02005 Society ol FA:ononUe CeoIogim, loc.

EmnomK: GeOlogy lOOt" Anniwnary Voillme

pp . ........
Andean Copper Province: Tectonomagmatic Settings, Deposit Types,
Metallogeny, Exploration, and Discovery
RICHARD H. SILLITOE'
27 West Hill Park. Highgate WInge. Umdon N66ND. Engkmd
AND JOSE PERELLO
Antofagasta Minerals S.A. . Ahunuufn 11. oficina 602. Santiago. Chile
Abstract
The Andes, in particular their central parts, have been known as a preeminent Cu province for more than
100 years and have been the source of many innovative metallogenic concepts and models directly applicable
to Cu deposits worldwide. The central Andes currently produce 44 percent of world-mined Cu.
The -6.000-km-Iong Andean Cu province oomprises severnllong and markedly Unear. orogen-parallel metallo-
genic belts. each developed during a restricted metallogenie epoch. Belts in the northern Andes are still poorly ex-
plored. those in the central Andes are the focus of current Cu exploration and mining. and the southern Andes have
little Cu potential. In the central Andes, from southern Peru to central Chile and contiguous Argentina. an incipi-
ently developed belt oflate Paleozoic to early Mesowic porph)'l)' Cu mineralization is partly overlapped by foureas!-
ward-younging Cu belts, middle to late Mesowic on the Pacic coast. Paleocene to early Eocene. middle Eocene to
early Oligocene. and, along the eastern border of the orogen. Miocene to earIy Pliocene. all but the first dominated
by porph)'l)' Cu mineralization. Porph)'l)' Cu deposits in the northern part of the Paleocene to early Eocene e l ~ in
southern Peru. and the southern part of the premier middle Eocene to early Oligocene e l ~ in northern Chile. 00-
incide with major orogen-parallel fault systems thal underwent synmineralization reverse displacement. The middle
to late Mesowic belt also oontains major orogen-parallel faults but with nonnal and nonnal-oblique motions syn-
chronous with Cu mineralization of Fe oxide-Cu-Au. manto-type Cu. and subordinate porph)'l)' Cu types. In oon-
trast. remaining portions of the Tertiary Cu belts. along with the central Chile segment of the Miocene to early
Pliocene belt. lack evidence for such clearcut structurnl control on deposit location. The spatial distribution of Cu
belts farther north is different. with only the Miocene to early Pliocene belt recognized in the central Andes of north-
ern Peru and at least three belts developed semioontinuously in the northern Andes of Ecuador and Colombia.
Compositions of host porph)'l)' stocks and alteration-mineralization types and geometries in porph)'l)' Cu-
Mo and Cu-Au deposits throughout the Andes are grossly similar to those encountered elsewhere and do not
appear to control either deposit size or hypogene ore grade. Nevertheless, deposits in the middle Eocene to
early Oligocene belt of northern Chile. in particular. are characterized by telescoping of structurally localized
high-sulfidation mineral assemblages over earlier and deeper alteration types. Hydrothennal breccias occur in
many porph)'l)' eu centers, but ore-bearing varieties are volumetrically important in only three widely scat-
tered deposits of different ages. Porphyry eu-Au depoSits and prospects, although concentrated in several dis-
crete sub-belts and districts, also occur randomly throughout most of the belts. Geochronologic studies of sev-
eral major depoSits suggest that magmatic-hydrothermallifespans commonly approximate 1 to 2 m.y.
The three most productive porph)'l)' Cu belts developed syntectonically during oontractional events and crustaI
thickening. possibly linked to shallow subduction. forearc subduction erosion. and consequent arc migration. Sup-
pression of volcanism during compression, high surface uplift rates, and rapid exhumation optimized the conditions
for aocumulation of fluid-rich magma in large. shallow-level chambers propitious for giant porph)'l)' Cu develop-
ment. The uplift was also ultimately responsible for the supergene upgrading of many Cu deposits. particularly in
northern Chile. The concept of giant porph)'l)' Cu deposit fonnation by superposition of two temporally discrete
magmatic-hydrothennal systems lacks geologie support. Crustal oomposition appears to have exerted little influ-
ence on porphYl)' Cu genesis. In marked contrast to these contrnctional settings, extensional arcs in the Meso-
Genomic Andes gave rise to smaller. lower grade porph)'l)' Cu deposits. The attenuated crust. high heat-flow
regime. and abundance of basaltic to intenned.iate-composition magmatism, characteristic of the middle to late
Mesozoic belt in coastal southern Peru and Chile. provided optimal oonditions for Fe oxide-Cu-Au and manto-type
Cu forniation. although the role of magmatic versus basinal brines in deposit genesis remains unresolved.
