite
clear that the work of the Biblical School of Jeru-
salem flatly contradicts the Council's declaration.
M. E. BOISMARD
SYffOPSIS OF THE FOAN @SPEf,S'
GENENAL DIAGNAI|,il
(
1) Synopse des
quatre
Evangiles
Documents A, B, C,
A
-
Basic documents used in the compiling
of the txts.
: Intermediate version of the text Intermediate
76 THE BIBLE, THE QURtAN AND SCIENCE
life among men for their eternal salvation, until the day when
he was taken up into the heavens"?
It is quite clear that the work of the Biblical School of Jeru-
salem flatly contradicts the Council's declaration.
M. E. BOISMARD
SYNOPSIS OF THE FOUR GOSPELSl
GENERAL DIAGRAM
(1) Synapse des quatre Evangiles
Documents A, B, C, Q =Basic documents used in the compiling
of the texts.
Intermediate = Intermediate version of the text
Tlw Fow Goqeh. Sowcer atd Hitl,otg
HI'$'TONY OF THE TEXTS
One would be mistsken in thinking that onee the Gospels were
written they constituted the basic Scriptures of the newly born
Christisnity and that
people
referred to them the same way they
referred to the Old Testament. At that time, the foremost author-
ity was the oral tradition as a vehicle for Jesus's words and the
teaehings of the apostles. The first writings to circulate were
Paul's letters and they occupied a prevalent position long before
the Gospels. They'were, after all, written several decades earlier.
It has already been shown, that contrary to what certain com-
mentators are still writing today, before 140 A.D. there was no
witness to the knowledge that a collection of Gospel writings
existed. It was not until circa 1?0 A.D, that the four Gospels ac-
quired
the status of canonic literature.
In the early days of Christianity, many writings on Jesus
were in circulation. They were not subsequently retained as being
worthy of authenticity and the Church ordered them to be
hidden, hence their name
'Apocrypha'.
Some of the texts of these
works have been well preserved
because they "benefitted from
the fact that they were
generally
valued", to
quote
the Ecumen-
ical Translation. The same was true for the Letter of Barnabas,
but unfortunately others rvere
"more
brutally thrust aside" and
only fragments of them remain. They were considered to be the
messengers of error and were removed from the sisht of the
faithful. Works such as the Gospels of the Nazarenes, the Gospels
of the Hebrews and the Gospels of the Egyptians, known through
quotations taken from the Fathers of the Church, were neverthe-
less fairly closely related to the canonic Gospels. The same holds
good for Thomas's Gospel and Barnabas's Gospel.
Some of these apocryphal writings
contain imaginary details,
the
product
of
popular
fantasy. Authors of works on the Apoc-
rypha
also
quote with obvious satisfaction
passages which are
literally ridiculous. Passages such as these are however to be
found in all the Gospels. One has only to think of the imaginary
description of events that trfiatthew claims took
place at Jesus's
death. It is
possible to find
passages lacking seriousness in all the
early writings of Christianity:
One must be honest enough to ad-
mit this.
77 The Four Gcnpe&. Source, arad Hiltory
HISTORY OF THE TEXTS
77
One would be mistaken in thinking that once the Gospels were
written they constituted the basic Scriptures of the newly born
Christianity and that people referred to them the same way they
referred to the Old Testament. At that time, the foremost author-
ity was the oral tradition as a vehicle for Jesus's words and the
teachings of the apostles. The first writings to circulate were
Paul's letters and they occupied a prevalent position long before
the Gospels. They were, after all, written several decades earlier.
It has already been shown, that contrary to what certain com-
mentators are still writing today, before 140 A.D. there was no
witness to the knowledge that a collection of Gospel writings
existed. It was not until circa 170 A.D. that the four Gospels ac-
quired the status of canonic literature.
In the early days of Christianity, many writings on Jesus
were in circulation. They were not subsequently r e t i n ~ as being
worthy of authenticity and the Church ordered them to be
hidden, hence their name 'Apocrypha'. Some of the texts of these
works have been well preserved because they "benefitted from
the fact that they were generally valued", to quote the Ecumen-
ical Translation. The same was true for the Letter of Barnabas,
but unfortunately others were "more brutally thrust aside" and
only fragments of them remain. They were considered to be the
messengers of error and were removed from the sight of the
faithful. Works such as the Gospels of the Nazarenes, the Gospels
of the Hebrews and the Gospels of the Egyptians, known through
quotattons taken from the Fathers of the Church, were neverthe-
less fairly closely related to the canonic Gospels. The same holds
good for Thomas's Gospel and Barnabas's Gospel.
Some of these apocryphal writings contain imaginary details,
the product of popular fantasY. Authors of works on the Apoc-
rypha also quote with obvious satisfaction passages which are
literally ridiculous. Passages such as these are however to be
found in all the Gospels. One has only to think of the imaginary
description of events that :Matthew claims took place at Jesus's
death. It is possible to find passages lacking seriousness in all the
early writings of Christianity: One must be honest enough to ad-
mit this.
T8 fiIE
BIBLE TIIE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
The abundance of literature concerning Jesus led the Church
to make certain excisions while the latter was in the
process
of
becoming organized. Perhaps a hundred Gospels wers sup-
pressed.
Only four were retained and
put
on the offieial list of
neo-Testament writings making up what is called the
'Canon'.
In the middle of the Seeond century A.D., Marcion of Sinope
put heavy
pressure
on the ecclesiastic authorities to take a stsnd
on this. He was an ardent enemy of the Jews and at that time
rejected the whole of the Old Testament and everything in
writings
produced
after Jesus that seemed to him too close to
the Old Testament or to come from the Judeo-Christian tradition.
Marcion only acknowledged the value of Luke's Gospel because,
he believed Luke to be the spokesman of Paul and his writings.
The Church declared Marcion a heretic and
put into its canon
all the
.Letters
of PauI, but included the other Gospels of
Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. They also added several other
works such as the Acts of the Apostles. The official list never
theless varies with time during the first centuries of Christianity.
For a while, works that were later considered not to be valid
(i.e.
Apocrypha) figured in it, while other works contained in
today's New Testlment Canon were excluded from it at this
time. These hesitations lasted until the Councils of llippo Regius
in 393 and
Carthage in 89?. The four Gospels always figurrcd in it
however.
One may
join
Father Boismard in regretting the disappear-
ance of a vast
quantity
of litersture declared apocryphal by the
Church elthough it was of historical interest. The above author
indeed
gives
it a
place
in his Synopsis of the Four Gospelt along-
side that of the official Gospels. He notes that these books still
existed in libraries near the end of the Fourth eentury A.D.
This was the eentury that saw things put into serious order.
The oldest manuscripts of the Gospels date from this
period.
Documents
prior
to this, i.e.
papyri
from the Third century A.D.
and one
possibly
dating from the Second, only transmit frag-
ments to us. The two oldest
parchment
manuscripts are Greek,
Fourth century A.D. They are the Coden Vatieo,nus,
preserved
in the Vatican Library and whose
place
of discovery is unknown,
and the Coder Sir:p;iti,an, which was discovered on Mount Sinai
78
TlIE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The abundance of literature concerning Jesus led the Church
to make certain excisions while the latter was in the process of
becoming organized. Perhaps a hundred Gospels were sup-
pressed. Only four were retained and put on the official list of
neo-Testament writings making up what is called the 'Canon'.
In the middle of the Second century A.D., Marcion of Sinope
put heavy pressure on the ecclesiastic authorities to take a stand
on this. He was an ardent enemy of the Jews and at that time
rejected the whole of the Old Testament and everything in
writings produced after Jesus that seemed to him too close to
the Old Testament or to come from the Judeo-Christian tradition.
Marcion only acknowledged the value of Luke's Gospel because,
he believed Luke to be the spokesman of Paul and his writings.
The Church declared Marcion a heretic and put into its canon
all the ~ t t r s of Paul, but included the other Gospels of
Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. They also added several other
works such as the Acts of the Apostles. The official list never
theless varies with time during the first centuries of Christianity.
For a while, works that were later considered not to be valid
(i.e. Apocrypha) figured in it, while other works contained in
today's New Testament Canon were excluded from it at this
time. These hesitations lasted until the Councils of Hippo Regius
in 393 and Carthage in 397. The four Gospels always figured in it
however.
One may join Father Boismard in regretting the disappear-
ance of a vast quantity of literature declared apocryphal by the
Church although it was of historical interest. The above author
indeed gives it a place in his Synopsis of the Four Gospels along-
side that of the official Gospels. He notes that these books still
existed in libraries near the end of the Fourth century A.D.
This was the century that saw things put into serious order.
The oldest manuscripts of the G6spels date from this period.
Documents prior to this, i.e. papyri from the Third century A.D.
and one possibly dating from the Second, only transmit frag-
ments to us. The two oldest parchment manuscripts are Greek,
Fourth century A.D. They are the Codex Vaticanus, preserved
in the Vatican Library and whose place of discovery is unknown,
and the Codex Sinaiticus, which was discovered on Mount Sinai
Tlle Font Gupeh. Sourcer and Hhtorg
7g
and is now
preserved in the British Museum, London. The second
contains two apocryphal works.
According to the Ecumenical Translation, two hundred and
fifty other known
parchments exist throughout the world, the
last of these being from the Eleventh century A.D. "Not
all the
copies of the New Testament that have eome down to us are iden-
tical" however. "On
the contr&ry, it is
possible
to distinguish
differences of varying degrees of importance between them, but
however important they may be, there is always a large number
of them. Some of these only concern differences of
grammatical
detail, vocabulary or word order. Elsewhere however, differences
between manuscripts can be seen which afrect the meaning
of
whole
passages". If one wishes to see the extent of textual differ-
ences, one only has to
glance
through the iVounm Testamentum
Graeee.r This work contains a so-called
'middle-of-the-road'
Greek
text. It is a text of synthesis with notes containing all the varia-
tions found in the different versions.
The authenticity of a text, and of even the most venerable
manuscript, is always open to debate. The Coder Vaticanus
is a
good
example of this. The facsimile reproductions edited by the
Vatican City, 1965, contains an accompanying
note from its edi-
tors informing us that
"several
centuries after it was copied
(believed
to have been in circa the Tenth or Eleventh century),
a scribe inked over all the letters except those he thought
qrere
a mistske". There are
passages in the text where
the orig-
inal letters in light brown still show through, contrasting
visibly
with the rest of the text which is in dark brown.
There is no
indication that it was a faithful restoration. The note states
moreover that "the
different hands that corrected
and anno-
teted the manuscript over the centuries have not
yet
been defini-
tively discerned; a certain number of corrections
were undoubt-
edly
made when the text was inked over." In all the religious
manuals the text is
presented as a Fourth century copy. One hss
to
go to sources at the Vaticsn
to diseover
that various hands
may have altered the text centuries later.
One might reply that other
texts may be used
for comparison,
but
how does one ehoose
between variations that change the
meaning?
It is a well known
fact that a very old scribds comec-
1. Nestla'Alend Pub. United Bible Societies, London, 1S?1'
The Four Goapez,. Source. lind Hiatory 79
and is now preserved in the British Museum, London. The second
contains two apocryphal works.
According to the Ecumenical Translation, two hundred and
fifty other known parchments exist throughout the world, the
last of these being from the Eleventh century A.D. "Not all the
copies of the New Testament that have come down to us are iden-
tical" however. "On the contrary, it is possible to distinguish
differences of varying degrees of importance between them, but
however important they may be, there is always a large number
of them. Some of these only concern differences of grammatical
detail, vocabulary or word order. Elsewhere however, differences
between manuscripts can be seen which affect the meaning of
whole passages". If one wishes to see the extent of textual differ-
ences, one only has to glance through the Novum Testamentum
Graece.
1
This work contains a so-called 'middle-of-the-road' Greek
text. It is a text of synthesis with notes containing all the varia-
tions found in the different versions.
The authenticity of a text, and of even the most venerable
manuscript, is always open to debate. The Codex Vaticanus is a
good example of this. The facsimile reproductions edited by the
Vatican City, 1965, contains an accompanying note from its edi-
tors informing us that "several centuries after it was copied
(believed to have been in circa the Tenth or Eleventh century),
a scribe inked over all the letters except those he thought
were a mistake". There are passages in the text where the orig-
inalletters in light brown still show through, contrasting visibly
with the rest of the text which is in dark brown. There is no
indication that it was a faithful restoration. The note states
moreover that "the different hands that corrected and anno-
tated the manuscript over the centuries have not yet been defini-
tively discerned; a certain number of corrections were undoubt-
edly made when the text was inked over." In all the religious
manuals the text is presented as a Fourth century copy. One has
to go to sources at the Vatican to discover that various hands
may have altered the text centuries later.
One might reply that other texts may be used for comparison,
but how does one choose between variations that change the
meaning? It is a well known fact that a very old scribe's correc-
1. Nestle-Aland Pub. Unit.ed Bible Societies, London, 1971.
80
THE BIBI.4 THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
tion can leed to the definitive reproduction of the corrected text.
\il'e shall see further on how a single word in a
passege
from
John concerning the Paraclete radically alters its meaning and
eompletely changes its sense when viewed from a theological
point
of view.
O. Culmann, in his book, The New Testarnenf, writes the fol-
Iowing on the subject of variations:
"Sometimes the latter are the result
of inadvertant flaws: the
copier misses a word out, or conversely writes it twice, or a whole
section of a sentence is carelessly. omitted because in the manu-
script to be copied it appeared between two identical words.
Sometimes it is a matter of deliberate correetions, either the
copier has taken the liberty of
'correcting
the text according to
his own ideas or he has tried to bring it into line with a
parallel
text in a more or less skilful attempt to reduce the number of
discrepaneies. As, little by little, the New Testament writings
broke away from the rest of early Christian literature,
and came
to be regarded
as lloly Scripture, so the copiers became more
and more hesitant
about taking the same liberties as their
predecessors:
they thousht they were copying the authentic
text, but in fact wrote down the variations. Finally, a copier
sometimes wrote annotations in the margin to explain an ob-
scure
passage.
The following
copier, thinking that the sentence
he found in the margin had been left out of the passage
by his
predecessor,
thought it necessary to include the margin notes in
the text. This process
often made the new text even more
obscure."
The scribes of some manuscripts sometimes
took exceedingly
great
liberties with the texts. This is the case of one of the most
venerable manuscripts
after the two referred to above, the
sixth century
coden Bezae
Ca,nta,bri,giensis. The scribe
prob-
ably noticed the difference between Luke's ancl Matthew's gene-
alogy of Jesus, so he
put
Matthew's genealogy
into his copy of
Luke, but as the second contained fewer names than
the first,
he padded
it out with extra names (without
balancing them up).
Is it
possible
to say that the Latin translations, such as Saint
Jerome's sixth century Vulgate, or older translations (V
etw
Itala), or Syriae and Coptic translations are any more faithful
than the basic Greek manuscripts ? They might have been made
80
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCmNCE
tion can lead to the definitive reproduction of the corrected text.
We shall see further on how a single word in a passage from
John concerning the Paraclete radically alters its meaning and
completely changes its sense when viewed from a theological
point of view.
O. Culmann, in his book, The New Testament, writes the fol-
lowing on the subject of variations:
"Sometimes the latter are the result of inadvertant flaws: the
copier misses a word out, or conversely writes it twice, or a whole
section of a sentence is carelessly. omitted because in the manu-
script to be copied it appeared between two identical words.
Sometimes it is a matter of deliberate corrections, either the
copier has taken the liberty of correcting the text according to
his own ideas or he has tried to bring it into line with a parallel
text in a more or less skilful attempt to reduce the number of
discrepancies. As, little by little, the New Testament writings
broke away from the rest of early Christian literature, and came
to be regarded as Holy Scripture, so the copiers became more
and more hesitant about taking the same liberties as their
predecessors: they thought they were copying the authentic
text, but in fact wrote down the variations. Finally, a copier
sometimes wrote annotations in the margin to explain an ob-
scure passage. The following copier, thinking that the sentence
he found in the margin had been left out of the passage by his
predecessor, thought it necessary to include the margin notes in
the text. This process often made the new text even more
obscure."
The scribes of some manuscripts sometimes took exceedingly
great liberties with the texts. This is the case of one of the most
venerable manuscripts after the two referred to above, the
Sixth century Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis. The scribe prob-
ably noticed the difference between Luke's and Matthew's gene-
alogy of Jesus, so he put Matthew's genealogy into his copy of
Luke, but as the second contained fewer names than the first,
he padded it out with extra names (without balancing them up).
Is it possible to say that the Latin translations, such as Saint
Jerome's Sixth century Vulgate, or older translations (Vetus
Itala), or Syriac and Coptic translations are any more faithful
than the basic Greek manuscripts? They might have been made
Tlaa Fovt Gola,elr,. Sourcer ond Hhtwg
from manuscripts older than the ones referred to above and sub-
sequently lost to the present day. We
iust
do not know.
It has been
possible to
group
the bulk of these versions
into
families all bearing I certain number of common traits. Accord-
ing to O. Culmann, one can define:
-a
so-called Syrian
text, whose constitution eould have led to
the majority of the oldest Greek
manuscripts; this text was
widety disseminated throughout Europe from the Sixteenth
century A.D. onwards thanks to
printing; the specialists say that
it is
probably
the worst text.
-a
so-called Western text, with old Latin versions and the Coden
Bezae Cantabri,giensis
which is in both Greek and Latin
;
accord-
ing to the Ecumenicel Translation, one of its characteristics
is
a definite tendency to
provide
explanations,
paraphrases' inaccu-
rate data and
'harmonizations'.
-the
so-called Neutral text, eontaining the Coder Vaticanus and
the Coden Si,nai,tinus, is said to have a fairly high level of
purity;
modern editions of the New Testament readily follow it, although
it too has its flaws'
(Ecumenical Translation) .
All that modern
textual criticism can do in this respect is to
try snd reconstitute
"a
text which has the most likelihood of
coming negr to the original. In any case,
there can be no hope of
going
back to the original text itself."
(Ecumenical Translation)
The Four GoJpeIB. Source, and Hiatory
from manuscripts older than the ones referred to above and sub-
sequently lost to the present day. We just do not know.
It has been possible to group the bulk of these versions into
families all bearing a certain number of common traits. Accord-
ing to O. Culmann, one can define:
-a so-called Syrian text, whose constitution could have led to
the majority of the oldest Greek manuscripts; this text was
widely disseminated throughout Europe from the Sixteenth
century A.D. onwards thanks to printing; the specialists say that
it is probably the worst text.
-a so-called Western text, with old Latin versions and the Codex
Bezae Cantabrigiensis which is in both Greek and Latin; accord-
ing to the Ecumenical Translation, one of its characteristics is
a definite tendency to provide explanations, paraphrases, inaccu-
rate data and 'harmonizations'.
-the so-called Neutral text, containing the Codex Vaticanus and
the Codex Sinaiticus, is said to have a fairly high level of purity;
modern editions of the New Testament readily follow it, although
it too has its flaws' (Ecumenical Translation).
All that modern textual criticism can do in this respect is to
try and reconstitute "a text which has the most likelihood of
coming near to the original. In any case, there can be no hope of
going back to the original text itself." (Ecumenical Translation)
IY
The
Gospels and
Modcrrr
ScierrcG,
The
Genealogies of Jesrrs.
The Gospels contain very few
passages
which
give
rise to a
confrontation with modern scientific data.
Firstly however, there are many descriptions referring to mir-
acles which hardly lend themselves to scientific comment. The
miraeles concern people-the
healing of the sick
(the
insane,
blind, paralytic;
the healing of lepers, resurrection of Lazarus)
-
as well as the
purely
material phenomena
that lie outside the
laws of nature (the
description of Jesus walking on water that
held him up, the changing of the watOr into wine). sometimes
a natural
phenomenom
is seen from an unusual angle by virtue of
the fact that the time element is very short: the immediate calm-
ing of the storm, the instantaneous withering of the fig tree,
the miracle eatch of fish, as if all the fish in the sea had come
together at exactly the place
where the nets were cast.
God intervenes in His omnipotent Power in all these episodes.
one need not be surprised by what He is able to achieve; by
human standards it is stupendous, but for Him it is not. This does
not at all mean that a believer should forget science. A belief in
divine miracles and in science is
quite
compatible: one is on a
divine scale, the other on a human one.
Personally, I am very willing to believe
that Jesus cured a
leper, but I cannot accept the fact that a text is declared authen-
tic and inspired by God when I read
that only twenty
genera-
tions existed between the first man and Abraham. Luke says this
82
IV
ThE and
..n
of
The Gospels contain very few passages which give rise to a
confrontation with modern scientific data.
Firstly however, there are many descriptions referring to mir-
acles which hardly lend themselves to scientific comment. The
miracles concern people-the healing of the sick (the insane,
blind, paralytic; the healing of lepers, resurrection of Lazarus)-
as well as the purely material phenomena that lie outside the
laws of nature (the description of Jesus walking on water that
held him up, the changing of the into wine). Sometimes
a natural phenomenom is seen from an unusual angle by virtue of
the fact that the time element is very short: the immediate calm-
ing of the storm, the instantaneous withering of the fig tree,
the miracle catch of fish, as if all the fish in the sea had come
together at exactly the place where the nets were cast.
God intervenes in His Omnipotent Power in all these episodes.
One need not be surprised by what He able to achieve; by
human standards it is stupendous, but for Him it is not. This does
not at all mean that a believer should forget science. A belief in
divine miracles and in science is quite compatible: one is on a
divine scale, the other on a human one.
Personally, I am very willing to believe that Jesus cured a
leper, but I cannot accept the fact that a text is declared authen-
tic and inspired by God when I read that only twenty genera-
tions existed between the first man and Abraham. Luke says this
82
Tlw
GoWb and Mdnnr
Sclnrlao
8ll
in his Gospel
(8,
23-28).
we shall
see in a moment
the
ressons
that show
why iuke's
text, like the Old
Testament
text on the
same theme,
is
quite simply a
product of human
imagination'
The Gosrcrr t}te
tn.
bo"'"tt)
giu" us thg same description
of
Jesus's
biological
origins.
The formation
of Jesus
in the materngl
uterus occurred
in circumstances
which
lay outsiile
the laws
of
nature
common
to all human
beings.
The ovule
produced by the
mother's
ovary
did not need to
join
with a spermatozoon'- yhich
should
have come
from
his father,
to form the embryo
and
hence
a viable
infant.
The
phenomenon of the birth
of a normal
indi-
vidual without
the fertilizing
action
of the male
is called
'parthe-
nogenesis,.
In the animal
kingdom,
parthenogenesis
can.be
ob-
served
under certain
conditions.
This is true for various
insects'
certain
invertebrates
and, very
occasionally,
a select
breed
of
bird. By way
of experirnent,
it has been
possible, for example,
in
certain
mammal* if.*"le
rabbits), to obtain
the beginnings
of
a development
of the ovule into an embryo
at an extremely
rudi-
mentary stage
without
any intervention
of spermatozoon'
It was
not
possible to
go any further
however
and an example
of com-
plete parthenog"enesis,
whether
experimental
or natural,
is un-
known. Jesus
is an unique
ea$e. Mary was a virgin
mother.
she
preserved her virginity
and did not have any children
apart
from
l*to*.
Jesus is a biological
exception'l
THE GENEALOGIES
OF JESUS'
The two
genealogies contsined
in Matthew's
and Luke's
Gog-
pels give rise to
p"Jbl**, of verisimilitude,
and conformity
with
scientific
data, and hence authenticity.
These
problems are
a
source of
great
embarassment
to Christian
commentators
because
the latter
refuse to see in them what
is very obviously
the
prod-
uet of human imagination.
The authors
of the Sacerdotal
text of
Genesis,
Sixftr-
cettlo"y
8.C., had already
been in.spired
by imag-
ination for ttreir
genealogies of the first men' It again
inspired
i]Tt-u
C*prls
sometimes
refer to Jesus'g
'brothers'and'sistrs' (Matthw
ls,46-60
""a
rl-68;
*rl* e,
f+i
i9rr1
?,.1
T9,u'11]J *:S:::j:"*
ililr?"-r#J;;'irtpioi,
indeed
sigsify
biolosical
brothers and rir
ters;
they
""*
*ori
pioUtUty a detective
translation
of the originrl
semitic
worde
which
just
mesn'kin';
in this inctsnce
they
were
perbrpr
couging.
The Goapell tmd Modem Science
83
in his Gospel (3, 23-28). We shall see in a moment the reasons
that show why Luke's text, like the Old Testament text on the
same theme, is quite simply a product of human imagination.
The Gospels (like the Qur'an) give us the same description of
Jesus's biological origins. The formation of Jesus in the maternal
uterus occurred in circumstances which lay outsiae the laws of
nature common to all human beings. The ovule produced by the
mother's ovary did not need to join with a spermatozoon, which
should have come from his father, to form the embryo and hence
a viable infant. The phenomenon of the birth of a normal indi-
vidual without the fertilizing action of the male is caned 'parthe-
nogenesis'. In the animal kingdom, parthenogenesis can be ob-
served under certain conditions. This is true for various insects,
certain invertebrates and, very occasionally, a select breed of
bird. By way of experiment, it has been possible, for example, in
certain mammals (female rabbits), to obtain the beginnings of
a development of the ovule into an embryo at an extremely rudi-
mentary stage without any intervention of spermatozoon. It was
not possible to go any further however and an example of com-
plete parthenogenesis, whether experimental or natural, is un-
known. Jesus is an unique case. Mary was a virgin mother. She
preserved her virginity and did not have any children apart from
Jesus. Jesus is a biological exception.
l
THE GENEALOGIES OF JESUS.
The two genealogies contained in Matthew's and Luke's Gos-
pels give rise to problems of verisimilitude, and conformity with
scientific data, and hence authenticity. These problems are a
source of great embarassment to Christian commentators because
the latter refuse to see in them what is very obviously the prod-
uct of human imagination. The authors of the Sacerdotal text of
Genesis, Sixth century B.C., had already been inspired by imag-
ination for their genealogies of the first men. It again inspired
1. The Gospels sometimes refer to Jesus's 'brothers' and 'sisters' (Matthew
13,46-60 and 64-68; Mark 6, 1-6; John 7, 3 and 2, 12). The Greek worda
used, adelphoi and adelphai, indeed signify biological brothers and ai...
ters; they are most probably a defective translation of the original
Semitic words which just mean 'kin'; in this instance they were perhaps
cousins.
84
THE BTBLE,
THE
QUn'AN
AND SCTENCE
Matthew
and Luke for
the data they did not take from
th.e ord
Testament.
one must str-aight
away note
that the mare genearogies
have
absolutely
no relevanee
to Jesus.
were one to give
a
genealoHr
to
Mary's
only son,
who was
without
a biologicat
ratrrer,
ii wourd
have to be the genealogy
of his mother
Mary.
Here is the text of the
Revised
standard
version
of the Bibre,
1952:
The genealogy
according
to
Matthew
is at the beginning
of his
Gospel:
,,THE
BOOK
OF THE
GENEALOGY
OF JESUS
CHRIST,
THE
SON
OF DAVID,
THE
SON
OF ABRAHAM.
Abraham
was the father
of fsaac
fssac
was the father
of Jacob
Jecob
was
the fether
of Judah and his brothers
Judah
wes
the father
of
perez
and Zerah
by Tamar
Perez
was the father
of Hezron
Hezron
was the father
of Rarn
Ram
was the father
of Amminadab
Amminadab
was the fsther
of Nahshon
Nehshon
was the father
of Salmon
Salmon
was
the father
of Boez by Rahab
Boaz
was the father
of Obed ti, n"ti-
Obed
was the father
of Jesse
Jene
was the father
of Devid
the king
David
was the father
of solomon
by th-e wife of uriah
Solomon
was the father
of Rehoboam
Rehobosm
was the father
of etijatr
Abijah
was the father
of Asa
Ate
was the father
of Jehoshaphat
Jehochaphat
was the father
of Joram
Jorsm
was the father
of
Uzziah
Uzziah
was the father
of
jotnam
Jotham
was the father
of Ahaz
Ahaz
was the fother
of iezekiah
Ilezekiah
war the father
oi llarre"g"h
lflqnslreh
was the father
of A-os
Amol
wes the father
of iogiah
Jorirh
wae the father
of iechoniah
and his brothers
at the time of
the deportation
to Babylon:
After
the deportation
to
Babylon:
Jeehonieh
war the father
of Shealtiel
Sherltiel
wal the father
of Zerubbrbel
84
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Matthew and Luke for the data they did not take from the Old
Testament.
One must straight away note that the male genealogies have
absolutely no relevance to Jesus. Were one to give a genealogy to
Mary's only son, who was without a biological father, it would
have to be the genealogy of his mother Mary.
Here is the text of the Revised Standard Version of the Bible,
1952:
The genealogy according to Matthew is at the beginning of his
Gospel:
"THE BOOK OF THE GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST,
THE SON OF DAVID, THE SON OF ABRAHAM.
Abraham was the father of Isaac
Isaac
was the father of Jacob
. Jacob
was the father of Judah and his brothers
Judah
was the father of Perez and Zerah by Tamar
Perez
was the father of Hezron
Hezron was the father of Ram
Ram
was the father of Amminadab
Amminadab was the father of Nahshon
Nahshon was the father of Salmon
Salmon was the father of Boaz by Rahab
Boaz
was the father of Obed by Ruth
Obed
was the father of Jesse
J.esse
was the father of David the king
David
was the father of Solomon by the wife of Uriah
Solomon was the father of Rehoboam
Rehoboam was the father of Abijah
Abijah was the father of Asa
Asa
was the father of J ehoshaphat
Jehoshaphat was the father of Joram
Joram
was the father of Uzziah
Uzziah was the father of Jotham
Jotham was the father of Ahaz
Ahaz
was the father of Hezekiah
Hezekiah was the father of Manasseh
Man&l8eh was the father of Amos
Amos
was the father of Josiah
Josiah
was the father of Jechoniah and his brothers
at the time of the deportation to Babylon:
After the deportation to Babylon:
Jechoniah was the father of Shealtiel
Shealtiel was the father of Zerubbabel
lTu Gotrrrh
ardModrirn
Sclalrr
E
Zcmbbabel
wer the frther ol Abtud
Abtud
wrr t'lre fethsr of ElieHn
Elilkin
wrr th fether of Alor
Azor
wer the fether ol Zrdok
Zrdok
wer the fether of Achin
Aehln
wer tbe father of Eliud
Eliud
*ar the father of Eleazer
Elerzu
*u the frther of Metthan
Mrtthan
war the father of Jacob
Jscob
wer the father of Jorcph
the hurband of Maty
ol whomJer ur wel bor n, whowar cal l edChr i r t .
So all
the
generations from Abraham
to David
were fourteen
generations, and from David to the
deportation
to Bsbylon
four'
I*o
generations, and from the
deportation
t9_pabylon
to the
Christ
fourtcen
generatiolls".
(Matthew, I, t'17)
Tlre
genealogy
given by Luke
(3,
23-38)
is different
from
Matt;ew. The GJ reproduced
here is from the Revised
Stan-
dard Version of the Bible:
"Jsus,
when
he began his ministry,
was sbout thirty
years of
ege being the son
(as
was supposed) of Josph,
the son of Heli'
tt
"
*o oi Uattttot, the soo of l*tti, the son of Melchi, the son of
Jannei,
the son oi Joseph, the son of Mattathias,
the son of
Atttog, the son of Natrum,
the eon of Esli, the eon of Naggai,
the
soo oi Maath,
the son of Mattathias,
the son of Semein,
the son
of Joseeh, the son sf Joda,
the son of Josnan,
the son of Rhesa'
the son of Zembbabel,
the son of Shealtiel,
the son of Neri, the
son of Melchi, the son of Addi,
the son of cosam,
the son
of
Elmedam,
the
gon
of Er, the son of Joshua,
the son of Eliezer'
the son of Jorim,
the son of Matthat, the son of Levi, the son of
simeon,
the son of Judatr,
ttre son of Joseph,
the son of Jonsm'
the son
of Eliskim,
the son of Melea,
the son of Menna,
the son
of Mattatha,
the son of Nathan,
the son of David,
the son
of
Jesse,
the son of Obed,
the son of Boaz,
the son of Sala,
the son
of Nsh8hon,
tihe son of Amminad*b,
the son of Admin,
the son
of Arni, the
gon
of Hezron, the son of Perez,
the son of Judah'
the sou
of Jacob,
ttre son of Isaac, the son of Abraham,
the son of
Terah,
the son of lr"nor,
the eon of serug,
the son of R-eu, the
son of Peleg,
the son
of Eber, the son of Shelah,
the son of Csinan'
the son
of Arphaxad,
the son of shem,
the son of Noah,
the son
of lra,mech,
th. Bon of Methuselah,
the son of Enoch,
the
son of
85
Zerubbabel
Abilld
EliaJdm
Azor
Zadok
Achim
Eliud
Eleazar
Matthan
Jacob
was the father of Abilld
was the father of EliaJdm
was the father of Azor
was the father of Zadok
was the father of Achim
was the father of Eliud
was the father of Eleazar
was the father of Matthan
was the father of Jacob
was the father of Joseph the husband of Mary
of whom Jesus was born, who was called Christ.
So all the generations from Abraham to David were fourteen
generations, and from David to the deportation to Babylon four-
teen generations, and from the deportation to Babylon to the
Christ fourteen generations". (Matthew, I, 1-17)
The genealogy given by Luke (8, 23-38) is different from
Matthew. The text reproduced here is from the Revised Stan-
dard Version of the Bible:
"Jesus, when he began his ministry, was about thirty years of
age, being the son (as was supposed) of Joseph, the son of Heli,
the son of Matthat, the son of Levi, the son of Melchi, the son of
Jannai, the son of Joseph, the son of Mattathias, the son of
Amos, the SOD of Nahum, the son of Esli, the son of Naggai, the
son of Maath, the son of Mattathias, the son of Semein, the son
of Joseeh, the SOD of Joda, the son of Joanan, the son of Rhesa,
the SOD of Zerubbabel, the son of Shealtiel, the son of Neri, the
son of Melchi, the son of Addi, the son of Cosam, the son of
Elmadam, the son of Er, the son of Joshua, the son of Eliezer,
the son of Jorim, the son of Matthat, the son of Levi, the son of
Simeon, the son of Judah, the son of Joseph, the son of Jonam,
the son of Eliakim, the son of Melea, the son of Menna, the son
of Mattatha, the son of Nathan, the son of David, the son of
Jesse, the son of Obed, the son of Boaz, the son of Sala, the son
of Nahshon, the son of Amminadab, the son of Admin, the son
of Ami, the son of Hezron, the son of Perez, the son of Judah,
the son of J&Cob, the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham, the son of
Terah, the son of Nahor, the son of Serug, the son of Reu, the
son of Peleg, the son of Eber, the son of Shelah, the son of Cainan,
the son of Arphaxad, the son of Shem, the son of Noah, the son
of Lamech, the SOD of Methuselah, the son of Enoch, the son of
t6
lUE EIDI4
THE
QITnAN
AND $CTENCE
Jarcd, the son of Mahalareel,
the
son of ceinen,
the son of Enos
the son of seth the son of Adam, the son of God."
The
gpnealogies
rppsr
moro clearly
when presented
in two
tables, one
showing
the genealogy
beiore Devid
snd the other
rfter him.
GENEALOCY
OF JESUS,
BEFORE
DAVID
According te Urtthsr
Urtthflr
doe! not mention
rny ntns
bsfors
Abrrhln"
Aecordilg
to LuLo
I Adru
2 SGth
I Enor
{ Celnrn
6 trhrlrlccl
0 Jurd
7
Euoch
I Uethurelrh
0 Lrncch
10
Noeh
f 1 Shen
l2 Arphurd
18 Crlnrn
1{
ghGtrh
ftr Ebsr
16 Pclcg
17 Beu
fB
Settg
19 Nrhor
20
Terrh
2l Abrahe,m
AD Inec
28 Jecob
21 Judrb
26 Perez
26 Eezron
27 Ami
?fi Adrnln
29 Anmindrb
80 Nrhrhon
g1
Sdr
82 Boer
88 Obcd
8{ Jcue
gE
Drvld
1 Abnhrn
2 Inec
I Jecob
I Judeh
5 Pcr.sl
6 Eca;r.o,n
7 BrE
8 Ann'inrdab
0 Nrhrhon
10 Srhon
11 Borr
12 Obd
l8 Joso
1l Drvld
88
THE BULE, THE QUI\'AN AND SCIENCE
Jared, the son of Xahalalee), the son of Cainan, the son of Enos.
the son of Seth, the son of Adam, the son of Gad."
The genealogies appear more clearly when presented in two
tables, one showing the genealogy before David and the other
after him.
GENEALOGY OF JESUS, BEFORE DAVID
According to Matthew
Matthew does not mention
an)' name before Abraham.
1 Abraham
2 Isaac
8 Jacob
"
Judah
6 Peru
8 Baron
7 Ram
8 Amminadab
9 Nahllhon
10 Salmon
11 Boas
12 Obed
18 Jeaee
14 Da-.fd
AceordiDtr to Luke
1 Adam
2 Seth
8 Enos
" Caman
6 MahaJaleel
8 Jared
7 Enoch
8 Methu.elah
9 Lamech
10 Noah
11 Shem
12 Arphasad
18 Cainan
14 Shelah
16 Eber
16 Pelel'
17 Rea
18 Serue
19 Neor
20 Terah
21 Abraham
22 Isaac
23 Jaeob
24 Judah
25 Perez
26 Huron
27 Ami
28 Admin
29 Amminadab
30 Nah.hon
31 Sala
32 Bou
33 Obed
34 J....
85 David
st
fTc Gnrylah
crdffiod.rn
Scftnot
GENEAI.oGY
OF JESUS,
AFTER
DAYID
Accordlng
to lfiettber
lt Drvid
16 Solomon
16 Rehoboa'n
1? AbUah
18 Are
19 JehorhePhet
20 Joram
2l Uzzith
22 Jotfian
2g Aher
21 Eezekiah
26 tenarreh
28
Amor
27 Joslch
28 Jechonleh
DePortetion
to BebYlon
29 Shealtiel
g0
Zerubbebel
31
Abiud
82
Eliekim
88 Azor
84 Zedok
85
Achiu
86 Eliud
87
Eleazar
88
Matthan
80 Jrcob
{0
JorePb
41 Jerur
According
to Luti
86 David
86 Nethen
g?
Mettsthr
gB
Mennc
Sg
lfielee
{0 Eliakim
4l Jonem
12 Joreph
48 Juilrb
41 Simeon
{6 Lvi
46 Uatthat
1l Jorlm
48
Eliezer
49 Jorhua
60
Er
61
Elmaden
62 Corem
63 Addi
il Melchi
66 Neri
66
Sheeltiel
67 Zerubbebcl
68 Rheu
69 Josnan
60 Joda
61 Jorech
62, Semein
63 Msttsthier
64 Meeth
6E Neg8:ci
66
Esli
6?
Nehun
68
Amos
69
Mattsthiar
?0 JorePh
?1 Jannai
72 Melchi
?8 LeYi
74
Matthat
76 Heli
76 JosePh
77 Jeeus
n. Coapela and Modern SdMee
87
GENEALOGY OF JESUS, AFTER DAVID
According to Matthew
According to Luke
Ij David
35 David
16 Solomon
86 Nathan
16 Rehoboam
37 Mattatha
17
Abijab
38 Menna
18 Au
89 Melea
19 J ehoshaphat
40 Eliakim
20 Joram
41 Jonam
21 Uzzlah
42 Joseph
22 Jotham
43 Judah
28 Ahu
44 Simeon
24 Hezekiah
46 Levi
26 Manuseb
46 Matthat
26 Amos
47 Jorim
27 Josiah
48 Eliezer
28 Jecboniah
49 JOlhua
60 Er
Deportation to Babylon
51 Elmadam
62 Cosam
29 Shealtiel
63 Addi
30 Zerubbabel
54 Kelchi
81 Abiud
66 Neri
32 Eliakim
66 Shealtiel
33 Azor
67 Zerubbabel
84 Zadok
58 Rhesa
35 Achim
69 Joanan
86 Eliud
60 Joda
37 Eleazar
61 JOleeh
38 Matthan
62 Semein
89 Jacob
63 Kattathial
40 Josepb
64 Maath
41 Jeaul
66 Naggai
66 Esli
67 Nahum
68 Amos
69 Mattathial
70 Joseph
71 Jannai
72 Kelchi
73 Levi
74 Matthat
75 Heli
76 Joseph
77 Jesus
E8
TIrE DIBL4
THE
QUnaN at\tD $crENCE
VARIATIONS
IN
THE
ITIANUSCRIPTS
AND
IN
RELATION
TO THE
OLD TESTAMNWT.
Apart
from
variations
in spelling,
the following
mugt
be
mentioned:
a) Mattheut,a
Goepel
The genealogy
has
disappeared
from
the
cod,eu Bezae
canta_
brigiensis,
a very impo"trt
t- six century
manuscript
in both
Greek
and Latin.
It hag
completery
air"pi*red
from
the
Greek
text
and
arso
a rarge part
of the
Latil
td;.
It may quite
simpry
be
that the first page,
were
lost.
One
must
note
here
the great
liberties
Matthew
has
teken
with the
old
Tegtament.
He rr*r p*d
;;;
the genearosies
for
the sake
of a strange
numericai
a**onstration
(which,
in the
end, he does
not give,
as we shall
-*).
---
b) Luke'e
Gospel
l.-Before
Abraham
I Luke
mentions
Z0 names;
the
Old Tests_
ment
only
mentions
19 (eee
table
otaaam,s
descendants
in
the
ord Testament
section
of this
**tl.
Af;;
iipr,"*"a
(No.
la),
Luke
has added
r
p*"r*
."ir*a
cainan (No.
rB)
,
who is not
mentioned
in Genesis
as trr* ,o' of Arphaxad.
Z'-From
Abraham
to David:
14 to 16 names
are
found
ac_
cording
to the manuscripts.
B.-From
David
to Jesus.
The
most important
variation
is the
cod,eu
Bezae
cantabri.g-
iewis
which
attributes
to Luke
a whimsical
genealogy
taken
from
Matthew
and to which
the
seribe
rr"-laa-d
five
names.
un_
fortunately,
the genearoxgy
of Matthew,s
co*p*r
has
disappeared
from thie manuscript,
sJlhat
comparison
is no ronger possibre.
CruTICAL
EXAilTINATION
OF THE
TEXTS,
we sr* here
faeed
with
two
different genearogies
havin*i
one
essential point
in common,
i.e. they
both;;;,
via Abraham
and
David.
To make
this
examination
easier,-we
shail
separate
the
whole into three
critical
sections:
-From
Adam
to Abrahsm.
-From
Abraham
to David.
-From
Dsvid
to Jesus.
88
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
VARIATIONS IN THE MANUSCRIPTS AND
IN RELATION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Apart from variations in spelling, the following must be
mentioned:
a) Matthew's Gospel
The genealogy has disappeared from the Codex Bezae Canta-
brigiensiB, a very important Six century manuscript in both
Greek and Latin. It has completely disappeared from the Greek
text and also a large part of the Latin text. It may quite simply
be that the first pages were lost.
One must note here the great liberties Matthew has taken
with the Old Testament. He has pared down the genealogies for
the sake of a strange numerical demonstration (which, in the
end, he does not give, as we shall see).
b) Luke's Gospel
I.-Before Abraham: Luke mentions 20 names; the Old Testa-
ment only mentions 19 (see table of Adam's descendants in
the Old Testament section of this work). After Arphaxad
(No. 12), Luke has added a person called Cainan (No. 13),
who is not mentioned in Genesis as the son of Arphaxad.
2.-From Abraham to David: 14 to 16 names are found ac-
cording to the manuscripts.
S.-From David to Jesus.
The most important variation is the Codex Bezae Cantabriu-
iensia which attributes to Luke a whimsical genealogy taken
from Matthew and to which the scribe has added five names. Un-
fortunately, the genealogy of Matthew's Gospel has disappeared
from this manuscript, so that comparison is no longer possible.
CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE TEXTS.
We are here faced with two different genealogies having one
essential point in common, Le. they both pass via Abraham and
David. To make this examination easier, we shall separate the
whole into three critical sections:
-FromAdam to Abraham.
-FromAbraham to David.
-From David to Jesus.
Thc furr,r;h and fuf don Scisrrcc
I. TIu Peadod
frcm
Mam to Abtullwm
Matthew
began
his
genealogy with Abratram
so we are
not
concerned
with
his text
here. Luke alone
provides infotmation
on Abraham's
ancestors
going back to Adam: 20 Ua'mes'
19 of
which sre to be found in Genesis
(chapterg 4' 6 and
ll), as has
elready been ststed.
Is it
possible to believe
that only 19 or 20
generafionE of
human beings
existed
before
Abraham?
The
problem has been
examined
in the discussion
of the Old Testsment.
If one looks
at
the table of Adam's
descendants,
based on Genesis
and
giving
figures
for the time element contained
in the Biblieal
tert' one
can see that roughly nineteen centuries
passed between
man's
sppesrance
on *a*tr and the birth of Abraham.
Today it is esti-
*at*a that Abraham was alive in eirce
1860 B'C' snd it has been
deduced
from this
that the
information
provided by the old
Testament
places man's sppearanee
on earth
at roughly thirty'
eight
centuries B.C. Luke
was obviously
guided by these data for
his Gospel.
He expresses
a blatant untruth
for having eopied
them down and we have alregdy
seen
the decisive
historical argu-
ments
leading to this stetement.
The idea that old Testament
data are unacceptable
in the
present day is duly admitted;
they belong to the
'obsolete'
mate-
iial refe""ea
to by the Second
Vstican Council'
The fact,
however
that the Gospeh
Lke up the same scientifically
incompatible
data
is an extremely
seriour
observation
which msy be used-
to oppos
those
who defend
the historical
accuracy
of the c'ospel
txts.
commentators
have
quickly sensed
this danger.
They try to
g"i round
the difficulty
by saying
that it
i.o
not a complete
genes-
Iogical
tree, that the
evangefis1
has
missed names
out'
They
claim
that this was
done
quite deliberately,
and th*!
his sole
,,intentior,
*""to
establish
ihe broad
lines or essential
elements
of a line of descent
based
on historical
reality."' There
is
nothing
in the texts th;;
permits them to form
this hypothesis'
In the
text
it says
quit. clearly:
A was the father
of B, or B was the
son
of A. For the
part preceding
Abraham
in
particular, the
l . A. Tr i cot , Li t t t eDi ct i onat yo| t heNcwTct t oment ( Pet i t Di ct i onnai r e
du Nouveau
Testament
in
"La
Sainte
Bible",
Descl6e,
Pub' Pcris)
EE
T'M eo.pela lind Modem Scfncs
88
1. The PeriodfromAdamto Abra1IcJm
Matthew began his genealogy with Abraham so we are not
concerned with his text here. Luke alone provides information
on Abraham's ancestors going back to Adam: 20 names, 19 of
which are to be found in Genesis (chapters 4, 5 and 11), as has
already been stated.
Is it possible to believe that only 19 or 20 generations of
human beings existed before Abraham? The problem has been
examined in the discussion of the Old Testament. If one looks at
the table of Adam's descendants, based on Genesis and giving
figures for the time element contained in the Biblical text, one
can see that roughly nineteen centuries passed between man's
appearance on earth and the birth of Abraham. Today it is esti-
mated that Abraham was alive in circa 1850 B.C. and it has been
deduced from this that the information provided by the Old
Testament places man's appearance on earth at roughly thirty
eight centuries B.C. Luke was obviously guided by these data for
his Gospel. He expresses a blatant untruth for having copied
them down and we have already seen the decisive historical argu-
ments leading to this statement.
The idea that Old Testament data are unacceptable in the
present day is duly admitted; they belong to the 'obsolete' mate-
rial referred to by the Second Vatican Council. The fact, however
that the Gospels take up the same scientifically incompatible data
is an extremely serious observation which may be used to oppose
those who defend the historical accuracy of the Gospel texts.
Commentators have quickly sensed this danger. They try to
get round the difficulty by saying that it is not a complete genea-
logical tree, that the evangelist has missed names out. They
claim that this was done quite deliberately, and that his sole
"intention was to establish the broad lines or essential elements
of a line of descent based on historical reality."1 There is nothing
in the texts that permits them to form this hypothesis. In the
text it says quite clearly: A was the father of B, or B was the
son of A. For the part preceding Abraham in particular, the
1. A. Tricot, Little Dictionary of the New Testament (Petit Dietionnaire
du Nouveau Testament in "La Sainte Bible", Deselee, Pub. Paris)
00
THE BIBLE'
THE
QUnAN
AIrtD $CIENCE
vrngelist
draws moreover
on the
old Testament
where
the
gBnealogi'E
&re set out in the following
form:
Tvhen x had lived
?
years,
he beeame-the
fsther
of
y
. . . when
Y had lived
,0
years,
he became
ilre father
of, z. . . .
theru is therefore
no brealc.
The
part
of Jesus's genealogy
according
to Luke,
which pre-
cedes Abraham,
is not seceptabie
in the rt"rrt of modern
knowr-
edgp
2, TIla Pedd
frcm
Ahralnm
Jo Daold.
Eere the
two genealogies
tally (or
almost),
excepting
one
or two name':
the
difference may
be explained
by copieis,
errors.
Does thig
mean
thst the evangehJts
are to be considered
accurate?
History
situetes
David at eircs
1000
B.c.
and Abraham
at
1E00-1850
B.c.: 14 to 16 generations
for roughry
eight
c;uries.
con one
believe
this ? one might
say trrat
ror tnls p*"ioa
trr"
Gospol trts
are et the ve|ry
li;it or ihe admissible.
$,TlrcPort
Drordpeid"
rt is a
great
pity,
but unfortunatery
the texts
no longer
tally at
ell rrten it comes
to establishing
.lo"pt;,
iine from
David,
and
figtrrrtlvely
epcakin&
Jesus's,
folr th"
b"gpI.
_
r-caving
aside the
obvious
falsification
in the
cod,en Beza,e
Canfahrigiewis
concerning
Luke,
let
us now compare
what
the
two
most
venerabre
manurr"ipt.g
have;;tr*":
the cod,en
vati_
ffinw
and
the Cod,eu
Sinaiitiarn.
_
rn
the genea_logy
aceordins
to Luke
42 nomes
are praced
after
Devid (No.
sE)
down
to Je-sus (No.
??). In the genearogy
ac-
eording
to Matthew
rI are mentioned
after
David (No.
14) down
to Jesus (No.
4l).
The number
of (fictitious)
ancestors given
to
JesuE after
David
is therefore
different
in the two
Gospels.
The
namoE themselves
are
different
as well.
This is not
all.
Matthew
tellg
us that he discovered
how
Jesus,s genearogy
rplit up after
Abraham
into
three g,roups
of 14 nurir**;
n.rt
group
from Abraham
to David; second
fro* David
to the de_
portstion
to Babylon;
third from
the
deportation
to Jesus.
His
80
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
evangelist draws moreover on the Old Testament where the
genealogies are set out in the following form:
When X had lived n years, he became the father of Y ... When
Y had lived n years, he became the father of Z....
There is therefore no break.
The part of Jesus's genealogy according to Luke, which pre-
eedes Abraham, is not acceptable in the light of modem knowl-
edge.
J. The PeriodfromAbrahamto Daoid.
Here the two genealogies tally (or almost), excepting one
or two names: the difference may be explained by copiers' errors.
Does this mean that the evangelists are to be considered
accurate?
History situates David at circa 1000 B.C. and Abraham at
1800-1860 B.C.: 14 to 16 generations for roughly eight centuries.
Can one believe this? One might say that for this period the
Gospel texts are at the very limit of the admissible.
3. The Poat-DGoid Period.
It is a great pity, but unfortunately the texts no longer tally at
aU when it comes to establishing Joseph's line from David, and
figuratively speaking, Jesus's, for the Gospel.
Leaving aside the obvious falsification in the Codex Bezae
Ca.'llttJ,brigienris concerning Luke, let us now compare what the
two most venerable manuscripts have to offer: the Codex Vati-
eGn. and the Codez Sinaiticus.
In the genealogy according to Luke 42 names are placed after
David (No. 35) down to Jesus (No. 77). In the genealogy ac-
cording to Matthew 27 are mentioned after David (No. 14) down
to Jesus (No. 41). The number of (fictitious) ancestors given to
Jesus after David is therefore different in the two Gospels. The
names themselves are different as well.
This is not all.
Matthew tens us that he discovered how Jesus's genealogy
split up after Abraham into three groups of 14 names; first
group from Abraham to David; second from David to the de-
portation to Babylon; third from the deportation to Jesus. His
fir.Gplryrrbordilodrlruscftilcc
gt
tnrt does indeed contain 14 names in the first two
groups' but
in the third-from
the deportation
to Jesus-there
are only 18
end not 14, as expected; the table shows
that Sheatthiel
is No' 29
and Jesus No. 41. There is no variation
of Matthew that
gives 14
nemes for this
group.
To eneble himslf to have 14 nemes in his second
group'
Matthew
takes veIT
great liberties with the Old Testament
text.
The ns.mes of the first six descendants
of David
(No. 15 to 20)
tally with the data in the old Testament,
but the three descend-
rnts
of Ioram
(No.
20),
giiven in chronicles
II of the Bible
as
Ahmislt, Joash,
and Amaziah, are suppressed
by Matthew.
Else-
wherg Jechoniah
(No.
28) is for Matthew the son
of Josiah'
although Kings II of the Bible tells us thst Eliakim
comes be-
tween Josiah and Jechoniah.
It mey be seen from this that Matthew
has altered the
genea-
logical linee in the Old Testament to
present an artificial
group
of fn Dames between Dsvid and the deportation
to Babylon.
fitere is also
the fact that on name is missing
in Matthew's
thiril
group, so that none of the
present-day Gospel
texts eontains
the 4? names mentioned. What is surprising is not so much the
existence of the omission itself
(explained perhaps by a very old
ecribe's error that was subsequently
perpetuated), but the almost
total
gilenee
of commentstors on this subject.
How can one miss
thie omission? W. Trilling breaks this
pious conspiracy of silence
in his book
The Gospel,
Aecording
to Matthew
(L'Evangile selon
Matthieu)' by devoting one line to it. It is a fact whieh is of con-
siderable importance
because the commentators
of this Gospel,
lncluding
the Eeumenicsl Translation
and Csrdinal
Dani$lou
among:
oth*"r, stress the
great symbolical
significance
of Matth-
ew' ssx14' Thi ssi gni f i caneewagsoi mpor t ant f or t heevan-
gelist that he suppressed
Biblical
n&mes
without hesitation
to
arrive at his numerical demonstration.
To make this hold
good, commentators
will, no doubt, construct
Eome reessuring statments
of an apologetic
nature,
justifying
the fsct that ttt*"t have been craftily
suppressed
and carefully
avoiding the omission
that undermines
the whole
point of what
the evangelist
wss trying to show.
1. Pub. Deecl6e, coll.
tParole
et Pri&re', Paril'
91
text does indeed contain 14 names in the first two groups, but
in the third-from the deportation to Jesus-there are only 13
and not 14, as expected; the table shows that Shealthiel is No. 29
and Jesus No. 41. There is no variation of Matthew that gives 14
names for this group.
To enable himself to have 14 names in his second group,
Matthew takes very great liberties with the Old Testament text.
The names of the first six descendants of David (No. 15 to 20)
tally with the data in the Old Testament, but the three descend-
ants of Ioram (No. 20), given in Chronicles II of the Bible as
Ahaziah, Joash, and Amaziah, are suppressed by Matthew. Else-
where, Jechoniah (No. 28) is for Matthew the son of Josiah,
although Kings II of the Bible tells us that Eliakim comes be-
tween Josiah and J echoniah.
It may be seen from this that Matthew has altered the genea-
logical lines in the Old Testament to present an artificial group
of 14 names between David and the deportation to Babylon.
There is also the fact that one name is missing in Matthew's
third group, so that none of the present-day Gospel texts contains
the 42 names mentioned. What is surprising is not so much the
existence of the omission itself (explained perhaps by a very old
aeribe's error that was subsequently perpetuated), but the almost
total silence of commentators on this subject. How can ODe miss
this omission? W. Trilling breaks this pious conspiracy of silence
in his book The Gospel According to Matthew (L'Evangile selon
Katthieu) 1 by devoting one line to it. It is a fact which is of con-
siderable importance because the commentators of this Gospel,
including the Ecumenical Translation and Cardinal Danielou
among others, stress the great symbolical significance of Matth-
ew's S x 14. This significance was so important for the evan-
gelist that he suppressed Biblical names without hesitation to
arrive at his numerical demonstration.
To make this hold good, commentators will, no doubt, construct
some reassuring statements of an apologetic nature, justifying
the fact that names have been craftily suppressed and carefully
avoiding the omission that undermines the whole point of what
the evangelist was trying to show.
1. Pub. Deael'e, colI. 'Parole et Priere', Paria.
9g
TIIE BIELE, TIIE
QUn'AN
AnrD SCIENCE
COMMENTANIES
OF MODENN EXPENTS IN EXEGESIS.
In his book rhe
Gospels of child,Iwod
(196?)
Les Evangiles de
I'Enfance)
1,
Cardinal Danidlou invests Matthew's
,numerical
schematisation'
with a symbolic vslue of
paramount
importance
since it is this that establishes Jesus's ancestry, whieh is asserted
also by Luke. For him Luke and Matthew are
'historiang'
who
have completed
their
'historicsl
investigations',
and the
,gene-
alogy' has been
'taken
down from the arehives of Jesus family'.
It must be added here that the archives have never been found.r
Cardinal Danidlou condemns out of hand
anyone who criticizes
his point
of view:
"It is the Western mentality,
ignorance of
Judeo-Christianity
and the absenee of a Semitic outlook that have
made so many experts in exegesis loose their way when inter-
preting
the Gospels. They have projected
their own categories
onto them: (sic)
Platonie, cartesian,
Hegelian and Heidegger-
ian. It is easy to see why everything
is mixed up in their minds."
Plato, Descartes,
Hegel and Heidegger
obviously have nothing
to do with the critieal attitude one may have towsrds these whim-
sical genealogies.
In his search for the meaning
of Matthew's
B x 14, the author
expands
on strange suppositions.
They are worth
quoting
here:
"what may be meant are the common ten weeks of the ]ewish
Apocalypse. The first three, eorresponding
to the time from
Adam to Abraham,
would have been subtracted;
seven weeke
of
years
would then
remain, the first six would correspond
to the
six times seven representing
the three groups
of fourteen and
leaving the seventh,
started by Christ with whom the seventh age
of the world begins." Explanations
like this are beyond comment !
The commentators
of the Ecumenieal Trawtation-Neut
Testo-
vvvsnf,-a,lso give
us numerical variations of an apologetic nature
which are equally unexpected:
For Mat t hew' sB X 14:
Pub. Edi ti ons du Seui l , Pari g.
Although the author &ssures ue that he knows of the existnce of thec
supposed family archives from the Ecclesiaetic rristory by Euaebiua
Pamphili (about
whose respectability
much could be said), it is dificult
to see why Jesus's family should have two genealogical
treer that were
necessarily different
just
because each of the two so-called
.higtorienl'
g:ave
a
genealogy
substantially difrerent from the other coneerning the
names of those who figure among Jesus's encestors.
1.
2.
92 THE BOLE, THE QUR-AN AND SCIENCE
COMMENTARIES OF MODERN EXPERTS IN EXEGESIS.
In his book The Gospels of Childhood (1967) Les Evangiles de
l'Enfance) 1, Cardinal Danielou invests Matthew's 'numerical
schematisation' with a symbolic value of paramount importance
since it is this that establishes Jesus's ancestry, which is asserted
also by Luke. For him Luke and Matthew are 'historians' who
have completed their 'historical investigations', and the 'gene-
alogy' has been 'taken down from the archives of Jesus family'.
It must be added here that the archives have never been found.'
Cardinal Danielou condemns out of hand anyone who criticizes
his point of view: ult is the Western mentality, ignorance of
Judeo-Christianity and the absence of a Semitic outlook that have
made so many experts in exegesis loose their way when inter-
preting the Gospels. They have projected their own categories
onto them: (sic) Platonic, Cartesian, Hegelian and Heidegger-
ian. It is easy to see why everything is mixed up in their minds."
Plato, Descartes, Hegel and Heidegger obviously have nothing
to do with the critical attitude one may have towards these whim-
sical genealogies.
In his search for the meaning of Matthew's 3 x 14, the author
expands on strange suppositions. They are worth quoting here:
uWhat may be meant are the common ten weeks of the Jewish
Apocalypse. The first three, corresponding to the time from
Adam to Abraham, would have been subtracted; seven weeks of
years would then remain, the first six would correspond to the
six times seven representing the three groups of fourteen and
leaving the seventh, started by Christ with whom the seventh age
of the world begins." Explanations like this are beyond comment!
The commentators of the gcumenical Translation-New Testa-
ment-also give us numerical variations of an apologetic nature
which are equally unexpected:
For Matthew's 3 X 14:
1. Pub. Editions du Seuil, Paris.
2. Although the author assures us that he knows of the existence of thel:5e
supposed family archives from the Ecclesiastic History by Eusebius
Pamphili (about whose respectability much could be said), it is difficult
to see why Jesus's family should have two genealogical trees that were.
necessarily different just because each of the two so-called 'historians'
gave a genealogy substantially different from the other concerning the
names of those who figure among Jesus's ancestors.
Tlw G,ocpeh ardffi&rnscterlw,e
03
a) 14 could be the numerical total of the B consonants in the
Hebrew name Dsvid
(D:4,
V:6), hence 4+6*4:14.
b) 3
x 14
-
6 x 7 and
"Jesus
came at the end of the sixth week
of Holy history beginning with Abraham."
For Luke, this translation
gives
77 names from Adam to Jesus,
allowing the number 7 to come up again, this time by dividing
77 by 7
(? X 1l :
??). It is
quite
apparent that for Luke the
numher of variations where words are added or subtracted is
such that a tist af.7T names is completely artificial. It does how-
ever have the advantage of adapting itself to these numerical
g8mes.
The
genealogies of Jesus as they appear in the Gospels may
perhaps be the subject that has led Christian
commentators'to
perform their most characteristic feats of dialectic acrobaties,
on
par indeed with
Luke's and Matthew's imagination.
The Go8pez, and Modem SciefICfI
93
a) 14 could be the numerical total of the 3 consonants in the
Hebrew name David (D=4, V=6) , hence 4+6+4=14.
b) 8 X 14 = 6 X 7 and "Jesus came at the end of the sixth week
of Holy history beginning with Abraham."
For Luke, this translation gives 77 names from Adam to Jesus,
allowing the number 7 to come up again, this time by dividing
77 by 7 (7 X 11 = 77). It is quite apparent that for Luke the
number of variations where words are added or subtracted is
such that a list of 77 names is completely artificial. It does how-
ever have the advantage of adapting itself to these numerical
games.
The genealogies of Jesus as they appear in the Gospels may
perhaps be the subject that has led Christian commentators' to
perform their most characteristic feats of dialectic acrobatics,
on par indeed with Luke's and Matthew's imagination.
Contradiclions and
l-probabilities
in the
l)escriptiorrs.
Each of the four
Gospels contains a large number of descrip-
tions of events that may be unique to one single Gospel or com-
mon to several if not all of them. When they are unique to one
Gospel, they sometimes raise serious
problems.
Thus, in the case
of an event of considerable importance, it is surprising to find
the event mentioned by only one evangelist; Jesus's Ascension
into heaven on the day of Resurrection, for example. Elsewhere,
numerous events are differently
described-sometimes very dif-
fently indeed-by
two or more evangelists.
Christians are very
often astonished at the existence of such contradictions between
the Gospels-if they ever discover them. This is because they
have been repeatedly told in tones of the
greatest
assurance that
the New Testament authors were the eyewitnesses of the events
they describe !
Some of these disturbing improbabilities and contradictions
have been shown in
previous
chapters. It is however the later
events of Jesus's life in partieular,
along with the events follow-
ing the Passion, that form the subject of varying or contradictory
descriptions.
DESCN/?flOilS OF THE PASSIOff
Father Roguet himself notes that Passover is
placed
at differ-
ent times in relation to Jesus's Last Supper with IIis disciples in
g4
Conl.. i ~ l i o n s and
Irnp..obabililies in the
()Es.:..iplions.
Each of the four Gospels contains a large number of descrip-
tions of events that may be unique to one single Gospel or com-
mon to several if not all of them. When they are unique to one
Gospel, they sometimes raise serious problems. Thus, in the case
of an event of considerable importance, it is surprising to find
the event mentioned by only one evangelist ; Jesus's Ascension
into heaven on the day of Resurrection, for example. Elsewhere,
numerous events are differently described-sometimes very dif-
fently indeed-by two or more evangelists. Christians are very
often astonished at the existence of such contradictions between
the Gospels-if they ever discover them. This is because they
have been repeatedly told in tones of the greatest assurance that
the New Testament authors were the eyewitnesses of the events
they describe !
Some of these disturbing improbabilities and contradictions
have been shown in previous chapters. It is however the later
events of Jesus's life in particular, along with the events follow-
ing the Passion, that form the subject of varying or contradictory
descriptions.
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PASSION
Father Roguet himself notes that Passover is placed at differ-
ent times in relation to Jesus's Last Supper with His disciples in
94
Conttdictlotrt atdlmptob&ilttiu
intlp Dermiqtions
05
the Synoptic Gospels
and John's Gospel. John
places the Last
Supper
'before
the Passover celebrations' and the other three
evangelists
place it during the celebrations
themselves. Obvious
improbabilities
emerge from this divergence: a certain episode
becomes impossible because of the
position of Passover in relation
to it. lVhen one knows the importance it had in the Jewish liturgy
and the importanee of the meal where Jesus bids farewell to his
disciples, how is it
possible to believe that the memory of one
event in relation to the other could have faded to such an extent
in the trsdition
recorded later by the evangelists?
On a more
general level, the descriptions of the Passion differ
from one evangelist to another, and more
partieularly between
John and the first three Gospels.
The Last Supper and
the Pas-
sion in John's Gospel are both very long, twice as long as in
Mark and Luke, and roughly one snd a half times as long as
Matthew's text. John records a very long speech of Jesus to His
disciples which takes up four chapters
(14
to 17) of his Gospel.
During this erowning speeeh, Jesus snnounees thst He will leave
His last instructions
and
gives
them His last spiritual testament.
There is no trace of this in the other Gospels. The same
process
can work the other way however; Matthew, Luke and Mark all
relate Jesus's
prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane,
but John does
not mention it.
TOHI\FS
G;OSPEL DOES NOjr DESCNIBE
THE
INSTITA?ION OF THE EACHARIST.
The most important fact that strikes the reader of the Passion
in John's Gospel
is that he makes absolutely no reference to the
institution of the Eucharist during the Last Supper
of Jesus
with His Apostles.
There is not a single Christian who does not know the icon-
ography of the Last Supper,
where Jesus is for the last time
seated among
His Apostles at table. The world's
greatest painters
have always
represented this final
gathering with John sitting
near Jesus, John
whom we are accustomed
to considering as the
author of the Gospel
bearing fhat name,
However astonishing
it may appear
to rnany, the majority of
specialists do not consider John to have been the author of the
ContTtJdictiona and Improbabilllie, in the DeacriptiOfll 95
the Synoptic Gospels and John's Gospel. John places the Last
Supper 'before the Passover celebrations' and the other three
evangelists place it during the celebrations themselves. Obvious
improbabilities emerge from this divergence: a certain episode
becomes impossible because of the position of Passover in relation
to it. When one knows the importance it had in the Jewish liturgy
and the importance of the meal where Jesus bids farewell to his
disciples, how is it possible to believe that the memory of one
event in relation to the other could have faded to such an extent
in the tradition recorded later by the evangelists?
On a more general level, the descriptions of the Passion differ
from one evangelist to another, and more particularly between
John and the first three Gospels. The Last Supper and the Pas-
sion in John's Gospel are both very long, twice as long as in
Mark and Luke, and roughly one and a half times as long as
Matthew's text. John records a very long speech of Jesus to His
disciples which takes up four chapters (14 to 17) of his Gospel.
During this erowning speech, Jesus announces that He will leave
His last instructions and gives them His last spiritual testament.
There is no trace of this in the other Gospels. The same process
can work the other way however; Matthew, Luke and Mark all
relate Jesus's prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, but John does
not mention it.
JOHNS GOSPEL DOES NOT DESCRIBE THE
INSTITUTION OF THE EUCHARIST.
The most important fact that strikes the reader of the Passion
in John's Gospel is that he makes absolutely no reference to the
institution of the Eucharist during the Last Supper of Jesus
with His Apostles.
There is not a single Christian who does not know the icon-
ography of the Last Supper, where Jesus is for the last time
seated among His Apostles at table. The world's greatest painters
have always represented this final gathering with John sitting
near Jesus, John whom we are accustomed to considering as the
author of the Gospel bearing fuat name.
However astonishing it may appear to many, the majority of
specialists do not consider John to have been the author of the
90
IIIE EIBLF" TrrE
QUR'AN
AND SCTENCE
fourth bospel, nor does the latter mention the institution of the
Eucharist. The consecration of the bread and wine, which be-
come the body and blood of Jesus, is the most essential act of
the Christian liturgy. The other evsngelists refer to it, even if
they do so in differing terms, a$ we have noted above. John does
noLsay anything about it. The four evangelists' descriptions have
only two single points
in common: the
prediction
of
peter's
de-
nial and of the betrayal by one of the Aposiles
(Judas
Iscariot is
only actually named
in Matthew and John). John's description
is the only one which refers
to Jesus washing his disciples'
feet at the beginning of the meal.
How can this omission in John's Gospel be explained?
rf one reasons
objectively,
the hypothesis that springs immedi-
ately to mind (always
supposing the story as told by the other
three evangelists
is exact) is that a
passage
of John's
Gospel
relatitg the said episode was lost. This is not the conclusion
arrived at by Christian commentators.
Let us now examine
some of the positions
they have adopted.
In his Little Di,cti,onara
of the Neus Testament (petit
Dic-
tionnaire
du Nouveau Testament)
A. Tricot makes the following
entry under Last
Supper
(C6ne)
:
.,Last
meal Jesus
partook
of
with the Twelve
Disciples
during which he instituted the Euchar-
ist. It is described
in the synoptic Gospers" (references
to Matth-
ew, Mark and Luke).
,..
. . and the fourth Gospel gives
us further
details" (references
to John). In his entry on the Eucharist
(Eueharistie),
the same author
writes the fottowing:
,,The
insti-
tution
of the Eueharist
is briefly related in the first three Gos-
pels:
it was an extremely important part
of the Apostolic system
of religious instruction.
saint John has added an indispensable
complement to these brief descriptions in his account oi Jesus's
speech on the bread of life (6,
82-68)." The commentator conse-
quently
fails to mention that John does not describe Jesus's in-
titution of the Eucharist. The alrthor speaks of
.complementary
details', but they are not complementary
to the inJtitution of
the Eucharist (he
basically describes the ceremony of the wash-
ing of the Apostles' feet). The commentator
speaks of the
,bread
of life', but it is Jesus's reference (quite
separate from the Last
Suppe) to Godls daily gift
of manua in the wilderness at the
time of the Jews' exodus led by Moses.
John is the only one of
98
TIlE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
fourth Gospel, nor does the latter mention the institution of the
Eucharist. The consecration of the bread and wine, which be-
come the body and blood of Jesus, is the most essential act of
the Christian liturgy. The other evangelists refer to it, even if
they do so in differing terms, as we have noted above. John does
not say anything about it. The four evangelists' descriptions have
only two single points in common: the prediction of Peter's de-
nial and of the betrayal by one of the Apostles (Judas Iscariot is
only actualIy named in Matthew and John). John's description
is the only one which refers to Jesus washing his disciples'
feet at the beginning of the meal.
How can this omission in John's Gospel be explained?
If one reasons objectively, the hypothesis that springs immedi-
ately to mind (always supposing the story as told by the other
three evangelists is exact) is that a passage of John's Gospel
relating the said episode was lost. This is not the conclusion
arrived at by Christian commentators.
Let us now examine some of the positions they have adopted.
In his Little Dictionary 0/ the New Testament (Petit Dic-
tionnaire du Nouveau Testament) A. Tricot makes the following
entry under Last Supper (Cime): "Last meal Jesus partook of
with the Twelve Disciples during which he instituted the Euchar-
ist. It is describedin the Synoptic Gospels" (references to Matth-
ew, Mark and Luke). "... and the fourth Gospel gives us further
details" (references to John). In his entry on the Eucharist
(Eucharistie), the same author writes the following: "The insti-
tution of the Eucharist is briefly related in the first three Gos-
pels: it was an extremely important part of the Apostolic system
of religious instruction. Saint John has added an indispensable
complement to these brief descriptions in his account of Jesus's
speech on the bread of life (6, 32-58)." The commentator conse-
quently fails to mention that John does not describe Jesus's in-
titution of the Eucharist. The apthor speaks of 'complementary
details', but they are not complementary to the institution of
the Eucharist (he basically describes the ceremony of the wash-
ing of the Apostles' feet). The commentator speaks of the 'bread
of life', but it is Jesus's reference (quite separate from the Last
Suppt!r) to God's daily gift of manna in the wilderness at the
time of the Jews' exodus led by Moses. John is the only one of
Crn/r'rudlfctfrlnt odlmpohabilitir;t
in rtu Derctiptiotu
97
the evangelists who records this allusion. In the following
pass-
age of his Gospel, John does, of course, mention Jesus's
reference
to the Eucharist in the form of s digression on the bread, but no
other evangelist speaks of this episode.
One is surprised therefore both by John's silence on what the
other three evangelists
relate and their silence on what, accord-
ing to John, Jesus is said to have
predicted.
The commentetors of the Eunnenical Translation of the Bible,
New Teetament, do actually acknowledge this omission in John's
Gospel. This is the explanation they come up with to account
for
the fgct that the description of the institution of the Eucharist
is missing:
"fn
general,
John is not very interested in the tradi-
tions snd institutions of a bygone Israel. This may have dis-
suaded him from showing the establishment
of the Eucharist in
the Possover liturglp". Are we seriously to believe that it was a
laek of interest in the Jewish Passover liturgy that led John
not
to deseribe the institution of the most fundamental act in the
liturgy of the new religion ?
The experts in
-exegesis are so embarrassed by the
prohlem
thst theologians rack their brains to find
prefigurations or equiv-
alents of the Eucharist in episodes of Jesus's life reeorded by
John. O. Culmann for example, in his book, The I:'leu Testament
(Lc
Nouveau Testament), states that
"the
changing of the water
into wine and the feeding of the five thousand
prefigure the
sacrament of the Last Supper
(the'Eucharist')". It is to be re-
membered that the water was changed into wine because the
latter had failed at a wedding in Cana.
(This
was Jesus's
first
miracle, described by John in chapter 2, 1-12. He is the only
evangelist to do so). In the case of the feeding of the five thou-
sand, this wss the number of
peoBle who were fed on 5 barley
loaves that were miraculously multiplied. When describing these
events, John makes no special comment, and the
parallel exists
only in the mind of this expert in exegesis. One can no more
understand the reasoning behind the
parallel he draws than
his
view thst the curing of a
paralized man and of a man born blind
'predict
the baptism' and that
'the
water and blood issuing from
Jegus'g side after his death unite in a single fact' a reference
to
both baptism and the Eucharist.
COfllrtulidionl tmtIlmprobcJbililie, in the De,cri"Uoru 91
the evangelists who records this allusion. In the following pass-
age of his Gospel, John does, of course, mention Jesus's reference
to the Eucharist in the form of a digression on the bread, but no
other evangelist speaks of this episode.
One is surprised therefore both by John's silence on what the
other three evangelists relate and their silence on what, accord-
ing to John, Jesus is said to have predicted.
The commentators of the Ecumenical Translation of the Bible,
New Testament, do actually acknowledge this omission in John's
Gospel. This is the explanation they come up with to account for
the fact that the description of the institution of the Eucharist
is missing: HIn general, John is not very interested in the tradi-
tions and institutions of a bygone Israel. This may have dis-
suaded him from showing the establishment of the Eucharist in
the Passover liturgy". Are we seriously to believe that it was a
lack of interest in the Jewish Passover liturgy that led John not
to describe the institution of the most fundamental act in the
Iiturgy of the new religion?
The experts in .exegesis are so embarrassed by the problem
that theologians rack their brains to find prefigurations or equiv-
alents of the Eucharist in episodes of Jesus's life recorded by
John. O. Culmann for example, in his book, The New Testament
(Le Nouveau Testament), states that "the changing of the water
into wine and the feeding of the five thousand prefigure the
sacrament of the Last Supper (the 'Eucharist')". It is to be re-
membered that the water was changed into wine because the
latter had failed at a wedding in Cana. (This was Jesus's first
miracle, described by John in chapter 2, 1-12. He is the only
evangelist to do so). In the case of the feeding of the five thou-
sand, this was the number of people who were fed on 5 barley
loaves that were miraculously multiplied. When describing these
events, John makes no special comment, and the parallel exists
only in the mind of this expert in exegesis. One can no more
understand the reasoning behind the parallel he draws than his
view that the curing of a paralized man and of a man born blind
'predict the baptism' and that 'the water and blood issuing from
Jesus's side after his ~ t unite in a single fact' a reference to
both baptism and the Eucharist.
98
THE BIBLF.' THE
QUn
AN AND SCTENCE
Another
parallel
drawn by the same expert in exegesis
con-
concerning the Eueharist
is
quoted
by Father Roguet in his book
Initintion to the
Gospel
(Initiation
i I'Evangile).
,,Some
theo-
logians, such as osear Culmann, see in the description of the
washing of the feet before the Last Supper a symbolical equiva-
lent to the institution of the Eucharist
. . ."
It is difficult to see the cogency of all the
parallels
that com-
mentators have invented
to help people
accept more readily the
most disconcerting omission in John's Gospel.
APPEANAIVCES
OF
JESU$
ftAISED FnoM THE DEILD.
A
prime
example of imagination
at work in a description has
already been given
in the portrayal
of the abnormal phenomena
said to have aecompanied
Jesus's death given
in Matfhew's Gos-
pel.
The events that followed the Resurrection provided
material
for contradictory
and even absurd descriptions on the
part
of all
the evangelists.
Father Boguet in his Ini.tiati,on to the
Gospel
(Initiation
e
I'Evangile), page
182, provides
exampres of the confusion,
dis-
order and contradiction
reigning
in these
writings:
"The list of women who came to the tomb is not exacfly the
same in each
of the three Synoptic
Gospels. In John only one
woman came: Mary Megdalene.
She speakb in the plural
how-
ever, as if she were accompanied:
'we
do not know where they
have laid him.' In Matthew the Angel predicts
to the women,that
they will see Jesus in Galilee. A few moments later however,
Jesus
joins
them beside the tomb. Luke probably
sensed this
difficulty and altered the source a litile. The Angel says:
,.Re-
member how he told
you,
while he was still in Galilee . .' rn
faet, Luke only actually refers to three appearances
. . ."-..Jsfun
plaees
two appearances at an interval of one week in the upper
room at Jerusalem and the third beside the lake, in Galilee there-
fore. Matthew records
only one appearance
in Galilee.,' The
commentator excludes from
this examination
the last section of
Mark's Gospel concerning the eppearances because he believes
this was
'probably
written by another hand'.
AII these facts contradict the mention bf J"*u*'s appearances,
contained in Paul's First Letter to the corinthians (18,
b-?), to
98
THE BmLE, THE QURAN AND SCIENCE
Another parallel drawn by the same expert in exegesis con-
concerning the Eucharist is quoted by Father Roguet in his book
Initiation to the Gospel (Initiation a l'Evangile). "Some theo-
logians, such as Oscar Culmann, see in the description of the
washing of the feet before the Last Supper a symbolical equiva-
lent to the institution of the Eucharist ..."
It is difficult to see the cogency of all the parallels that com-
mentators have invented to help people accept more readily the
most disconcerting omission in John's Gospel.
APPEARANCES OF JESUS RAISED FROM THE DEAD.
A prime example of imagination at work in a description has
already been given in the portrayal of the abnormal phenomena
said to have accompanied Jesus's death given in Matthew's Gos-
pel. The events that followed the Resurrection provided material
for contradictory and even absurd descriptions on the part of all
the evangelists.