A variety of geologie. geoche.nical. and geophysical techniques have been employed in Andean Cu explo-
ration, but it is the combined routine geologic-geochemical approach that bas resuJted in most discoveries. in-
cluding those during the past few years. Continued reliance on these tried-and-tested techniques, combined
with timely drilling, is likely to be the best means of ensuring future exploration su(,'(''ess. During the last 13
years, more than half of discoveries in the central Andes have been made beneath pre- or postmineral cover, a
trend that is thought likely to continue. Nevertheless, undiscovered, at least partially exposed mineralization is
also considered to exist, even in the premier middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt, which has accounted. for
apprOximately 65 percent of all Andean discoveries over the last three decades. Con(''eptual geology, capable of
predicting deposit locations. has played a very subordinate role in Cu discovery to date but is believed to be
perhaps the single most underappreciated parameter for increasing the future discovery rate.
I Corresponding author: e-mail.aucu@compuserve.com
845
846 SILLlTOE AND PERELL6
Introduction
THE SOUTH AMERICAN ANDES (Fig. I), in particular the
northern Chile-southern Peru part (latitudes 13"-33" S), has
the world's largest eu endowment, a situation that was pre-
saged by the results of early investigations by Domeyko
(1876), Miller and Singewald (1919), and Little (1926).
Northern Chile, southern Peru, and northwestern Argentina
possess >40 percent of the world's Cu resources and prOvide
44 percent of mined production of Cu metal. Chile, the lead-
ing producer with 36 percent of market share, first dominated
the world Cu scene during the 1850s to 1880s when a series
of high-grade vein deposits were worked. Chile regained its
premier status in 1980, this time based on exploitation of an
ever-increasing number of major porphyry Cu deposits.
Pioneering metallogenie stuelies of the Chilean Andes were
presented by Domeyko (1876) and Little (1926), both of
whom elivided northern parts of the country into longituelinal
metallogenic belts. Little (1926) further classified the de-
posits on the basis of genetic type and age of formation, al-
though the latter parameter has been largely superseded.
PRINCIPIU.
Coastal Ccx'dillera
and Plains
_ Western Cordillera
IT::::!] Central Cordillera
R1 lnterandean Basins
_ Eastem Cordillera
Frontal Cordillera
!:55l P<eeolille<a
Subandean Ranges
Sierras Pampeanas
CENTRAL ANDES
SOUTHERN ANDES
o 1000 km
, ,
FIG. 1. The South American Andes, showing main physiographic
provinces. Simplified from Corvahin (1990), with additions.
Flores (1942) erected a practical mineralogic classification of
Chilean are depoSits, which was subsequently expanded and
incorporated into a more elaborate metallogenie scheme by
Ruiz and Ericksen (1962) and, with modifications, Ruiz et al.
(1965). They recognized five main types and several subtypes
of Cu depoSits in northern Chile, as well as a variety of others
containing Fe, Au, Pb-Zn, Ag, or Mn. The dominance of the
country's metallogeny by Cu is inherent in use of the terms
"Chilean copper province" (Turneaure, 1955) and "Chilean
copper belt" (Stoll, 1964, 1965). The northward extension
into southern Peru was emphasized by denomination of the
Pacific Cu subprovince by Bellido and de Montreuil (1972).
In a prescient metallogenic analysiS, using the criteria of Rad-
kevich (1961), Stoll (1965) considered the Andes as a sialic
province characterized by polycyclic emplacement of grani-
toid rocks and a scarcity of mafic and ultramafic intrusions
over much of their length. He further suggested that tempo-
rally and compositionaliy elistinct igneous suites, each giving
rise to elistinctive mineralization, could explain the linear elis-
tribution of the various deposit types. Stoll (1965) also
pointed out the gabbrophile (Cu, Fe, Mn), as opposed to
granitophile, character of the major metals, which was taken
to inelicate their ultimate source in the mantle.
FollOwing the formulation of the plate tectonic hypotheSiS
in the late 1960s, Sillitoe (1972a) attempted to link the longi-
tuelinal metallogenic belts of magmatic affiliation in the cen-
tral Andes to the eastward subduction of oceanic lithosphere
and, in the specific case of the region's porphyry Cu depoSits,
he proposed that the uppermost parts of the downgoing slab
contributed metals, S, and CI for eventual are formation in
the upper crust (Sillitoe, 1970, 1972b). In an overall plate tec-
tonic context, Farrar et al. (1970), Clark and Zentilli (1972),
and Clark et al. (1976) used K-Ar ages to confirm and better
define the post-Paleowic eastward migration of longituelinal
plutOnic and metallogeniC belts proposed by Ruiz et al . (1965)
in northern Chile, soon after this method was first applied to
elirect dating of Andean Cu deposits (Laughlin et al., 1968).
Sillitoe (1981, 1988) used raeliometric ages determined by
Quirt et al. (1971) and others to define and delineate Early
Cretaceous, Paleocene to early Eocene, middle Eocene to
early Oligocene, and Miocene to early Pliocene porphyry Cu
belts in northern Chile, southern Peru, and northwestern Ar-
gentina, an eastward-younging array that effectively accom-
modates the ages of all subsequently eliscovered deposits (see
below). It is now widely accepted that Cu deposits through-
out the Andes formed during relatively restricted metallo-
genic epochs, each coincieling with a longituelinal metallo-
genic belt (Sillitoe et al., 1982; Beckinsale et al. , 1965; Clark
et al. , 1990; Noble and McKee, 1999; Gendall et al., 2000;
Pere1l6 et al ., 2oo3a). Petersen (1970, 1972, 1979) and Sillitoe
(1976, 1990) emphasized the broad spectrum of Andean Cu
deposit types, including those clearly or poSSibly unrelated di-
rectly to intrusive activity.
Stoll's (1965) notion of a deep source for Andean magmas
and metals gained geochemical support from the first com-
prehensive Sr and Pb isotope stuelies of igneous rocks and
ores in northern Chile (McNutt et al. , 1975; Tilton et al. ,
1981). During the subsequent 25 years, copious petrochemi-
cal and isotopic research further documented the close asso-
ciation of central Andean Cu deposits with mantle-derived

ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE. 847
magmas, with contributions from the subducted slab (e.g.,
Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988; Puig, 1988; Macfarlane et aI.,
1990; Skewes and Stem, 1995; Kay et aI" 1999; Mathur et aI"
2000). The link between middle Eocene to early Oligocene
porphyry Cu-bearing intrusions in northern Chile and coeval
crustal thickening, uplift, and exhumation processes (Mak-
saev, 1990) was subsequently extended to those of late
Miocene to early Pliocene age in central Chile (Skewes and
Holmgren, 1993; Skewes and Stem, 1994). This concept was
expanded to explain the generation of exceptionally large,
high-grade porphyry Cu deposits throughout the central
Andes and elsewhere during contractional tectonjc events
(Sillitoe, 1998). Kay et al. (1999) and Kay and Mpodozis
(2001, 2002) related trace element geochemistry to degree of
crustal thickening in the central Andes and proposed that ore-
forming fluids were a direct product of the consequent tran-
sition from amphibole to gamet stability in the lower crust.
Numerous studies of individual Andean Cu deposits have
been conducted during tlle last century, with those hy Lind-
gren and Bastin (1922) and Gustafson and Hunt (1975) at the
EI Teniente and EI Salvador porphyry Cu depoSits, respec-
tively, being arguably the truly ground-breaking studies. Ver-
tical wning of central Andean porphyry Cu systems, from vol-
canic tops to plut OniC roots, was proposed by Sillitoe (1973a),
although contractional deformation coincident with emplace-
ment of many giant deposits appears to have inhibited coeval
volcanism (Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990). Development of ad-
vanced argillic lithocaps as shallow manifestations of porphyry
Cu formation (e.g., Sillitoe, 1992, 1995a) is now widely ac-
cepted throughout the Andes. Several attempts have been
made to define the magmatic-hydrothermallifespans of cen-
tral Andean porphyry Cu deposits, culminating in the com-
bined use of
40
ArP"Ar, U-Pb, and Re-Os methods to show that
the giant EI Teniente deposit formed over a -2-m.y. interval
(Maksaev et al., 2004). Recently, integrated models have been
presented for porphyry Cu (Camus, 2003), manto-type Cu
(Maksaev and Zentilli, 2002), and Fe oxide-Cu-Au (Sillitoe,
2003) deposits in the central Andes.