Father Roguet in his Initiation to the Gospel (Initiation a
I'Evangile), page 182, provides examples of the confusion, dis-
order and contradiction reigning in these writings:
"The list of women who came to the tomb is not exactly the
same in each of the three Synoptic Gospels. In John only one
woman came: Mary M&gdalene. She speak'S in the plural how-
ever, as if she were accompanied: 'we do not know where they
have laid him.' In Matthew the Angel predicts to the women. that
they will see Jesus in Galilee. A few moments later however,
Jesus joins them beside the tomb. Luke probably sensed this
difficulty and altered the source a little. The Angel says: "Re-
member how he told you, while he was still in Galilee . . .' In
fact, Luke only actually refers to three appearances ..."-"John
places two appearances at an interval of one week in the upper
room at Jerusalem and the third beside the lake, in Galilee there-
fore. Matthew records only one appearance in Galilee." The
commentator excludes from this examination the last section of
Mark's Gospel concerning the appearances because he believes
this was 'probably written by another hand'.
All these facts contradict the mention of Jesus's appearances,
contained in Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians (15, 5-7), to
Confiadictiont
atd Imptobabilitiec
in the Dercfiptiow
gg
more than
five hundred
people at once, to James,
to all the
Apostles and' of course,
to Paul himself.
After this, it is surprising
therefore
to find that Father
Roguet
stiematizes,
in the same book,
the
'grandiloquent
and
puerile
phantasms of certain Apocrypha' when
talking of the Besurrec-
iion. Surely these
terms are
perfeotly appropriate
to Matthew
and Paul themselves:
they are indeed in complete
contradiction
with the other Apostles
on the subiect of the appearances
of
Jesus raised from the dead.
Apart from this, there is a contradiction
between
Luke's de-
seription,
in the Acts of the Apostles, of Jesus's
appearance
to
paui
and what Paul himself suecinctly
tells us of it. This
has led
Father
Kannengiesser
in his book, Faith in tft.e Resuryection,
Resu.ITecti,on
of Faittt,
(Foi
en la R6surrection,
R{surrection
de la Foi)
,
Lg'l4, to stress that Paul, who was
'the
sole eyewitness
of Christ's resurrection,
whose voice comes directly
to us from
his writings', never speaks of his
personal encounter
with
Him
Who was raised from the dead-'. . . except for three extremely
discreet references . . .'-'[s refrains moreover from deseribing
it.'
The eontradiction between Paul, who was the sole
eyewitness
but is dubious, and the Gospels
is
quite
obvious.
O. Culmsnn
in his book, The New Testament
(Le
Nouveau
Testament), notes the contradictions
between Luke and Matthew'
The first situstes Jesus's appearances
in Judea,
the second
in
Galilee.
One should also remember the Luke-John
contradiction'
John
(21,
1-14)
relates an episode in which Jesus
raised
from
the dead Bppears to the fishermen beside the $ea of Tiberias;
they subsequently
catch so many fish that they
are unable to
bring them all in. This is nothing other than a repetition
of the
miracle catch of fish episode which took
place at the same spot
and was also described by Luke
(6,
1-11)' as an event
of Jesus's
life.
When talking
of these appearances,
Father Roguet
assures
us in his book thst
'their
disjointed,
blurred and
disordered
character
inspires confidence'
because
all these facts
go to show
1.
.No
other New Testament
author can claim that distirrction"
he notes'
Contradictiona tJntllmprobtJbilitie, ira the De,cnptioru 99
more than five hundred people at once, to James, to all the
Apostles and, of course, to Paul himself.
After this, it is surprising therefore to find that Father Roguet
stigmatizes, in the same book, the 'grandiloquent and puerile
phantasms of certain Apocrypha' when talking of the Resurrec-
tion. Surely these terms are perfectly appropriate to Matthew
and Paul themselves: they are indeed in complete contradiction
with the other Apostles on the subject of the appearances of
Jesus raised from the dead.
Apart from this, there is a contradiction between Luke's de-
scription, in the Acts of the Apostles, of Jesus's appearance to
Paul and what Paul himself succinctly tells us of it. This has led
Father Kannengiesser in his book, Faith in the Resurrection,
Resurrection of Faith (Foi en la Resurrection, Resurrection
de la Foi), 1974, to stress that Paul, who was 'the sole eyewitness
of Christ's resurrection, whose voice comes directly to us from
his writings!, never speaks of his personal encounter with Him
Who was raised from the dead-'... except for three extremely
discreet references ...'-'he refrains moreover from describing
it.'
The contradiction between Paul, who was the sole eyewitness
but is dubious, and the Gospels is quite obvious.
O. Culmann in his book, The New Testament (Le Nouveau
Testament), notes the contradictions between Luke and Matthew.
The first situates Jesus's appearances in Judea, the second in
Galilee.
One should also remember the Luke-John contradiction.
John (21, 1-14) relates an episode in which Jesus raised from
the dead appears to the fishermen beside the Sea of Tiberias;
they subsequently catch so many fish that they are unable to
bring them all in. This is nothing other than a repetition of the
miracle catch of fish episode which took place at the same spot
and was also described by Luke (5,1-11), as an event of Jesus's
life.
When talking of these appearances, Father Roguet assures
us in his book that 'their disjointed, blurred and disordered
character inspires confidence' because all these facts go to show
1. 'No other New Testament author can claim that distil.dion', he notes.
l0o
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCTENCE
that there was no connivance
between
the evangelists',
other-
wise they would
definitely have co-ordinated
their stories. This
is indeed a strange line of argument.
In actual fact, they could
all have recorded,
with comprete
sincerity,
tr.aditions
of the com-
muni ti es whi ch (unknown
to them)
al l contai ned
el ements
of
fantasy. This hypothesis
in unavoidable
when one is faced with
so many contradictions
and improbabilities
in the description
of
of events.
ASC^ENSIOil
OF
tEsus
contradictions
are present
until the very
end of the descrip-
tions because
neither
John nor Matthew
""i""
to Jesus's Ascen-
sion. Mark and Luke are the onry one to speak of it.
-
For Mark (16,
19),
Jesus was' tak.n
up i nto heaven,
and sat
down at the risht
hand
of God' without
"ny
p"".ise
date
being
given
in relation
to His Resurrection.
rt must however
be noted
that the final passage
of Mark
containing
this sentence
is, for
Father
Roguet,
an
'invented'
text, althoug:h
for the church it is
csnonic !
There remains
Luke,
the onry evangerist
to provide
an undis-
puted
text of the Ascension
episode
iZl,
Of
),
,he
parted
from
them2
and was carried
up into
heaven'.
Tire evangerist praces
the
event at the end of the description
of the Resurrection
and
ap-
pearance
to the eleven
Aposiles:
the details
of the Gospel
de_
scription imply
that
the Ascension
took place
on the day of the
Resurrection.
In
the Acts of the
Aposfles,
Luke (whom
every_
body believes
to be their
author)
describes
in chapter
l, B Jesug,s
appearance
to the Apostles,
between
the Passion
and the Ascen-
sion, in the following
terms:
"To
them
he
presented
himself
alive
after his passion
by many
proofs,
appearing
to them during
forty days,
"rrd
,p"rking
of the
lu'ngdom
of God."
.
The placing
of the
christian festivar
of the Ascension
at forty
days after
Easter,
the Festival
of the
Resurrection,
originates
from this passage
in the Acts of the Apostles.
The
date is there-
l. It is dificult
to se how there could have
been!
?'
i'e. the eleverr
Aposiles; Judos,
the twerfth, ras already
dead.
100
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
that there was no connivance between the evangelists
1
, other-
wise they would definitely have co-ordinated their stories. This
is indeed a strange line of argument. In actual fact, they could
all have recorded, with complete sincerity, traditions of the com-
munities which (unknown to them) an contained elements of
fantasy. This hypothesis in unavoidable when one is faced with
so many contradictions and improbabilities in the description of
of events.
ASCENSION OF JESUS
Contradictions are present until the very end of the descrip-
tions because neither John nor Matthew refer to Jesus's Ascen-
sion. Mark and Luke are the only one to speak of it.
For Mark (16, 19), Jesus was 'taken up into heaven, and sat
down at the right hand of God' without any precise date being
given in relation to His Resurrection. It must however be noted
that the final passage of Mark containing this sentence is, for
Father Roguet, an 'invented' text, although for the Church it is
canonic r
There remains Luke, the only evangelist to provide an undis-
puted text of the Ascension episode (24, 51): 'he parted from
them
2
and was carried up into heaven'. The evangelist places the
event at the end of the description of the Resurrection and ap-
pearance to the eleven Apostles: the details of the Gospel de-
scription imply that the Ascension took place on the day of the
Resurrection. In the Acts of the Apostles, Luke (whom every-
body believes to be their author) describes in chapter 1, 3 Jesus's
appearance to the Apostles, between the Passion and the Ascen-
sion, in the following terms:
"To them he presented himself alive after his passion by many
proofs, appearing to them during forty days, and speaking of the
kingdom of God."
The placing of the Christian festival of the Ascension at forty
days after Easter, the Festival of the Resurrection, originates
from this pass,age in the Act$ of the Apostles. The date is there-
1. It is difficult to see bow there could have been!
2. i.e. the eleVel:l Apostles; J udos, the twelfth, was already dead.
Cffitiota
ondrmrnob&ikifrcrln
t+c Delr,ri?front
l0r
fore set in contradiction
to Luke's Gospel:
none of the other
Gospel
texts say anything to
iustify
this in a difrerent
w&y'
The Christian
who is awere of this situation is highly dis-
concerted
by the obviousness
of the contradiction.
The Eeurn'enF
ieal Translation
of the Bib|e, New Testa'ment,
ackno'wledges
the
fects but does not expand on the contradiction.
It limits itself to
noting the relevsnce the forty days may have had to Jesus's
miggion.
commentators
wishing
to explain everything
and reconcile the
irreconciliable
provide some strange interpretations
on this
subject.
The Sgnopsis
of the Forr Gospels edited in 19?2 bv the Bibli'
cal School of Jerusalem
(vol. 2,
page 461) contains,
for example,
some very strange
commentaries.
The very word
'Ascension'
is criticized
as follows: "In
fact
there was no ascension in the actual
physieal sense because God
is no more
'on
high' than he is
'below'
"
(sic). It is difficult to
grgsp the sense of this comment beeause
one wonders
how Luke
eould otherwise
have expressed
himself.
Elsewhere,
the author of this commentary
sees s
'literary
artiftce' in the fact that "in
the Acts, the Ascension
is said
to
have taken
place forty days after the
resurrection";
this
'artifice'
is
"intended
to stress the notion that the
period of Jesus's
ap-
Ilearances
on earth
is at an end". He adds however,
in relation
to
the fact that in Luke's Gospel, "the
event is situated
during the
evening of Easter Sunday, because
the evangelist
does not
put
any breaks between
the various episodes
recorded following
the
discovery
of the empty tomb on the morning
of the resurrec-
tion . . ."-... , . ru"Lly this is also a literary
artifice,
intended
to allow a certain lapse of time before the appearance
of Jesus
raised from the dead."
(sic)
The feeling
of embarrassment
that surrounds
these interpreta-
tions is even more
obvious
in Father
Roguet's
book' He discerns
not one, but two Ascensions
!
"Whereas
from Jesus's
point of view the
Ascension
coincides
with the Resurrection'
from the disciples'
point of view it does
not take
place until Jesus ceases
definitely
to
present Himself
to
them,
so that
the spirit may be
given to them and the
period
of the Church
may begin."
101
fore set in contradiction to Luke's Gospel: none of the other
Gospel texts say anything to justify this in a different way.
The Christian who is aware of this situation is highly dis-
concerted by the obviousness of the contradiction. The Ecumen-
ical Translation of the Bible, New Testament, acknowledges the
facts but does not expand on the contradiction. It limits itself to
noting the relevance the forty days may have had to Jesus's
mission.
Commentators wishing to explain everything and reconcile the
irreconciliable provide some strange interpretations on this
subject.
The Synopsis of the Four Gospels edited in 1972 by the Bibli
cal School of Jerusalem (vol. 2, page 451) contains, for example,
some very strange commentaries.
The very word 'Ascension' is criticized as follows: "In fact
there was no ascension in the actual physical sense because God
is no more 'on high' than he is 'below'" (sic). It is difficult to
grasp the sense of this comment because one wonders how Luke
could otherwise have expressed himself.
Elsewhere, the author of this commentary sees a 'literary
artifice' in the fact that "in the Acts, the Ascension is said to
have taken place forty days after the resurrection" ; this 'artifice'
is "intended to stress the notion that the period of Jesus's ap
pearances on earth is at an end". He adds however, in relation to
the fact that in Luke's Gospel, "the event is situated during the
evening of Easter Sunday, because the evangelist does not put
any breaks between the various episodes recorded following the
discovery of the empty tomb on the morning of the resurrec
tion ..."-"... surely this is also a literary artifice, intended
to allow a certain lapse of time before the appearance of Jesus
raised from the dead." (sic)
The feeling of embarrassment that surrounds these interpreta.
tions is even more obvious in Father Roguet's book. He discerns
not one, but two Ascensions!
"Whereas from Jesus's point of view the Ascension coincides
with the Resurrection, from the disciples' point of view it does
not take place until Jesus ceases definitely to present Himself to
them, so that the Spirit may be given to them and the period
of the Church may begin."
rO2
THE BIBLE, TIIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
To those readers who are not
quite
able to
grasp
the theological
subtlety of his argument (which
ha.s absolutely no Scriptural
basis whatsoever), the author issues the following general
warn-
ing, which is a model of apologetical
verbiage:
"Here, as in many similar cases, the probrem
only
appears
insuperable if one takes Biblical statements riterally,
and forgets
their religious
significance.
It is not a matter of breaking down
the faetual reality into
a syrnbolism which is inconsistent,
but
rather
of looking for the theological intentions
of those reveal-
ing these mysteries
to us by
providing
us with facts we can
apprehend with our senses and signs appropriate to our incar-
nate spirit."
JESUS'S LAST DIALOGUES.
THE PARACLETE
OF
IOHIVS GOSPEL.
John is the only evangelist
to report
the episode of the last
dialogue with the
Aposfles. It takes place
at the end of the
Last supper and before Jesus's arrest.
It ends in a very long
speech: four chapters in John's
Gospel
(14
to l?) are devoted
to this narration
which is not mentioned
anywhere in the other
Gospels. These chapters
of John nevertheless
deal with questions
of
prime
importance and fundamental
significance
to the future
outlook. They are set out with ail the grandeur
and solemnity
that characterizes
the farewell
scene between the Master and
His disciples.
This very touching farewell
scene whieh contains Jesus's spir-
itual testament,
is entirely absent from Matthew, Mark and Luke.
How can the absence
of this description
be explained ? one might
ask the followins:
did the text initiaily exist in the first three
Gospels? was it subsequenily
suppressed?
why? It must
be
stated immediately
that no answer can be found; the mystery
surrounding
this huge gap
in the narrations
of the first three
evangelists remains
as obscure as ever.
The dominating
feature of this narration-seen
in the crown-
ing speech-is the view of man's future that
Jesus describes,
His
care in addressing
His disciples, and through
them the whole of
humanity,
Hirs recommendations
and commandments
and His
concern to spe:ify the guide
whom man
must follow after His de-
102 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
To those readers who are not quite able to grasp the theological
subtlety of his argument (which ha.s absolutely no Scriptural
basis whatsoever), the author issues the following general warn-
ing, which is a model of apologetical verbiage:
"Here, as in many similar cases, the problem only appears
insuperable if one takes Biblical statements literally, and forgets
their religious significance. It is not a matter of breaking down
the factual reality into a symbolism which is inconsistent, but
rather of looking for the theological intentions of those reveal-
ing these mysteries to us by providing us with facts we can
apprehend with our senses and signs appropriate to our incar-
nate spirit."
JESUS'S LAST DIALOGUES.
THE PARACLETE OF JOHNS GOSPEL.
John is the only evangelist to report the episode of the last
dialogue with the Apostles. It takes place at the end of the
Last Supper and before Jesus's arrest. It ends in a very long
speech: four chapters in John's Gospel (14 to 17) are devoted
to this narration which is not mentioned anywhere in the other
Gospels. These chapters of John nevertheless deal with questions
of prime importance and fundamental significance to the future
outlook. They are set out with all the grandeur and solemnity
that characterizes the farewell scene between the Master and
His disci pIes.
This very touching farewell scene which contains Jesus's spir-
itual testament, is entirely absent from Matthew, Mark and Luke.
How can the absence of this description be explained? One might
ask the following: did the text initially exist in the first three
Gospels? Was it subsequently suppressed? Why? It must be
stated immediately that no answer can be found; the mystery
surrounding this huge gap in the narrations of the first three
evangelists remains as obscure as ever.
The dominating feature of this narration-seen in the crown-
ing speech-is the view of man's future that Jesus describes, His
care in addressing His disciples, and through them the whole of
humanity, His recommendations and commandments and His
concern to s p ~ i y the guide whom man must follow after His de-
confidiction
atd
lmptobabilities
in tlrv Derctiptiow
r03
perture. The text of John's
Gospel
is the o$y one to desigRate
iri* ** Parakletos
in Greek,
which
in English
has become
'Para-
clete'.
The following
are the essential
passages:
,,If
you love me,
you
will keep my commandments.
And I will
pray t-t * r"*t*r,
*rrd he will
give you another
Paraclete."
(14'
16-16)
What does
'Paraclete'
mean?
The
present text of John's
Gos-
pel explains
its meaning
as follows:
.,But
the Paraclete,
the Holy spirit,
whom the Father
will
send
in my name,
he will teach
you all things,
and bring to
your re-
*"*Lt*nce
all that
I have said to
you"
(14' 26)'
"he
will bear witness
to me"
(15' 26) '
.,it
is to
your advantage
that I
go away,
for if I do not
go
away, the Paraclete
will not come tJ
you; but if I
go, I will send
him to
you. And when he comes,
he will convince
the
world of sin
and of tight"ousness
and of
judgment
' ' '"
(16' 7-8) '
"When
the Spirit
of truth
comes'
he will
guide
you into all the
truth;
for he will not speak
on his own authority,
but whatever
he hears
he wiit speak, and
he will
declare
to
you the things
that
are to come. He will
glorify me . . '"
(16'
13-14)
'
(It
must be noted that the
passages in John,
chapters
L4-t7,
which have not been cited here, in no way
alter the
general mean-
ing of these
quotations).
on a cursory
reading,
the text which
identifies
the Greek
word
,paraclete'wiih
the Holy Spirit
is unlikely
to attract
much
atten-
tion. This is especially
true when
the subtitles
of the text
are
generally used ior ttanslations
and the
terminology
commenta-
[o"* .*!loy in works for mass
publication direct the reader
to-
wards the meaning
in these
p"**"g"* that an exemplary
ortho-
doxy
would like them to have. Should
one have the slightest
diffi-
culty
in compilt
""*ion,
there
are many
explanations
available'
such as those
;i".;
by A. Tricot
in his Littte
DietionarA
of the
New Testa,meit
(Petii Dictionnaire
du Nouveau
Testament)
to
enlighten
one on this subject.
In his entry on the Paraclete
this
commentator
writes
the following:
,,This
name or title
translated
from
the Greek
is only
used
in
the New Testament
by John:
he uses
it four times in his account
Cont1'adictiomand Improbabilities in the De,cnptions
103
parture. The text of John's Gospel is the only one to designate
him as Parakletos in Greek, which in English has become 'Para-
clete'. The following are the essential passages:
"If you love me, you will keep my commandments. And I will
pray the Father, and he will give you another Paraclete." (14,
15-16)
What does 'Paraclete' mean? The present text of John's Gos-
pel explains its meaning as follows:
"But the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send
in my name, he will teach you all things, and bring to your re-
membrance all that I have said to you" (14, 26).
"he will bear witness to me" (15, 26) .
"it is to your advantage that I go away, for if I do not go
away, the Paraclete will not come to you; but if I go, I will send
him to you. And when he comes, he will convince the world of sin
and of righteousness and of judgment ..." (16, 7-8).
"When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the
truth; for he will not speak on his own authority, but whatever
he hears he will speak, and he will declare to you the things that
are to come. He will glorify me ..." (16, 13-14).
(It must be noted that the passages in John, chapters 14-17,
which have not been cited here, in no way alter the general mean-
ing of these quotations).
On a cursory reading, the text which identifies the Greek word
'Paraclete' with the Holy Spirit is unlikely to attract much atten-
tion. This is especially true when the subtitles of the text are
generally used for translations and the terminology commenta-
tors employ in works for mass publication direct the reader to-
wards the meaning in these passages that an exemplary ortho-
doxy would like them to have. Should one have the slightest diffi-
culty in comprehension, there are many explanations available,
such as those given by A. Tricot in his Little Dictionary of the
New Testament (Petit Dictionnaire du Nouveau Testament) to
enlighten one on this subject. In his entry on the Paraclete this
commentator writes the following:
"This name or title translated from the Greek is only used in
the New Testament by John: he uses it four times in his account
104
THE BIBLE,
THE
QUrAN
AND SCIENCE
of Jesus's speech after the Last supper' (14,
16 and 26; lE, 26;
l8' ?) snd once
in his First L,etter (2,
L). In John's
Gospel the
wgrd is applied
to the Holy
spirit; in the Letter it reiers
to
christ.
'Paraelete'
was a term in current
usage among
the Hel-
lenist
Jews, First century
A.D",
meaning
,intereessor,,
-,defender,
(.
. .
)
Jesus predicts
that the spirit witt be sent
by the Father
and son. rts mission
will be to take
the place
of the son in the
role he
played
during his mortal
life
"r
* helper
for the benefit
of his disciples.
The
Spirit will intervene
and act as a substitute
for
christ, adopting
the rore
of
paracrete
or omnipotent
inter-
ceggor,tt
This commentary
therefore
makes the Hory
spirit into
the ulti-
mste guide
of man after
Jegus's departure.
How does it square
with John's text?
It is a necessary question
because
a pr"iori
it seems strange
to
ascribe the last paragraph
quoted
above to the Holy
spirit:
"for he wilt not speak on his own authority,
but rvhatever
he
hears he will speak,
and he will declare
to
vou
ilre things
that are
to come." rt seems
inconceivabre
that on!
could ascribe to the
Holy spirit the a-birity
to speak
and decrare
whatever
he hears . . .
Logic demands
that this question
be raised,
but to my knowledge,
it is not usually
the subject
of commentaries.
To gain
an exact idea of the problem,
one has to go
back to the
basic
Greek text. This is especiarry
important
because
John is
universally
recognized
to have written
in Greek instead
of an_
other
language.
The
Greek text consulted
was
the Noattm Testa-
mentum
Graecez,
Any serious
textual
criticism
begins with
a search for varia-
ti ons.
Here i t woul d seem
that i n al l the known
manuscri pts
of
John's
Gospel, the onry variation
rikery
to change
the meaning
of the sentenee
is in pessage
14,
26 of the famous
palimpsest
version
written
in
syriac'.
Here it is not the Holy
spirit that is
menti oned,
but qui te
si mpl y
the
spi ri t. Di d
ttre scri ue merel y
l J" f ". t J"r
John i t was duri ng t he Last
supper i t serf
t hat Jesus
del i vered
the l ong
epeech that menti ons
the
paracl ete.
2' Nest l d
and Al and.
pub.
uni t ed Bi bl es
soci et i es,
London, l g?r.
3. Thi s manuacri pt
was
wri tten i n the Fourttr
or ri tth century
A.D. It
was di scovered
i n 1gl 2 on Mount
si nai by Agnes
s. -Lewi s
and i s so
named because
the fi rst text had been cove.*J
ty a l ater
one whi ch,
when obl i terated,
reveal ed
the ori gi nal .
104
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
of Jesus's speech after the Last Supper
1
(14, 16 and 26; 15, 26;
16, 7) and once in his First Letter (2, 1). In John's Gospel the
word is applied to the Holy Spirit; in the Letter it refers to
Christ. 'Paraclete' was a term in current usage among the Hel-
lenist Jews, First century A.D., meaning 'intercessor', 'defender'
(... ) Jesus predicts that the Spirit will be sent by the Father
and Son. Its mission will be to take the place of the Son in the
role he played during his mortal life as a helper for the benefit
of his disciples. The Spirit will intervene and act as a substitute
for Christ, adopting the role of Paraclete or omnipotent inter-
cessor."
This commentary therefore makes the Holy Spirit into the ulti-
mate guide of man after Jesus's departure. How does it square
with John's text?
It is a necessary question because a pTi01'i it seems strange to
ascribe the last paragraph quoted above to the Holy Spirit:
"for he will not speak on his own authority, but whatever he
hears he will speak, and he will declare to you the things that are
to come." It seems inconceivable that one could ascribe to the
Holy Spirit the ability to speak and declare whatever he hears ...
Logic demands that this question be raised, but to my knowledge,
it is not usually the subject of commentaries.
To gain an exact idea of the problem, one has to go back to the
basic Greek text. This is especially important because John is
universally recognized to have written in Greek instead of an-
other language. The Greek text consulted was the Novum Testa-
mentum Graece
2

Any serious textual criticism begins with a search for varia-

tions. Here it would seem that in all the known manuscripts of
John's Gospel, the only variation likely to change the meaning
of the sentence is in passage 14, 26 of the famous Palimpsest
version written in Syriac:l. Here it is not the Holy Spirit that is
mentioned, but quite simply the Spirit. Did the scribe merely
1. In fact, for John it was during the Last Supper itself that Jesus
delivered the long speech that mentions the Paraclete.
2. Nestle and Aland. Pub. United Bibles Societies, London, 1971.
3. This manuscript was written in the Fourth or Fifth century A.D. It
was discovered in 1812 on Mount Sinai by Agnes S.-Lewis and is so
named because the first text had been covered by a later one which,
when obliterated, revealed the original.
conttdtrctiot
t atdhmptobobilitbtlntlnDarc'rlptionr
ros
miss out a \rord or, knowing full well that the text he was to copy
claimed
to make
the Holy Spirit
hear and
speak, did he
perhaps
lack the audacity
to write something
thst seemed absurd
to him?
.lp"* from this observation
there is little need to labour
the
ot-h*"
variations,
they &re
grammatical and do not change the
general meaning. The impor'tant
thing is that what has been
Iemonstrated
here with regard to the exast meening
of the verbs
.to
hesr' and
'to
speak'
should apply to all the other manuscripts
of John's Gospel,
as is indeed the case.
The verb
'to
hear, in the translation
is the Greek
verb
'ahou6'
meaning to
perceive sounds. It has, for
example,
given us the
word'acoustics',
the science of sounds.
The verb'to speak' in the translstion
is the Greek verb
'Ial'e6'
which has the
general meaning of
'to
emit sounds'
and the
spe-
cific meaning o1
'to
speak'. This
verb occurs
very frequently
in
the Greek text of the bospels.
It designates a solemn declarstion
made by Jesus during
His
preachings. It therefore
becomes clear
that the communication
to man whieh He here
proclaims does not
in any way consist
of s statement
inspired hy the egency of the
Holy spirit. It has a very obvious material
character
moreover'
which comes from the idea of the
emission of sounds conveyed
by the Greek word that defines
it.
The two Greek verbs
'akou6'
and
'lnleri'
therefore
define con-
crete sctions which can only
be applied to a being with hesring
and speech organs. It is consequently
impossible
to apply them to
the Holy Spirit.
For this reason, the text of this
passage from John's
Gospel,
as
handed down to us in Greek
manuscripts,
is
quite incomprehensi-
ble if one takes it as a whole,
including
the words
'Holy
Spirit'
in
passage 14, 26: "But
the Paraclete,
the Holy Spirit,
whom
the
Father
will send in my name" etc. It is the only
passsge in John's
Gospel that identifies the Paraclete
with the Holy $pirit'
If the words
'Holy
Spirit'
(to pneum,a to agion)
are ommitted
from
the
passage, the complete
text of John then
conveys
a mean-
ing
whictt i*
p*"t*tly elear. It is confirmed
moreover,
by snother
teit
uy the sam* *t"ng"list,
the First Letter,
where John
uses
the same word
'Paraclete'
simply
to mean Jegus,
the interce$sor
Contradictiona and Improbabilities in tile Deacriptiotll 105
miss out a word or, knowing full well that the text he was to copy
claimed to make the Holy Spirit hear and speak, did he perhaps
lack the audacity to write something that seemed absurd to him?
Apart from this observation there is little need to labour the
other variations, they are grammatical and do not change the
general meaning. The important thing is that what has been
demonstrated here with regard to the exact meaning of the verbs
'to hear' and 'to speak' should apply to all the other manuscripts
of John's Gospel, as is indeed the case.
The verb 'to hear, in the translation is the Greek verb 'akouo'
meaning to perceive sounds. It has, for example, given us the
word 'acoustics', the science of sounds.
The verb 'to speak' in the translation is the Greek verb 'laleo'
which has the general meaning of 'to emit sounds' and the spe-
cific meaning of 'to speak'. This verb occurs very frequently in
the Greek text of the Gospels. It designates a solemn declaration
made by Jesus during His preachings. It therefore becomes clear
that the communication to man which He here proclaims does not
in any way consist of a statement inspired by the agency of the
Holy Spirit. It has a very obvious material character moreover,
which comes from the idea of the emission of sounds conveyed
by the Greek word that defines it.
The' two Greek verbs 'akouo' and 'laZeD' therefore define con-
crete actions which can only be applied to a being with hearing
and speech organs. It is consequently impossible to apply them to
the Holy Spirit.
For this reason, the text of this passage from John's Gospel, as
handed down to us in Greek manuscripts, is quite incomprehensi-
ble if one takes it as a whole, including the words 'Holy Spirit'
in passage 14, 26: "But the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit, whom the
Father will send in my name" etc. It is the only passage in John's
Gospel that identifies the Paraclete with the Holy Spirit.
If the words 'Holy Spirit' (to pneuma to agion) are ommitted
from the passage, the complete text of John then conveys a mean-
ing which is perfectly clear. It is confirmed moreover, by another
text by the same evangelist, the First Letter, where John uses
the same word 'Parac1ete' simply to mean Jesus, the intercessor
106
THE BIBLq THE
QUR'AN
AND
SCIENCE
at God's sider. Aeeording
to John, when
Jesus says
(14,
16) :
'lAnd
I will pray
the
Father, and he will
give you
another
para-
clete", what He is saying
is that'another'intercessor
will be sent
to man, as He Himself was at God's side on man's behalf
during
His egrthly life.
According
to the rules of logic therefore,
one is brought
to
see in
John's Paraclete
a human
being like Jesus, possessiig
the
faculties
of hearing
and speech formally
implied in John's
Greek
text.
Jesus therefore predicts
that
God witi later
send a human
being to Earth
to take up the role defined by John, i.e. to be a
prophet
who hears
God's word and repeats
his message
to man.
This is the Iogical
interpretation
of iohn's texts arrived
at if
one attributes
to the words
their proper
meaning.
The presence
of the term
,Holy
spirit' in today's text could
easily have come from a later addition
made quite
deliberately.
rt may have
been intended
to change the origin*l
m*"rring
which
predicted
the advent
of a prophet
subsequent
to
Jesus and was
therefore
in contradiction
with the teac-hings
of the Christian
churches
at the time of their
formation;
these teachings
main-
tained
that Jesus was the last of the
prophets.
l. M""y t"*slations
and commentaries
of the Gospel, espeeially
older
oneB' use the word
'Congoler'
to translate
this, but it is totally inaJcurat.
108
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCmNCE
at God's side
1
According to John, when Jesus says (14, 16):
"And I will pray the Father, and he will give you another Para-
clete", what He is saying is that 'another' intercessor will be sent
to man, as He Himself was at God's side on man's behalf during
His earthly life.
According to the rules of logic therefore, one is brought to
see in John's ParaeIete a human being like Jesus, possessing the
faculties of hearing and speech formally implied in John's Greek
text. Jesus therefore predicts that God will later send a human
being to Earth to take up the role defined by John, Le. to be a
prophet who hears God's word and repeats his message to man.
This is the logical interpretation of John's texts arrived at if
one attributes to the words their proper meaning.
The presence of the term 'Holy Spirit' in today's text could
easily have come from a later addition made quite deliberately.
It may have been intended to change the original meaning which
predicted the advent of a prophet subsequent to Jesus and was
therefore in contradiction with the teachings of the Christian
churches at the time of their formation; these teachings main-
tained that Jesus was the last of the prophets.
1. Many translations and commentaries of the Gospel, especially older
ones, use the word 'Consoler' to translate this, but it is totally inaccurate.
vr
Conclusions
The facts recorded here and the commentaries
quoted
from
several extremely eminent Christian experts in exegesis have
refuted affinnrations of orthodory supported by the line adopted
by the last Council on the absolute historicsl authenticity of the
Gospels. fireee are said to have fsithfully transmitted what Jesus
actually did and taugbt.
Several different kinds of argument have been
given.
Firstln
quotations
from the Gospels themselves show flat con-
tradictions. It is impossible to believe two facts that contradict
each other. Neither can one accept certain improbabilities and
affirmations that
go
against the casLiron data
provided by mod-
ern knowledge. In this respect, the two
genealogies of Jesus
given
in the Gospels and the untruths implied in them are
quite
conclusive.
These contradictions, improbabilities and incompatibilities
pass
unnoticed by many Christisns. They are astonished when
they discover them beesuse they have been influenced by their
reading of eommentaries that
provide
subtle explanations calcu-
latcd to reassure them and orchestrated by an apologetic lyric-
ism. Some very typical examples have been
given
of the skill em-
ployed by certain experts in exegesis in camouflaglng what they
modestly call
'difficulties'.
There &re very few
passages
indeed
in the Gospels that have been acknowledged as inauthentic al-
though the Church declares them canonic"
According to Father Kannengiesser, works of modern textual
eriticism have revealed data which constitute a
'revolution
in
methods of Biblical exegesis' so that the facts relating to Jesus
recorded in the Gospels are no longer'to be taken literally',
they

Con:lusions
The facts recorded here and the commentaries quoted from
several extremely eminent Christian experts in exegesis have
refuted affirmations of orthodoxy supported by the line adopted
by the last Council on the absolute historical authenticity of the
Gospels. These are said to have faithfully transmitted what Jesus
actually did and taught.
Several different kinds of argument have been given.
Firstly, quotations from the Gospels themselves show flat con-
tradictions. It is impossible to believe two facts that contradict
each other. Neither can one accept certain improbabilities and
affirmations that go against the cast-iron data provided by mod-
ern knowledge. In this respect, the two genealogies of Jesus
given in the Gospels and the untruths implied in them are quite
conclusive.
These contradictions, improbabilities and incompatibilities
pass unnoticed by many Christians. They are astonished when
they discover them because they have been influenced by their
reading of commentaries that provide subtle explanations calcu-
lated to reassure them and orchestrated by an apologetic lyric-
ism. Some very typical examples have been given of the skill em-
ployed by certain experts in exegesis in camouflaging what they
modestly call 'difficulties'. There are very few passages indeed
in the Gospels that have been acknowledged as inauthentic al-
though the Church declares them canonic.
According to Father Kannengiesser, works of modern textual
criticism have revealed data which constitute a 'revolution in
methods of Biblical exegesis' so that the facts relating to Jesus
recorded in the Gospels are no longer 'to be taken literally', they
107
r08 TIIE BIBI4 lIrE
QIrn'AN
AiltD $CIENGE
are
'writings
suited to an occasion' or
'combat
writings'. Modern
knowledge has brought to light the history of Judeo-Christianity
and the rivalry between communities which accounts for the
existence of facts that today's readers find disconcerting. The
concept of eyewitness evangelists is no longer defensible, al-
though numerous Christians still retain it today. The work done
at the Biblical School of Jerusalem (Fathers
Benoit and Boia-
mard) shows very elearly that the Gospels were written, revised
and eorrected several times. They also warn the reader that he is
"obliged in more than one case to
give
up the notion of hearing
Jesus's voice directly".
The historieal nature
of the
Gospels is beyond question.
Through descriptions referring to Jesus however, these docu-
ments provide
us above all with information about the character
of their authors, the spokesmen for the tradition of the early
Christian communities to
which they belonged, and in
particular
about the struggle between the Judeo-Christians and
paul:
Car-
dinal Danilou's work is authoritative on these
points.
why be surprised by the fact that some evangelists distort
certain events in Jesus's life with the object of defending
a
per-
sonal
point
of view? Why be surprised
by the omission of certain
events ? Why be surprised by the fictitious
nature of other events
described?
This leads us to compare the Gospels with the narrative poems
found in Medieval literature.
A vivid comparison could be msde
with the Song of Rola,nd, (Chanson
de Rotand), the most well-
known of all
poerns
of this kind, which relates a real event in a
fictitious light.
It will be remembered
that it describes an actual
episode: Roland
was leading Charlemagne's rear-guard
when it
was ambushed
on the
pess
at Roncevaux. The episode which
wss
of minor importance,
is said to have taken
place
on the l6th
August, ?78 according to historical records (Eginhard).
It was
raised to the stature of a
great
feat of arms, a battle in a war of
religion. rt is a whimsical description,
but the imaginary element
does not obliterate one of the real
battles that Charlemagne hsd
to fig:ht in order to proteet his frontiers
against the attemptg
made by neighbouring peoples
to
penetrate
his borders. That
is
the element of truth and the epic style of nsrrative does not r+
move it.
108
THE BIBLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
are 'writings suited to an occasion' or 'combat writings'. Modem
knowledge has brought to light the history of Judeo-Christianity
and the rivalry between communities which accounts for the
existence of facts that today's readers find disconcerting. The
concept of eyewitness evangelists is no longer. defensible, al-
though numerous Christians still retain it today. The work done
at the Biblical School of Jerusalem (Fathers Benoit and Bois-
mard) shows very clearly that the Gospels were written, revised
and corrected several times. They also warn the reader that he is
"obliged in more than one case to give up the notion of hearing
Jesus's voice directly".
The historical nature of the Gospels is beyond question.
Through descriptions referring to Jesus however, these docu-
ments provide us above all with information about the character
of their authors, the spokesmen for the tradition of the early
Christian communities to which they belonged, and in particular
about the struggle between the Judeo-Christians and Paul: Car-
dinal Danielou's work is authoritative on these points.
Why be surprised by the fact that some evangelists distort
certain events in Jesus's life with the object of defending a per-
sonal point of view? Why be surprised by the omission of certain
events? Why be surprised by the fictitious nature of other events
described?
This leads us to compare the Gospels with the narrative poems
found in Medieval literature. A vivid comparison could be made
with the Song of Roland (Chanson de Roland), the most weIl-
known of aU poetns of this kind, which relates a real event in a
fictitious light. It will be remembered that it describes an actual
episode: Roland was leading Charlemagne's rear-guard when it
was ambushed on the pass at Roncevaux. The episode which was
of minor importance, is said to have taken place on the 15th
August, 778 according to historical records (Eginhard). It was
raised to the stature of a great feat of arms, a battle in a war of
religion. It is a whimsical description, but the imaginary element
does not obliterate one of the real battles that Charlemagne had
to fight in order to protect his frontiers against the attempts
made by neighbouring peoples to penetrate his borders. That is
the element of truth and the epic style of narrative does not re-
move it.
r00
Collrl&rfplnt
The same hotds tnre for the Gospels:
Mattheq/s
phsntasms'
the flat contrsdictions
between Gospels,
the improbabilities,
the
iucompatibilities
wittr modern scientific data, the successive
dis-
tortions of the text--all these things add up to the fact that
the
GospelE
contein chapters and
passages that are the sole
product
of the human imagination. These flaws do not however csst
doubt
on the existence of Jesus's mission:
the doubt is solely con-
fined to the course it took.
Cone..... 109
The same holds true for the Gospels: Matthew's phantasms,
the flat contradictions between Gospels, the improbabilities, the
incompatibilities with modem scientific data, the successive dis-
tortions of the text-all these things add up to the fact that the
Gospels contain chapters and passages that are the sole product
of the human imagination. These flaws do not however cast
doubt on the existence of Jesus's mission: the doubt is solely con-
fined to the course it took.
I
fhe
Qrrr'arr
-rnd
Dlodern
Scierrce
lntroducliorr
The relationship
between the
eur'an
and science is
a
priori
a
surprisg espeeially when it turns out to be one of harmony and
not of diseord. A eonfrontation
between a religious book and the
secular ideas proclaimed
by scienee is
perhaps,
in the eyes of
many
people
today, something of a
paradox.
The majority of to-
day's scientists,
with a small number of exeeptions of course, are
indeed bound up in materialist theories, and have only indifference
or contempt for religious questions
which they often consider to
be founded on legend. rn the West moreover, when seience snd
religion are discussed, people
are quite
willing to mention
Juda-
ism and Christianity among the religions
referred to, but they
hardly ever think of Islam. So many false
judgements
based on
inaccurate ideas have indeed
been made about it, that today it is
very difficult to form an exact notion
of the reality of rslam.
As s
prelude
to any confrontation
between the Islamic Revela-
tion and science, it would seem essential that an ou,iline be given
of a religion that is so little known in the West.
fire totally erroneous
statements made about Islam in the West
are sometimes the result of ignorance, and sometimes of system-
atic denigration. The most serious of all the untruths told about
it are however those dealing with facts; for while mistaken opin-
tt0
I
The Qo..'an and
~ o ..n St:ient:e
Inl.. u ~ l i o n
The relationship between the Qur'an and science is a priori a
surprise, especially when it turns out to be one of harmony and
not of discord. A confrontation between a religious book and the
secular ideas proclaimed by science is perhaps, in the eyes of
many people today, something of a paradox. The majority of to-
day's scientists, with a small number of exceptions of course, are
indeed bound up in materialist theories, and have only indifference
or contempt for religious questions which they often consider to
be founded on legend. In the West moreover, when science and
religion are discussed, people are quite willing to mention Juda-
ism and Christianity among the religions referred to, but they
hardly ever think of Islam. So many false judgements based on
inaccurate ideas have indeed been made about it, that today it is
very difficult to form an exact notion of the reality of Islam.
As a prelude to any confrontation between the Islamic Revela-
tion and science, it would seem essential that an outline be given
of a religion that is so little known in the West.
The totally erroneous statements made about Islam in the West
are sometimes the result of ignorance, and sometimes of system-
atic denigration. The most serious of all the untruths told about
it are however those dealing with facts; for while mistaken opin-
110
rffin
lll
ions are excusable, the
presentation of facts running contrarT to
the reality is not. It is disturbing
to read blatant untruths
in
eminently respectable works written by authors who a
Priori
arc
hishly
qualified. The following: is an example taken from the
uniaersatis EncAclopeilia
(Eneyclopedia Universalis)
vol.6. Un-
der the heading Gospels
(Evsngiles) the author alludes to the
differences between the Istter and the
Qur'an:
"The
evangelists
(.
. .) do not
(.
.), 8s in the
Qur'an,
claim
to transmit en
autobiogrsphy
that God miraculously
dictated to the Prophet
, . .". In fact, the
Qur'an
has nothing to do with an autobiogra-
phy: it is a
preaching; a consultation of even the worst trans'
iation would have made thet clear to the author. The statement
we have
quoted
is as far from reality as if one were to define
a Gospel as an account of an evangelist's life. The
person re-
sponsible for this untruth about the
Qur'an
is a
professor at the
Jesuit
Fsculff of Theology, Lyon ! The fact that
people utter such
untruths helps to
give
a false impression of the
Qur'an
and
Islam.
There is hope today howeyer because
religions are no longer
as inwardJooking as they were and many of them ane seeking
for mutual understanding. One must indeed be impressed
by a
knowledge oi' the fact that an attempt
is being made on the
highest level of the hierarchy by Roman Catholics to establish
contact with Muslims; they are trying to fight incomprehension
and are doing their utmost to change the inaccurate views on
Islam that are so widely held.
In the Introduction
to this work, I mentioned the
great change
that has taken
place
in the last few
years and I quoted a document
produced by the Office for Non-Christian
Affairs at the Vatican
under the title Ori,enta,tions
for
a Di,alogue between Chrwtians
anil Muslims
(orientations pour
un dialogue entre chr6tiens
et
musulmans).
It is a very important document
in that it shows
the new
position adopted towards Islam. As we read in the third
edition of this study
(f9?0),
this new
position ealls for'a revi-
sion of our attitude towards it and a critical examination
of our
prejudices' . . .
''We
should first set about
progressively changing
ih" *"y our Christian brothers see it. This is the most important
of all.' . . . We must clear sway the
'out-dated
image inherited
from the
past, or distorted
by
prejudice and slander' . . .
,
and
Ifllroducfion
III
ions are excusable, the presentation of facts running contrary to
the reality is not. It is disturbing to read blatant untruths in
eminently respectable works written by authors who a priori are
highly qualified. The following is an example taken from the
Universalis Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Universalis) vo1.6. Un-
der the heading Gospels (Evangiles) the author alludes to the
differences between the latter and the Qur'an: "The evangelists
(...) do not (...), as in the Qur'an, claim to transmit an
autobiography that God miraculously dictated to the Prophet
...". In fact, the Qur'an has nothing to do with an autobiogra-
phy: it is a preaching; a consultation of even the worst trans-
lation would have made that clear to the author. The statement
we have quoted is as far from reality as if one were to define
a Gospel as an account of an evangelist's life. The person re-
sponsible for this untruth about the Qur'an is a professor at the
Jesuit Faculty of Theology, Lyon! The fact that people utter such
untruths helps to give a false impression of the Qur'an and
Islam.
There is hope today however because religions are no longer
as inward-looking as they were and many of them are seeking
for mutual understanding. One must indeed be impressed by a
knowledge 0: the fact that an attempt is being made on the
highest level of the hierarchy by Roman Catholics to establish
contact with Muslims; they are trying to fight incomprehension
and are doing their utmost to change the inaccurate views on
Islam that are so widely held.
In the Introduction to this work, I mentioned the great change
that has taken place in the last few years and I quoted a document
produced by the Office for Non-Christian Affairs at the Vatican
under the title Orientations for a Dialogue between Christians
and Muslims (Orientations pour un dialogue entre chretiens et
musulmans). It is a very important document in that it shows
the new position adopted towards Islam. As we read in the third
edition of this study (1970), this new position calls for 'a revi-
sion of our attitude towards it and a critical examination of our
prejudices' ... 'We should first set about progressively changing
the way our Christian brothers see it. This is the most important
of all.' ... We must clear away the 'out-dated image inherited
from the past, or distorted by prej udice and slander' . . . , and
II8
THE 8IBI.q TIIE
QUN'AN
AI\ID SCIENCE
'recognize
the
past
injustice towards
the Muslims for which the
west, with its christian education, is to blame." The Vatican
document is nearly
tgo
pages
long. It therefore
expands on the
refutation
of classic views held by christians on Islam and sets
out the reality.
Under the title Emaneipa,ti,ng
ourael,aes
from
our rnornt
rrei-
ud;ices (Nous
lib6rer de nos pr6jug6s
les plus
notables) the
authors address
the following
suggestions to christian*:
i
He""
also, we must surrender to a deep purification
of our attitude. In
particular,
what is meant by this are certain
.set
judgements'
that are all too often
and too lighily made about Islam. It is
essential not to cultivate in the secret of our hearts views such
as these, too easily or arbitrarily
arrived 8t, and which the
sincere Muslim finds confusing."
One extremely important
view of this kind is the attitude which
leads people
to repeatedly
use the term
.Allah'
to mean the God
of the Muslims,
as if the Muslims believed in a God who was
difierent from the God of the Christians.
At Inh means
.the
Divinity' in Arabic: it is a single God, implying that a correct
transcription
can only render
the exact meaning of the word with
the help of the expression
'God'.
For the Musllm,
al lfr,h is none
other than the
God of Moses and Jesus.
The document produced
by the office for Non-christian
Affairs
at the vatican stresses
this fundamentar point
in the following
terms:
"It would seem pointless
to maintain
that Alleh is not really
God, as do eertain people
in the West ! The conciliar documents
have put
the above assertion in its proper place.
There is no
better way of illustrating
Islamic faith in God than by quoting
1. At a certain priod
of history, hostility to lalam, in whatever ehape or
form, even coming from declared enemies of the church, wae received
with the most heartfelt approbation by hish dignitaries
of the Catholic
chureh. Thus Pope Benedict xrv, who is reputed to have been the
greatest
Pontifr of the Eighteenth century, unhesitatingly
sent his blear-
ing to Voltsire. This waE in thanks for the dedication to him of the
tragpdy Mohamtncd or Fanaticrszr (Mahomet
ou le Fanatisme)
1?41, e
coar8e satire that any clever scribbler of bad faith could have written
on any rubject. rn spite of a bad start, the play gained
suffcient pres-
ti8e to be included in the repertoire
ol the comddie-Francaiae.
111 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Crecognize the past injustice towards the Muslims for which the
West, with its Christian education, is to blame.'t The Vatican
document is nearly 150 pages long. It therefore expands on the
refutation of classic views held by Christians on Islam and sets
out the reality.
Under the title Emancipating ourselves from our worst prej-
udices (Nous liberer de nos prejuges les plus notables) the
authors address the following suggestions to Christians: "Here
also, we must surrender to a deep purification of our attitude. In
particular, what is meant by this are certain cset judgements'
that are all too often and too lightly made about Islam. It is
essential not to cultivate in the secret of our hearts views such
as these, too easily or arbitrarily arrived at, and which the
sincere Muslim finds confusing."
One extremely important view of this kind is the attitude which
leads people to repeatedly use the term 'Allah' to mean the God
of the Muslims, as if the Muslims believed in a God who was
different from the God of the Christians. Al ldh means Cthe
Divinity' in Arabic: it is a single God, implying that a correct
transcription can only render the exact meaning of the word with
the help of the expression 'God'. For the Muslim, al ldh is none
other .than the God of Moses and Jesus.
The document produced by the Office for Non-Christian Affairs
at the Vatican stresses this fundamental point in the following
terms:
"It would seem pointless to maintain that Allah is not really
God, as do certain people in the West! The conciliar documents
have put the above assertion in its proper place. There is no
better way of illustrating Islamic faith in God than by quoting
1. At a certain period of history, hostility to Islam, in whatever shape or
form, even coming from declared enemies of the church, was received
with the most heartfelt approbation by high dignitaries of the Catholic
Church. Thus Pope Benedict XIV, who is reputed to have been the
greatest Pontiff of the Eighteenth century, unhesitatingly sent his bleS&-
ing to Voltaire. This was in thanks for the dedication to him of the
tragedy Mohamm6d or Fanaticism (Mahomet ou Ie Fanatisme) 1741, a
coarse satire that any clever scribbler of bad faith could have written
on any subject. In spite of a bad start, the play gained sufficient pres-
tige to be included in the repertoire" of the Comedie-Francaise.
lntrr/luctior.
llg
the following
extracts
from Lumen Gentium':
'The
Muslims
profess the iaith of Abraham and
worship
with us the sole
merciful God, who is the future
iudge
of men on the Day of
Reckoni ng. . . " '
One can therefore
understand
the Muslims'
protest at the all
too
frequent
custom
in European
languages
of saying
'Allfih'
instead
of
.dod'
. . . Cultivated
Muslims
have
praised D. Masson's
French
translation
of the
Qur'an
for having
'at
last'
written
'Dieu'3
instead of
'Allah'.
The vatican
document
points out the following: "Allih
is the
only
word that
Arabic-speaking
Christians
have for God"'
Muslims and Christians
worship
a single
God'
The vatican
document
then undertakes
a critieal
examination
of the other
false
iudgements
made on Islam'
'Islamic
fatalism'
is a widely-spread
prejudice; the document
examines
this and
quoting the Qur'an
for support,
it
puts in
opposition
to this the notion of the responsibility
man has, who
is to be
judged
by his actions.
It shows
that the concept
of an
Islamic
legalism
is false; on the contrary,
it opposes
the sincerity
of faith to ttris by
quoting trvo
phrases in the
Qur'an
that are
highly
misunderstood
in the West:
,,There
is no compulsion
in religion"
(sura 2, verse
256)
,,(God)
has not laid upon
you in religion any hardship"
(sura 22, verse 78)
The document
opposes the widely-spread
notion
of
'Islam,
religion
of fear'to
'is1am,
religion
of love'Jove
of one's
neighbor
based
on faith in God. It refutes the falsely spread
notion
that
Muslim
morality
hardly exists
and the other notion,
shared
by
so many Jews
and christians,
of Islamic fanatieism.
It makes
the following
comment
on this: "In
fact, Islam
was hardly
any
more fanatical
during
its history than
the sacred
bastions
of
Christiantty
whenever
the Christian
faith took on' as it were'
a
political value."
At this
point, the authors
quote expressions
from
the
Qur'an
that show how, in the west, the expression
'Holy
1. L,umen Gcntium
is the title of a document
produced by the second
Ysti-
can Council
(1962-1965)
2. ffi.
lnlroduction
113
the following extracts from Lumen Gentium!: 'The Muslims
profess the faith of Abraham and worship with us the sole
merciful God, who is the future judge of men on the Day of
Reckoning . . . ' "
One can therefore understand the Muslims' protest atthe all too
frequent custom in European languages of saying 'Allah' instead
of 'God' ... Cultivated Muslims have praised D. Masson's French
translation of the Qur'an for having 'at last' written 'Dieu'2
instead of 'Allah'.
The Vatican document points out the following: "Allah is the
only word that Arabic-speaking Christians have for God."
Muslims and Christians worship a single God.
The Vatican document then undertakes a critical examination
of the other false judgements made on Islam.
'Islamic fatalism' is a widely-spread prejudice; the document
examines this and quoting the Qur'an for support, it puts in
opposition to this the notion of the responsibility man has, who
is to be judged by his actions. It shows that the concept of an
Islamic legalism is false; on the contrary, it opposes the sincerity
of faith to this by quoting two phrases in the Qur'an that are
highly misunderstood in the West:
"There is no compulsion in religion" (sura 2, verse 256)
U (God) has not laid upon you in religion any hardship"
(sura 22, verse 78)
The document opposes the widely-spread notion of 'Islam,
religion of fear' to 'Islam, religion of love'-love of one's neighbor
based on faith in God. It refutes the falsely spread notion that
Muslim morality hardly exists and the other notion, shared by
so many Jews and Christians, of Islamic fanaticism. It makes
the following comment on this: "In fact, Islam was hardly any
more fanatical during its history than the sacred bastions of
Christianity whenever the Christian faith took on, as it were,
a political value." At this point, the authors quote expressions
from the Qur'an that show how, in the West, the expression 'Holy
1. Lumen Gentium is the title of a document produced by the Second Vati-
can Council (1962-1965)
I. God.
r14
TEE BIBLE, THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
war" has been mis-translated;
,.i'
Arabic it is .4t
iihnd ft,
sabtt
Alld"h,
tlre effort on God's road",
,,the
effort to spread Islam and
defend it against
its
aggressors."
The vatican
document
con-
tinues as follows:
"The
iihad
is not at all the Bibl ical kherem;
it does not lead to extermination,
but to the sp,reading
of God,s
and man's
rights to ner,v lsnds."-"The
past
violence
of tn*
iihad
generally
follorved
the rttles of rvar;
at the time of the Crusades
moreover,
it rras
not alrvays
the Il{uslims
that perpetrated
the
rvorst
slanghters."
Finally,
the document
deals
*'ith the prejudice
aceording
to
rvhi ch "Isl am
i s a hi de-bottnd
rel i gi on
rvhi ch
keeps i ts fol l owers
i n
a kind
of superannuated
Middle
Ages,
making
them unfit to
adapt to the technical
conquests
of the
modern
age.', It com-
pares
analogous
situations
observed
in christian
eountries
and
states the fol l orvi ng:
"11,e fi nd, (.
. .) i n the
tradi ti onal
expansi on
of Musl i m
thought,
a pri nci pl e
of possi bl e
evol uti on
i n ci vi l i an
soci ety."
I am certain
that this defense
of Isram
by the vatican wilr
surpri se many
bel i evers
torl a1.. be the.y
Musl i ms,
Jews or Chri s_
ti ans. It i s a demonstrati on
of si nceri ty
and open-mi ndedness
that i s si ngul arl y
i n contrast
rvi th
ttre atti tudes
i nheri ted
from
the past.
The numbe'
of peopl e
i n the west who are aware of
the new
atti tudes
adopted
b.v the hi ghest
authori ti es
i n the
Cathol i c
Church i s hourever
very smal l .
once one i s aware
of thi s faet, i t comes
as l ess of a surpri se
to l earn of ttre acti ons
that seal ed
thi s reconci l i ati on:
fi rsfl y, i h*..
was the offficial
visit
made by the
president
of the
office for
Itlon-christian
Affairs
at the vatican
to King Faisal
of saudi
1' Transl ators of the
Qur' an,
even famous
ones, have not resi sted
the secu-
l ar habi t
of putti ng
i nto thei r transl ati ons
thi ngs that are not real i y i n
the Arabi c
text at al l . one ean i ndeed
add ti tl es to the text that are not
i n the ori gi nal wi thout
changi ng
the text i tsel f, but thi s addi ti on changes
the general
meani ng.
R. Bl achi re,
for exampl e, i n hi s wel l -known
trans-
l ati on (Pub.
Mai sonneuve
et Larose,
pari s,
1966, page
rl b) i nserta
a
ti tl e that does not fi gure i n the
eur' an
: Dui i cs
of' the-Hory
war
touri -
gati ons
de Ia guerre
sai nte). Thi s i s at the begi nni ng
of a passage
that
i s i ndi sputabl y
a cal l to arms, but does not have the character
that hac
been
aseri bed
to i t. After readi ng
thi s, how can the reader
who onl y har
access
to the
Qur' an vi a transl ati ons
fai l to thi nk that a Musl i m' s-duty
is to wage holy
war?
114
THE BIBLE, THE QUR"AN AND SCIENCE
War'l has been mis-translated; "in Arabic it is Ai jihad Ii sabil
Allah, the effort on God's road", "the effort to spread Islam and
defend it against its aggressors." The Vatican document con-
tinues as follows: "The jihad is not at all the Biblical kherem;
it does not lead to extermination, but to the spreading of God's
and man's rights to new lands."-"The past violence of the jihad
generally followed the rules of war; at the time of the Crusades
moreover, it was not always the l\fuslims that perpetrated the
worst slaughters."
Finally, the document deals with the prejudice according to
which "Islam is a hide-bound religion which keeps its followers in
a kind of superannuated Middle Ages, making them unfit to
adapt to the technical conquests of the modern age." It com-
pares analogous situations observed in Christian countries and
states the following: "we fino, (... ) in the traditional expansion
of Muslim thought, a principle of possible evolution in civilian
society."
I am certain that this defense of Islam by the Vatican will
surprise many believers today. be they Muslims, Jews or Chris-
tians. It is a demonstration of sincerity and open-mindedness
that is singularly in contrast with the attitudes inherited from
the past. The number of people in the \Vest who are aware of
the new attitudes aoopted by the highest authorities in the
Catholic Church is however very small.
Once one is aware of this fact, it comes as less of a surprise
to learn of the actions that sealed this reconciliation: firstly, there
was the official visit made by the President of the Office for
Non-Christian Affairs at the Vatican to King Faisal of Saudi
1. Translators of the Qur'an, even famous ones, have not resisted the secu-
lar habit of putting into their translations things that are not really in
the Arabic text at all. One can indeed add titles to the text that are not
in the original without changing the text itself, but this addition changes
the general meaning. R. Blachere, for example, in his well-known trans-
lation (Pub. Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris, 1966, page 115) inserts a
title that does not figure in the Qur'an: Duties 01 the Holy War (Obli-
gations de la guerre sainte). This is at the beginning of a passage that
is indisputably a call to arms, but does not have the character that haH
been ascribed to it. After reading this, how can the reader who only has
access to the Qur'an via translations fail to think that a Muslim's duty
is to wage holy war?
h*ffir
fftr
Arabia; then the official reception
given by Pope Peul VI tn the
Grand ulema
of saudi
Arabia in the course of 19?4. Henceforth,
one understands
more clearly the spiritual significance
of the fact
thst His Graee Biehop Elchinger received the Grand Ulema at
his cathedral
in Strasbourg
and invited them during
their visit
to
pray in the choir. This they did before the
altar, turned
towards Ma,kka.
Thus the representatives
of the Muslim and christian
worlds
at their highest level, who share a faith in the same God and a
mutual respect for their differences
of opinion, have
agreed to
open a diatosue.
This being so, it is surely
quite natural for other
aspects of each respective Revelation
to be confronted.
The sub
ject
of this confrontation
is the examination
of the Scriptures
in the light of scientific data and knowledge
eoncerning
the
authentieity
of the texts. This examination
is to be undertaken
for the
Qur'an
as it was for the Judeo-Christian
Revelation'
The relationship
between
religions and science has not always
been the same in any one
place or time. It is a fact that there is
no writing belonging to a monotheistic
religion that
condemns
science. In
practise however,
it must be admitted that scientists
have had
great difficulties with the religious authorities
of certain
creeds. For many centuries, in the christian
world, scientific
development
was opposed by the authorities
in
question, on their
own initiative and without reference to the authentic
Scriptures.
We already
know the measures taken against those who sought
to enlarge science, measures
which often made scientists
Eo
into
exile to avoid being burnt at the stake, unless
they recanted,
changed their attitude and begged
for
pardon. The case of Galileo
is always cited in this context:
he was tried
for having aceepted
the discoveries
made by copernicus
on the rotation
of the Earth.
Galileo
was condemned
as the result of a mistaken
interpretation
of the Bible, since not a single Scripture
could reasonably
be
brought against him.
In the case of Islam, the attitude
towards science
was'
generally
speaking,
quite different.
Nothing
could be clearer than the
famous Hadith of the Prophet: "seek
for seience, even in china",
or the other hadith which says that the search for knowledge
is
a strict duty for every Muslim
man and woman. As we shall
see further on in this section,
another crucial fact is that
the
ltllrocfucdoa liS
Arabia; then the official reception given by Pope Paul VI to the
Grand Ulema of Saudi Arabia in the course of 1974. Henceforth,
one understands more clearly the spiritual significance of the fact
that His Grace Bishop EIchinger received the Grand Ulema at
his cathedral in Strasbourg and invited them during their visit
to pray in the choir. This they did before the altar, turned
towards Makka.
Thus the representatives of the Muslim and Christian worlds
at their highest level, who share a faith in the same God and a
mutual respect for their differences of opinion, have agreed to
open a dialogue. This being so, it is surely quite natural for other
aspects of each respective Revelation to be confronted. The sub-
ject of this confrontation is the examination of the Scriptures
in the light of scientific data and knowledge concerning the
authenticity of the texts. This examination is to be undertaken
for the Qur'an as it was for the Judeo-Christian Revelation.
The relationship between religions and science has not always
been the same in anyone place or time. It is a fact that there is
no writing belonging to a monotheistic religion that condemns
science. In practise however, it must be admitted that scientists
have had great difficulties with the religious authorities of certain
creeds. For many centuries, in the Christian world, scientific
development was opposed by the authorities in question, on their
own initiative and without reference to the authentic Scriptures.
We already know the measures taken against those who sought
to enlarge science, measures which often made scientists go into
exile to avoid being burnt at the stake, unless they recanted,
changed their attitude and begged for pardon. The case of Galileo
is always cited in this context: he was tried for having accepted
the discoveries made by Copernicus on the rotation of the Earth.
Galileo was condemned as the result of a mistaken interpretation
of the Bible, since not a single Scripture could reasonably be
brought against him.
In the case of Islam, the attitude towards science was, generally
speaking', quite different. Nothing could be clearer than the
famous Hadith of the Prophet: "Seek for science, even in China",
or the other hadith which says that the search for knowledge is
a strict duty for every Muslim man and woman. As we shall
see further on in this section, another crucial fact is that the
l t0
TIIE BIDLE, IIIE
QUB?N
AIttD $GrnN6'g
Qur'an, while inviting us to cultivate scienee, itself contains
many
observations
on natural phenomena
and includes explanatory
details
which are seen to be in total agreement with modern
scientific data. There is no equal to this in the Judeo-christian
Revelation.
It would nevertheless
be wrong to imagine that, in the history
of Islam,
certain believers
had never harboured
a different atti-
tude towards science.
It is a fact that,
at eertain periods,
the
obligation to educate
oneself and others was rathei neglected.
It is equally
true that in the Muslim world,
as elsewhlre, an
attempt was sometimes made to stop scientific development.
AII
the same it will be remembered
that at the heisht of Islam,
between the Eighth and rwelfth centuries A.D., i.e. at a time
when restrictions
on scientific
development were
in force in the
christian world, a very large number of studies and discoveries
were being made at Islamic
nniversities.
It was there
that the
remarkable
cultural
resources of the time were to be found. The
califs library at cordoba
contained 400,000 volumes. Averros
was teaching
there, and Greek, Indian and
persian
sciences were
taught. This is why
scholars from
all over Europe went to study
at Cordoba,
just
as today people go
to the United States to
perfect
their studies. A very great
number of ancient manuscripts
have
come down to us thanks to cultivated Arabs who acted
as the
vehicle for the culture of conquered countries.
we are also
greaily
indebted
to Arabic
culture for mathematics (algebra
*"s an
Arabic invention),
astronohr, physics
(optics), g*logy,
botany,
medicine (Avicenna)
etc. For the very first time, science toqk on
an international
character in the Islamic universities
of the Mid-
dle Ages. At this time, men rvere more steeped in the religious
spirit than they
are today; but in the Islamic world,
this did not
prevent
them from
being both believers
and scientists.
Science
was the twin of religion and it shourd never have ceased to be so.
The Medieval period
was, for the christian world, a time of
stagnation
and absolute conformity.
It must be stressed
that
scientific research
was not srowed
down by the Judeo-christian
Revelation itself,
but rather
by those people
who claimed to be
its servants. Following
the Renaissance,
the scientists'
natural
reaction
was to take vengeance
on their former enemies;
thiq
vengeance
still continues
today, to such an extent indeed that in
118
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Qur'an, while inviting us to cultivate science, itself contains many
observations on natural phenomena and includes explanatory
details which are seen to be in total agreement with modem
scientific data. There is no equal to this in the Judea-Christian
Revelation.
It would nevertheless be wrong to imagine that, in the history
of Islam, certain believers had never harboured a different atti-
tude towards science. It is a fact that, at certain periods, the
obligation to educate oneself and others was rather neglected.
It is equally true that in the Muslim world, as elsewhere, an
attempt was sometimes made to stop scientific development. AlI
the same it will be remembered that at the height of Islam,
between the Eighth and Twelfth centuries A.D., Le. at a time
when restrictions on scientific development were in force in the
Christian world, a very large number of studies and discoveries
were being made at Islamic universities. It was there that the
remarkable cultural resources of the time were to be found. The
Calif's library at Cordoba contained 400,000 volumes. Averroes
was teaching there, and Greek, Indian and Persian sciences were
taught. This is why scholars from all over Europe went to study
at Cordoba, just as today people go to the United States to perfect
their studies. A very great number of ancient manuscripts have
come down to us thanks to cultivated Arahs who acted as the
vehicle for the culture of conquered countries. Weare also greatly
indebted to Arabic culture for mathematics (algebra was an
Arabic invention), astronomy, physics (optics), geology, botany,
medicine (Avicenna) etc. For the very first time, science took on
an international character in the Islamic universities of the Mid-
dle Ages. At this time, men were more steeped in the religious
spirit than they are today; but in the Islamic world, this did not
prevent them from being both believers and scientists. Science
was the twin of religion and it should never have ceased to be so.
The Medieval period was, for the Christian world, a time of
stagnation and absolute conformity. It must be stressed that
scientific research was not slowed down by the Judeo-Christian
Revelation itself, but rather by those people who claimed to be
its servants. Following the Renaissance, the scientists' natural
reaction was to take vengeance on their former enemies; thi&
vengeance still continues today, to such an extent indeed that in
I*&tfutt
u7
the west, anyone
who
talks of God in scientific
cireles
really
does
stand
out. Ttris attitude
affects the thinking
of all
young
Beople
who receive
a university
education,
Muslims
included'
Their thinking
could-hardly
be different
from
what
it is con-
sidering
the exireme
positions adopted
by the most
eminent
scientists.
A Nobel
prize winner
tor ltleaicine
has tried
in the
last
few
years to
perso*fl"
people, in a book intended
for mass
publi-
cstion,
that living
matter was able
to create
itself by chance
from
several
basic .oriporr.nts.
Starting,
he says,
with this
primitive
living matter, and under
the influence
of various
external
cir-
cumstanees,
organized
living
beings
were formed,
resulting
in
the formidable
complex
being that constitutes
man.
Surely
these marvels
of contemporary
scientific
knowledge
in
the fietd of life should
lead a thinking
person to the opposite
conclusion.
The organization
presiding over the birth
and main-
tenance
of life surely appears
more and more complicated
as one
studies
it; the *or" details
one knows,
the more admiration
it
commands.
A knowledge
of this organization
must
surely
lead
one to consider as less and less
probable the
part chance
has to
play in the
phenomenon of life. The further
one advances
along
the road to knowledge,
especially
of the infinitely
small,
the more
eloquent
are the *"go**rrts
in favor of the existence
of a Creator'
Instead of being
filled with humility
in the face of such
facts'
man
is filled with
"l""ogrn.e.
He sneers
at any idea
of God,
in the
same
way he runs
ao* anything
that detracts
from his
pleasure
and enjoyment.
This is the image
of the materialist
society
that
is flourishing
at
present in the West'
what spiritual
forces can be used
to oppose
this
pollution of
thought
practised by many contemporary
seientists?
Judaism
and christianity
make
no secret of their
inability
to
cope
with the tide of materialism
and invasion
of the West
by
atheism.
Both of them are comrlletely
taken oft
guard, and from
one decade to the next one can surely
see how seriously
dimin-
ished
their resistance
is to this tide that
threatens
to sweep
evenrthing
away.
The materialist
atheist
sees in classic
Chris-
tianity
nothing
more
than a system
constructed
by men
over
the
last
two thousand
years designed to ensure
the authority
of a
minority
over
their fellow **tt.
He is unable
to find
in Judeo-
Christisu
writings
any language that
is even vaguely
similar
to
Inlroducliora
117
the West, anyone who talks of God in scientific circles really does
stand out. This attitude affects the thinking of all young people
who receive a university education, Muslims included.
Their thinking could hardly be different from what it is con-
sidering the extreme positions adopted by the most eminent
scientists. A Nobel prize winner for Medicine has tried in the last
few years to persuade people, in a book intended for mass publi-
cation, that living matter was able to create itself by chance from
several basic components. Starting, he says, with this primitive
living matter, and under the influence of various external cir-
cumstances, organized living beings were formed, resulting in
the formidable complex being that constitutes man.
Surely these marvels of contemporary scientific knowledge in
the field of life should lead a thinking person to the opposite
conclusion. The organization presiding over the birth and main-
tenance of life surely appears more and more complicated as one
studies it; the more details one knows, the more admiration it
commands. A knowledge of this organization must surely lead
one to consider as less and less probable the part chance has to
play in the phenomenon of life. The further one advances along
the road to knowledge, especially of the infinitely small, the more
eloquent are the arguments in favor of the existence of a Creator.
Instead of being filled with humility in the face of such facts, man
is filled with arrogance. He sneers at any idea of God, in the
same way he runs down anything that detracts from his pleasure
and enjoyment. This is the image of the materialist society that
is flourishing at present in the West.
What spiritual forces can be used to oppose this pollution of
thought practised by many contemporary scientists?
Judaism and Christianity make no secret of their inability to
cope with the tide of materialism and invasion of the West by
atheism. Both of them are completely taken off guard, and from
one decade to the next one can surely see how seriously dimin-
ished their resistance is to this tide that threatens to sweep
everything away. The materialist atheist sees in classic Chris-
tianity nothing more than a system constructed by men over the
last two thousand years designed to ensure the authority of a
minority over their fellow men. He is unable to find in Judea-
Christian writings any language that is even vaguely similar to
ll8
TIIE BIBLq TIIE
QUR
AN AND SCIENCE
his_ own; they contain
so many improbabilities,
eontradictions
and ineompatibilities
with modern
scientific
data, that he refuses
to take
texts into
consideration
that the vast majority
of theo-
Iogians
would like to see aceepted
as an inseparable
whote.
When one mentions
Islam
to the materialist
atheist,
he smileg
with a eomplaeency
that is only equal to his ignorance
of the
stlb;gct rn common
with the maiority
of western intellectuals,
of whatever religious persuasion,
he has an impressive
collection
of false
notions
about
Islam.
one must, on this point,
allow him one or two excuses:
Firsfly,
apart from
the newly-adopted
attitudes prevailing
among the
highest
catholic
authorities,
Isram has arways
beJn subject
in
the west to a so-called
'secular
slander'.
Anyone in the west who
has aequired
a deep knowledg.e
of rslam
knows
just
to whst
extent its
history,
dogma,
and aims have been distorted.
One
must also take into
account
the fact that
documents pubrished
in European
Ianguages
on this subjeet (reaving
aside
hishly
speeialized
studies)
do not make the
work of a
person
wiling
to learn
any easier.
_
A knowledge
of the Isramic
Revelation is indeed fundamental
from this point
of view.
unfortunatery, passages
from
the
Qur'an, espeeially
those relating
to seientinc
data, are badly
translated
and interpreted,
so that a scientist
has every right
to
make
critieisms-with
apparent
justification-that
the Book
does not actually
deserve
at all. This
detail is worth
rting
henceforth:
inaccuracies
in translation
or erroneous
commen_
taries
(the
one is often
associated
with the other), which
would
not have surprised
anybody
one or two centuries'ago,
offend
to-
day's seientists.
when faced with
a badly transrated phrase
con-
taining a scientificalry
unaeceptable
statement,
the scientist
is
prevented
from
taking
the phrase
into
serious consideration.
rn
the chapter on human
reproduction,
a very
typical example
will
be
given
of this kind of enor.
why do such errors in translation
exist? They
may be explained
by the fact that modern
translators
often take up, rather
uncriti-
cally, the interpretations
given
by older commentators.
In their
day, the latter had an excuse for
having given
an inappropriate
definition
to an Arabic rvord containins
r.rr"""t possiul
*"rn-
ings; they could
not possibly
have
understood
the real
sense
of
118
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
his own; they contain so many improbabilities, contradictions
and incompatibilities with modem scientific data, that he refuses
to take texts into consideration that the vast majority of theo-
logians would like to see accepted as an inseparable whole.
When one mentions Islam to the materialist atheist, he smiles
with a complacency that is only equal to his ignorance of the
subject. In common with the majority of western intellectuals,
of whatever religious persuasion, he has an impressive collection
of false notions about Islam.
One must, on this point, allow him one or two excuses: Firstly,
apart from the newly-adopted attitudes prevailing among the
highest Catholic authorities, Islam has always been subject in
the West to a so-called 'secular slander'. Anyone in the West who
has acquired a deep knowledge of Islam knows just to what
extent its history, dogma, and aims have been distorted. One
must also take into account the fact that documents published
in European languages on this subject (leaving aside highly
specialized studies) do not make the work of a person willing
to learn any easier.
A knowledge of the Islamic Revelation is indeed fundamental
from this point of view. Unfortunately, passages from the
Qur'an, especially those relating to scientific data, are badly
translated and interpreted, so that a scientist has every right to
make criticisms-with apparent justification-that the Book
does not actually deserve at all. This detail is worth )ting
henceforth: inaccuracies in translation or erroneous commen-
taries (the one is often associated with the other), which would
not have surprised anybody one or two centuries ago, offend to-
day's scientists. When faced with a badly translated phrase con-
taining a scientifically unacceptable statement, the scientist is
prevented from taking the phrase into serious consideration. In
the chapter on human reproduction, a very typical example will
be given of this kind of error.
Why do such errors in translation exist? They may be explained
by the fact that modern translators often take up, rather uncriti-
cally, the interpretations given by older commentators. In their
day, the latter had an excuse for having given an inappropriate
definition to an Arabic word containing several possible mean-
ings; they could not possibly have understood the real sense of
Iffin
ll0
the word or
phrase which has only become clear
in the
present
day thanks to scientific knowledge.
In other words, the
problem
is raised of the ncessary revision of translations
and com-
mentaries. It was not
possible to do this at a certain
period in
the
past,
but nowadays we have
knowledge that enubles
us to
render their true sense.
These
problems of translation
are not
preent for the texts of the Judeo-Christian
Revelation:
the case
described
here is absolutely unique
to the
Qur'an'
These scientific
considerations,
which sre very specific
to the
Qur'an,
gfeatly surprised
me at first. Up until
then, I had not
thought
it
possible for one to find so many statements
in a tnxt
"o*piled
more than thirteen centuries
ago referring to extremely
diverse subjects and all of them totally in keeping
with modern
scientific knowledge.
In the beginning,
I had no faith whatsoever
in Islam. I began lhis
"**mination
of the texts with a completely
open mind and a total obiectivity.
If there
was any influence
".ting
upon me, it was
gained from what I had been taught
in
my
youttr; people did not speak of Muslims, but of
'Muhamma-
dens" to mahe it
quite
clear that what was meant
was a religion
founded by a, tttttt and which could not therefore
have any
kind of vslue in terms of God. Like many in the west,
I could
hsve retained the same false
notions about
Islam; they are so
widely-spread
today, that I am indeed
surprised
when
I come
across &nyone, other than a specialist,
who can talk in an enlighL
ened manner
on this subject.
I therefore
admit that
before I was
glven a view of Islam difrerent from the one
received
in the west'
I was myself extremelY
ignorant.
I owe the fact that I was able
to realize the false nature
of the
judgements generally made
in the West about
Islam to excep-
tional circumstances.
It was in saudi
Arabia itself that an inkling
was
given to me of the extent
to which opinions
held
in the West
on this subject
are liable
to error.
The debt of
gratitude I owe to the late King Faisal,
whose
memory
I salute with deepest
respect,
is indeed very
great: the
fact that I was
gi ven the si gnal
honour of heari ng hi m
speak on
Isl am and was ubl . to rai se u' i th hi m certai n
probl ems concerni ng
the
i nterpretati on
of the
Qur' an
i n rel ati on
to modern
sci ence
i s
a very cherished
memory.
It was an extremely
great
privilege
lralrodudiort
- -----
118
the word or phrase which has only become clear in the present
day thanks to scientific knowledge. In other words, the problem
is raised of the necessary revision of translations and com-
mentaries. It was not possible to do this at a certain period in
the past, but nowadays we have knowledge that enables us to
render their true sense. These problems of translation are not
present for the texts of the Judeo-Christian Revelation: the case
described here is absolutely unique to the Qur'an.
These scientific considerations, which are very specific to the
Qur'an, greatly surprised me at first. Up until then, I had not
thought it possible for one to find so many statements in a text
compiled more than thirteen centuries ago referring to extremely
diverse subjects and all of them totally in keeping with modem
scientific knowledge. In the beginning, I had no faith whatsoever
in Islam. I began this examination of the texts with a completely
open mind and a total objectivity. If there was any influence
acting upon me, it was gained from what I had been taught in
my youth; people did not speak of Muslims, but of 'Muhamma-
dans', to make it quite clear that what was meant was a religion
founded by a man and which could not therefore have any
kind of value in terms of God. Like many in the West, I could
have retained the same false notions about Islam; they are so
widely-spread today, that I am indeed surprised when I come
across anyone, other than a specialist, who can talk in an enlight-
ened manner on this subject. I therefore admit that before I was
given a view of Islam different from the one received in the West,
I was myself extremely ignorant.
I owe the fact that I was able to realize the false nature of the
judgements generally made in the West about Islam to excep-
tional circumstances. It was in Saudi Arabia itself that an inkling
was given to me of the extent to which opinions held in the West
on this subject are liable to error.
The debt of gratitude lowe to the late King Faisa!, whose
memory I salute with deepest respect, is indeed very great: the
fact that I was given the signal honour of hearing him speak on
Is1am and was able to raise with him certain problems concerning
the interpretation of the Qur'an in relation to modern science is
a very cherished memory. It was an extremely great privilege
180
TIIE BBLE
fiIE
QI'R'AN
AND SCTENGE
for me to have gathered
so much preeious
information
from him
personally
and those around
him.
sinee r had now seen the wide gap
separating
the reality
of
Islsm from the image
we have of it in the west, I experienced
a great
need to learn Arabie (rvhieh
I did not speak) to be suffi-
ciently well-equipped
to progress
in the study of such a misunder-
stood religion.