Aim
The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the Andean
Cu provinoe, from Colombia in the north to Argentina and
Chile in the south. An initial section briefly introduoes all hypo-
gene Cu deposit types and belts throughout the Andean orogen,
preparatory to more detailed oonsiderations of the econOmically
most Significant Cu belts in the oentral Andes of northern and
oentral Chile and contiguous parts of Argentina and Peru. The
tectonomagmatic settings and salient mineralization features of
these premier belts are summarized, leading to an evaluation of
the geolOgiC oontrols of Cu deposit formation and an attempt to
explain why the oentral Andes are so highly endowed with this
metal. The article ooncludes with a prOCis of Cu exploration in
the Andes and assesses the methods and strategies that have led
to success and are thought likely to oontinue to do so. Porphyry
Cu deposits, including both Mo- and Au-rich varieties, are far
and away the principal mineralization type and dominate the
discussion. Supergene oxidation and enrichment wnes and
prooesses, critical to economic viability of most Cu deposits in
the central Andes, are mentioned only briefly because they are
dealt with elsewhere in this volume (Sillitoe, 2005).
Andean Cu Distribution in Space and Time
11ltrrxllictory staterrwnt
The Andes have long been subdivided into northern, cen-
tral , and southern parts by transverse tectonomagmatic dis-
continuities (e.g., Gansser, 1973; Sillitoe, 1974). The most
important discontinuities from a metallogenic standpoint are
taken here to be those at approximately lat 5 S (between the
northern and central Andes) and 36 S (between the central
and southern Andes; Figs. 1, 2). The central Andes are the
most highly mineralized of the three segments and contain
all economically important Cu depOSits and numerous
prospects, whereas Cu occurrences are limited in number in
the northern Andes and even scarcer in the southern Andes
(Fig. 1).
Five metallogenic epochs and their corresponding Cu belts
are introduced in the remainder of this section. The epochs
span the late Paleowic, Mesowic, and Cenowic, and the
belts show progreSSively greater metal endowment with de-
creasing age (Sillitoe, 1992; Fig. 3). Outcropping pre-Permian
rocks within the Andean orogen lack important Cu prospects,
with the exception of the volcanogeniC massive sulfide (VMS)
occurrence at Bailadores in the Merida Andes (Fig. 1) of
Venezuela (Carlson, 1977).
Late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic
At least 13 porphyry Cu-Mo systems in the central and
southern Andes have been dated as Early Permian to Early
Jurassic (286-198 Ma; Sillitoe, 1977; Marquardt et al. , 1997;
Williams et aI., 1999; Camus, 2003; Figs. 2, 4a). The systems
define a discontinuous, composite helt in which potassic al-
teration wnes (e.g., La Voluntad, Cerro Samenta) and exten- _
sive advanced argillic lithocaps (e.g., Lila) are prominent.
Documented Cu contents are generally <0.2 percent, al-
though the San Jorge prospect, containing both oxidized and
enriched mineralization, is an exception (Williams et al.,
1999). The Cobriza Cu deposit in central Peru (Fig. 4a), a re-
duced calcic skarn containing pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite
(Petersen, 1965), has a reported K-Ar age of 263 8 Ma for
hydrothermal amphibole (Noble et al. , 1995). This determi-
nation supports assignment of Cobriza, the only presently ex-
plOited Cu deposit of pre-Jurassic age in the Andes, to a Late
Permian to Triassic rifting event characterized by bimodal
magmatism (Kontak et al. , 1985; Sempere et al., 2002).
The six Early Permian (286-272 Ma) porphyry Cu <x:cur-
rences in Chile and western Argentina (Fig. 4a) define a tem-
porally restricted metallogenic epoch and clearly all ()(.'Cur in
the less eroded parts of a volcanoplutonic arc of this age that
developed along the Pacific margin of Gondwana (M podozis
and Ramos, 1990). At least part of the arc was G"Onstructed on
relatively thin continental crust (Mpodozis and Kay, 1992), al -
though the region studied by them lacks known porphyry-
type manifestations. In contmst. those occurrences in Chile
and western Argentina that yielded Late Permian to Early
JurasSiC ages, if correct, are an integral part of the granite-
and rhyolite-dominated Choiyoi large igneous province (Kay
et al. , 1989), a mnsequence of lower-crustal anatexis and re-
gional extension that intervened between the Carboniferous
to Early Permian and Mesozoic subduction regimes (Kay et
al ., 1989; Mpodozis and Kay, 1992). Such nonsubduction
848
80'
la'
PANTANOS-
PEGAOORCI TO ( '-____ ,-'IIt.
la'
ESCONDIDA
30'
SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
BRAZIL
60'
MAIN Cu BELTS
c:::J Miocene-early Pliocene
o Middle Eocene-early Oligocene
Iiiiii:I Paleocene-early Eocene
Late Cretaceous
G:J Early Cretaceous
II!fJI Jurassic
Fe oxide-Cu-Au
Early Cretaceous
o Middle-LateJurassic
6:iJ l ate Paleozoic-early Mesozoic
DEPOSIT TYPES
Porphyry Cu-{Mo, Au)
Porphyry-related skarn Cu-(Mo, Au, Zn)
t::.. Skarn
... Tourmaline breccia
Enargite vein
Enargite-bearing replacement
* Fe oxide-Cu-Au
o Volcanogenic massive sulfide
CJ Red bedeu
Qlj Group of manto-typeCu deposits
Group of red bed Cu deposits
Major tectoni::: discontinuity
BOLIVIA
ARGENTINA
r --j-SAN JORGE (263-257)
VERDE (1().9)
SOOkm
50'
LA VOLUNT AD (287)
FIG. 2. Coppe r belts of the Andes, showing selected deposits and prospects and their genetic type (modified from 5illi-
toe, 1988, 1992). Obvious longitudinal gaps (e.g., in Colombia and Ecuador) reflect paucity of data. Also shown nre the three
main transverse discontinuities in the Andes. Numbers in parentheses after deposit names are isotopic ages (approximated),
taken from compilations by Sillitoe (1 988, 2003), Vila and Sillitoe ( 1991), Noble and McKee (1999), Cendall et al. (2000),
and Perell6 et al. (2003a), with additions from Losada-Calderon et ai, ( 1994), Noble et a!. (1995, 2004), Urbina et al. (1997),
R. H. Sillitoe (unpub. data, 1997), Perel16 et al. (1998, 2001, 2003b), Sasso and Clark (1998), J. D. Lowell (unpub. rept. ,
1999), Bissig et al. (2001), Howland and Clark (2001), Douzari and Clark (2002), Camus (2003), Cotton (2003), Quang et al.
(2003), Bendezu et al. (2004), Gustafson et at. (2004), and Rivera and Pardo (2004).
ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE
Fine Cu (million metric tons)
300 250 200 150 100
Time (Ma)
Mlocene-earty Pliocene bett
Middle Eocene-earty Oligocene belt
Paleocene-earty Eocene
Middle-late Mesozoic belts
Late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic bett
50 o
FIC. 3. Total Cn contents of the late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic, middle
to late Mesozoic, Paleocene to early Eocene, middle Eocene to early
Oligocene, and Miocene to early Pliocene Cn belts of the Andes. Only geo-
logic resources and past production are included. Copper present almost ex-
clusively in porphyry Cn deposits except for the middle to late Mesozoic
belts, in which Fe oxide-Co-Au, manto-type. and VMS deposits are also im-
portant. Note that part of the Cll contained in the middle Eocene to early
Oligocene deposits underwent supergene concentration and redistribution
during the Miocene (see text for discussion). Compiled from Camus (2003)
and sources listed in Tables 1 through 4.
settings are not normally considered to be conducive to por-
phyry Cu generation (Sillitoe, 1999).