My first goal
was to read
the
eur'an
and to make
a sentence-by-sentenee
analysis
of it with the help of various
commentaries
essential
to a eritical
study. My approach
was to
pay
special
attention
to the deseription
of numerous
natural
phenomena
given
in the
eur'an;
the hishly accurate
nature of
certain
details referring
to them in thJ BLok, which was only
apparent in the original,
struek me by the fact that they were
in keeping
with present-day
ideas,
although a man living:
at the
time of Muhammad
could not have
*urp..t.d
this at all. I sub.
sequently read
several works written
by Muslim authors
on the
scientific
aspects
of the
eur'anic
text: they \4rere extremely
helpful
in my appreciation
of it, but I have not sofar discovered
a general
study of this subjeet made in the West.
What initially
strikes the reader
confronted for the first time
with a text of this kind is the sheer abundance
of subjects
dis-
cussed: the Creation,
astronomy,
the explanation
of .*"t*in maL
ters concerning
the earth, and the animal and vegetable kingdoms,
human reproduction.
whereas
monumental
e*ors are to be found
in the Bible, I could not find a single error in the
eur'an.
I had to
stop and ask myself : if a man was the author of the
eur'an,
how could he have written facts in the Seventh century A.D. that
today
are shown
to be in keeping with
modern scientific knowl-
edge? There was absolutely
no doubt about it: the text of the
Qur'an
we have today is most definitely
a text of the period,
if
I may be allowed
to
put
it in these terms (in
the next cirapter of
the
present
section of the book I shall be dealins with this prob-
lem). lVhat human
explanation
can there
be for this observation?
In my opinion there is no explanation;
there is no special reason
why an inhabitant
of the Arabian
peninsula
shouid
,
at a time
when Ki ng Dagobert
was rei gni ng i n France (629-689
A.D.),
have had scientific knowledge
on certain
subjects
that was ten
centuries
ahead of our own.
110 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
for me to have gathered so much precious information from him
personally and those around him.
Since I had now seen the wide gap separating the reality of
Islam from the image we have of it in the West, I experienced
a great need to learn Arabic (which I did not speak) to be suffi-
ciently well-equipped to progress in the study of such a misunder-
stood religion. My first goal was to read the Qur'an and to make
a sentence-by-sentence analysis of it with the help of various
commentaries essential to a critical study. My approach was to
pay special attention to the description of numerous natural
phenomena given in the Qur'an; the highly accurate nature of
certain details referring to them in the Book, which was only
apparent in the original, struck me by the fact that they were
in keeping with present-day ideas, although a man living at the
time of Muhammad could not have suspected this at all. I sub-
sequently read several works written by Muslim authors on the
scientific aspects of the Qur'anic text: they were extremely helpful
in my appreciation of it, but I have not so far discovered a general
study of this subject made in the West.
What initially strikes the reader confronted for the first time
with a text of this kind is the sheer abundance of subjects dis-
cussed: the Creation, astronomy, the explanation of certain mat-
ters concerning the earth, and the animal and vegetable kingdoms,
human reproduction. Whereas monumental errors are to be found
in the Bible, I could not find a single error in the Qur'an. I had to
stop and ask myself: if a man was the author of the Qur'an,
how could he have written facts in the Seventh century A.D. that
today are shown to be in keeping with modern scientific knowl-
edge? There was absolutely no doubt about it: the text of the
Qur'an we have today is most definitely a text of the period, if
I may be allowed to put it in these terms (in the next chapter of
the present section of the book I shall be dealing with this prob-
lem). What human explanation can there be for this observation?
In my opinion there is no explanation; there is no special reason
why an inhabitant of the Arabian Peninsula should, at a time
when King Dagobert was reigning in France (629-639 A.D.),
have had scientific knowledge on certain subjects that was ten
centuries ahead of our own.
/rrrfrtdluc'drr;
lll
It is an establistred
fact that at the time
of the
Qut'anic
Revela'
tion, i.e. within a
period of roughly
twenty
years straddling
Hegira
(622 A.D.), scientific
knowledge
had not
progressed for
eenturies
and the
period of activity
in Isla,mic
civilization,
witlh
its accompanying
scientific
upsurgp'
ci1lne after the cloee
of the
eur'anic
it"tr.t*t]on.
Only ignorance
of such religious
and sculrr
a"t" ean lead to the following
bizarre
suggestion
I have
hesrd
several
times:
if surprising
statements
of s scientifie
nature
exigt
in the
Qurran,
they may be accounted
for by the fact t,hst
Arab scientists
were so fer shesd
of their time and Muha'mmad
was influenced
by their work.
Anyone
who knows anything
sbout
Islemic history
is aware that
the
period of the Middle ASeB
which
sew the cultural and scientific
upsurge
in the Arab
world came
after Muhammad,
and
would not therefore
indulge
in such
whims. Susgestions
of this kind are
particula"lry ofi the mark
because
the-maiority
of scientific
facts
which are either 8ug-
gested or very *t**itv recorded
in the
Qut'an
have only bon
confirmed
in modern
times.
It is e88y to see
therefore
how for centuries
commetrtators
on
the
Qurtan
(including those
writing
at the height
of Islamic
culture)
have inevitably
made errors
of interTretation
ilF" csse
of certain verses
whose exact meaning
could not
possibly have
been
rasped.
It was not until much
later, at a
period not far
from our own, that it was
possible to translate
and interaret
thert
eorreetly.
Thi; implies thal a thorough linguistic
lrnowledge
is not
in itseli sufficient
to understand
these verses frtm
the
Qurtan'
what
is neeaea abng
with this is a hishly diversified
knowledge
of science.
A study
such
gs
the
frresent
one embraees
many
dise,iplines
and
is in that sense encyclopedic.
As the
qrrestions
raised are'discussed,
the variety
of scientific
lrnowledgB
essential
to the understanding
of certain verses of the
Qur'an
will become
clear.
The
Qur'an
does not aim at explaining
eertain
lsws
gpverning
the universe,
however;
it has an absolutely
bssic
religious
objec-
tive. The descriptions
of Divine
Omnipotence
sre what
princi-
pally incite *an to reflect on the works of Creation'
They
are
"."i*p"nied
by reference$
to fscts
aceessible
to human
observl-
tion or to laws hefined
by God
who
presides over
the organization
of the universe
both
in the sciences
of nature
and as regard'r man'
lfllroduclloa
III
It is an established fact that at the time of the Qur'anic Revela-
tion, i.e. within a period of roughly twenty years straddling
Hegira (622 A.D.), scientific knowledge had not progressed for
centuries and the period of activity in Islamic civilization, with
its accompanying scientific upsurge, came a,fte:r the close of the
Qur'anic Revelation. Only ignorance of such religious and secular
data can lead to the following bizarre suggestion I have heard
several times: if surprising statements of a scientific nature
exist in the Qur'an, they may be accounted for by the fact that
Arab scientists were so far ahead of their time and Muhammad
was influenced by their work. Anyone who knows anything about
Islamic history is aware that the period of the Middle Ages which
saw the cultural and scientific upsurge in the Arab world came
after Muhammad, and would not therefore indulge in such
whims. Suggestions of this kind are particularly off the mark
because the majority of scientific facts which are either sug-
gested or very clearly recorded in the Qur'an have only been
confirmed in modern times.
It is easy to see therefore how for centuries commentators on
the Qur'an (including those writing at the height of Islamic
culture) have inevitably made errors of interpretation in the ease
of certain verses whose exact meaning could not possibly have
been grasped. It was not until much later, at a period not far
from our own, that it was possible to translate and interpret them
correctly. This implies that a thorough linguistic knowledge is not
in itself sufficient to understand these verses from the Qur'an.
What is needed along with this is a highly diversified knowledge
of science. A study such as the present one embraces many
disciplines and is in that sense encyclopedic. As the questions
raised are-discussed, the variety of scientific knowledge essential
to the understanding of certain verses of the Qur'an will become
clear.
The Qur'an does not aim at explaining certain laws governing
the Universe, however; it has an absolutely basic religious objec-
tive_ The descriptions of Divine Omnipotence are what princi-
pally incite man to reflect on the works of Creation. They are
accompanied by references to facts accessible to human observa-
tion or to laws defined by God who presides over the organization
of the universe both in the sciences of nature and as regards man.
lll
TF BIBLE
THE
QTTR
AN AND SCTENGE
One
pert
of these
assertions
is eesily understood,
but the mean_
ing of the other can only be
grasped
if one has the essential scien-
ti{tc knowledge
it requires.
This means that in former times, man
eould only distinguish
an apparent
meaning
which
led him to
draw the wrong
conclusions
on aecount
of ttre inaa.qo**y
of his
lnowledge
at the time in guestion.
It is
possible
that the ehoiee of verses
from the
eur'an
whieh
are to be studied
for their
scientific
content may plrhaps
seem
too small for certain
llruslim
writers
who have- aiready
d""*r,
attention
to them
before
I have. In general,
I believe
I have
r_etained
a slighfly
smaller
number
of vers"*
th*n they have.
on
the other
hand,
I have singred
out several
verses which
untir
now have
not, in my opinion,
been granted
the importance
they
deserye
from-a
_scientific
point
of view.
whereu""
I **" have
mistakenly
failed to take verses
into eonsideration
for this study
that
were seleeted
by these
writers, I hope that they will not hold
it againet
me. I heve
also found,
on oceasion,
that certain
books
contain
scientific
interpretations
which
do not appear
to me to
be correct;
it is with
an open mind
and a elear eonscience
that I
have provided
personal
interpretations
of such verses.
By the
same token,
I have tried to find references
in the
eur'an
to
phenomena
accessibre
to human comprehension
but which
h^ave
not been confirmed
by modern science-
In this context,
I think
I
may have found references
in the
eur'an
to the presence
of
planets
in the universe
that are similar to the Earttr.
tt must be
added
that many scientists
think this is a
perfectly
feasible
fact,
although modern
data cannot provide
rr,y
hirrt of certainty.
I
thought r owed it to myself
to mention
this, whilst retaining
atl
the attendant reservations
that
might be appried.
Had this study been made thirty years
ago, it would have been
necessary
to add another
fact predicted
by the
eur'an
to what
would
have been eited concerning
astrotto*y;
this fact is the con-
quest
of space. At that time, subsequent
to the first
trials of
ballistic
missiles, people
imagined
a day when
man rvould perhaps
have the material possibirity
of reaving
his earthly habitat
and
exploring
space. It was
then known
ttrat a verse
existed in the
Qur'an
predicting
how one day man would make this
conquest.
This statement
has
now been verified.
10
1'IJE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
One part of these assertions is easily understood, but the mean-
ing of the other can only be grasped if one has the essential scien-
tific knowledge it requires. This means that in former times, man
could only distinguish an apparent meaning which led him to
draw the wrong conclusions on account of the inadequacy of his
knowledge at the time in question.
It is possible that the choice of verses from the Qur'an which
are to be studied for their scientific content may perhaps seem
too small for certain Muslim writers who have already drawn
atte.ntion to them before I have. In general, I believe I have
retained a slightly smaller number of verses than they have. On
the other hand, I have singled out several verses which until
now have not, in my opinion, been granted the importance they
deserve from a scientific point of view. Wherever I may have
mistakenly failed to take verses into consideration for this study
that were selected by these writers, I hope that they will not hold
it against me. I have also found, on occasion, that certain books
contain scientific interpretations which do not appear to me to
be correct; it is with an open mind and a clear conscience that I
have provided personal interpretations of such verses.
By the same token, I have tried to find references in the Qur'an
to phenomena accessible to human comprehension but which have
not been confirmed by modern science. In this context, I think I
may have found references in the Qur'an to the presence of
planets in the Universe that are similar to the Earth. It must be
added that many scientists think this is a perfectly feasible fact,
although modern data cannot provide any hint of certainty. I
thought lowed it to myself to mention this, whilst retaining all
the attendant reservations that might be applied.
Had this study been made thirty years ago, it would have been
necessary to add another fact predicted by the Qur'an to what
would have been cited concerning astronomy; this fact is the con-
quest of space. At that time, subsequent to the first trials of
ballistic missiles, people imagined a day when man would perhaps
have the material possibility of leaving his earthly habitat and
exploring space. It was then known that a verse existed in the
Qur'an predicting how one day man would make this conquest.
This statement has now been verified.
htfioilwfutt
The
present confrontation between Holy Scripture
and science
bringS id""s into
play, both for the Bible and the
Qur'an,
which
concern scientific truth. For this confrontation
to be valid' the
scientific
arguments
to be relied upon must be
quite soundly
established
and must leave no room for doubt. Those who balk
at the idea of accepting
the intervention
of science
in an appreci-
ation of the Scriptures
deny that it is
possible for science to
constitute a valid
term of comparison
(whether it be the Bible'
which does
not escape the comparison
unscathed-and
we have
seen why-or the
Qur'an,
which has nothing to fear from sci-
ence). Science,
they say, is changing
with the times and a fact
aceepted today may be rejected later.
This last comment
calls for the following observation:
a dis-
tinetion must be drawn between scientific theory and duly con-
trolled observed
fact. Theory is intended to explain a
phenomenon
or a series of
phenomena not readily undershandable.
In many
instances theory changes:
it is liable to be modified
or replaeed
by another theory
when scientific
progress
makes
it easier
to
analyse facts and
invisage a more viable explanation.
On
the
other hand, an observed fact checked by experimentation
is not
liable to modification:
it becomes easier to define its character-
istics, but it remains the same.
It has been established
that the
Earth revolves around the Sun and the Moon around the Earth'
and this fact will not be subjeet
to revision;
all that may be done
in the future is to define the orbits
more clearly.
A regard for the changlng nature
of theorY is, for example,
what made me reiect a verse from the
Qur'an
thought by a
Muslim
physicist to
predict the concept of anti-matter, a theory
which is at
present the subject
of much
debate' One can, on the
other hand,
quite legitimately devote
great attention to a verse
from the
Qur'an
describing the aquatic
origins of life, a
pheno-
menon we shall
never be able to verify,
but which has many argu-
ments that speak in its favour. As for observed facts such as the
evolution of the human embryo,
it is
quite possible to confront
different stages
described in the
Qur'an
with the data of modern
embryology
and find complete concordance
between modern sci-
ence and the verses of the
Qur'an
referring
to this subject'
This confrontation
between the
Qur'an
and science has been
completed by two other comparisons:
one is the confrontation
12tl
Introduction 123
The present confrontation between Holy Scripture and science
brings ideas into play, both for the Bible and the Qur'an, which
concern scientific truth. For this confrontation to be valid, the
scientific arguments to be relied upon must be quite soundly
established and must leave no room for doubt. Those who balk
at the idea of accepting the intervention of science in an appreci-
ation of the Scriptures deny that it is possible for science to
constitute a valid tenn of comparison (whether it be the Bible,
which does not escape the comparison unscathed-and we have
seen why--or the Qur'an, which has nothing to fear from sci-
ence). Science, they say, is changing with the times and a fact
accepted today may be rejected later.
This last comment calls for the following observation: a dis-
tinction must be drawn between scientific theory and duly con-
trolled observed fact. Theory is intended to explain a phenomenon
or a series of phenomena not readily understandable. In many
instances theory changes: it is liable to be modified or replaced
by another theory when scientific progress makes it easier to
analyse facts and invisage a more viable explanation. On the
other hand, an observed fact checked by experimentation is not
liable to modification: it becomes easier to define its character-
istics, but it remains the same. It has been established that the
Earth revolves around the Sun and the Moon around the Earth,
and .this fact will not be subject to revision; all that may be done
in the future is to define the orbits more clearly.
A regard for the changing nature of theory is, for example,
what made me reject a verse from the Qur'an thought by a
Muslim physicist to predict the concept of anti-matter, a theory
which is at present the subject of much debate. One can, on the
other hand, quite legitimately devote great attention to a verse
from the Qur'an describing the aquatic origins of life, a pheno-
menon we shall never be able to verify, but which has many argu-
ments that speak in its favour. As for observed facts such as the
evolution of the human embryo, it is quite possible to confront
different stages described in the Qur'an with the data of modern
embryology and find complete concordance between modern sci-
ence and the verses of the Qur'an referring to this subject.
This confrontation between the Qur'an and science has been
completed by two other comparisons: one is the confrontation
I'g1
TIIE BIBI.FO TIIE
QIIN'AI{
AND SCIEN@
of modern knowledge
with Biblieal data on the same subjects;
and the other is the comparison
from the same seientific
point
of
view between the date in the
eurran,
the Book of Bevelation
transmitted
by God to the Prophet,
and the data in the Hadiths,
books narrating
the deeds
and sayings of Muhammad that lie
ouLgide the written
Revelstion.
At the end of this, the third
section of the
present
work, the
detailed results
of the comparison
between the Biblical and
Qur'anic
description
of a single event are given,
along with an
aceount of how the passage
fared when subjected to the scientific
criticism of each description.
An examination has, for example,
been made in the case of the Creation and of the Flood. In eaeh
instance,
the incompatibilities
with science in the Biblical descrip-
tion have been made clear. Also to be seen is the complete agree-
ment between
science and the descriptions in the
eur'an
referring
to them. We shall note precisely
those differences that make one
description
seigntifically
acceptable in the
present
day and the
other unacceptable.
firis observation
is of
prime
importanee,
since in the west,
Jews, Christians and Atheists are unanimous in stating (without
a scrap of evidenee however) that lvruhammad
wrote the
eur'an
or had it written
as an imitation of the Bible. It is claimed thet
stories of religious
history in the
Qur'an
resume Biblical
stories.
This attitude is as thoughtless as saying that Jesus Himself
duped Iris contemporaries
by drawing inspiration
from the old
Testament
during His preachings:
the whole of Matthew's
Gos-
pel
is based on this
continuation of the old restament,
as we
have indeed
seen already. What expert in exegesis would dream
of depriving Jesus
of his status ag God's envoy for this reason?
This is nevertheless
the way thst
Muhammad is
judged
more
often than not in the West:
"all
he did was to copy ttre Bible".
rt is a summary
judgement
that does not take account of the faet
that the
Qur'an
and the Bible
provide
different versions
of a
single event. People prefer
not to talk about the difference in the
descriptions. They are pronounced
to be the same and thus sciep-
tific knowledge need
not be brought in.
we shall enlarge on these
problems
when dealing with the description
of the Creation and
the Flood.
124 THE BmLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
of modern knowledge with Biblical data on the same subjects;
and the other is the comparison from the same scientific point of
view between the data in the Qur'an, the Book of Revelation
transmitted by God to the Prophet, and the data in the Hadiths,
books narrating the deeds and sayings of Muhammad that lie
out.CJide the written Revelation.
At the end of this, the third section of the present work, the
detailed results of the comparison between the Biblical and
Qur'anic description of a single event are given, along with an
account of how the passage fared when subjected to the scientific
criticism of each description. An examination has, for example,
been made in the case of the Creation and of the Flood. In each
instance, the incompatibilities with science in the Biblical descrip-
tion have been made clear. Also to be seen is the complete agree-
ment between science and the descriptions in the Qur'an referring
to them. We shall note precisely those differences that make one
description acceptable in the present day and the
other unacceptable.
This observation is of prime importance, since in the West,
Jews, Christians and Atheists are unanimous in stating (without
a scrap of evidence however) that Muhammad wrote the Qur'an
or had it written as an imitation of the Bible. It is claimed that
stories of religious history in the Qur'an resume Biblical stories.
This attitude is as thoughtless as saying that Jesus Himself
duped His contemporaries by drawing inspiration from the Old
Testament during His preachings: the whole of Matthew's Gos-
pel is based on this continuation of the Old Testament, as we
have indeed seen already. What expert in exegesis would dream
of depriving Jesus of his status as God's envoy for this reason?
This is nevertheless the way that Muhammad is judged more
often than not in the West: "all he did was to copy the Bible".
It is a summary judgement that does not take account of the fact
that the Qur'an and the Bible provide different versions of a
single event. People prefer not to talk about the difference in the
descriptions. They are pronounced to be the same and thus sciep-
tific knowledge need not be brought in. We shall enlarge on these
problems when dealing with the description of the Creation and
the Flood.
IffiuLcro,l_
lgt
The collection of hadiths are to Muhammad
what the Gospels
are to JesUs:
descriptions of the actions and sayings
of the
Pnophet. Their authors
were not eyewitnesses-
(This applies at
leas,t to the compilers
of the collections of hadiths which are said
to be the moet authentic and were collected much later
than the
time when Muhammad
was alive). They do not in any
way con-
stitute books containing the written Revelation.
They are not the
word of God,
but the sayings
of the Prophet.
In these
books,
which are very widely read, statements are to be found containing
errors from a scientific
point of view, especially
medical
remedies'
We nsturally
discount anything
relating to
problems of a relig-
ious kind, since they are not discussed
here in the context
of the
hadiths. Many hadiths are of doubtful authenticity;
they are
discussed by Muslim scientists themselves.
When the scientific
nature
of one of the hadiths is touehed upon
in the
present work'
it is essentially to
put into relief all that distinguishes
them from
the
Qur'an
itself when seen from this
point of view, since the
latter does not contain a single scientific statement that is unae-
ceptable. The difference,
as we shall see, is
quite startling.
The above observation
makes the hypothesis
advanced
by those
who see Muhammad as the author of the
Qur'an
quite untenable.
How eould a man, from being illiterate, become the most
impor-
tant author, in terms of literary merit, in the whole of Arabic
literature? How could he then
pronounce truths of a scientifie
nature that no other human being could
possibly have developed
at the time, and all this rvithout once making the slightest error
in his
pronouncements on the subject?
The ideas in this study are developed
from
a
purely scientific
point
of view. They lead to the conclusion.that
it is inconceivable
io"
"
human being living in the Seventh
century
A.D' to have
inade statements
in the
Qur'an
on a
great variety of subjects that
do
not belong to his
period and for them to be in keeping
with
what was to be known
only centuries later-
Fdr me, there
can be
no human explanation
to the
Qur'an.
125
The collection of hadiths are to Muhammad what the Gospels
are to Jesus: descriptions of the actions and sayings of the
Prophet. Their authors were not eyewitnesses. (This applies at
least to the compilers of the collections of hadiths which are said
to be the most authentic and were collected much later than the
time when Muhammad was alive). They do not in any way con-
stitute books containing the written Revelation. They are not the
word of God, but the sayings of the Prophet. In these books,
which are very widely read, statements are to be found containing
errors from a scientific point of view, especially medical remedies.
We naturally dis'count anything relating to problems of a relig-
ious kind, since they are not discussed here in the context of the
hadiths. Many hadiths are of doubtful authenticity; they are
discussed by Muslim scientists themselves. When the scientific
nature of one of the hadiths is touched upon in the present work,
it is essentially to put into relief all that distinguishes them from
the Qur'an itself when seen from this point of view, since the
latter does not contain a single scientific statement that is unac-
ceptable. The difference, as we shall see, is quite startling.
The above observation makes the hypothesis advanced by those
who see Muhammad as the author of the Qur'an quite untenable.
How could a man, from being illiterate, become the most impor-
tant author, in terms of literary merit, in the whole of Arabic
literature? How could he then pronounce truths of a scientific
nature that no other human being could possibly have developed
at the time, and all this without once making the slightest error
in his pronouncements on the subject?
The ideas in this study are developed from a purely scientific
point of view. They lead to the conclusion that it is inconceivable
for a human being living in the Seventh' century A.D. to have
made statements in the Qur'an on a great variety of subjects that
do not belong to his period and for them to be in keeping with
what was to be known only centuries later. For me, there can be
no human explanation to the Qur'an.
il
Authenticity
of
the
Qur'arr,
How lt
Carrre
To
Be Wrillerr.
Thanks
to its undisputed
authenticity, the text of the
eur'an
holds a unique place
among the
books of Revelation,
slared
neither by the old nor the New Testament. In the first two sec-
tions of this work, a review rvas made
of the alterations
under-
gone
by the old restament
and the Gospels before they were
handed down to us in the form we know today. The same is not
true for the
Qur'an
for the simpre reason that it was. written
down at the time of the
prophet;
we shall see how it came to be
written, i.e. the
process
involved.
In this context, the differences
separating
the
eur'an
from the
Bible are in no way due to question*
*sr.nlially
ioncerned
with
date. such questions
are constanfly put
forward by certain people
without regard
to the cireumstanees prevailing
at the time when
the
Judeo-christian and the
eur'anic Revetations
were written;
they have an equal disregard
for the circumstances
surrounding
the transmission
of the
eur'an
to the
prophet.
It is suggested
that a seventh century text had more rikelihood
of cominstown
to us unaltered than other
texts that are as many as fifteen cen-
turies older. This comment,
although correct,
does not constitute
a sufficient reason; it is made more to excuse the alterations
made
in the Judeo-christian
texts in the course of centuries
than to
underline the
notion
that the text of the
eur'an,
which
was more
recent, had less
to fear from being modified by man.
rg0
II
4.uthEntit:il}' of the Qo..'an.
~ It CaIRE
To l3e W ..illen.
Thanks to its undisputed authenticity, the text of the Qur'an
holds a unique place among the books of Revelation, shared
neither by the Old nor the New Testament. In the first two sec-
tions of this work, a review was made of the alterations under-
gone by the Old Testament and the Gospels before they were
handed down to us in the form we know today. The same is not
true for the Qur'an for the simple reason that it was. written
down at the time of the Prophet; we shall see how it came to be
written, Le. the process involved.
In this context, the differences separating the Qur'an from the
Bible are in no way due to questions essentially concerned with
date. Such questions are constantly put forward by certain people
without regard to the circumstances prevailing at the time when
the Judeo-Christian and the Qur'anic Revelations were written;
they have an equal disregard for the circumstances surrounding
the transmission of the Qur'an to the Prophet. It is suggested
that a Seventh century text had more likelihood of coming down
to us unaltered than other texts that are as many as fifteen cen-
turies older. This comment, although correct, does not constitute
a sufficient reason; it is made more to excuse the alterations made
in the Judeo-Christian texts in the course of centuries than to
underline the notion that the text of the Qur'an, which was more
recent, had less to fear from being' modified by man.
126
Autlrrlnffitg ol tllo
Qrdan.
How lt CanP to be Written L27
In the case of the Old Testament, the sheer number of authors
who tell the same story,
plus
all the revisions carried out on the
text of certain books from the
pre-Christian era, constitute as
msny reasons for inaccuracy and contradiction. As for the
Gospels, nobody can claim that they invariably contain faithful
accounts of Jesus's words or a description
of his actions strictly
in keeping with reality. We have seen how successive
versions
of the texts showed a lack of definite authenticity
and moreover
that their authors were not eyewitnesses.
Also to be underlined is the distinction
to be made between
the
Qur'fln,
a book of written Revelation, and the hadiths, col-
leetions of statements concerning the actions and sayings of
Muhammad. Some of the Prophet's companions started to write
them down from the moment of his death. As an element of hu-
man error could have slipped in, the collection had to be resumed
later and subjected to rigorous criticism so that the
greatest
credit is in
prsctise given
to documents that came along after
Muhammad. Their authenticity varies, like that of the Gospels.
Not a single Gospel was written down at the time of Jesus
(they
were all written long after his earthly mission had come to an
end), and not a single collection of hadiths was compiled during
the time of the Prophet.
The situation is very different for the
Qur'an.
As the Revelation
progressed,
the Prophet and the believers following him recited
the text by heart and it was also written down by the scribes in
his following. It therefore starts off with two elements of authen-
ticity that the Gospels do not
possess. This continued up to the
Prophet's death. At a time lvhen not everybody could write, but
everyone was able to reeite, r'ecitntion afforded a considerable
advantage because of the double-checking
possible when the
definitive text was compiled.
The
Qur'anic
Revelation was made by Archangel Gabriel to
Muhammad.
It took
place
over a
period of more than twenty
years of the Prophet's life, beginning n'ith the first verses of
Sura 96, then resuming after a three-year break for a long
period
of twenty
years up to the death of the Prophet in 632 A.D., i.e.
ten
years before Hegira and ten
years after Hegira.l
1. Muhsmmad' s departure from Makka to Madi na,622
A' D'
Authenticity of tM Qut'an. How It Came to be Written 127
In the ease of the Old Testament, the sheer number of authors
who tell the same story, plus all the revisions carried out on the
text of certain books from the pre-Christian era, constitute as
many reasons for inaccuracy and contradiction. As for the
Gospels, nobody can claim that they invariably contain faithful
accounts of Jesus's words or a description of his actions strictly
in keeping with reality. We have seen how successive versions
of the texts showed a lack of definite authenticity and moreover
that their authors were not eyewitnesses.
Also to be underlined is the distinction to be made between
the Qur'an, a book of written Revelation, and the hadiths, col-
leetions of statements concerning the actions and sayings of
Muhammad. Some of the Prophet's companions started to write
them down from the moment of his death. As an element of hu-
man error could have slipped in, the collection had to be resumed
later and subjeeted to rigorous criticism so that the greatest
credit is in practise given to documents that came along after
Muhammad. Their authenticity varies, like that of the Gospels.
Not a single Gospel was written down at the time of Jesus (they
were all written long after his earthly mission had come to an
end), and not a single collection of hadiths was compiled during
the time of the Prophet.
The situation is very different for the Qur'an. As the Revelation
progressed, the Prophet and the believers following him recited
the text by heart and it was also written down by the scribes in
his following. It therefore starts off with two elements of authen-
ticity that the Gospels do not possess. This continued up to the
Prophet's death. At a time when not everybody could write, but
everyone was able to recite, recitation afforded a considerable
advantage because of the double-checking possible when the
definitive text was compiled.
The Qur'anic Revelation was made by Archangel Gabriel to
Muhammad. It took place over a period of more than twenty
years of the Prophet's life, beginning with the first verses of
Sura 96, then resuming after a three-year break for a long period
of twenty years up to the death of the Prophet in 632 A.D., Le.
ten years before Hegira and ten years after Hegira.
1
1. Muhammad's departure from Makka to Marlina, 622 A.D.
I88
TTIE BIBI,4 MIE
QT'N'AN
AIID SCIENCE
fire following wss ttre first Revelation
(sure
96, verses I to 6)
r
:
"Bead:
In the narne of thy Inrd who created,
Slho erested man from something whieh clings
Read ! Thy Iord is the most Noble
TVho taught by the
pen
Iilho taught man what he did not know."
Professor Hamidullah
notes in the Introduction
to his French
tranelstion of the
Qur'an
that one of the themes of this first
Revelation wasr the
'praise
of the
pen
as a means of human
knowledge' which would
'explain
the
prophet's
concern for the
pnesenration
of the
Qur'an
in writing.'
Texts formally prove
that long before the
prophet
left Msl*s
for Madina (i.e.
long before rlegrra), the
eur'anie
text so far
revealed had been written down. lve shall see how the
eur'an
is authentic in this. We know that llluhammad and the Believers
who surrounded
him were accustomed to reciting the revealed
text from memory. It is therefore inconceivable
for the
eur'an
to refer to facts that did not square with reality because the
Iattcr could so easily be checked with
people
in the
prophet's
following, by asking the authors of the transcription.
Four suras dating from a
period prior
to Hegira refer to the
urriting dourn of the
Qur'an
before the
prophet
left Mskka in
622
(sura
80, verses 1l to 16):
"By
no means ! Indeed it is a message of instruction
Thenefore whoever wills, should remember
On leaves held in honor
Exalted, purified
In the hands of seribes
Noble
and
pious."
Yusuf Ali, in the commentary to his translation, rg84, wrote
thst when the Revelation of this sur& was made, forty-two or
forty-five others had been written and were kept by Muslims in
Mskka
(out
of s total of 114).
1. Muhemmad wac totslly overwhelmed by these words. We shall retrrn to
an interpretation of them, especially with regard to the fect that Mu-
hrnmgd could neither reed nor writo,
118 TIlE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The following was the first Revelation (sura 96, verses 1 to 5) 1 :
"Read: In the name of thy Lord who created,
Who created man from something which clings
Read! Thy Lord is the most Noble
Who taught by the pen
Who taught man what he did not know."
Professor Hamidullah notes in the Introduction to his French
translation of the Qur'an that one of the themes of this first
Revelation was the 'praise of the pen as a means of human
knowledge' which would 'explain the Prophet's concern for the
preservation of the Qur'an in writing.'
Texts formally prove that long before the Prophet left Makka
for Madina (i.e. long before Hegira), the Qur'anic text so far
revealed had been written down. 'Ve shall see how the Qur'an
is authentic in this. We know that M:uhammad and the Believers
who surrounded him were accustomed to reciting the revealed
text from memory. It is therefore inconceivable for the Qur'an
to refer to facts that did not square with reality because the
latter could so easily be cheeked with people in the Prophet's
following, by asking the authors of the transcription.
Four suras dating from a period prior to Hegira refer to the
writing down of the Qur'an before the Prophet left Makka in
622 (sura 80, verses 11 to 16) :
"By no means! Indeed it is a message of instruction
Therefore whoever wills, should remember
On leaves held in honor
Exalted, purified
In the hands of scribes
Noble and pious."
Yusuf Ali, in the commentary to his translation, 1984, wrote
that when the Revelation of this sura was made, forty-two or
forty-five others had been written and were kept by Muslims in
Maleka (out of a total of 114).
1. Muhammad was totally overwhelmed by these words. We shall return to
an interpretation of them, especially with regard to the fact that Mu-
hammad eould neither read nor write.
AuJheaticitg
of tle
Qufan.
Hotp ItCamr* tobeWdtten
129
-Sura
85, verses 21 and 22:
"Nay,
this is a
glorious readingr
On a
Preserved
tablet"
-Sura
56, verses 7? to 80:
"This
is a
glorious reading'
In a book
well kePt
\4lhich
none but the
Purified
teach.
This is a Revelation
from the Lord of the Worlds'"
-Sura
26, verse 5:
"They
said: Tales of the ancients which he has caused
to be
written and they are dictated to him morning and evening."
Here we have a reference to the accusations
made by the
Prophet's enemies
who treated him as an imposter. They spread
the rumour that stories of antiquity
rvere being dictated
to him
and he was rvriting them down
or having them transeribed
(the
meaning of the word is debatable, but one must remember that
Muhammad
was illiterate) . However this may be, the verse refers
to this act of making a written
reeortl which is
pointed out by
Muhammad's enemies themselves.
A sura that came after Hegira makes one last mention
of the
Ieaves on which these divine instructions
were written:
-Sura
98, verses 2 and 3:
"An
(apostle) from God recites leaves
Kept
pure
where are decrees right and straight."
The
Qur'an
itself therefore
provides indications as to the fact
that it was set down in writing at the time of the Prophet.
It is
a known fact that there were several scribes in his following,
the most famous
of whom
,
Zaid Ibn ThAbit, has left his name to
posterity.
In the
preface to his French translation of the
Qur'an
(19?1)
'
Professor Hamidullah
gives
an excellent description of the condi-
tions that
prevailed when the text of the
Qur'an
was written,
lasting up until the time of the Prophet's death:
"The
sources
all agree in stating that rvhenever a fragaent of
the
Qurtan
wag revealed, the Prophet called one of his literate
companions
and dictated
it to him,
indicating at the same time
the exact
position of the new
fragment in the
fabric of what
had already
been received . . . Descriptions
note that Muhammad
l* fo tn" tcxt:
Qtlr'dln
which elso meang'reading''
Au'henticity of ,he Qur'an. How" Came '0 be Written
129
-Sura 85, verses 21 and 22:
"Nay, this is a glorious reading
1
On a preserved tablet"
-Sura 56, verses 77 to 80 :
"This is a glorious reading
1
In a book well kept
Which none but the purified teach.
This is a Revelation from the Lord of the Worlds."
-Sura 25, verse 5:
"They said: Tales of the ancients which he has caused to be
written and they are dictated to him morning and evening."
Here we have a reference to the accusations made by the
Prophet's enemies who treated him as an imposter. They spread
the rumour that stories of antiquity were being dictated to him
and he was writing them down or having them transcribed (the
meaning of the word is debatable, but one must remember that
Muhammad was illiterate). However this may be, the verse refers
to this act of making a written record. which is pointed out by
Muhammad's enemies themselves.
A sura that came after Hegira makes one last mention of the
leaves on which these divine instructions were written:
-Sura 98, verses 2 and 3:
"An (apostle) from God recites leaves
Kept pure where are decrees right and straight."
The Qur'an itself therefore provides indications as to the fact
that it was set down in writing at the time of the Prophet. It is
a known fact that there were several scribes in his following,
the most famous of whom, Zaid Ibn Thabit, has left his name to
posterity.
In the preface to his French translation of the Qur'an (1971),
Professor Hamidullah gives an excellent description of the condi-
tions that prevailed when the text of the Qur'an was written,
lasting up until the time of the Prophet's death:
"The sources all agree in stating that whenever a fragment of
the Qur'an was revealed, the Prophet called one of his literate
companions and dictated it to him, indicating at the same time
the exact position of the new fragment in the fabric of what
had already been received ... Descriptions note that Muhammad
1. In the text: Qu,.'ci-n which also means 'reading'.
130
THE BTBLE,
TrIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
nsked the scribe
to reread to him what had been dictated so that
he could correct
any deficiencies
. . . Another
famous story tells
how every year
in the month of Ramadan,
the
prophet
would
recite the rvhole of ilre
eur'an
(so
far revealed)
to Ganriel . . .,
that in the Ramadan preceding
Muhammad's
death, Gabriel had
made him recite
it twiee . . . It is known
horv since the
prophet's
time, Muslims
aequired
the habit of keeping
vigil during
B"*"-
dan, and of reciting the whole of the
eur'an
in addition to th"
usual praysl*
expected of them. several sources
add that Muham-
mad's scribe zaid was present
at this final bringing-together
of
the texts' Elsewhere,
nurnerous
other personalities
are rnentioned
as wel l ."
Extremely
diverse
materials
were used for this first record:
parchment,
leather,
wooden
tablets,
camels'
scapula, soft stone
for inscriptions,
etc.
At the same time horvever,
Muhammad
recommended
that the
faithful
learn the
Qur'an
by heart.
They did this for a
part
if
not all of the text recited
during prayers.
Thus there were
Hafi.zil,n rvho knerv the whore of the
eurian
by heart
and spread
it abroad. The
method of doubry preserving
the text both in writ-
ing and by memorization proved
to be extremely precious.
Not long
after the
prophet's
death (682),
his successor Abu
Bakr, the first
caliph of tsram,
asked Muhammad's
former head
scribe, zaid lbn Thdbit,
to make a copy; this he did. on omar's
i ni ti ati ve (the
future
second
cal i ph), zai d consul ted
al l the i n-
formation
he could
assemble at Madina:
the witness of the
Vafizun,
copies
of the Book written on various
materials belong-
ing to
private
individuals,
all with the object of avoiding possible
errors in transcription.
Thus an extremely
faithful copy of the
Book was obtained.
The sources tell us that caliph
omar, Abu Bakr's successor
in
634, subsequently
made a single volume (mushnf)
that he pre-
served
and
gave
on his death to his daughter Harsa, the
prophet's
widow.
The third
caliph of Islam,
uthman, who
held the caliphate
from 644 to 655, entrusted
a commission
of experts
with the
preparation
of the great
recension
that bears his name.
It checked
the authenticity
of the document produced
under Abu Bakr
whieh
had remained in Hafsa's possession
until that time. The commis-
130 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
asked the scribe to reread to him what had been dictated so that
he could correct any deficiencies . . . Another famous story tells
how every year in the month of Ramadan, the Prophet would
recite the whole of the Qur'an (so far revealed) to Gabriel 0 0 0'
that in the Ramadan preceding Muhammad's death, Gabriel had
made him recite it twice ... It is known how since the Prophet's
time, Muslims acquired the habit of keeping vigil during Rama-
dan, and of reciting the whole of the Qur'an in addition to the
usual prayers expected of them. Several sources add that Muham-
mad's scribe Zaid was present at this final bringing-together of
the texts. Elsewhere, numerous other personalities are mentioned
as well."
Extremely diverse materials were used for this first record:
parchment, leather, wooden tablets, camels' scapula, soft stone
for inscriptions, etc.
At the same time however, Muhammad recommended that the
faithful learn the Qur'an by heart. They did this for a part if
not all of the text recited during prayers. Thus there were
who knew the whole of the Qur'an by heart and spread
it abroad. The method of doubly preserving the text both in writ-
ing and by memorization proved to be extremely precious.
Not long after the Prophet's death (632), his successor Abu
Bakr, the first Caliph of Islam, asked Muhammad's former head
scribe, Zaid Ibn Thtibit, to make a copy; this he did. On Omar's
initiative (the future second Caliph), Zaid consulted all the in-
formation he could assemble at Madina: the witness of the
copies of the Book written on various materials belong-
ing to private individuals, all with the object of avoiding possible
errors in transcription. Thus an extremely faithful copy of the
Book was obtained.
The sources tell us that Caliph Omar, Abu Bakr's successor in
634, subsequently made a single volume (mufllJaf) that he pre-
served and gave on his death to his daughter Hafsa, the Prophet's
widow.
The third Caliph of Islam, Uthman, who held the caliphate
from 644 to 655, entrusted a commission of experts with the
preparation of the great recension that bears his name. It checked
the authenticity of the document produced under Abu Bakr which
had remained in Hafsa's possession until that time. The commis-
Autlenticttg ol t E
Qufan.
How ItCamc tobeWfitten
l3l
sion consulted Muslims who knerv the text by heart. The critical
analysis of the authentieity of the text was earried out very rigor-
ously. The agreement of the witnesses was deemed necessary be-
fore the slightest verse containing
debatable material was re-
tained. It is indeed known how some verses of the
Qur'an
correet
others in the case of
prescriptions: this may be readily explained
when one remmbers that the Prophet's
period of apostolic
activ-
ity stretched over twenty
years (in
round figures). The result is
a text containing an order of suras that reflects the order fol-
lowed by the Prophet
in his complete
recital of the
Qur'an
during
Ramadan, as mentioned above.
One might
perhaps ponder the motives that led the first three
Caliphs, especially Uthman, to commission
collections
and recen-
sions of the text. The reasons are in fact very simple:
Islam's
expansion in the very first decades following Muhammad's
death
was very rapid indeed and it happened among
peoples whose na-
tive language was not Arabic. It was absolutely
necessary to
ensure the spread of a text that retained its original
purity:
Uthman's
recension had this as its objective.
Uthman sent copies of the text of the recension to the centres
of the Islamic Empire and that is why, according
to Professor
Hamidullah, copies attributed
to Uthman
exist in Tashkent and
Istanbul. Apart from one or two
possible mistakes
in copying,
the
oldest documents known to the
present day, that are to be found
throughout
the Islamic world, are identical;
the same is true for
documents
preserved i n Europe
(there are fragments i n the Bi b-
lioth}que Nationale
in Paris which, according to the experts,
date
from the Ei ghth and Ni nth centuri es
A.D., i ' e. the Second
and
Thi rd Hegi ri an centuri es).
The numerous anci ent
texts that are
known to be in existence all agree except
for very minor
varia-
ti ons whi ch do not change the
general meani ng
of the text at al l '
If the context sometimes
allows more than one interpretation,
it
may wel l have to do wi th the fact that anci ent
wri ti ng
rvas si m-
pler
than that of the
Present
day.'
1. The absence of di acri ti cal marks, for exampl e,
coul d make a verb ei ther
acti ve or
passi ve and i n some i nstances,
mascul i ne or femi ni ne,
More
often thsn not however, thi s was hardl y of any
great c' l nseguence
si nee
the context indicsted the meaning in many instances'
AutJumlicity of the Qur'an. How It Clime to be Written 131
sion consulted Muslims who knew the text by heart. The critical
analysis of the authenticity of the text was carried out very rigor-
ously. The agreement of the witnesses was deemed necessary be-
fore the slightest verse containing debatable material was re-
tained. It is indeed known how some verses of the Qur'an correct
others in the case of prescriptions: this may be readily explained
when one remembers that the Prophet's period of apostolic activ-
ity stretched over twenty years (in round figures). The result is
a text containing an order of suras that reflects the order fol-
lowed by the Prophet in his complete recital of the Qur'an during
Ramadan, as mentioned above.
One might perhaps ponder the motives that led the first three
Caliphs, especially Uthman, to commission collections and recen-
sions of the text. The reasons are in fact very simple: Islam's
expansion in the very first decades following Muhammad's death
was very rapid indeed and it happened among peoples whose na-
tive language was not Arabic. It was absolutely necessary to
ensure the spread of a text that retained its original purity:
Uthman's recension had this as its objective.
Uthman sent copies of the text of the recension to the centres
of the Islamic Empire and that is why, according to Professor
Hamidullah, copies attributed to Uthman exist in Tashkent and
Istanbul. Apart from one or two possible mistakes in copying, the
oldest documents known to the present day, that are to be found
throughout the Islamic world, are identical; the same is true for
documents preserved in Europe (there are fragments in the Bib-
liotheque Nationale in Paris which, according to the experts, date
from the Eighth and Ninth centuries A.D., Le. the Second and
Third Hegirian centuries). The numerous ancient texts that are
known to be in existence all agree except for very minor varia-
tions which do not change the general meaning of the text at all.
If the context sometimes allows more than one interpretation, it
may well have to do with the fact that ancient writing was sim-
pler than that of the present day.1
1. The absence of diacritical marks, for example, could make a verb either
active or passive and in some instances, masculine or feminine. More
often than not however, this was hardly of any great cmsequence since
the context indicated the meaning in many instances.
138
TIIE BIEI,E, IIIE
QI,R'AN
AND SCIENGE
The 114 suras were arranged in decreasing order of length;
there were nevertheless exceptions. The chronological sequence
of the Revelation was not followed. In the majority of cases how-
ever, this sequence is known. A large number of descriptions are
mentioned at several
points
in the text, sometimes
giving
rise to
repetitions.
Very frequently a
passage
will add details to a de-
scription that appears elsewhere in an incomplete form. Every-
thing conneeted with modern science is, like meny subjects dealt
with in the
Qur'an,
scattered throughout the book without any
semblance of classification.
131 THE BIBLE, TIlE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
The 114 auras were arranged in decreasing order of length;
there were nevertheless exceptions. The chronological sequence
of the Revelation was not followed. In the majority of cases how-
ever, this sequence is known. A large number of descriptions are
mentioned at several points in the text, sometimes giving rise to
repetitions. Very frequently a passage will add details to a de-
scription that appears elsewhere in an incomplete form. Every-
thing connected with modem science is, like many subjects dealt
with in the Qur'an, scattered throughout the book without any
semblance of classification.
ril
The Creation
of the
Heaverrs
and
the
Earth.
DIFFEREIVCES
FROM
AND NESEMBLENCES
TO
THE BIBLICAL
DESCNIPTION'
In contrast
to the Otd Testament, the
Qur'an
does not
provide
a unified description
of the Creation.
Instead of a continuous
nar-
ration, there are
passages scattered
all over the Book which dc'al
with certain aspects
of the Creation
and
provide information
on
the successive
events marking its development
with varying
de-
gTes
of detail.
To
g1Iin a clear
idea of how these events are
pre-
sented, the fragm*nt*
r.*ttered
throughout
a large
number of
sur88 have to be brought togPther'
This dispersal
throughout the Book of references to the same
subject is not unique to the theme of the Creation.
Many import-
ant subjects
are treated
in the same
manner in the
Qur'an:
earthly or celestial
phenomena, or
problems concerning
man
that
are of interest to scientists.
For each of these themes,
the same
efrort
has been made here to bring all the verses together'
For ma4y European
commentators,
the description
of the Cre-
stion
in thC
Qur'an
is very similar
to the one in the Bible and they
are
quite
content
to
present the two descriptions
side by side' I
believe
this concept is mistaken because there are very obvious
difrerences. On subjects that are by no means unimportant
from
a scientific
point
of view, rve find statements
in the
Qur'an
whose
eguivalents
we search for in vain in the Bible. The latter con-
taing descriptions
that have no equiyalent
in the
Qur'an.
The obvious
resemblanees between the two texts are well
knowu; emong them is the fact that, at first
glance, the number
133
III
The C..ealion of the
Hea.ens and the Earth.
DIFFERENCES FROM AND RESEMBLENCES TO
THE BIBLICAL DESCRIPTION.
In contrast to the Old Testament, the Qur'an does not provide
a unified description of the Creation. Instead of a continuous nar-
ration, there are passages scattered all over the Book which d(:ll
with certain aspects of the Creation and provide information on
the successive events marking its development with varying de-
grees of detail. To giin a clear idea of how these events are pre-
sented, the fragments scattered throughout a large number of
suras have to be brought together.
This dispersal throughout the Book of references to the same
subject is not unique to the theme of the Creation. Many import-
ant subjects are treated in the same manner in the Qur'an:
earthly or celestial phenomena, or problems concerning man that
are of interest to scientists. For each of these themes, the same
effort has been made here to bring all the verses together.
For many European commentators, the description of the Cre-
ation in the Qur'an is very similar to the one in the Bible and they
are quite content to present the two descriptions side by side. I
believe this concept is mistaken because there are very obvious
differences. On subjects that are by no means unimportant from
a scientific point of view, we find statements in the Qur'an whose
equivalents we search for in vain in the Bible. The latter con-
tains descriptions that have no equivalent in the Qur'an.
The obvious resemblances between the two texts are well
known; among them is the fact that, at first glance, the number
133
134
TrrE BrBL4 THE
QIrn'AN
AND SCIEnGE
grven
to the successive
stages of the Creation is identical: the
six days in the Bible correspond
to the six days in the
eurran.
rn
fact however, the
problem
is more complex thsn this and it is
worth
pausing
to examine it.
The SlcPerioih of tLe Cretfnn.
There is absolutely no ambiguity whatsoever in the Biblical'
description of the Creation in six days followed by a day of rest,
the sabbath, analogous
with the days of the week. rt hss been
shown how this mode of narration practiced
by the priests
of the
sixth century B.c. serrred the purpose
of encouraging
the
people
to obserrre the sabbath. All Jews were expeeted to restr
on the
sabbath as the rnrd had done after he had laboured during the
six days of the week.
The way the Bible interprets it, the word
'day'
means the inter-
val of time between two successive sunrises or sunsets for an
inhabitant of the Earth.
When defined in this wey, the day is con-
ditioned by the rotation of the Earth on its own axis. It is obvious
that logically-speaking
there can be no question
of
,days'
as de-
fined
just
now, if the meehanism
that causes them to appeal-i.g.
the existence of the Earth and itg rotation around the Sun-has
not already been fixed in the early etages of the Crestion sccord-
ing to the Biblical description.
This ifirpossibility has slresdy
been emphasized in the first
part
of the
present
book.
When we refer to the majority of translations of the-eur'an,
we read that-analogous
with the Bibliesl description-the prr>
eess of the Creation for the Islamic Revelation also took
place
over a
period
of six days. It is difficult to hold against the trans-
lators the fact that they have translated
the Arabic word by its
most common meaning. This is how it is usually expressed in
translations so that in the
Qur'an,
verse 84, sura ? reads as
follows:
"Your
Iord is God who created the heavens and the earth
in six days,"
The Btblied description mentioned here is taken from the so-cglled Se-
eerdotal vergion discussed
in the first part
of this rork; the degcripdon
taken from the so-called Yahvist version has been comprecged into the
tpace of a fer lines in today'r vergion of the Bible and is too ingubstan-
tial to be congidered her.e.
'Sabbstht
in llebrew means
,to
rert'.
134 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
given to the successive stages of the Creation is identical: the
six days in the Bible correspond to the six days in the Qur'an. In
fact however, the problem is more complex than this and it is
worth pausing to examine it.
The S&Periods of the Creafion.
There is absolutely no ambiguity whatsoever in the Biblical!
description of the Creation in six days followed by a day of rest,
the sabbath, analogous with the days of the week. It has been
shown how this mode of narration practiced by the priests of the
Sixth century B.C. served the purpose of encouraging the people
to observe the sabbath. All Jews were expected to rest' on the
sabbath as the Lord had done after he had laboured during the
six days of the week.
The way the Bible interprets it, the word 'day' means the inter-
val of time between two successive sunrises or sunsets for an
inhabitant of the Earth. When defined in this way, the day is con-
ditioned by the rotation of the Earth on its own axis. It is obvious
that logically-speaking there can be no question of 'days' as de-
fined just now, if the mechanism that causes them to appear-i.e.
the existence of the Earth and its rotation around the Sun-has
not already been fixed in the early stages of the Creation accord-
ing to the Biblical description. This itnpossibility has already
been emphasized in the first part of the present book.
When we refer to the majority of translations of
we read that-analogous with the Biblical description-the pro-
cess of the Creation for the Islamic Revelation also took place
over a period of six days. It is difficult to hold against the trans-
lators the fact that they have translated the Arabic word by its
most common meaning. This is how it is usually expressed in
translations so that in the Qur'an, verse 54, sura 7 reads as
follows:
uYour Lord is God Who created the heavens and the earth
in six days."
1. The Biblical description mentioned here is taken from the so-called Sa-
cerdotal version discussed in tbe first part of this work; the description
taken from the so-called Yahvist version bas been compressed into the
space of a fe'w lines in today's version of the Bible and is too insubstan-
tial to be conllidered here.
2. 'Sabbath' in Hebrew means 'to rest'.
TIw Cteation of tlw Heaoew ald the Eafih
f35
There are very few translations
and commentaries
of the
Qur'an
that note how the word
'days'
should
really be taken to mesn
'periods'.
It has moreover been maintained
that if the
Qur'anie
texts on the Creation divided its stages into
'days',
it was with
the deliberate intention
of taking up beliefs held by all the Jews
and Christians
at the dawn of Islam and of avoiding
a head-on
confrontation
rvith such a widely-held belief.
Without
in any way wishing to reject this way of seeing
it, one
could
perhaps
examine
the
problem a little more elosely and scru-
Li'nize in the
Qur'an
itself
,
and more
generally in the lang:uage
of
the time, the
possible meaning of the word that many
translators
themselves
still continue to translate
by the word
'day'i
AQ,unL,
plural agyd,m in Arabic.'
Its most common meaning is
'day'
but it must be stressed
that
it tends more to mean the diurnal light
than the length
of time
that lapses between one day's sunset
and the next. The
plural
aEgd,m *"r, **tn, not
iust
'days',
but also
'long
length
of time',
*tt ind.finite
period of time
(but always
long). The meaning
'pe-
riod of time' that the
word contains
is to be found elsewhere
in
the
Qur'an.
Hence the following:
-Sura
32, verSe 5:
,,.
. . i n a
peri od of ti me
(aattm) whereof
the measure
i s a
thousand
years of
your reckoning."
(It
is to be noted that the Creation
in six
periods is
precisely
what the verse
preceding verse 5 refers to) '
-Sura
70, verse 4:
,,.
. . i n a
peri od of ti me
(yattm) whereof the measure
i s 50,000
years."
The fact that the word
'yaum'could
mean a
period of time that
was
quite different
from the
period that we mean by the
word
.day'
struck very early commentators
who, of course,
did not
have the
hnowledge
we
possess today concerning
the length
of
the stages
in the formation
of the Universe.
In the Sixteenth
century
A.D. for example,
Abu al s['ud,
who could not have had
any idea of the day as defined astronomically
in terms of the
Earth' s rotati on,
thought that for the Creati on
a di vi si on
must
1. See tabl e on l ast
page of
present wol k for equi val ence
between
Lati n
and Arabic letters.
The Creation of the HetJ.,em and the Earth 135
There are very few translations and commentaries of the Qur'an
that note how the word 'days' should really be taken to mean
'periods'. It has moreover been maintained that if the Qur'anic
texts on the Creation divided its stages into 'days', it was with
the deliberate intention of taking up beliefs held by all the Jews
and Christians at the dawn of Islam and of avoiding a head-on
confrontation with such a widely-held belief.
Without in any way wishing to reject this way of seeing it, one
could perhaps examine the problem a little more closely and scru-
tinize in the Qur'an itself, and more generally in the language of
the time, the possible meaning of the word that many translators
themselves still continue to translate by the word 'day': yaum,
plural ayyam in Arabic.
1
Its most common meaning is 'day' but it must be stressed that
it tends more to mean the diurnal light than the length of time
that lapses between one day's sunset and the next. The plural
ayyam can mean, not just 'days', but also 'long length of time',
an indefinite period of time (but always long). The meaning 'pe-
riod of time' that the word contains is to be found elsewhere in
the Qur'an. Hence the following:
-sura 32, verse 5:
"... in a period of time (yaum) whereof the measure is a
thousand years of your reckoning."
(It is to be noted that the Creation in six periods is precisely
what the verse preceding verse 5 refers to).
-sura 70, verse 4:
"... in a period of time (yaum) whereof the measure is 50,000
years."
The fact that the word 'yaum' could mean a period of time that
was quite different from the period that we mean by the word
'day' struck very early commentators who, of course, did not
have the ltnowledge we possess today concerning the length of
the stages in the formation of the Universe. In the Sixteenth
century A.D. for example, Abu al Sii'ud, who could not have had
any idea of the day as defined astronomically in terms of the
Earth's rotation, thought that for the Creation a division must
1. See table on last page of present work for equivalence between Latin
and Arabic letters.
I38
THE BIBI.E, IIIE
QURAN
AND SCIENGE
be considered that was not into days as we usually understand
the word, but into
'events'
(in
Arabie nauba) .
Modern commentators
have gone
back to this interrpretation.
Yusuf Ali
(1934),
in his commentary
on eaeh of the verses that
deals with the stages in the
Creation, insists on the importance
of taking the word,
elsewhere interpreted
as meaning
'days',
to
mean in reality
'very
long Periods, or Ages, or Aeons'.
It is therefore possible
to say that in the ease of the Creation
of the world, the
Qur'an
allows for long periods
of time number-
ing six. It is obvious
that modern scienee has not
permitted
man
to establish
the fact that the complicated stages in the process
leading to the formation
of the Universe numbered six, but it
has clearly shown that long periods
of time were involved com-
pared
to whieh
'days'
as we conceive them would
be ridiculous.
one of the Iongest passages
of the
eur'an,
which deals with
the Creation, describes
the latter by
juxtaposing
an aeeount of
earthly events and one of celestial events. The verses in question
are verses I to 12, sura 41:
(God
is srreaking
to the Prophet)
"say:
Do
you
disbelieve Him who ereated the earth in two
periods?
Do
you
ascribe equals to Him. He is the Lord of the
Worlds.
"He set i n the
(earth)
mountai ns
standi ng fi rm. He bl essed i t.
He measured
therein its sustenance in four
periods,
in due
proportion,
in aceordance with the needs of those who ask
for
(sustenance?
or i nformati on?).
"Moreover
(!umma)
He turned to heaven when it was smoke
and sai d to i t and to the earth: come wi l l i ngl y or unwi l l -
i ngl y
! They sai d: we come i n wi l l i ng obedi ence.
"Then He ordained
them seven heavens in two periods,
and
He assigtred to each heaven its mandate by Revelation. And
we adorned the lower heaven with luminaries
and
provided
it a guard.
such is the decree of the AII Mighty, the Full of
Knowledge."
These four verses
of sura 41 contain several points
to which
we shall return: the initially gaseous
state of celestial matter
and the highly symbolic
definition of the number of heavens as
seven. We shall see the meaning
behind this figure. Also of a
symbolic nature
is the dialogue between
God on the one hand
136 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
be considered that was not into days as we usually understand
the word, but into 'events' (in Arabic nauba).
Modern commentators have gone back to this interpretation.
Yusuf Ali (1934), in his commentary on each of the verses that
deals with the stages in the Creation, insists on the importance
of taking the word, elsewhere interpreted as meaning 'days', to
mean in reality 'very long Periods, or Ages, or Aeons'.
It is therefore possible to say that in the case of the Creation
of the world, the Qur'an allows for long periods of time number-
ing six. It is obvious that modern science has not permitted man
to establish the fact that the complicated stages in the process
leading to the formation of the Universe numbered six, but it
has clearly shown that long periods of time were involved com-
pared to which 'days' as we conceive them would be ridiculous.
One of the longest passages of the Qur'an, which deals with
the Creation, describes the latter by juxtaposing an account of
earthly events and one of celestial events. The verses in question
are verses 9 to 12, sura 41:
(God is speaking to the Prophet)
"Say: Do you disbelieve Him Who created the earth in two
periods? Do you ascribe equals to Him. He is the Lord of the
Worlds.
"He set in the (earth) mountains standing firm. He blessed it.
He measured therein its sustenance in four periods, in due
proportion, in accordance with the needs of those who ask
for (sustenance? or information?).
"Moreover (!umma) He turned to heaven when it was smoke
and said to it and to the earth: come willingly or unwill-
ingly! They said: we come in willing obedience.
"Then He ordained them seven heavens in two periods, and
He assigned to each heaven its mandate by Revelation. And
We adorned the lower heaven with luminaries and provided
it a guard. Such is the decree of the All Mighty, the Full of
Knowledge."
These four verses of sura 41 contain several points to which
we shall return: the initially gaseous state of celestial matter
and the highly symbolic definition of the number of heavens as
seven. We shall see the meaning behind this figure. Also of a
symbolic nature is the dialogue between God on the one hand
TIle Crcation ol the Eeaosan atd tln Mh
f$f
and
the
primordial
sky and earth on the other: here however
it
is only to express the submission of the Hes'rens and Earth, once
they were formed, to divine order$.
Critics have seen in this
passage a contradiction
with the state-
ment of the six
periods
of the Creation.
By adding the two
peri-
ods of the formation of the Earth to the four
periods of the
spreading of its sustenance to the inhabitants,
plus the two
peri-
ods of the formation of the Heavens, w arrive at eight
periods.
This would then be in contradiction
with the six
periods men-
tioned above.
In fact however, this text, whieh leads man to refleci on divine
Omnipotence,
beginning with the Earth and ending with the
Heavens,
provides two sections that are expressed
by the Arabie
word
'tulntna',
translated by
'moreover',
but which also means
'furth&more'or'then'.
The sense of a
'sequence'
may therefore
be implied referring to a sequence of events or a series of m&n's
reflections on the events mentioned here. It may equally be a
simple reference to events
juxtaposed
without any intention
of
bringing in the notion of the one following the other.
However
this may be, the
periods of the Creation of the Heavens may
just
as easily coincide
with the two
periods of the Earth's creation. A
Iittle later we shall examine how the basic
process
of the forma-
tion of the Universe is
presented in the
Qur'an
and we shall see
how it can be
jointly
applied to the Heavens and the Earth in
keeping with modern ideas. We ehall then realize how
perfectly
reasonable this way is of conceiving the simultaneous
nature of
the events here described.
There does
not appear to be any contradiction
between the
passage quoted here and the concept of the formation of the
world in six stages that is to be found in other texts in the
Qur'an'
THE
OUR'AN
DOES NOr LAv DOWN A SEQ_AENCE
FOR TEE CnEATION
OF THE EILRTH AI\ID
IIEAvENS.
In the two
passages from the
Qur'an
quoted above,
reference
was made in one of the verses to the Creation
of the Heavens
and
the Earth
(sura
?, verse 54), and elsewhere
to the Creation
of the
Earth and the Heavens
(sura 41, verses I to 12). The
Qur'an
does
not therefore appear
to lay down a sequence
for the creation
of
the Heavens and the Earth.
The Creation of the Heaoena and the EtmIa 137
and the primordial sky and earth on the other: here however it
is only to express the submission of the Heavens and Earth, once
they were fanned, to divine orders.
Critics have seen in this passage a contradiction with the state..
ment of the six periods of the Creation. By adding the two peri-
ods of the formation of the Earth to the four periods of the
spreading of its sustenance to the inhabitants, plus the two peri-
ods of the formation of the Heavens, we arrive at eight periods.
This would then be in contradiction with the six periods men-
tioned above.
In fact however, this text, which leads man to reflect on divine
Omnipotence, beginning with the Earth and ending with the
Heavens, provides two sections that are expressed by the Arabic
word 'tumma', translated by 'moreover', but which also means
'furthermore' or 'then'. The sense of a 'sequence' may therefore
be implied referring to a sequence of events or a series of man's
reflections on the events mentioned here. It may equally be a
simple reference to events juxtaposed without any intention of
bringing in the notion of the one following the other. However
this may be, the periods of the Creation of the Heavens may just
as easily coincide with the two periods of the Earth's creation. A
little later we shall examine how the basic process of the forma-
tion of the Universe is presented in the Qur'an and we shall see
how it can be jointly applied to the Heavens and the Earth in
keeping with modern ideas. We shall then realize how perfectly
reasonable this way is of conceiving the simultaneous nature of
the events here described.
There does not appear to be any contradiction between the
passage quoted here and the concept of the formation of the
world in six stages that is to be found in other texts in the Qur'an.
THE QUR'AN DOES NOT LAY DOWN A SEQUENCE
FOR THE CREATION OF THE EARTH AND HEAVENS.
In the two passages from the Qur'an quoted above, reference
was made in one of the verses to the Creation of the Heavens and
the Earth (sura 7, verse 54), and elsewhere to the Creation of the
Earth and the Heavens (sura 41, verses 9 to 12). The Qur'an does
not therefore appear to lay down a sequence for the Creation of
the Heavens and the Earth.
r38
THE BIEI.E, TTIE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
The number
of verses in which the Earth is mentioned
first is
quite
small, e.g. sura 2, verse 29 and sura 20, verse
4, where a
reference is made to "Him who created
the earth and the high
heavens". The number of verses where the Heavens are men-
tioned before the Earth is, on the other hand, much larger: (sura
7, verse 54; sura 10, verse 3; sura l l , verse ?; sura zb, verse 6g;
sura 32, verse 4; sura 50, verse 38; sura F?, verse 4; sura ?g,
verses 27 to 33; sura
gl,
verses E to 10).
In actual fact, apart from sura ?g, there is not a single passage
in the
Qur'an
that lays down a definite sequence; a simple co-
ordinating
conjunction
haa)
meaning
.and'
links two terms, or
the word tummn
which, as has been seen in the above passage,
can indicate
either a simple
juxtaposition
or a sequence.
There appears to me to be onry one passage
in the
eur'an
where a definite
sequence
is
plainly
established between different
events in the Creation. It is contained
in verses z? to BB, sura ?g:
"Are
you
the harder to er.eate or is it the heaven that (God)
built? He raised
its canopy and fashioned it with harmony.
He
made dark the night
4nd
he brought out the forenoon. And after
that
(
bu' dn
daliln)
He spread it out. Therefr.om he drerv
out its
water and its pasture.
And the mountains
He has fixed firmly.
Goods for you
and your
catile."
This list of earthly gifts
from
God to man, which is expressed
in
a languag:e suited
to farmers or nomads
on the Arabian-penin-
sula, is preceded
by an invitation
to r.eflect on the creation of the
heavens. The reference
to the stage rvhen God spreads
out the
earth and renders it arable is very precisely
situated in time after
the alternating
of night and day has been achieved. Two groups
are therefore referred to her.e,
one of celestial phenomena,
and
the other of earthll' phenomena
articulated in time. The refer-
enee made here implies
that the ear.th must necessarily
have
existed before being
spread out and that it consequenily
existed
when God ereated
the Heavens. The idea of a concomitance
there-
f,ore arises from
the heavenly
and earthly evolutions with the
interlocking
of the two phenomena.
Hence, one must not look for
any special significance
in the reference
in the
eur'anic
text to
the creation of the Earth before the Heavens or the Heavens be-
fore the Earth: the position
of the words does not influence the
138 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The number of verses in which the Earth is mentioned first is
quite small, e.g. sura 2, verse 29 and sura 20, verse 4, where a
reference is made to "Him Who created the earth and the high
heavens". The number of verses where the Heavens are men-
tioned before the Earth is, on the other hand, much larger: (sura
7, verse 54; sura 10, verse 3; sura 11, verse 7; sura 25, verse 59;
sura 32, verse 4; sura 50, verse 38; sura 57, verse 4; sura 79,
verses 27 to 33; sura 91, verses 5 to 10).
In actual fact, apart from sura 79, there is not a single passage
in the Qur'an that lays down a definite sequence; a simple co-
ordinating conjunction (wa) meaning 'and' links two terms, or
the word lumma which, as has been seen in the above passage,
can indicate either a simple juxtaposition or a sequence.
There appears to me to be only one passage in the Qur'an
where a definite sequence is plainly established between different
events in the Creation. It is contained in verses 27 to 33, sura 79:
"Are you the harder to create or is it the heaven that (God)
built? He raised its canopy and fashioned it with harmony. He
made dark the night ~ he brought out the forenoon. And after
that (bu' da !1.alikn) He spread it out. Therefrom he drew out its
water and its pasture. And the mountains He has fixed firmly.
Goods for you and your cattle."
This list of earthly gifts from God to man, which is expressed
in a language suited to farmers or nomads on the Arabian Penin-
sula, is preceded by an invitation to reflect on the creation of the
heavens. The reference to the stage when God spreads out the
earth and renders it arable is very precisely situated in time after
the alternating of night and day has been achieved. Two groups
are therefore referred to here, one of celestial phenomena, and
the other of earthly phenomena articulated in time. The refer-
ence made here implies that the earth must necessarily have
existed before being spread out and that it consequently existed
when God created the Heavens. The idea of a concomitance there-
fore arises from the heavenly and earthly evolutions with the
interlocking of the two phenomena. Hence, one must not look for
any special significance in the reference in the Qur'anic text to
the Creation of the Earth before the Heavens or the Heavens be-
fore the Earth: the position of the words does not influence the
T7a.Cf'ctrdd{'trof iheEaoanr o'i'ilt..Mh
130
ordr in which the Creation took
place,
unless however it is spe-
cifically statcd.
TNE BASIC PNOCESS OF TEE FONMATION OF THE
UIVIT/EASE AIVD THE NESULTING COMPOSITIOIV
OF THE ITONLDS.
Ttre
Qur'an
presents
in two verses a brief synthesis of the
phenomena
that eonstituted the basie
process
of the formation
of the Univense.
-ur:a
21, verse 80:
"Do
not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth
were
joined
together, then We clove them asunder and TVe
gpt
every living thing out of the water. Will they not then believe?"
+ura 41, verse 11: C'od orders the Prophet to speak after inviL
ing him to reflect on the subiect of the earth's ereation:
"Moreover
(God)
turned to the Heaven when it was smoke
and said to it and to the earttr . . ."
There then follow the orders to submit, referred to on
page
186.
We ehall come back to the aquatic origins of life and examine
them along with other biological
problems raised by the
Qut'an.
fire important things to remember at
present
are the following:
s) fire ststement of the existence of a
gaseous mass with fine
perticles,
for this is how the word
'smoke'
(dufiEn
in Arsbic) is
to be interpreted. Smoke is
generally made up of a
gaseous
substratum,
plus,
in more or less stable suspensioil, fine
particles
that msy belong to solid and even liquid states of matter at high
or low tempereture;
b) T[e reference to a separetion
process (fatql of an
primary
single ma$t whose elements were initially fused together
(rotql.
It must be noted that in Arabie'fatq'is the action of breaking'
diffusing, separating, and that
'rntq'
is the action of fusing or
binding together elements to make a homogenous
whole.
This concept of the separation of a whole into several
parts
is noted in other
passeges of the Book with reference to multiple
worlds. The first verse of the first sura in the
Qurtan
proclaims,
after the opening invoeation, the following: "In
the name of
God, ttte Beneficent, the Merciful",
"Praise
be to God,
Ltlrd of
the lVorlds."
139
order in which the Creation took place, unless however it is spe-
cifically stated.
THE BASIC PROCESS OF THE FOHMATION OF THE
UNIVERSE AND THE RESULTING COMPOSITION
OF THE WORLDS.
The Qur'an presents in two verses a brief synthesis of the
phenomena that constituted the basic process of the formation
of the Universe.
--aura 21, verse 80:
"Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth
were joined together, then We clove them asunder and We got
every living thing out of the water. Will they not then believe?"
--aura 41, verse 11: God orders the Prophet to speak after invit-
ing him to reflect on the subject of the earth's creation:
"Moreover (God) turned to the Heaven when it was smoke
and said to it and to the earth . . ."
There then follow the orders to submit, referred to on page
186.
We shall come back to the aquatic origins of life and examine
them along with other biological problems raised by the Qur'an.
The important things to remember at present are the following:
a) The statement of the existence of a gaseous mass with fine
particles, for this is how the word 'smoke' (dukin, in Arabie) is
to be interpreted. Smoke is generally made -up of a gaseous
substratum, plus, in more or less stable suspension, fine particles
that may belong to solid and even liquid states of matter at high
or low temperature;
b) The reference to a separation process (fatq) of an primary
single mass whose elements were initially fused together (ratq).
It must be noted that in Arabic 'fatq' is the action of breaking,
diffusing, separating, and that 'ratq' is the action of fusing or
binding together elements to make a homogenous whole.
This concept of the separation of a whole into several parts
is noted in other passages of the Book with reference to multiple
worlds. The first verse of the first sura in the Qur'an proclaims,
after the opening invocation, the fonowing: "In the name of
God, the Beneficent, the Merciful", "Praise be to God, Lord of
the Worlds."
140 THE BIBLE, TIIE
QT'R'AN
AND SCIENGE
The terms
'worlds'
reappears dozens of times in the
Qur'an.
The Heavens are referred
to as multiple as well, not only on
account of their
plural
form, but also because of their symbolic
numerical quantity:
7.
This number is used 24 times throughout the
Qur'an
for var-
ious numerical
quantities.
It often carries the meaning of
'many'
although we do not know exactly why this meaning of the figure
was used. The Greeks and Romans also Beem to have used the
number ? to mean an undefined idea of
plurality.
In the
eur'an,
the number ? refers
to the Heavens themselves (aamd,utdt).
It
slone is understood to mean
'Heavens'.
The r roads of the
Heavens are mentioned
once:
-,gUfA
2, VefSe 29:
"
(God)
is the one who erebted for you
all that is on the earth.
Moreover He turned to the heaven
and fashioned seven heavens
with harmony. He is Full of Knowledge of all things."
-SUfa
28, Verse 17:
"And we have ereated above
you
seven
paths:
we have never
been unmindful of the Creation."
-sura
6?, verse 3:
"
(God;
is the one who created seven heavens one sbove an-
other. Thou eanst see no fault in the creation of the Beneficent.
Turn the vision again! Canst thou see any rift?"
-sura
71, veree 15-16:
"Did
you
see how God ereated
seven heavens one above another
and made the moon a light therein and made the sun a lamp F"
-sura
78, verse 12:
"we
have built above you
seven strong
(heavens)
and
placed
a blazing lamp,"
Here the blazing lamp is the Sun.
The commentators on the
Qur'an
are in agreement on all these
verses: the number ? means no more than plurality.t
It is to be noted that while the Bible callr both Sun and Moon
.ligbte',
here, as alwaya in the
Qur'an,
they are difrerently named; the firrt tr
called'Light' (nilrl
and the second is compared in this verre to a.lamp
(sird.i) producing light'. We shsll see later how other epithete are aD-
plied
to the Sun.
Apart from the
Qur'an,
we often find the number ? meaning plurality
in texts from Muhammad's
time, or from the ffrst eenturier folloring
him, which record hir words
(hadithr).
140 THE BmLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
The terms 'worlds' reappears dozens of times in the Qur'an.
The Heavens are referred to as multiple as well, not only on
account of their plural form, but also because of their symbolic
numerical quantity: 7.
This number is used 24 times throughout the Qur'an for var-
ious numerical quantities. It often carries the meaning of 'many'
although we do not know exactly why this meaning of the figure
was used. The Greeks and Romans also seem to have used the
number 7 to mean an undefined idea of plurality. In the Qur'an,
the number 7 refers to the Heavens themselves (samciwcit). It
alone is understood to mean 'Heavens'. The 7 roads of the
Heavens are mentioned once:
-sura 2, verse 29 :
"(God) is the One Who created for you all that is on the earth.
Moreover He turned to the heaven and fashioned seven heavens
with harmony. He is Full of Knowledge of all things."
-sura 23, verse 17:
"And We have created above you seven paths: We have never
been unmindful of the Creation."
-sura 67, verse 3 :
"(God) is the One Who created seven heavens one above an-
other. Thou canst see no fault in the creation of the Beneficent.
Turn the vision again! Canst thou see any rift?"
-sura 71, verse 15-16:
"Did you see how God created seven heavens one above another
and made the moon a light therein and made the sun a lamp?I"
-sura 78, verse 12:
"We have built above you seven strong (heavens) and placed
a blazing lamp."
Here the blazing lamp is the Sun.
The commentators on the Qur'an are in agreement on all these
verses: the number 7 means no more than plurality.2
1. It is to be noted that while the Bible calls both Sun and Moon 'lights',
here, as always in the Qur'an, they are differently named; the first is
called 'Light' (nur) and the second is compared in this verse to a 'lamp
(_ira;) producing light'. We shall see later how other epithets are ap-
plied to the Sun.
2. Apart from the Qur'an, we often find the number 7 meaning pluralitJ
in texts from Muhammad's time, or from the first centuries following
him, which record his words (hadiths).
Tlw Crcation ol tlle Heaoeta atd tln Eafih
t4t
There are therefore many Heavens and Earths, and it comes as
no small surprise to the reader of the
Qur'an
to find that earths
such as our own may be found in the Universe, a fact that has not
yet
been verified by man in our time.
Verse 12 of sura 65 does however
predict the following:
"God
is the One Who created seven heavens and of the earth
(ar{)
a similar number. The Command descends among them
so that
you
know that God has
power over all things and eom-
prehends
all things in His knou'ledge."
Since ? indicates an indefinite
plurality
(as
we have seen), it
is
possible
to conclude that the
Qur'anic
text clearly indicates
the existence of more than one single Earth, our own Earth
(ard);
there are others like it in the Universe.
Another observation which may surprise the Twentieth cen-
tury reader of the
Qur'an
is the fact that verses refer to three
groups of things created, i.e.
-things
in the Heavens
-things
on the Earth
-things
between thg Heavens and the Earth
Here are several of these verses:
-Sura
20, verse 6;
"To Him
(God)
belongs what is in the heavens, on earth, be-
tween them and beneath the soil."
-sura
25, verse 59:
".
. . the One Who created the heavens, the earth and what is
between them in six
periods."
-Sura
32, verSe 4:
"God is the One Who created the heavens, the earth and what is
between them in six
periods."
-sura
50, verse 38:
"W'e created the heavens, the earth and what is between them
in six
periods,
and no weariness touched IJs."'
The reference in the
Qur'an
to
'what
is between the Heavens
and the Earth' is again to be found in the following verses: sura
1. This statement that the Creation did not make God at all weary stands
out as an obvious reply to the Biblical description, referred to in the
first
part of the
present book, where God is said to have reeted on the
seventh day from the
precedi ng days' work!
The Creation of the Heaoet18 and the Earth 141
There are therefore many Heavens and Earths, and it comes as
no small surprise to the reader of the Qur'an to find that earths
such as our own may be found in the Universe, a fact that has not
yet been verified by man in our time.
Verse 12 of sura 65 does however predict the following:
"God is the One Who created seven heavens and of the earth
(ard) a similar number. The Command descends among them
so that you know that God has power over all things and com-
prehends all things in His knowledge."
Since 7 indicates an indefinite plurality (as we have seen), it
is possible to conclude that the Qur'anic text clearly indicates
the existence of more than one single Earth, our own Earth
(ard) ; there are others like it in the Universe.
Another observation which may surprise the Twentieth cen-
tury reader of the Qur'an is the fact that verses refer to three
groups of things created, Le.
-things in the Heavens
-things on the Earth
-things between ~ Heavens and the Earth
Here are several of these verses:
-sura 20, verse 6;
"To Him (God) belongs what is in the heavens, on earth, be-
tween them and beneath the soiL"
-sura 25, verse 59:
ct the One Who created the heavens, the earth and what is
between them in six periods."
-sura 32, verse 4:
"God is the One Who created the heavens, the earth and what is
between them in six periods."
-sura 50, verse 38:
"We created the heavens, the earth and what is between them
in six periods, and no weariness touched US."1
The reference in the Qur'an to 'what is between the Heavens
and the Earth' is again to be found in the following verses: sura
1. This statement that the Creation did not make God at all weary stands
out as an obvious reply to the Biblical description, referred to in the
first part of the present book, where God is said to have rested on the
seventh day from the preceding days' work!
t12
THE BrBLB firE
QIJR'AN
AND SCTENCE
21, verse 16; sura 44, verses 7 and 38; sura 78, verse 37; sura 16,
verse 86; sura 46, verse 3; sura 43, verse 85.
firis Crestion outside the Heavens and outside the Earth, men-
tioned several times, is a
pri,on
difficult to imagine. To under-
stand these verses, reference must be made to the most recent
human observations on the existenee of cosmic extra-galagtic
material and one must indeed go
back to ideas established by
contemporory science on the formation of the Universe, starting
with the simplest and
proceeding
to the most complex. These are
the subject of the following
paragraph.