Middle to late Mesozoic
Two principal middle to late Mesozoic Cu belts are defined
in the Andes (Figs. 2, 4). The best documented and most im-
portant economically occurs in the Coastal Cordillera of the
central Andes from southern Peru through northern to cen-
tral Chile (lat 13-34 S). The other, without Cu production to
date, occupies an inland position within the northern Andes,
where it follows the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the
Subandean belt of southern Ecuador (lat 7" S); it has not
been recognized farther south than the border with Peru. The
Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous parts of the coastal
southern Peru to central Chile belt, described in greater de-
tail in the follOwing section, are characterized by varied Cu
metallogeny but relatively unimportant porphyry Cu mineral-
ization. In contrast, the inland Colombia-Ecuador belt hosts
exclusively porphyry Cu and small skarn prospects (Sillitoe et
al., 1982; Gendall et al. , 2000; FIg. 4a).
The intra- or backarc Lancones basin of Early Cretaceous
age in northernmost Peru is host to a cluster of Cu-rich VMS
prospects in the Tambogrande district (Fig. 4a), which could
be considered as a northern extension of the coastal middle to
late Mesozoic Cu belt in southern Peru. Unlike VMS d poIll
at the northern extremity of this latter belt (e.g., Cerro Undo;
Fig. 4a), which are of Kuroko type (Vidal , 1987; ond
Hinostroza, 2(03), those at Tambogrande are assigned 10 Ih
bimodal mafic category (Winter et al., 2004).
In contrast to the western Middle to Late JurasSiC and Early
Cretaceous parts of the coastal southern Peru to central Chile
belt, its eastern fringe, of Late Cretaceous age, is rather poorly
endowed with Cu. Nevertheless, at least six porphyry Cu oc-
currences in northern Chile, as well as three more in the
southern Andes of Chile and adjOining Argentina (lat 28"--39"
S), have Late Cretaceous ages (98-73 Ma; Fig. 4a). The only
Cu production is from a small supergene enrichment horizon
in the Domeyko district, although the enriched Zafranal
prospect in southern Peru may also be of this age (Fig. 40).
In the Mesozoic Cu belt of Colombia and Ecuador, the
prinCipal porphyry Cu prospects are Mocoa in southern
Colombia (Sillitoe et al ., 1984) and Panantza, San Carlos, and
Mirador in the Pangui trend of southern Ecuador (Gendall et
al., 2000), all of Middle to Late JurasSiC age (Fig. 4a). The
mineralized centers are associated with small porphyry stocks
that intrude mainly I-type Jurassic batholiths. The prospects
in Ecuador contain relatively high hypogene Cu grades
(-0.7% Cu) and variable but modest Mo and Au contents (up
to 0.2 glt). Supergene oxidation and enrichment are imma-
turely aeveloped because of high erosion rates. The inland
position of the Mesozoic belt in Colombia and Ecuador is a
result of latest JurasSiC and younger accretion of oceanic ter-
ranes to the western margin of the northern Andes (Aleman
and Ramos, 2000 and references therein).
Small sediment-hosted Cu deposits occur in two Late Cre-
taceous backarc settings in Argentina-the Salta basin in the
central Andes and the basin of the southern Andes
(Fig. 2). The main Cu-(Ag) prospects of the Salta basin are of
Kupferschiefer type and occur in shallow-marine or lacus-
trine limestone and calcareous siltstone above a rift-fi.lling,
subaerial red-bed sequence (Peral and Wormald, 1999). In
contrast, the red-bed Cu-(U -V) mineralization in the
Neuquen basin is hosted by bleached zones in a red subaerial
sandstone-siltstone package (Lyons, 1999). The disseminated
mineralization, rich in hypogene chalcocite, was preCipitated
from basinal brines by mainly diagenetic pyrite in the Salta
basin and plant material in the Neuquen basin (Peral and
Wormald, 1999; Lyons, 1999).
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic Cu metallogeny of the Andes is characterized
by three principal epochs giving rise to spatially restricted, east-
ward-younging belts (Sillitoe, 1988; Fig. 2): (1) a Paleocene to
early Eocene belt from southern Peru to central Chile, (2) a
middle Eocene to early Oligocene bell over broadly the same
latitudinal extent of southern Peru and c-entnu Chile, and (3) a
Miocene to early Pliocene belt extending from northern
Colombia to central Chile and adjOining west-central Ar-
gentina. These three e<;onomically preeminent belts are de-
scribed in greater detail in succeeding sections of this paper.