Before
passing
on to these
purely
scientific matters however,
it is advisable to recapitulate the main
points
on which the
Qur'an
gives
us information about the Creation. Aceording to
the
preceding quotations,
they are as follows:
1) Existence of six
periods
for the Creation in general.
2) Interlocking of stages in the Creation of the Heavens and the
Earth.
Creetion of the Universe out of an initially unique mass
forming a block that subsequently split up.
Plurality of the Heavens and of the Esrths.
Existence of an intermediary creation
'between
the Heavens
and the Earth'.
SOME MODENN SCIENflFIC DATA CONCERIVIIVG
TIIE FONUATION OF THE UIVIYERSE.
Tfu Solan Sgilen.
The Earth and
planets
rotating around the sun constitute an
organized world of dimensions whieh, to our human scale, appear
quite
colossal. The Earth is, after all, roughly
gs
million miles
from the Sun. This is a very great
distance for a human being,
but it is very small in comparison to the distance separating the
Sun from the furthermost planet
from it in the solar system
(Pluto)
;
in round numbers it is 40 times the distance from the
Earth to the Sun, i.e. approximately 3,672 million miles away.
This distance, when doubled, represents the largest dimension of
our solar system. The Sun's light takes nearly 6 hours to reaeh
8)
4l
6)
141
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
21, verse 16; sura 44, verses 7 and 38; sura 78, verse 37; sura 15,
verse 85; sura 46, verse 3; sura 43, verse 85.
This Creation outside the Heavens and outside the Earth, men-
Jtioned several times, is a priori difficult to imagine. To under-
stand these verses, reference must be made to the most recent
human observations on the existence of cosmic extra-galactic
material and one must indeed go back to ideas established by
contemporary science on the formation of the Universe, starting
with the simplest and proceeding to the most complex. These are
the subject of the following paragraph.
Before passing on to these purely scientific matters however,
it is advisable to recapitulate the main points on which the
Qur'an gives us information about the Creation. According to
the preceding quotations, they are as follows:
1) Existence of six periods for the Creation in general.
2) Interlocking of stages in the Creation of the Heavens and the
Earth.
3) Creation of the Universe out of an initially unique mass
forming a block that subsequently split up.
4) Plurality of the Heavens and of the Earths.
5) Existence of an intermediary creation 'between the Heavens
and the Earth'.
SOME MODERN SCIENTIFIC DATA CONCERNING
THE FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE.
The Solar Syatem.
The Earth and planets rotating around the Sun constitute an
organized world of dimensions which, to our human scale, appear
quite colossal. The Earth is, after all, roughly 93 million miles
from the Sun. This is a very great distance for a human being,
but it is very small in comparison to the distance separating the
Sun from the furthermost planet from it in the solar system
(Pluto) ; in round numbers it is 40 times the distance from the
Earth to the Sun, i.e. approximately 3,672 minion miles away.
This distance, when doubled, represents the largest dimension of
our solar system. The Sun's light takes nearly 6 hours to reach
Trrc Crog-lfon of tlrc E.guocrl aniltlp Mh
l4it
Pluto, and
yet
the
journey
is made at the terrifying speed of over
186,000 miles
per
second. The light coming from stans on the
very eonfines of the known celestiel world therefore takes billions
of
years
to reach ug.
TlnfuI&t.
fite Sun, of which we are & satellite like the other
planets
surrounding
it, is itself an infinitesmally small element among
a hundred billion stam that form a whole, called a
galaxy. On a
fine summer night, the whole of space seems to be filled with stara
thst make up what is known as the Milky Way. This
group has
extremely large dimensions. Whereas
light could crosft the solar
system in units of one hour, it would require something
like
90,000
years to
go
from one extreme to the other of the most
compact
group of stars that make up our
galaxy.
The
galaxy
that we belong to however, even though it is so
incredibly huge, is only a small
part
of the Heavens. There are
grsnt agglomerates of stars similar to the Milky Way that lie
outside our
galaxy. They were discovered a little over fifW
year"s
agp,
when astronomy was able to make use of an optical instru-
ment as sophistieated as the one that made
possible the construc-
tion of the Mount Wilson telescope in the United Statcs. Thus I
very large number indeed of isolated
galaxies
and masses of
gnl-
axies have been discovered that are so far away that it was
necessary to institute a special unit of light-years,
the
'parsec'
(the
distance light travels in 8.26
years at 186,000 miles
per
second).
F ormafu ard Eoohfion ol &Iarilrl4
Stan atd
PIanenw Sgficmt.
What
was there originally in the immensely large spsce
the
galaxies now occupy ? Modern science can only answer this
ques'
tion as of e eertsin
period
in the evolution of the Universe; it
eannot
put into numbers
the length of time that separates
this
period
from us.
At the earliest time it can
provide us with, modern science h88
evely reason to maintain that the Universe was formed of s
143
Pluto, and yet the journey is made at the terrifying speed of over
186,000 miles per second. The light coming from stars on the
very confines of the known celestial world therefore takes billions
of years to reach us.
The CaltJsie,.
The Sun, of which we are a satellite like the other planets
surrounding it, is itself an infinitesmally small element among
a hundred billion stars. that form a whole, called a galaxy. On a
fine summer night, the whole of space seems to be filled with stars
that make up what is known as the Milky Way. This group has
extremely large dimensions. Whereas light could cross the solar
system in units of one hour, it would require something like
90,000 years to go from one extreme to the other of the most
compact group of stars that make up our galaxy.
The galaxy that we belong to however, even though it is so
incredibly huge, is only a small part of the Heavens. There are
giant agglomerates of stars similar to the Milky Way that lie
outside our galaxy. They were discovered a little over fifty years
ago, when astronomy was able to make use of an optical instru-
ment as sophisticated as the one that made possible the construc-
tion of the Mount Wilson telescope in the United States. Thus a
very large number indeed of isolated galaxies and masses of gal-
axies have been discovered that are so far away that it was
necessary to institute a special unit of light-years, the 'parsec'
(the distance light travels in 3.26 years at 186,000 miles per
second).
Formation and Eooluticmof CaltJsie" Stars and
PlanetatY Sf/stema.
What was there originally in the immensely large space the
galaxies now occupy? Modern science can only answer this ques-
tion as of a certain period in the evolution of the Universe; it
cannot put into numbers t.he length of time that separates this
period from us.
At the earliest time it can provide us with, modern science has
every reason to maintain that the Universe was formed of a
ru
TIIE BIBLE, TrIE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
gaseous
mas$ principally
composed of hydrogen and a certain
amount of helium
that was slowly rotating.
This nebula subse-
quently
split up into multiple fragments
with very large dimen-
sions and masses, so large indeed,
that specialists in astrophysies
are able to estimate their mass from r to 100 billion times the
present
mass of the Sun
(the
latter represents a mass that is over
300,000 times that of the Earth). These figures give
an idea of
the large
size of the fragments of primary gaseous
mass that
were to give
birth to the galaxies.
A new fragmentation
was to form the stars. There then fol-
lowed the intervention
of a eondensing process
where gravita-
tional forces
came into
play, (since
these
bodies were moving
and rotating
more and more quickly),
along with pressures
and
the influence
of magnetic fields and of radiations. The stars
became shiny as they contracted and transformed the gravita-
tional forces into thermal
energy. Thermonuclear
reactions came
into play,
and heavier atoms were formed by fusion at the expense
of others that were lighter; this is how the transition was made
from hydrogen to helium, then to carbon and oxygen, ending with
metals and metalloids.
Thus the stars have a life of their own and
modern astronomy
classifies them according
to their
present
stage
of evolution.
The stars also have a death; in the final
stage of
their evolution, the violent implosion
of certain stars has been
observed
so that they become veritable
,corpses'.
The planets,
and in
particular
the Earth, originated in a separ-
ation
process
starting from an initial constituent that in the
beginning was the primary
nebula. A fact that has no longer
been contested
for over twenty-five years
is that the Sun con-
densed inside the single nebula
and that the
planets
did the same
inside the surrounding nebnlar.
disc. one must stress-and this
is of
prime
importance for the subject in hand-that there was
no sequence in the formation
of the celestial elements such as
the Sun nor in the formatiou of an earthly element. There is an
evolutionary parallelism
r,r'ith the identity of origin.
Here, science can give
us information
on the
period
during
which the events
just
mentioned took place.
Having estimated
the age of our galaxy
at roughll' ten billion years,
according to
this hypothesis,
the formation of the solal system took place
a
little over five billion years
later'. The stud.y of naturat radio
144 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
gaseous mass principally composed of hydrogen and a certain
amount of helium that was slowly rotating. This nebula subse-
quently split up into multiple fragments with very large dimen-
sions and masses, so large indeed, that specialists in astrophysics
are able to estimate their mass from 1 to 100 billion times the
present mass of the Sun (the latter represents a mass that is over
300,000 times that of the Earth). These figures give an idea of
the large size of the fragments of primary gaseous mass that
were to give birth to the galaxies.
A new fragmentation was to form the stars. There then fol-
lowed the intervention of a condensing process where gravita-
tional forces came into play, (since these bodies were moving
and rotating more and more quickly), along with pressures and
the influence of magnetic fields and of radiations. The stars
became shiny as they contracted and transformed the gravita-
tional forces into thermal energy. Thermonuclear reactions came
into play, and heavier atoms were formed by fusion at the expense
of others that were lighter; this is how the transition was made
from hydrogen to helium, then to carbon and oxygen, ending with
metals and metalloids. Thus the stars have a life of their own and
modern astronomy classifies them according to their present stage
of evolution. The stars also have a death; in the final stage of
their evolution, the violent implosion of certain stars has been
observed so that they become veritable 'corpses'.
The planets, and in particular the Earth, originated in a separ-
ation process starting from an initial constituent that in the
beginning was the primary nebula. A fact that has no longer
been contested for over twenty-five years is that the Sun con-
densed inside the single nebula and that the planets did the same
inside the surrounding nebular disc. One must stress-and this
is of prime importance for the subject in hand-that there was
no sequence in the formation of the celestial elements such as
the Sun nor in the formation of an earthly element. There is an
evolutionary parallelism with the identity of origin.
Here, science can give us information on the period during
which the events just mentioned took place. Having estimated
the age of our galaxy at roughly ten billion years, according to
this hypothesis, the formation of the solar system took place a
little over five billion years later. The study of natural radio
Tlre Cteatiwr of tle Heaoens otd' tlw Eafih
f45
activity makes it
possible to
place the age of the Earth and the
time the Sun was formed at 4.5 billion
years ago, to within a
present-day accuracy of 100 million
years' according
to some
scientists' calculations.
This accuracy
is to be admired, since 100
million
years may represent a long time
to us but the ratio
'maximum
error/total time-to-be-measured'
is 0.1/4.5,
i.e. 2.2%.
Specialists
in astrophysies
have therefore attained
^ high
degree of knowledge concerning the
general proeess involved in
the formation of the solar system. It may be summarized
as
follows: condensation
and contraction
of a rotating
gaseous mass'
splitting up into fragments that leave the Sun and
planets in
their
places,
among them the Earth.' The knowledge
that science
has
gained on the
primary nebula and the way it split up into
an incommensurable
quantity of stArs
grouped into
galaxies
leaves absolutely no doubt as to the
legitimacy of a concept of
the
plurality of worlds. It does not however
provide any kind
of certainty concerning
the existence
in the Universe of anything
that might, either
closely or vaguely,
resemble the Earth.
TIw Concept of th'e Pluralitg
of thcWorlds.
In spite of the above, modern specialists
in astrophysics
con-
sider it highly likely that
planets
similar to Earth are
present
in the Universe. As far as the solar system is concerned,
nobody
seriously entertains the
possibility
of finding
general conditions
similar to those on Earth on another
planet in this system. We
must therefore seek for them outside the solar system.
The like-
lihood of their existing outside it is considered
quite probable
for the following reasons:
It is thought that
in our
galaxy half of the 100 billion stars
must, like the Sun,
have a
planetary
system. The fifty billion
stars do indeed, like the Sun, rotate very slowly; a characteristic
which suggests that they are surrounded by
planets that are their
satellites. These stars are so far away that the
possible
planets
are unobservable, but their existence
is thought to be highly
probable
on account of certain
trajectory characteristies;
a
slight undulation of the star's trajeetory
indicates the
presence
l. As regards the Moon, its
gradual separation
from the Earth following
the deceleration
of its rotation is an acknowledged
probability.
The Creation of the Heaeem and the Earth 145
activity makes it possible to place the age of the Earth and the
time the Sun was formed at 4.5 billion years ago, to within a:
accuracy of 100 million years, according to some
scientists' calculations. This accuracy is to be admired, since 100
million years may represent a long time to us but the ratio
'maximum error/total time-to-be-measured' is 0.1/4.5, Le. 2.2%.
Specialists in astrophysics have therefore attained a high
degree of knowledge concerning the general process involved in
the formation of the solar system. It may be summarized as
follows: condensation and contraction of a rotating gaseous mass,
splitting up into fragments that leave the Sun and planets in
their places, among them the Earth.
l
The knowledge that science
has gained on the primary nebula and the way it split up into
an incommensurable quantity of st.ilrs grouped into galaxies
leaves absolutely no doubt as to the legitimacy of a concept of
the plurality of worlds. It does not however provide any kind
of certainty concerning the existence in the Universe of anything
that might, either closely or vaguely, resemble the Earth.
The Concept of the Plurality of the Worlels.
In spite of the above, modern specialists in astrophysics con-
sider it highly likely that planets similar to Earth are present
in the Universe. As far as the solar system is concerned, nobody
seriously entertains the possibility of finding general conditions
similar to those on Earth on another planet in this system. We
must therefore seek for them outside the solar system. The like-
lihood of their existing outside it is considered quite probable
for the following reasons:
It is thought that in our galaxy half of the 100 billion stars
must, like the Sun, have a planetary system. The fifty billion
stars do indeed, like the Sun, rotate very slowly; a characteristic
which suggests that they are surrounded by planets that are their
satellites. These stars are so far away that the possible planets
are unobservable, but their existence is thought to be highly
probable on account of certain trajectory characteristics; a
slight undulation of the star's trajectory indicates the presence
1. As regards the Moon, its gradual separation from the Earth following
the deceleration of its rotation is an acknowledged probability.
146
THE BIBLE, THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
of a companion planetary
satellite. Thus the Barnard
Star
prob-
ably has at least one planetary
companion
with a mass greater
than that of Jupiter and may even have two satellites. As
p.
Gudrin writes:
"AII the evidence points
to the fact that
planetary
systems are scattered
in
profusion
all over the universe. The
solar system and the Earth are not unique." And as a corollary:
"Life,
like the
planets
that harbour it, is scattered
throughout
the universe, in those
places
where the
physico-chemical
condi-
tions necessary
for its flowering
and development
are to be
found."
Interstelhr
Matwial.
The basie process
in the formation
of the
Universe therefore
lay in the condensation
of material in the
primary
nebula fol-
lowed by its division
into fragments that originally eonstituted
galaetic
masses. The latter in their turn split up into stars that
provided
the sub-product
of the
process,
i.e. the
planets.
These
successive separations
left among the groups
of
principle
ele-
ments what one might perhaps
call
'remains'.
Their more scien-
tific name is
'interstellar
galactic
material'. It has been described
in various ways; there are bright nebulae
that reflect the light
received from other stars and are
perhaps
composed of
.dusts'
or
'smokes',
to use the terminology
of experts in astrophysics,
and then there are the dark nebulae that are less dense, cott*isting
of interstellar
material
that is even more modest, known for its
tendency to interfere
with photometric
measurements in astron-
omy. There
can be no doubt about the existence of
,bridges'
of
material
between the galaxies
themserves. Although these gases
may be very rarefied,
the fact that they oecupy
such a colossal
space, in
view of the great
distance separating the
galaxies,
could
make them
correspond
to a mass possibly
greater
than the total
mass of the galaxies
in spite of the low density of the former.
A. Boichot considers the presence
of these intergalactic
masses
to be of prime
importance
which could
',consider"uty
alter ideas
on the evolution
of the ljniverse."
We must
now
go
back to the basic ideas on the creation of the
Universe that were taken from the
Qur'an
and look at them in
the light
of modern scientific data.
146 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
of a companion planetary satellite. Thus the Barnard Star prob-
ably has at least one planetary companion with a mass greater
than that of Jupiter and may even have two satellites. As P.
Guerin writes: "All the evidence points to the fact that planetary
systems are scattered in profusion all over the universe. The
solar system and the Earth are not unique." And as a corollary:
"Life, like the planets that harbour it, is scattered throughout
the universe, in those places where the physico-chemical condi-
tions necessary for its flowering and development are to be
found."
Interstellar Material.
The basic process in the formation of the Universe therefore
lay in the condensation of material in the primary nebula fol-
lowed by its division into fragments that originally constituted
galactic masses. The latter in their turn split up into stars that
provided the sub-product of the process, Le. the planets. These
successive separations left among the groups of principle ele-
ments what one might perhaps call 'remains'. Their more scien-
tific name is 'interstellar galactic material'. It has been described
in various ways; there are bright nebulae that reflect the light
received from other stars and are perhaps composed of 'dusts'
or 'smokes', to use the terminology of experts in astrophysics,
and then there are the dark nebulae that are less dense, consisting
of interstellar material that is even more modest, known for its
tendency to interfere with photometric measurements in astron-
omy. There can be no doubt about the existence of 'bridges' of
material between the galaxies themselves. Although these gases
may be very rarefied, the fact that they occupy such a colossal
space, in view of the great distance separating the galaxies, could
make them correspond to a mass possibly greater than the total
mass of the galaxies in spite of the low density of the former.
A. Boichot considers the presence of these intergalactic masses
to be of prime importance which could "considerably alter ideas
on the evolution of the Universe."
We must now go back to the basic ideas on the Creation of the
Universe that were taken from the Qur'an and look at them in
the light of modern scientific data.
Tlv Clrn/irln
of the Heaoelaa
ard- tlrr Earlh
CONFNONTATION
WITH
THE DATA
IN THE
QUn'Ail
CONCEA
ryNG TEE Cn^EAflON'
We shall examine
the five main
points on which
the
Qur'an
gives information
about the Creation.
t) The six
periods of the Creation
of the Heavens
and the Esrth
covered, according
to the
Qur'an,
the formation
of the celestial
bodies
and the Earth, and the development
of the latter until
(with its
'sustenance;)
it became
inhabitable
by man.
In the
case of the Earth, the events described
in the
Qur'an
happened
over four
periods. one
could
perhaps see in them the
four
geological
periods described
by modern
science,
with man's
ap-
pearance, as we already
know, taking
plaee in the
quaternary era.
This is
purely a trypoihesis
sincc
nobody has an answer
to this
question.
It must be noted however,
that the formation
of the heavenly
bodies and the Earth, as explained
in verses 9 to 12, sura
41
(see
page 136) required
two
phases. If we take the sun
and its sub-
proauct tire Earth
as an example
(the only one accessible
to us)
'
science
informs us that their formation
occurred
by a
process of
condensAtion
of the
primary nebula and then their
separation'
This is exactly
rvhat the
Qur'an
expresses
very
elearly
when it
refers to the
processes that
produced a fusion and subsequent
separation
starting
from a celestial
'smoke'.
Hence
there
is
complete
correspottd.tt..
between
the facts of the
Qur'an
and
the facts of science.
Zl Science
showed
the interlocking
of the two stages in the for-
mation
of a star
(like the sun) and its satellite
(like the Earth) '
This interconnection
is surely
very evident
in the text of the
Qur'an
examined.
3) The existence
at an early stage of the Universe
of the
'smoke'
referred
to in the
Qur'an,
me&ning
the
predominently
gaseous
state
of the material
that composes
it, obviously
corresponds
to
the concept
of the
primary nebula
put forrvard
by modern
science'
4) The
pl ural i ty of the heavens, expressed
i n the
Qur' an
by the
nUmber 7, rvhose
meaning lve have fliscnssed,
is confirmed
by
modern science
due to the observations
experts
in astrophysies
have made on
galactic systems
and their very large
number'
On
the
other
hand the
pl ural i ty of earths that are si mi l ar
to ours
r17
Tlas C,.tion of the Heaoem afld tlas Earth
147
CONFRONTATION WITH THE DATA IN THE
QUR'AN CONCERNING THE CREATION.
We shall examine the five main points on which the Qur'an
gives information about the Creation.
1) The six periods of the Creation of the Heavens and the E'arlh
covered, according to the Qur'an, the formation of the celestial
bodies and the Earth, and the development of the latter until
(with its 'sustenance') it became inhabitable by man. In the
case of the Earth, the events described in the Qur'an happened
over four periods. One could perhaps see in them the four
geological periods described by modern science, with man's ap-
pearance, as we already know, taking place in the quaternary era.
This is purely a hypothesis since nobody has an answer to this
question.
It must be noted however, that the formation of the heavenly
bodies and the Earth, as explained in verses 9 to 12, sura 41 (see
page 136) required two phases. If we take the Sun and its sub-
product the Earth as an example (the only one accessible to us),
science informs us that their formation occurred by a process of
condensation of the primary nebula and then their separation.
This is exactly what the Qur'an expresses very clearly when it
refers to the processes that produced a fusion and subsequent
separation starting from a celestial 'smoke'. Hence there is
complete correspondence between the facts of the Qur'an and
the facts of science.
2) Science showed the interlocking of the two stages in the for-
mation of a star (like the Sun) and its satellite (like the Earth).
This interconnection is surely very evident in the text of the
Qur'an examined.
3) The existence at an early stage of the Universe of the 'smoke'
referred to in the Qur'an, meaning the predominently gaseous
state of the material that composes it, obviously corresponds to
the concept of the primary nebula put forward by modern science.
4) The plurality of the heavens, expressed in the Qur'an by the
number 7, whose meaning we have discussed, is confirmed by
modern science due to the observations experts in astrophysics
have made on galactic systems ~ their very large number. On
the other hand the plurality of earths that are similar to ours
l{8
TrrE BIBLE,
TIIE
QItn'AN
AND SCTENCE
(from
eertain points
of view at least)
is an idea that arises in
the text of the
Qur'an
but
has not yet
been demonstrated
to be
true
by science; all the samg speciaiists
eonsider
this to be
quite
feasible.
6) The
existenee
of an intermediate
creation
between
.the
Heav-
ens' and
'the
Earth'
expressed
in the
eur'Bn
may be compared
to the discovery
of those
bridges
of material present
outside
organized
astronomic
systems.
Although
not all the questions
raised by the deseriptions
in
the
Qur'an have been
completely
confirmed
by scientifie
data,
there is in any case
absorutely
no opposition
between
the data
in the
Qur'an on the
creation
and modern knowledge
on the
formation
of the
universe.
This fact is worth stressirig
for the
Qur'anic Revelation,
whereas
it is very obvious inaeedthat
the
present-day
text of the ord restament provides
data on the same
events that are
unacceptable
from a scientific point
of view. It
is hardly
surprising,
since the description
of the Creation in the
secerdotal version
of the Bible'
was written by priests
at the
time
of the deportation
to Babylon
who had the legalist intentions
already described
and therefore
compiled
a deseription
that fitted
their theological
views.
The existence
of such an enorrnous
differ-
ence between the Biblical
description
and the data in the
eur'an
concerning
the creation is worth
underlining
once
"g"i'
on
aeeount
of the totally gratuitous
aecusations
leveled
asainst
Muhammad
sinee the beginnings
of Islam
to the effect tnat ne
eopied
the Biblical
deseriptions.
As far as the creation
is con-
cerned,
this aceusation
is totally
unfound ed. How eould, a mrrn
Iiaing
fourteen
hund,red,
uears
ago haue mad,e
eoryecti.ons to the
existi.ng
deseriyttion
to snch an ertent that
he el:i,mi,nated,
eeienti-
fieally
innecurnte
material
and,, on his own initiattue,
m,ad,e state-
ments that seienee
has been able to uertfy only i,n the'present
dey?
This hypoth.esz's
is eomTtretely
untenable.
Tie
d,eseiption
of the
Creation giaen
i,n the
ew"an
is quite
d,iferent
from
the one in
the Bible.
1' This text eompletely
overshadows
the few lines eontained
in the
yshvirt
version' The latter
is too brief and too vagle for the
scientist to talc
account of it.
148
TIlE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
(from certain points of view at least) is an idea that arises in
the text of the Qur'an but has not yet been demonstrated to be
true by science; all the same, specialists consider this to be quite
feasible.
5) The existence of an intermediate creation between 'the Heav-
ens' and 'the Earth' expressed in the Qur'an may be compared
to the discovery of those bridges of material present outside
organized astronomic systems.
Although not all the questions raised by the descriptions in
the Qur'an have been completely confirmed by scientific data,
there is in any case absolutely no opposition between the data
in the Qur'an on the Creation and modern knowledge on the
formation of the Universe. This fact is worth stressing for the
Qur'anic Revelation, whereas it is very obvious indeed ~ the
present-day text of the Old Testament provides data on the same
events that are unacceptable from a scientific point of view. It
is hardly surprising, since the description of the Creation in the
Sacerdotal version of the Bible
1
was written by priests at the
time of the deportation to Babylon who had the legalist intentions
already described and therefore compiled a description that fitted
their theological views. The existence of such an enormous differ-
ence between the Biblical description and the data in the Qur'an
concerning the Creation is worth underlining once again on
account of the totally gratuitous accusations leveled against
Muhammad since the beginnings of Islam to the effect that he
copied the Biblical descriptions. As far as the Creation is con-
cerned, this accusation is totally unfounded. How could a man
living fourteen hundred years ago have made corrections to the
existing description to such an extent that he eliminated scienti-
fically inaccurate material and, on his own initiative, made state-
ments that science has been able to verify only in the present day?
This hypothesis is completely untenable. The description of the
Creation given in the Qur'an is quite different from the one in
the Bible.
1. This text completely overshadows the few lines contained in the Yahviat
version. The latter is too brief and too vague for the scientist to take
account of it.
tla Cr"rdlfon of t
p
Hlrlorial atd tlra Enilh
r{0
AIVSWENS
TO CENTAIN OBTECflOilS
Indisputebly, reaemblances
do exist between
narrations
dealing
with other subiects,
particularly religious history,
in the Bible
and
in the
Qur'an.
It is moreover interesting
to note from this
point of view how nobody holds against Jesus the fact that he
iat.r up the same sort of facts and Biblical
teaehings. This does
not, of course,
stop
people in the West from accusing
Muhammad
of referring to such facts in his teaehing
with the suggestion
that he is an imposter beeause he
presents them as a Revelation.
As for the
proof that Muhammad
reproduced in the
Qur'an
what
he had been told or dictated by the rabbis, it has no more sub-
stance than the statement that a Christian
monk
gave
him a
sound religious education.
one would do well to re-read
what
R. BlachEre in his hook, The Probletn
of Muhammad'
(Le
Prob-
llme de Mahomet)
r,
has to say about this
'fable"
A hint of a resemblance
is also
advaneed between other
state-
ments in the
Qur'an
and beliefs
that
go
back a very long w&Y'
probably muctr further
in time than the Bible.
More
generally speaking,
f,he traces of eertain
cosmogonic
myths have been-sought
in the4loly Scriptures;
for example
the
belief held by the Polynesians
in the existenee
of
primeval waters
that were eovered
in darkness until
they separated
when light
eppeared;
thus Heaven
and Earth were formed.
This myth is
*olnp*t tl to the description
of the Creation
in the Bible, where
there is undoubtedly
a resemblanee.
It would however
be super-
ficial to then accuse the Bible of having copied
this from the
cosmogonic
myth.
It irjust asisuperficial
to see the
Qur'anic
concept of the divi-
sion of the
primlval material constituting
the Universe
at its
initial
stage-a
concept held by modern scienee-as
one that
comes
from various
cosmogonic myths in one form or another
that express something
resembling
it.
It is worth analysing these mythical beliefs and descriptions
more
closely. Often
an initial idea appears
among them
which is
reasonable
in itself, and is in some
cass borne out
by what we
today
know
(or think we know) to be true, except that
fantastic
aescriptions
are attached to it in the myth. This is the case of
l. Pub. Pregser Universitaries
de France, Paris, 1962'
149
ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OBJECTIONS
Indisputably, resemblances do exist between narrations dealing
with other subjects, particularly religious history, in the Bible
and in the Qur'an. It is moreover interesting to note from this
point of view how nobody holds against Jesus the fact that he
takes up the same sort of facts and Biblical teachings. This does
not, of course, stop people in the West from accusing Muhammad
of referring to such facts in his teaching with the suggestion
that he is an imposter because he presents them as a Revelation.
As for the proof that Muhammad reproduced in the Qur'an what
he had been told or dictated by the rabbis, it has no more sub-
stance than the statement that a Christian monk gave him a
sound religious education. One would do well to re-read what
R. Blachere in his book, The Problem of Muhammad (Le Prob-
Ierne de Mahomet> t, has to say about this 'fable'.
A hint of a resemblance is also advanced between other state-
ments in the Qur'an and beliefs that go back a very long way,
probably much further in time than the Bible.
More generally speaking, t.he traces of certain cosmogonic
myths have been sought in therHoly Scriptures; for example the
belief held by the Polynesians in the existence of primeval waters
that were covered in darkness until they separated when light
appeared; thus Heaven and Earth were formed. This myth is
compared to the description of the Creation in the Bible, where
there is undoubtedly a resemblance. It would however be super-
ficial to then accuse the Bible of having copied this from the
cosmogonie myth.
It is just as\superficial to see the Qur'anic concept of the divi-
sion of the primeval material constituting the Universe at its
initial stage-a concept held by modern science-as one that
comes from various cosmogonic myths in one form or another
that express something resembling it.
It is worth analysing these mythical beliefs and descriptions
more closely. Often an initial idea appears among them which is
reasonable in itself, and is in some cases borne out by what we
today know (or think we know) to be true, except that fantastic
descriptions are attached to it in the myth. This is the case of
1. Pub. Presses Universitaries de France. Paris. 1952.
lfll
mrE DDLF' rHE
QIrn'AN
AND SCIENCE
the fairly widespreed
concept
of the Ireavens
and the Eartr
originally
being
united then
subsequenily
separated.
vfhen, as in
Japan, the image
of the egg plus
an expression
of elraos ie
attaehed
to the above with
the idea of a seed inside
ttre esg
(as
for all eggs),
the imaginative
addition
makes
the cone.ti m.
all semblance
of seriousness.
In other countries,
the idea of a
plant
is associated
with it; the plant grows
and in so doing
raises
up the sky and
separates
the Heavens
from
the Earth-.
Here
again, the imaginative quality
of the added
detail lends the myth
its very distinetive
eharscter.
Nevertheless
I common character-
istic remains,
i.e. the notion
of a single
mass at the tresinning of
the evolutionary process
leading
to the formation
of the universe
which then
divided
to form
the various
,worlds'
that
we know
today.
The reason
these cosmogonic
myths
are mentioned
here is to
underline
the way they have been embroidered
by man,s imagine-
tion and
to show the
basic differenee
between thern and the
statements
in the
Qur'an on the same subject.
The latter
are free
from any of the whimsical
details accompanying
such beliefs;
on the contrary,
they are distinguished
uv tr,L *ob." qualiW
of
the words in which
they
are made
and their
*gr"**"nt
with
scientific
data.
sueh statements
in the
eur'an
concerning
the creation,
which
appeared
nearly fourteen
centuries
ag'o, obviously
do not lend
themselves
to a human explanation.
ISO
TIlE BIBLE. THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
the fairly widespread concept of the Heavens and the Earth
originally being united then subsequently separated. When. &8 in
Japan, the image of the egg plus an expression of chaos ;8
attached to the above with the idea of a seed inside the egg (as
for all eggs), the imaginative addition makes the concept lose
all semblance of seriousness. In other countries, the idea of a
plant is associated with it; the plant grows and in so doing raises
up the sky and separates the Heavens from the Earth. Here
again, the imaginative quality of the added detail lends the myth
its very distinctive character. Nevertheless a common character-
istic remains, Le. the notion of a single mass at the beginning of
the evolutionary process leading to the formation of the Universe
which then divided to form the various 'worlds' that we know
today.
The reason these cosmogonic myths are mentioned here is to
underline the way they have been embroidered by man's imagina-
tion and to show the basic difference between them and the
statements in the Qur'an on the same subject. The latter are free
from any of the whimsical details accompanying such beliefs;
on the contrary, they are distinguished by the sober quality of
the words in which they are made and their agreement with
scientific data.
Such statements in the Qur'an concerning the Creation, which
appeared nearly fourteen centuries ago, obviously do not lend
themselves to a human explanation.
rY
Astrorrrrrrry
ln the
Qut'arr
Ttre
Qur'sn
is full of reflections
on the Heavens.
In the
preced-
ing chapter
on the creation,
we saw how the
plurality of the
neavens
and Earths was referred
to, as well as what the
Qut'sn
calls an intermediary
creation
'between
the Heavens
and
the
Earth':
modern
science
has verified
the latter.
The verses
refer-
iins to the Creation
already
contain
a broad idea of what is to
be found in the heavens,
i.e. of everything
outside the earth'
Apart from the verses that specifically
describe
the Creation,
there are roughly
another
fqrty verseg
in the
Qur'an
which
provide infoniration
on astronomy
complementing
rvhat hss
atready
been
gi'ien. Some of them
are not much more
than
reflections
on ihe
glory
of the Creator,
the Organizer
of all the
stellar and
planetary systems.
These
we know to be arranged
aecording
to balancing
positions whose stability
Newton
ex-
plained in tti* law of the mutual
attraetion
of bodies.
The first verses
to be
quoted here hardly furnish
much
mater-
ial for scientific
analysis:
the aim is simply to draw attention
to God's Omnipotence
They must be mentioned
however
to
give
a realistic
idea of the way the
Qur'anic
text deseribed
the organiz-
ation of the Universe
fourteen centuries
8go'
These references
constitute
a new fact of divine
Revelation'
The organization
of the world is treated
in neither the Gospels
nor the Old Testament
(except
for a few notions
whose
general
inaccuracy
we have already seen in the Biblical description
of
the Creation).
The
Qur'an
however
deals with this subject
in
depth.
what it describes
is important,
but so
is what it does not
,ont"irr.
It does
not in fact
provide an account of the theories
prevalen t at the time
of the Revelation
that deal with the organi-
t5l
IV
Asl..onoDl}' In thE Quran
The Qur'an is full of reflections on the Heavens. In the preced-
ing chapter on the Creation, we saw how the plurality of the
Heavens and Earths was referred to, as well as what the Qur'an
calls an intermediary creation 'between the Heavens and the
Earth': modem science has verified the latter. The verses refer-
ring to the Creation already contain a broad idea of what is to
be found in the heavens, Le. of everything outside the earth.
Apart from the verses that specifically describe the Creation,
there are roughly another fQrty verses in the Qur'an which
provide information on astronomy complementing what has
already been g i ~ n Some of them are not much more than
reflections on the glory of the Creator, the Organizer of all the
stellar and planetary systems. These we know to be arranged
according to balancing positions whose stability Newton ex-
plained in his law of the mutual attraction of bodies.
The first verses to be quoted here hardly furnish much mater-
ial for scientific analysis: the aim is simply to draw attention
to God's Omnipotence. They must be mentioned however to give
a realistic idea of the way the Qur'anic text described the organiz-
ation of the Universe fourteen centuries ago.
These references constitute a new fact of divine Revelation.
The organization of the world is treated in neither the Gospels
nor the Old Testament (except for a few notions whose general
inaccuracy we have already seen in the Biblical description of
the Creation). The Qur'an however deals with this subject in
depth. What it describes is important, but so is what it does not
contain. It does not in fact provide an account of the theories
prevalent at the time of the Revelation that deal with the organi-
151
r58
THE BIBLE, THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
zation of the celestial
world, theories
that
show were
inaccurate.
An example
of this
This negative
consideration
must
however
science was later to
will be given
later.
be
pointed
out.r
A. GENERAL
NEFLECflONS
CONCENNTNG
THE
SKT.
-sura
50, verse 6. The subjeet is man in general.
"Do they not look
at the sky above them,
how we have
built
it and adorned
it, and there are no rifts in it."
-sura
31, verse
l 0:
"
(God)
ereated
the heavens rvithout
any pillars
that you
can
g g g .
. . t t
-sura
18, verse
p:
"God is the
one who raisecl
the heavens
without
any
pillars
that you
ean see, then
He firmly established
Himself
on the
throne
and He subjected
the sun and moon . . .,,
These two verses
refute
the belief
that the vault of the heavens
was held up by pillars,
the only things preventing
the former
from
crushing
the earth.
-sura
55, verse
?:
"the sky (God)
raised
it . . ."
-sura
22, verse
6E:
"(God) holds
back the sky from fallirlg
on the earth unless
by His leave . . .,,
It is knorvn horv the remoteness
of celestial
masses at*great
distance and in proportion
to the magnitude
of their mass itself
constitutes
the foundation
of their equilibrium.
The
more remote
the masses ere, the weaker
the force is that attracts one to the
other. The nearer
they are, the stronger
the attraction
is that
one has to the other: thi s i s true for the Moon, rvhi ch
i s near to
l J h"*
"f"n
heard those who go
to great
l engths to fi nd a human
ex-
pl anati on-and
no other-to ai l the probl ems
rai sed by the
eur,an say
the fol l owi ng:
"i f the Book contai ns
surpri si ng
statements
on astron-
omy, i t i s because
the Arabs were very knowl edgeabl e
on thi s subj ect."
In so doi ng
they forget the fact that,
i n general ,
sci ence i n Isi ami e
countri es i s very
much post-eur' an,
and that the sci enti fi c knowl edge
of
thi s great peri od
woul d i n any case not have been suffci ent for a h.r-.r,
bei ng to wri te some of the verses to be found i n the
eur' an.
Thi s wi i l
be shown i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
152
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
zation of the celestial world, theories that science was later to
show were inaccurate. An example of this will be given later.
This negative consideration must however be pointed out.!
A. GENERAL REFLECTIONS CONCERNING THE SKY.
-sura 50, verse 6. The subject is man in general.
"Do they not look at the sky al10ve them, how We have built
it and adorned it, and there are no rifts in it."
-sura 31, verse 10:
"(God) created the heavens without any pillars that you can
see ..."
-sura 18, verse 2:
"God is the One Who raised the heavens without any pillars
that you can see, then He firmly established Himself on the
throne and He subjected the sun and moon ..."
These two verses refute the belief that the vault of the heavens
was held up by pillars, the only things preventing the former from
crushing the earth.
-sura 55, verse 7:
"the sky (God) raised it .. "
-sura 22, verse 65:
#I (God) holds back the sky from falHftg on the earth unless
by His leave . . ."
It is known how the remoteness of celestial masses at-great
distance and in proportion to the magnitude of their mass itself
constitutes the foundation of their equilibrium. The more remote
the masses are, the weaker the force is that attracts one to the
other. The nearer they are, the stronger the attraction is that
one has to the other: this is true for the Moon, which is near to
1. I have often heard those who go to great lengths to find a human ex-
planation-and no other-to all the problems raised by the Qur'an say
the following: "if the Book contains surprising statements on astron-
omy, it is because the Arabs were very knowledgeable on this subject."
In so doing they forget the fact that, in general, science in Islamic
countries is very much post-Qur'an, and that the scientific knowledge of
this great period would in any caSe not have been sufficient for a human
being to write some of the verses to be found in the Qur'an. This will
be shown in the following paragraphs.
/vlfionorrrg
tn ttlr-
Qlu/rllt
t53
the Earth
(astronomically speaking)
and exercises
an influence
by laws of attraction
on the
position occupied by the waters of
the sea, hence the
phenomenon of the tides. If two celestial bodies
come too close
to one another, eollision
is inevitable. fire fact
that they are subjected to an order is the sine
qua non for thie
absence of disturbances.
The subjection
of the Heavens to divine order is often
referred
to as well:
-sura
23, verse 86: God is speaking
to the Prophet'
"Say:
Who is Lord of the seven heavens and Lord of the
tremendous
throne?"
We have already
seen how by
'seven
heavens' what is megnt
is not ?, but an indefinite
number of lfesvens.
-sura
46, verse
18:
"For
you (God)
subiected
all that is in the heavens and on
the earth, all from Him. Behold ! In that are signs for
people who reflect."
-sura
66, verse 6:
"The
sun and moon
(are
subjected)
to caleulations"
-sura
6, verse 96:
"
(God)
appointed the night for rest and the sun and the moon
for reckoning."
-sura
14, verse 38:
,,For
you (God)
subjected the sun and the moon,
both dil-
igently
pursuing
their courses.
And for
you He subiected
the
night and the day."
Here one verse completes another:
the calculations referred to
result
in the regularity of the course described by the heavenly
bodies
in question, this is expressed
by the word dd'ib, the
present
participle of a verb
whose original
meaning was
'to
work eagerly
snd assiduously
at something'. Here it is
given
the meaning
of
,to
apply orr.**jf to something with care in a
perseverant, invari-
able manner, in accordance with set habits'.
-sura
36, verse 39 : God is sPeaking:
"And
for the moon We have appointed
mansions till she re-
turns like an old shriveled
palm branch'"
153
the Earth (astronomically speaking) and exercises an influence
by laws of attraction on the position occupied by the waters of
the sea, hence the phenomenon of the tides. If two celestial bodies
come too close to one another, collision is inevitable. The fact
that they are subjected to an order is the sine qua non for the
absence of disturbances.
The subjection of the Heavens to divine order is often referred
to as well:
-sura 23, verse 86: God is speaking to the Prophet.
"Say: Who is Lord of the seven heavens and Lord of the
tremendous throne1"
We have already seen how by 'seven heavens' what is meant
is not 7, but an indefinite number of Heavens.
-sura 45, verse 13:
"For you (God) subjected all that is in the heavens and on
the earth, all from Him. Behold! In that are signs for
people who reflect."
-sura 55, verse 5:
"The sun and moon (are subjected) to calculations"
-sura 6, verse 96 :
"(God) appointed the night for rest and the sun and the moon
for reckoning."
-sura 14, verse 33 :
"For you (God) subjected the sun and the moon, both dil-
igently pursuing their courses. And for you He subjected the
night and the day."
Here one verse completes another: the calculations referred to
result in the regularity of the course described by the heavenly
bodies in question, this is expressed by the word da'ib, the present
pa"rticiple of a verb whose original meaning was 'to work eagerly
and assiduously at something'. Here it is given the meaning of
'to apply oneself to something with care in a perseverant, invari-
able manner, in accordance with set habits'.
-sura 36, verse 39: God is speaking:
"And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she re-
turns like an old shriveled palm branch."
rs{
TIIE BIBI"E, TIIE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
This is a reference
to the
eurled form of the palm
branch
which, as it shrivels
up, takes on the moon's crescent. This eom-
mentary will be completed
later.
-gura
16, verse 12:
"For
you (God)
subjected
the night and the day, the sun and
the moon;
the stars are in subjection
to His command.
verily in this are signs for
people
who are wise."
The practical
angle from which
this perfect
celestial order is
seen is underlined
on account of its value as an aid to man's
travel on earth and by sea, and to his caleulation of time. This
eomment beeomes
clear when one bears in mind the fact that
the
Qur'an
was originally
a
preaching
adriressed to men who only
understood
the simple language
of their
everyday lives. This
explains
the
presence
of the following
reflections:
-'sura
6, verse
g7:
"
(God)
is the one who has set out for
you
the stars, that you
may guide yourselves
by them
through
the darkness of the
land and of the sea. we have detailed
the signs for
people
who know.t'
-sura
16, verse 16:
"
(God
sets on the earth) randmarks
and by the stars (men)
guide
themselves."
-gura
10, verse
5:
"God
is the one who made
the sun a shining glory
and the
moon a lig:ht and for her ordained
mansions,
so that you
might lcnow the number of years
and
the reckoning (of
the
time).
God ereated
this in truth. He explains the signs in
detail for people
who know."
This calls for some comment.
whereas
the Bible calls the sun
and Moon
'lights',
and
merely adds to one the adjeetive
,greater'
and to the other
'lesser',
the
eur'an
aseribes
differences
other
than that of dimension
to each respectively.
Agreed,
this is
nothing
more than
a verbal distinetion,
but how was
one to
communicate to men
at this time without
confusing them,
while
at the same time
expressing
the notion
that the sun and Moon
were not absolutely
identical
.lights'?
154 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
This is a reference to the curled form of the palm branch
which, as it shrivels up, takes on the moon's crescent. This com-
mentary will be completed later.
--sura 16, verse 12:
"For you (God) subjected the night and the day, the sun and
the moon; the stars are in subjection to His Command.
Verily in this are signs for people who are wise."
The practical angle from which this perfect celestial order is
seen is underlined on account of its value as an aid to man's
travel on earth and by sea, and to his calculation of time. This
comment becomes clear when one bears in mind the fact that
the Qur'an was originally a preaching addressed to men who only
understood the simple language of their everyday lives. This
explains the presence of the following reflections:
---sura 6, verse 97:
"(God) is the One Who has set out for you the stars, that you
may guide yourselves by them through the darkness of the
land and of the sea. We have detailed the signs for people
who know."
-sura 16, verse 16:
"(God sets on the earth) landmarks and by the stars (men)
guide themselves."
-sura 10, verse 5:
"God is the One Who made the sun a shining glory and the
moon a light and for her ordained mansions, so that you
might know the number of years and the reckoning (of the
time). God created this in truth. He explains the signs in
detail for people who know."
This calls for some comment. Whereas the Bible calls the Sun
and Moon 'lights', and merely adds to one the b.djective 'greater'
and to the other 'lesser', the Qur'an ascribes differences other
than that of dimension to each respectively. Agreed, this is
nothing more than a verbal distinction, but how was one to
communicate to men at this time without confusing them, while
at the same time expressing the notion that the Sun and Moon
were not absolutely identical 'lights'?
tlffittry
h ttt
Qrdcr
B. IVATUNE
OF EEAVEIYLT
EODIES.
Ilra $wr arndtlrcilootu
Ilre Sun is e thining
glory ((iVill and the Moon e tight
(nfrrl'
Tfris transletion
would appear
to be more correct than
those
given by others, where the two terms are inverted. In fact thert
ir Uttt" hifr.t o* in maning since
Wil
belongs
to a root-(
tl*'!
*hirt, according
to Kazimirski's
iuthoritative
Arabic/French
dictionary,
meaos
'to
bc brigbt, to shine'
(e'g.
like s fire). fiie
same autho" attributes
to the substantive
in
question the meaning
of
'Ilght'.
tne OferensE
between Sun and Moon wiil bG made Clearer
by further
quotes from the
Qurran.
---sura
96, verse 61:
..Blessd
is the One lVho
placed the constellations
in heeven
and
plaeed therein a lamp and a moon
giving light'"
---sura
?1, 16-16:
"Did
you
see how God created seven heavens
one above an-
other and msde the moon s light therein and rnade the sun
s lamp?'
-'Eura
?8, vergs 12-1$:
'Te
have built above
you seven strong
(heavens) and
placed
e blszing lamP."
The blazing
lamp ir
qulte ohviously the sun.
Here the moon is defined ss I body thst
grves light
(trrunhl
from the sgme
root es nfrr
(the
light *pplied b the Moon). The
Sun however
is compared to a torch
(drd,il or a blezing
(uohhfti) lemP.
-
A nan of Mutrammad's
time could easily distinguish betwGor
the !lun, a blazing
heavenly body well known to the inhabitants
of the deeert, ana tne Moon,
the body of the cool of the night' The
comparisons
found
in the
Qur'an
on this subiect are therdort
quit normsl. What
is interesting to note here is the sober
qu1lity
of tne comparisons,
and the absence in the text of the
Qurren
of
any elemot" of comperison
thst might have
prevailed at the
fi-- rnd which in our dsy would eppear
as
phantasmagorial.
It i8 knowu thst the sun is a star thst
generates intense
hest
enit light b'y its intemal combustions,
and that the Moon, which
rsr
155
B. NATUM OF HEAVENLY BODIES.
TIae SUfI tmd IIae Moon.
The Sun is a shining glory (tUri') and the Moon a light (nur).
This translation would appeAr to be more correct than those
given by others, where the two terms are inverted. In fact there
is little di1ferenee in meaning since g,i1la' belongs to a root
whieh, aceording to Kazimirski's authoritative Arabie/Freneh
dictionary, means 'to be bright, to shine' (e.g. like a fire). The
same author attributes to the substantive in question the meaning
of 'Ught'.
The difference between Sun and Moon will be made
by further quotes from the Qur'an.
-aura 25, verse 61:
"Blessed is the One Who placed the constellations in heaven
and placed therein a lamp and a moon giving light."
-sura 71, 16-16:
"Did you see how God created seven heavens one above an-
other and made the moon a light therein and made the sun
a Iampr'
-sura 78, verses 12-18:
"We have built above you seven strong (heavens) and placed
a blazing lamp."
The blazing lamp is quite obviously the sun.
Here the moon is defined as a body that gives light (munir)
from the same root as nur (the light applied to the Moon). The
Sun however is compared to a torch (simi) or a blazing
(wa1f,hili) lamp.
A man of Muhammad's time could easily distinguish between
the Sun, a blazing heavenly body well known to the inhabitants
of the desert, and the Moon, the body of the cool of the night. The
comparisons found in the Qur'an on this subject are therefore
quite normal. What is interesting to note here is the sober quality
of the comparisons, and the absenee in the text of the Qur'an of
any elements of comparison that might have prevailed at the
time and which in our day would appear as phantasmagoriaI.
It is known that the Sun is a star that generates intense heat
and light by its internal combustions, and that the Moon, which
r5O
ITIE BBI,E' THE
QT'N'AN
AND SCIENCE
does not give
off lisht itself, and is an inert bedy
(on
its exteraal
layers
at least) merely reflects the light received from the Sun.
There is nothing in the text of the
eur'an
that eontradiets
what we know
today about these two celestial bodies.
Tln Stan,
As we know, the stars are heavenly bodies like the sun. firey
are the scene of various phyeical phenomena
of which
the easiest
to observe is their
generation
of ligtt. firey are heavenly bodies
thst
produce
their own light.
The word
'star'
appears thirteen times in the
eur'an
(naim,
plural
rniiil,m); it comes from a root meaning
to appear, to come
into sight. The word designates a visible heavenly body without
sayrng of what kind, i.e. either generetor
of lisht or mere reflector
of light received. To make it clear that the object so designated
is e star, a
qualifying phrase
is added ae in the following
sura:
-sura
86, verses 1-8:
"By
the sky and the NighLVisitor,
who will tell thee what
the Night-visitor
is, the star of
piereing
brishtnesg."r
The evening star is
qualified
in the
eur'an
by the word tfihib
meaning
'that
whieh pierces
through
something, (here
the night
shadows). The same word is moreover used to designate shootiog
stars (sura
37, verse 10) : the latter
are the result of combustion.
Tlw Plarrrots.
It is di.fficult to say whether these are refemed to in the
eurrsn
with the same exact meaning that is given
to the heavenly
noaiet
in the
present
day.
The
planets
do not have their own light. They revolve
around
the Sun, Earth
being one of them. while one nray
presume
thst
others exist'elsewhere,
the only ones known are thos
in the
solar system.
Five
planets
other than Earth were
known to the ancients:
Mercury, venus,
Mars, Jupiter and saturn. Three have been
discovered in recent
times: uranus, Neptune and
pluto.
1. E9re, the rky and r star are uscd to beer
witnert to the importancc
of
whrt it to come in the tort.
158 THE BIBLE, THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
does not give off light itself, and is an inert bedy (on its external
layers at least) merely reft.ects the light received from the Sun.
There is nothing in the text of the Qur'an that contradicts
what we know today about these two celestial bodies.
TheSttm.
As we know, the stars are heavenly bodies like the Sun. They
are the scene of various physical phenomena of which the easiest
to observe is their generation of light. They are heavenly bodies
that produce their own light.
The word 'star' appears thirteen times in the Qur'an (naim,
plural nujum) ; it comes from a root meaning to appear, to come
into sight. The word designates a visible heavenly body without
saying of what kind, Le. either generator of light or mere reft.ector
of light received. To make it clear that the object so designated
is a star, a qualifying phrase is added as in the following sura:
-sura 86, verses 1-3:
"By the sky and the Night-Visitor, who will tell thee what
the Night-Visitor is, the Star of piercing brightness."1
The evening star is qualified in the Qur'an by the word tikib
meaning 'that which pierces through something' (here the night
shadows) . The same word is moreover used to designate shooting
stars (sura 37, verse 10) : the latter are the result of combustion.
The Planeta.
It is difficult to say whether these are referred to in the Qur'an
with the same exact meaning that is given to the heavenly bodies
in the present day.
The planets do not have their own light. They revolve around
the Sun, Earth being one of them. While one may presume that
others exist- elsewhere, the only ones known are those in the
solar system.
Five planets other than Earth were known to the ancients:
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Three have been
discovered in recent times: Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
1. Here, the sky and a star are used to bear witness to the importance of
what is to come in the text.
l*oarllntktlnQrr/an lgl
The
Qufan
would seem to designate these by the word lm;ulm;b
(plursl
Inlu)Ahib) without stating their number. Joseph's dream
(sura
12) refers to eleven of them, but the description is, by
definition, an irnaginary one.
A
epod
definition of the meaning of the word kaulrub in the
Qurtan
seems to have been
given in a very famous verse. Tlte
eminently spiritusl nature of its deeper meaning stands forth,
and is morover the subiect of much debate among experts in
exegeais. It is nevertheless of
great interest to offer an aecount
of the comparison it eontains on the subiect of the word that
would seem to designate e
'planet'.
Here is the text in question: (sura
24, verse 35)
"God
is the lig:ht of the heavens and the earth. fire similitude
cf His lisht is as if there were a niche and within it a lurninary'
The luminary is in a
gless.
The
glass
is as if it were a
planet
glittering
like I
pearl."
Ifere the subject is the
projeqtion
of light onto a body that re-
flects it
(glass)
and
grves
it the
glitter
of a
pearl,
like a
planet
that is lit by the sun. Ttis is the only e:rplanatory
detail referring
to this word to be found in the
Qur'an.
fite word is
quoted
in other verses. fn some of them it is diffi"
cult to distinguish which heavenly bodies are meant
(sura 6,
verse 76; sura 82, verses l-2).
fn one verse however, when seen in the light of modern science,
it would seem very mueh that these ean only be the heavenly
bodies that we know to be
planets. In sura S?, verse 6, we see the
following:
"We
have indeed adorned the lowest heaven with an ornament,
the
planets."
Is it
possible
that the e:cpression
in the
Qur'an
'lowest
heaven'
means the
'solar
system'? It is known that among
the celestial
elements nearest to us, there are no other
permanent elernents
apart from the
planets: the Sun is the only star in the system
that bears its name.
It is diffieult to see what other heavenly
bodies could be meant
if not the
planets. The translation
given
would therefore seem to be correct and the
Qur'an
to refer
to
the existence of the
planets as defined in modern times.
157
The Qur'an would seem to designate these by the word kaukab
(plural kawcikib) without stating their number. Joseph's dream
(sura 12) refers to eleven of them, but the description is, by
definition, an imaginary one.
A good definition of the meaning of the word kaukab in the
Qur'an seems to have been given in a very famous verse. The
eminently spiritual nature of its deeper meaning stands forth,
and is moreover the subject of much debate among experts in
exegesis. It is nevertheless of great interest to offer an account
of the comparison it contains on the subject of the word that
would seem to designate a 'planet'.
Here is the text in question: (sura 24, verse 35)
"God is the light of the heavens and the earth. The similitude
of His light is as if there were a niche and within it a luminary.
The luminary is in a glass. The glass is as if it were a planet
glittering like a pearl."
Here the subject is the proje<;tion of light onto a body that re-
flects it (glass) and gives it the glitter of a pearl, like a planet
that is lit by the sun. This is the only explanatory detail referring
to this word to be found in the Qur'an.
The word is quoted in other verses. In some of them it is diftL.
cult to distinguish which heavenly bodies are meant (sura 6,
verse 76; sura 82, verses 1-2).
In one verse however, when seen in the light of modern science,
it would seem very much that these can only be the heavenly
bodies that we know to be planets. In sura 37, verse 6, we see the
following:
"We have indeed adorned the lowest heaven with an ornament,
the planets."
Is it possible that the expression in the Qur'an 'lowest heaven'
means the 'solar system'? It is known that among the celestial
elements nearest to us, there are no other permanent elements
apart from the planets: the Sun is the only star in the system
that bears its name. It is difficult to see what other heavenly
bodies could be meant if not the planets. The translation given
would therefore seem to be correct and the Qur'an to refer to
the existence of the planets as defined in modern times.
THE BrEr.E, TIIE
QIrn'AN
AND SCIENGD
TlnLow*Ealoelr-
The
Qur'an
mmtions the lowest heaven seversl times along
with the heavenly bodies of which it is eomposed. fire first among
these would seem to be the
planeh,
eg we havb
just
seen. slha
however the
Qur'en
assocists material notions intciligiHe to
us, enlightened
as we are todsy by modern science, with *ate-
ments of a
purely
spiritual nature, their meaning beeomcl
obscure.
Ttrus the verse
quoted
could easily be undergtood, except thst
the following verse
(?)
of the same Eura B? spealrs of a
'guerd
against every rebellious evil spirit',
'guard'
agnin being referued
to in sura 21, verse 82 and sura 41, verse 12, eo thst we are
confronted by statements of quite
a different kind.
what meaning can one attach moreover to the
'projectiles
for
the stoning of demong' that aceorrlin
s
tfr verse 6,
gura
6? arc
situated in the lowest heaven ? Do the
'luminaries'
referred to in
the same verse have something to do with tlre shooting rtars
mentioned
above ?tr
All these observations seem to lie outside the subject of thir
study. firey have been mentioned here for the sske of complete-
ness. At the present
stage however, it would seem thst rcientific
dats are unable to cast any light on a subject thst
gioes
beyond
humsn understanding.
C, CELESTIAf, ONGANIZATIOIV.
fire infomation
the
Qur'an
provides
on this subject mainly
deals with the solar system. Reference$ are however
made
to
phenomena
that
go
beyond the solar system itself: they have
been discovered in recent times.
firere are two very important verses on the orbits of the Sun
and Moon:
-rsurg
21, verse $3:
"
(God
is) the One Who created the night, the day, thc
gun
and the moon. Each one is travelling in an ortit with itr
own motion.o'
1. It ir known thet when s metorite arrivel et thc [ppr lryerr of th
etmorphere, it may produee
the lumlnour phanoaenon
ol r
.rbmfing
rtor'.
158 TIlE BIBLE, TIlE QtnrAN AND SCIENCE
The Lowed BetmefL
The Qur'an mentions the lowest heaven several times along
with the heavenly bodies of which it is composed. The first amonl'
these would seem to be the planets, as we have just seen. WheD.
however the Qur'an associates material notions intelligible to
us, enlightened as we are today by modern science, with state-
ments of a purely spiritual nature, their meaning becomes
obscure.
Thus the verse quoted could easily be understood, except that
the following verse (7) of the same sura 37 speaks of a 'guard
against every rebellious evil spirit', 'guard' again being referred
to in sura 21, verse 32 and sura 41, verse 12, 80 that we are
confronted by statements of quite a different kind.
What meaning can one attach moreover to the 'projectiles for
the stoning of demons' that according to verse 5, sura 67 are
situated in the lowest heaven? Do the 'luminaries' referred to in
the same verse have something to do with the shooting stars
mentioned above?t
All these observations seem to lie outside the subject of this
study. They have been mentioned here for the sake of complete-
ness. At the present stage however, it would seem that scientific
data are unable to cast any light on a subject that goes beyond
human understanding.
C. CELESTIAL ORGANIZATION.
The information the Qur'an provides on this subject mainly
deals with the solar system. References are however made to
phenomena that go beyond the solar system itself: the7 have
been discovered in recent times.
There are two very important verses on the orbits of the SUD
and Moon:
-sura ~ verse 33:
"(God is) the One Who created the night, the day, the SUD
and the moon. Each one is travelling in an orbit with ita
own motion."
1. It is known that when a meteorite arrives at the upper layers of the
atmosphere, it may produee the luminous phenomenon of 'moottna
star'.
At'gronotw*nt roodnn
1tr0
--urr
8O verse 40:
"The
sun mutt not catch up the moon, nor does the night
outstrip the day. Eaeh one is travelling in an orbit with i|g
own motion."
Here an essential fact is clearly stated: the existence of the
Sun's and Moon's orbits,
plus
a reference is made to the travel'
ling of these bodies in space with their own motlon.
A negntive fact also emerges from a fesding of, these
vsrses 3
It is shown thet the Sun moves in an orbit, but no indication is
glven
as to whst this orbit misht be in relation to the Earth. At
thc time of the
Qut'enic
Revelstion,
it was tlrought that the Sun
moved while the Earth stood still. This w88 the Eystm of
geocentrism thtt hsd held Eway since the time of Ptolemn Sec'
ond century 8.C., and was to continue to do so until CopemicU
In thc Sixtcenth century A.D. Although
people supported thil
concept at the time of Muhammad, it does not appear
anywhere
in thc
Qur'an,
either here or elsewhere.
Tfu Er*stcncc of t
laffiorln't andtlp $nrr'l OrDftt
The Arabic word
filIf,,h
has here been translated by the word
'orbit';
many Frcnch translators of the
Qur'an
attach to it the
ncening of a
'sphere'.
firis is indeed its initial Enge. Hamidullah
tranrlates it by ttre word
'orbit'.
Thc word caused consern to older translators of the
Qurtsn
rho werc unsble to imagine the circu}rr course of the Moon snd
thc Sun end thercfore retained images of their course through
rprcc thrt wcre cither more or less correct, or hopelessly wnongl'
Si Hrmn Boubekeur
in his translation
of the
Qut'an
citea the
divcnity of intcrpretations
glven
to it: "A sort of axle, like an
hu ro4 tnrt r mill turns around; a celestial sphere, orbit' sigtr
of the zodilc, speed, wav . . .", but he edds the following obser'
vrtion
made by Tabari,
the famous Tenth century commentator:
"ft
ic our duty to keep silent when we do
not know."
(XVII,
16).
This shot's
just
how incapable men were of understanding
thir
concept of the Sun's and Moon's orbit.
It is obvious that lf the
word had expressed
an astronomical concept
common in Muham-
nrd's dsy, it
would not have been so difficult to inter?ret
thege
ycruG!.
A new concept therefore existed
in the
Qur'an
that wae
not to bc explrincd
until centuries later.
159
--sura 86, verse 40:
"The sun must not catch up the moon, nor does the night
outstrip the day. Each one is travelling in an orbit with its
own motion."
Here an essential fact is clearly stated: the existence of the
Sun's and Moon's orbits, plus a reference is made to the travel-
ling of these bodies in space with their own motion.
A negative fact also emerges from a reading of these verses:
it is shown that the Sun moves in an orbit, but no indication is
given as to what this orbit might be in relation to the Earth. At
the time of the Qur'anie Revelation, it was thought that the Sun
moved while the Earth stood still. This was the system of
I'eoeentrism that had held sway since the time of Ptolemy, See-
ond century B.C., and was to continue to do so until Copernicus
in the Sixteenth century A.D. Although people supported this
concept at the time of Muhammad, it does not appear anywhere
in the Qur'an, either here or elsewhere.
Tile Emterace of the Moon', mad file Sun', Or""'.
The Arabie word falak has here been translated by the word
'orbit'; many French translators of the Qur'an attach to it the
meaning of a 'sphere'. This is indeed its initial sense. Hamidullah
translates it by the word 'orbit'.
The word caused concern to older translators of the Qur'an
who were unable to imagine the circular course of the Moon and
the Sun and therefore retained images of their course through
lP&Ce that were either more or less correct, or hopelessly wrong.
8i Hamza Boubekeur in his translation of the Qur'an cites the
diversity of interpretations given to it: IIA sort of axle, like an
iroll rod, that a mill turns around; a celestial sphere, orbit, sign
of the zodiac, speed, wave .. !', but he adds the following obser-
vation made by Tabari, the famous Tenth century commentator:
"It is our duty to keep silent when we do not know." (XVII, 15).
This shows just how incapable men were of understanding this
concept of the Sun's and Moon's orbit. It is obvious that if the
word had expressed an astronomical concept common in Muham-
mad's day, it would not have been so difficult to interpret these
verses. A new concept therefore existed in the Qur'an that was
not to be explained until centuries later.
rHE BrBLF., TrrE
QItR'AIrt
AND SSTENCE
l. TrlpUlaonltoltblt.
Todan the concept is widely spread that the Moon is a satellit
of the Earth around which it revolves in
periods
of twenty-nine
days. A correction must however be made to the absotutely cir-
culer fonn of its orbib
gince
modern astronomy ascribeE s certain
eccentricity to this, so that the distsnce between the Earth and
the.Moon (240,000
miles) is only the average distance.
We have seen above how the
Qur'an
underlined the usefulnesg
of obsereing the Moon's movements in calculating time
(sura
10, verse 5,
quoted
at the beginning of this chapter.)
fitis systcrn has often been criticized for being aretraic, im-
practieal
and unscientific in eomparison to our system based on
the Earth's rotation
around the Sun, exprssed today in the
Julian calendar.
Thig criticism calls for the following two remarks:
e) Nearly fourteen centuries ago, the
Qucsn
was directd et the
inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula who were used to the lunar
cslculation of time. It was advissble to address them in the only
language they could understand and not to upset the habits they
had of locating spatial end temporal referenee-marks which were
nevertheless quite
efficient It is lrnown how well-versed men liv-
ing in the desert are in the obsorvation of the sky; they navigated
according to the stars and told the time aecordins to the
phases
of the Moon. firose were the simplest and most reliable meang
availrble to them.
b) Apart from the speeislists in this field, most
people
are una-
warg of the
perfect
correletion between the Julian and the lunar
calendar: %95 lunar months correspond exactly to 19 Julien years
of 868/a days. Then leneth of our
year
of SGE days is not pedect
because it has to be rectified
every four
years (with
a leap year).
with the lunar calendar, the same
phenomen&
occur
every lg
yesrs (Julian).
This is the Metonic cycle, named after
the Greek
astronomer Meton, who discovered this exact correlation between
soler and lunar
time in the Fifth century B.C.
2. TlESrpr.
It is more difficult
to conceive of the Sun's orbit because we
are so used to seeing our solar system organized around it. To
180 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
1. The 'Moon'. Orbit.
Today, the concept is widely spread that the Moon is a satellite
of the Earth around which it revolves in periods of twenty-nine
days. A correction must however be made to the absolutely cir-
cular form of its orbit, since modem astronomy ascribes a certain
eccentricity to this, so that the distance between the Earth and
the.Moon (240,000 miles) is only the average distance.
We have seen above how the Qur'an underlined the usefulness
of observing the Moon's movements in calculating time (sura
10, verse 5, quoted at the beginning of this chapter.)
This system has often been criticized for being arehaic, im-
practical and unscientific in comparison to our system based on
the Earth's rotation around the Sun, expressed t()day in the
J uUan calendar.
This criticism calls for the following two remarks:
a) Nearly fourteen centuries ago, the Qur'an was directed at the
inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula who were used to the lunar
calculation of time. It was advisable to address them in the only
language they could understand and not to upset the habits they
had of locating spatial and temporal reference-marks which were
nevertheless quite efficient. It is known how well-versed men liv-
ing in the desert are in the observation of the sky; they navigated
according to the stars and told the time aecording to the phases
of the Moon. Those were the simplest and most reliable means
available to them.
b) Apart from the specialists in this field, most people are una-
ware of the perfect correlation between the Julian and the lunar
calendar: 235 lunar months correspond exactly to 19 Julian years
of 365JA, days. Then length of our year of 865 days is not perfect
because it has to be rectified every four years (with a leap year).
With the lunar calendar, the same phenomena occur every 19
years (Julian). This is the Metonic cycle, named after the Greek
astronomer Meton, who discovered this exact correlation between
solar and lunar time in the Fifth century B.C.
2. T1aeSun.
It is more difficult to conceive of the Sun's orbit because we
are so used to seeing our solar system organized around it. To
lulaolmrlrry
er fit
Qrdal
t0l
understand the verse from the
Qur'an,
the
position of the Sun
in our
galaxy must be considered, and we must tJrerefore eall
on modern seientific ideas.
Our
gAlaxy
includes I very large number of stars spaced so
as to form a disc that is denser at the centre than at the rim. fire
Sun occupies a
position in it which is far removed from the
centre of the disc. The
gala:ry revolves on its own axis whieh is
its centre with the result that the Sun
revolves around the same
centre in a circular orbit. Modern astronomy has worked out the
details of this. In 191?, Shaptey estimated the distance between
the Sun and the centre of our
galaxy at 10 kiloparsecs i.e., in
miles, circa the figure 2 followed by 1? zeros. To complete
one
revolution on its own axis, the
galaxy
and Sun tske roughly 880
million
yeers. The Sun
travels at roughly 150 miles
per
second
in the completion of this.
The above is the orbital movement of the Sun that was already
referred to by the
Qur'an
fourteen centuries ago. The demon-
stration of the existcnce and details of this is one of the achieve-
ments of modern astronomy.
Refercrce tatlw Mooenulntof tlwMoonatdtlw
Suln
in Spe Wlth Tlwh Own Motion
This concept does not appear in those translations
of the
Qurtan
that have been made by men of letters. Since
the latter
know nothing about astronomy, they have translatd
the Arabic
word that expresses this movement
by one of the meanings the
word has:
'to
swim'. They have done this in both the French
translations
and the, otherwise remarkable, English translation
by Yusuf Ali.'
The Arabic word referring to a movement
with s self-propellcd
motion
is the verb tabaftn
(yasbaft,il.na in the text of the two
verses). All the senses of the verb imply I movement
that is
associated with a motion that comes from the
body in
question.
If the movement
takes
place in water, it is
'to
swim';
it is
'to
move by the action
of one's own legs' if it takes
place on land.
For a movement
that occurs in spaee, it is difficult to se how el8e
this meaning implied in the word could be rendered other than
l. Pub. Sh. Muhammad
A,shraf, Lahorc
(Pakistau)
181
understand the verse from the Qur'an, the position of the SUD
in our galaxy must be considered, and we must therefore calI
on modem scientific ideas.
Our galaxy includes a very large number of stars spaced so
as to fonn a disc that is denser at the centre than at the rim. The
Sun occupies a position in it which is far removed from the
centre of the disc. The galaxy revolves on its own axis which is
its centre with the result that the Sun revolves around the same
centre in a circular orbit. Modern astronomy has worked out the
details of this. In 1917, Shapley estimated the distance between
the Sun and the centre of our galaxy at 10 kiloparsecs Le., in
miles, circa the figure 2 followed by 17 zeros. To complete one
revolution on its own axis, the galaxy and Sun take roughly 250
million years. The Sun travels at roughly 150 miles per second
in the completion of this.
The above is the orbital movement of the Sun that was already
referred to by the Qur'an fourteen centuries ago. The demon-
stration of the existence and details of this is one of the achieve-
ments of modern astronomy.
Reference to the Mooement of the Moon and the Sun
in Space With Their Own Motion.
This concept does not appear in those translations of the
Qur'an that have been made by men of letters. Since the latter
know nothing about astronomy, they have translated the Arabic
word that expresses this movement by one of the meanings the
word has: 'to swim'. They have done this in both the French
translations and the, otherwise remarkable, English translation
by Yusuf Ali.
1
The Arabic word referring to a movement with a self-propelled.
motion is the verb 8abaluz, (ya8ba1}una in the text of the two
verses). All the senses of the verb imply a movement that is
associated with a motion that comes from the body in question.
If the movement takes place in water, it is 'to swim'; it is 'to
move by the action of one's own legs' if it takes place on land.
For a movement that occurs in space, it is difficult to see how else
this meaning implied in the word could be rendered other than
1. Pub. Sh. Muhammad Ashraf. Lahore (Pakistan)
TGI
fHE SIDI.4 TEE
QI'N'AN
AND SCTENCE
by employing its original sense. firus there ssems to have ben
no mietmnolation,
for the following reasons:
-The
Moon completes its rotsting motion on its own axis at the
same
time ag it revolves
around the Earth, i.e. zg+h days
(ap
prox.), go
that it always
has the same side facing uE.
-fi1s
sun tslces roughly zE days to revolve on its own axiE.
There are certain
difterences in its rotation at its equator and
poles, (we
shall not
go
into them here) but as a whole, the sun
is
animatd by a rotating
motion.
rt appears therefore thst a verbal nuance in the
eur'an
nefers
to the Sun snd Moon's own motion. These motions of the two
celestial bodies are confirmed
by the data of modern science,
and it is inconceivable
that a man living in the Seventh century
A.D.-however knowledgeable
he might have been in his day
(and
this was certainly not true in 1lruhammad's cgse)--could
hsve imagined
them,
This view is sometimes
contested by examples from great
thinkers of antiquity who indisputably predicted
certain data
that modern seienee has verified. They could hardly have relied
on scientific deduetion
however; their method of
procedure
was
more one of
philosophical
reasoning. Thus the case of the
pyths-
goreans
is often advanced.
In the sixth century 8.c., they de-
fended the theory of the rotation of the Earth on its own aris
snd the movement
of the
planets
around the Sun. This theory
was to be confirmed
by modern science. By comparing it with
the case of the Pythagoreans,
it is easy to
put
for-lrrard the
hlryothesis of Muhammad
as being a brilliant thinker, who was
supposed to have imagined
all on his ov,'n what modern science
was to discover centuries
later. In so doing however, people
quite
simply forget to mention
the other aspeet of what these
geniuses
of
philosophical
reasoning produeed,
i.e. the colossal
blunders that litter their work. It must be remembered for
example, that the Pythagoreans
also defended the theory whereby
the Sun was fixed in spaee; they made it the centre of the world
and only conceived of a celestial order that was centered on it.
rt is quite
eommon in the works
of the
great philosophers
of
antiquity to find a mixture of valid and invalid ideas about the
Universe. The
brilliance of these human works comes from the
advanced ideas they contain, but they should not make us over-
18J tHE BIBLE, THE QUIrAN AND SCIENCE
by employing its original sense. Thus there seems to have been
no mistranslation, for the following reasons:
-The Moon completes its rotating motion on its own axis at the
same time as it revolves around the Earth, i.e. ~ days (ap-
prox.), so that it always has the same side facing us.
-The Sun takes roughly 25 days to revolve on its own axis.
There are certain differences in its rotation at, its equator and
poles, (we shall not go into them here) but as a whole, the Sun
is animated by a rotating motion.
It appears therefore that a verbal nuance in the Qur'an refers
to the Sun and Moon's own motion. These motions of the two
celestial bodies are confirmed by the data of modern science,
and it is inconceivable that a man living in the Seventh century
A.D.-however knowledgeable he might have been in his day
(and this was certainly not true in Muhammad's case)--could
have imagined them.
This view is sometimes contested by examples from great
thinkers of antiquity who indisputably predicted certain data
that modern science has verified. They could hardly have relied
on scientific deduction however; their method of procedure was
more one of philosophical reasoning. Thus the case of the Pytha-
goreans is often advanced. In the Sixth century B.C., they de-
fended the theory of the rotation of the Earth on its own axis
and the movement of the planets around the Sun. This theory
was to be confirmed by modem science. By comparing it with
the case of the Pythagoreans, it is easy to put forward the
hypothesis of Muhammad as being a brilliant thinker, who was
supposed to have imagined all on his own what modern science
was to discover centuries later. In so doing however, people
quite simply forget to mention the other aspect of what these
geniuses of philosophical reasoning produced, Le. the colossal
blunders that litter their work. It must be remembered for
example, that the Pythagoreans also defended the theory whereby
the Sun was fixed in space; they made it the centre of the world
and only conceived of a celestial order that was centered on it.
It is quite common in the works of the great philosophers of
antiquity to find a mixture of valid and invalid ideas about the
Universe. The brilliance of these human works comes from the
advanced ideas they contain, but they should not make us over-
efionong h.tlp
@at
t6:l
look the mistaken concepts which have also been left to us. Fronr
a strictly scientifie
point
of view, this is what distinguished thenr
from the
Qut'an.
In the latter, many subjects are referred to
that have a bearing on modern knowledge without one of then
containing a statement that contradicts what has been esbblishcd
by
present-day
science.
Tlu Seqwrce of Dav arlldiligl*.
At a time when it was held that the Earth was the centre of
the world and that the Sun moved in relation to it, how could
any one have failed to refer to the Sun's movement when talking
of the sequence of night and day ? This is not however referred
to in the
Qur'an
and the subject is dealt with as follows:
-sura
7, verse 54:
"
(God)
covers the day with the night which is in haste to
f ol l owi t . . . "
-sura
36, verse 37:
"And
a sign for them
(human beingp) is the nisht. We strip
it of the day and they are in darkness."
-sura
31, verse 29:
"Hast
thou not seen how God merges the night into thc dey
and merges the day into the night."
-gura
39, verse 6:
".
. . He coils the night upon the day and He eoils the dey
upon the night."
The first verse cited requires no comment. The sceond simply
provides
an image.
It is mainly the third and fourth verses
quoted
above thrt
provide interesting material on the
process
of interpcnetratior
and especially of winding the niett upon the day rnd thc dly
upon the night.
(sura
39, vense 6)
'To
coil' or
'to
wind' seems, as in the French translation by
R. BlachEre, to be the best way of translating the Arabic
vetf
lcawzuara. The original meaning of the verb is to
'coil'
a turter
around the head; the notion of coiling is
preserved in all thr
other senses of the word.
What actually happens horvever in space? Amerir:an astroneuts
hrve seen and
photographed what happens from thrlir speccship$'
163
look the mistaken concepts which have also been left to us. From
a strictly scientific point of view, this is what distinguished them.
from the Qur'an. In the latter, many subjects are referred to
that have a bearing on modern knowledge without one of them
containing a statement that contradicts what has been establisMd
by present-day science.
The Sequence of Day and Night.
At a time when it was held that the Earth was the centre of
the world and that the Sun moved in relation to it, how could
anyone have failed to refer to the Sun's movement when talkin
of the sequence of night and day? This is not however referred
to in the Qur'an and the subject is dealt with as follows:
-sura 7, verse 54:
U (God) covers the day with the night which is in haste te
follow it ..."
-sura 36, verse 37:
"And a sign for them (human beings) is the night. We stri,
it of the day and they are in darkness."
-sura 31, verse 29:
"Hast thou not seen how God merges the night into the day
and merges the day into the night."
-sura 39, verse 5:
H He coils the night upon the day and He coils the day
upon the night."
The first verse cited requires no comment. The second simply
provides an image.
It is mainly the third and fourth verses quoted above that
provide interesting material on the process of interpenetratiMl
and especially of winding the night upon the day and the day
upon the night. (sura 39, verse 5)
'To coil' or 'to wind' seems, as in the French translation by
R. Blachere, to be the best way of translating the Arabic ven
kawwara. The original meaning of the verb is to 'coil' a turbaa
around the head; the notion of coiling is preserved in all the
other senses of the word.
What actually happens however in space? Ameriean astronauts
have seen and photographed what happens from their spaceahips,
164
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
especially at a great
distance from Earth, e.g. from the Moon.
They saw how the Sun
permanently
lights up
(except
in the case
of an eclipse) the half of the Earth's surface that is facing it,
while the other half of the globe
is in darkness. The Earth turns
on its own axis and the lighting remains the same, so that an
area in the form of a half-sphere
makes one revolution around
the Earth in twenty-four hours while the other half-sphere, that
has remained
in darkness, makes the same revolution in the same
time. This perpetual
rotation
of nisht and day is
quite
clearly
described in the
Qur'an.
It is easy for the human understanding
to
grasp
this notion nowadays because we have the idea of the
Sun' s
(rel ati ve)
i mmobi l i ty
and the Earth' s rotati on. Thi s proc-
ess of
perpetual
coiling, including the interpenetration
of one
sector by another is expressed in the
eur'an
just
as if the con-
cept of the Earth's roundness
had already been eonceived at the
time-which
was obviously
not the case.
Further to the above reflections
on the sequence of day and
night, one must also mention, with a
quotation
of some verses
from the
Qur'an,
the idea that ther.e is mor.e than one orient
and one Occident. This is of
purely
descriptive interest
because
these
phenomena
rell' on the most commonplace observations.
The idea is mentioned here with the aim of reproducing as faith-
fully as possible
all that the
Qur'an
has to say on this subject.
The fol l owi ng are exampl es:
-In
sura 70 verse 40, the expression
'Lord
of orients and
Occidents'.
-In
sura 55, verse 17, the expr.ession
'Lord
of the two orients
and the two Occidents'.
-In
sura 43, verse
88, a reference to the
'distance
between the
two orietrts', an image intended to expre$s the immense size of
the distance separating the trvo
lroints.
Anyone who carefully watches the sunrise aud sunset knows
that the Sun rises
at different point
of the orient and sets at
different points
of the occident, according
to season. Bearings
taken on each of the horizons define the extreme limits that mark
the two orie:nts and occidents, and between
these there are
points
marke,l off throughout the yeal..
The phenomenon
de-
scribed here is rather commonplace,
but rvhat mainly
deserves
attention in this chapter ar.e the other. topics dealt with, where
164 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
especially at a great distance from Earth, e.g. from the Moon.
They saw how the Sun permanently lights up (except in the case
of an eclipse) the half of the Earth's surface that is facing it,
while the other half of the globe is in darkness. The Earth turns
on its own axis and the lighting remains the same, so that an
area in the form of a halfsphere makes one revolution around
the Earth in twenty-four hours while the other half-sphere, that
has remained in darkness, makes the same revolution in the same
time. This perpetual rotation of night and day is quite clearly
described in the Qur'an. It is easy for the human understanding
to grasp this notion nowadays because we have the idea of the
Sun's (relative) immobility and the Earth's rotation. This proc-
ess of perpetual coiling, i n l u ~ n g the interpenetration of one
sector by another is expressed in the Qur'an just as if the con-
cept of the Earth's roundness had already been conceived at the
time-which was obviously not the case.
Further to the above reflections on the sequence of day and
night, one must also mention. with a quotation of some verses
from the Qur'an, the idea that there is more than one Orient
and one Occident. This is of purely descriptive interest because
these phenomena rely on the most commonplace observations.
The idea is mentioned here with the aim of reproducing as faith-
fully as possible aU that the Qur'an has to say on this subject.
The following are examples:
-In sura 70 verse 40, the expression 'Lord of Orients and
accidents'.
-In sura 55, verse 17, the expression 'Lord of the two Orients
and the two Occidents'.
-In sura 43, verse 38, a reference to the 'distance between the
two Orients', an image intended to express the immense size of
the distance separating the two points.
Anyone who carefully watches the sunrise and sunset knows
that the Sun rises at different point of the Orient and sets at
different points of the Occident, according to season. Bearings
taken on each of the horizons define the extreme limits that mark
the two Orients and accidents, and between these there are
points marked off throughout the year. The phenomenon de-
scribed here is rather commonplace, but what mainly deserves
attention in this chapter are the other topics dealt with, where
4attorwrrlg
in tlp
Qt/
aa
165
the description of astronomical
phenomena referred to in the
Qur'an
is in keeping with modern data.
D. ErOLATION OF THE I|EAVENS.
Having called modern concepts on the formation of the Uni-
verse to mind, reference was made to the evolution that took
plaee,
starting with
primary
nebula through to the formation
of
galaxies, stars and
(for
the solar systern) the appearance
of
planets beginning rvith the Sun at a certain stage of its
evolution.
Modern data lead us to believe that in the solar system,
and more
gpnerally
in the Universe itself, this evolution is still
continuing.
How can anybody rvho is arvare of these ideas fail to make a
comparison with certain statements found in the
Qur'an
in which
the manifestations of divine Omnipotence are referred to.
The
Qur' an
remi nds us several ti mes that: "(God) subj ected
the sun and the moon: each one l'uns its course to an appointed
term.tt
Thi s sentence i s to be found i n sura 13, verse 2; sura 31, verse
29; sura 35, verse 13 and sura 39, verse 5.
In addition to this, the idea of a settled
place
is associated
with the concept
of a destination
lrlace
in sura 36, verse 38: "The
Sun runs its course to a settled
place. This is the decree of the
All Mighty, the Full of Knowledge."
'settled
place' is the translation of the rvord mustaqarr and
there can be no doubt that the idea of an exact
place
is attached
to it.
How do these statements fare
rvhen compared
with data
esteblished by modern science?
The
Qur'an
gives an encl to the Sun for its evolution and a
desti nati on
pl ace. It al so
pt' ovi des the Moon rvi th a settl ed
pl ace.
To understand the
possible meanings of these statements,
we
must remember what modern knowledge has to say about the
evolution of the stars in
general and the Sun in
particular, and
(by extensi on) the cel esti al bodi es that automati cal l y
fol l owed
its movement through space, among them the Moon.
The Sun i s a star that i s roughl y 4t/s bi fi i on
yeax' s ol d, accord-
i ng to experts i n astrophysi cs.
It i s
possi bl e to cl i sti ngui sh a
Amonomy in the Qut'Gn 165
the description of astronomical phenomena referred to in the
Qur'an is in keeping with modern data.
D. EVOLUTION OF THE HEAVENS.
Having called modern concepts on the formation of the Uni-
verse to mind, reference was made to the evolution that took
place, starting with primary nebula through to the formation
of galaxies, stars and (for the solar system) the appearance
of planets beginning with the Sun at a certain stage of its
evolution. Modern data lead us to believe that in the solar system,
and more generally in the Universe itself, this evolution is still
continuing.
How can anybody who is aware of these ideas fail to make a
comparison with certain statements found in the Qur'an in which
the manifestations of divine Omnipotence are referred to.
The Qur'an reminds us several times that: "(God) subjected
the sun and the moon: each one runs its course to an appointed
term."
This sentence is to be found in sura 13, verse 2; sura 31, verse
29 ; sura 35, verse 13 and sura 39, verse 5.
In addition to this, the idea of a settled place is associated
with the concept of a destination place in sura 36, verse 38: "The
Sun runs its course to a settled place. This is the decree of the
All Mighty, the Full of Knowledge."
'Settled place' is the translation of the word 1nustaqarr and
there can be no doubt that the idea of an exact place is attached
to it.
How do these statements fare when compared with data
estabIlshed by modern science?
The Qur'an gives an end to the Sun for its evolution and a
destination place. It also provides the Moon with a settled place.
To understand the possible meanings of these statements, we
must remember what modern knowledge has to say about the
evolution of the stars in general and the Sun in particular, and
(by extension) the celestial bodies that automatically followed
its movement through space, among them the Moon.
The Sun is a stal' that is roughly 4lj2 billion years old, accord-
ing to experts in astrophysics. It is possible to distinguish a
106 THE BIBLE, THE
QUXTAN
AND SCIENCE
stage in its evolution,
as one can for all the stars. At
prercnt
the Sun is at an early stage, characterized by the transformation
of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms. Theoretically, this
present
stage should last another 512 billion years
aecording to calcula-
tions that allow a total of 10 billion years
for the duration of
the
primary
stage in a star of this kind. It has atready been
shown, in the case of these other stars, that this stage
gives
way
to a second
period
characterized by the eompletion of the trans-
formation of hydrogen into helium, with the resulting expansion
of its external layers and the cooling of the Sun. In the final
stage, its light is greatly
diminished and density eonsiderably
inereased; this is to be observed in the type of star known as
a
'white
dwarf'.
The above dates are only of interest in as far as they
give
a rough
estimate of the time faetor involved,
what is worth
remembering
and is really the main
point
of the above, is the
notion of an evolution. Modern data ellorv us to prediet
that, in
e few billion years,
the conditions prevailing
in the solar systcm
will not be the same as they are today. Like other stars rvhose
transformations have been recorded until they reached their
final stage, it is
possible
to
prediet
an end to the Sun.
The second verse quoted
above
(sura
86, verse
Bg) referred
to the sun running
its course towards
a
place
of its own.
Modern astronomy has been able to locate it exacily and has
even given
it a name, the Solar Apex: the solar. system is indeed
evolving in space torvards
a
point
situated in the Constellation
of Hercules (alpha
lurae) whose exact location is firmly esteb-
lished; it is moving at a speed already ascertained
at sonrcthing
in the region of 12 miles
per.
second.
All these astronomical
data deserve to be mentioned in relation
to the two verses from the
Qur'an,
since it is
possible
to state
that they appeal ' to agree perfeci l y
rvi th modern sci enti fi c data.
Tfu E*pnsion of ttw
(Jnioerce.
The expansi on of the Uni verse i s ttre most i mposi ng di scover.y
of modern sci ence. Today i t i s a l i rml y establ i sl red
concept and
the onl y debate centl es around the wny thi s i s taki ng pl ace.
It rvas first suggested by the general
ilreor.y
of relativity and
i s backed up hy
physi cs
i n the exami nati orr of i l re
gal acti c
spec-
166 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
stage in its evolution, as one can for all the stars. At present,
the Sun is at an early stage, characterized by the transformation
of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms. Theoretically, this present
stage should last another 5
1
h billion years according to calcula-
tions that allow a total of 10 billion years for the duration of
the primary stage in a star of this kind. It has already been
shown, in the case of these other stars, that this stage gives way
to a second period characterized by the completion of the trans-
formation of hydrogen into helium, with the resulting expansion
of its external layers and the cooling of the Sun. In the final
stage, its light is greatly diminished and density considerably
increased; this is to be observed in the type of star known as
a 'white dwarf'.
The above dates are only of interest in as far as they give
a rough estimate of the time factor involved, what is worth
remembering and is really the main point of the above, is the
notion of an evolution. Modern data allow us to predict that, in
a few billion years, the conditions prevailing in the solar system
will not be the same as they are today. Like other stars whose
transformations have been recorded until they reached their
final stage, it is possible to predict an end to the Sun.
The second verse quoted above (sura 36, verse 38) referred
to the Sun running its course towards a place of its own.
Modern astronomy has been able to locate it exactly and has
even given it a name, the Solar Apex: the solar system is indeed
evolving in space towards a point situated in the Constellation
of Hercules (alpha lyrae) whose exact location is firmly estab-
lished; it is moving at a speed already ascertained at something
in the region of 12 miles per second.
All these astronomical data deserve to be mentioned in relation
to the two verses from the Qur'an, since it is possible to state
that they appeal' to agree perfectly with modern scientific data.
Tite EXptlMOR of the Universe.
The expansion of the Universe is the most imposing discovery
of modern science. Today it is a firmly established concept and
the only debate centres around the way this is taking place.
It was first suggested by the general theory of relativity and
is backed up by physics in the examination of the galactic spec-
lltlrmrrlrg lntla
Qalan
lfif
trum;
the regular movement towards the red section of their
spectrum
may be explained by the distancing
of one
galaxy from
another.
Thus the size of the Universe
is
probably constantly
increasing
and this increase rvill become bigger the further away
the
galaxies are from us. The speeds at rvhich these celestial
bodies are moving may, in the course of this
perpetual expan-
sion,
go from fractions of the speed of light io speeds faster
than
this.
The following verse of the
Qur'an
(sura 51, verse 47) where
God is speaking, ffiay
perhaps be eompared
with modern ideas:
"The
heaven, We
have bui l t i t rvi th
power. Veri l y. We are ex-
pandi ng i t."
' Heaven'
i s the transl ati on of the word sunt6" and thi s i s
exactly
the extra-terrestrial
world that is meant'
'We
aYe expanding
it' is the translation of the
plural present
participl e musi,'fr,na of the verb ausa'1, meaning
'to
make wider,
more spaci ous, to extend, to expand' .
Some translators
who lvere unable to
grasp the meaning of
the latter
provide translations
that appear
to me to be mistaken,
e.g, "we
gi ve generousl y"
(R. Bl achdre). Others sense the mean-
i ng, but are afrai d
to commi t themsel ves:
Hami dul l ah i n hi s
translation
of the
Qur'an
tallis of the rvidening of the heavens
and space, but he i ncl udes a
questi on mark. Fi nal l y,
there are
those who arm themselves
rvith authorized
scientific
opinion in
thei r commentari es
and
gi ve the meani ng stated
here. Thi s i s
true i n the case of the Mzmtafuab, a book of commentari es
edi ted
by the Supreme
Counci l
for Isl ami c Affai rs, Cai ro.
It refers to
the expansi on
of the Uni verse
i n total l y unambi guotl s
terms.
E. THE CONQUEST
Or SPACE.
F rom thi s
poi nt of vi err' , thre' e verses of the
Qur' an
shoUl d
command
our ful l attenti on. One expresses'
wi thout any trace
of ambi gui ty,
rvhat man shoul d and wi l l achi eve i n thi s fi el d.
In the other tl .o, God refel s for the sake of the unbel i evers
i n Makka to the surpri se
they woul d have i f they were
abl e to
rai se themsel ves up to the Heavens;
He al l udes to a hypothesi s
whi ch wi l l not be real i zed for the l atter.
ita the Qur'Q" 187
trum; the regular movement towards the red section of their
spectrum may be explained by the distancing of one galaxy from
another. Thus the size of the Universe is probably constantly
increasing and this increase will become bigger the further away
the galaxies are from us. The speeds at which these celestial
bodies are moving may, in the course of this perpetual expan-
sion, go from fractions of the speed of light to speeds faster
than this.
The following verse of the Qur'an (sura 51, verse 47) where
God is speaking, may perhaps be compared with modern ideas:
"The heaven, We have built it with power. Verily. We are ex-
panding it."
'Heaven' is the translation of the word sama,' and this is
exactly the extra-terrestrial world that is meant.
'We a'l'e expanding it' is the translation of the plural present
participle musi'una of the verb ausa'a meaning 'to make wider,
more spacious, to extend, to expand'.
Some translators who were unable to grasp the meaning of
the latter provide translations that appear to me to be mistaken,
e.g. "we give generously" (R. Blachere). Others sense the mean-
ing, but are afraid to commit themselves: Hamidullah in his
translation of the Qur'an talks of the widening of the heavens
and space, but he includes a question mark. Finally, there are
those who arm themselves with authorized scientific opinion in
their commentaries and give the meaning stated here. This is
true in the case of the Munta]sab, a book of commentaries edited
by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, Cairo. It refers to
the expansion of the Universe in totally unambiguous terms.
E. THE CONQUEST OF SPACE.
From this point of view, three verses of the Qur'an should
command our full attention. One expresses, without any trace
of ambiguity, what man should and will achieve in this field.
In the other two, God refers for the sake of the unbelievers
in M:akka to the surprise they would have if they were able to
raise themselves up to the Heavens; He alludes to a hypothesis
which will not be realized for the latter.
108
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
1) The first of these verses is sura bE, verse BB: "o assembly
of
Jinns and Men, if you
can penetrate
regions of the heavens
and
the earth, then
penetrate
them ! You n'ill not penetr.ate
them save
with a Power."
The translation given
here needs some explanatory
comment:
a) The word
' i f' expresses
i n Engl i sh a concl i ti on
that i s depend-
ant upon a
possibility
and either an achievable or an unachiev-
able hypothesis. Arabie is a language
rvhich is able to intr.otluee
a nuance i nto the eondi ti on whi ch i s much mol ' e expl i ci t. Thel e i s
one word to express the possi bi l i tv
Udd),
another for the achi ev-
abl e hypothesi s
(i n
)
and a thi td for the unachi evabl e
hypothesi s
expressed by the word
(Iutt).
The verse in question
has it as an
achi evabl e hypothesi s expressed by the rvorcl (i n.).
The
eur' ' an
therefore stlggests the material possibility
of a concr.ete r.ealiza-
ti on. Thi s subtl e l i ngui sti c di sti ncti on
fol mal l y rul es out the
pur.el y
mysti c i nterpretati on
that some peopl e
have
(qui te
rvrongl y) put
on this verse.
b) God i s addressi ng t he spi ri t s
(j i nrt )
and human bei ngs (i ns),
and not essenti al l y al l egori eal fi gures.
c)
' To
penetl ' ate'
i s the transl ati on
of the verb nafad,a fol l owed
by the
preposi ti on
mi n. Accordi ng
to Kazi mi rski ' s
di cti onar.y, the
phrase
means
' to
pass
ri ght through and conre out on the other
si de of a body'
(e. s.
an al row t hat comes out on t he ot her. si rt e).
It therefore suggests
a deep
penetration
and emergence at the
other end i nto the r.egi ons i n questi on.
d) The Pon' er
(sul ti ur)
these men rvi l l have to achi eve thi s enter-
pt' i se
woul d seem to come from the Al l -Mi ghty.'
There cau be no doubt t hat t hi s verse i ndi cat es
t he
possi bi l i t y
men rvi l l one day achi eve r.vhat rve today cal l
(perharrs
r.ather
i mproperl y)
' the
conquest of space' . one must note that the text
of the
Qur' an
predi cts
not onl y penetrati on
thl ough the regi ons
of the l l eavens,
but al so the Ear.th, i .e. the expl orati on
of i ts
depths.
1. Thi s verse i s f ol l owed by
f orms t he subj ect of t he
Benef i cent ' .
an i nvi t at i on t o r ecogni ze
God' s bl essi ngs.
I t
whol e of t he sur a t hat bear s t he t i t l e
, The
168 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
1) The first of these verses is sura 55, verse 33: "0 assembly of
Jinns and Men, if you can penetrate regions of the heavens and
the earth, then penetrate them! You will not penetrate them save
with a Power."
The translation given here needs some explanatory comment:
a) The word 'if' expresses in English a condition that is depend-
ant upon a possibility and either an achievable or an unachiev-
able hypothesis. Arabic is a language \vhich is able to introduce
a nuance into the condition which is much more explicit. There is
one word to express the possibility (idJi) , another for the achiev-
able hypothesis (in) and a third for the unachievable hypothesis
expressed by the word (la'll). The verse in question has it as an
achievable hypothesis expressed by the word (in). The QUl"an
therefore suggests the material possibility of a concrete realiza-
tion. This subtle linguistic distinction formally rules out the purely
mystic interpretation that some people have (quite wrongly) put
on this verse.
b) God is addressing the spirits (1'inl1) and human beings (ins),
and not essentially allegorical figures.
c) 'To penetrate' is the translation of the verb nafag,a followed
by the preposition min. According to Kazimirski's dictionary, the
phrase means 'to pass right through and come out on the other
side of a body' (e.g. an arrow that comes out on the other side).
It therefore suggests a deep penetration and emergence at the
other end into the regions in question.
d) The Power (sultan) these men will have to achieve this enter-
prise would seem to come from the All-Mighty.!
There can be no doubt that this verse indicates the possibility
men will one day achieve what we today call (perhaps rather
improperly) 'the conquest of space'. One must no:e that the text
of the Qur'an predicts not only penetration through the regions
of the Heavens, but also the Earth, i.e. the exploration of its
depths.
1. This verse is followed by an invitation to recognize God's blessings. It
forms the subject of the whole of the sura that bears the title 'The
Beneficent'.
Asttonomy in tlw
Qulan
169
Z') The other two verses are taken from Sura 15,
(verses 14 and
lF). God is speaking of the unbelievers
in lVlakka, as thtr context
of thi s
passage i n the sura shows:
"Even
if We opened unto them a
gate to Heaven and they were
to conti nue ascendi ng
therei n, they woul d say: our si ght
i s con-
fused as in drunkenness.
Nay, we are
people bervitched."
The above expresses astonishment
at a remarkable spectacle,
different from anything
man could imagine.
The conditional sentence
is introduced here by the word lau
which expresses
a hypothesis that eould
never be realized as far
as i t concerned the
peopl e menti oned i n these verses.
When talking
of the conquest of space therefore, we have two
passages i n the text of the
Qur' an:
one of them
refers to what
rvill one day beeome a reality thanks to the
powers of intelligence
and
i ngenui ty God wi l l
gi ve to man, and the other descri bes an
event that the unbelievers
in Makka
will never witness, hence its
character of a condition
never to be realized.
The event will how-
ever be seen by others, as intimated in the first verse
quoted
above. It dpscribes the human reactions to the unexpected
spec-
tacl e that travel l ers
i n space
rvi l l see: thei r confused si ght, as i n
rl runkenness,
the feel i ng of bei ng bewi tched . ' .
This is exactly
how astronauts
have experienced
this remark-
abl e adventure si nce the fi rst human spacefl i ght around the worl d
i n L961. It i s known i n actual fact how once one i s above the
Earth's atmosphere,
the Heavens no longer have the azure ap-
pearance we see from Earth,
which results from
phenomena of
absorption
of the Sun's tight into the layers of the atmosphere.
The human observer
in space above the Earth's atmosphere
sees
a bl ack sky and the Earth seems to be surrounded
by a hal o of
bl ui sh col our
due to the same
phenomena of absorpti on
of l i ght
by the Earth's atmosphere.
The Moon has no atmosphere,
how-
*u.r, and therefore
appears
in its true
colors against the black
background of the sky. It i s a compl etel y
ne$' spectacl e
therefore
that
presents itself to men in space' and the
photographs of this
spectacl e are wel l known to
present-day man'
Here agai n, i t i s di ffi cul t not to be i mpressed,
when compari ng
t het ext of t heQur ' ant ot hedat aof moder ns c i ence, bys t at e-
ments that .si mpl y
cannot be ascri bed
to the thought
of a man
who l i ved more than fourteen centuri es
ago.
Astronomy in the Quian
169
2) The other two verses are taken from sura 15, (verses 14 and
15). God is speaking of the unbelievers in IHakka, as the context
of this passage in the sura shows:
"Even if We opened unto them a gate to Heaven and they were
to continue ascending therein, they would say: our sight is con-
fused as in drunkenness. Nay, we are people bewitched."
The above expresses astonishment at a remarkable spectacle,
different from anything man could imagine.
The conditional sentence is introduced here by the word lau
which expresses a hypothesis that could never be realized as far
as it concerned the people mentioned in these verses.
When talking of the conquest of space therefore, we have two
passages in the text of the Qur'an: one of them refers to what
will one day become a reality thanks to the powers of intelligence
and ingenuity God will give to man, and the other describes an
event that the unbelievers in Makka will never witness, hence its
character of a condition never to be realized. The event will how-
ever be seen by others, as intimated in the first verse quoted
above. It dpscribes the human reactions to the unexpected spec-
tacle that travellers in space will see: their confused sight, as in
drunkenness, the feeling of being bewitched ...
This is exactly how astronauts have experienced this remark-
able adventure since the first human spaceflight around the world
in 1961. It is known in actual fact how once one is above the
Earth's atmosphere, the Heavens no longer have the azure ap-
pearance we see from Earth, which results from phenomena of
absorption of the Sun's light into the layers of the atmosphere.
The human observer in space above the Earth's atmosphere sees
a black sky and the Earth seems to be surrounded by a halo of
bluish colour due to the same phenomena of absorption of light
by the Earth's atmosphere. The Moon has no atmosphere, how-
ever, and therefore appears in its true colors against the black
background of the sky. It is a completely new spectacle therefore
that presents itself to men in space, and the photographs of this
spectacle are well known to present-day man.
Here again, it is difficult not to be impressed, when comparing
the text of the Qur'an to the data of modern science, by state-
ments that .simply cannot be ascribed to the thought of a man
who lived more than fourteen centuries ago.
The
farth
As in the case of the subjects already examined, the verses of
the
Qur'an
dealing with the Earth are dispersed throughout
the
Book. It is difficult to classify them, and the scheme adopted here
is a
personal
one.
To explain them more clearly,
one might begin by singling out
a certain number of verses that deal with more than one subject
st a time. These
verses are largely general
in their application
and constitute an invitation extended
to men to reflect on divine
Beneficence by
pondering
on the examples provided.
other
groups
of verses may be singled out which deal with
rnore specifie subjects, as follows:
-the
water cycle and the seas.
-the
Earth's relief.
-the
Earth's atmosphere.
A. VERSES
CONTAINING
GENENAL STATEMENTS
Although these verses provide
arguments
intended to lead man
to meditate on the Benefieenee
of God towards His creatures,
here and there they contain statements
that are interesting from
the
point
of view of modern science. They
are
perhaps
especially
revealing by virtue of the fact that they do not express the varied
beliefs concerning
natural phenomena
that were current
at the
time of the
Qur'anic Revelation. These beliefs were later to be
shorvn by scientific knowledge to be mistaken,
on the one hand, these verses express simple ideas
readily un-
derstood by to those people
to rvhom,
for geographical
reasons,
the
Qur'an
was first directed: the inhabitants
of Makka and Ma-
r70
Tht; Earth
As in the case of the subjects already examined, the verses of
the Qur'an dealing with the Earth are dispersed throughout the
Book. It is difficult to classify them, and the scheme adopted here
is a personal one.
To explain them more clearly, one might begin by singling out
a certain number of verses that deal with more than one subject
at a time. These verses are largely general in their application
and constitute an invitation extended to men to reflect on divine
Beneficence by pondering on the examples provided.
Other groups of verses may be singled out which deal with
more specific subjects, as foIIows:
-the water cycle and the seas.
-the Earth's relief.
-the Earth's atmosphere.
A. VERSES CONTAINING GENERAL STATEMENTS
Although these verses provide arguments intended to lead man
to meditate on the Beneficence of God towards His creatures,
here and there they contain statements that are interesting from
the point of view of modern science. They are perhaps especially
revealing by virtue of the fact that they do not express the varied
beliefs concerning natural phenomena that were current at the
time of the Qur'anic Revelation. These beliefs were later to be
shown by scientific knowledge to be mistaken.
On the one hand, these verses express simple ideas readily un-
derstood by to those people to whom, for geographical reasons,
the Qur'an was first directed: the inhabitants of Makka and Ma-
170
Tho Eap?I)
dina, the Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula. On the other hand,
they contain reflections of a
general nature from which a more
cultivated
public of any time and
place
may learn something in-
structive, once it starts to think about them: this is a mark of
the
Qur'an's
universality.
As there is apparently no classification of such verses in the
Qur'an,
they ere
presented here in the numerical order of the
Suras:
-sura
2, vetse 22:
"
(God)
is the One who made the earth a couch for
you
and the
heavens an edifice, and sent down water from the sky. He brought
forttr therewith fruits for
your
sustenance. Do not
join
equals
with God when
you
know."
-gura
2, verse 164:
"Behold
! In the creation of the heavens and the earth,
In the disparity of night and day,
In the ship which runs upon the sea for the
profit
of mankind,
In the water which God sent down from the sky thereby
reviving the earth after its death,
In the beasts of all kinds He scatters therein,
In the change of the winds and the subiected clouds
between the sky and earth,
Here are Signs for
people who are wise."
-.sura
18, verse 3:
"(God)
is the One who spread out the earth and set therein
mountains standing firm and rivers. For every fruit He
placed
two of a
pair.
He covers the day with the night. Verily in this
there are Signs for
people who reflect."
-sura
16, verses 19 to 21. God is speaking:
"The
earth, We spread it out and set thereon mountains stand-
ing firm. We eaused all kind of things to
grow
therein in due bal-
ance. Therein We have
provided you
and those
you do not supply
s'ith mesns of subsistence and there is not a thing but its stores
are with Us. We do not send
it down save in appointed measure."
-sura
20, verses 53 and 54:
"
(
God is) the One Who has made for
you the earth like a cradle
and inserted roads into it for
you. He sent water down from the
l 7l TIteEtIf'Ih 171
dina, the Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula. On the other hand,
they contain reflections of a general nature from which a more
cultivated public of any time and place may learn something in-
structive, once it starts to think about them: this is a mark of
the Qur'an's universality.
As there is apparently no classification of such verses in the
Qur'an, they are presented here in the numerical order of the
suras:
-sura 2, verse 22:
"(God) is the One who made the earth a couch for you and the
heavens an edifice, and sent down water from the sky. He brought
forth therewith fruits for your sustenance. Do not join equals
with God when you know."
-sura 2, verse 164:
"Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth,
In the disparity of night and day,
In the ship which runs upon the sea for the profit
of mankind,
In the water which God sent down from the sky thereby
reviving the earth after its death,
In the beasts of all kinds He scatters therein,
In the change of the winds and the subjected clouds
between the sky and earth,
Here are Signs for people who are wise."
--sura 13, verse 3:
" (God) is the One who spread out the earth and set therein
mountains standing firm and rivers. For every fruit He placed
two of a pair. He covers the day with the night. Verily in this
there are Signs for people who reflect!'
--sura 15, verses 19 to 21. God is speaking:
"The earth, We spread it out and set thereon mountains stand-
ing firm. We caused all kind of things to grow therein in due bal-
ance. Therein We have provided you and those you do not supply
with means of subsistence and there is not a thing but its stores
are with Us. We do not send it down save in appointed measure!'
-sura 20, verses 53 and 54:
" (G<>d is) the One Who has made for you the earth like a cradle
and inserted roads into it for you. He sent water down from the
172 THE BIBLE, THE
QUN
AN AND SCIENCE
sky and thereby We brought forth
pairs
of
plants,
eaeh sepante
from the other. Eat ! Pasture your
cattle ! Verily in this are Signs
for
people
endued with intelligence."
-sura
27, verse 6L:
"He Who made the earth an abode and set rivers in its inter-
stices and mountains standing firm. He
placed
a barrier between
the two seas. Is there any divinity besides God? Nay, but most
people do not know."
Here a reference is made to the
general
stability of the Earth's
crust. It is known that at the early stages of the Earth's existenee
before its crust cooled dorvn, the latter lvas unstable. The stabil-
itf of the Earth's crust is not however strictly uniform, sinee
therp are zones where earthquakes intermittently occur. As to
the barrier between the two seas, it is an image which signifies
that the rvaters of the
great
rivers and the waters of the sea do
not mix at the level of certain large estuaries.
-sura
67, verse 15:
"
(God
is) the One Who made the earth docile to
you.
So walk
upon its shoulders ! Eat of His sustenance ! Unto Him will be the
Resurrection."
+sura
?9, verses 30-33:
"After
that (God)
spread the earth out. Therefrom He drtw
out i'ts water and its pasture.
And the mountains He has firmly
fixed. Goods for
you
and for
your
cattle."
In many such verses, emphasis is laid upon the importanee
of water and the
practical
consequences of its presence
in the
earth's soil, i.e. the fertility of the soil. There can be no doubt
that in desert countries, n'ater is the most important element gov-
erning man's survival. The reference in the
Qur'an
horvever goes
beyond this geographical
detail. According to scientific knorvledge
the character the Earth has of a
planet
that is rich in water is
unique to the solar system, and this is exactly what is highlighted
in the
Qur'an.
Without water, the Earth would be a dead
planet
like the Moon. The
Qur'an
gives
first
place
to water among the
natural
phenomena
of the Earth that it refers to. The water cycle
is
described with remarkable accuracy in the
Qur'an.
172 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
sky and thereby We brought forth pairs of plants, each sepamte
from the other. Eat! Pasture your cattle! Verily in this are Signs
for people endued with intelligoence."
-sura 27, verse 61:
"He Who made the earth an abode and set rivers in its inter-
stices and mountains standing firm. He placed a barrier between
the two seas. Is there any divinity besides God? Nay, but most
people do not know."
Here a reference is made to the general stability of the Earth's
crust. It is known that at the early stages of the Earth's existence
before its crust cooled down, the latter was unstable. The stabil-
ity of the Earth's crust is not however strictly uniform, since
tnel't are zones where earthquakes intermittently occur. As to
the barrier between the two seas, it is an image which signifies
that the waters of the great rivers and the waters of the sea do
not mix at the level of certain large estuaries.
-sura 67, verse 15:
.11 (God is) the One Who made the earth docile to you. So walk
upon its shoulders! Eat of His sustenance! Unto Him will be the
Resurrection."
-'-sura 79, verses 30-33:
"After that (God) spread the earth out. Therefrom He drew
out its water and its pasture. And the mountains He has firmly
fixed. Goods for you and for your cattle."
In many such verses, emphasis is laid upon the importance
of water and the practical consequences of its presence in the
earth's soil, Le. the fertility of the soil. There can be no doubt
that in desert countries, water is the most important element gov-
erning man's survival. The reference in the Qur'an however goes
beyond this geographical detail. According to scientific knowledge
the character the Earth has of a planet that is rich in water is
unique to the solar system, and this is exactly what is highlighted
in the Qur'an. Without water, the Earth would be a dead planet
like the Moon. The Qur'an gives first place to water among the
natural phenomena of the Earth that it refers to. The water cycle
is described with remarkable accuracy in the Qttr'an.
Tllc Earth
B, THE WATEN CYCLE AND THE SEAS.
When the verses of the
Qur'an
concerning the role of water in
man's existence are read in suceession today, they all appear to
us to express ideas that are
quite obvious. The reason for this is
simple: in our day and ag:e, we all, to a lesser or
gfeater
extent,
know about the rvater cycle in natut'e.
If however, we consider the various concepts the ancients had
on this subject, it becomes clear that the data in the
Qur'an
do not
embody the mythical eoncepts current at the time of the Revela-
tion which had been developed more according to
philosophical
speculation than observed
phenomena.
Although it was empiri-
cally
possible to acquire on a modest scale, the useful
practical
knowledge necessary for the improvement of the irrigation, the
concepts held on the rvater cycle in general would hardly be ac-
ceptable today.
Thus it rvould have been easy to imagine that underground
water could have come from the infiltration of
precipitations in
the soil. In ancient times hon'ever, this idea, held by Vitruvius
Polio Marcus in Rome, lst century R.C., was cited as an excep-
tion. For many centuries thelefore
(and
the
Qur'anic
Revelation
is situated during this
period)
man held totally inaccurate viervs
on the water cycle.
Two specialists on this subject, G. Gastany and B. Blavoux, in
their entry in the Universalis Encyclopedia
(Enc.yelopedia
Uni-
aersalisl under the heading Hgdrogeology
(Hydrog6ologie),
give
an edifying history of this
problem.
"In the Seventh centut'y 8.C., Thales of l\{iletus held the theory
whereby the watet's of the oceans, under the effect of winds, wel'e
thrust torvards the interior of the continents; so the rvater fell
upon the earth and
penetrated into the soil. Plato shared these
views and thought
that the retut'n of the waters to the oceans was
via a
great
abyss, the'Tartarus'. This theoly had many suppot't-
els until the Eighteenth century, one of whom was Descartes.
Aristotle imagined that the rvatel
vapoul'flom the soil condensed
in cool mountain cavel'lls and formed underground lakes that fetl
spri ngs. He rvas fol l orved by Seneca
(l st
Century A.D.) and many
others, unti l L877, among them O. Vol ger . . . The fi rst cl ear
folmulation
of the u'ater cycle must be attributed to Bernard
u3 The Earth
B. THE WATEH CYCLE AND THE SEAS.
173
When the verses of the Qur'an concerning the role of water in
man's existence are read in succession today, they all appear to
us to express ideas that are quite obvious. The reason for this is
simple: in our day and age, we all, to a lesser or greater extent,
know about the water cycle in nature.
If however, we consider the various concepts the ancients had
on this subject, it becomes clear that the data in the Qur'an do not
embody the mythical concepts current at the time of the Revela-
tion which had been developed more according to philosophical
speculation than observed phenomena. Although it was empiri-
cally possible to acquire on a modest scale, the useful practical
knowledge necessary for the improvement of the irrigation, the
concepts held on the water cycle in general would hardly be ac-
ceptable today.
Thus it would have been easy to imagine that underground
water could have come from the infiltration of precipitations in
the soil. In ancient times however, this idea, held by Vitruvius
Polio Marcus in Rome, 1st century B.C., was cited as an excep
tion. For many centuries therefore (and the Qur'anic Revelation
is situated during this period) man held totally inaccurate views
on the water cycle.
Two specialists on this subject. G. Gastany and B. Blavoux, in
their entry in the Universalis Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia U11,i-
vm'salis) under the heading Hyd1'ogeology (Hydrogeologie),
give an edifying history of this problenl.
HIn the Seventh century B.C., Thales of :Miletus held the theory
whereby the waters of the oceans, under the effect of winds, were
thrust towards the interior of the continents; so the water fell
upon the earth and penetrated into the soil. Plato shared these
views and thought that the return of the waters to the oceans was
via a great abyss, the 'Tartarus'. This theory had many support-
ers until the Eighteenth century, one of whom was Descartes.
Aristotle imagined that the water vapoUJ' from the soil condensed
in cool mountain caverns and formed underground lakes that fed
springs. He was followed by Seneca (1st Century A.D.) and many
others, until 1877. among them O. Volgel' . . . The first clear
formulation of the water cycle must be attributed to Bernard
t74 THE BIBT.E, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
Palissy in 1580: he claimed that underground water eame from
rainwater infiltrating into the soil. This theory was confirmed by
E. Mariotte and P. Perrault in the Seventeenth century.
In the following passages
from the
Qur'an,
there is no trace
of the mistaken ideas that were current at the time of Muhammad :
-sura
50, verses I to 11:
"'We' sent down from the sky blessed water whereby We caused
to
grow gardens, grains
for harvestn tall palm-trees
with their
spathes,
piled
one above the other*sustenance
for
(our)
ser-
vants. Therewith We
gave (new)
Iife to a dead land. So will be
the emergence
(from
the tombs)."
-sura
23, verses 18 and 19:
"we sent down water from the sky in measure and lodged it in
the
ground.
And We certainly are able to withdraw it. Therewith
for
you
We
gave
rise to
gardens
of
palm-trees
and vineyards
where for you
are abundant fruits and of them
you
eat."
-sura
L5, verse 22:
"We sent forth the winds that fecundate. we cause the water
to descend from the sky. We
provide you
with the water-you
(could)
not be the
guardians
of its reserves."
There are two
possible
interpretations
of this last verse. The
fecundating winds may be taken to be the fertilizers of
plants
because they carry
pollen.
This rr18y, however, be a figurative ex-
pression
referring by analogy to the role the wind
plays
in the
process
whereby a non-raincarrying cloud is turned into one that
produces
a shower of rain. This role is often referred to, as in the
following verses:
-sura
35, verse 9:
"God
is the One Who sends forth the winds whieh raised up
the clouds. We drive them to a dead land. Therewith we revive
the
ground
after its death. So will be the Resurrection."
rt should be noted how the style is descriptive in the first
part
of the verse, then
passes
without transition to a declaration from
God. Such sudden changes in the form of the narration are very
frequent in the
Qur'an.
1. Whenever the
pmnoun
'We'
appearg in the verses of the txt quoted
here, it refers to God.
174 THE BIBLE, THE QUlfAN AND SCmNCE
Palissy in 1580: he claimed that underground water came from
rainwater infiltrating into the soil. This theory was confirmed by
E. Mariotte and P. Perrault in the Seventeenth century.
In the following passages from the Qur'an, there is no trace
of the mistaken ideas that were current at the time of Muhammad:
-sura 50, verses 9 to 11:
"Wet sent down from the sky blessed water whereby We caused
to grow gardens, grains for harvest, tall palm-trees with their
spathes, piled one above the other-sustenance for (Our) ser-
vants. Therewith We gave (new) life to a dead land. So will be
the emergence (from the tombs)."
-sura 23, verses 18 and 19:
"We sent down water from the sky in measure and lodged it in
the ground. And We certainly are able to withdraw it. Therewith
for you We gave rise to gardens of palm-trees and vineyards
where for you are abundant fruits and of them you eat."
-sura 15, verse 22 :
"We sent forth the winds that fecundate. We cause the water
to descend from the sky. We provide you with the water-you
(could) not be the guardians of its reserves."
There are two possible interpretations of this last verse. The
fecundating winds may be taken to be the fertilizers of plants
because they carry pollen. This may, however, be a figurative ex-
pression referring by analogy to the role the wind plays in the
process whereby a non-raincarrying cloud is turned into one that
produces a shower of rain. This role is often referred to, as in the
following verses:
-sura 35, verse 9:
"God is the One Who sends forth the winds which raised up
the clouds. We drive them to a dead land. Therewith We revive
the ground after its death. So will be the Resurrection."
It should be noted how the style is descriptive in the first part
of the verse, then passes without transition to a declaration from
God. Such sudden changes in the form of the narration are very
frequent in the Qur'an.
1. Whenever the pronoun 'We' appears in the verses of the text quoted
here, it refers to God.
Trw Eailh
-sura
80, verse 48:
"God
is the One TVho sends forth the winds which raised up
the clouds, He spreads them in the sky as He wills and breaks
them into fragments. Then thou seest raindrops issuing from
within them. He makes them reach such of His senrants as He
wills. And they are rejoicing."
----surg
7, verse 5?:
"
(God)
is the One Who sends forth the winds like heralds of
His Mercy. When they have carried the heavyJaden clouds, We
drive them to a dead land. Then We cause water to descend and
thereby bring forth fruits of every kind. Thus We will bring forth
the dead. Maybe
you will remem'ber,"
-sura
25, verses 48 and 49:
"
(God)
is the One Who sends forth the winds like heralds of
His Mercy. We Gause
pure
water to descend in order to revive
a dead land with it and to supply with drink the multitude of
cattle and human beings We have created."
-sura
45, verse 6:
".
. . In the
provision that God sends down from the sky and
thereby He revives the
ground
after its death and in the change
(of
direction) of winds, there are Signs for
people
who are wise."
The
provision
made in this last verse is in the form of the water
sent down from the sky, as the context shows. The accent is on
the change of the winds that modify the rain cycle.
-sure
13, verse 17:
"
(God)
sends water down from the sky so that the rivers flow
according to their measure. The torrent bears a\tsy an increaSing
foam.tt
---sura
6?, verse 80, God cornmands the Prophet:
"Say:
Do
you
see if
your
water were to be lost in the
ground,
who then can supply
you urith
Sushing
water?"
-sura
89, verse 21:
"flast
thou not seen that God sent water down from the sky
and led it through sources into the
ground ? Then He caused sown
fields of difierent colors to
gTow."
-sura
86, verse 84:
"Therein
We
plaeed gardens
of
palm-trees and vineyerds and
IlVe caused water springs to
gttsh forth."
175 TIaeEarda
175
-sura SO, verse 48 :
"God is the One Who sends forth the winds which raised up
the clouds. He spreads them in the sky as He wills and breaks
them into fragments. Then thou seest raindrops issuing from
within them. He makes them reach such of His servants as He
wills. And they are rejoicing."
-sura 7, verse 57:
U (God) is the One Who sends forth the winds like heralds of
His Mercy. When they have carried the heavy-laden clouds, We
drive them to a dead land. Then We cause water to descend and
thereby bring forth fruits of every kind. Thus We will bring forth
the dead. Maybe you will remember."
-sura 25, verses 48 and 49 :
"(God) is the One Who sends forth the winds like heralds of
His Mercy. We cause pure water to descend in order to revive
a dead land with it and to supply with drink the multitude of
cattle and human beings We have created."
-sura 45, verse 5:
"... In the provision that God sends down from the ~ and
thereby He revives the ground after its death and in the change
(of direction) of winds, there are Signs for people who are wise."
The provision made in this last verse is in the form of the water
sent down from the sky, as the context shows. The accent is on
the change of the winds that modify the rain cycle.
---sure 13, verse 17:
cc (God) sends water down from the sky so that the rivers flow
according to their measure. The torrent bears away an increasing
foam."
-sura 67, verse 30, God commands the Prophet:
"Say: Do you see if your water were to be lost in the ground,
who then can supply you with gushing water!"
-sura 39, verse 21 :
"Hast thou not seen that God sent water down from the sky
and led it through sources into the ground? Then He caused sown
fields of different colors to grow."
-sura 36, verse 34:
"Therein We placed gardens of palm-trees and vineyards and
We caused water springs to gush forth."
I78
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
The irnportance
of springs and the rvay they are fed by rain-
rvater
conducted into them is stressed in the last three verses.
It is worth pausing
to examine this fact and call to mind the
predominanee
in the Middle Age-s of viervs such as those held by
Aristotle, according
to whom
springs wele fed by underground
lakes. In his entry on Hydtology (Hydrologie)
in the Univer-
salis Encyclopedia (EncycloTted,ia (Jniuersatis)
M.R.
Rdmeniras,
a teaeher at the French National
School of Agronomy (
Ecole
nationale du Gdnie rural, des Eaux et For6ts), describes
the main
stages of hydrology
and refers to the magnificent
irrigation
rvorks
of the aneients, particularly
in the Middle East. He notes
however
that an empirical ouilook ruled over everything,
since
the ideas
of the time
proceeded
from mistaken concepts. He con-
tinues as follows:
"It was not until the Renaissance (between
circa 1400
and
1600) that purely philosophical
coileepts gave
way to research
based on the objective observation
of hydrologic phenomena.
Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519)
rebelled
aglinst Aristoile's
state-
ments. Bernard
Palissy, in his wonderful d,iscourse on the nature
of waters and,
fou.ntains
both nahn.nl nnd, urtifieial (Discours
admirable de Ia nature des eaux et fontaines
tant naturelles
qu'artificielles (Paris,
15?0)
)
gives
a correct interpretation
of
the rvater cycle
and especially of the way springs are fed by
rainwater."
This last statement is surely exacfly what is mentioned in verse
2L, sura 39 describing
the way rainwater is conducted into
sources in the ground.
The subject of verse 48, sura 24 is rain and hail:
"Hast
thou not seen that God makes the elouds move genily,
then
joins
them together, then makes them a heap. And thou
seest raindrops issuing from within it, He sends down from
the
sky mountains of hail, He strikes therewith whom He wills and
He turns it away from whom He wills. The flashing of its light-
ning
almost snatches away the sight."
The follou'ing passage
requires
some comment:
-sura
56, verses 68-70:
"Have
you
observed
the water you
drink ? Do you
bring it
down from the rainclouds ? or do we ? If it were our will, lye
could make it salty. Then why are
you
not thankful ?"
176 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The importance of springs and the way they are fed by r n ~
water conducted into them is stressed in the last three verses.
It is worth pausing to examine this fact and call to mind the
predominance in the Middle Ages of views such as those held by
Aristotle, according to whom springs were fed by underground
lakes. In his entry on Hyd1ology (Hydrologie) in the Univer.
salis Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Universalis) M.R. Remenieras,
a teacher at the French National School of Agronomy (Ecole
nationale du Genie rural, des Eaux et Forets), describes the main
stages of hydrology and refers to the magnificent irrigation
works of the ancients, particularly in the Middle East. He notes
however that an empirical outlook ruled over everything, since
the ideas of the time proceeded flOom mistaken concepts. He con
tinues as follows:
"It was not until the Renaissance (between circa 1400 and
1600) that purely philosophical concepts gave way to research
based on the objective observation of hydrologic phenomena.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) rebelled against Aristotle's state
ments. Bernard Palissy, in his WOl1de1'jul discourse on the nature
of waters and fountains both natuTal and artificial (Discours
admirable de la nature des eaux et fontaines tant naturelles
qu'artificielles (Paris, 1570 gives a correct interpretation of
the water cycle and especially of the way springs are fed by
rainwater."
This last statement is surely exactly what is mentioned in verse
21, sura 39 describing the way rainwater is conducted into
sources in the ground.
The subject of verse 43, sura 24 is rain and hail:
"Hast thou not seen that God makes the clouds move gently,
then joins them together, then makes them a heap. And thou
seest raindrops issuing from within it. He sends down from the
sky mountains of hail, He strikes therewith whom He wills and
He turns it away from whom He wills. The flashing of its light
ning almost snatches away the sight."
The following passage requires some comment:
-sura 56, verses 6870:
"Have you observed the water you drink? Do you bring it
down from the rainclouds? Or do We? If it were Our will, We
could make it salty. Then why are you not thankful?"
The Earth
177
This reference to the fact that God could have made fresh
rvater salty is a rvay of expressing divine Omnipotence. Another
means of reminding us of the same Omnipotence is the challenge
to man to make rain fall from the clouds. In modern times horv-
ever, technology has surely made it possible to create rain arti-
ficially. Can one therefore oppose the statement in the
Qur'an
to
man' s abi l i ty to produce preci pi tati ons ?
The answer is no, because it seems clear that one must take
account of man' s l i mi tati ons i n thi s fi el d. M.A. Facy, an expert at
the French Meteorological Office, wrote the following in the
Universalis
Encyclopedia
(Eneyclopedia
Uniuusalis)
under the
heading Precipitations
(Prdcipitations) : "It
will never be
pos-
si bl e to make rai n fal l from a cl oud that does not have the
suitable characteristics of a raincloud or one that has not
yet
l eached the appropri ate stage of evol uti on
(maturi ty)
". Man can
never therefore hasten the
precipitation process by technical
means when the natural conrl i ti ons for i t are not
presettt. If thi s
were not the case, droughts woul d never occur i n
pl acti ce-rvhi ch
they obviously do. To have control over rain and fine rveather
still remains a dt'eam therefore.
l\{an cannot tvilfulty break the established cycle that maintains
the ci rcul ati on of rvater i n natUre. Thi s cycl e may be outl i ned as
fol l orvs, accordi ng to modern i deas on hydrol ogy:
The cal ori es obtai ned from the Sun' s
rays cause the sea and
those
parts
of the Earth's surface that are covet'ed or soaked
in rvater to evaporate. The water vapour that is
given off rises
i nto the atmosphere and, by condensati on, forms i nto cl ottds. The
rvi nds then i ntervene and move the cl ottds thus fot' med over
varyi ng di stances. The cl ouds can then ei ther di spel se
rvi thout
producing rain, or combine their mass rvith others to create even
greater condensati on,
or they can fragment and
l troduce
rai n
at some stages in their evolution. Wherl rain t'eaches the sea
(70% of t he Eart h' s surf ace i s covered by seas), t he cycl e i s
soon repeated. When rai n fal l s on the l and,
i t may be absorbed
by
vegetati on and thus ai d the l atter' s
grorl ' th; the vegetati on
i n i ts
tut'n
gives off rvater and thus returns some rvatet' to the atmo-
sphere. The rest, to a l esser or greater extent, i nfi l trates
i nto the
soi l , rvhence i t i s ei ther conducted through channel s
i nto the sea,
The Earth 177
This reference to the fact that God could have made fresh
water salty is a way of expressing divine Omnipotence. Another
means of reminding us of the same Omnipotence is the challenge
to man to make rain fall from the clouds. In modern times how-
ever, technology has surely made it possible to create rain arti-
ficially. Can one therefore oppose the statement in the Qur'an to
man's ability to produce precipitations?
The answer is no, because it seems clear that one must take
account of man's limitations in this field. M.A. Facy, an expert at
the French Meteorological Office, wrote the following in the
Universalis Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia Unit'('rsalis) under the
heading Precipitations (Precipitations): "It will never be pos-
sible to make rain fall from a cloud that does not have the
suitable characteristics of a raincloud or one that has not yet
reached the appropriate stage of evolution (maturity)". Man can
never therefore hasten the precipitation process by technical
means when the natural conditions for it are not present. If this
were not the case, droughts would never occur in practice-which
they obviously do. To have control over rain and fine weather
still remains a dream therefore.
l\lan cannot wilfully break the established cycle that maintains
the circulation of water in nature. This cycle may be outlined as
follows, according to modern ideas on hydrology:
The calories obtained from the Sun's rays cause the sea and
those parts of the Earth's surface that are covered or soaked
in water to evaporate. The water vapour that is given off rises
into the atmosphere and, by condensation, forms into clouds. The
winds then intervene and move the clouds thus formed over
varying distances. The clouds can then either disperse without
producing rain, or combine their mass with others to create even
greater condensation, or they can fragment and produce rain
at some stages in their evolution. vVhen rain reaches the sea
(70% of the Earth's surface is covered by seas), the cycle is
soon repeated. \Vhen rain falls on the land, it may be absorbed by
vegetation and thus aid the latter's growth; the vegetation in its
turn gives off water and thus returns some water to the atmo-
sphere. The rest, to a lesser or greater extent, infiltrates into the
soil, whence it is either conducted through channels into the sea,
l78
THE BIBLE,
THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
or comes back to the Earth's surface
network through
springs
or resurgences.
when one compares
the modern data of hydrology
to what is
contained in the numerous
verses of the
eur'an
quoted
in this
paragraph,
one has to admit that there is a remarkable
degree
of agreement betrveen
them.
The Sear,,
whereas the above verses from the
eur'an
have
provided
ma-
terial for comparison
between modern knowledge
about the water
cycle in nature, this is not the case for the seas. There is not a
single statement in the
Qur'an
dealing with the seas which could
be used for comparison
with scientific
data per.
se. This does not
diminish the necessity
of
pointing
out however that none of the
statements in the
Qur'an
on the seas refers
to the beliefs, myths
or superstitions prevalent
at the time of its
Revelation.
A celtain number
of verses deal with the seas and navigation.
As subjects for reflection,
they provide
indications
of divine
omnipotenee that arise from the facts of common observation.
The fol l orvi ng verses are exampl es of thi s:
-sura
14, verse 32:
"(God)
has made the shi p subj ect to you,
so that i t runs upon
the sea at IIi s
Command."
-Sul . a
16, verse 14:
" (God)
i s the one who subj ected the sea, so that you
eat fresh
meat from it and you
extract from it ornaments
which you
wear.
Thou seest the ships plowing
the waves,
so that you
seek of His
Bounty. Maybe, you
wi l l be thankful ."
- sr l r a
31, ver se 3l :
"Hast thou seen that the ship runs upon the sea by the Grace
of God, i n order to show you
FIi s si gns. veri l y i n thi s are Si gns
for al l u' ho are perseveri ng
and grateful ."
_srrl .a
bb, verse 24:
"Hi s .re the shi ps erected upon the sea l i ke tokens."
-sura
36, verse 4l -44:
"A si gn for them i s that we bore thei r offspri ng i n the l oaded
Ark.
'we
have created for them similar (vessels)
on which they
ri de. If we rvi l l , we drown them and there i s no hel p and they
178 THE BIBLE, THE QUR' AN AND SCIENCE
or comes back to the Earth's surface network through springs
or resurgences.
When one compares the modern data of hydrology to what is
contained in the numerous verses of the Qur'an quoted in this
paragraph, one has to admit that there is a remarkable degree
of agreement between them.
The Seas.
Whereas the above verses from the Qur'an have provided ma-
terial for comparison between modern knowledge about the water
cycle in nature, this is not the case for the seas. There is not a
single statement in the Qur'an dealing with the seas which could
be used for comparison with scientific data per se. This does not
diminish the necessity of pointing out however that none of the
statements in the Qur'an on the seas refers to the beliefs, myths
or superstitions prevalent at the time of its Revelation.
A certain number of verses deal with the seas and navigation.
As subjects for reflection, they provide indications of divine
Omnipotence that arise from the facts of common observation.
The following verses are examples of this:
-sura 14, verse 32:
H (God) has made the ship subject to you, so that it runs upon
the sea at His Command."
-sura 16, verse 14:
"(God) is the One Who subjected the sea, so that you eat fresh
meat from it and you extract from it ornaments which you wear.
Thou seest the ships plowing the waves, so that you seek of His
Bounty. Maybe, you will be thankfuL"
-sura 31, verse 31:
"Hast thou seen that the ship runs upon the sea by the Grace
of God, in order to show you His signs. Verily in this are Signs
for all who are persevering and gratefu1."
-sura 55, verse 24:
"His are the ships erected upon the sea like tokens."
-sura 36, verse 41-44:
"A sign for them is that We bore their offspring in the loaded
Ark. We have created for them similar (vessels) on which they
ride. If We wiIJ, We drown them and there is no help and they
TI'' Eno'ih
l7s
will not be saved unless by Mercy from Us and as a
gratification
for a time."
fire reference here is
quite clearly to'the vessel bearing man
upon the sea,
just
as, long ago, Noah and the other occupants of
the vessel were carried in the Ark that enabled them to reach dry
land.
Another obsenred
fact concerning the sea stands out, because
of its unusual
nsture, from the verses of the
Qur'an
devoted
to
it: three verses
refer to certain characteristics
shared by
great
rivers when they flow out into the ocean.
The
phenomenon is wetl known and often seen whereby
the
immediste
mixing of salty seawster and fresh riverwater does
not occur. The
Qurtan
refers to this in the case of what is thought
to be the estuary of the Tigris and Euphrates where they unite
to fotur what one might call a
'sea'
over 100 miles long, the Shatt
Al Arab. At the inner
parts
of the
gulf, the efrect of the tides is
to
produee the welcome
phenomenon of the reflux of fresh water
to the interior of the dry land, thus ensuring
adequate irrigation.
To understand
the text correctly, one has to know that the En-
glish
word
'sea'
conveys the
general meaning of the Arabic word
baft,r which
designates a large m&ss of water and is equally
used
tor Uottr the sea and the
great rivers: the Nile, Tigris antl Eu-
phrates for example.
The following are the three
verses that describe
this
phenom-
enon:
-sura
26, verse 63:
"
(God)
is the One Who
has let free the two seas' one is agree-
able and sweet, ttre other selty and bitter.
He
placed a barrier
between them, I
partition that it is forbidden to
pass."
---sura
36, verse 12:
"The
two seas are not alike. The water
of one is agreeable,
sweet,
pleasant to drink. The other salty and bitter. You eat fresh
meat from it and
you extract from it ornaments
which
you
wear'"
--,sura
56, verses 19, 20 and 22:
"He
has loosed the two seas. They meet together.
Between them
there is a barrier which
they do not transg:ress'
out of them
eome
pearls and coral."
In sddition
to the
description of the main
fact,
these verses
refer to what msy be obtained from fresh water
and seawater:
TheEarOa
179
will not be saved unless by Mercy from Us and as a gratification
for a time."
The reference here is quite clearly to'the vessel bearing man
upon the sea, just as, long ago, Noah and the other occupants of
the vessel were carried in the Ark that enabled them to reach dry
land.
Another observed fact concerning the sea stands out, because
of its unusual nature, from the verses of the Qur'an devoted to
it: three verses refer to certain characteristics shared by great
rivers when they flow out into the ocean.
The phenomenon is well known and often seen whereby the
immediate mixing of salty seawater and fresh riverwater does
not occur. The Qur'an refers to this in the case of what is thought
to be the estuary of the Tigris and Euphrates where they unite
to form what one might call a 'sea' over 100 miles long, the Shatt
Al Arab. At the inner parts of the gulf, the effect of the tides is
to produce the welcome phenomenon of the reflux of fresh water
to the interior of the dry land, thus ensuring adequate irrigation.
To understand the text correctly, one has to know that the En-
glish word 'sea' conveys the general meaning of the Arabic word
~ r which designates a large mass of water and is equally used
for both the sea and the great rivers: the Nile, Tigris and Eu-
phrates for example.
The following are the three verses that describe this phenom-
enon:
-sura 25, verse 53 :
U (God) is the One Who has let free the two seas, one is agree-
able and sweet, the other salty and bitter. He placed a barrier
between them, a partition that it is forbidden to pass."
--sura 35, verse 12 :
"The two seas are not alike. The water of one is agreeable,
sweet, pleasant to drink. The other salty and bitter. You eat fresh
meat from it and you extract from it ornaments which you wear."
--sura 55, verses 19, 20 and 22:
"He has loosed the two seas. They meet together. Between them
there is a barrier which they do not transgress. Out of them
come pearls and coral."
In addition to the description of the main fact, these verses
refer to what may be obtained from fresh water and seawater:
I8O
TIIE BIBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
fish, personal
adornment, i.e. coral and pearls.
with regard
to the
phenomenon
whereby the river
water does not mix with seawater
at the estuary, one must understand
that this is not peculiar
to
the Tigris and Euphrates; they are not mentioned by lrame in the
text, but it is thought to refer to them. Rivers with
a very large
outflorv, such as the Mississippi and the
yangtze,
have the same
peculiarity:
the mixing
of their fr.esh water with the salty
water
of the sea does not often oceur until very far out at sea.
C. THE EANTH'S RELIEF.
The constitution
of the Earth is highly complex. Today, it is
possible
to imagine
it very roughly as being formed of a deep
layer,
at very high temperature,
and especially of a central area
where rocks are still in fusion, and of a surface layer, the Earth's
erust which is solid and cold. The crust is very thin; its thickness
is estimated
in units of miles or units of ten miles at the most.
The Earth's radius
is however
slishfly over B,?80 miles,
so that
its crust does not'epresent (on
average)
one hnndredth
of the
of the sphere's radius. It is upon this skin, as it were,
that all
geological
phenomena
have taken place.
At the origin of these
phenomena
are folds that
were to form the mountain
ranges;
their formation
is called
'orogenesis'
in geology:
the process
is
of considerable
importance
because
with the development
of a
relief that
was to constitute
a mountain, the Earth's
crust was
driven in
proportionately
far down: this
process
ensures a foun-
dation in the layer that underlies it.
The history
of the distribution of flre sea and land on the sur-
face of the globe
has only recently been establisherl
and is still
vely incomplete,
even for the most recent
and best knorvn periods,
It is likely
that
the oceans appeared and fo'med the hydrisphere
circa half
a billion years
ago. The continents were proba-bly
a
single mass
at the end of the primary
era, then subsequenily
broke apart.
some continents or parts
of continents hav* rnor*-
over emerged
through
the formation
of mountains in maritime
zones
(e.g.
the North Atl anti c conti nent
and paft
of Europe).
According to modern ideas, the dominating factor
in the for-
mation of the Iand that emerged was the development
of moun-
tain ranges.
The evolution of the land, from the primary
to the
180
Tl!E BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
fish, personal adornment, Le. coral and pearls. With regard to the
phenomenon whereby the river water does not mix with seawater
at the estuary, one must understand that this is not peculiar to
the Tigris and Euphrates; they are not mentioned by name in the
text, but it is thought to refer to them. Rivers with a very large
outflow, such as the Mississippi and the Yangtze, have the same
peculiarity: the mixing of their fresh water with the salty water
of the sea does not often occur until very far out at sea.
c. THE EARTH'S RELIEF.
The constitution of the Earth is highly complex. Today, it is
possible to imagine it very roughly as being formed of a deep
layer, at very high temperature, and especially of a central area
where rocks are still in fusion, and of a surface layer, the Earth's
crust which is solid and cold. The crust is very thin; its thickness
is estimated in units of miles or units of ten miles at the most.
The Earth's radius is however slightly over 3,750 miles, so that
its crust does not represent (on average) one hundredth of the
of the sphere's radius. It is upon this skin, as it were, that all
geological phenomena have taken place. At the origin of these
phenomena are folds that were to form the mountain ranges;
their formation is called 'orogenesis' in geology: the process is
of considerable importance because with the development of a
relief that was to constitute a mountain, the Earth's crust was
driven in proportionately far down: this process ensures a foun-
dation in the layer that underlies it.
The history of the distribution of the sea and land on the sur-
face of the globe has only recently been established and is still
very incomplete, even for the most recent and best known periods.
It is likely that the oceans appeared and formed the hydrosphere
circa half a billion years ago. The continents were probably a
single mass at the end of the primary era, then subsequently
broke apart. Some continents or parts of continents have more-
over emerged through the formation of mountains in maritime
zones (e.g. the North Atlantic continent and part of Europe).
According to modern ideas, the dominating factor in the for-
mation of the land that emerged was the development of moun-
tain ranges. The evolution of the land, from the primary to the
r8r
The Earth
quaternsry era, is classed
according
to'orogenic
phases'that are
themselves
grouped into
'cycles'
of the same
name since
the for-
mation of all mountains
reliefs had repercussions
on the balance
between the sea and the continents.
It made some
parts of
the
land disappear
and others emerge' and for hundreds
of millions
of
years it tt"r altered
the surface distribution
of the continents
rni o.."ns:
the former
at
present only occupying
three tenths
of the surface of this
Planet.
In this way it is
possible to
give a very rough outline of the
transformations
that have taken
place over the last hundreds
of
millions of
years.
When
referring
to the Ea|th's
relief, the
Qur"an
only desct'ibes'
as it were, the formation of the mountains.
Seen flom
the
present
point of view, there is indeed little one can say about the verses
itt"t only expyess
Gocl's Beneficence
to man rvith legard to the
Earth's
fot'mation, as in the follorving verses:
-sura
?1, verses 19 and 20:
,,For
you
God
made the earth a carpet so that
yott
tt'avel
along
its loads and the
paths of valleys."
-sura
51, verse 48:
"The
earth, We have sl tread i t out. Hol v excel l entl y
We di d
that,"
The carpet whi ch
has been spl ead
out i s the Earth' s crust,
a
sol i di fi ed
shel l on whi ch we can l i ve, si nce the
gl obe' s sub-strata
are very
hot, fluid and hostile to any form
of life.
The statements
in the
Qut"an
refen'ing to the mottntains
and
the references
to their stability
sttbsequent
to the
phenomenon
of the folds are very imPortant.
-sura
88, verses
19 & 20. The context
invites unbelievet's
to
consider certain
natural
phenomena' among
them:
,,.
. . the mountai ns,
horv they have been
pi tched
(l i ke a tent) '
The Earth how it was made even"'
The follc rving verses
give details about the way in which the
mountains
were anchore<l
in the
groutttl:
-sura
78, verses 6 & 7:
,,Have
l Ve not made the ea|th
au expanse
antl the mottntai ns
stakes."
The Earth 181
quaternary era, is classed according to 'orogenic phases' that are
themselves grouped into 'cycles' of the same name since the for-
mation of all mountains reliefs had repercussions on the balance
between the sea and the continents. It made some parts of the
land disappear and others emerge, and for hundreds of millions
of years it has altered the surface distribution of the continents
and oceans: the former at present only occupying three tenths
of the surface of this planet.
In this way it is possible to give a very rough outline of the
transformations that have taken place over the last hundreds of
millions of years.
When referring to the Earth's relief, the QUl"an only describes,
as it were, the formation of the mountains. Seen from the present
point of view, there is indeed little one can say about the verses
that only express God's Beneficence to man ''lith regard to the
Earth's formation, as in the following verses:
-sura 71, verses 19 and 20:
"For you God made the earth a carpet so that you travel along
its roads and the paths of valleys."
-sura 51, verse 48:
"The earth, \Ve have spread it out. How excellently We did
that."
The carpet which has been spread out is the Earth's crust, a
solidified shell on which we can live, since the globe's sub-strata
are very hot, fluid and hostile to any form of life.
The statements in the Qur'an referring to the mountains and
the references to their stability subsequent to the phenomenon
of the folds are very important.
-sura 88, verses 19 & 20. The context invites unbelievers to
consider certain natural phenomena, among them:
u... the mountains, how they have been pitched (like a tent).
The Earth how it was made even."
The follcwing verses give details about the way in which the
mountains were anchored in the ground:
-sura 78, verses 6 & 7 :
uHave \Ve not made the earth an expanse and the mountains
stakes."
r82
THE BIBLE,
THE
QUITAN
AND SCIENCE
The
stakes referred
to are the ones used to anchor a tent in the
ground (autffi,,
plural
of watad,).
Modern geologists
deseribe
the folds in the Earth
as
giving
foundations
to the mountains,
and their
dimensions go
roughly
one mile to roughly
to miles. The
stability
of the Earth's
crust
results
from the phenomenon
of these
folds.
So it is not surprising
to find
refleetions
on the mountains
in
certain passages
of the
eur'an, sueh as the following:
-sura
?9, verse
SZ:
"And the mountains (God)
has fixed them firmly."
-sura
81, verse
l0:
"
(God)
has cast into
the ground
(mountains)
standing
firm,
so that it does not shake with you."
The same phrase
is repeated
in sura 16, verse
lE; and the same
idea is expressed
with hardly
any change
in sura 21,
verse Bl:
._
"we have placed
in the ground
(mountains)
standing
firm so
that it does not shake
with them."
These verses
express
the idea that the way the mountains
are
laid out ensures
stability
and is in complete
agreement
with geo-
logical
data.
D.
THE EANTH'S
ATMOSPHENE.
In addition
to certain
statements
specifically
relating
to the
sky, examined
in the preceding
chapter,
tt *
eur,an
contains
sev_
eral passages
dealing
with
the phenomena
that
occur in
the at-
mosphere.
As fo1 the comparison
between
them and
the data
of
modern
science,
it is
to be noted here,
as elsewhere,
that
there is
absolutely
no contradiction
between
today's
modern
scientiflc
knowledge
and
the phenomena
descrihed.
Altitud,e.
A familiar
feeling
of discomfort
experienced
at high altitude,
which increases
the higher
one climns,
is **pr**r*d
in vers e rz5,
sura
6:
"Those whom
God wills to guide,
He opens their
breast to
Islam.
Those whom
He
wills l,ose
their
w^"y, He makes
their
182
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The stakes referred to are the ones used to anchor a tent in the
ground (autid, plural of watad).
Modern geologists describe the folds in the Earth as giving
foundations to the mountains, and their dimensions go roughly
one mile to roughly 10 miles. The stability of the Earth's crust
results from the phenomenon of these folds.
So it is not surprising to find reflections on the mountains in
certain passages of the Qur'an, such as the following:
-sura 79, verse 32 :
"And the mountains (God) has fixed them firmly."
-sura 31, verse 10:
"(God) has cast into the ground (mountains) standing firm,
so that it does not shake with you."
The same phrase is repeated in sura 16, verse 15; and the same
idea is expressed with hardly any change in sura 21, verse 31:
"We have placed in the ground (mountains) standing firm so
that it does not shake with them."
These verses express the idea that the way the mountains are
laid out ensures stability and is in complete agreement with geo-
logical data.
D. THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE.
In addition to certain statements specifically relating to the
sky, examined in the preceding chapter, the Qur'an contains sev-
eral passages dealing with the phenomena that occur in the at-
mosphere. As for the comparison between them and the data of
modern science, it is to be noted here, as elsewhere, that there is
absolutely no contradi.ction between today's modern scientific
knowledge and the phenomena described.
Altitude.
A familiar feeling of discomfort experienced at high altitude,
which increases the higher one climbs, is expressed in verse 125,
sura 6:
"Those whom God wins to guide, He opens their breast to
Islam. Those whom He wills lose their way, He makes their
Tlw Eatth
f 83
breast
narrow and constricted,
as if they were climbing in
the
sky.'
Some commentators
have claimed
that the notion of discomfort
at high altitude was unknown to the Arabs of Muhammad's
time.
It appears
that this was
not true at all: the existence on the
^lrauian Peninsula
of
peaks rising over two miles hish makes it
extremely
implausible
that they should not have known of the
difficulty-of
breathing
at hlg:h altitude.'
others have seen in this
verse a
prediction of the conquest of space, an opinion
that ap-
pears to require categorical denial, at least for this
Bassage.
Etec/riaitg in the AtmotPherc,
Electrieity
in the atmosphere
and the consequences
of this,
i'e'
lightning and hail, are referred to in the following verses:
-sura
13, verses 12-13:
"
(God) is the One Who shows
you
the lightning, with fear
and
covetousness. He raised up the heavy clouds. The thunder
glori-
fies His Praise and so do the angels for awe. He sends the
thunder-bolt
and strikes with them who He wills while they are
disputing about God.
He is All Mighty in His Power."
-sura
24, verse 48
(already quoted in this chapter):
"Hast
thou not seen that God makes the clouds move
gently,
then
joins
them together, then makes them a heap. And thou
seest
raindrops issuing from within it. He sends down from the
sky mountains of hail, He strikes therewith
rvhom He wills and
He turns it away from whom He wills. The flashing of its light-
ning almost snatches away the sight."
In these two verses there is the expression of an obvious coue-
lation between the formation of heavy rainclouds or clouds con-
taining hail and the occurrence
of lightning:
the former, the
subject of covetousness
on aecount of the benefit it represents
and the latter, the subject of fear, because when it falls, it is
at the will of the All-Mighty.
The connection between the two
phenomena is verified by
present-day knowledge of electricity
in the atmosphere.
l . l . The ci t Y of Sanaa,
hammad' s t i me. I t l i es
l evel .
the capi tal of the Yemen, was i nhabi ted
i n Mu-
at an al ti tude of nearl y 7,900 feet above sea
The EtU11a
183
breast narrow and constricted, as if they were climbing in the
sky."
Some commentators have claimed that the notion of discomfort
at high altitude was unknown to the Arabs of Muhammad's time.
It appears that this was not true at all: the existence on the
Arabian Peninsula of peaks rising over two miles high makes it
extremely implausible that they should not have known of the
difficulty of breathing at high altitude.! Others have seen in this
verse a prediction of the conquest of space, an opinion that ap-
pears to require categorical denial, at least for this passage.
Electricity in the Atmosphere.
Electricity in the atmosphere and the consequences of this, Le.
lightning and hail, are referred to in the following verses:
-sura 13, verses 12-13 :
"(God) is the One Who shows you the lightning, with fear and
covetousness. He raised up the heavy clouds. The thunder glori-
fies His Praise and so do the angels for awe. He sends the
thunder-bolt and strikes with them who He wills while they are
disputing about God. He is All Mighty in His Power."
-sura 24, verse 43 (already quoted in this chapter):
"Hast thou not seen that God makes the clouds move gently,
then joins them together, then makes them a heap. And thou
seest raindrops issuing from within it. He sends down from the
sky mountains of hail, He strikes therewith whom He wills and
He turns it away from whom He wills. The flashing of its light-
ning almost snatches away the sight."
In these two verses there is the expression of an obvious corre-
lation between the formation of heavy rainclouds or clouds con-
taining hail and the occurrence of lightning: the former, the
subject of covetousness on account of the benefit it represents
and the latter, the subject of fear, because when it falls, it is
at the will of the All-Mighty. The connection between the two
phenomena is verified by present-day knowledge of electricity
in the atmosphere.
1. 1. The city of Sanaa, the capital of the Yemen, was inhabited in Mu-
hammad's time. It lies at an altitude of nearly 7,900 feet above sea
level.
rE4
THE BIBLE, THE
QUn'AN
AND SCTENCE
Shadowa.
The phenomenon
of shadows and the fact that they move is
very simply explained
today. It forms
the subject of the follow-
ing observations:
-sura
16, verse
8l:
"Out of the things
He created,
God has given you
shade . . .,,
-sura
L6, verse 48:
"Have
(the
unbelievers)
not observed that for all the things
God created, how their shadow shifts right and left, prostating
themselves to God while they are full of humility."
-sura
26, verses 4b and 46:
"Hast
thou not seen how thy Lord has spread the shade. If He
willed, He could have made it stationary.
Moreover
we made the
sun its guide
and
we withdraw
it towards
us easily.',
Apart from the phrases
dealing
with the humitity
betore
God
of all the things
He created,
including
their shadow,
and the
fact
that God can take
back all manifestations
of His
power,
as He
wills, the text of the
eur'an
refers
to the relationship
between
the sun and the
shadows.
one must bear in mind at itris point
the fact
that, in
Muhammad's
day, it was believed
that the way a
shadow moved
was
g:overned
by the movement
of the sun from
east to west. This principre
was applied
in the case of the sundial
to rneasure
the time
between sunrise
and sunset. In this instance,
the
Qur'an
speaks
of the phenomenon
without
referring
to the
explanation
current at the time of the Revelation.
It *outd have
been readily
accepted
for many centuries
by those who came after
Muhammad. In the end however,
it would have been shown to be
inaecurate. The
Qur'an
only talks
moreover
of the function
the
sun has as an i ndi cato*
of shadow. Evi deni l y
there
i s no contra-
diction between the way the
eur'an
describls
shadow
and what
rve know of this phenomenon
in modern
times.
184
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Shadows.
The phenomenon of shadows and the fact that they move is
very simply explained today. It forms the subject of the follow-
ing observations:
--sura 16, verse 81:
"Out of the things He created, God has given you shade ..."
-sura 16, verse 48 :
"Have (the Unbelievers) not observed that for all the things
God created, how their shadow shifts right and left, prostating
themselves to God while they are full of humility."
--sura 25, verses 45 and 46:
ICHast thou not seen how thy Lord has spread the shade. If He
willed, He could have made it stationary. Moreover We made the
sun its guide and We withdraw it towards Us easily."
Apart from the phrases dealing with the humility before God
of aU the things He created, including their shadow, and the fact
that God can take back all manifestations of His Power, as He
wills, the text of the Qur'an refers to the relationship between
the Sun and the shadows. One must bear in mind at this point
the fact that, in Muhammad's day, it was believed that the way a
shadow moved was governed by the movement of the sun from
east to west. This principle was applied in the case of the sundial
to measure the time between sunrise and sunset. In this instance,
the Qur'an speaks of the phenomenon without referring to the
explanation current at the time of the Revelation. It would have
been readily accepted for many centuries by those who came after
Muhammad. In the end however, it would have been shown to be
inaccurate. The Qur'an only talks moreover of the function the
sun has as an indicator of shadow. Evidently there is no contra-
diction between the way the Qur'an describes shadow and what
we know of this phenomenon in modern times.
YT
The Aninral
and
Yegetable
Kingdorrr$
Numerous verses
describing
the origins of life have been
assembled
in this ehapter, along with certain aspects of the vege:
table
kingdom
and
general or specific
topics relating
to the ani-
mal kingdo*. The
grouping of verses scattered
throughout
the
Book affords a
general view of the data the
Qur'an
containS
on
these subjects.
In the case of the subiect of this and the following chapter'
the examination
of the
Qur'anic
text has sometimes
been
partieu-
larly delicate on account of certain difficulties
inherent in the
uo."bul"ry. These have only been overcome
through the fact that
scientific
data which have a bearing
on the subject have been
taken into consideration.
It is
particularly so in the case of living
heings, i.e. animal,
vegetable
and human, where a eonfrontation
with the teachings
of science
is shown to be indispensable
in the
search for the meaning of certain
statements
on these topics
contained in the
Qur'an.
It will become clear that numerous translations
of these
pass-
ages in the
Qur'an,
made by men of letters, must be deemed
in-
accurate
by the scientist.
The same holds true for commentaries
made by those who do not
possess the scientific
knowledge neces-
sary for an understanding
of the text.
A, THE ORIGINS
OF LIFE.
Thi squest i onhasal wayspr eoccupi edman' bot hf or hi msel f
and for the living things around
him. It will be examined
here
r85
VI
4nlIDai and
V
Numerous verses describing the origins of life have been
assembled in this chapter, along with certain aspects of- the
table kingdom and general or specific topics relating to the ani-
mal kingdom. The grouping of verses scattered throughout the
Book affords a general view of the data the Qur'an contains on
these subjects.
In the case of the subject of this and the following chapter,
the examination of the Qur'anic text has sometimes been particu-
larly delicate on account of certain difficulties inherent in the
vocabulary. These have only been overcome through the fact that
scientific data which have a bearing on the subject have been
taken into consideration. It is particularly so in the case of living
beings, i.e. animal, vegetable and human, where a confrontation
with the teachings of science is shown to be indispensable in the
search for the meaning of certain statements on these topics
contained in the Qur'an.
It will become clear that numerous translations of these pass-
ages in the Qur'an, made by men of letters, must be deemed in-
accurate by the scientist. The same holds true for commentaries
made by those who do not possess the scientific knowledge neces-
sary for an understanding of the text.
A. THE ORIGINS OF LIFE.
This question has always preoccupied man, both for himself
and for the living things around him. It will be examined here
185
186
TIIE BTBLE, TIIE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
from a g:eneral point
of view. The ease of man, whose eppearsnce
on Earth and reproduction processes
are the subject of lengthy
exposds, will be dealt with in the next chapter.
when the
Qur'an
describes the origins of rife on a very broad
basis, it is extremely concise. It does so in a verse that also men-
tions the
.process
of the formation
of the Universe, already
quoted
and commented on:
-sura
21, verse 30:
"Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth
were
joined
together, then we clove them asunder and we
got
every living thing out of the water. will they then not believe ?"
The notion of
'getting
something out of something' does not
give
rise to any doubts. The
phrase
can equally mean that every
living thing was made of water (as
its essential eomponent)
or
that every living thing originated
in water. The two possible
meanings are strictly in accordanee
with scientific data. Life
is in fact of aquatic origin and water
is the major component
of
all living cells. Without water, life
is not possible.
When the
possibility
of life on another planet
is tliscussed, the first question
is always: does it contain a sufficient quantity
of water to sup-
port
life?
lvfodern data lead us to think that the oldest living being must
have belonged
to the vegetable kingdom:
algae have been found
that date from the pre-cambrian
period,
i.e. the time of the oldest
known lands. organisms belonging
to the animal kingdom prob-
ably appeared slightly later: they too came from the sea.
What has been translated
here by
,water'
is the word nrd'
which means both water in the sky and water in the sea, plus
any kind of liquid.
In the first meaning,
water
is the element
necessary
to all vegetable
life:
-gura
20, verse FB.
"
(God
is the
one who) sent water down from the sky and
thereby we brousht
forth pairs
of plants
each
separate rrom ttre
other."
This is the first reference
to the notion
of a pair
in the veg.e-
table kingdom.