An additional, but poorly defined belt of Paleocene to mid-
dle Eocene deposits in the northern Andes of northwestern
Colombia (Fig. 2) overlaps in age the two oldest Cenozoic
belts defined in the central Andes. The Paleocene to middle
850
c.mog;.
Ridge
(102-1001
a
o
I
80
500km
I
SILL/TOE AND PEREU6
b
BRAZIL
BOUVIA
Fe oxide-Cu-Au belts
_ Early Cretaceous
_ Middle-Late
Jurassic
Fe oxide-Cu-Austyles
Vein
.. S!<am
6, Breccia
Composite
_ Manto-typeCu
.:.:-:. = g ~ ~ = s
"""'" (123-1'1)
ARGENTJNA
DEPOSIT TYPES
Porphyry Cu-M::l
Porphyry Cu-Au
... Breccia pipe
'" Skarn
Volcanogenic
massive sulfide
Cu BELTS
.. Late Cretaceous
~ Early Cretaceous
Middle-lateJurassic
1+ .. .. +1 P8f1l1ian-Earty Jurassic
_ Major tectonic
discontinuity
Flc.4. Late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic and middle to late Mesozoic Cll belts of the Andes. a. Porphyry Cu. breccia pipe,
skarn, and VMS deposits and prospects. h. Iron oxide-Cu-Au and manto-type Cll deposits and prospects. Also shown are the
three main transverse discontinuities in the Andes. Numbers in parenthesis after deposit names are isotopic ages (approxi-
mated). taken from compilations by Sillitoe (1988, 20(3) and Camus (2003), with additions from Noble et al. (1995), R. H.
SiUitoe (unpub. data, 1997), Gendall et al . (2000), Pere1l6 et al. (2003b), J. Pere1l6 (unpub. data, 20(4), Winter et aI. (2004),
and Quang et 01. (2005).
ANDEAN C .. PROVINCE 851
Eocene belt occurs in an allochthonous island-arc terrane ac-
creted to the northern Andean margin (Sillitoe et al., 1982;
Aspden et al., 1987). If formed prior to accretion, as seems
likely (Cediel et al., 2(03), the belt would be the only oceanic
island-arc porphyry Cu environment in the Andes. The four
principal known prospects that define the belt, including Rio
Pito in contiguous southern Panama, are spatially related to
precursor batholiths and major orogen-parallel faults with ev-
idence for ductile as well as brittle motion. The prospects are
geologically varied, with M urind6 being the most noteworthy
because of the Au- and magnetite-rich potassic alteration
wne (Sillitoe et al., 1982).
Small red-bed Cu deposits and prospects occur in the cen-
tral Andes, particularly at Corocoro and Chacarilla in north-
western Bolivia (Entwistle and Gouin, 1955; Ljunggren and
Meyer, 1964), San Bartolo in neighboring Chile (Flint, 1986),
and in southern Peru (Fig. 2); none of them is currently in
production. The mineralization is hosted by subaerial sand-
stone and siltstone sequences that accumulated in Oligocene
to Miocene molasse basins and is closely associated with
evaporitic diapirism (Evernden et al., 1977; Cox et al. , 1992).
The chalcocite and native Cu mineralization, in part associ-
ated with elevated Ag contents, is present chiefly in dissemi-
nated form and was probably introduced by evaporitic brines
(Sillitoe, 1990; Cox et al. , 1992).
Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Belt
of the Central Andes
Mineralization types and economic significance
The Middle jurassic to Early Cretaceous Cu belt of the cen-
tral Andes is semicontinuous for a distance of 2,300 lan, from
southern Peru to central Chile, where it follows the Coastal
Cordillera along the Pacific littoral (Fig. 1) throughout, and av-
erages -30 Ian in width (Fig. 4). As noted above, the belt may
be continued northward to include the Tarnbogrande VMS de-
posits (Fig. 4a). The belt contains a variety of Cu deposits, in-
cluding porphyry Cu, Fe oxide-Cu-Au, and manto Cu types
and, north of latitude 13" S, Cu-bearing VMS deposits, the
largest in southern Peru being at Cerro Lindo (Gariepy and Hi-
nostroza, 2003; Fig. 4a; Table 1). The largest historic and cur-
rent Cu producers in the belt (Table 1) are porphyry Cu (An-
dacollo), Fe oxide-Cu-Au (RaUl-Condestable, Mantoverde,
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre), and manto-type Cu (Michilla,
Mantos Blancos, El Soldado, Lo Aguirre) deposits. The por-
phyry Cu prospects contain Mo but are relatively poor in Au,
with the notable exception of Andacollo (Uaumett et al. , 1975).