We shali return
to this later.
rn the second meaning, a liquid without any further indication
of what kind, the word is used in its indeterminate
form to
designate what is at the basis of the formation
of all animal life:
186
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
from a general point of view. The case of man, whose appearance
on Earth and reproduction processes are the subject of lengthy
exposes, will be dealt with in the next chapter.
When the Qur'an describes the origins of life on a very broad
basis, it is extremely concise. It does so in a verse that also men-
tions the process of the formation of the Universe, already
quoted and commented on :
--sura 21, verse 30 :
"Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth
were joined together, then We clove them asunder and We got
every living thing out of the water. Will they then not believe?"
The notion of 'getting something out of something' does not
give rise to any doubts. The phrase can equally mean that every
living tiring was made of water (as its essential component) or
that every living thing originated in water. The two possible
meanings are strictly in accordance with scientific data. Life
is in fact of aquatic origin and water is the major component of
all living cells. Without water, life is not possible. When the
possibility of life on another planet is discussed, the first question
is always: does it contain a sufficient quantity of water to sup-
port life?
Modern data lead us to think that the oldest living being must
have belonged to the vegetable kingdom: algae have been found
that date from the pre-Cambrian period, Le. the time of the oldest
known lands. Organisms belonging to the animal kingdom prob-
ably appeared slightly later: they too came from the sea.
What has been translated here by 'water' is the word mO.'
which means both water in the sky and water in the sea, plus
any kind of liquid. In the first meaning, water is the element
necessary to all vegetable life:
--sura 20, verse 53.
"(God is the One Who) sent water down from the sky and
thereby We brought forth pairs of plants each separate from the
other."
This is the first reference to the notion of a pair in the vege-
table kingdom. We shall return to this later.
In the second meaning, a liquid without any further indication
of what kind, the word is used in its indeterminate form to
designate what is at the basis of the formation of aU animal life:
-sura
24, verse 45:
"God
created every animal ft'om water."
We shall see further on how this rvord may also be applied to
seminal fluid'.
Whether it deals therefore with the oligins of life in
general,
or the element that
gives birth to
plants in the soil, or the seed
of animals, all the statements contained in the
Qur"an
on the
origin of life are strietly
in accordanee
t'ith modern scientific
data. None of the myths on the origins of life that abounded
at
the time the
Qur'an
appeared are mentioned
in the text.
B, THE VEGETABLE
KINGDO]If.
It is not
possible to
quote in their entirety all the numerous
passages in the
Qur'an
in which divine Beneficence
is referred
to concerning the salutary effect of the rain which makes vege-
tation
grow. Here are
iust
thlee verses on this subject:
-sura
16, verses 10 and 11 :
"(Crod)
is the One Who sends water dott'n fyom the sky. For
you
this is a drink and out of it
(grow) shrubs in whieh
you let
(cattle) graze freely. Therewith for
you
He makes sown fields,
olives,
palm-trees, Yineyards and all kinds of fluit
gl'ow."
-sura
6, veree 99:
"
(God)
is the One lVho sent water dorvtt fyonr the sk5.
There-
with
We
brought
forth
plants of all kinds anrl ft'om them the
verdure and We brought forth ft'om it the clu'steled
glains, and
frnm the
palm-tree its spathes with bttnches of flates
(hanging)
l ow, the
gardens of
grapes,
ol i ves and
pomegranates si mi l al and
different. Look at their ft'uit, when they beat' it, and their t'ipen-
ing. Verily,
in that there ale signs for'
peollle rvho l-relieve."
-sura 50, vgrses 9-11:
"We
sent down from the sky blessed
rvatel whet'eby trVe eattsed
to
grOw gardens, grains for harvest, tall
lralm-tt'ees
rvith their
spathes,
piled one ahve the other-sustenance
for
(Our)
ser-
vants. Therewith lve
give (nerv)
life to a deacl land. so
rvill be
the emergence
(from the tombs)."
1. l t i s secreted
by the reproducti ve
gl ands aud contai ns
spermatozoons'
Tlae Animal orad VegetDble Kingdorm 187
-sura 24, verse 45 :
"God created every animal from water."
We shall see further on how this word may also be applied to
seminal fluid!.
Whether it deals therefore with the origins of life in general,
or the element that gives birth to plants in the soil, or the seed
of animals, all the statements contained in the QUl"an on the
origin of life are strictly in accordance with modern scientific
data. None of the myths on the origins of life that abounderl at
the time the Qur'an appeared are mentioned in the text.
B. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOAf.
It is not possible to quote in their entirety all the numerous
passages in the Qur'an in which divine Beneficence is referred
to concerning the salutary effect of the rain which makes vege-
tation grow. Here are just three verses on this subject:
-sura 16, verses 10 and 11:
"(God) is the One Who sends water down from the sky. For
you this is a drink and out of it (grow) shrubs in which you let
(cattle) graze freely. =rrherewith for you He makes sown fields,
olives, palm-trees, vineyards and all kinds of fruit grow."
-sura 6, verse 99:
"(God) is the One 'Vho sent water down from the sky. There-
with We brought forth plants of all kinds and from them the
verdure and \Ve brought forth from it the clustered g-rains, and
from the palm-tree its spathes with bunches of dates (hanging)
low, the gardens of grapes, olives and pomegranates similar and
different. Look at their fruit, when they bear it, anrl their ripen-
ing. Verily, in that there are signs for people who believe."
-sura 50, verses 9-11:
"We sent down from the sky blessed water 'whereby \Ve caused
to grow gardens, grains for harvest, tall palm-trees with their
spathes, piled one above the other-sustenance for (Our) ser-
vants. Therewith \Ve give (new) life to a dean land. So will be
the emergence (from the tombs)."
1. It is secreted by the reproductive g-lands and contains spermatozoons.
IE8
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR
AN AND SCIENCE
general
data others ttrat refer to
The
Qur'an
adds to these
more specialized subjects :
Balance in the Vegetable Kingdom
---sura
15, verse lg:
"The earth . . . we caused all kinds
of things to grow
therein
in due balance."
The Different
Qualitics
of Vafiow
Foods
-sura
13, verse 4:
"On the earth are adjaeent parts;
vineyards, sown fields,
palm-trees,
similar
and not similar, watered with the same water.
we make some of them more excellent
than others to eat and
verily in this are signs for wise people."
It is interesting
to note the existence
of these verses because
they show the sober quality
of the
terms used, and the absence
of bny description
that might highlig:ht
the beliefs
of the times,
tbther than fundamental
truths.
what particularly
attracts our
attention however,
are the statements in the
eur'an
eoncerning
reproduction in the vegetable kingdom.
Reproduction
in the Vegetabl.e
Kingd,om
one must bear in mind
that there are two methods
of repro-
duction in the vegetabtre kingdom:
one sexual, the ot*rer asexual.
It is only the first which in fact deserves
the term
,rEproduc-
tion', because this defines a biological process
whose purpose
is
the appearance of a new individual
identical to the one ttrat gave
it birth.
Asexual reproduction
is quite
simply
multiplication.
It is the
result of the fragmentation
of an organism which has separated
from the main plant
and developed in such a way as to resemble
the plant
from which it came. It is considered by Guilliermond
and Mangenot to be a
'special
case of
growth'.
A very simple
example of this is the eutting: a cutting taken from a
plant
is
plaeed
in suitably watered
soil and regenerated
by the
grlwth
of
new roots. Some plants
have organs speeially designed
for this,
while others
give
off spores that behave like seeds, as it were,
188
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The Qur'an adds to these general data others that refer to
more specialized subjects:
Balance in the Vegetable Kingdom
--sura 15, verse 19:
"The earth ... We caused all kinds of things to grow therein
in due balance."
The Different Qualities of Various Foods
-sura 13, verse 4:
"On the earth are adjacent parts; vineyards, sown fields,
palm-trees, similar and not similar, watered with the same water.
We make some of them more excellent than others to eat and
verily in this are signs for wise people."
It is interesting to note the existence of these verses because
they show the sober quality of the terms used, and the absence
of lny description that might highlight the beliefs of the times,
'tAther than fundamental truths. What particularly attracts our
attention however, are the statements in the Qur'an concerning
reproduction in the vegetable kingdom.
Reproduction in the Vegetable Kingdom
One must bear in mind that there are two methods of repro
duction in the vegetable kingdom: one sexual, the other asexual.
It is only the first which in fact deserves the term
tion', because this defines a biological process whose purpose is
the appearance of a new individual identical to the one that gave
it birth.
Asexual reproduction is quite simply multiplication. It is the
result of the fragmentation of an organism which has separated
from the main plant and developed in such a way as to resemble
the plant from which it came. It is considered by Guilliermond
and Mangenot to be a 'special case of growth'. A very simple
example of this is the cutting: a cutting taken from a plant is
placed in suitably watered soil and regenerated by the growth of
new roots. Some plants have organs specially designed for this,
while others give off spores that behave like seeds, as it were,
ThG ArttnalatdYeeet&bKingdoms
f89
(it
should be remembered that seeds are the results of a
process
of sexual reproduction) .
Sexual reproduction
in the vegetable kingdom
is carried
out
by the coupling of the male and female
parts of the
generic for-
mations united on & same
plant or located on separate
plants.
This is the only form tha# is mentioned in the
Qur'an.
-sura
20, verse 63:
.,
(God
is the one who) sent water down from the sky and
thereby We brought
forth
pairs of
plants each separate from the
other."
'One
of a
pair'
is the translation of zaui
(plural azut6,i) whose
original meaning is:
'that
which, in the company of another,
forms a
pair'; the word is used
just
as readily for a married
couple as for a
pair of shoes.
-sura 22, verse 5:
"Thou
seest the
grounds lifeless. When We send down water
thereon it shakes and
grows and
puts forth every magnificent
pair (of plants)."
-sura
31, verse 10:
*We
caused to
grow (on
the earth) every noble
pair (of
pl ants)."
--sura
13, verse 8:
"Of
all fruits
(God) placed (on
the earth) two of a
pair"'
We know that fruit is the end-product of the reproduction
process
of superior
plants which have the most highly developed
and complex organization. The stage
preceding fruit is the flower,
which has male and female organs
(stamens and ovules). The
latter, once
pollen has been carried to them, bear fruit which
in turn matures and frees it seeds. All fruit therefore implies
the existence of male and female organs. This is the meaning
of the verse in the
Qur'an'
It must be noted that for certain species, fruit can come from
non-fertilized
flowers
(parthenocarpic fruit), .8. bananas' cer-
tain types of
pineapple, fig, orange, and vine. They can neverthe-
less also come from
plants
that have definite sexual character-
istics.
The culmination
of the reproductive
process comes with the
germination of the seed once its outside casing is opened
(some-
ti-". it is compacted
into a fruit-stone).
This opening allows
T1ae Animal tmd VegettJble Kingdoma 189
(it should be remembered that seeds are the results of a process
of sexual reproduction).
Sexual reproduction in the vegetable kingdom is carried out
..
by the coupling of the male and female parts of the generic for-
mations united on a same plant or located on separate plants.
This is the only form that- is mentioned in the Qur'an.
-sura 20, verse 53:
" (God is the One Who) sent water down from the sky and
thereby We brought forth pairs of plants each separate from the
other."
'One of a pair' is the translation of zauj (plural azwaj) whose
original meaning is: 'that which, in the company of another,
forms a pair'; the word is used just as readily for a married
couple as for a pair of shoes.
-sura 22, verse 5 :
"Thou seest the grounds lifeless. When We send down water
thereon it shakes and grows and puts forth every magnificent
pair (of plants)."
-sura 31, verse 10:
"We caused to grow (on the earth) every noble pair (of
plants) ."
--sura 13, verse 3:
"Of all fruits (God) placed (on the earth) two of a pair."
We know that fruit is the end-product of the reproduction
process of superior plants which have the most highly developed
and complex organization. The stage preceding fruit is the flower,
which has male and female organs (stamens and ovules). The
latter, once pollen has been carried to them, bear fruit which
in turn matures and frees it seeds. All fruit therefore implies
the existence of male and female organs. This is the meaning
of the verse in the Qur'an.
It must be noted that for certain species, fruit can come from
non-fertilized flowers (parthenocarpic fruit), e.g. bananas, cer-
tain types of pineapple, fig, orange, and vine. 11hey can neverthe-
less also come from plants that have definite sexual character-
istics.
The culmination of the reproductive process comes with the
germination of the seed once its outside casing is opened (some-
times it is compacted into a fruit-stone). This opening allows
r90
THE BTBLE, THE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
roots to emerge which draw from the soil all that is neeessary
for the plant's
slowed-down life as a seed while it grows
and
produces
a new plant.
A verse in the
Qur'an
refers
to this process
of germination:
-sura
6, verse
g5l
"Verily, God splits the
grain
and the fruit-stone."
The
Qur'an
often restates the existence
of these components of
a
pair
in the vegetable
kingdom and brings the notion of a
couple into a more general
context, without set limits:
-sura
36, verse 36:
"Glory be to Him who created the components
of eouples of
every kind: of what the ground
caused to
grow,
of themselves
(human
beings) and of rvhat you
do not know."
one could form many hypotheses
concerning the meaning of
the
'things
men did not know' in Muhammad's
day. Today we
ean distinguish
structures
or coupled functions for them, going
from the infinitesimally
small to the infinitely large,
in the liv-
ing as well as the non-living
world. The point
is to remember,
these clearly expressed ideas and note, once again, that they
are in
perfect
agreement
with modern science.
C. THE
AI,{IMAL KTNCDOM
There are several questions
in the
eur'an
concerning
the ani-
mal kingdom
which are the subjeet of comments
that call for a
eonfrontation
with modern
scientific knowledge.
Here again,
however, one
would gain
an incomplete
view
of all that the
Qur'an
contains on this subject if one were to leave out a passage
such as the extract which follows. In this passage,
the creation
of certain elements in the animal kingdom is described
with the
purpose
of making
man reflect
upon the divine Beneficence ex-
tended to him. It is
quoted
basically
to provide
an example of
lle
w?y_in which the
Qur'an
describes
the harmonious
adapta-
tion of creation to man's needs; it relates
in particular
the case
of those people
who live in a rurar setting,
since there is nothing
that could be examined
from a different point
of view.
-sura
16, verses 5 to 8:
"
(God)
created cattle for you
and (you
find) in them rvarmth,
useful services and food, sense of beauty when
you
bring them
190
THE BffiLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
roots to emerge which draw from the soil all that is necessary
for the plant's slowed-down life as a seed while it grows and
produces a new plant.
A verse in the Qur'an refers to this process of germination:
-sura 6, verse 95:
"Verily, God splits the grain and the fruit-stone."
The Qur'an often restates the existence of these components of
a pair in the vegetable kingdom and brings the notion of a
couple into a more general context, without set limits:
-sura 36, verse 36:
"Glory be to Him Who created the components of conples of
every kind: of what the ground caused to grow, of themselves
(human beings) and of what you do not know."
One could fonn many hypotheses concerning the meaning of
the 'things men did not know' in Muhammad's day. Today we
can distinguish structures or coupled functions for them, going
from the small to the infinitely large, in the liv-
ing as well as the non-living world. The point is to remember'
these clearly expressed ideas and note, once again, that they
are in perfect agreement with modern science.
C. THE ANIMAL KINCDOM
There are several questions in the Qur'an concerning the ani-
mal kingdom which are the subject of comments that call for a
confrontation with modern scientific knowledge. Here again,
however, one would gain an incomplete view of all that the
Qur'an contains on this subject if one were to leave out a passage
such as the extract which follows. In this passage, the creation
of certain elements in the animal kingdom is described with the
purpose of making man reflect upon the divine Beneficence ex-
tended to him. It is quoted basically to provide an example of
the way in which the Qur'an describes the harmonious adapta-
tion of Creation to man's needs; it relates in particular the case
of those people who live in a rural setting, since there is nothing
that could be examined from a different point of view.
-sura 16, verses 5 to 8:
U (God) created cattle for you and (you find) in them warmth,
useful services and food, sense of beauty when you bring them
Tllc Animal ardVegffib
Khryrilorlra
l9l
home and when
you
take them to
pasture.
They bear
your heary
loads to lands
you
could not reach exeept with
great personal
efrort. Verily,
your Lord is Compassionate
arrd Merciful;
(He
created) horses, mules and donkeys for
you
to ride and for orna-
ment. And He created what
you do not know."
Alongside these
general remarks, the
Qur'an
sets out certain
data on highly diversified subiects:
-reproduction
in the animal kingdom.
-referenees
to the existence of animal communities'
-statements
concerning bees, spiders and birds.
-remarks
on the source of constituents of animal milk.
7. frepro&rction in the Aninul Ringilom.
This is very summarily dealt with in verses 45 and 46' sura
6$:
*
(God)
fashioned the two of a
pair,
the male and the female,
from a small
quantity of liquid when it is
poured
out."
fire
'pairr
is the same expression that we have already en-
countered in the verses which deal with reproduction in the
vegptable kingdom. Here, the sexes sre
given.
The detail which
is absolutely remarkable is the
precision
with which it is stated
that a small
quantity
of liquid is required for reproduction. The
word itself signifying
'sperm'
is used. The relevance of this re-
mark will be commented
upon in the next chapter.
2. freferrrlnel to tlw Erbtenr,e of Anfunnl0ommunitbt.
-sura
6, Verse 38
"There
is no animal on earth, no bird which flies on wings, that
(does not belong to) communities
like
you.
We have not neglected
anything in the Book
(of
Decrees). Then to their Lord they will
be
gathered."
There ang several
points in this verse which require comment.
Firstly,
it would seem that there is a description of what happens
to animals after their
death: Islam does not apparently, have any
doctrine on this
point. Then there is
predestination in
general'
l. Tye saw in the Introduction to the third
part of this book what one was
expected to believe about
predestination in its application to man
himself.
The AnimDl and VegetGble Kingtloma 191
home and when you take them to pasture. They bear your heavy
loads to lands you could not reach except with great personal
effort. Verily, your Lord is Compassionate and Merciful; (He
created) horses, mules and donkeys for you to ride and for orna-
ment. And He created what you do not know."
Alongside these general remarks, the Qur'atr sets out certain
data on highly diversified subjects:
-reproduction in the animal kingdom.
-references to the existence of animal communities.
-statements concerning bees, spiders and birds.
-remarks on the source of constituents of animal milk.
1. Reproduction in the Animal Kingdom.
This is very summarily dealt with in verses 45 and 46, sura
58:
" (God) fashioned the two of a pair, the male and the female,
from a small quantity of liquid when it is poured out."
The 'pair' is the same expression that we have already en-
countered in the verses which deal with reproduction in -the
vegetable kingdom. Here, the sexes are given. The detail which
is absolutely remarkable is the precision with which it is stated
that a small quantity of liquid is required for reproduction. The
word itself signifying 'sperm' is used. The relevance of this re-
mark will be commented upon in the next chapter.
2. References to the Exiatence of Animal Communities.
-sura 6, Verse 38
"There is no animal on earth, no bird which flies on wings, that
(does not belong to) communities like you. We have not neglected
anything in the Book (of Decrees). Then to their Lord they will
be gathered."
There are several points in this verse which require comment.
Firstly, it would seem that there is a description of what happens
to animals after their death: Islam does not apparently, have any
doctrine on this point. Then there is predestination in general
l
1. We saw in the Introduction to the third part of this book what one was
expected to believe about predestination in its application to man
himself.
r02
THE BrBLF,' mIE
QURAN
AND SCTENCE
which would seem to be mentioned here. It could be conceived es
absolute predestination
or relativg
i.e. timited to structures and
a functional organization
that condition modes of behaviour:
the animal acts upon various exterior impulses in terms of a
par-
ticular conditioning.
BlachBre stats that
an older commentator,
such as Razi,
thought that this verse
only refened to instinctive
actions
whereby animals
worship
God. Sheik Si Boubakeur
Hamza, in
the commentary to his translation
of the Koran,
speaks of
,,the
instinct which, aecording to Divine
Wisdom, pushes
all beings to
group
together, so that they demand that the work of each mem-
ber serve the whole group."
Animal behaviour
has been closely investigated
in recent de-
cades, with the result
that
genuine
animal communities
havc
been shown to exist. of course, for a long time now the results of
8
group
or community's
work have
been examined and this has
led to the aeceptance
of a cornmunity
organization.
It has only
been recently
however,
thst the mechanisms
which preside
over
this kind of organization
have been discovered for certain species.
The most studied and best known case is undoubtedly that of b*r,
to whose behaviour
the name von Frisch is linked.
von Frisch,
Lorenz and Tinbergen received
the 1g?g Nobel
prize
for their
work in this field.
3. Statcmenh C otrcenring
Bee4 Spiilrrre end Bbds.
When specialists
on the nervous system wish to
provide
strik-
ing examples
of the prodigious
organization
directing
animsl
behaviour, possibly
the animals referred to most frequenily
are
bees, spiders and birds (especially
migratory birds). wtt"t*u*"
the case, there is no doubt that these three groups
constitute
s
model of highly evolved organization.
The fact that the text of the
Qur'an
refers
to this exemplary
trio in the animal kingdom is in absolute keeping with the excep-
tionally interesting
character that eaeh of these animals has from
a scientific
point
of view.
Bees
In the
Qur'an,
bees are the subject
of the longest commentary:
192 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
which would seem to be mentioned here. It could be conceived as
absolute predestination or relative, i.e. limited to structures and
a functional organization that condition modes of behaviour:
the animal acts upon various exterior impulses in terms of a par-
ticular conditioning.
l c h ~ r e states that an older commentator, such as Razi,
thought that this verse only referred to instinctive actions
whereby animals worship God. Sheik Si Boubakeur Hamza, in
the commentary to his translation of the Koran, speaks of "the
instinct which, according to Divine Wisdom, pushes all beings to
group together, so that they demand that the work of each mem-
ber serve the whole group."
Animal behaviour has been closely investigated in recent de-
cades, with the result that genuine animal communities have
been shown to exist. Of course, for a long time now the results of
a group or community's work have been examined and this has
led to the acceptance of a community organization. It has only
been recently however, that the mechanisms which preside over
this kind of organization have been discovered for certain sfecies.
The most studied and best known case is undoubtedly that of bees,
to whose behaviour the name von Frisch is linked. Von Frisch,
Lorenz and Tinbergen received the 1978 Nobel Prize for their
work in this field.
3. Statements Conceming Bee., Spidero. and Bi,.dB.
When specialists on the nervous system wish to provide strik-
ing examples of the prodigious organization directing animal
behaviour, possibly the animals referred to most frequently are
bees, spiders and birds (especially migratory birds). Whatever
the case, there is no doubt that these three groups constitute a
model of highly evolved organization.
The fact that the text of the Qur'an refers to this exemplary
trio in the animal kingdom is in absolute keeping with the excep-
tionally interesting character that each of these animals has from
a scientific point of view.
Bees
In the Qur'an, bees are the subject of the longest commentary :
Tho Artmal atdVegetfrle
Kingilomt
193
-Surs
16, verses 68 and 69:'
"Thy
Lord inspired the bees: Choose
your dwelling in the hills'
in the trees and in what
(man)
built. Eat of all fruit and follow
the ways of
your Lord in humility. From within their bodies
comes a liquor of difrerent colours where is a remedy for men."
It is difficult
to know what exactly is meant by the order to
follow the ways of the Lord in humility, unless it is to be seen
in
general terms. All that may be said, with regard to the knowl-
edge that has been
gained
of their behaviour, is that here-as in
each of the three animal cases mentioned as examples in the
Qur'an-there
is a remarkable nervous organization supporting
their behaviour,
ft is known that the
pattern
of a bee's dance is
& means of communication
to other bees; in this wBY, bees are
able to convey to their own species the direction and distance of
flowers from which
nectar is to be
gathered. The famous experi-
ment
performed hy von Frisch has shown the meaning of this
insect's movement which is intented to transmit information be-
tween worker b@s.
Spdibrs
Spiders are mentioned in the
Qur'an
to stress the flimsiness of
their dwelling which is the most fragile of all. They have a
refuge that is as
preearious, according to the
Qur'an,
as the
dwelling of those who have chosen masters other than God.
--sura
29, verse 41:
"Those
who ehoose masters other then God are like the spider
when it takes for itself a dwelling. Verily, the flimsiest dwelling
is the dwelling of the spider.
If they but knew."
A spider's web is indeed constituted of silken threads secreted
by the animafs
glands and their calibre is infinitely fine. Its frs-
Sility
cannot be imitated by man. Naturalists are intrigued
by
the exhaordinary
pattern of work recorded by the animal's
ner-
vous cells, which allows it to
produce a
geometrically
perfect web.
1. One
might note in
paesing, that this last verse is the only one in the
Qur'an
that refers to the
pogsibility of a remedy for m&n- Honey cen
inaeea
be useful for certain diseases. Nowhere else in the
Qur'an
is *
reference
made to any remedial arts, contrary to what
may hsve ben
reid rbout thir rubject.
The Animal and Vegetable Kingdoma 193
-Sura 16, verses 68 and 69:
1
"Thy Lord inspired the bees: Choose your dwelling in the hills,
in the trees and in what (man) built. Eat of all fruit and follow
the ways of your Lord in humility. From within their bodies
comes a liquor of different colours where is a remedy for men."
It is difficult to know what exactly is meant by the order to
follow the ways of the Lord in humility, unless it is to be seen
in general terms. All that may be said, with regard to the knowl-
edge that has been gained of their behaviour, is that here-as in
each of the three animal cases mentioned as examples in the
Qur'an-there is a remarkable r v o ~ s organization supporting
their behaviour. It is known that the pattern of a bee's dance is
a means of communication to other bees; in this way, bees are
able to convey to their own species the direction and distance of
flowers from which nectar is to be gathered. The famous experi-
ment performed by von Frisch has shown the meaning of this
insect's movement which is intented to transmit information be-
tween worker bees.
Spidel'.
Spiders are mentioned in the Qur'an to stress the flimsiness of
their dwelling which is the most fragile of all. They have a
refuge that is as precarious, according to the Qur'an, as the
dwelling of those who have chosen masters other than God.
-sura 29, verse 41 :
"Those who choose masters other than God are like the spider
when it takes for itself a dwelling. Verily, the flimsiest dwelling
is the dwelling of the spider. If they but knew."
A spider's web is indeed constituted of silken threads secreted
by the animal's glands and their calibre is infinitely fine. Its fra-
gility cannot be imitated by man. Naturalists are intrigued by
the extraordinary pattern of work recorded by the animal's ner-
vous cells, which allows it to produce a geometrically perfect web.
1. One might note in passing, that this last verse is the only one in the
Qur'an that refers to the possibility of a remedy for man. Honey can
indeed be useful for certain diseases. Nowhere else in the Qur'an is a
reference made to any remedial arts, contrary to what may have been
said about this subject.
I 94
TTIE BIBLE, TIIE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
Bbds
Birds are frequently mentioned
in the
Qurran.
They appear in
episodes in the life of Abraham, Joseph, David, solomon and
Jesus. These references do not however have any bearing on the
subject in hand.
The verse concerning the existence of animal communities
on
the
ground
and bird communities in the sky has been noted
above:
-sura
6 verse 38:
"There is no animal on the earth, no bird which flies on wings,
that
(does
not belong to) communities
like you.
We have not
neglected anything in the Book
(of
Decrees). lfhen to their Lord
they will be gathered."
Two other verses highlight the birds' strict submission to God's
Power:
-sura
16, verse 79:
"Do they not look at the birds subjected in the atmosphere
of
the sky? None can hold them up (in
His
power)
except
God."
-sura
67, verse 19:
"Have
they not looked at the birds above them spreading
their.
wings out and folding them? None can hold them up
iin
ti,
Porver) except the Beneficent."
The translation
of one single word in each of these verses is a
very delicate matter. The translation given
here expresses
the
idea that God holds the birds up in His
power.
The Arabic verb
in
question
is a,ntsaka, whose original meaning is
,to
put
one's
hand on, seize, hold, hold someone
back'.
An illuminating
eomparison can be made between these verses,
which stress the extremely
close dependence
of the birds' be-
havior on
divine
order, to morlern data showing the degree of
perfection
attained by certain species
of bird with regard
to the
pl'ogramming
of their movements.
It is only the existence
of a
migratory progl'amme
in the genetic
code of birds that can ac-
count for the extremely long and complicated
journeys
which
very
young
birds, rvithout
any
prior
experience and
without any
guide,
are able to accomplish. This is in addition to their ability
to return to their departure point
on a
prescribed
date.
professor
Hamburger in his book, Power and Fragilitu (La
puissance
et la
194
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Birds
Birds are frequently mentioned in the Qur'an. They appear in
episodes in the life of Abraham, Joseph, David, Solomon and
Jesus. These references do not however have any bearing on the
subject in hand.
The verse concerning the existence of animal communities on
the ground and bil'd communities in the sky has been noted
above:
-sura 6 verse 38:
"There is no animal on the earth, no bird which flies on wings,
that (does not belong to) communities like you. We have not
neglected anything in the Book (of Decrees). rrhen to their Lord
they will be gathered." .
Two other verses highlight the birds' strict submission to God's
Power:
-sura 16, verse 79:
uno they not look at the birds subjected in the atmosphere of
the sky? None can hold them up (in His Power) except God."
-sura 67, verse 19:
"Have they not looked at the birds above them spreading their
wings out and folding them? None can hold them up (in his
Power) except the Beneficent."
The translation of one single word in each of these verses is a
very delicate matter. The translation given here expresses the
idea that God holds the birds up in His Power. The Arabic verb
in question is amsaka, whose original meaning is 'to put one's
hand on, seize, hold, hold someone back'.
An illuminating comparison can be made between these verses,
which stress the extremely close dependence of the birds' be-
havior on divine order, to modern data showing the degree of
perfection attained by certain species of bird with regard to the
programming of their movements. It is only the existence of a
migratory programme in the genetic code of birds that can ac-
count for the extremely long and complicated journeys which
very young birds, without any prior experience and without any
guide, are able to accomplish. This is in addition to their ability
to return to their departure point on a prescribed date. Professor
Hamburger in his book, Power and Fragility (La Puissance et la
Thc Arfinol d V eedrth lfjwilomr 195
Fragilitd)',
gives as an example the well-knou'n case of the
'mutton-bird'
that lives in the Paeific, with its
journey
of over
15,500 miles in the shape oI the figure 8'. It must be acknowl-
edged that the highly complicated instructions for a
journey
of
this kind simply have to be contained in the bird's nervous
cells.
They are most definitely
programmed, but rvho is the
programmer?
4. The Sowce af the Constituents of AnimalMilk.
This is defined in the
Qur'an
in striet accordance with the data
of modern knorvledge
(sura 16, verse 66). The translation and in-
terpretation of this verse
given
here is my own because even
modern translations habitually
give
it a meaning whieh is, in my
opinion, hardly acceptable. Here are two examples:
-R.
Blachbre's translation :3
"Verily,
in
your cattle there is a lesson for you ! We
give you a
pure milk to drink, excellent for its drinkers;
(it
comes) from
what, in their bellies, is between digested food and blood."
-Profcssor
Hamidullah's translation:'
"Verily,
there is food for thought in
your
cattle. From what is
in their bellies, among their excrement and blood, We make
you
drink
pure
milk, easy for drinkers to imbibe."
If these texts were shown to a
physiologist,
he would reply that
they were extremely obscure, the reason being that there hardly
appears to be much agreement between them and modern notions,
even on a very elementary level. These translations are the work
of highly eminent Arabists. It is a well known fact however, that
a translator, even an expert, is liable to make mistakes in the
translation of scientific statements, unless he happens to be a
specialist in the discipline in
question.
The most valid translation seems to me to be the follorving:
"Verily, in cattle there is a lesson for
you.
We
give you to
drink of what is inside their bodies, coming from a conjunction
1. Pub. Fl ammari on, 1972, Pari s.
2. It makes thi s
j ourney
over a
peri od of si x months, and comes back to
i ts departure
poi nt wi th a maxi mum del ay of one week.
3. Pub. G. P. Mai sonneuve et Larose, 1966, Pari s,
4. Pub. Cl ub Frangai s du Li vre, 19?1, Pari s.
195
FragiIite)1, gives as an example the well-known case of the
'mutton-bird' that lives in the Pacific, with its journey of over
15,500 miles in the shape of the figure 8
2
It must be acknowl-
edged that the highly complicated instructions for a journey of
this kind simply have to be contained in the bird's nervous
cells. They are most definitely programmed, but who is the
programmer?
4. The SOUTce of the Constituents of Animal Milk.
This is defined in the Qur'an in strict accordance with the data
of modern knowledge (sura 16, verse 66). The translation and in-
terpretation of this verse given here is my own because even
modern translations habitually give it a meaning which is, in my
opinion, hardly acceptable. Here are two examples:
-R. Blachere's translation :3
"Verily, in your cattle there is a lesson for you! We give you a
pure milk to drink, excellent for its drinkers; (it comes) from
what, in their bellies, is between digested food and blood."
-Professor Hamidullah's translation:
"Verily, there is food for thought in your cattle. From what is
in their bellies, among their excrement and blood, We make you
drink pure milk, easy for drinkers to imbibe."
If these texts were shown to a physiologist, he would reply that
they were extremely obscure, the reason being that there hardly
appears to be much agreement between them and modern notions,
even on a very elementary level. These translations are the work
of highly eminent Arabists. It is a well known fact however, that
a translator, even an expert, is liable to make mistakes in the
translation of scientific statements, unless he happens to be a
specialist in the discipline in question.
The most valid translation seems to me to be the following:
"Verily, in cattle there is a lesson for you. We give you to
drink of what is inside their bodies, coming from a conjunction
1. Pub. Flammarion, 1972, Paris.
2. It makes this journey over a period of six months, and comes back to
its departure point with a maximum delay of one week.
3. Pub. G. P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1966, Paris,
4. Pub. Club r n ~ i s du Livre, 1971, Paris.
196
THE BIBT.E,
THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
between the contents of the intestine and the blood, a milk pure
and
pleasant
for those who drink it."
(sura
16, verse 66)
This interpretation
is very close to the one
given
in the Muw
takgb, 1973, edited by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs,
Cairo, which relies
for its support on modern physiology.
From the point
of view of its vocaburary, the proposed
trans-
lation may be
justified
as follows:
I have translated
'inside
their bodies' and not, as R. BlachEre
and Professor Hamidullah
have done,
,inside
their bellies'. This
is because the word baln also means
,middle', ,interior
of some-
thing', as well as
'belly'.
The word does not here have a meaning
that is anatomically precise.
'Inside
their bodies' seems to eoneur
perfeetly
with the context.
The notion of a
'primary
origin' of the constituents
of milk is
expressed by the word mi,n
(in
English
,from')
and the idea of a
conjunction
by the word bainL The latter not only signifies
'among"
but also
'between'
in the other translations quotra-
lt i,
however
also used to express the idea that two things or two
people
are brought
together.
From a scientifie point
of view, physiological
notions must be
called upon to grasp
the meaning of this verse.
The substances
that ensure the general
nutrition of the body
come from chemical
transformations
which' occur
along the
length
of the digestive
tract. These substances
come from the
contents
of the intestine.
on arrivar in the intestine at the ap-
propriate
stage of chemical transformation,
they pass
through
its
wall and towards the systemic circulation.
This passage
is
effected in two ways: either direcfly, by what are called the
,lym-
phatic
vessels', or indirectly,
by the
portal
circulation. This con-
ducts them first to the liver, where they undergo alterations,
and
from here they then emerge to
join
the systemic circulation. In
this way everything passes
through the bloodstream.
The constituents
of milk are secreted
by the mammary glands.
These are nourished,
as it were, by the product
of food digestion
brought to them via the bloodstream.
Brood therefore
plays
the
role of collector and conductor of what has been extracted
from
food, and it brings nutrition
to the mammary
glands,
the pro-
ducers of milk, as it does to any other organ.
196
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
between the contents of the intestine and the blood, a milk pure
and pleasant for those who drink it." (sura 16, verse 66)
This interpretation is very close to the one given in the Mun-
tak!!b, 1973, edited by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs,
Cairo, which relies for its support on modern physiology.
From the point of view of its vocabulary, the proposed trans-
lation may be justified as follows:
I have translated 'inside their bodies' and not, as R. Blachere
and Professor Hamidullah have done, 'inside their bellies'. This
is because the word b ~ n also means 'middle', 'interior of some-
thing', as well as 'belly'. The word does not here have a meaning
that is anatomically precise. 'Inside their bodies' seems to concur
perfectly with the context.
The notion of a 'primary origin' of the constituents of milk is
expressed by the word min (in English 'from') and the idea of a
conjunction by the word baini. The latter not only signifies
'among' but also 'between' in the other translations quoted. It is
however also used to express the idea that two things or two
people are brought together.
From a scientific point of view, physiological notions must be
called upon to grasp the meaning of this verse.
The substances that ensure the general nutrition of the body
come from chemical transformations which' occur along the
length of the digestive tract. These substances come from the
contents of the intestine. On arrival in the intestine at the ap-
propriate stage of chemIcal transformation, they pass through
its wall and towards the systemic circulation. This passage is
effected in two ways: either directly, by what are called the 'lym-
phatic vessels', or indirectly, by the portal circulation. This con-
ducts them first to the liver, where they undergo alterations, and
from here they then emerge to join the systemic circulation. In
this way everything passes through the bloodstream.
The constituents of milk are secreted by the mammary glands.
These are nourished, as it were, by the product of food digestion
brought to t h ~ m via the bloodstream. Blood therefore plays the
role of collector and conductor of what has been extracted from
food, and it brings nutrition to the mammary glands, the pro-
ducers of milk, as it does to any other organ.
TIrc At$tnol atdVe$etrtlr
Xhlgdotn
lgz
Here the initial
proeess
which sets everything else in motion
is the bringing
togpther of the contents of the intestine and blood
et the level of the intestinal wall itseH. This very
precise concept
is the result of the discoveries msde in the chemistry and
physiol-
ogy of the disestive system. It was totally unknown at the time
of the Prophet Muhammad snd hss been understood
only in re-
cent timcs. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, was
made by Harvey
roughly ten centuries after the
Qur'anic
Revela-
tion.
I consider that the existence in the
Qur'an
of the verse refer-
ring to these concepts
can have no human explanation on account
of the
period in which
they were formulated.
rlw AniftlGl tmd VegelGble K;ngdoma 197
Here the initial process which sets everything else in motion
is the bringing together of the contents of the intestine and blood
at the level of the intestinal wall itself. This very precise concept
is the result of the discoveries made in the chemistry and physiol-
ogy of the digestive system. It was totally unknown at the time
of the Prophet Muhammad and has been understood only in re-
cent times. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, was
made by Harvey roughly ten centuries after the Qur'anic Revela-
tion.
I consider that the existence in the Qur'an of the verse refer-
ring to these concepts can have no human explanation on account
of the period in which they were formulated.
vrr
Hrrrnarr
R*productirrrr
From the moment ancient human writings
enter into detail
(honiever
slight) on the subject of reproduction,
they inevi-
tably mske statements that are inaceurate.
In the Middte Ages-
and even in more recent time--reproduction
was surrounded by
all sorts of myths and superstitions.
How could it have been
otherwise,
considering the fact that to understand
its complex
mechanisms,
man first had to
possess
a knowledge
of anatomy,
the discovery of the microseope had to be made,
and the so-cslled
basic sciences hsd to be founded
which were to nurture physi-
ology, embryology,
obstetrics, etc.
The situation
is
quite
different in the
eur'an.
The Book
mentions precise
mechanisms in many places
and describes
clearly-defined
stages in reproduetion,
without providing
a single
statement marred
by insccuracy.
Everything
in the
eur'an
is
explained in simple
terms which are easily understandeble
to
man and in strict aecordance
with what
was to be discovered
much later on,
Human reproduction
is referred
to in several dozen verses of
the
Qur'an,
in various contexts.
rt is explained through
stete-
ments which deal with one or more
specific points.
They must
be assembled to give
a gbneral
idea of the verses as a whole, and
here, as for the other subjeets already
examined, the commentary
is in this way made easier.
REMIIVDER
OF CENTAIN BASIC CONCEJPTS.
It is imperative
to recall certain basic concepts which were un-
known at the time of the
Qur'anic
Revelation and the centuries
that followed.
r98
VII
Human Rep..odulion
From the moment ancient human writings enter into detail
(however slight) on the subject of reproduction, they inevi-
tably make statements that are inaccurate. In the Middle Ages-
and even in more recent time-reproduction was surrounded by
all sorts of myths and superstitions. How could it have been
otherwise, considering the fact that to understand its complex
mechanisms, man first had to possess a knowledge of anatomy,
the discovery of the microscope had to be made, and the so-called
basic sciences had to be founded which were to nurture physi-
ology, embryology, obstetrics, ete.
The situation is quite different in the Qur'an. The Book
mentions precise mechanisms in many places and describes
clearly-defined stages in reproduction, without providing a single
statement marred by inaccuracy. Everything in the Qur'an is
explained in simple terms which are easily understandable to
man and in strict accordance with what was to be discovered
much later on.
Human reproduction is referred to in several dozen verses of
the Qur'an, in various contexts. It is explained through state-
ments which deal with one or more specific points. They must
be assembled to give a general idea of the verses as a whole, and
here, as for the other subjects already examined, the commentary
is in this way made easier.
REMINDER OF CERTAIN BASIC CONCEPTS.
It is imperative to recall certain basic concepts which were un-
known at the time of the Qur'anic Revelation and the centuries
that followed.
198
Human Reryoiluction
199
Human reproduction is effected by a selies of
processes
which
we share in common with mammals. The starting
point is the
fertilization
of an ovule which has detached itself from the ovary.
It takes
place in the Fallopian tubes half-way through the men-
strual ci-cle. The fertilizing agent is the male sperm, or more
exactly, the spermatozoon, a single fertilizing cell being all that
is needed. To ensure fertilization therefore, an infinitely small
quantity of spermatic liquid containing a large number of
spermatozoons
(tens
of millions at a time) is required. This
Iiquid is
produced by the testicles and temporarily stored in a
system of reservoirs and canals that finally lead into the urinary
tract; other
glands are situated along the latter rvhich contribute
their own additional secretions to the sperm itself.
The implantation of the egg fertilized by this
process takes
place at a
precise spot in the female reproductive system: it
descends into the uterus via a Fallopian tube and lodges in the
body of the uterus where it soon literally implants itself by in-
sertion into the thickness of the mucosa and of the muscie, once
the
placenta has been formed and with the aid of the latter. If
the implantation of the fertilized egg takes
place, for example,
in the Fallopian tubes instead of in the uterus,
pregnancy will
be interrupted.
Once the embryo begins to be obses'able to the naked eye, it
looks like a small mass of flesh at the centt'e of rvhich the appear-
ance of a human bei ng i s at fi rst i ndi sti ngui shabl e. It
grows
there in
progressive stages which are very well known today;
they lead to the bone structure, the muscles, the nervous sy$-
tem, the ci rcul ati on, and the vi scerae, etc.
These notions will serve as the terms of leference against
which the statements
in the
Qur'an
on reproduction ale to be
compared.
HAMAN nEPRODUCTTOII
rN THE
QUn'AN.
It i s not easy to
gai n
an i dea of what the
Qur"an
contai ns ou
this subject.
The first difficulty arises from the fact already men-
tioned, i.e. that the statements
dealing with this subject
are
scattered throughout the Book. This is not however a major dif-
Human Reproduction 199
Human reproduction is effected by a series of processes which
we share in common with mammals. The starting point is the
fertilization of an ovule which has detached itself from the ovary.
It takes place in the Fallopian tubes half-way through the men-
strual cycle. The fertilizing agent is the male sperm, or more
exactly, the spermatozoon, a single fertilizing cell being all that
is needed. To ensure fertilization therefore, an infinitely small
quantity of spermatic liquid containing a large number of
spermatozoons (tens of millions at a time) is required. This
liquid is produced by the testicles and temporarily stored in a
system of reservoirs and canals that finally lead into the urinary
tract; other glands are situated along the latter which contribute
their own additional secretions to the sperm itself.
The implantation of the egg by this process takes
place at a precise spot in the female reproductive system: it
descends into the uterus via a Fallopian tube and lodges in the
body of the uterus where it soon literally implants itself by in-
sertion into the thickness of the mucosa and of the muscie, once
the placenta has been formed and with the aid of the latter. If
the implantation of the fertilized egg takes place, for example,
in the Fallopian tubes instead of in the uterus, pregnancy will
be interrupted.
Once the embryo begins to be observable to the naked eye, it
looks like a small mass of flesh at the centre of which the appear-
ance of a human being is at first indistinguishable. It grows
there in progressive stages which are very well known today;
they lead to the bone structure, the muscles, the nervous sys-
tem, the circulation, and the viscerae, etc.
These notions will serve as the terms of reference against
which the statements in the Qur'an on reproduction are to be
compared.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION IN THE QUR'AN.
It is not easy to gain an idea of what the Qur'an contains on
this subject. The first difficulty arises from the fact already men-
tioned, Le. that the statements dealing with this subject are
scattered throughout the Book. This is not however a major dif-
EN
THE XIII,E, THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
ficulty. What is more likely to mislead the inquiring reader is,
once again, the problem
of vocabulary.
rn fact there are still many translations
and commentaries in
circulation
today that can give
a completcly false idea of the
Qur'anic
Revelation
on this subject to the
scientist who reads
them. The
majority of translations
describe, for example, man's
formation
from a
'blood
clot' or an
,adhesion'.
A statement of
this kind is totally unaeceptable
to scientists specializing in this
field. In the paragraph
dealing with the implantation
of the egg
in the maternal
uterus, wG shall see the reasons
why distin-
guished
Arabists who lack
a scientific background
have made
such blunders.
This observation
implies
how great
the importance
of an asso-
ciation between linguistic
and scientific knowledge
is when
it
comes to
grasping
the meaning
of
eur'anic
statements
on repro-
duction.
the
successive transforma-
reaching
its destination
in
the maternal
uterus.
-sura
82, verses
G to 8:
"O Man ! Who deceives you
created you
and fashioned you
any form
He willed."
-sura
?1, verse
14:
"(God)
fashioned you
in
(different)
stages."
Along with
this very general
observation,
the text of the
Qur'an
draws
attention
to several points
concerning
reproduc-
tion which
might be listed
as follows:
1) fertilization
is performed
by only a very small volume
of
l i qui d.
The
Qur'an
sets out by stressing
tions the embryo
undergoes
before
about your
Lord
the Noble, Who
in due proportion
and gave you
2I
3)
4)
the constituents
of the fertilizing
liquid.
the implantation
of the fertilized
egg.
the evolution
of the embryo.
7. Fefiilirntion
b Pefiotmedbg
Onlg aVery Small
Volume
of Liquid.
The
Qur'an
repeats this concept
eleven times using the follow-
ing expression:
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
ficulty. What is more likely to mislead the inquiring reader is,
once again, the problem of vocabulary.
In fact there are still many translations and commentaries in
circulation today that can give a completely false idea of the
Qur'anic Revelation on this subject to the scientist who reads
them. The majority of translations describe, for example, man's
formation from a 'blood clot' or an 'adhesion'. A statement of
this kind is totally unacceptable to scientists specializing in this
field. In the paragraph dealing with the implantation of the egg
in the maternal uterus, we shall see the reasons why distin-
guished Arabists who lack a scientific background have made
such blunders.
This observation implies how great the importance of an asso-
ciation between linguistic and scientific knowledge is when it
comes to grasping the meaning of Qur'anic statements on repro-
duction.
The Qur'an sets out by stressing the successive transforma-
tions the embryo undergoes before reaching its destination in
the maternal uterus.
-sura 82, verses 6 to 8:
"0 Man! Who deceives you about your Lord the Noble, Who
created you and fashioned you in due proportion and gave you
any form He willed."
-sura 71, verse 14:
"(God) fashioned you in (different) stages."
Along with this very general observation, the text of the
Qur'an draws attention to several points concerning reproduc-
tion which might be listed as follows:
1) fertilization is performed by only a very small volume of
liquid.
2) the constituents of the fertilizing liquid.
3) the implantation of the fertilized egg.
4) the evolution of the embryo.
1. Fertilization is Performed by Only a VefY Small
Volume of Liquid.
The Qur'an repeats this concept eleven times using the follow-
ing expression:
Human Reproduction
g0l
-sura
16, verse 4:
"
(God)
fashioned man from a small
quantity
(of
sperm)
"'
The Arabic word rw[fa has been translated
by the words
'small
quantity (of
sperm)' because we do not have the terms
that are strietly appropriate. This word comes from a verb signi-
fying
'to
dribble, to trickle'; it is used to describe what remains
at the bottom of a bucket that has been emptied out. It therefore
indicates a very small
quantity of liguid. Here it is sperm be-
cause the word is associated in another verse with the word
sperm.
-Sura
75, verSe 37:
"Was
(man) not a small
quantity of sperm which has been
poured out?"
-
Here the Arabic word mani signifies sperm.
Another verse indicates that the small
quantity in
question is
put in a
'firmly
established
lodging'
(qayd,t'J
which obviously
means the
genital
organs.
-sura
23, verse 13. God i s sPeaki ng:
,,Then
we
pl aced (man) as a smal l
quanti ty (of sperm) i n a
safe lodging firmly established."
It must he added that the adjective which
in this text refers to
the
'firmly
established
lodging' matiin is, I think, hardly trans-
latable. It expresses the idea of a firmly established and respected
place.
However this may be, it refers to the spot
where man
grows
in the maternal organism. It is important to stress the
concept of a very small
quantity
of liquid needed in the fertiliza-
ti on process, whi ch i s stri ctl y i n agreement wi th what we know
on this subject today.
2, The Constituents of the FertilizingLiquiil.
The
Qur' an
descri bes the l i qui d enabl i ng ferti l i zati on
to
take
pl ace i n terms whi ch i t i s i nteresti ng to exami ne:
a)
' sperm' ,
as has been stated
preci sel y
(sura
75,
verse 3?)
b)
'a
liquid
poured out' :
"Man was fashioned
from a liquid
poured out"
(sura
86, verse 6)
c)
,a
despi sed l i qui d'
(sura
32, verse 8 and sura 77, verse 20)
The adj ecti ve
' despi sed'
(mahfn) woul d'
i t seems' be i nter-
preted not so much on account of the nature of the liquid
itself,
H"man Reproduction 201
-sura 16, verse 4 :
"(God) fashioned man from a small quantity (of sperm)."
The Arabic word nutfa has been translated by the words
tsmall quantity (of sperm)' because we do not have the terms
that are strictly appropriate. This word comes from a verb signi-
fying 'to dribble, to trickle'; it is used to describe what remains
at the bottom of a bucket that has been emptied out. It therefore
indicates a very small quantity of liquid. Here it is sperm be-
cause the word is associated in another verse with the word
sperm.
-sura 75, verse 37:
"Was (man) not a small quantity of sperm which has been
poured out?"
Here the Arabic word mani signifies sperm.
Another verse indicates that the small quantity in question is
put in a 'firmly established lodging' (qarii1') which obviously
means the genital organs.
-sura 23, verse 13. God is speaking:
"Then We placed (man) as a small quantity (of sperm) in a
safe lodging firmly established."
It must be added that the adjective which in this text refers to
the 'firmly established lodging' makTn is, I think, hardly trans-
latable. It expresses the idea of a firmly established and respected
place. However this may be, it refers to the spot where man
grows in the maternal organism. It is important to stress the
concept of a very small quantity of liquid needed in the fertiliza-
tion process, which is strictly in agreement with what we know
on this subject today.
2. The Constituents of the Fertilizing Liquid.
The Qur'an describes the liquid enabling fertilization to take
place in terms which it is interesting to examine:
a) 'sperm', as has been stated precisely (sura 75, verse 37)
b) 'a liquid poured out': "Man was fashioned from a liquid
poured out" (sura 86, verse 6)
c) 'a despised liquid' (sura 32, verse 8 and sura 77, verse 20)
The adjective 'despised' (mahin) would, it seems, be inter-
preted not so much on account of the nature of the liquid itself,
qt$
THE BIBI.q THE
QUN'AN
AND SCIENCE
as more the fact that it is emitted through the ouflet of the
urinary tract, using the channels that are employed for
pas.sing
urine.
d)
'Mixtures'
or
'mingled
liquids' (am#ail:
"verily, w fash-
ioned man from a small quantity
of mingled liquids"
(sura
76, verse 2)
Many commentators,
Iike professor
Hamidullah, consider these
liquids to be the male
and female agents. The same view was
shared by older commentators, who eould not have had any idea
of the physiolory
of fertilization,
especially
its biological condi-
tions in the case of the woman. They
thousht that the word
simply meant the unification of the two elements.
Modern authors however, like the commentator
of the Munta-
lcb
edited by the
Supreme Council for Islamie Affairs,
cairo,
have conected this view and note
here that the
.small
quantity
of speru' is made up of various component parts.
The commen-
tator in the Mu4talnb
does not go
into
detail, but in my opinion
it ie a very
judicious
observation.
What are the components parts
of sperm ?
Spermatic liquid
is formed
by various seeretions
which come
from the following glands:
a) the testicles:
the
secretion of the male genital gland
contains
spermatozoons,
which are elongated
cells with a long flagel-
lurn; they are bathed in a sero-fluid
liquid.
b) the seminal
vesicles: these organs
are reservoirs
of sperma-
tozoons and are placed
near the prostate gland;
they
"l*o
,*-
crete
their own liquid but it does not contain any fertilizing
agents.
c) the prostate
gland:
this seeretes a liquid
which
gives
the
sperm its creamy
texture and characteristic
odour.
d) the glands
annexed
to the urinary
tract:
cooper's or M6ry's
glands
secrete
a stringy liquid and Littr6's glands give
off
mucous.
These are the
origins
of the
,mingled
liquids' which the
eur'an
would appear
to refer to.
There is, however, more to be said on this subjcct. when the
Qur'an
talks
of a fertilizing
liquid composec of different com-
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
as more the fact that if is emitted through the outlet of the
urinary tract, using the channels that are employed for passing
urine.
d) 'Mixtures' or 'mingled liquids' (amJaj): "Verily, we fash-
ioned man from a small quantity of mingled liquids" (sura
76, verse 2)
Many commentators, like professor Hamidullah, consider these
liquids to be the male and female agents. The same view was
shared by older commentators, who could not have had any idea
of the physiology of fertilization, especially its biological condi-
tions in the case of the woman. They.tho.ught that the word
simply meant the unification of the two elements.
Modern authors however, like the commentator of the Munta-
lfab edited by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, Cairo,
have corrected this view and note here that the 'small quantity
of sperm' is made up of various component parts. The commen-
tator in the MUff,tafpab does not go into detail, but in my opinion
it is a very judicious observation.
What are the components parts of sperm?
Spermatic liquid is formed by various secretions which come
from the following glands:
a) the testicles: the secretion of the male genital gland contains
spermatozoons, which are elongated cells with a long flagel-
lum; they are bathed in a sero-fluid liquid.
b) the seminal vesicles: these organs are reservoirs of sperma-
tozoons and are placed near the prostate gland; they also se-
crete their own liquid but it does not contain any fertilizing
agents.
c) the prostate gland: this secretes a liquid which gives the
sperm its creamy texture and characteristic odour.
d) the glands annexed to the urinary tract: Cooper's or Mery's
glands secrete a -stringy liquid and Littre's glands give off
mucous.
These are the origins of the 'mingled liquids' which the Qur'an
would appear to refer to.
There is, however, more to be said on this subject. When the
Qur'an talks of a fertilizing liquid composec of different com-
Ilulnan Reprodwtion
20S
ponents, it also informs us that man's
progeny will be main-
tained by something
which m&y be extracted from this liquid.
firis is the meaning of verse 8, sura 82:
"
(God)
msde his
progeny from the
quintessence of a despised
liquid."
The Arabic word, translated here by the rvord
'quintessetlce',
is ffi\rt\fl^ It signifies
'something
which
is extracted, the issue of
something else, the best
psrt of a thing'. In whatever way it is
translated, it refers to a
part
of a whole.
Fertilization of the egg and reproduction are
produced by a
cell that is very elongated: its dimensions are measured
in ten-
thousandths of a millimetre.
In normal conditions', only one
single cell among several tens of millions
produced by a man will
actually
penetrate the ovule; a large number of them are left
behind and never complete the
journey
which leads from the
vagina to the ovule,
passing
through the uterus and Fallopian
tubes. It is therefore an infinitesimally small
part
of the extract
from a liquid whose composition is highly complex which actu-
ally fulfills its function.
In consequence, it is difficult not to be struck by the agreement
between the text of the
Glur'an
and the scientific knowledge we
possess today of these
phenomena.
3. Tru lmplantatlon of tllr- Eg,g,in the Femol,e Genital0tgatw'
Once the egg hes been fertilized
in the Fallopian tube it de-
scends to lodge inside the uterus; this is called the
'implantation
of the eEd. The
Qut'an
names the lodging of the fertilized egg
wornb:
-sura
22, versc 6:
"We
sBuEE whom We' will to rest in the womb for an appointed
term."
It is estimatcd
that in one cubic centimetre of sperm there are ?5 million
rpermatozoons with, under normal conditionr, au ejaeulation of sveral
eubic centimetres.
God is speaking
HufIUJR Reproduction 203
ponents, it also informs us that man's progeny will be main-
tained by something which may be extracted from this liquid.
This is the meaning of verse 8, sura 32:
II (God) made his progeny from the quintessence of a despised
liquid."
The Arabic word, translated here by the word 'quintessence',
is auliila. It signifies 'something which is extracted, the issue of
something else, the best part of a thing'. In whatever way it is
translated, it refers to a part of a whole.
Fertilization of the egg and reproduction are produced by a
cell that is very elongated: its dimensions are measured in ten-
thousandths of a millimetre. In normal conditionsI , only one
single cell among several tens of millions produced by a man will
actually penetrate the ovule; a large number of them are left
behind and never complete the journey which leads from the
vagina to the ovule, passing through the uterus and Fallopian
tubes. It is therefore an infinitesimally small part of the extract
from a liquid whose composition is highly complex which actu-
ally fulfills its function.
In consequence, it is difficult not to be struck by the agreement
between the text of the Qur'an and the scientific knowledge we
possess today of these phenomena.
3. The Implantation of the Egg in the Female Genital Organs.
Once the egg has been fertilized in the Fallopian tube it de-
scends to lodge inside the uterus; this is called the 'implantation
of the g ~ The Qur'an names the lodging of the fertilized egg
womb:
-sura 22, verse 5 :
"We cause whom We
2
will to rest in the womb for an appointed
term."
1. It is estimated that in one cubic centimetre of sperm there are 25 million
spermatozoons with, under normal conditions, s.n ejaculation of several
cubic centimetres.
2. God is speaking
2O4
TIIE BIBI,E, THE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
The implantation of the egg in the uterus
(womb)
is the re-
sult of the development of villosities, veritable elongrtions
of the
egg, which, Iike roots in the soil, draw nourishment
from the
thickness of the uterus necessary
to the egg's growilr.
These for-
mations make the egg literally cling to the uterus. This is r dig-
covery of modern times.
The act of clinging is described
five difrerent times in the
Qur'an.
Firstly in verses I and 2 of sura
gG:
"Bead,
in the narne of thy Iord Who fashioned,
Who fashioned msn from something which clings."
'something
which clings' is the transration of the word
,ah,q.
rt
is the original meaning of the word. A meaning derived from it,
'blood
clot', often figures in translation;
it is a mistake
against
which one should guard
: man has never passed
through
the-stsge
of being a
'blood
clot'. The same is true
for another
trsnEletion
of this tenn,
'adhesion'
which is equally inappropriate.
The orig_
inal sense of
'something
which clings' corresponds
exacfly to
today's firmly
established reality.
This eoncept is recalled in four other verses which describe
successive transformations
from the small guantity
of Epenn
through to the end:
-sure
22, verse 5:
"We
have fashioned you
from somethins
which
clings."
-sura 28, verse 14:
"we have fashioned
the small quantity (of
sperm) into
EomF
thing which clings.r'
--sura
40, verse
67:
"(God) fashioned you
from a small quantity
(of
sperm),
finom
something which clings."
-sur.a
?5, VerSe 37-38:
"was
(man)
not a small
quantity
of sperm which has been
poured
out ? After that he was something which clings
;
then God
fashioned him in due
proportion."
The organ which harbours the
pregnancy
is
qudified
in the
Qur'an
by a word which, as we have seen, is still used in Arabic
to signify the uterus. In some suras, it is called a
.lodging
firmly
204
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
The implantation of the egg in the uterus (womb) is the re-
sult of the development of villosities, veritable elongations of the
egg, which, like roots in the soil, draw nourishment from the
thickness of the uterus necessary to the egg's growth. These for-
mations make the egg literally cling to the uterus. This is dis-
cove1'Y of modern times.
The act of clinging is described five different times in the
Qur'an. Firstly in verses 1 and 2 of sura 96 :
"Read, in the name of thy Lord Who fashioned,
Who fashioned man from something which clings."
'Something which clings' is the translation of the word 'alaq. It
is the original meaning of the word. A meaning derived from it,
'blood clot', often figures in translation; it is a mistake against
which' one should guard: man has never passed through the stage
of being a 'blood clot'. The same is true ~ another translation
of this term, 'adhesion' which is equally inappropriate. Theorig-
inal sense of 'something which clings' corresponds exactly to
today's firmly established reality.
This concept is recalled in four other verses which describe
successive transformations from the small quantity of spenn
through to the end:
-sura 22, verse 5 :
"We have fashioned you from ... something which clings."
-sura 23, verse 14 :
"We have fashioned the small quantity (of sperm) into some-
thing which clings.t'
-sura 40, verse 67 :
"(God) fashioned you from a small quantity (of sperm), from
something which clings."
-sura 75, verse 37-38 :
"Was (man) not a small quantity of sperm which has been
poured out? After that he was something which clings; then God
fashioned him in due proportion."
The organ which harbours the pregnancy is qualified in the
Qur'an by a word which, as we have seen, is still used in Arabic
to signify the uterus. In some suras, it is called a 'lodging firmly
Hllzwnneprcfucful
2OE
estrblished'.
(sure
23, verse 13,
quotcd
above and sura ??, verse
21)' .
1, Eoffionof tlre Embryoksiire fllcUtzlnlr,.
Tlre
Qur'anic
description of certain stages in the development
of the mbryo corresponds
exsctly to whgt we today know about
it, and the
Qur'an
does not eontain a single statement thet is open
to criticism from modern science.
After
'the
thing which clings'
(an
expression s'hich is well-
founded, ts we have seen) the
Qur'sn
informs us thst the embryo
passs through the stage of
'chewed
flesh', then osssous tissue
appeam end is clad in flesh
(defined
by a difrerent word finm the
prueding which signifies
'intact
flesh').
-+ure
L9, verse 14:
"Tl'G
fashioned the thing which clings'into a chewed ltmrp of
flesh end lVe fashioned the chewed flesh into bones and We
clothed the bones with intaet flesh.'
'Clrewed
flesh' is the translation of the wor d mu$Ao"
'intact
fleh' is bfun. This distinction
needs to be stressed. The embryo
is initielly-a
emall masg. At a certein stage in its development'
it
looks to the naked eye
like chewed flesh. The bone structurt de-
velopc inside this mass in what is called the mesenchyma.
The
1. fn enother Yerse
(sure 6, Yerse 98) a
place of rojourn is mentiond' It
lr crpremed in a term very similar to thi
preceding one and would alco
sGcn- to signify the maternal uterus. Perronally, r beffieve thfu to be
thc ncrning of the verse, but a detailed interpretation would involve
mucb len6[iet explanation which is beyond the seope of thTr boolL
Another
verse which requires extremely
delicgto intcrpretetion lr tfte
following:
---tEtt
80, veree 6:
..(H)
feshions
you inside the bodies of
your mothers, lormetlon
rftar forrnetion,
in three
(veils of) darkne*."
(4tl,lumdtl
lfodcrn intrepreters
of the
Qur'an
ree in this verle the three enrto-
mtcrt lryctr thlt
protcet the infrnt during
gertation: thc rbdoninel
wrll, thr uterur itrelf,
end thc nrrroundinp
of thc foctur
(plrccatr'
embr?onlc mcmbnner,
rmniotic fuid).
I rrn obltsld to
quotc thir
verrc lor thc rr|re of conplctenere;
the
terpretrtion
given herc docr not rccn to nc to bc dilputeble
from an
anitomicsl
point of vierr but ir thir vhet the tert of the
Qur'an
really
means?
205
established' (sura 28, verse 18, quoted above and sura 77, verse
21)1.
4. EooIudon of ,he Embryo inside the Uteru.
The Qur'anic description of certain stages in the development
of the embryo corresponds exactly to what we today know about
it, and the Qur'an does not contain a single statement that is open
to criticism trom modern science.
After 'the thing which clings' (an expression which is well-
founded, as we have seen) the Qur'an informs us that the embryo
passes through the stage of 'chewed flesh', then osseous tissue
appears and is clad in flesh (defined by a different word from the
preceding which signifies 'intact flesh').
--aura 28, verse 14:
"We fashioned the thing which clings -into a chewed lump of
flesh and We fashioned the chewed flesh into bones and We
clothed the bones with intact flesh."
'Chewed flesh' is the translation of the word muq,ga,; 'intact
flesh' is lGfm. This distinction needs to be stressed. The embryo
is initially a small mass. At a certain stage in its development, it
looks to the naked eye like chewed flesh. The bone structure de-
velops inside this mass in what is called the mesenchyma. The
1. In another verse (sura 6, verse 98) a place of sojoum is mentioned. It
i. expressed in a term very similar to the preceding one and would also
seem to signify the matemal uterus. Personally, I believe this to be
the meaning of the verse, but a detailed interpretation would involve
mueh lengthier explanation which is beyond the scope of th'is book.
Another verse which requires extremely delicate interpretation is the
following:
~ 89, verse 6:
"(God) fashions you inside the bodies of your mothers, formation
after formation, in three (veils of) darkness." (plunuit)
Modern intrepreters of the Qur'an see in this verse the three anato-
mieal layers that proteet the infant during gestation: the abdominal
wall, the uterul itself, and the surroundings of the foetua (plaeenta,
embryonie membranes, amniotie fluid).
I am oblipd to quote this verse for the sake of eompleteness; the
terpretation given here does not Hem to me to be disputable from an
anatomical point of view but is this what the text of the Qur'an really
means?
206
TIIE BIBr.n, THE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
bones that are formed ale covered in muscle; the word Inhm ap-
plies
to them.
It is known how certain parts
appear to be eompletely out of
proportion
during embryonic
development
with rvhat
is later to
beeome
the individual,
while others remain in proportion.
Tlris is surely the meaning of the word mttftaltaq which
signi-
fies
'shaped
in ploportion'
as used in verse E, sura zz to describe
this
phenomenon.
"w' e fashi oned . . . i nto somethi ng whi ch
cl i ngs ., . i nto a l ump
of flesh in
proportion
and out of proportion."
The
Qur"an
also describes the appearance
of the senses and the
viscerae:
-sura
32, verse
g:
"(God) appointecl for you
the sense
of hearing,
sight and the
viscet'ae."
It lefer.s
to the folmation
of the sexual organs:
-sula
53, verses 4E-46:
"
(God)
fashioned
the trvo of a
pair,
the male and the female,
ft'om a small quantity
(of
sperm) when
it is
poured
out."
The formation
of the sexuar organs is described in two sura
of the
Qur.' an:
-sura
35, verse 11 :
"God created you
from dust, then from
a sperm-drop, then He
made you pairs
(the
male and female)."
-sura
75, verse
89:
"And,
(God)
made of him a
pair,
the male and female."
As has already
been noted, alt statements
in the
eur'an
must
be compared
with today's firmly
established
concepts: the ag:ree_
ment between them is very clear. It is however
very important
to compare them with the general
beliefs on this subjeet that
were held at the time of the
eur'anic
Revelation in order to
realize
just
how
far
people
were in those
days from having
views on these problems
similar to those expressed here in the
Qur'an.
There can be no doubt that they would have been unable
to interpret
the Revelation in the way we can today because we
are helped by the data modern knowledge
affords us. It was, in
fact, only during the Nineteenth
century that people
had a slight-
ly clearer view of this question.
206
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
bones that are fOI'med are covered in muscle; the word 14hm ap-
plies to them.
It is known how certain parts appear to be completely out of
proportion during embryonic development with what is later to
become the individual, while others remain in proportion.
This is surely the meaning of the word muliallaq which signi-
fies 'shaped in proportion' as used in verse 5, sura 22 to describe
this phenomenon.
"We fashioned ... into something which clings ... into a lump
of flesh in proportion and out of proportion."
The Qur'an also describes the appearance of the senses and the
viscerae:
-sura 32, verse 9:
"(God) appointed for you the sense of hearing, sight and the
viscerae."
It refers to the formation of the sexual organs:
-sura 53, verses 45-46 :
" (God) fashioned the two of a pair, the male and the female,
from a small quantity (of sperm) when it is poured out."
The formation of the sexual organs is described in two sura
of the Qur'an:
-sura 35, verse 11:
"God created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then He
made you pairs (the male and female)."
-sura 75, verse 39 :
"And, (God) made of him a pair, the male and female."
As has already been noted, all statements in the Qur'an must
be compared with today's firmly established concepts: the agree-
ment between them is very clear. It is however very important
to compare them with the general beliefs on this subject that
were held at the time of the Qur'anic Revelation in order to
realize just how far people were in those days from having
views on these problems similar to those expressed here in the
Qur'an. There can be no doubt that they would have been unable
to interpret the Revelation in the way we can today because we
are helped by the data modern knowledge affords us. It was, in
fact, only during the Nineteenth century that people had a slight-
ly clearer view of this question.
Human Reproduction
207
Throughout the Middle Ages, the most diversified doetrines
originated in unfounded myths and speculations: they
persisted
for several centuries after this
period.
The most fundamental
stage in the history of embryology was Harvey's statement
(1651)
that "all life initially comes from an eg:g". At this time
however, when nascent science had nevertheless benefited
greatly
(for
the subject in hand) from the invention of the microscope'
people were still talking about the respective roles of the egg
and the spermatozoon. Buffon, the great naturalist, was one of
those in favor of the egg theory, but Bonnet supported the theory
of the seeds being
'packed
together': the ovaries of Eve, the
mother of the human race, were supposed to have contained the
seeds of all human beings,
packed together one inside the other.
This hypothesis came into favor in the Eighteenth century.
More than a thousand
years
before our time, at a
period when
whimsical doctrines still
prevailed,
men had a knowledge of the
Qur'an.
The statements it contains express in simple terms truths
of primordial importance which man has taken centuries to
discover.
THE
QUR'AN
AND SEX EDUCATION.
Our epoch believes that it has made manifold discoveries in all
possible fields. It is thousht that
great
innovations have been
made in the field of sex education, and the knowledge of the facts
of life which has been opened up to
young people
is regarded as
an aehievement of the modern world. Previous centuries were
noted for their deliberate obscurity on this
point and many
people
say that religion-without stating which religion-is the cause
of it.
The information set out above is proof however that fourteen
centuries.ago theoretical
questions (as
it were) on human repro-
duction were brought to man's attention. This was done as far as
was
possible,
taking into account the fact that the anatomical
and
physiological data needed for further explanations
were
lacking. One should also remember that, to be understood,
it was
necessary to use simple langu.age suited to the level of compre-
hension of
those
who listened to the Preaching.
Human Reproduction 207
Throughout the Middle Ages, the most diversified doctrines
originated in unfounded myths and speculations: they persisted
for several centuries after this period. The most fundamental
stage in the history of embryology was Harvey's statement
(1651) that "all life initially comes from an egg". At this time
however, when nascent science had nevertheless benefited greatly
(for the subject in hand) from the invention of the microscope,
people were still talking about the respective roles of the egg
and the spermatozoon. Butron, the great naturalist, was one of
those in favor of the egg theory, but Bonnet supported the theory
of the seeds being 'packed together': the ovaries of Eve, the
mother of the human race, were supposed to have contained the
seeds of all human beings, packed together one inside the other.
This hypothesis came into favor in the Eighteenth century.
More than a thousand years before our time, at a period when
whimsical doctrines still prevailed, men had a knowledge of the
Qur'an. The statements it contains express in simple terms truths
of primordial importance which man has taken centuries to
discover.
THE QUR'AN AND SEX EDUCATION.
Our epoch believes that it has made manifold discoveries in all
possible fields. It is thought that great innovations have been
made in the field of sex education, and the knowledge of the facts
of life which has been opened up to young people is regarded as
an achievement of the modern world. Previous centuries were
noted for their deliberate obscurity on this point and many people
say that religion-without stating which religion-is the cause
of it.
The information set out above is proof however that fourteen
centuries ago theoretical questions (as it were) on human repro-
duction were brought to man's attention. This was done as far as
was possible, taking into account the fact that the anatomical
and physiological data needed for further explanations were
lacking. One should also remember that, to be understood, it was
necessary to use simple language suited to the level of compre-
hension of those who listened to the Preaching.
gO8
THE BIBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
Practical considerations have not been silently ignored. There
are many details in the
Qur'an
on the
practical
side of life in
general,
and the way man should behave in the many situations
of his existence. His sex life is no exeeption.
Two verses in the
Qur'an
deal with sexual relations them-
selves. They are described in terms which unite the need for
precision
with that of decency. When translations
and explana-
tory commentaries are consulted however, one is struck by the
divergences between them. I have pondered
for a long time on
the translation of such verses, and am indebted to Doctor A. K.
Giraud, Former Professor at the Faculty of Medicine, Beirut, for
the fol l owi ng:
-sura
86, verse 6 and ?:
"
(Man)
was fashi oned from a l i qui d poured
out. It i ssued (as
a result) of the conjunction
of the sexual area of the man and
the sexual area of the woman."
The sexual area of the man is indicated in the text of the
Qur'an
by the world ser/b
(singular).
The sexual areas of the
woman are designated
in the
Qur'an
by the word tard,,ib
(pl ural ).
This is the translation
which appears to be most satisfactory.
It is different frorn the one that is often
given
hy English and
French translators,
i.e.
"(Man) has been created by a liquid
poured
out which issues from between the vertebral column and
the bones of the breast." This would seem more to be an inter-
pretation
than a translation. It is hardly comprehensible.
The behavior of a man in his intimate relationships
with his
wife is stated explicitly.
There is the order concerning the menstruation period
con-
tained in verses 222 and ZZB, sura Z; God
gives
the following
command to the Prophet:
-sura
2, verses 222 and 223:
"They
(the
Believers) question
thee concerning menstruation.
Say: This is an evil. Keep away from women during menstrua-
tion and do not approach them until they are clean. when they
have purified
themselves, go
to them, as God ordered it to
you.
"verily, God loves the repentants and loves those who purified
themselves.
208
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
Practical considerations have not been silently ignored. There
are many details in the Qur'an on the practical side of life in
general, and the way man should behave in the many situations
of his existence. His sex life is no exception.
Two verses in the Qur'an deal with sexual relations them-
selves. They are described in terms which unite the need for
precision with that of decency. When translations and explana-
tory commentaries are consulted however, one is struck by the
divergences between them. I have pondered for a long time on
the translation of such verses, and am indebted to Doctor A. K.
Giraud, Former Professor at the Faculty of Medicine, Beirut, for
the following:
-sura 86, verse 6 and 7 :
"(Man) was fashioned from a liquid poured out. It issued (as
a result) of the conjunction of the sexual area of the man and
the sexual area of the woman."
The sexual area of the man is indicated in the text of the
Qur'an by the world ~ u (singular). The sexual areas of the
woman are designated in the Qur'an by the word taril'ib
(plural) .
This is the translation which appears to be most satisfactory.
It is different from the one that is often given by English and
French translators, Le. "(Man) has been created by a liquid
poured out which issues from between the vertebral column and
the bones of the breast." This would seem more to be an inter-
pretation than a translation. It is hardly comprehensible.
The behavior of a man in his intimate relationships with his
wife is stated explicitly.
There is the order concerning the menstruation period con-
tained in verses 222 and 223, sura 2; God gives the following
command to the Prophet:
-sura 2, verses 222 and 223 :
"They (the Believers) question thee concerning menstruation.
Say: This is an evil. Keep away from women during menstrua-
tion and do not approach them until they are clean. When they
have purified themselves, go to them, as God ordered it to you.
"Verily, God loves the repentants and loves those who purified
themselves.
HwruanReproiluction
209
"Your
wives are a tilth. Go to
your
tilth as
you
will. Do
(some
good act) for
your
souls beforehand."
The beginning of this
passage is very clear in meaning: it
formally forbids a man to have sexual contact with a woman who
has her period. The second
part
describes the
process
of tilling
which the sower
performs before sowing the seed which is to
germinate
and
produce
a new
plant.
Through this image there-
fore, stress is indirectly laicl on the importance of bearing in
mind the final
purpose of sexual contact, i.e. reproduction. The
translation of the final phrase is by R. Blach0re: it contains an
orcler which seems to refer to the
preliminalies before sexual
contact.
The orders
given
here are of a very
general
kind. The prob-
lem of contraception has been raised with regard to these verses:
neither here, nor anywhere else, is reference made to this subject.
Nor is provoked ahortion referred to. The numerous
passages
quoted
above on the successive transformations of the embryo
make it quite
clear, however, that man is considered to be con-
stituted as of the stage described by the existence of
'something
which clings'. This being so, the absolute respect of the indi-
vidual human being, which is referred to so often in the
Qur'an,
bri ngs wi th i t a total condemnati on of
provoked aborti on. Thi s
atti tude i s today shared by al l monothei sti c rel i gi ons.
Sexual relations are permitted at night during the Fast
in the
month of Ramadan. The verse concerni ng Ramadan i s as fol l ows:
-Sura
2, verse 187:
"Permitted
to
you,
on the nisht of the fast, is to break chastity
with
your
wives. They are a
garment
for
you
and
you are a
gar-
ment for them. So hold intercourse with them and seek what God
has ordained for
you."
In contrast to this, no exception to the rule is made for
pil-
gri ms i n Makka duri ng the cel ebrati on days of the Pi l gri mage.
-sura
2, verse 197:
"For whom undertakes
(the
duty of) the Pi l gri mage i n i ts
ti me, no wooi ng and no l i cense."
Thi s
prohi bi ti on i s formal , as i s the fact that other acti vi ti es
are
forbidden, e.g. hunting, fighting, etc.
Menstruation is again mentioned
in the
Qur'an
in connection
wi th di vorce. The Book contai ns the fol l owi ng verse:
Human Reproduction 209
"Your wives are a tilth. Go to your tilth as you will. Do (some
good act) for your souls beforehand."
The beginning of this passage is very clear in meaning: it
formally forbids a man to have sexual contact with a woman who
has her period. The second part describes the process of tilling
which the sower performs before sowing the seed which is to
germinate and produce a new plant. Through this image there-
fore, stress is indirectly laid on the importance of bearing in
mind the final purpose of sexual contact, Le. reproduction. The
translation of the final phrase is by R. Blachere: it contains an
order which seems to refer to the preliminaries before sexual
contact.
The orders given here are of a very general kind. The prob-
lem of contraception has been raised with regard to these verses:
neither here, nor anywhere else, is reference made to this subject.
Nor is provoked abortion referred to. The numerous passages
quoted above on the successive transformations of the embryo
make it quite clear, however, that man is considered to be con-
stituted as of the stage described by the existence of 'something
which clings'. This being so, the absolute respect of the indi-
vidual human being, which is referred to so often in the Qur'an,
brings with it a total condemnation of provoked abortion. This
attitude is today shared by all monotheistic religions.
Sexual relations are permitted at night during the Fast in the
month of Ramadan. The verse concerning Ramadan is as follows:
-sura 2, verse 187:
"Permitted to you, on the night of the fast, is to break chastity
with your wives. They are a garment for you and you are a gar-
ment for them. So hold intercourse with them and seek what God
has ordained for you."
In contrast to this, no exception to the rule is made for pil-
grims in Makka during the celebration days of the Pilgrimage.
-sura 2, verse 197:
"For whom undertakes (the duty of) the Pilgrimage in its
time, no wooing and no license."
This prohibition is formal, as is the fact that other activities
are forbidden, e.g. hunting, fighting, etc.
Menstruation is again mentioned in the Qur'an in connection
with divorce. The Book contains the following verse:
210 THE BIBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
-sura
65, verse 4:
"For
your
wives who despair of menstruation, if
you
doubt
about them, their period
of waiting will be three months. For
those who never have their monthly periods
and those who are
pregnant
their period
will be until they lay down their burden."
The waiting period
referred to here is the time between the
announcement of the divoree and the time it comes into effect.
Those women of whom it is said
'they
despair of menstruation'
have reached the menopause. A precautionary period
of three
months is envisaged for them. once this
period
is eompleted,
divorced women who have reached the menopause may remarry.
For those who have not
yet
menstruated,
the pregnancy period
has to be awaited. For pregnant
women, divorce only comes into
effect once the child is born.
All these laws are in perfect
agreement
with
physiological
data. one can, furthermore, find in the
Qur'an
the same
judicious
legal provision
in the texts dealing with widowhood.
Thus, the theoretical statements dealing with reproduetion,
and the practical
instructions on the sex life of couples, do not
contradict and cannot be
placed
in opposition to the data we have
from modern knowledg:e, nor with anything that ean be logically
derived from it.
210 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
-sura 65, verse 4 :
"For your wives who despair of menstruation, if you doubt
about them, their period of waiting will be three months. For
those who never have their monthly periods and those who are
pregnant their period will be until they lay down their burden."
The waiting period referred to here is the time between the
announcement of the divorce and the time it comes into effect.
Those women of whom it is said 'they despair of menstruation'
have reached the menopause. A precautionary period of three
months is envisaged for them. Once this period is completed,
divorced women who have reached the menopause may remarry.
For those who have not yet menstruated, the pregnancy period
has to be awaited. For pregnant women, divorce only comes into
effect once the child is born.
All these laws are in perfect agreement with physiological
data. One can, furthermore, find in the Qur'an the same judicious
legal provision in the texts dealing with widowhood.
Thus, the theoretical statements dealing with reproduction,
and the practical instructions on the sex life of couples, do not
contradict and cannot be placed in opposition to the data we have
from modern knowledge, nor with anything that can be logically
derived from it.
I
Qur'anic
and
Bihlical
Narratiorrs
General
Outlines
A large
number of subjects
dealt with
in the Bible
are also
found itt tft*
Qur'an.
Firstly,
there are narrations referring
to
the Prophets;
Noah, Abraham,
Joseph,
Elias, Jonah,
Job
and
Moses;
[tt. Kings of Israel; Saul, David, Solomon-to
name
just
some of the *"it narrations
they share in common.
There
then
follow more specific accounts
of
great events
in the course
of
which the supernatural
has intervened,
e.g. the Creation
of
the
Earth and Heavens,
the Creation
of Man, the Flood, the Exodus'
Finally,
there is all that
has to do with Jesus
and His mother
Mary as far as it concerns
the New Testament'
What reflections do the subiects
dealt with in the two Scrip-
tures
provoke when viewed in the lisht of our modern knowl-
edge of them from extra-scriptural
sources?
P arallnl :
Qur'
an
I
G osp el and M o der n l(noul'e dge'
With regard to the
parallel of
Qur'an/Gospels,
one must first
note that none of the subjects
referred to in the Gospels,
which
gl l
I
Qu..'an.1: and
l3.blil:aI
~ .... t o n ~
GEnE..al OullinEs
A large number of subjects dealt with in the Bible are also
found in the Qur'an. Firstly, there are narrations referring to
the Prophets; Noah, Abraham, Joseph, Elias, Jonah, Job and
Moses; the Kings of Israel; Saul, David, Solomon-to name just
some of the main narrations they share in common. There then
follow more specific accounts of great events in the course of
which the supernatural has intervened, e.g. the Creation of the
Earth and Heavens, the Creation of Man, the Flood, the Exodus.
Finally, there is all that has to do with Jesus and His mother
Mary as far as it concerns the New Testament.
What reflections do the subjects dealt with in the two Scrip-
tures provoke when viewed in the light of our modern knowl-
edge of them from extra-Scriptural sources?
Parallel: Qur'an/Gospel and Modern Knowledge.
With regard to the parallel of Qur'an/Gospels, one must first
note that none of the subjects referred to in the Gospels, which
211
2I2
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
were cri ti ci zed
from a sei enti fi c poi nt
of vi ew (see
par.t
Two of
thi s book), i s quoted
i n the
eur' an.
Jesus is refer.ed to many times in the
eur'an,
e.g. Mary's
annunci ati on
of the nati vi ty to hi s father, the annunci ati on
of the
mi racul ous nati vi ty
to Mary, Jesus' s
stature as a
prophet
of the
hi ghest ol der, Hi s l ol e
as a Messi ah,
the Revel ati on
He di rects
to Man which confirms
and modifies the Torah,
His preachings,
IIi s di sci pl es
and apostl es, the mi racl es, Hi s Ascen*i o,
to God,
Hi s rol e i n the Last Judgment, etc.
suras 3 and 19 of the
eur' an
(the
second
of whi ch
bears
Maly's name)
de'ote long passages
to Jesus's family. They de-
scribe His mother
Mary's nativity, her youth
and the annuncia-
ti on of her mi racul ous
motherhood.
Jesus i s al ways
cal l ed
,son
of Mary'. His ancestry
is exclusively given
with regard
to His
mother' s
si de,
whi ch i s qui te
l ogi cal si nce Jesus had no bi ol ogi cal
father. Flere the
Qur'an
differs from Matthew's
and Luke's
Gos-
pels:
as we have already
seen, they give
the paternal genealogies
of Jesus which are, moreover,
different
from each other.
In the
Qur'an, Jesus is placed
according
to His maternal gene-
alogy in the line of Noah, Abraham,
and Mary's father (
Imran
i n t he
Qur ' an) :
-sura
3, verses
BB and 84:
"God chose Adam,
Noah, the family of Abraham and the fam_
ily of imrdn
above all
His creatures,
as descendants
one from an-
other."
so Jesus is descended
from Noah and
Abraham on His mother
Mary's side, and from her father imrdn.
The errors made in the
naming of the
'ancestors
of Jesus' found in the Gospels are not
present
in the
Qur'an,
nor are the impossibilities
in ihe genealo-
gies
contained
in the old Testament of Abraham's
ancestry, both
of whieh
were examined in the first and second parts
or tni*
book.
once again, this fact must be noted if one is to be objective,
and
yet
again its great
importance
appears very clearly in the
face of the
unfounded
statements
which are made claiming that
Muhammad,
the author
of the
eur'an,
largely copied the
-niute.
one wonders in that case who or what reason compelled
him to
avoid copying the passages
the Bible contains on Jesus's ances-
try, and to insert at this point
in the
eur'an
the corrections
that
212 THE BIBLE, THE QUR' AN AND SCIENCE
were criticized from a scientific point of view (see Part Two of
this book), is quoted in the Qur'an.
Jesus is referred to many times in the Qur'an, e.g. Mary's
annunciation of the nativity to his father, the annunciation of the
miraculous nativity to Mary, s u s ~ s stature as a Prophet of the
highest order, His role as a Messiah, the Revelation He directs
to Man which confirms and modifies the Torah, His preachings,
His disciples and apostles, the miracles, His Ascension to God,
His role in the Last Judgment, etc.
Suras 3 and 19 of the Qur'an (the second of which bears
Mary's name) devote long passages to Jesus's family. They de-
scribe His mother Mary's nativity, her youth and the annuncia-
tion of her miraculous motherhood. Jesus is always called 'Son
of Mary'. His ancestry is exclusively given with regard to His
mother's side, which is quite logical since Jesus had no biological
father. Here the Qur'an differs from Matthew's and Luke's Gos-
pels: as we have already seen, they give the paternal genealogies
of Jesus which are, moreover, different from each other.
In the Qur'an, Jesus is placed according to His maternal gene-
alogy in the line of Noah, Abraham, and Mary's father ( Imran
in the Qur'an) :
-sura 3, verses 33 and 34 :
"God chose Adam, Noah, the family of Abraham and the fam-
ily of imran above all His creatures, as descendants one from an-
other."
So Jesus is descended from Noah and Abraham on His mother
Mary's side, and from her father Imnin. The errors made in the
naming of the 'ancestors of Jesus' found in the Gospels are not
present in the Qur'an, nor are the impossibilities in the genealo-
gies contained in the Old Testament of Abraham's ancestry, both
of which were examined in the first and second parts of this
book.
Once again, this fact must be noted if one is to be objective,
and yet again its great impoltance appears very clearly in the
face of the unfounded statements which are made claiming that
Muhammad, the author of the Qur'an, largely copied the Bible.
One wonders in that case who or what reason compelled him to
avoid copying the passages the Bible contains on Jesus's ances-
try, and to insert at this point in the Qur'an the corrections that
Quf
anic ard Biblical N anatiottn
put his text above
any criticism
from modern knowledge.
The
bospels
and Old Testament texts are
quite the opposite;
from this
point of view they are totally
unaceeptable.
Parullel:
Qur'an
I
OliI Tectament
and Moilpm Knoulcilge,
In the case of the old Testament,
certain
aspects of this
paral-
Iel have already been
dealt with.
The Creation
of the world, for
example,
was the subjeet
of a critical
study made in the Old
Testament
section of this book. The same subject was examined
with
regard to the
Qur'anic
Revelation. comparisons
were made
and there is no need to cover this
ground again'
It seems that historical
knowledge
is too vagtre and archaeo-
logical data too scarce for
parallels to be established
in the light
of modern knowledge
on
problems concerning
the Kings of
fsrael, who form the subject of narrations
in both the
Qur'an
and
the Bible.
Whether or not one ean taekle the problem of the Prophets in
the light of modern data depends on the extent to which the
events described have left traces which may or may not have
come down to us.
There are however two subjects
dealt with in both the
Qur'an
and the Bible which should command
our attention and which
need to be examined
in the light of modern knowledge.
They
are
as fol l ows:
-the
Flood,
-the
Exodus.
-The
first because
it has not left traces in the
history
of
civilization which
support the Biblical narration,
whereas
mod-
ern data do not
permit us to criticize the narration
contained
in
the
Qur' an.
-The
second because
the Biblical and
Qur'anie
narrations
evi-
dently complement
eaeh other in their broad outlines,
and modern
data seem to
provide both of them with remarkable
historical
support.
gl 3
Qu;anic and Biblical NarrationB 213
put his text above any criticism from modern knowledge. The
Gospels and Old Testament texts are quite the opposite; from this
point of view they are totally unacceptable.
Parallel: Qur'an/Old Testament and Modem Knowledge.
In the case of the Old Testament, certain aspects of this paral-
lel have already been dealt with. The Creation of the world, for
example, was the subject of a critical study made in the Old
Testament section of this book. The same subject was examined
with regard to the Qur'anic Revelation. Comparisons were made
and there is no need to cover this ground again.
It seems that historical knowledge is too vague and archaeo-
logical data too scarce for parallels to be established in the light
of modern knowledge on problems concerning the Kings of
Israel, who form the subject of narrations in both the Qur'an and
the Bible.
Whether or not one can tackle the problem of the Prophets in
the light of modern data depends on the extent to which the
events described have left tra.ces which mayor may not have
come down to us.
There are however two subjects dealt with in both the Qur'an
and the Bible which should command our attention and which
need to be examined in the light of modern knowledge. They are
as follows:
-the Flood,
-the Exodus.
-The first because it has not left traces in the history of
civilization which support the Biblical narration, whereas mod-
ern data do not permit us to criticize the narration contained in
the Qur'an.
-The second because the Biblical and Qur'anic narrations evi-
dently complement each other in their broad outlines, and modern
data seem to provide both of them with remarkable historical
support.
l l
The flood
The Biblbal Natration
of the Flood and the cfiticiutm
Leoeled at It
-
A Remind,et
The examination
of the Old Testament
description of the Flood
in the first part
of this book led to the follo*irg observations:
There is not
just
one description
of the Flood, uut two, written
at different tirnes;
-the
Yahvist
version
which dates
from the Ninth century
B.c.
-the
sacerdotal
version dating from
the sixth century
8.c., so
called because
it was the work of priests
of the time.
These two narrations
are not
juxtaposed,
but interwoven
so
that part
of one is fitted
inbetween parts
of the other, i.e. para-
graphs
from one
source arternate
with passage
from the other.
The commentary
to the translation
of Genesis by Father de Vaux,
a
professor
at the Biblieal school of Jerusalem, .ho**
very clearly
how the paragraphs
are distributed
between
the two sources. The
narration
begins and ends with a
yahvist
passage.
There are
ten Yahvist paragraphs
altogether
and between
each one a Sacer-
dotal passage
has been
inserted (there
are a total of nine
Saeer-
dotal paragraphs).
This mosaic
of texts is only coherent
when
read from a point
of view
which takes the succession
of episodes
into account,
since there are blatant
contradictions
between the
two sources.
Father
de vaux describes them
as
..two
accounts
of
the Flood, in which
the cataclysm
is caused
by different agents
and lasts different lengths
of time, and where
Noah rmeives into
the Ark a different
number
of animals."
when seen in the light of modern knowledge,
the Biblical
de-
scription of the Flood as a whore is unacceptable
for the
follow-
i ng reasons:
2t4
II
ThE Flood
The Biblical Narration of the Flood and the Criticism
Leveledat It-A RemindeT.
The examination of the Old Testament description of the Flood
in the first part of this book led to the following observations:
There is not just one description of the Flood, but two, written
at different times;
-the Yahvist version which dates from the Ninth century B.C.
-the Sacerdotal version dating from the Sixth century B.C., so
called because it was the work of priests of the time.
These two narrations are not juxtaposed, but interwoven so
that part of one is fitted inbetween parts of the other, Le. para-
graphs from one source alternate with passage from the other.
The commentary to the translation of Genesis by Father de Vaux,
a professor at the Biblical School of Jerusalem, shows very clearly
how the paragraphs are distributed between the two sources. The
narration begins and ends with a Yahvist passage. There are
ten Yahvist paragraphs altogether and between each one a Sacer-
dotal passage has been inserted (there are a total of nine Sacer-
dotal paragraphs). This mosaic of texts is only coherent when
read from a point of view which takes the succession of episodes
into account, since there are blatant contradictions between the
two sources. Father de Vaux describes them as "two accounts of
the Flood, in which the cataclysm is caused by different agents
and lasts different lengths of time, and where Noah receives into
the Ark a different number of animals."
When seen in the light of modern knowledge, the Biblical de-
scription of the Flood as a whole is unacceptable for the follow-
ing reasons:
214
The Flood 215
a) The Old Testament ascribes to it the character of a universal
cataclysm.
b) Whereas the
paragraphs from the Yahvist text do not date
the Flood, the Sacerdotal text situates it at a
point
in time
where a cataclysm of this kind could not have occurred.
The following are arguments supporting this opinion:
The Sacerdotal narration states
quite precisely
that the Flood
took
place
when Noah was 600
years
old. According to the
genea-
logies in ehapter 5 of Genesis
(also taken from the Sacerdotal
text and
quoted
in the first part
of this book), rve know that Noah
is said to have been born 1,056
years
after Adam. Consequently,
the Flood would have taken place
1,655
years
after the creation
of Adam. The
genealogical
table of Abraham moreover, taken
from the same text and
gi ven
i n Genesi s
(11,
10-32), al l ows us
to estimate that Abraham was born 292
years
after the Flood. As
we know that
(according
to the Bible) Abraham was alive in
roughly 1850 8.C., the Flood would therefore be situated in the
Twenty-first or Twenty-second century B.C. This ealculation is
in strict keeping rvith the information in old editions of the
Bible which figures
prominently
at the head of the Biblical text.
This was at a time when the lack of human knowledge on the
subject was such that the chronologieal data contained in the
Bible were accepted without
question
by its readers-for want
of any arguments to the contrary.l
How is it
possible
to coneeive today of a universal cataclysm
in the Twenty-first or Twenty-second century B.C. which de-
stroyed life on al| the earth's surface
(except
for the
people and
ani mal s i n the Ark) ? By thi s ti me, ci vi l i zati ons had fl ouri shed i n
several
parts
of the
globe,
and their vestiges have now come
down to
posterity. In Egypt at this time, for example, the Inter-
medi ate Peri od fol l ou' ed the end of the OId Ki ngdom and
pre-
ceded t he begi nni ng of t he Mi ddl e Ki ngdom. I n vi ew of our
l . Now t hat cert ai n not i ons concerni ng t he chronol ogy of anci ent t i mes
have been est abl i shed, and t he i magi nary dat es
gi ven by t he aut hors of
the Sacerdotal text of the Ol d Testament are no l onger credi bl e, those
dat es have qui ckl y been suppressed i n Bi bl es. I n t he case of t hose
gene-
al ogi es that have been preserved, modern commentators of books i n-
t ended f or mass
publ i cat i on f ai l t o draw t he readers' at t ent i on t o t he
errors t hey cont ai n.
The Flood 215
a) The Old Testament ascribes to it the character of a universal
cataclysm.
b) Whereas the paragraphs from the Yahvist text do not date
the Flood, the Sacerdotal text situates it at a point in time
where a cataclysm of this kind could not have occurred.
The following are arguments supporting this opinion:
The Sacerdotal narration states quite precisely that the Flood
took place when Noah was 600 years old. According to the genea-
logies in chapter 5 of Genesis (also taken from the Sacerdotal
text and quoted in the first part of this book), we know that Noah
is said to have been born 1,056 years after Adam. Consequently,
the Flood would have taken place 1,655 years after the creation
of Adam. The genealogical table of Abraham moreover, taken
from the same text and given in Genesis (11, 10-32), allows us
to estimate that Abraham was born 292 years after the Flood. As
we know that (according to the Bible) Abraham was alive in
roughly 1850 B.C., the Flood would therefore be situated in the
Twenty-first or Twenty-second century B.C. This calculation is
in strict keeping with the information in old editions of the
Bible which figures prominently at the head of the Biblical text.
This was at a time when the lack of human knowledge on the
subject was such that the chronological data contained in the
Bible were accepted without question by its readers-for want
of any arguments to the contrary.1
How is it possible to conceive today of a universal cataclysm
in the Twenty-first or Twenty-second century B.C. which de-
stroyed life on all the earth's surface (except for the people and
animals in the Ark) ? By this time, civilizations had flourished in
several parts of the globe, and their vestiges have now come
down to posterity. In Egypt at this time, for example, the Inter-
mediate Period followed the end of the Old Kingdom and pre-
ceded the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. In view of our
1. Now that certain notions concerning the chronology of ancient times
have been established, and the imaginary dates given by the authors of
the Sacerdotal text of the Old Testament are no longer credible, those
dates have quickly been suppressed in Bibles. In the case of those gene-
alogies that have been presel'ved, modern commentators of books in-
tended for mass publication fail to draw the readers' attention to the
errors they contain.
216 THE BIBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
knowledge of the history of this period,
it would be absurd to
maintain that the Flood had destroyed all civilization at this
time.
Thus it may be affirmed from a historical point
of view that
the narration of the Flood as it is presented
in the Bible is in
evident contradiction with modern knowledge. The formal proof
of man's manipulation of the Scriptures is the existence of the
two texts.
The Nanation of the FloodContaineil in tlle
Qur'an,
The
Qur'an
gives
a
general
version which is different from that
contained in the Bible and does not give
rise to any criticisms
from a historical point
of view.
It does not
provide
a continuous narration of the Flood. Nu-
merous suras talk of the punishment
inflicted upon Noah's
people.
The most complete account of this is in sura 11, verses
25 to 49. Sura 71, which bears Noah's name, describes above all
Noah's preachings,
as do verses 105 to 115, sura 86. Before going
into the actual course taken by events, we must eonsider the
Flood as described in the
Qur'an
by relating it to the
general
context of the punishment
God inflicted on communities
suilty
of
gravely
infringing His Commandments.
Whereas the Bible describes a universal Flood intended to
pun-
ish ungodly humanity
as a whole, the
eur'an,
in contrast, men-
tions several punishments
inflicted on certain specifically
de-
fined communities.
Thi s may be seen i n verses 35 to 3g, sura ZE:
"we gave
Moses the scripture and appointed his brother
Aaron with him as vizier. we said: Go to the
people
who have
denied our signs.
we destroyed them completely. when the
people
of Noah denied the Messengers, we drowned them and
we made of them
a si gn for manki nd.
(We
destroyed the tri bes)
of h'd and Tamfrd, the companions of Rass and many generations
between them. We warned each of them by examples and We
anni hi l ated them compl etel y."
Sura 7, verses 59 to 93 contai ns a remi nder of the puni shments
brought upon Noah's people,
the hd, the
famrid,
Lot (Sodom)
and Madi6n respectively.
216
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
knowledge of the history of this period, it would be absurd to
maintain that the Flood had destroyed all civilization at this
time.
Thus it may be affirmed from a historical point of view that
the narration of the Flood as it is presented in the Bible is in
evident contradiction with modern knowledge. The formal proof
of man's manipulation of the Scriptures is the existence of the
two texts.
The NafTation of the Flood Contained in the Qu,'an.
The Qur'an gives a general version which is different from that
contained in the Bible and does not give rise to any criticisms
from a historical point of view.
It does not provide a continuous narration of the Flood. Nu-
merous suras talk of the punishment inflicted upon Noah's
people. The most complete account of this is in sura 11, verses
25 to 49. Sura 71, which bears Noah's name, describes above all
Noah's preachings, as do verses 105 to 115, sura 26. Before going
into the actual course taken by events, we must consider the
Flood as described in the Qur'an by relating it to the general
context of the punishment God inflicted on communities guilty
of gravely infringing His Commandments.
Whereas the Bible describes a universal Flood intended to pun-
ish ungodly humanity as a whole, the Qur'an, in contrast, men-
tions several punishments inflicted on certain specifically de-
fined communities.
This may be seen in verses 35 to 39, sura 25:
"We gave Moses the Scripture and appointed his brother
Aaron with him as vizier. We said: Go to the people who have
denied Our signs. We destroyed them completely. When the
people of Noah denied the Messengers, We drowned them and
We made of them a sign for mankind. (We destroyed the tribes)
of Ad and !amud, the companions of Rass and many generations
between them. We warned each of them by examples and We
annihilated them completely."
Sura 7, verses 59 to 93 contains a reminder of the punishments
brought upon Noah's people, the ~ the Tamiid, Lot (Sodom)
and Madian respectively.
TrvFld
2L7
Thus the
Qur'an
presents
the cataclysm of the Flood as a
pun-
ishment specifically intended for Noah's
people: this is the first
basic difrerence between the two narrations.
The second fundamental
difrerence is that the
Qur'an,
in con-
trast to the Bible, does not date the Flood in time and
gives no
indication as to the duration of the cataclysm itself.
The causes of the flooding are roughly the same in both n&rra-
tions. The Sacerdotal description in the Bible
(Genesis
7, 11)
cites two causes which occurred simultaneously: "On that day
all the fountains of the
great
decp burst forth, and the windows
of the heavens were opened." The
Qur'an
records the following
in verses 11 and 12, sura 54:
"We
opened the Gates of Heaven with
pouring water. And We
caused the
ground to
gush
forth springs, so the waters met ac-
eording to the decree which has ben ordained."
The
Qur'an
is very
precise
about the contents of the Ark.'The
order God
gave
to Noah was faithfully executed and it was to do
the following:
-sura
11, verse 40:
"(fn
the Ark) Ioad a
pair
of every kind, thy family, save this
one against whom the word has already
gone
forth, and those
who believe. But only a few had believed with him."
The
person
excluded from the family is an outcast son of Noah.
We learn
(sura
11, verses 45 and 46) how Noah's supplications
on this person's
behalf to God were unable to make Him alter
His decision. Apart from Noah's family
(minus
the outcast son),
the
Qur'an
refers to the few other
passengers
on board the Ark
who had believed in God.
The Bible does not mention the latter among the oceupants of
the Ark. In fact, it
provides
us with three different versions of
the Ark's contents:
-according
to the Yahvist version, a distinction is made be-
tween
'pure'
animals and birds, and
'impure'
animals
(sevenl
pairs, i.e. seven males and seven females, of each
'pure'
species,
was taken into the Ark and only one
pair
of each
'impure'
speci es).
l . Surel y
' seven'
here i ndi cat es
' many' ,
as i t of t en does i n t he Semi t i c l an-
guages of the ti me.
TheFlood 217
Thus the Qur'an presents the cataclysm of the Flood as a pun-
ishment specifically intended for Noah's people: this is the first
basic difference between the two narrations.
The second fundamental difference is that the Qur'an, in con-
trast to the Bible, does not date the Flood in time and gives no
indication as to the duration of the cataclysm itself.
The causes of the flooding are roughly the same in both narra-
tions. The Sacerdotal description in the Bible (Genesis 7, 11)
cites two causes which occurred simultaneously: "On that day
all the fountains of the great deep burst forth, and the windows
of the heavens were opened." The Qur'an records the following
in verses 11 and 12, sura 54:
"We opened the Gates of Heaven with pouring water. And We
caused the ground to gush forth springs, so the waters met ac-
cording to the decree which has been ordained."
The Qur'an is very precise about the contents of the Ark.. The
order God gave to Noah was faithfully executed and it was to do
the following:
-sura 11, verse 40:
"(In the Ark) load a pair of every kind, thy family, save this
one against whom the word has already gone forth, and those
who believe. But only a few had believed with him."
The person excluded from the family is an outcast son of Noah.
We learn (sura 11, verses 45 and 46) how Noah's supplications
on this person's behalf to God were unable to make Him alter
His decision. Apart from Noah's family (minus the outcast son),
the Qur'an refers to the few other passengers on board the Ark
who had believed in God.
The Bible does not mention the latter among the occupants of
the Ark. In fact, it provides us with three different versions of
the Ark's contents:
-according to the Yahvist version, a distinction is made be-
tween 'pure' animals and birds, and 'impure' animals (seven
t
pairs, Le. seven males and seven females, of each 'pure' species,
was taken into the Ark and only one pair of each 'impure'
species) .
1. Surely 'seven' here indicates 'many', as it often does in the Semitic lan-
guages of the time.
gl 8
THE BIBI.E, THE
QUHAN
AND SCIENCE
-according
to a modified Yahvist verse (Genesis
T, 8) there was
only one
pair
of each species, whether
'pure'
or
'impure'.
-aceording
to the Saeerdotal version, there was Noah, his family
(with
no exceptions) and a
pair
taken from each species.
The narration in the
Qur'an
of the flooding itself is contained
in sura 11, verses 25 to 49 and in sura 23, verses zB to 80. The
Biblical narrative does not present
any important differences.
In the Bible, the
place
where the Ark comes to rest is in the
Ararat Mountains (Genesis
8, 4) and for the
eur'an
it is the
Jfrdt
(sura
11, verse 44.) This mountain is said to be the highest
of the Ararat range in Armenia, but nothing proves
that the
names were not changed by man to tally with the two namatives.
This is confirmed by R. BlaehBre: according to him there is a
peak
in Arabia named Judi. The' agreement
of names may well
be artificial.
rn conelusion, it is
possible
to state categorically
what major
differences exist here between the Biblieal and
eur'anic
narra-
tions. Some of them escape eritical
examination because objec-
tive data are lacking.
When, however,
it is
possible
to check the
statements in the scriptures in the risht of the established data,
the incompatibility
between the Biblical narration-i.e.
the in-
formation given
on its place
in time and geoEraphical
extent-
and the discoveries that have contributed to modern knowledge
is all too clear. In contrast to this, the narration
contained in the
Qur'an
is free from anything which might
give
rise to objective
criticism. one might ask if it is possible
that, between the time
of the Biblieal narration and the one contained in the
eur'an,
man could have acquired knowled ge
that shed light on this event.
The answer is no, because from the time of the old Testament to
the
Qur'an,
the only document man possessed
on this ancient
story was the Bible itself. If human factors are unable to account
for the changes in the narrations which affeeted their meaning
with regard to modern knowledge, another explanation has to be
accepted, i.e. a Revelation
which came after the one contained
in the Bible.
218
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCffiNCE
-according to a modified Yahvist verse (Genesis 7, 8) there was
only one pair of each species, whether 'pure' or 'impure'.
-according to the Sacerdotal version, there was Noah, his family
(with no exceptions) and a pair taken from each species.
The narration in the Qur'an of the flooding itself is contained
in sura 11, verses 25 to 49 and in sura 23, verses 23 to 30. The
Biblical narrative does not present any important differences.
In the Bible, the place where the Ark comes to rest is in the
Ararat Mountains (Genesis 8, 4) and for the Qur'an it is the
Judt (sura 11, verse 44.) This mountain is said to be the highest
of the Ararat range in Armenia, but nothing proves that the
names were not changed by man to tally with the two narratives.
This is confirmed by R. Blachere: according to him there is a
peak in Arabia named JUdl. The' agreement of names may well
be artificial.
In conclusion, it is possible to state categorically what major
differences exist here between the Biblical and Qur'anic narra-
tions. Some of them escape critical examination because objec-
tive data are lacking. When, however, it is possible to check the
statements in the Scriptures in the light of the established data,
the incompatibility between the Biblical narration-Leo the in-
formation given on its place in time and geographical extent-
and the discoveries that have contributed to modern knowledge
is all too clear. In contrast to this, the narration contained in the
Qur'an is free from anything which might give rise to objective
criticism. One might ask if it is possible that, between the time
of the Biblical narration and the one contained in the Qur'an,
man could have acquired knowledge that shed light on this event.
The answer is no, because from the time of the Old Testament to
the Qur'an, the only document man possessed on this ancient
story was the Bible itself. If human factors are unable to account
for the changes in the narrations which affected their meaning
with regard to modern knowledge, another explanation has to be
accepted, i.e. a Revelation which came after the one contained
in the BihIe.
il
The Exodus
With the Exodus from Egypt of Moses and his followers,
(the
first stage of their move to Canaan),
we come to an event
of
great
importance.
It is an established
historical event which ap-
pears in a known context, in spite of occasional
allegations one
finds which tend to attribute to it a largely legendary character.
In the OId Testament, the Exodus forms the second book of
the Pentateuch or Torah, along with a narration of the
journey
through the wilderness and the alliance
(covenant)
concluded
with God on Mount Sinai. It is natural for the
Qur'an
to devote a
great
deal of space to it too: an account of the dealings Moses and
his brother Aaron had with the Pharaoh and of the exit from
Egypt is found in more than ten suras containing long descrip-
tions, e.g. suras, ?, 10, 20 and 26, along with more abridged
versions and even simple reminders. The name of Pharaoh, the
main character on the Esyptian side, is repeated
(to
the best of
my knowledge) seventy-four times in the
Qur'an
in 27 suras.
A study of both the
Qur'anic
and Biblical narrations is espe-
cially interesting here because, in contrast to what has been
noted in the case of the Flood
(for
example), in the main, the
two narrations have many
points in common. There are certainly
divergences, but the Bihlical naration has considerable histori-
cal value, as we shall see. This is because it helps to identify
the Pharaoh, or rather the two
pharaohs in
question. This hypo-
thesis, which starts with the Bible, is complemented by the in-
formation contained in the
Qur'an.
Modern data are added
to
these tu'o Scriptural
sources and it is thus
possible, through
a
confrontation
between the Bible,
the
Qur'an
and today's knowl-
edge, to situate this episode from the Holy Scriptures in a his-
torical context.
gt 9
III
ThE Exodus
With the Exodus from Egypt of Moses and his followers, (the
first stage of their move to Canaan), we come to an event of
great importance. It is an established historical event which ap-
pears in a known context, in spite of occasional allegations one
finds which tend to attribute to it a largely legendary character.
In the Old Testament, the Exodus forms the second book of
the Pentateuch or Torah, along with a narration of the journey
through the wilderness and the alliance (covenant) concluded
with God on Mount Sinai. It is natural for the Qur'an to devote a
great deal of space to it too: an account of the dealings Moses and
his brother Aaron had with the Pharaoh and of the exit from
Egypt is found in more than ten suras containing long descrip-
tions, e.g. suras, 7, 10, 20 and 26, along with more abridged
versions and even simple reminders. The name of Pharaoh, the
main character on the Egyptian SIde, is repeated (to the best of
my knowledge) seventy-four times in the Qur'an in 27 suras.
A study of both the Qur'anic and Biblical narrations is espe-
cially interesting here because, in contrast to what has been
noted in the case of the Flood (for example), in the main, the
two narrations have many points in common. There are certainly
divergences, but the Biblical naration has considerable histori-
cal value, as we shall see. This is because it helps to identify
the Pharaoh, or rather the two pharaohs in question. This hypo-
thesis, which starts with the Bible, is complemented by the in-
formation contained in the Qur'an. Modern data are added to
these two Scriptural sources and it is thus possible. through a
confrontation between the Bible, the Qur'an and today's knowl-
edge, to situate this episode from the Holy Scriptures in a his-
torical context.
219
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
THE EXODUS ACCORDItrG TO THE BIBLE
The Biblical narration begins with a reminder of the Jews'
entry into Egypt with Jacob, who
joined
Joseph there. Later on,
according to Exodus l, 8:
"Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know
Joseph."
The period
of oppression followed; the
pharaoh
ordered the
Jews to build the cities of Pithom and Ramesses (to
use the
names given
to them in the Bible) (Exodus
I, L1). To avoid a
population
explosion
among the Hebrews,
pharaoh
ordered each
new-born
son to be thrown into the river.
Moses was nevertheless
preserved
by his mother for the first three months
of his life
before she finally
decided to
put
him in a rush basket
on the
river's
edge. The Pharaoh's
daughter discovered him, rescued
him and
gave
him to a nurse, none other than his own mother.
This was because Moses's sister had watched to see who would
find the baby, had pretended
not to recognize
him and then
recommended
to the Frineess a nurse who was really
the child's
mother. He was treated as one of the
pharaoh's
sons and given
the name' Moses' .
As a young
man, Moses left for a country ealled Midian where
he married and lived
for a long time. We read an important de-
t ai l i n Exodus 2, 23: .
"rn the course of those many days the king of Egypt died."
God ordered
Moses to go
and find the
pharaoh
and lead his
brothers out of Esypt (the
description
of this order is given
in the episode
of the Burning Bush). Aaron, Moses's brother,
helped him in this task. This is why Moses, once he had returned
to Egypt, went with his brother to visit the
pharaoh
who was
the suceessor
of the king under whose reign he had long ago
been born.
The Pharaoh refused to allow the Jews in Moses's group
to
leave Egypt. God revealed Himself to Moses
once again and or-
dered him to repeat his request to
pharaoh.
According
to the
Bible, Moses was eighty years
old at this time. Through
magic,
Moses showed the Pharaoh that he had supernatural powers.
This was not enough however.
God sent the famous plagues
down upon Egypt. The rivers were changed into blood, there
220
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
THE EXODUS ACCORDING TO THE BIBLE
The Biblical narration begins with a reminder of the Jews'
entry into Egypt with Jacob, who joined Joseph there. Later on,
according to Exodus 1, 8:
"Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know
Joseph."
The period of oppression followed; the Pharaoh ordered the
Jews to build the cities of Pithom and Ramesses (to use the
names given to them in the Bible) (Exodus I, 11). To avoid a
population explosion among the Hebrews, Pharaoh ordered each
new-born son to be thrown into the river. Moses was nevertheless
preserved by his mother for the first three months of his life
before she finally decided to put him in a rush basket on the
river's edge. The Pharaoh's daughter discovered him, rescued
him and gave him to a nurse, none other than his own mother.
This was because Moses's sister had watched to see who would
find the baby, had pretended not to recognize him and then
recommended to the Princess a nurse who was really the child's
mother. He was treated as one of the Pharaoh's sons and given
the name 'Moses'.
As a young man, Moses left for a country called Midian where
he married and lived for a long time. We read an important de-
tail in Exodus 2, 23:
HIn the course of those many days the king of Egypt died."
God ordered Moses to go and find the Pharaoh and lead his
brothers out of Egypt (the description of this order is given
in the episode of the Burning Bush). Aaron, Moses's brother,
helped him in this task. This is why Moses, once he had returned
to Egypt, went with his brother to visit the Pharaoh who was
the successor of the king under whose reign he had long ago
been born.
The Pharaoh refused to allow the Jews in Moses's group to
leave Egypt. God revealed Himself to Moses once again and or-
dered him to repeat his request to Pharaoh. According to the
Bible, Moses was eighty years old at this time. Through magic,
Moses showed the Pharaoh that he had supernatural powers.
This was not enough however. God sent the famous plagues
down upon Egypt. The rivers were changed into blood, there
Tlw Ero&n
22t
were invasions of frogs,
gnats
and swarms of flies, the cattle
died, boils appeared on men and animals, there was hail and
plagues of locusts, darkness and the death of the first-born.
Nevertheless,
the Pharaoh
still did not allow the Hebrews to
leave.
They therefore broke out of the city of Rameses,
600,000 of
them' "besides women and children"
(Exodus 12, 3?). At this
point Pharaoh "made
ready his chariot and took his army
ryith
him, and took six hundred
picked charioteers and all the other
chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them . Pharaoh,
king of Egypt,
pursued the
people of Israel as they went forth
defianfly.,'
(Exodus
14, 6 and 8) . The Egyptians caught up with
Moses's
party
beside
the sea. Moses
raised his staff, the sea
parted before him and his followers walked across it without
wetting their feet.
"The
Egyptians
pursued and rvent in after
them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots,
and his horsemen."
(Exodus 14, 28)
"The
waters returned and
covered the chariots
and the horsemen and all the host of Pha-
raoh that had followed them into the sea; not so much as one of
them
remained. But the
people
of Israel walked on dry
ground
through the sea, the waters being a wall to them on their right
hand and on their left."
(Exodus
L4, 28'29').
The text of Exodus is
quite clear: Pharaoh was at the head
of the
pursuers. He
perished because the text of Exodus notes
that "not
so much as one of them remained." The Bible repeats
this detail moreover in the Psalms: Psalm
106, verse 11 and
Psalm 186 verses 13 and 15 which are an act of thanks to God
"Who
divided the sea of Rushes' in sunder . . . and made
Israel
pass
through the midst of it . . . but overthrew Pharaoh and his
host in the sea of Rushes." There can be no doubt therefore, that
aecording to the Bible, the Pharaoh of the Exodus
perished in
the sea. The Bible does not record what became of his body.
THE EXODUS ACqORDING
TO THE
QUIfAN
In its broad outlines,
the narration of the Exodus contained
in
the
Qur'an
is similar to that of the Bibfe. It has to be reconsti-
\Me shall later see that the figure has been
grossly exaggerated.
1.
2. In Hebrew' yam
souf' .
The Exodus 221
were invasions of frogs, gnats and swarms of flies, the cattle
died, boils appeared on men and animals, there was hail and
plagues of locusts, darkness and the death of the first-born.
Nevertheless, the Pharaoh still did not allow the Hebrews to
leave.
They therefore broke out of the city of Rameses, 600,000 of
them! "besides women and children" (Exodus 12, 37). At this
point Pharaoh "made ready his chariot and took his army with
him, and took six hundred picked charioteers and all the ~ t r
chariots of Egypt with officers over all of them ... Pharaoh,
king of Egypt, pursued the people of Israel as they went forth
defiantly." (Exodus 14, 6 and 8). The Egyptians caught up with
Moses's party beside the sea. Moses raised his staff, the sea
parted before him and his followers walked across it without
wetting their feet. "The Egyptians pursued and went in after
them into the midst of the sea, all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots,
and his horsemen." (Exodus 14, 23) "The waters returned and
covered the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of Pha-
raoh that had followed them into the sea; not so much as one of
them remained. But the people of Israel walked on dry ground
through the sea, the waters being a wall to them on their right
hand and on their left." (Exodus 14, 28-29).
The text of Exodus is quite clear: Pharaoh was at the head
of the pursuers. He perished because the text of Exodus notes
that "not so much as one of them remained." The Bible repeats
this detail moreover in the Psalms: Psalm 106, verse 11 and
Psalm 136 verses 13 and 15 which are an act of thanks to God
"Who divided the sea of Rushes
2
in sunder ... and made Israel
pass through the midst of it ... but overthrew Pharaoh and his
host in the sea of Rushes." There can be no doubt therefore, that
according to the Bible, the Pharaoh of the Exodus perished in
the sea. The Bible does not record what became of his body.
THE EXODUS ACGORDING TO THE QUR'AN
In its broad outlines, the narration of the Exodus contained in
the Qur'an is similar to that of the Bil1fe. It has to be reconsti-
1. We shall later see that the figure has been grossly exaggerated.
2. In Hebrew 'yam souf'.
222
TI{E BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
tuted, however,
because it is made up of
passages
dispersed
throughout the Book.
The
Qur'an
does not provide
a name which enables us to iden-
tify who the reigning Pharaoh was at the time of Exodus, any
more than the Bible does. AII that is known is that one of his
counsellors was called Hd,md,n.
He is referred
to six times in the
Qur'an
(sura
28, verses 6, 8 and 38, sura zg, verse Bg and sura
40, verses 24 and 36).
The Pharaoh is the Jews' oppressor:
-sura
14, verse 6:
"when Moses said to his people:
Remember the favor of God
to
you
when
He delivered you
from
pharaoh's
folk who imposed
upon you
a dreadful torment,
slaughtered your
sons and spared
your
women.t'
The oppression
is recalled
in the same terms in verse
141,
sura 7. The
Qur'an
does not however
mention
the names of the
cities built by the
Jews in subjection,
as does the Bible.
The episode where Moses is left by the riverside
is recorded
in
sura 20 verses 39-40 and sura zg, verses
? to 18. In the version
contained
in the
Qur'an,
Moses is taken in by
pharaoh's
family.
We find this in verses
g
and
g,
sura 2g:
"The family of Pharaoh took him up. (It
was intended)
that
(Moses)
should be to them an adversary
and a cause of sorrow.
Pharaoh, H6mdn
and their hosts were sinners.
pharaoh's
wife
sai d: (He
wi l l be) a
j oy
to the eye for me and
you.
Don' t ki l l
him. He may be of use to us or \ile may take him as a son. They
did not sense (what
was to come)."
Muslim tradition has it that it was
pharaoh's
wife Asiya who
took care of Moses. In the
eur'an,
it was not the
pharaoh's
wife
who found him, but members of his household.
Moses's youth,
his stay in Midian and marriage are described
in sura 28, verses 13 to ZB.
In particular,
the episode
of the Burning Bush is foirnd in
the flrst part
of sura 20, and in sura zg, verses B0 to Bb.
'The
Qur'an
does not describe the ten plagues
sent down upon
Esypt as a divine
chastisement (unlike
the long description
in
the Bible), but simply mentions five plagues
very briefly
(sura
7, verse 133) : flooding, Iocusts, Iice, frogs, and blood.
222
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
tuted, however, because it is made up of passages dispersed
throughout the Book.
The Qur'an does not provide a name which enables us to iden-
tify who the reigning Pharaoh was at the time of Exodus, any
more than the Bible does. An that is known is that one of his
counsellors was called Haman. He is referred to six times in the
Qur'an (sura 28, verses 6, 8 and 38, sura 29, verse 39 and sura
40, verses 24 and 36).
The Pharaoh is the Jews' oppressor:
-sura 14, verse 6 :
"When Moses said to his people: Remember the favor of God
to you when He delivered you from Pharaoh's folk who imposed
upon you a dreadful torment, slaughtered your sons and spared
your women."
The oppression is recalled in the same terms in verse 141,
sura 7. The Qur'an does not however mention the names of the
cities built by the Jews in subjection, as does the Bible.
The episode where Moses is left by the riverside is recorded in
sura 20 verses 39-40 and sura 28, verses 7 to 13. In the version
contained in the Qur'an, Moses is taken in by Pharaoh's family.
We find this in verses 8 and 9, sura 28:
"The family of Pharaoh took him up. (It was intended) that
(Moses) should be to them an adversary and a cause of sorrow.
Pharaoh, Haman and their hosts were sinners. Pharaoh's wife
said: (He will be) a joy to the eye for me and you. Don't kill
him. He may be of use to us or we may take him as a son. They
did not sense (what was to come)."
Muslim tradition has it that it was Pharaoh's wife Asiya who
took care of Moses. In the Qur'an, it was not the Pharaoh's wife
who found him, but members of his household.
Moses's youth, his stay in Midian and marriage are described
in sura 28, verses 13 to 28.
In particular, the episode of the Burning Bush is found in
the first part of sura 20, and in sura 28, verses 30 to 35.
"'The Qur'an does not describe the ten plagues sent down upon
Egypt as a divine chastisement (unlike the long description in
the Bible), but simply mentions five plagues very briefly (sura
7, verse 133) : flooding, locusts, lice, frogs, and blood.
Tlp Exodur
2|23
The flight from Esypt is deseribed in the
Qur'an,
but without
any of the
geographical
data
given
in the Bible, nor the incred-
ible numbers of
people
mentioned in the latter. It is difficult to
imagine how 600,000 men
plus
their families could have stayed
in the desert for a long time, as the Bible rrrrculd have us believe.
This is how the death of Pharaoh
pursuing
the Hebrews is
descriH:
--sura
20, verse 78:
"Pharaoh
pursued them with his hosts and the sea covered
them.tt
The Jews escaped. Pharaoh
perished,
but his body was found:
I very important detail not mentioned in the Biblical narration.
-sura
10, verses 90 to 92. God is speaking:
"We
took the Children of Israel across the sea. Pharaoh with
his hosts
pursued
them in rebellion and hostility till, when the
fact of his drowning overtook him, he said: I believe there is no
God except the God in whom the Children of Israel believe. I am
of those who submit themselves to Him.
"God
said:'What? Now! Thou has rebelled and caused deprav-
ity: This day We save thee in thy body so that thou mayest be a
sign for those who corne after thee.' But verily, many among
mankind are heedless of Our sigtrs."
This
passage
requires two points
to be explained:
a) The spirit of rebellion and hostility referred to is to be under-
stood in tems of Moses's attempt to
persuade
the Pharaoh.
b) The reseue of the Pharaoh refers to his iorpse beeause it is
stated
quite
clearly in verse 98, sura 11, that Pharaoh and his
followers have been condemned to damnation:
-sura
11, verse 98
"Phsraoh
will
go
before his
people
on the Day of Resurrection
and will lead them to the fire."
For those facts which can be ehecked with historical,
geo-
graphical and archaeslogical data therefore, it should be noted
that the
Qur'*nic
and Biblical narrations difrer on the following
points:
-the
absence in the
Qur'an
of
place
names, both of the cities
built by the Hebrews in Moses's
group,
and on the route taken
by the Exodns.
223
The flight from Egypt is described in the Qur'an, but without
any of the geographical data given in the Bible, nor the incred-
ible numbers of people mentioned in the latter. It is difficult to
imagine how 600,000 men plus their families could have stayed
in the desert for a long time, as the Bible would have us believe.
This is how the death of Pharaoh pursuing the Hebrews is
described:
--sura 20, verse 78 :
"Pharaoh pursued them with his hosts and the sea covered
them."
The Jews escaped. Pharaoh perished, but his body was found:
a very important detail not mentioned in the Biblical narration.
-sura 10, verses 90 to 92. God is speaking:
"We took the Children of Israel across the sea. Pharaoh with
his hosts pursued them in rebellion and hostility till, when the
fact of his drowning overtook him, he said: I believe there is no
God except the God in whom the Children of Israel believe. I am
of those who submit themselves to Him.
"God said: 'What? Now! Thou has rebelled and caused deprav-
ity: This day We save thee in thy body so that thou mayest be a
sign for those who come after thee.' But verily, many among
mankind are heedless of Our signs."
This passage requires two points to be explained:
a) The spirit of rebellion and hostility referred to is to be under-
stood in terms of Moses's attempt to persuade the Pharaoh.
b) The rescue of the Pharaoh refers to his corpse because it is
stated quite clearly in verse 98, sura 11, that Pharaoh and his
followers have been condemned to damnation:
--sura 11, verse 98
"Pharaoh will go before his people on the Day of Resurrection
and will lead them to the fire."
For those facts which can be checked with historical, geo-
graphical and archaeological data therefore, it should be noted
that the Qur'anic and Biblical narrations differ on the following
points:
-the absence in the Qur'an of place names, both of the cities
built by the Hebrews in Moses's group, and on the route taken
by the Exodus.
224 THE BIBT.E, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
.-the
absence of any reference to the death of a Pharaoh during
Moses's stay in Midian.
-the
absence in the
Qur'an
of details concerning Moses's age
when he addressed his request
to the Pharaoh.
-the
absence in the
Qur'an
of the numbering of Moges's follow-
ers. These figures a,re openly exaggerated in the Bible to inered-
ible
proportions (said
to have
been 600,000 men
plus
their
families forming a community of more than two million in-
habitants.)
-the
absenee of any mention in the Bible of the rescue of the
Pharaoh's body after his death.
For our
present purposes,
the
points
to be noted because they
are shared by both narrations are as follows:
-the
confirmation
contained in the
Qur'an
of
pharaoh's
oppres-
sion of the Jews in Moses's group.
-the
absence from both narrations of any mention of the King
of Egypt's name.
*the
eonfirmation
contained in the
Qur'an
of the
pharaoh's
death during the Exodus.
COIVFNONTATION
BETWEEN SCNIPTANAL DATA
AIVD MODNNN KNOWLED{GE
The narrations contained in the Bible and the
eur'an
on the
time spent by the sons of rsrael in Egypt, and the way they left,
give
rise to data whieh may constitute matter for a confrontation
udth modern knowledge. In faet, the balance is very uneven be-
cause some data pose
many
problems
while others
hardly
pro-
vide subject for discussion.
l, Exnmhcr,tion of Cefinin Details Contained, in tlw Nanatiom
Tlw Hebreut in Eggpt
It is, apparently, quite possible
to say
(and
without running
mueh risk of being wrong) that the Hebrews remained in Egypt
for 400 or 430
years,
according to the Bible (Genesis
lb, 18 and
Exodus L2,40). In spite of this discrepancy between Genesis and
Exodus, which is of minor importance, the period
may be said to
224
THE BIBLE, THE QUR' AN AND SCIENCE
-the absence of any reference to the death of a Pharaoh during
Moses's stay in Midian.
-the absence in the Qur'an of details concerning Moses's age
when he addressed his request to the Pharaoh.
-the absence in the Qur'an of the numbering of Moses's follow-
ers. These figures are openly exaggerated in the Bible to incred-
ible proportions (said to have been 600,000 men plus their
families forming a community of more than two million in-
habitants.)
-the absence of any mention in the Bible of the rescue of the
Pharaoh's body after his death.
For our present purposes, the points to be noted because they
are shared by both narrations are as follows:
-the confirmation contained in the Qur'an of Pharaoh's oppres-
sion of the Jews in Moses's group.
-the absence from both narrations of any mention of the King
of Egypt's name.
-the confirmation contained in the Qur'an of the Pharaoh's
death during the Exodus.
CONFRONTATION BETWEEN SCRIPTURAL DATA
AND MODERN KNOWLEDGE
The narrations contained in the Bible and the Qur'an on the
time spent by the sons of Israel in Egypt, and the way they left,
give rise to data which may constitute matter for a confrontation
with modern knowledge. In fact, the balance is very uneven be-
cause some data pose many problems while others hardly pro-
vide subject for discussion.
1. Examination of Cerlain Details Contained in the Nan'atWna
The Hebrews in Egypt
It is, apparently, quite possible to say (and without running
much risk of being wrong) that the Hebrews remained in Egypt
for 400 or 430 years, according to the Bible (Genesis 15, 13 and
Exodus 12, 40). In spite of this discrepancy between Genesis and
Exodus, which is of minor importance, the period may be said to
Tlw Exodrrp 225
heve begun long after Abraham, when Joseph, son of Jacob,
moved with his brothers to Egypt. With the exception of the
Bible, which
gives the data
just
quoted,
and the
Qur'an
which
refers to the move to Egypt, but does not
give
any indication as
to the dates involved, we do not
possess
any other document
which is able to illuminate us on this
point.
Present*day commentators, ranging from P. Montet to Daniel-
Rops, think that, in all
probability,
the arrival of Joseph and his
brothers coincided with the movement of the Hyksos towards
Egypt in the Seventeenf,h century B.C. and that a Hyksos sov-
ereign
probably
received them hospitably at Avaris in the Nile
Delta.
There can be no doubt that this
guess
is in obvious contradic-
ti on to what i s contai ned i n the Bi bl e
(Ki ngs
I, 6, 1) whi ch
puts
the Exodus from Eeypt at 480
years
before the construction of
Solomon's Temple
(circa
971 B.C.) . This estimation would there-
fore
put
the Exodus at roughl y 1450 B.C. and woul d consequentl y
si tuate the entry i nto Egypt at ci rca 1880-1850 B.C. Thi s i s
pre-
cisely the time, however, that Abraham is supposed to have lived,
and other data containeC in the Bible tell us that there were 250
years
separating him from Joseph. This passage
from Kings I
in the Bible is therefore unacceptable from a chronological
point
of view.' We shall see how the theory
put
forward here has only
this objection, taken from Kings f, to be levelled against it. The
very obvious inaccuracy of these chronological data effectively
deprives this objeetion of any value.
Aside from the Holy Scriptures, the traees left by the Hebrews
of their stay in Egypt are very faint. There are however several
hieroglyphic documents which refer to the existence in Egypt of
a eategory of workers called the
'Api,ru,
Hapiru or Habiru, who
have been identified
(rightly
or wrongly) with the Hebrews. In
this eategory were construction workers, agricultural labourers,
harvesters, etc. But where did they come from? It is very diffieult
to find an answer to this. Father de Vaux has written the follo'*-
i ng about them:
1. We shall return to this subject later, when we call upon Father de
Vaux' s hel p i n exami ni ng thi s referenee i n Ki ngs I.
The ExodUl
225
have begun long after Abraham, when Joseph, son of Jacob,
moved with his brothers to Egypt. With the exception of the
Bible, which gives the data just quoted, and the Qur'an which
refers to the move to Egypt, but does not give any indication as
to the dates involved, we do not possess any other document
which is able to illuminate us on this point.
Present-day commentators, ranging from P. Montet to Daniel-
Rops, think that, in all probability, the arrival of Joseph and his
brothers coincided with the movement of the Hyksos towards
Egypt in the Seventeenth century B.C. and that a Hyksos sov-
ereign probably received them hospitably at Avaris in the Nile
Delta.
There can be no doubt that this guess is in obvious contradic-
tion to what is contained in the Bible (Kings I, 6, 1) which puts
the Exodus from Egypt at 480 years before the construction of
Solomon's Temple (circa 971 B.C.). This estimation would there-
fore put the Exodus at roughly 1450 B.C. and would consequently
situate the entry into Egypt at circa 1880-1850 B.C. This is pre-
cisely the time, however, that Abraham is supposed to have lived,
and other data contained in the Bible tell us that there were 250
years separating him from Joseph. This passage from Kings I
in the Bible is therefore unacceptable from a chronological point
of view.
1
We shall see how the theory put forward here has only
this objection, taken from Kings I, to be levelled against it. The
very obvious inaccuracy of these chronological data effectively
deprives this objection of any value.
Aside from the Holy Scriptures, the traces left by the Hebrews
of their stay in Egypt are very faint. There are however several
hieroglyphic documents which refer to the existence in Egypt of
a category of workers called the 'Apiru, Hapiru or Habiru, who
have been identified (rightly or wrongly) with the Hebrews. In
this category were construction workers, agricultural labourers,
harvesters, etc. But where did they come from? It is very difficult
to find an answer to this. Father de Vaux has written the follow-
ing about them:
1. We shall return to this subject later, when we call upon Father de
Vaux's help in examining this reference in Kings I.
228 THE BTBLE, THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
"They are not members of the local population,
they do not
identify themselves with a class in society, they do not all share
the same occupation or status."
Under Tuthmosis III, they are referred
to in a
papyrus
&s
'workers
in the stables'. It is known how Amenophis II, in the Fif-
teenth century 8.c., brought in 3,600 of these
people
as prisoners
from Canaan, because, as Father de Vaux notes, they consti-
tuted a considerable percentage
of the Syrio-Palestinian popu-
lation. Under Sethos f, in circa 1300 8.C., the
'Api.rz
created
considerable disturbances in the Beth-Shean region of Canaan,
and under Ramesses II some of them were employed in the
quarries
or for transporting piles
used in the works of the
Pharaoh (e.g.
the Great Pylon of Ramesses Miamon). we know
from the Bible that the Hebrews, under Ramesses II, were to
build the northern
capital, the city of Ramesses. In Egyptian
writings the
'Api,ru
a.re mentioned once again in the Twelfth
century B.C. and for the last time under Ramesses III.
The
'Apiru
are not
just
mentioned in Egypt however,
so did
the term therefore apply solely to the Hebrews? It is
perhaps
wise to recall that the word could initially have been used to
signify
'forced
labourers',
without regard to their origins, and
that it subsequently became an adjective indicating a
person's
profession.
we might perhaps
draw an analosy with the word
'suisse'
(Swiss)
which has several different meanings in French.
It can mean an inhabitant of Switzerland, a mercenary soldier
of the old French monarchy who was of Swiss extraction, a
Vatican
guard,
or an employee of a Christian church . . .
However, this may be, under Ramesses II, the Hebrews
(ac-
cording to the Bible) or the
'Apiru
(according
to the hieroglyphic
texts) took part
in the great
works ordered by the Pharaoh, which
were indeed
'forced
labour'. There can be no doubt that Ramesses
II was the Jews' oppressor: the cities of Rarnesses and Pithom,
mentioned in Exodus, are situated at the eastern
part
of the Nile
Delta. Today's Tanis and
Qantir,
which are roughly lE miles
apart, are in the same region as these two cities. The northern
capital constructed
by Ramesses II was situated there. Ramesses
II is the Pharaoh of the oppression.
Moses was to be born in this environment. The circumstances
pertaining to his rescue from the waters of the river have al-
226 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
"They are not members of the local population, they do not
identify themselves with a class in society, they do not all share
the same occupation or status."
Under Tuthmosis III, they are referred to in a papyrus as
'workers in the stables'. It is known how Amenophis II, in the Fif-
teenth century B.C., brought in 3,600 of these people as prisoners
from Canaan, because, as Father de Vaux notes, they consti-
tuted a considerable percentage of the Syrio-Palestinian popu-
lation. Under Sethos I, in circa 1300 B.C., the 'Apiru created
considerable disturbances in the Beth-Shean region of Canaan,
and under Rarnesses II some of them were employed in the
quarries or for transporting piles used in the works of the
Pharaoh (e.g. the Great Pylon of Ramesses Miamon). We know
from the Bible that the Hebrews, under Ramesses II, were to
build the northern capital, the City of Rarnesses. In Egyptian
writings the 'Apiru are mentioned once again in the Twelfth
century B.C. and for the last time under Ramesses III.
The 'Apiru are not just mentioned in Egypt however, so did
the term therefore apply solely to the Hebrews? It is perhaps
wise to recall that the word could initially have been used to
signify 'forced labourers', without regard to their origins, and
that it subsequently became an adjective indicating a person's
profession. We might perhaps draw an analogy with the word
'suisse' (Swiss) which has several different meanings in French.
It can mean an inhabitant of Switzerland, a mercenary soldier
of the old French monarchy who was of Swiss extraction, a
Vatican guard, or an employee of a Christian church ...
However, this may be, under Ramesses II, the Hebrews (ac-
cording to the Bible) or the 'Apiru (according to the hieroglyphic
texts) took part in the great works ordered by the Pharaoh, which
were indeed 'forced labour'. There can be no doubt that Ramesses
II was the Jews' oppressor: the cities of Ramesses and Pithom,
mentioned in Exodus, are situated at the eastern part of the Nile
Delta. Today's Tanis and Qantir, which are roughly 15 miles
apart, are in the same region as these two cities. The northern
capital constructed by Ramesses II was situated there. Ramesses
II is the Pharaoh of the oppression.
Moses was to be born in this environment. The circumstances
pertaining to his rescue from the waters of the river have al-
The Emduc
ready been outlined above. He has an Egyptian name: P. Montet
has clearly shown in his book EgApt and the Eible
(L'Egypte
et
la Bible)' that the names Mesw or Mesy are on the list of
per-
sonal names in the dietionary of the hieroglyphic language by
Ranke. MEBA is the transliteration used in the
Qur'an.
The Plagns of Eggpt
Under this title the Bible refers to ten
punishments
inflicted by
God, and
provides many details concerning each of these
'plagues'.
Many have supernatural dimensions or characteristics.
The
Qur'an
only lists five
plagues,
which, for the most
part, are
merely an exaggeration of natural phenomena:
flooding, locusts,
lice, frogs and blood.
The rapid multiplication of locusts and frogs is described in
the Bible. It speaks of river water changed to blood which floods
all the land
(sic)
;
the
Qur'an
refers to blood, but without giving
any complementary details. It is
possible
to invent all kinds of
hypotheses on the subject of this reference to blood.
The other plagues
described in the Bible
(gnats,
swarms of
flies, boils, hail, darkness, death of the first-born and of cattle)
have various origins, as was the case of the Flood, and are
constituted by the
juxtaposition
of
passages
from many differ-
ent sourees.
The Route TakenbV tlr.e Exodaa
No indication of this is
given
in the
Qur'an,
whereas the Bible
refers to it in
great
detail. Father de Vaux and P. Montet have
both reopened
studies into it. The starting-point was
probably
the Tanis-Qantir region, but no traces have been found of the
rest of the route taken which could confirm the Biblical narra-
tion; nor is it
possible
to say at exactly what
point
the waters
parted to allow the
passage
of Moses and his followers.
Tlw lfibrculorn Partilng of tlw Wate;t
Some commentators have imagined a tide-rsce, due
perhaps
to
sstronomic causes or seismic conditions connected to the distant
1. Pub. Delachaux and Niestl6, Neufchatel,
1959.
The Exodua 227
ready been outlined above. He has an Egyptian name: P. Montet
has clearly shown in his book Egypt and the Bible (L'Egypte et
la Bible) 1 that the names Mesw or Mesy are on the list of per-
sonal names in the dictionary of the hieroglyphic language by
Ranke. MUsa is the transliteration used in the Qur'an.
The Plagues of Egypt
Under this title the Bible refers to ten punishments inflicted by
God, and provides many details concerning each of these
'plagues'. Many have supernatural dimensions or characteristics.
The Qur'an only lists five plagues, which, for the most part, are
merely an exaggeration of natural phenomena: flooding, locusts,
lice, frogs and blood.
The rapid multiplication of locusts and frogs is described in
the Bible. It speaks of river water changed to blood which floods
all the land (sic) ; the Qur'an refers to blood, but without giving
any complementary details. It is possible to invent all kinds of
hypotheses on the subject of this reference to blood.
The other plagues described in the Bible (gnats, swarms of
flies, boils, hail, darkness, death of the first-born and of cattle)
have various origins, as was the case of the Flood, and are
constituted by the juxtaposition of passages from many differ-
ent sources.
The Route Taken by the Exodus
No indication of this is given in the Qur'an, whereas the Bible
refers to it in great detail. Father de Vaux and P. Montet have
both reopened studies into it. The starting-point was probably
the Tanis-Qantir region, but no traces have been found of the
rest of the route taken which could confirm the Biblical narra-
tion; nor is it possible to say at exactly what point the waters
parted to allow the passage of Moses and his followers.
The Miraculous Parting of the Water,
Some commentators have imagined a tide-race, due perhaps to
astronomic causes or seismic conditions connected to the distant
1. Pub. Delachaux and NiestIe, Neufchatel, 1959.
228 THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
eruption of a volcano. The Hebrews could have taken advantage
of the receding sea, and the Egyptians, following in hot
pursuit,
could have been wiped out by the returning tide. All this is
pure
hypothesis however.
2. Thc Point Occupiedhg the Erodus in the History
of the Plwraohs
It is
possible
to arrive at much more
positive
evidence in the
case of the
point
the Exodus oceupies in time.
For a very long time Merneptah, the su('essor to Ramesses II,
was held to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Maspero, the famous
Egyptologist of the beginning of this century did, after all, write
in his Visitor's Guide to the Cairo Museu,m (Guide
du visiteur du
Mus6e du Caire), L900, that Merneptah
"was
probably,
accord-
ing to the Alexandrian
tradition, the Pharaoh of the Exodus who
is said to have
perished
in the Red Sea." I have been unable to
find the documents on which Maspero based this assertion, but
the eminence of this commentator requires us to attach the great-
est importanee to what he claims.
Apart fro:n P. Montet, there are very few Egyptologists or
specialists in Biblical exegesis who have researched into the
arguments for or against this hypothesis. In the last few decades
however, there has been a spate of different hypotheses whieh
seem to have as their sole
purpose
the
justification
of an agree-
ment with one single detail in the Scriptural narrations, although
the inventors of these hypotheses do not bother with the other
aspects of the Scriptures. Thus it is possible
for a hypothesis to
suddenly appear
which seems to agree with one aspect of a nar-
ration, although its inventor has not taken the trouble to com-
pare
it with all the other data contained in the Scriptures (and
consequently not
just
with the Bible), plus
all the data provided
by history, arehaeology, etc.
One of the strangest hypotheses yet
to come to light is by J.
de Miceli
(1960)
who claims to have pinpointed
the date of the
Exodus to within one day, i.e. the
gth
of April, 14gb B.C. He
relies for his information entirely on calculations made from
calendars and claims that Tuthmosis II was reigning in Egypt at
that time, and was therefore
the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
The
228
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
eruption of a volcano. The Hebrews could have taken advantage
of the receding sea, and the Egyptians, following in hot pursuit,
could have been wiped out by the returning tide. All this is pure
hypothesis however.
2. The Point Occupied by the Exodus in the History
of the Pharaohs
It is possible to arrive at much more positive evidence in the
case of the point the Exodus occupies in time.
For a very long time Merneptah, the sU( "'essor to Ramesses II,
was held to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Maspero, the famous
Egyptologist of the beginning of this century did, after all, write
in his Visitor's Guide to the Cairo Museum (Guide du visiteur du
Musee du Caire), 1900, that Merneptah "was probably, accord-
ing to the Alexandrian tradition, the Pharaoh of the Exodus who
is said to have perished in the Red Sea." I have been unable to
find the documents on which Maspero based this assertion, but
the eminence of this commentator requires us to attach the great-
est importance to what he claims.
Apart fro:n P. Montet, there are very few Egyptologists or
specialists in Biblical exegesis who have researched into the
arguments for or against this hypothesis. In the last few decades
however, there has been a spate of different hypotheses which
seem to have as their sole purpose the justification of an agree-
ment with one single detail in the Scriptural narrations, although
the inventors of these hypotheses do not bother with the other
aspects of the Scriptures. Thus it is possible for a hypothesis to
suddenly appear which seems to agree with one aspect of a nar-
ration, although its inventor has not taken the trouble to com-
pare it with all the other data contained in the Scriptures (and
consequently not just with the Bible), plus all the data provided
by history, archaeology, etc.
One of the strangest hypotheses yet to come to light is by J.
de Miceli (1960) who claims to have pinpointed the date of the
Exodus to within one day, Le. the 9th of April, 1495 B.C. He
relies for his information entirely on calculations made from
calendars and claims that Tuthmosis II was reigning in Egypt at
that time, and was therefore the Pharaoh of the Exodus. The
Tlp Ero&n
2l2g
confirmation of the hypothesis is supposed to reside in the fact
that lesions of the skin are to be observed on the mummy of
Tuthmosis II. This eommentator informs us
(without explaining
why) that they are due to leprosy, and that one of the
plagues
of Eeffpt described in the Bible eonsisted in skin boils. This
staggering construction takes no account of the other facts con-
tained in the Biblical narration, especially the Bible's mention of
the City of Ramesses which rules out any hypothesis dating the
Exodus before a
'Ramesses'
had reigned.
As to the skin lesions of Tuthmosis II, these do not swing
the argument in favour of the theory which designates this King
of Egypt as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. This is beeause his son,
Tuthmosis III, and his
grandson Amenophis II also show signs
of skin tumorsr, so that some commentators have suggested the
hypothesis of a disease which ran in the family. The Tuthmosis
II theory is not therefore tenable.
The same is true for Daniel-Rops's theory in his book. The
People of the Bible
(Le
Peuple de la Bible)
2:
He ascribes the role
of the Pharaoh of the Exodus to Amenophis II. It does not seem
to be any better-founded than the
preceding hypothesis. Using
the
pretext
that Amenophis II's father
(Tuthmosis III) was very
nationalistic, Daniel-Rops
proclaims
Amenophis II the
persecutor
of the Hebrews, while his step-mother, the famous
Queen
Hat-
shepsut, is east in the role of the
person
who took Moses in
(al-
though we never discover why).
Father de Vaux's theory, that it was Ramesses II, rests on
sliehtly more solid foundations. He expands on them in his book,
Th,e Ansi.ent History of Israel
(Histoire
ancienne d'Isral)'.
Even if his theory does not agree with the Biblieal narration on
every
point,
at least it has the advantage of
putting forrvard one
very important
piece of evidence: the construction of the cities
of Ramesses and Pithom built under Ramesses II referred to in
the Biblical text. It is not
possible thelefore to maintain that
the Exodus took
place before the accession of Ramesses II. This
is situated in the
year
1301 8.C., according to Drioton and Van-
1. The ski n l esi ons are cl earl y vi si bl e on the mummi es of these Pharaohs
preserved i n the Egypti an Museum, Cai ro.
2. Pub. Descl de de Brouwer, l 9?0, Pari s.
3. Pub. J. Gabal da and Co. , 1971, Pari s.
The E:rodflll
229
confirmation of the hypothesis is supposed to reside in the fact
that lesions of the skin are to be observed on the mummy of
Tuthmosis II. This commentator informs us (without explaining
why) that they are due to leprosy, and that one of the plagues
of Egypt described in the Bible consisted in skin boils. This
staggering construction takes no account of the other facts con-
tained in the Biblical narration, especially the Bible's mention of
the City of Ramesses which rules out any hypothesis dating the
Exodus before a 'Ramesses' had reigned.
As to the skin lesions of Tuthmosis II, these do not swing
the argument in favour of the theory which designates this King
of Egypt as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. This is because his son,
Tuthmosis III, and his grandson Amenophis II also show signs
of skin tumorsI, so that some commentators have suggested the
hypothesis of a disease which ran in the family. The Tuthmosis
II theory is not therefore tenable.
The same is true for Daniel-Rops's theory in his book. The
People of the Bible (Le Peuple de la Bible) 2: He ascribes the role
of the Pharaoh of the Exodus to Amenophis II. It does not seem
to be any better-founded than the preceding hypothesis. Using
the pretext that Amenophis II's father (Tuthmosis III) was very
nationalistic, Daniel-Rops proclaims Amenophis II the persecutor
of the Hebrews, while his step-mother, the famous Queen Hat-
shepsut, is cast in the role of the person who took Moses in (al-
though we never discover why) .
Father de Vaux's theory, that it was Ramesses II, rests on
slightly more solid foundations. He expands on them in his book,
The Ancient History of Israel (Histoire ancienne d'Israel)3.
Even if his theory does not agree with the Biblical narration on
every point, at least it has the advantage of putting forward one
very important piece of evidence: the construction of the cities
of Ramesses and Pithom built under Ramesses II referred to in
the Biblical text. It is not possible therefore to maintain that
the Exodus took place be/m'e the accession of Ramesses II. This
is situated in the year 1301 B.C., according to Drioton and Van-
1. The skin lesions are clearly visible on the mummies of these Pharaohs
preserved in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
2. Pub. Desclee de Brouwer, 1970, Paris.
3. Pub. J. Gabalda and Co., 1971, Paris.
t:m
mIE DBLq TIrE
QITRAT{
AND SCIENCE
dier's ehrronology, and in 1290 B.c. according to Rowton's. Ttre
two other hypotheses outlined above are untenable becsuse of
the following imperetive fact: Ramesss II is the
pharaoh
of
the oppresgion refercd to in the Bible.
Father de Vaux considers the Exodus to have taken
place
dur-
ing the ffrEt half or towards the middle of Ramesses II's reign.
Thus his drting of this event is imprecise: he suggests this
priod
to allow l}Ioses and his followers time, as it were, to setfle
in Cana^an, and Ramesses rl's suceessor, Phsraoh Mernapteh
who
is Bsid to hsve pacified
the frontiers after his father's death, to
bring the Children of Israel into line, as depicted on a stele of
the Fifth year
of his reign.
Two arguments may be levelled st this theory:
a) The Bible shows
(Exodus
2, zgl that the King of Egypt died
during the
period
when Moses was in Midian. This
King of Egvpt
is described in the Book of Exodus as the King who made the He-
brewg build the cities of Ramesscs and Pithom by forced labour.
This King was Bamesses II. The Exodus could only have taken
place
under the lstter's successor. Father de Vaux claims how-
ever to doubt the Biblical sources of verse zg, chapter 2 of
Exodue.
b) what is more astounding is that Father de vaux, as director
of the Biblical School of Jerusalem, does not refer in his theory
of the Exodug to two essential passsges
in the Bible, both of
whidr bear witness to the fact that the King died during the
pursuit
of the fleeing llebrews. This detsit makes it impossible
for the Exodus to have taken place
at any other time than at the
end of e reign.
rt must be repeated
that there csn be titile doubt that the
Pheraoh lost his life as a result
of lt. Chapters lB and 14 of
Exodus are
quite
specific on this point:
"so he made ready his
chariot and took his army with him . . ."
(Exodus
14,6).
(pharaoh
king of Egypt)
"pursued
the
people
of Israel as they went forth
defiantly"
(Exodus
14,8) . . .
"The waters returned and covered
the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of Pharaoh thst
had followed them into the sea; not so much a,s one of them
remained." (Exodus
14,28 snd 29). In addition
to these verses,
Psslm 188 confirms Pharaoh's death and refers to Yahweh
who
TIlE BULE. THE QUB'AN AND SCIENCE
dier's chronology, and in 1290 B.C. according to Rowton's. The
two other hypotheses outlined above are untenable because of
the following imperative fact: Ramesses II is the Pharaoh of
the oppression referred to in the Bible.
Father de Vaux considers the Exodus to have taken place dur-
ing the first half or towards the middle of Ramesses Irs reign.
Thus his dating of this event is imprecise: he suggests this
period to allow Moses and his followers time, as it were, to settle
in Canaan, and Ramesses II's successor, Pharaoh Memaptah who
is said to have pacified the frontiers after his father's death, to
bring the Children of Israel into line, as depicted on a stele of
the Fifth year of his reign.
Two arguments may be levelled at this theory:
a) The Bible shows (Exodus 2, 23) that the King of Egypt died
during the period when Moses was in Midian. This King of Egypt
is described in the Book of Exodus as the King who made the He-
brews build the cities of Ramesses and Pithom by forced labour.
This King was Ramesses II. The Exodus could only have taken
place under the latter's successor. Father de Vaux claims how-
ever to doubt the Biblical sources of verse 23, chapter 2 of
Exodus.
b) What is more astounding is that Father de Vaux, as director
of the Biblical School of Jerusalem, does not refer in his theory
of the Exodus to two essential passages in the Bible, both of
which bear witness to the fact that the King died during the
pursuit of the fleeing Hebrews. This detail makes it impossible
for the Exodus to have taken place at any other time than at the
end of a reign.
It must be repeated that there can be little doubt that the
Pharaoh lost his life as a result of it. Chapters 13 and 14 of
Exodus are quite specific on this point: uSo he made ready his
chariot and took his army with him ..." (Exodus 14,6). (Pharaoh
king of Egypt) upursued the people of Israel as they went forth
defiantly" (Exodus 14,8) ... uThe waters returned and covered
the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of Pharaoh that
had followed them into the sea; not so much as one of them
remained." (Exodus 14,28 and 29). In addition to these verses,
Psalm 136 confirms Pharaoh's death and refers to Yahweh who
Tlntu
ttl
"overthrew
Pharaoh and his host in the $ea of Rusheg"
(Psslms
196,16).
Thue, d,uring Moae{s l,ifetime, onn Plwro,oh died when Moscs
wds in Midien dnd, anntlwr dntri,ng
tlue Erod'us. There were not
one, but two Pharaohs
at the time of Moses: one during the
oppression
and the other during the Exodus from Egypt. The
ttreory of e single Pheraoh
(Ramesses II)
put
forward by Father
de Vaux is unsstisfactory because
it does not account for every-
thing, The following obsemations
are further srguments against
his theory.
3, RatmesetllrPlrulraoh
of t .e Opptelrrfon
MeneptahrPlurrch
of tllm E*oihlr
P. Montet has very discerningly resumed the originel Alexen-
drisnl tradition mentioned by Mespero. It is found much later
in the Islamic tradition ss well as in the clsssic Christien
tra-
dition.z This theory is set out in Montet's book EgUpt and, the
Bible
(L'Egmte et le Bible)
!
and is supported by additional
arguments, based
in
particulsr on the narrative contained in the
Qur'an,
to which the famous archaeologist did not refer. Before
examining them however, \ilI shall first return to the Bible.
The Book of Exodus contsins a reference to the word
'Rameg'
ses' although the Pharaoh'g
name is not mentioned. In the Bible
'Bamesses'
is the name of one of the cities built by the foreed
labour of the lfebrews. Todsy we know that these cities form
part of the Tanis-Qantir
region, in the eastern Nile Delta. In the
area where Ramesses II built his northern capital, there were
other constructions
prior to his, but it was Ramesses
II who
made it into an important
site, as the archeological
excsvations
undertaken
in the last few decades have amply shown' To build
it, he used the lsbour of the enslaved Hebrews.
There can be no doubt that in the Golden Age of the Ptolemies,
his-
tori cal documents
on Anti qui ty were
preserved at Al exandri a,
onl y to
be destroyed at the time of the Roman conquest; a loss which is keenly
fel t today.
In the Holy Ilistories
of the early 20th century' as in the
Hiatory by
Abbe H. Lesetre, i ntended
for rel i gi ous i nstructi on, the Exodus
i s men-
tioned as havin8 taken
place during Merneptah's reign in EgypL
1 .
2.
3. Pub. Delachaux and Niertl, Neuchatl' 1969'
131
"overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Sea of Rushes" (Psalms
136,15)
Thus, during Moses's lifetime, one Phara,01f, died when Moses
W4B in Mid:ia,n a.nd a.nother during the E ~ o d U 8 There were not
one, but two Pharaohs at the time of Moses: one during the
oppression and the other during the Exodus from Egypt. The
theory of a single Pharaoh (Ramesses II) put forward by Father
de Vaux is unsatisfactory because it does not account for every-
thing. The following observations are further arguments against
his theory.
3. RatneseB", Phaf'aoh of the Oppreaion
Memeptah, Phaf'tJOh of the Exodua
P. Montet has very discerningly resumed the original Alexan-
drian
t
tradition mentioned by Maspero. It is found much later
in the Islamic tradition as well as in the classic Christian tra-
dition.
2
This theory is set out in Montet's book Egypt and the
Bible (L'Egypte et Ie Bible) a and is supported by additional
arguments, based in particular on the narrative contained in the
Qur'an, to which the famous archaeologist did not refer. Before
examining them however, we shall first return to the Bible.
The Book of Exodus contains a reference to the word 'Rames"
ses' although the Pharaoh's name is not mentioned. In the Bible
'Ramesses' is the name of one of the cities buBt by the forced
labour of the Hebrews. Today we know that these cities form
part of the Tanis-Qantir region, in the eastern Nile Delta. In the
area where Ramesses II built his northern capital, there were
other constructions prior to his, but it was Ramesses II who
made it into an important site, as the archeological excavations
undertaken in the last few decades have amply shown. To build
it, he used the labour of the enslaved Hebrews.
1. There can be no doubt that in the Golden Age of the Ptolemies, his-
torical documents on Antiquity were preserved at Alexandria, only to
be destroyed at the time of the Roman conquest; a loss which is keenly
felt today.
2. In the Holy Histories of the early 20th century, as in the History by
Abbe H. Lesetre, intended for religious instruction, the Exodus is men-
tioned as having taken place during Merneptah's reign in Egypt.
3. Pub. Delachaux and NiestIe, Neuchatel, 1959.
2 2
THE BIBLE, THE
QUITAN
AND SCIENCE
when one resds the word
'Ramesges'
in the Bible today, one is
not
particularly
struck by it: the
word has become very common
to us since champollion discovered
the key to hieroglyphics
160
years
ago, by examining the characters
that expressed
this
very word. We are therefore
used to reading and pronouncing
it
today and know what it means. one has to remember
however
that the meaning
of hieroglyphics
had been lost in circa the
Third
century B.c. and that Ramesses' name had hardly been
pnesen'ed
anywhere
except in the Bible and a few books written
in Greek and Latin which had deformed it to a lesser or greater
extent. It is for this rea$on that Tacitus
in his Annals
tattcs of
'Rhamsis'.
The Bible
had however preserved
the name intact:
it
is referred
to four times
in the
pentateuch
or Torah (Genesis
47,11; Exodus
1,11 and lZ,gT; Numbers
BB,B and 88,6).
Ttre Hebrew
word for
'Ramesses'
is written in two ways in the
Bible:
'R6.
(e)
mss' or
'Rfie6mss'r.
rn the Greek version
of the
Bible' ealled the septuagint, it is
'R0mess'.
In the Latin version
(vulgate)
it is written
'Ramesses'.
rn the clementine version
of
the Bible in Freneh (lst
edition, 162l) the word is the
s&me,
'Rarnesse'q'.
The French
edition was in circulation
at the time of
Champollion's
work in this field. In his Summary of the Hibro-
gl'aphie
system
of the Aneient
Egyptians (pr0cis'du
systdme
hidroslyphique
des anciens
Egyptiens) (znd
edition, lgzi, page
276),
champollion
alludes to the Biblical spelling
of the word.
Thus the Bible had miraculously preserved
R"*e.**s,s
name
in its Hebrew,
Greek and Latin versions.z
The preceding
data alone are enough
to establish the following:
a) There can be no
question
of the Exodus bef.lre a
,Ramesses'
had eome to the throne in Egypt (11
Kings of Egypt had this
name).
b) Moses was born during the reign of the
pharaoh
who
built
the cities of Ramesses and Pithom, i.e. Ramesses II.
The letter
'e'
ffgrres as the ayin in Hebrew.
rt ie strange to note moreover, that in old editions of the Bible, com-
mentatorr did not understand the meaning of the word at all. In the
French edi ti on of the cl ementi ne Bi bre, l 62l , for exampl e,
an i nterpre-
t et i on of t he word' Ramesses' i s gi ven
whi ch makes t ot al nonsens:
' Thunder
of Vermi n' (si c).
1.
2.
232
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
When one reads the word 'Rarnesses' in the Bible today, one is
not particularly struck by it: the word has become very common
to us since Champollion discovered the key to hieroglyphics
150 years ago, by examining the characters that expressed this
very word. We are therefore used to reading and pronouncing it
today and know what it means. One has to remember however
that the meaning of hieroglyphics had been lost in circa the
Third century B.C. and that Rarnesses' name had hardly been
preserved anywhere except in the Bible and a few books written
in Greek and Latin which had deformed it to a lesser or greater
extent. It is for this reason that Tacitus in his Annals talks of
'Rhamsis'. The Bible had however preserved the name intact: it
is referred to four times in the Pentateuch or Torah (Genesis
47,11; Exodus 1,11 and 12,37; Numbers 33,3 and 33,5).
The Hebrew word for 'Rarnesses' is written in two ways in the
Bible: 'Ra(e)mss' or 'Raeamss'l. In the Greek version of the
Bible, called the Septuagint, it is 'Rarnesse'. In the Latin version
(Vulgate) it is written 'Ramesses'. In the Clementine version of
the Bible in French (1st edition, 1621) the word is the same,
'Ramesses'. The French edition was in circulation at the time of
Champollion's work in this field. In his Summary of the Hiero-
glyphic System of the Ancient Egyptians (Precis du systeme
hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens) (2nd edition, 1828, page
276), Champollion aHudes to the Biblical spelling of the word.
Thus the Bible had miraculously preserved Rarnesses's name
in its Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions.
2
The preceding data alone are enough to establish the following:
a) There can be no question of the Exodus befflre a 'Rarnesses'
had come to the throne in Egypt (11 Kings of Egypt had this
name).
b) Moses was born during the reign of the Pharaoh who built
the cities of Ramesses and Pithorn, I.e. Rarnesses II.
1. The letter 'e' figures as the ayin in Hebrew.
2. It is strange to note moreover, that in old editions of the Bible, com-
mentators did not understand the meaning of the word at all. In the
French edition of the Clementine Bible, 1621, for example, an interpre-
tation of the word 'Ramesses' is given which makes total nonsense:
'Thunder of Vermin' (sic).
Ttu Eroihn
fltil
c) When
Moses was in Midian, the reigning Pharaoh
(i'e'
Bamesses II) died.
The continuation
of Moses's story took
plece
during
the reign of Ramesses
II's successor, Merneptah.
What
is more, the Bible adds other
highly important
dsta
which
help to situate the Exodus in the history of the Pharaohs.
It is the statement
that Moses was eighty
years old when, under
God's
orders, he tried to
persuade Pharaoh to free his brothers:
"Now
Moses was eighty
years old, and Aaron eighty-three
years
years old, when they spoke to Pharaoh."
(Exodus 7,71.
Else-
where however, the Bible tells us
(Exodus 2,23) that the Pharaoh
reigning at the time of the birth of Moses died when the latter
ruas in Midian, although the Biblical narration continues without
mentioning
any change
in the sovereign's name. These two
pas-
sages in the Bible imply that the total
number of
years
spanning
the reigns of the two Pharaohs ruling at the time when Moses
was livins in Egypt must have been eighty
years
at least.
It is knorvn that Ramesses II reigned for 6?
years (1801-1235
B.C. according to Drioton and Vandier's chronology, 1290-L224
B.C. according to Rowton).
For Merneptah, his successor,
the
Egyptologists are unable, however, to
provide the exact dates of
his reign. Nevertheless,
it lasted for at least ten
years becauge,
as Father deVaux
points out, documents bear witness to the tenth
year
of his reign. Drioton and Vandier
give two
possibilities for
Merneptah: either a ten-year reign, 1234-1224 l,.C., or a twenty-
year reign L224-1204
B.C. Egyptologists
have no
precise indica-
tions
whatsoever
on how Merneptah's
reign came to an end: all
that can be said is that after his death, Egypt
went through
a
period of serious
internal upheavals
lssting nearly
26
years'
Even though the chronological
data on these
reigns are not
very
precise, there was no other
period during the New
Kingdom
concordant
with the Biblical
narration
when two successive
reigns
(apart from Ramesses
ll-Merneptah)
amounted
to or sur-
passed eishty
years. The Biblical
data concerning
Moses's age
when
he undertook the liberation
of his brothers can only ccme
from
a time during
the successive
reigns of Ramesses
II srrd
The Exodua
c) When Moses was in Midian, the reigning Pharaoh (Le.
Ramesses II) died. The continuation of Moses's story took place
during the reign of Ramesses II's successor, Merneptah.
What is more, the Bible adds other highly important data
which help to situate the Exodus in the history of the Pharaohs.
It is the statement that Moses was eighty years old when, under
God's orders, he tried to persuade Pharaoh to free his brothers:
"Now Moses was eighty years old, and Aaron eighty-three years
years old, when they spoke to Pharaoh." (Exodus 7,7). Else-
where however, the Bible tells us (Exodus 2,23) that the Pharaoh
reigning at the time of the birth of Moses died when the latter
was in Midian, although the Biblical narration continues without
mentioning any change in the sovereign's name. These two pas-
sages in the Bible imply that the total number of years spanning
the reigns of the two Pharaohs ruling at the time when Moses
was living in Egypt must have been eighty years at least.
It is known that Ramesses II reigned for 67 years (1301-1235
B.C. according to Drioton and Vandier's chronology, 1290-1224
B.C. according to Rowton). For Merneptah, his successor, the
Egyptologists are unable, however, to provide the exact dates of
his reign. Nevertheless, it lasted for at least ten years because,
as Father deVaux points out, documents bear witness to the tenth
year of his reign. Drioton and Vandier give two possibilities for
Merneptah: either a ten-year reign, 1234-1224 B.C., or a twenty-
year reign 1224-1204 B.C. Egyptologists have no precise indica-
tions whatsoever on how Merneptah's reign came to an end: all
that can be said is that after his death, Egypt went through a
period of serious internal upheavals lasting nearly 25 years.
Even though the chronological data on these reigns are not
very precise, there was no other period during the New Kingdom
concordant with the Biblical narration when two successive
reigns (apart from Rarnesses II-Merneptah) amounted to or sur-
passed eighty years. The Biblical data concerning Moses's age
when he undertook the liberation of his brothers can only come
from a time during the successive reigns of Ramesses II alld
8II{
TIIE BIBI.q
TIIE
QUN'AN
AND $GIENGE
Merneptahr. All the evidenee points
towards
the fact that Moses
was born at the beginning
of Ramesses II's reign,
was living in
Midian when Ba,messes rr died after a sixty-seven year
reign,
and subsequently
became the spokesman
for the cause of the
Hebrews living in Egypt to Merneptah,
Ramesses
II's son and
suecesson This episode may have happened
in the second half of
Merneptah's reign,
assuming he reigned
twenty years
or nearly
twenty years.
Rowton believes
the supposition
to be
quite
feasible.
Moses would then hsve led the Exodui
at the end of Merneptah's
reign. It could hardly have been otherwise
because
both tne niue
and the
Qur'an
tell us that
pharaoh
perished
during the pursuit
of the Hebrews
leaving
the country.
_
firis
plan
agrees perfecfly
with
the account
contained in the
seriptures of Moses's infancy
and of the way he
was taken
into
the Pharaoh's
family. rt is a known
faet that Ramesses II was
very old when he died l it is said that he was ninety to a hundred
years
old. According
to this theory,
he would have been twenty_
three to thirty-three years
ord at the beginning
of his reign which
lssted sixty-seven yegrs.
He could havJ been married at that age
and there is nothing
to contradict
the discovery of Moses by
,a
member
of Pharaoh's
household' (eccording
to the
eur'an),
or
the fact that Pharaoh's
wife asked him if he wouli keep the
newly-born
child she had found on the bank of the Nile. ttre-Biute
claims that the ehild was
found by
phersoh's
daughter.
In view of
Ramesses II's age at the
beginning
of his reign
it would have
been perfectly possible
for him to have had a daughter
old enough
to discover
the abandoned
child.
The
eur'anic and Biblical narra-
tions
do not contradict
each other in eny wsy ou this
1nint.
The theory
grven
here is in absolute
agieemdnt with ttre
eurso
and is moreover at odds with
only one single statement in
the
Bible which occurs (as
we have seen) in Kings r 6,1
(N.B.
this
book is not included
in the Torah). This passage
is the subject of
much debate and Father de Vaux rejeets the historicsl
data eon-
tained in this part
of the Old Testament,
which dates the Exodus
1- The period
spanning the two reigrrs Sethos f-Ramesses
II, which is Baid
to have lasted roughly eighty years,
is out of the question:
Sethos I's
reig'n-which u'as too short for this*-does not sqnare with the very long
stalr in Midian which llloses made as an adult and which took place
dur-
jng
the reign of the first of the two
pharaohs
he was to know.
THE BIBLE, THE QUIrAN AND SCIENCE
Merneptah
l
All the evidence points towards the fact that Moses
was born at the beginning of Rarnesses II's reign, was living in
Midian when Ramesses II died after a sixty-seven year reign,
and subsequently became the spokesman for the cause of the
Hebrews living in Egypt to Merneptah, Ramesses Irs son and
successor. This episode may have happened in the second half of
Merneptah's reign, assuming he reigned twenty years or nearly
twenty years. Rowton believes the supposition to be quite feasible.
Moses would then have led the Exodus at the end of Merneptah's
reign. It could hardly have been otherwise because both the Bible
and the Qur'an tell us that Pharaoh perished during the pursuit
of the Hebrews leaving the country.
This plan agrees perfectly with the account contained in the
Scriptures of Moses's infancy and of the way he was taken into
the Pharaoh's family. It is a known fact that Ramesses II was
very old when he died: it is said that he was ninety to a hundred
years old. According to this theory, he would have been twenty-
three to thirty-three years old at the beginning of his reign which
lasted sixty-seven years. He could have been married at that age
and there is nothing to contradict the discovery of Moses by 'a
member of Pharaoh's household' (according to the Qur'an), or
the fact that Pharaoh's wife asked him if he would keep the
newly-born child she had found on the bank of the Nile. The Bible
claims that the child was found by Pharaoh's daughter. In view of
Ramesses II's age at the beginning of his reign it would have
been perfectly possible for him to have had a daughter old enough
to discover the abandoned child. The Qur'anic and Biblical narra-
tions do not contradict each other in any way OD this point.
The theory given here is in absolute agreement with the Qur'an
and is moreover at odds with only one single statement in the
Bible which occurs (as we have seen) in Kings I 6,1 (N.B. this
book is not included in the Torah). This passage is the subject of
much debate and Father de Vaux rejects the historical data con-
tained in this part of the Old Testament, which dates the Exodus
1. The period spanning the two reigns Sethos I-Ramesses II, which is said
to have lasted roughly eighty years, is out of the question: Sethos 1'8
reign-which was too short for this--does not square with the very long
stay in Midian which Moses made as an adult and which took place dur-
jng the reign of the first of the two Pharaohs he was to know.
T;* E*odw
235
in relatiorr to the construetion
of Solomon's temple.
The fact that
it is subject
to doubt makes it impossible
to retain it as a con-
clusive argument against the theory outlined
here.
Tlw Problem of thc Stett Dating
from
the FifthTem of
MenwptuWcReiEfi
In the text of the famous stele dating
from the fifth
year
of
Merneptah's
reign critics tirink they have found an objection to
the theory set out here, in which the
pursuit of the Jews consti-
tuted the last act of his reign.
The stele is of
great interest
because it represents the only
known document in hieroglyphics
which contains the word
'fsrael'.r
The inscription which dates from the first
part
of Mer-
neptah's
reign was discovered in Thebes in the Pharaoh's
Fu-
neral Temple, It refers to a, series of victories
he won over
Egypt's neighbouring
states, in
partieular a victory mentioned
af the end of the document over a
"devastated
Israel
which has
no more seed . . "
From this fact it has been held that the exisL
ence of the word
'fsrael'
implied that the Jews must already have
settled in Canaan by the fifth
year of Mefneptah's
reign, and that
in consequence, the Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt had al-
ready taken
place.
This objection does not seem tenable because it implies that
there could have been no Jews living in Canaan all the while there
were Jews in Egypt-a
proposition it is impossible to aecept.
Father de Vaux
however, in spite of the faet that he is a sup-
porter of the theory which makes Ramesses II the Pharaoh of
the Exodus, notesz the following about the settling of the Jews
in
Canaan: "fn
the South, the time
when communities
related to
the Israelites settled in the Kadesh region is unclear and dates
from before the Exodus," He therefore allows for the
possibility
that eertain
groups may have left Egypt at a time different from
that of Moses and his followers. The
'Apiru
or Habi,rzr who have
sometimes been
identified with the Israelites were already in
Syria-Palestine
long before Ramesses II and the Exodus: we
have documentary evidence which
proves that Amenophis
II
The word
is followed by a
generic determinative which leaves no doubt
as to the fact that thi s term si gni fi es a
' human
communi ty or
group"
In his book
.The
Ancient History of lvaef
(Histoire
ancienne
d'Israel)
1.
2.
The ExodU8 235
in relation to the construction of Solomon's temple. The fact that
it is subject to doubt makes it impossible to retain it as a con-
clusive argument against the theory outlined here.
The Problem of the Stele Dating from the Fifth Year of
M(mleptah's Reign
In the text of the famous stele dating from the fifth year of
Merneptah's reign critics think they have found an objection to
the theory set out here, in which the pursuit of the Jews consti-
tuted the last act of his reign.
The stele is of great interest because it represents the only
known document in hieroglyphics which contains the word
'Israel'.1 The inscription which dates from the first part of Mer-
neptah's reign was discovered in Thebes in the Pharaoh's Fu-
neral Temple. It refers to a series of victories he won over
Egypt's neighbouring states, in particular a victory mentioned
at the end of the document over a "devastated Israel which has
no more seed .. " From this fact it has been held that the exist-
ence of the word 'Israel' implied that the Jews must already have
settled in Canaan by the fifth year of Merneptah's reign, and that
in consequence, the Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt had al-
ready taken place.
This objection does not seem tenable because it implies that
there could have been no Jews living in Canaan all the while there
were Jews in Egypt-a proposition it is impossible to accept.
Father de Vaux however, in spite of the fact that he is a sup-
porter of the theory which makes Ramesses II the Pharaoh of
the Exodus, notes
2
the following about the settling of the Jews in
Canaan: "In the South, the time when communities related to
the Israelites settled in the Kadesh region is unclear and dates
from before the Exodus." He therefore allows for the possibility
that certain groups may have left Egypt at a time different from
that of Moses and his followers. The 'Apiru or Habiru who have
sometimes been identified with the Israelites were already in
Syria-Palestine long before Ramesses II and the Exodus: we
have documentary evidence which proves that Amenophis II
1. The word is followed by a generic determinative which leaves no doubt
as to the fact that this term signifies a 'human community or group'.
2. In his book 'The Ancient History of Israel' (Histoire ancienne d'Israel)
936 THE BIBLE,
THE
QURAN
AND SCIENCE
brought baek s,600 prisoners
to work as forced labourers in
Eeypt.
others were to be found
in Canaan under Sethos I where
they caused unrest in the Beth-Shean region:
p.
Montet reminds
us of this in his book Egupt
and the Eible (L'Esypte
et Ia Bible) .
rt is
quite plausible
to suppgse therefore
that Merneptah
wes
obliged to deal severely
with these rebellious
elements
on his
borders
while inside them were those
who were later to rally
around Moses to flee the country. The existence
of the stele dating
from the fifth year
of Merneptah's reign
does not in any way
detract from the
present
theory.
Moreover,
the
fact
tlnt the asord,Israel
figures
i,n the h,istory
of the Jewi.sh
people
is toto,Ily
uncannected,
wi,th the notion
that
Moees a,nd' his
f
ollnwers
settled in ca,naan. The origin of the word
is ss follows:
According
to Genesis (gz,zgl-,
rsrael is the second name given
to Jacob, son of Isaac and grandson
of Abraham.
The commenta-
tors of the Ecwnenieal
rra,nsrntion
of the Bibte-otd,
Testament
(Traduction
oecumdnique
de la
Bible-Ancien
Testament)
,
Lg76,
think that its meaning
is
probably
that
,God
shows Himself in
His strength'.
since it has been given
to a single
man, it is not
surprising that
it was given
to a community
or group
of people
in memory
of a distinguished
ancestor
The name
'Israel',
therefore
appeared
well before
Moses:
sev_
eral hundred years
before
to be exact. rt is not surprising
con_
sequently to see it cited in a stele from the reign
of itre
ph-araoh
Merneptah'
The fact that it is cited does not at all constitute
an
arg'ument in favour
of a theory
which dates the Exodus
before
the fifth year
of Merneptah's
reign.
what it does do is refer
to a group
which it ealls
.rsrael',
but
Merneptah's
stele cannot be alluding
to a politically
established
collectivity
because the inscription
dates
i"o* the end of the
Thirteenth century
B,c. and the Kingdom
of Israel
was hot
formed until the Tenth
century
B.c. It must therefore
refer to
a human community
of more modest proportions.r
1.
"Tf;"m"
'rsrael'
(in
the stere) is aceompanied
by the generic
deter-
minstive
'people'
instead of the determinaiive
,country',
as is the case
for the other proper
names in the stele" writes Father B. couroyer,
Professor at the Biblical
School of Jerusalem,
in his commentary
to the
translation of the Book of Exodus (pub.
Editions
du cerf,
paris,
196g,
page
12).
236 THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
brought back 3,600 prisoners to work as forced labourers in
Egypt. Others were to be found in Canaan under Sethos I where
they caused unrest in the Beth-Shean region: P. Montet reminds
us of this in his book Egypt and the Bible (L'Egypte et la Bible).
It is quite plausible to sUPPQse therefore that Merneptah was
obliged to deal severely with these rebellious elements on his
borders while inside them were those who were later to rally
around Moses to flee the country. The existence of the stele dating
from the fifth year of Merneptah's reign does not in any way
detract from the present theory.
Moreover, the fact that the word 'Israel' figures in the history
of the Jewish people is totally unconnected with the notion that
M08es and his followers settled in Canaan. The origin of the word
is as follows:
According to Genesis (32,29), Israel is the second name given
to Jacob, son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham. The commenta-
tors of the Ecumenical Translation of the Bible-Old Testament
(Traduction oecumenique de la Bible-Ancien Testament), 1975,
think that its meaning is probably that 'God shows Himself in
His Strength'. Since it has been given to a single man, it is not
surprising that it was given to a community or group of people
in memory of a distinguished ancestor.
The name 'Israel', therefore appeared well before Moses: sev-
eral hundred years before to be exact. It is not surprising con-
sequently to see it cited in a stele from the reign of the Pharaoh
Merneptah. The fact that it is cited does not at all constitute an
argument in favour of a theory which dates the Exodus before
the fifth year of Merneptah's reign.
What it does do is refer to a group which it calls 'Israel', but
Merneptah's stele cannot be alluding to a politically established
collectivity because the inscription dates from the end of the
Thirteenth century B.C. and the Kingdom of Israel was 'not
formed until the Tenth century B.C. It must therefore refer to
a human community of more modest proportions.
1
1. "The name 'Israel' (in the stele) is accompanied by the generic deter-
minative 'people' instead of the determinative 'country', as is the case
for the other proper names in the stele" writes Father B. Couroyer,
Professor at the Biblical School of Jerusalem, in his commentary to the
translation of the Book of Exodus (Pub. Editions du Cerf, Paris, 1968,
page 12).
Tlre Eroilus
237
Nowadays, we knorv that the entry of
'Israel'
into history was
preceded by a long formatory
period of eight or nine centuries.
This
period was distinguished by the settling of many semi-
Nomadic
g:roups, especially the Amorites and the Arameans all
over the region. In the same
period, Patriarchs began to appear
in their communities among whom were Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob-Israel.
The second name of this last Patriarch was used to
designate the original
group, the nucleus of a future
political
entity which was to appear long after Merneptah's reign, since
the Kingdom of Israel lasted from 931 or 930 to 721 B.C.
4, The Description Contained in the IIoIg Sct'iptwes of thc
PharaoVs Death During the Exodus.
This event marks a very important
point in the narrations con-
tained in the Bible and the
Qur'an.
It stands forth very elearly in
the texts. It is referred to in the Bible, not only in the Pentateuch
or Torah, but also in the Psalms: the references have already
been
given.
It is very strange to find that Christian eommentators have
completely ignored it. Thus, Father de Vaux maintains the theory
that the Exodus from Egypt took
place in the first half or the
middle of Ramesses II's reign. His theory takes no account of the
fact that the Pharaoh
perished during the Exodus, a fact which
should make all hypotheses place the event at the end of a reign.
In hi s Anei ent Hi story of Israel
(Hi stoi re
anci enne d' Isra6l ), the
Head of the Biblical School of Jerusalem
does not seem to be at all
troubled by the contradiction between the theory he maintains
and the data contained in the two Books of the Bible: the Torah
and Psalms.
In his book, EgUpt und. the llible
(L'Egypte et la Bible)' P.
Montet
places the Exodus during Merneptah's
reign, but says
nothing about the death of the Pharaoh who rvas at the head of
the army following the fleeing Hebrews.
This hiehly surprising attitude contrasts with the Jews' out-
look I Psalm 136, verse 15
gives
thanks to God who "overthrew
Pharaoh
and his host in the Sea of Rushes" and is often recited
in their liturgy. They know of the agreement
between this verse
and the
passage i n Exodus
(14,28-29) : "The
waters returned
The Exodu8 237
Nowadays, we know that the entry of 'Israel' into history was
preceded by a long formatory period of eight or nine centuries.
This period was distinguished by the settling of many semi-
Nomadic groups, especially the Amorites and the Arameans all
over the region. In the same period, Patriarchs began to appear
in their communities among whom were Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob-Israel. The second name of this last Patriarch was used to
designate the original group, the nucleus of a future political
entity which was to appear long after Merneptah's reign, since
the Kingdom of Israel lasted from 931 or 930 to 721 B.C.
4. The Description Contained in the I10lU SCf'iptures of the
Pharaoh's Death During the Exodus.
This event marks a very important point in the narrations con-
tained in the Bible and the Qur'an. It stands forth very clearly in
the texts. It is referred to in the Bible, not only in the Pentateuch
or Torah, but also in the Psalms: the references have already
been given.
It is very strange to find that Christian commentators have
completely ignored it. Thus, Father de Vaux maintains the theory
that the Exodus from Egypt took place in the first half or the
middle of Ramesses II's reign. His theory takes no account of the
fact that the Pharaoh perished during the Exodus, a fact which
should make all hypotheses place the event at the end of a reign.
In his Ancient History of Israel (Histoire ancienne d'Israel), the
Head of the Biblical School of Jerusalem does not seem to be at all
troubled by the contradiction between the theory he maintains
and the data contained in the two Books of the Bible: the Torah
and Psalms.
In his book, Egypt and the Bible (L'Egypte et 1a Bible), P.
Montet places the Exodus during Merneptah's reign, but says
nothing about the death of the Pharaoh who was at the head of
the army following the fleeing Hebrews.
This highly surprising attitude contrasts with the Jews' out-
look: Psalm 136, verse 15 gives thanks to God who "overthrew
Pharaoh and his host in the Sea of Rushes" and i8 often recited
in their liturgy. They know of the agreement between this verse
and the passage in Exodus (14,28-29): "The waters returned
238 THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
and covered the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of
Pharaoh that had followed them into the sea; not so much as one
of them remained." There is no shadow of a doubt for them that
the Pharaoh and his troups were wiped out. These same texts are
present
in Christian Bibles.
Christian commentators quite
deliberately,
and in contradic-
tion to all the evidence, brush aside the Pharaoh's death. What is
more however, some of them mention the reference made to it in
the
Qur'an
and encourag:e their readers to make very strange
comparisons. In the translation of the Bible directed by the Bibli-
cal Sehool of Jerusalem' we find the following commentary on the
Pharaoh's death by Father Couroyer:
"The Koran refers to this (Pharaoh's
death) (sura
10, verses
90-92), and popular
tradition has it that the
pharaoh
who was
drowned with his army
(an
event whieh is not mentioned in the
Holy Text'?) lives beneath the ocean where he rules over the men
of the sea, i.e. the seals".
It is obvious that the uninformed reader
of the
eur'an
is bound
to establish
a connection
between a statement in it which-for
the
commentator-contradicts
the Biblical text and this absurd
legend which comes
from a so-called popurar
tradition mentioned
in the commentary
after the reference
to the
eur'an.
The real meaning of the statement in the
eur'an
on this has
nothing to do with what this commentator
suggests: verses
g0
to
92, sura 10 inform
us that the
chirdren of Israel crossed the sea
while the Pharaoh and his troops were pursuing
them and that
it was only when the Pharaoh was about to be drowned that he
eri ed:
"I bel i eve there i s no God exeept the God i n whi ch the
Chilldren of Israel
believe. I am of those who submit themselves
to Hi m." God repl i ed:
"what? Now! Thou hast rebel l ed
and
caused depravity.
This day We save thee in thy body so that thou
mayest
be a sisn for those who will come after thee."
This is all that the sura contains on the
pharaoh's
death. There
is no question
of the
phantasms
recorded
by the Biblical commen_
tator either here or anywhere else in the
eur'an.
The text of the
Qur'an
merely
states very clearly that the
pharaoh,s
body will
be saved: that i s the i mportant pi ece
of i nformati on.
L' Exode (Exodus),
1968. page
?8,
pub.
Les Edi t i ons du cerf ,
pari s.
There can be no doubt that thi s eorrnmentator i s referri ng to the Bi bl e.
1.
2.
238
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
and covered the chariots and the horsemen and all the host of
Pharaoh that had followed them into the sea; not so much as one
of them remained." There is no shadow of a doubt for them that
the Pharaoh and his troups were wiped out. These same texts are
present in Christian Bibles.
Christian commentators quite deliberately, and in contradic-
tion to all the evidence, brush aside the Pharaoh's death. What is
more however, some of them mention the reference made to it in
the Qur'an and encourage their readers to make very strange
comparisons. In the translation of the Bible directed by the Bibli-
cal School of Jerusalem
1
we find the following commentary on the
Pharaoh's death by Father Couroyer:
"The Koran refers to this (Pharaoh's death) (sura 10, verses
90-92), and popular tradition has it that the Pharaoh who was
drowned with his army (an event which is not mentioned in the
Holy Text
2
) lives beneath the ocean where he rules over the men
of the sea, Le. the seals".
It is obvious that the uninformed reader of the Qur'an is bound
to establish a connection between a statement in it which-for the
commentator-contradicts the Biblical text and this absurd
legend which comes from a so-called popular tradition mentioned
in the commentary after the reference to the Qur'an.
The real meaning of the statement in the Qur'an on this has
nothing to do with what this commentator suggests: verses 90 to
92, sura 10 inform us that the Children of Israel crossed the sea
while the Pharaoh and his troops were pursuing them and that
it was only when the Pharaoh was about to be drowned that he
cried: "I believe there is no God except the God in which the
Chilldren of Israel believe. I am of those who submit themselves
to Him." God replied : "What ? Now! Thou hast rebelled and
caused depravity. This day We save thee in thy body so that thou
mayest be a Sign for those who will come after thee."
This is all that the sura contains on the Pharaoh's death. There
is no question of the phantasms recorded by the Biblical commen-
tator either here or anywhere else in the Qur'an. The text of the
Qur'an merely states very clearly that the Pharaoh's body will
be saved: that is the important piece of information.
1. L'Exode (Exodus), 1968, page 73, Pub. Les Editions du Cerf, Paris.
2. There can be no doubt that this commentator is referring to the Bible.
Tlp Exo6,t,o
l[tg
When
the
Qur'an
was transmitted to man by the Prophet, the
bodies of all the Pharaohs
who are today considered
(rightly or
wrongly)
to have something to do with the Exodus were in their
tomhs of the Necropolis
of Thebes, on the opposite
side of the
Nile
from Luxor.
At the time however, absolutely nothing was
known of this fact, and it was not until the end of the Nineteenth
century
that they were discovered there. As the
Qur'an
states, the
body of the Pharaoh of the Exodus
was in fact rescued:
which-
eVer of the Pharaohs it was, visitors may see him in the Royal
Mummies Room
of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The truth is
therefore very different from the ludicrous
legend that Father
Couroyer
has attached
to the
Qur'an.
5. Plwraoh Merneptah' a MummY
The mummified
body of Merneptah,
son of R.amesses II and
Pharaoh of the Exodus-all the evidence
points to this-was
dis-
covered by Loret in 1898 at Thebes in the Kings' Valley whence
it was transported to Cairo. EIIiot Smith
removed its wrappings
on the 8th of July,
190?: he
gives a detailed description of
this
operation and the examination of the body in his book TIt'e Rogal
Mummies
(1912). At that time the mummy was in a satisfactory
state of
preservation, in spite of deterioration
in several
parts.
Since then, the mummy has been on show to visitors at the Cairo
Museum, with his head and neck uncovered and the rest of body
concealed under a cloth. It is so well hidden indeed, that until
very recently, the only
general photographs of the mummy that
the Museum
possessed were those taken by E. Smith in 1912.
In June 1975, the Egyptian high authorities very kindly al'
lowed me to examine the
parts of the Pharaoh's body that had
been covered until then. They also allowed me
to take
photo-
graphs.
When
the mummy's
present state \4'as compared
to the
condition it was in over sixty
years ago, it rvas abundantly clear
that it had deteriorated
and fragments
had disappeared.
The
mummified tissues had suffered
greatly, at the hand of man in
some
places and through the
passage of time in others.
This natural deterioration
is easily
explained by the changes
in
the conditions
of conservation
from thc time in the late Nine-
teenth
century when it was discovered.
Its discovery took
place
T1aeExodm 239
When the Qur'an was transmitted to man by the Prophet, the
bodies of all the Pharaohs who are today considered (rightly or
wrongly) to have something to do with the Exodus were in their
tombs of the Necropolis of Thebes, on the opposite side of the
Nile from Luxor. At the time however, absolutely nothing was
known of this fact, and it was not until the end of the Nineteenth
century that they were discovered there. As the Qur'an states, the
body of the Pharaoh of the Exodus was in fact rescued: which-
ever of the Pharaohs it was, visitors may see him in the Royal
Mummies Room of the Egyptian Museum, Cailo. The truth is
therefore very different from the ludicrous legend that Father
Couroyer has attached to the Qur'an.
5. Pharaoh Memel'tah's Mummy
The mummified body of Merneptah, son of Ramesses II and
Pharaoh of the Exodus-all the evidence points to this-was dis-
covered by Loret in 1898 at Thebes in the Kings' Valley whence
it was transported to Cairo. Elliot Smith removed its wrappings
on the 8th of July, 1907: he gives a detailed description of this
operation and the examination of the body in his book The Royal
Mummies (1912). At that time the mummy was in a satisfactory
state of preservation, in spite of deterioration in several parts.
Since then, the mummy has been on show to visitors at the Cairo
Museum, with his head and neck uncovered and the rest of body
concealed under a cloth. It is so well hidden indeed, that until
very recently, the only general photographs of the mummy that
the Museum possessed were those taken by E. Smith in 1912.
In June 1975, the Egyptian high authorities very kindly al-
lowed me to examine the parts of the Pharaoh's body that had
been covered until then. They also allowed me to take photo-
graphs. When the mummy's present state was compared to the
condition it was in over sixty years ago, it was abundantly clear
that it had deteriorated and fragments had disappeared. The
mummified tissues had suffered greatly, at the hand of man in
some places and through the passage of time in others.
This natural deterioration is easily explained by the changes in
the conditions of conservation from th\:l time in the late Nine-
teenth century when it was discovered. Its discovery took place
2,LO
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENGE
in the tomb
of the Necropolis
of Thebes where the mummy had
lain for over three
thousand years.
Today, the mummy is dis-
played
in a simple glass
case which
does not afrord hermetic in-
lglation
from the outside,
nor does it ofrer protection
from pol-
lution by micro-organisms.
The mummy is exposed to fluetuations
in temperature
snd seasonal
changes in humidity: it is very far
from the conditions
whieh enabled
it to remain protected
from
any source of deteriorstion
for approximately
three thousand
yesrs.
It has lost the protection
afforded
by its wrappings
and
the advantage
of remaining
in the closed
environ*.nt
of tt *
tomb
where the temperature
was more constant
and the air less
humid than it is in cairo at certain times of the year.
of course,
while it was in the Necropolis
itself, the
mummy had to with-
stand the visits of grave
plunderers (probably
very early on) and
rodents:
they caused
a certain
atnount
of damage,
bui the eon_
ditions were
nevertheless (it
seems)
much more favourable
for
it to stand the test of time than they are today.
At my suggestion,
speeiar investigations
were
made during this
examinstion
of the
mummy
in June rg?8. An excellent
""aio-
g_raphic
study
was made
by Doctors
El Meligy and Ramsiys, and
the examination
of the interior
of the thoril,
through
a-gap in
the thoracic
wall,
was carried
out by Doctor
Mustapha
Miniala-
wiy in addition
to an investigation
of the abdomen.
This was the
first example
of endoscopy
being
applied
to a mummy.
This
tech_
nique enabled
us to see and pho[ograph
some very important
details inside
the body.
professor
ceceardi perfo"rn*a
a generar
medico-legal
study which
will be completea
uv *n
"*"*fnation under the microscope
of some small fratments
that spontaneously
fell from the mummy's
body: this examination
will be carried
out
by Professor
Mignot
and Doctor Durigon.
I regret
to say that de-
finitive pronouncements
cannot be made by the time this book
goes
to print.r
what may already
be derived from this examination is the dis-
covery of multiple
lesions of the bones with broad lacunae,
some
of which may have been
mortal*although
it is not yet possible
to
ascertain whether
some of them occurred
before or after the
Pharaoh's death. He most probably
died eifher
from drowning,
aecording to the
Scriptural narrations,
or from very violent
1. N"r"*b-rt 19?6 for the First French edition.
240 THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
in the tomb of the Necropolis of Thebes where the mummy had
lain for over three thousand years. Today, the mummy is dis-
played in a simple glass case which does not afford hermetic in-
sulation from the outside, nor does it offer protection from pol-
hition by micro-organisms. The mummy is exposed to fluctuations
in temperature and seasonal changes in humidity: it is very far
from the conditions which enabled it to remain protected from
any source of deterioration for approximately three thousand
years. It has lost the protection afforded by its wrappings and
the advantage of remaining in the closed environment of the
tomb where the temperature was more constant and the air less
humid than it is in Cairo at certain times of the year. Of course,
while it was in the Necropolis itself, the mummy had to with-
stand the visits of grave plunderers (probably very early on) and
rodents: they caused a certain amount of damage, but the con-
ditions were nevertheless (it seems) much more favourable for
it to stand the test of time than they are today.
At my suggestion, special investigations were made during this
examination of the mummy in June 1975. An excellent radio-
graphic study was made by Doctors EI Meligy and Ramsiys, and
the examination of the interior of the thorax, through a gap in
the thoracic wall, was carried out by Doctor Mustapha Maniala
wiy in addition to an investigation of the abdomen. This was the
first example of endoscopy being applied to a mummy. This tech-
nique enabled us to see and photograph some very important
details inside the body. Professor Ceccaldi performed a general
medico-legal study which will be completed by an examination
under the microscope of some small fragments that spontaneously
fell from the mummy's body: this examination will be carried out
by Professor Mignot and Doctor Durigon. I regret to say that de-
finitive pronouncements cannot be made by the time this book
goes to print.
1
What may already be derived from this examination is the dis-
covery of multiple lesions of the bones with broad lacunae, some
of which may have been mortal....!-although it is not yet possible to
ascertain whether some of them occurred before or after the
Pharaoh's death. He most probably died either from drowning,
aecording to the Scriptural narrations, or from very violent
1. November, 1975 for the First French edition.
tft|ptu
tal
shoeks
preceding the moment when he was drowned'+r
both at
ollgE.
The eonnection
of these lesions with the deterioration whos
E{rurces heve been mentioned above renders the correct
preserva'
tion of the murnmy of the Pharaoh eomewhst
problematieal, un-
less
precautionary and restoretive measures are not taken
very
stxln, These messures should ensure that the only conerete evi-
dence which we still
possess today concerning
the death of the
Pharaoh of the Exodus and the rescue of his body, wilted by God'
does not disappear wittt the
passage
of time.
It is alwrys desirsble for man to spply himself to the
preser-
vstion of relics of his history, but here we have something which
gpes
beyond that: it is the msterial
presenee of the mummified
UoAV of the man who knew Moses, resisted his
pless, pursued
him ss he took flight, logt his life in the
process. His eerthly re-
msins were saved by the Will of God from destruction to become
a sign to man, as it is written in the
Qurran.r
Those who seek smong modern dsts for
proof of the veracity
of the Holy Scriptures
will find a magnificent illustration
of the
venres of the
Qurran
dealing with the Pharsoh's
body by visiting
the Boyal Mummies Room of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo
!
f. ft* -g*y of Ranesses II, who was another
witness to Moses's story,
her been the cubjct
of a atudy comperable to the one carried out on the
mummy of Merneptah; tbe same restoration work is required for it.
Ttatnlotort'
ffotcl
The rerultr of these medical studies carried out in Gairo, 19?5, were
read by the ruthor before several French learned societies, including
the
,Acadcmie
Nationsle de Mfdecine'
(National Academy of Mede-
cine), during the first
part of 19?6. The knowledge of these results led
the Eryptian Authorities
to take the decision to transport the mummy
of EamesEes U to France. Thus it arrived for treatment
in Paris on the
26th Septcmber 1976'
141
shocks preceding the moment when he was drowned-or both at
once.
The connection of these lesions with the deterioration whose
sources have been mentioned above renders the correct preserva-
tion of the mummy of the Pharaoh somewhat problematical, un-
less precautionary and restorative measures are not taken very
soon. These measures should ensure that the only concrete evi-
dence which we still possess today concerning the death of the
Pharaoh of the Exodus and the rescue of his body, willed by God,
does not disapPear with the passage of time.
It is always desirable for man to apply himself to the preser-
vation of relics of his history, but here we have something which
goes beyond that: it is the material presence of the mummified
body of the man who knew Moses, resisted his pleas, pursued
him as he took flight, lost his life in the process. His earthly re-
mains were saved by the Will of God from destruction to become
a sign to man, as it is written in the Qur'an.
1
Those who seek among modern data for proof of the veracity
of the Holy Scriptures will find a magnificent illustration of the
verses of the Qur'an dealing with the Pharaoh's body by visiting
the Royal Mummies Room of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo!
1. The mummy of Ramesses II, who was another witness to Moses's story,
haa been the subject of a study comparable to the one carried out on the
mummy of Memeptah; the same restoration work is required for it.
T,.CluICltor,' Note:
The results of these medical studies carried out in Cairo, 1975, were
read by the author before several French learned societies, including
the 'Academie Nationale de Medecine' (National Academy of Mede-
cine), during the first part of 1976. The knowledge of these results led
the Egyptian Authorities to take the decision to transport the mummy
of Ramesses 11 to France. Thus it arrived for treatment in Paris on the
26th September 1976.
The
Qur'arD
]ladiths
and
Floderrr
Scierrce
The
Qur'an
does not eonstitute the sole source of doctrine and
Iegislation in rslam.
During Muhammad's
life and after his death,
complementary
information
of a legislative
nature was indeed
sought in the study of the words and deeds
of the
prophet.
Although writing was used in the transmission
of n"aitn from
the very beginning,
a lot of this came also from the oral tradition.
Those who undertook
to assemble them in collections
made the
kind of enquiries which are always very taxing before
recording
accounts of
past
events. They nevertheless
had a
great
regard for
accuracy in their arduous task of collecting information.
This is
illustrated by the fact that for all of the
prophet's
sayings, the
most venerable
collections always
bear the names of those re-
sponsible for the account, going
right back to the person
who first
collected the information
from members of Muhammad's
family
or his companions.
A very large number of collections of the
prophet's
words and
deeds thus appeared under the title of Hadiths. The exact mean-
ing of the word is
'utterances',
but it is also customary
to use it
to mean the narration of his deeds.
Some of the collections were made public
in the decades follow-
ing Muhammad's
death. Just over two hundred years
were to
pass
before some of the most important collections appeared. The
most authenti c record of the facts i s i n the col l ecti ons of Al Buh-
hari and Muslim, which date from over. two hundred years
after
242
ThE Quran,
Hadilhs and
..n St::iEnt::E
The Qur'an does not constitute the sole source of doctrine and
legislation in Islam. During life and after his death,
complementary information of a legislative nature was indeed
sought in the study of the words and deeds of the Prophet.
Although writing was used in the transmission of hadith from
the very beginning, a lot of this came also from the oral tradition.
Those who undertook to assemble them in collections made the
kind of enquiries which are always very taxing before recording
accounts of past events. They nevertheless had a great regard for
accuracy in their arduous task of collecting information. This is
illustrated by the fact that for all of the Prophet's sayings, the
most venerable collections always bear the names of those re-
sponsible for the account, right back to the person who first
collected the information from members of Muhammad's family
or his companions.
A very large number of collections of the Prophet's words and
deeds thus appeared under the title of Hadiths. The exact mean-
ing of the word is 'utterances', but it is also customary to use it
to mean the narration of his deeds.
Some of the collections were made public in the decades follow-
ing Muhammad's death. Just over two hundred years were to
pass before some of the most important collections appeared. The
most authentic record of the facts is in the collections of Al Bu!f-
hari and Muslim, which date from over two hundred years after
242
Th.e
Qufan,
Hadith atd, Modern Scietrce
243
Muhammad and which
provide
a wider trustworthy account. In
recent
years, a bilingual Arabic/English edition has been
pro-
vided by Doctor Muhammed Muhsin
Shan,
of the Islamic Uni-
versity of Madina.' Al Bukhari's work is
generally regarded as
the most authentic after the
Qur'an
and
'was
translated into
Freneh
(1903-1914) by Houdas and Marcai s under the ti tl e Les
Traditi.ons Islamiques
(Islamie Traditions). The Hadiths are
therefore accessible to those who do not speak Arabic. One must'
however, be wary of certain translations made by Europeans, in-
cluding the French translation, because they contain inaceuracies
and untruths which are often more of interpretation than of
actual translation. Sometimes, they considerably change the real
meaning of a hadith, to such an extent indeed that they attribute
a sense to it which it does not eontain.
As regards their origins, some of the hadiths and Gospels have
one
point in common which is that neither of them was compiled
by an author who was an eyewitness of the events he describes.
Nor were they compiled until sorne time after the events recorded.
The hadiths, like the Gospels, have not all been accepted as au-
thentic. Only a small number of them receive the
quasi-unani-
mous approval of speci al i sts i n Musl i m Tradi ti on so that, except
al -Muwatta, Sahi h Musl i m and Sahi h al -Bukhari , one fi nds i n the
same book, hadiths
presumed
to be authentic side by side with
ones whi ch are ei ther dubi ous, or shoul d be rei ected outri ght.
In contrast to Canonic Gospels which though
questioned by
some modern scholars but which have never been contested by
Christian high authorities, even those hadiths that are most
worthy to be considered as authentic have been the subject of
criticism. Very early in the history of Islam, masters in Islamic
thought exercised a thorough criticism of the hadiths, although
the basi c book
(The
Qur' an)
remai ned the book of reference and
was not to be
questioned.
I thought it of interest to delve into the literature of the hadiths
to find out how Muhammad is said to have expressed
himself,
outside the context of written Revelation, on subjects that were
to be explained by scientific
progress in follorving centuries. Al-
1. Pub. Set hi St raw Board Mi l l s
(Conversi on) Lt d and Tal eem-ul -Qur' an
Trust, Guj ranwal a, cantt. Paki stri n. 1st edi ti on 1977, for sahi h Al
Bukhari .
The Quran, Hadith and Modern Science
243
Muhammad and which provide a wider trustworthy account. In
recent years, a bilingual Arabic/English edition has been pro-
vided by Doctor Muhammed Muhsin !):han, of the Islamic Uni-
versity of Madina.
1
Al Bu!!hari's work is generally regarded as
the most authentic after the Qur'an and was translated into
French (1903-1914) by Houdas and Marcais under the title Les
Traditions Islamiques (Islamic Traditions). The Hadiths are
therefore accessible to those who do not speak Arabic. One must,
however, be wary of certain translations made by Europeans, in-
cluding the French translation, because they contain inaccuracies
and untruths which are often more of interpretation than of
actual translation. Sometimes, they considerably change the real
meaning of a hadith, to such an extent indeed that they attribute
a sense to it which it does not contain.
As regards their origins, some of the hadiths and Gospels have
one point in common which is that neither of them was compiled
by an author who was an eyewitness of the events he describes.
Nor were they compiled until some time after the events recorded.
The hadiths, like the Gospels, have not all been accepted as au-
thentic. Only a small number of them receive the quasi-unani-
mous approval of specialists in Muslim Tradition so that, except
al-Muwatta, Sahih Muslim and Sahih al-Bukhari, one finds in the
same book, hadiths presumed to be authentic side by side with
ones which are either dubious, or should be rejected outright.
In contrast to Canonic Gospels which though questioned by
some modern scholars but which have never been contested by
Christian high authorities, even those hadiths that are most
worthy to be considered as authentic have been the subject of
criticism. Very early in the history of Islam, masters in Islamic
thought exercised a thorough criticism of the hadiths, although
the basic book (The Qur'an) remained the book of reference and
was not to be questioned.
I thought it of interest to delve into the literature of the hadiths
to find out how Muhammad is said to have expressed himself,
outside the context of written Revelation, on subjects that were
to be explained by scientific progress in following centuries. AI-
1. Pub. Sethi Straw Board Mills (Conversion) Ltd and Taleem-ul-Qur'an
Trust, Gujranwala, Cantt. Pakistan. 1st edition 1971, for Sahih AI
Bukhari.
full
THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
though Sahih Muslim is also an authentic collection, in this
study I have strictly limited myself to the texts of the hadiths
which are generally
considered to be the most authentic, i.e. those
of Al Bulhari. I have always tried to bear in mind the fact that
these texts were eompiled by men according to data received from
a tradition which was
partially
oral and that they record certain
facts with a
greater
or lesser degree
of accuricy, depending on
the individual
errors made by those who transmitted
the narra-
tions. These texts are different from other hadiths
which were
transmitted
by a very large
number of
people
and are unques-
tionably
authentic.r
I have compared the findings
made during an examination of
the hadiths
with those already set out in the section on the
eur'an
and modern science.
The results
of this comparison
speak for
themselves.
The difference is in fact
quite
staggering
between
the accuracy of the data contained in the
eur'an,
when compared
with modern scientific
knowledge, and the highly questionable
character
of certain
statements in the hadiths
on subjects whose
tenor is essentially
scientific.
These are the only hadiths to have
been dealt with in this study.
Hadiths which have as their subject the interpretation
of cer-
tain verses
of the
Qur'an
sometimes lead to commentaries
which
are hardly acceptable
today.
we have already seen the great
significance
of one verse (sura
36, verse 36) dealing with the Sun which
.,runs
its course to a
settled plaee".
Here is the interpretation given
of it in a hadith:
"At sunset, the sun . . .
prostrates
itself
underneath
the Throne,
and takes permission
to rise again,
and it is permitted
and
then
(a
time will come
when) it wilr be about to
prostrate
itself
. . . it will ask permission
to go
on its course . . . it will be ordered
to return
whenee it has come and so it will rise in the west . . .,,
(sahih
Al Bukhari). The original text (The
Book
of the Begin-
ning of the
creation, vol. IV page
z8B, part
84, chapter IV, num-
ber 42Ll is obscure and difficult to translate. This passage
never-
theless contains
an allegory
which implies the notion of a course
the Sun runs in relation to the Earth: science has shown the
first by the word Zanni and the second
1, Musl i m
speci al i sts
desi gnate the
by the word
Qat'i.
244
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
though Sahih Muslim is also an authentic collection, in this
study I have strictly limited myself to the texts of the hadiths
which are generally considered to be the most authentic, Le. those
of Al Bu15hari. I have always tried to bear in mind the fact that
these texts were compiled by men according to data received from
a tradition which was partially oral and that they record certain
facts with a greater or lesser degree of accuracy, depending on
the individual errors made by those who transmitted the narra-
tions. These texts are different from other hadiths which were
transmitted by a very large number of people and are unques-
tionablyauthentic.!
I have compared the findings made during an examination of
the hadiths with those already set out in the section on the Qur'an
and modern science. The results of this comparison speak for
themselves. The difference is in fact quite staggering between
the accuracy of the data contained in the Qur'an, when compared
with modern scientific knowledge, and the highly questionable
character of certain statements in the hadiths on subjects whose
tenor is essentially scientific. These are the only hadiths to have
been dealt with in this study.
which have as their subject the interpretation of cer-
tain verses of the Qur'an sometimes lead to commentaries which
are hardly acceptable today.
We have already seen the great significance of one verse (sura
36, verse 36) dealing with the Sun which "runs its course to a
settled place". Here is the interpretation given of it in a hadith:
"At sunset, the sun ... prostrates itself underneath the Throne,
and takes permission to rise again, and it is permitted and
then (a time will come when) it will be about to prostrate itself
... it will ask permission to go on its course ... it will be ordered
to return whence it has come and so it will rise in the West .. ."
(Sahih Al Bukhari). The original text (The Book of the Begin-
ning of the Vol. IV page 283, part 54, chapter IV, num-
ber 421) is obscure and difficult to translate. This passage never-
theless contains an allegory which implies the notion of a course
the Sun runs in relation to the Earth: science has shown the
1. Muslim specialists designate the first by the word Zanni and the second
by the word Qafi.
The
QndaqFaaitn
mdModotn$ctcilcc ,4j
contrsry
E)
be the ca,se. The authenticity of this hadith is doubt-
tul
(Qonnil.
Another
passage
fitm the same work
(The
Book of the Begin-
ning of the Creation, vol.IV
pege
283,
part
64, chapter 6, number
4il0) estimates the initial stages in the development of the em-
bryo verT strangely in time: a forty-day
period for the
grouping
of the elements which are to eonstitute the human being, another
forty days during which the embryo is represented Bs
'Bomething
whieh clings', and s third forty-day
period
when the embryo is
designated by the term
'ehewed
flesh'. Once the angels have in-
tervened to define what this individual's future is to be, 4 soul is
breathed into him. This description of embryonic evolution does
not agree with modern data,
lVhereas
the
Qur'an
gives
absolutely no practical advice on the
remedial arts, except for a single comment
(sura 16, verse 69)
on the
possibility
of using honey as a therapeutic aid
(without
indicating the illness involved), the hadiths devote a
great deal
of space to these subjects. A whole section of Al BuEhari's collec-
tion
(part
76) is concerned with medicine. In the French trans-
lation by Houdas and Marcais it
goes
from
page
62 to 91 of vol-
ume 4, and in Doctor Muhammad Muhsin
Ehan's
bilingual Ara-
bic/Enslish edition from
page
395 to 462, of volume VII. There
csn be no doubt that
_these
pages
contain some hadiths whieh
are conjectural
(Qanni),
but they are interesting as a r+'hole be-
csuse they
provide
an outline of the opinions on various medical
subjects that it was
possible
to hold at the time. One might add
to them several
tradiths
inserted in other
parts
of Al Bubhari's
collection which have a medical tenor.
This is how we eome to find statements in them on the harms
caused by the Evil Eye, witchcraft and the
possibility of exor-
cism; although a certain restriction is imposed on the
paid use
of the
Qur'an
for this purpose. There is a hadith which stresses
that certain kinds of date may serve as
protection
against the ef-
fects of magic, and magic may be used against
poisonous snake-
bites.
We should not be surprised however to find that at a time when
there were
limited possibilities for the scientific use of drugs,
people were advised to rely on simple
practices; natural treat-
ments such as blood-letting, cupping, antl cauterization,
head-
contrary to be the ease. The authenticity of this ha'dith is doubt-
ful (Zanni).
Another passage from the same work (The Book of the Begin-
ning of the Creation, vol.IV page 283, part 54, chapter 6, number
(30) estimates the initial stages in the development of the em-
bryo very strangely in time: a forty-day period for the grouping
of the elements which are to constitute the human being, another
forty days during which the embryo is represented as 'something
which clings', and a third forty-day period when the embryo is
designated by the term 'chewed flesh'. Once the angels have in-
tervened to define what this individual's future is to be, a soul is
br.eathed into him. This description of embryonic evolution does
not agree with modern data.
Whereas the Qur'an gives absolutely no practical advice on the
remedial arts, except for a single comment (sura 16, verse 69)
on the possibility of using honey as a therapeutic aid (without
indicating the illness involved), the hadiths devote a great deal
of space to these subjects. A whole section of Al collec-
tion (part 76) is concerned with medicine. In the French trans-
lation by Houdas and Marcais it goes from page 62 to 91 of vol-
ume 4, and in Doctor Muhammad Muhsin Khan's bilingual Ara-
bic/English edition from page 395 to 452, volume VII. There
can be no doubt that these pages contain some hadiths which
are conjectural but they are interesting as a whole be-
cause they provide an outline of the opinions on various medical
subjects that it was possible to hold at the time. One might add
to them several l)adiths inserted in other parts of Al
collection which have a medical tenor.
This is how we come to find statements in them on the harms
caused by the Evil Eye, witchcraft and the possibility of exor-
cism; although a certain restriction is imposed on the paid use
of the Qur'an for this purpose. There is a hadith which stresses
that certain kinds of date may serve as protection against the ef-
fects of magic, and magic may be used against poisonous snake-
bites.
We should not be surprised however to find that at a time when
there were limited possibilities for the scientific use of drugs,
people were advised to rely on simple practices; natural treat-
ments such as blood-letting, cupping, and cauterization, head-
E'46 THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
shaving against lice, the use of camel's milk and certain seeds
such as black cumin, and
plants
such as indian
Qust.
It was also
recommended to burn a mat made of palm-tree
leaves and
put
the
ash from it into a wound to stop bleeding. In emergencies, all
available means that might genuinely
be of use had to be em-
ployed.
It does not seem-a
priori,-to
be a very good idea, how-
ever, to suggest that
people
drink eamel's urine.
It is diffHcult today to subscribe to eertain explanations of
subjects related to various illnesses. Among them, the following
might be mentioned:
-the
origins of a fever: there are four statements bearing wit-
ness to the fact that
"fever
is from the heat of hell"
(Al
Bukhari,
The Book of Medicine, vol. VII, chapter 28, page
416)
-the
existence of a rernedy for every illness:
"No disease God
created, but He created its treatment" (Ibid.
chapter l, page
895). This concept is illustrated
by the
$adith
of the Fly: "rf a
fly falls into the vessel of any of you,
let him dip all of it
(into
the vessel) and then throw it away, for in one of its wings there
is a disease and in the other there is healing (antidote
for it).
i.e. the treatment for that disease" (Ibid.
chapter lb-16, pages
452-463, also The Book of the Beginning of Creation
part
b4,
chapters 15 & 16.)
-abortion
provoked
by the sight of a snake (which
can also
blind). This is mentioned in The Book of the Beginning of cre-
ati on, Vol . IV( chapter 18 and 14, pages
BB0 & BB4).
-haemorrhages
between periods.
The Book of Menses (
Men-
strual Periods)
vol. vI, part
G,
pages
490 & 4gE contains rwo
hadiths
on the cause of haemorrhages
between periods (chapters
27 &,28). They refer to two women: in the case of the first, there
is a description (undetailed)
of the symptoms, with a statement
that the haemorrhage
comes from a blood vessel; in the second,
the woman had experienced haemorrhages
between periods
for
seven
years,
and the same vascular origin is stated. One might
suggest hypotheses as to the real causes of the above, but it is not
easy to see what arguments could have
been produced
at the time
to support this diagnosis. This eould nevertheless have been
quite
accurate.
-the
statement that diseases are not contagious. Al Bubhari's
collection of hadiths refers in several places (chapters
19, tb, 80,
246
THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
shaving against lice
J
the use of earners milk and certain seeds
such as black cumin, and plants such as indian Qust. It was also
recommended to burn a mat made of palm-tree leaves and put the
ash from it into a wound to stop bleeding. In emergencies
J
all
available means that might genuinely be of use had to be em-
ployed. It does not seem-a priori-to be a very good idea, how-
ever, to suggest that people drink camel's urine.
It is difficult today to subscribe to certain explanations of
subjects related to various illnesses. Among them, the following
might be mentioned:
-the origins of a fever: there are four statements bearing wit-
ness to the fact that "fever is from the heat of hell" (AI Bukhari,
The Book of Medicine
J
vol. VII, chapter 28, page 416). -
-the existence of a remedy for every illness: liN0 disease God
created
J
but He created its treatment
U
(Ibid. chapter 1, page
395). This concept is illustrated by the of the Fly: "If a
fly falls into the vessel of any of you
J
let him dip all of it (into
the vessel) and then throw it away, for in one of its wings there
is a disease and in the other there is healing (antidote for it).
Le. the treatment for that disease" (Ibid. chapter 15-16
J
pages
452-453, also The Book of the Beginning of Creation part 54,
chapters 15 & 16.)
-abortion provoked by the sight of a snake (which can also
blind). This is mentioned in The Book of the Beginning of Cre-
ation
J
Vol. IV( chapter 13 and 14, pages 330 & 334).
-haemorrhages between periods. The Book of Menses (Men-
strual Periods) Vol. VI
J
part 6, pages 490 & 495 contains two
hadiths on the cause of haemorrhages between periods (chapters
21 & 28) . They refer to two women: in the case of the first, there
is a description (undetailed) of the symptoms, with a statement
that the haemorrhage comes from a blood vessel; in the second,
the woman had experienced haemorrhages between periods for
seven years, and the same vascular origin is stated. One might
suggest hypotheses as to the real causes of the above, but it is not
easy to see what arguments could have been produced at the time
to support this diagnosis. This could nevertheless have been quite
accurate.
-the statement that diseases are not contagious. Al
collection of hadiths refers in several places (chapters 19, 25, 30,
?J?acftdorl+FafitnollrdModrlrnt$G{ffiot
UiI
81, 68 and 64, Vol. Vfl,
Ped
?6, of the Book of Medicine)
to
certain special cas{es, e,g. leprosy
(page
408),
plague (pages 418
& 422'1, camel's scabies
(page
447r, and also
provides
general
statements. The latter sre however
placed side by side wittl
glaringly contradietory
remarks: it is recommended, for ex-
ample,
not to
go
to areas where there is
plagUe, and to stay
awey from lepere.
Consequently,
it is
possible to conclude that certain
[radiths
exist which are scientifrcally
unacceptable.
There is a doubt sur-
rounding their authenticity. The
purpose of reference to them
lies solely in the comparison that they oecasion with the verses
of the
Qurtan
mentioned above: these do not contain a single in-
accurate statement. This observation
clearly has considerable
importance.
One must indeed remember thst at the Prophet's death, the
teachings that were received from this fell into two
g1oups:
-firstly,
a large number of Believers knew the
Qur'an
by heart
becsuse, like the Prophet, they hsd recited it many, many times;
transcriptions of the text of the
Qur'an
already existed moreover,
which were made at the time of the Prophet and even before
the Hegira'.
-secondly,
the merilbers of his following who were closest to him
and the Believers who had witnessed his words and deeds had
remembered them and relied on them for support, in addition to
the
Qur'an,
when defining a nascent doetrine and legislation.
In the
year3 that wer to follow the Prophet's death, texts
were to be compiled which recorded the two
groups of teachings
he had left. The first
gathering of hadiths was
performed
roughly forty
years
after the Hegira, but a first collection of
Qur'anic
texts had been made beforehand under Caliph
Abu
Bakr, and in
particular Caliph Uthman,
the second of whom
published a definitive text during his Caliphate,
i.e. between
the
twelfth and twenty-fourth
years
following Muhammad's
death.
What must be heavily stressed is the disparity between these
two
groups
of texts, both from a literary
point
of view and as
regards their contents.
It would indeed be unthinkable
to com-
p* the style of the
Qur'an
with that of the hadiths. what is
*ot*,
when the contents of the two texts are colnpared
in the
1. The Hegirs TaE in 622, ten
yearr before Mubammad'r
death.
31, 53 and 54, Vol. VII, part 76, of the Book of Medicine) to
certain special cases, e.g. leprosy (page 408), plague (pages 418
" (22), camel's scabies (page 447), and also provides general
statements. The latter are however placed side by side with
glaringly contradictory remarks: it is recommended, for ex-
ample, not to go to areas where there is plague, and to stay
away from lepers.
Consequently, it is possible to conclude that certain l}.adiths
exist which are scientifically unacceptable. There is a doubt sur-
rounding their authenticity. The purpose of reference to them
lies solely in the comparison that they occasion with the verses
of the Qur'an mentioned above: these do not contain a single in-
accurate statement. This observation clearly has considerable
importance.
One must indeed remember that at the Prophet's death, the
teachings that were received from this fell into two groups:
-firstly, a large number of Believers knew the Qur'an by heart
because, like the Prophet, they had recited it many, many times;
transcriptions of the text of the Qur'an already existed moreover,
which were made at the time of the Prophet and even before
the Hegira
1

-secondly, the members of his following who were closest to him

and the Believers who had witnessed his words and deeds had
remembered them and relied on them for support, in addition to
the Qur'an, when defining a nascent doctrine and legislation.
In the years that were to follow the Prophet's death, texts
were to be compiled which recorded the two groups of teachings
he had left. The first gathering of hadiths was performed
roughly forty years after the Hegira, but a first collection of
Qur'anic texts had been made beforehand under Caliph Abu
Bakr, and in particular Caliph Uthman, the second of whom
published a definitive text during his Caliphate, Le. between the
twelfth and twenty-fourth years following Mul,lammad's death.
What must be heavily stressed is the disparity between these
two groups of texts, both from a literary point of view and as
regards their contents. It would indeed be unthinkable to com-
pare the style of the Qur'an with that of the hadiths. What is
more, when the contents of the two texts are cmnpared in the
1. The Hegira was in 622, ten years before Mubammad's death.
t4E
THE BIBLE, THE
QUn'AN
AND SCIENCE
light of modern scientific data, one is struck by thp oppositbns
between them. I hope I have succeeded in showing what follows:
--on
the one hand, statements in the
Qur'an
which often appear
to be commonplace,
but which conceal data that science was later
to bring to light.
-{n
the other hand, certain
statements in the hadiths which are
shown to be in absolute agreement with the ideas of their times
but which contain opinions
that are deemed scientifically unac-
eeptable today. These occur in an aggregate of statements
con-
cerning Islamic
doctrine and legislation,
whose authenticity is
unquestioni ngly acknowled ged.
Finally, it must be
pointed
out that Mutrammad's
own attitude
was guite
different towards the
eur'an
from what it was towards
his personal
sayings. The
eur'an
was proclaimed
by him to be a
divine Revelation.
Over a
period
of twenty years,
the
prophet
classified its sections with the greatest
of care, as we have seen.
The
Qur'an
represented
what had to be written down during his
own lifetime and learned
by heart to become part
of the liturgy
of
prayers.
The hadiths
are said, in
principle,
to
provide
an ac-
count of his deeds
and
personal
reflections,
but he left it to others
to find an example
in them for their own behaviour
and to make
them public
however
they liked: he did not give
any instructions.
In view of the fact that only a limited nu*b*"
oi
paitts
may
be considered
to express
the
prophet's
thoughts
with certainty,
the others must contain the thoughts of the men of his time, in
particular
with regard
to the subjects referred
to here. when
these dubious or inauthentic
hadiths
are compared to the text of
the
Qur'an,
w can measure the extent to which they
differ. This
comparison
highlishts (as
if there were still any need to) the
atriking difference
between
the writings of this period,
which
are riddled with scientific inaccurate
statements, and tt *
eur'an,
the Book of written
Revelation, that is free from enors
or tnit
kind.t
1. The truth of the
ladithc,
from e religiour point
of view, ir beyond que&
tion. when they deal, however, with earthly affairs there is no direr-
ence betneen the Prophet and other humans. one
tradith
givea
an ac-
count of an utterence
of the
prophet: ,,T[henever
r iommand you
to do
romething nrlatcd to Retigion do obey, and if I command you
romething
according
to my own opinion (do
remember
this) I am a human
beingf;.
(Continued
on Page 249)
248
THE BIBLE, THE QUa'AN AND SCIENCE
light of modern scientific data, one is struck by the oppositi.ons
between them. I hope I have succeeded in showing what follows:
-on the one hand, statements in the Qur'an which often appear
to be commonplace, but which conceal data that science was later
to bring to light.
-on the other hand, certain statements in the hadiths which are
shown to be in absolute agreement with the ideas of their times
but which contain opinions that are deemed scientifically unac-
ceptable today. These occur in an aggregate of statements con-
cerning Islamic doctrine and legislation, whose authenticity is
unquestioningly acknowledged.
Finally, it must be pointed out that Mu};1ammad's own attitude
was quite different towards the Qur'an from what it was towards
his personal sayings. The Qur'an was proclaimed by him to be a
divine Revelation. Over a period of twenty years, the Prophet
classified its sections with the greatest of care, as we have seen.
The Qur'an represented what had to be written down during his
own lifetime and learned by heart to become part of the liturgy
of prayers. The hadiths are said, in principle, to provide an ac-
count of his deeds and personal reflections, but he left it to others
to find an example in them for their own behaviour and to make
them public however they liked: he did not give any instructions.
In view of the fact that only a limited number of l}.adiths may
be considered to express the Prophet's thoughts with certainty,
the others must contain the thoughts of the men of his time, in
particular with regard to the subjects referred to here. When
these dubious or inauthentic hadiths are compared to the text of
the Qur'an, we can measure the extent to which they differ. This
comparison highlights (as if there were still any need to) the
striking difference between the writings of this period, which
are riddled with scientific inaccurate statements, and the Qur'an,
the Book of Written Revelation, that is free from errors of this
kind.
1
1. The truth of the 1)adiths, from a religious point of view, is beyond ques-
tion. When they deal, however, with earthly affairs there is no differ-
ence between the Prophet and other humans. One \1adith gives an ac-
count of an utterance of the Prophet: "Whenever I command you to do
something rl!lated to Religion do obey, and if I command you something
according to my own opinion (do remember this) I am a human being".
(Continued on Page 249)
Gerreral
Conclusions
At the end of this study, a fact that stands forth very elearly
is that the
predominsnt
opinion held in the West
on the texts of
the Holy Scriptures we
possess
today is hardly very realistic. We
have sen the conditions, times snd ways in which the elements
constituting the Old Testament, the Gospels snd the
Qut'an
were collected and written down: the circumstances attendant
upon the birth of the Scriptures for tltese three Revelations dif-
ferred widely in each case, a fact whieh had extremely important
consequences concerning the authenticity of the texts and certain
aspects of their contents.
The OId Testament represents s vast number of literary works
written over a
period
of roughly nine hundred
years.
It forms a
highly disparate mosaic whose
pieces have, in the course of cen-
turies, been changed by man. Some
pafts were added to what
already existed, so that todey it is sometimes very difficult
in-
deed to identify where they came from originally.
Through an account of Jesus's words and deeds, the Gospels
were intended to make known to men the teschings he wished to
leave them on completion
of his earthly mission. Unfortunately,
the authors of the Gospels were not eyewitnesses of the dats
they recorded. They were spokesmen
who expressed data that
were
quite
simply the information that had been
preserved by
the various Judeo-Christian
communities on Jesus's
public life'
passed down by oral traditions or writings which no longer exist
iod"y, and which eonstituted
an intermediate stage
between the
oral tradition and the definitive tent^s.
(Continued from Page 248)
Al Saraksi
in his
'Principles'
(Cl
Ufrll transmitted
thic statement
as
follows:
"If
I bring something to you on
your religion, do act according
to it, and if I bring
you something
related to this world, then
you heve
a better knowledge of
your own earthly
afiairs".


At the end of this study, a fact that stands forth very clearly
is that the predominant opinion held in the West on the texts of
the Holy Scriptures we possess today is hardly very realistic. We
have seen the conditions, times and ways in which the elements
constituting the Old Testament, the Gospels and the Qur'an
were collected and written down: the circumstances attendant
upon the birth of the Scriptures for these three Revelations dif-
ferred widely in each case, a fact which had extremely important
consequences concerning the authenticity of the texts and certain
aspects of their contents.
The Old Testament represents a vast number of literary works
written over a period of roughly nine hundred years. It forms a
highly disparate mosaic whose pieces have, in the course of cen-
turies, been changed by man. Some parts were added to what
already existed, so that today it is sometimes very difficult in-
deed to identify where they came from originally.
Through an account of Jesus's words and deeds, the Gospels
were intended to make known to men the teachings he wished to
leave them on completion of his earthly mission. Unfortunately,
the authors of the Gospels were not eyewitnesses of the data
they recorded. They were spokesmen who expressed data that
were quite simply the information that had been preserved by
the various Judeo-Christian communities on Jesus's public life,
passed down by oral traditions or writings which no longer exist
today, and which constituted an intermediate stage between the
oral tradition and the definitive texts.
(Continued from Page 248)
Al SaraksT in his 'Principles' (Al UsUl) transmitted this statement as
follows: "If I bring something to you on your religion, do act aeeording
to it, and if I bring you something related to this world, then you have
a better knowledge of your own earthly affairs".
249
s50 THE BIBLE, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
This is the light in whieh the Judeo-Christian Scriptures
should be viewed today, and-to be objective-one should aban-
don the classic coneepts held by experts in exegesis.
The inevitable result of the multiplicity of sources is the exist-
ence of contradictions and oppositions: many examples have
been
given
of these. The authors of the Gospels had
(when
talk-
ing of Jesus) the same tendency to magnify certain facts as the
poets
of French Medieval literature in their narrative poems.
The consequence of this was that events were presented
from
each individual narrator's point
of view and the authenticity of
the facts reported in many cases proved
to be extremely dubious.
In view of this, the few statements contained in the Judeo-Chris-
tian Scriptures which may have something to do with modern
knowledge should always be examined with the circumspection
that
the
questionable
nature of their authenticity demands.
Contradictions, improbabilities
and incompatibilities with
modern scientific data may be easily explained in terms of what
has
just
been said above.
Christians are nevertheless very sur-
prised
when they realize this, so
great
have been the continuous
and far-reaching
efforts made until now by many official com-
mentators to camouflage the very obvious results
of modern
studies, under cunning dialectical acrobatics orchestrated
by
apologetic lyricism.
A case in
point
are the
genealogies
of Jesus
g'iven
in Matthew and Luke, which were eontradictory
and scien-
tifically unacceptabie.
Examples have been provided
which reveal
this attitude very clearly.
John's Gospel has been
given
special
attention because there are very important
differences between
it and the other three
Gospels, especially with regard to the fact
that his Gospel does not describe the institution
of the Eucharist:
this is not generally
known.
The
Qur'anic
Revelation has a history which is fundamentally
different from the other two. It spanned a
period
of some twenty
years
and, as soon as it was transmitted
to Mul.rammad by Arch-
angel Gabriel, Believers learned it by heart. It was also written
down during Muhammad's life. The last recensions of the
eur'an
were efrected under Caliph Uthman starting some twelve years
after the Prophet's death and finishins twenty-four years
after
it. They had the advantage of being checked by people
who
already knew the text by heart, for they had learned it at the
250
THE BmLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE
This is the light in which the Judeo-Christian Scriptures
should be viewed today, and-to be objective-one should aban-
don the classic concepts held by experts in exegesis.
The inevitable result of the multiplicity of sources is the exist-
ence of contradictions and oppositions: many examples have
been given of these. The authors of the Gospels had (when talk-
ing of Jesus) the same tendency to magnify certain facts as the
poets of French Medieval literature in their narrative poems.
The consequence of this was that events were presented from
each individual narrator's point of view and the authenticity of
the facts reported in many cases proved to be extremely dubious.
In view of this, the few statements contained in the Judeo-Chris-
tian Scriptures which may have something to do with modern
knowledge should always be examined with the circumspection
that the questionable nature of their authenticity demands.
Contradictions, improbabilities and incompatibilities with
modern scientific data may be easily explained in terms of what
has just been said above. Christians are nevertheless very sur-
prised when they realize this, so great have been the continuous
and far-reaching efforts made until now by many official com-
mentators to camouflage the very obvious results of modern
studies, under cunning dialectical acrobatics orchestrated by
apologetic lyricism. A case in point are the genealogies of Jesus
given in Matthew and Luke, which were contradictory and scien-
tifically unacceptabie. Examples have been provided which reveal
this attitude very clearly. John's Gospel has been given special
attention because there are very important differences between
it and the other three Gospels, especially with regard to the fact
that his Gospel does not describe the institution of the Eucharist:
this is not generally known.
The Qur'anic Revelation has a history which is fundamentally
different from the other two. It spanned a period of some twenty
years and, as soon as it was transmitted to Mul}.ammad by Arch-
angel Gabriel, Believers learned it by heart. It was also written
down during Muhammad's life. The last recensions of the Qur'an
were effected under Caliph Uthman starting some twelve years
after the Prophet's death and finishing twenty-four years after
it. They had the advantage of being checked by people who
already knew the text by heart, for they had learned it at the
tulcorcl*'lon'
gltr
time of the Bevelstion
itself snd had subsequently
recited it con-
stantly. Since
then, we know that the text has been scrupulously
preserved" It does not
give rise to any
problems of authenticity.
Ttre
Qurtan
follows on from the two Bevelations
that
preceded
it and is not only free from contradictions
in its narrations, the
sign of the various human manipulstions to be found in the Gos-
pe1s, but
provides a
quality
all of its own for those who examine
it objectively and in the light of science
i.e. its complete agree-
ment with modern scientifie dsta. What is more, ststements
are
to be found in it
(as
has been shown) that are connected
with
science: and
yet
it is unthinkable
that & man of Mu[rammad's
time could have been the author of them. Modern ecientific
knowledge therefore allows us to understand eertain
verses of the
Qur'an
which, until now, it has been impossible to interpret.
The comparison of several Biblical and
Qur'snic
narrations of
the same subject shows the existence of fundamental differences
between statements in the former, which are scientifically
un-
acceptable, and declarations in the latter which are in
perfect
agreement with modern data: this was the case of the Creation
and the Flood, for example. An extremely important complement
to the Bible was found in the text of the
Qur'an
on the subiect
of the history of the Exodus, where the two texts \r'ere very
much in agreement with archaeological
findings, in the dating
of the time of Moses. Besides, there are major differences be-
tween the
Qur'an
and the Bible on the other subjects:
they serve
to disprove all that has been maintained-without
a scrap of
evidence+oncerning
the allegation that Mu[rammad is supposed
to have copied the Bible to
produce the text of the
Qur'an.
When a comparative
study is made between the statements
connected with science to be found in the collection of hadiths'
which are attributed to Mubammad but are often of dubious
authenticity
(although they reflect the beliefs of the
period)
'
and the data of a similar kind in the
Qur'an,
the disparity be'
comes so obvious
that any notion of I common origin is ruled out.
In view of the level of knowledge in Mu[rammad's
day, it is
inconeeivable
that many of the statements in the
Qur'an
which
are connected
with science could have been the work of a man.
It is, moreover,
perfectly legitimate,
not only to regard the
Qur'an
ss the expression
of s Revelation,
but also to award it a
251
time of the Revelation itself and had subsequently recited it COD-
stantly. Since then, we know that the text has been scrupulously
preserved. It does not give rise to any problems of authenticity.
The QUl"an follows on from the two Revelations that preceded
it and is not only free from contradictions in its narrations, the
sign of the various human manipulations to be found in the Gos-
pels, but provides a quality all of its own for those who examine
it objectively and in the light of science i.e. its complete agree-
ment with modern scientific data. What is more, statements are
to be found in it (as has been shown) that are connected with
science: and yet it is unthinkable that a man of Mu\1ammad's
time could have been the author of them. Modern scientific
knowledge therefore allows us to understand certain verses of the
Qur'an which, until now, it has been impossible to interpret.
The comparison of several Biblical and Qur'anic narrations of
the same subject shows the existence of fundamental differences
between statements in the former, which are scientifically un-
acceptable, and declarations in the latter which are in perfect
agreement with modern data: this was the case of the Creation
and the Flood, for example. An extremely important complement
to the Bible wes found in the text of the Qur'an on the subject
of the history of the Exodus, where the two texts were very
much in agreement with archaeological findings, in the dating
of the time of Moses. Besides, there are major differences be-
tween the Qur'an and the Bible on the other subjects: they serve
to disprove all that has been maintained-without a scrap of
evidence--concerning the allegation that Mul)ammad is supposed
to have copied the Bible to produce the text of the Qur'an.
When a comparative study is made between the statements
connected with science to be found in the collection of hadi ths,
which are attributed to Mul).ammad but are often of dubious
authenticity (although they reflect the beliefs of the period),
and the data of a similar kind in the Qur'an, the disparity be-
comes so obvious that any notion of a common origin is ruled out.
In view of the level of knowledge in Mul)ammad's day, it is
inconceivable that many of the statements in the Qur'an which
are connected with science could have been the work of a man.
It is, moreover, perfectly legitimate, not only to regard the
Qur'an as the expression of a Revelation, but also to award it a
?82
TIIE BIBIJ, THE
QUR'AN
AND SCIENCE
very special
place,
on account of the
guarantee
of authenticity it
provides
and the
presence
in it of scientific
statements which,
when studied today, appear Bs a challenge to explanation in
human terntg.
THE BIBLE, THE QURtAN AND SCIENCE
very special place, on account of the guarantee of authenticity it
provides and the presence in it of scientific statements which,
when studied today, appear as a challenge to explanation in
human terms.
Truwliterorion
of tlw Ar&fu: Into l-p;tin Clutacten 253
TRANSLITERATION OF THE ARABIC INTO TATIN
CHARACTERS USED
IN THIS BOOK
a
l a
, t {
. bt
Ji T
L\
LE
ri t.
-first lcttcr of the word
t
Lotherwisc
Lt y
i, f and i iodi..tc thc clongation of thc concsponding
Arabic vowel
r at
d,
!.
ei
Ll
c!
r d
\t
is
r l
Li q
,il
k
J
f
Ct
a
d
J
a
J
s
u
it
rs
.j l(
Tramliteration of the Arabic Into Lotin Claaracte" 253
TRANSLITERATION OF THE ARABIC INTO LATIN
CHARACTERS USED IN THIS BOOK

,
tl-
~

I u
..b
t

"r'
b
J:.
z

t
,.
"
.:,
v
~
1.
t
i
t.
u f
t
h
J
q

t ~
cl
k
.J
d
J
J
~
r
m
ttl
r
0 n
J
:1:

h
..r
:$
C:st letter of the word ...
w
J
therwise .............. u
Ji
'I
~
':!
y
to.?
~
at rand uindicate the elongation of the corresponding
"
Arabic vowel