The main Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous deposits had
a total combined production in 2003 of -600,000 metric tons
(t) of fme Cu (Table I ), which represented 10 percent of total
Andean production. In addition, local companies and arti-
sanal miners exploit widespread small deposits in the north-
ern Chile part of the belt.
Tectonomagmatic setting
The Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Cu belt of the
central Andes is hosted by volcanoplutonic arcs constructed
on Precambrian metamorphic rocks in southernmost Peru
and on a late Paleowic subduction complex, Permian grani-
toids, and Triassic volcanosedimentary sequences south of
latitude 26 S in northern Chile (Ramos, 2000, and references
therein). The arcs and intra-arc basins comprise several thou-
sand meters of subaerial to shallow submarine volcanic rocks
dominated by lavas of basaltic to undesitic composition (e.g.,
Boric et al. , 1990; Mpodozis and Ramos. 1990, Pichowiak,
1994). The volcanic sequences underwent prehnite-pumpel -
lyite to greenschist facies (burial) metamorphism during arc
construction (Levi et al., 1989; Atherton and Aguirre, 1992).
Several interconnected marine-sedimentary hm.: karc basins
bound the arc terrane to the east (M podozis und RUlllos,
1990).
A series of orogen-parallel major fault systems cut the Cu-
bearing volcanoplutonic arcs in southenl Pent and northern
Chile. The best known of these is the Atacama fault system
that extends for >1,000 Ian between lat 20" and 30" S (Fig. 5),
where it consists of concave-west, ductile and brittle fault seg-
ments that underwent variable motion (Herve, 1987;
Scheuber and Andriessen, 1990; Brown et al., 1993). Tran-
sient ductile deformation, charted by mylonite formation
(e.g., Scheuber and Andriessen, 1990; Scheuber et al., 1995),
occurred at shallow to intermediate crustal levels (dO Ian) in
close association with syntectonic pluton emplacement but
gave way to brittle behavior during arc cooling (Brown et al .,
1993). Between lat 22 and 27" S, motion on the Atacama
fault system switched from normal slip to sinistral transten-
sion at -132 Ma (Scheuber and Gonzalez, 1999; Grocott and
Taylor, 2(02), a change that apparently instigated an impor-
tant epoch of Cu mineralization (see below). Normal faults
along the entire eastern margin of the Coastal Cordillera and
farther east were inverted during early Late Cretaceous trans-
pression (Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Lara and Godoy, 1998;
Benavides-Caceres, 1999).
The plutOniC complexes and extensional and transtensional
faulting in the northern Chile part of the belt young system-
atically eastward from Early JurassiC through Early Creta-
ceous (Farrar et al., 1970; Berg and Baumann, 1985;
Dallmeyer et al., 1996), although the pattern is still poorly re-
solved in southern Peru (Clark et al ., 1990). Copper deposits
have the same overall ages as their host or nearby plutons
and, hence, also young systematically eastward. On the basis
of available geochronologic data, Sillitoe (2003) defined Mid-
dle to Late Jurassic (170-150 Ma) and Early Cretaceous
(130-110 Ma) sub-belts of Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits (Fig. 4b;
Table 1). Dated porphyry Cu deposits also fall broadly into
these same two time intervals (Sillitoe, 2003; Fig. 4a). Two
main groups of manto-type Cu deposits occur, one in the
JurasSiC arc of northern Chile at apprOximately 150 to 140 Ma
(Michilla, Mantos Blancos) and the other in the Early Creta-
ceous intra-arc basin of central Chile at - 110 to 100 Ma (EI
Soldado, Lo Aguirre; Figs. 2, 4b; Table I ), although exact ages
are somewhat equivocal (Maksaev and Zentilli, 2(02). The
Cu-rich VMS deposits in central and northern Peru formed at
approximately 100 Ma (Tegart et aI., 2000; Gariepy and Hi-
nostroza, 2(03).
The plutons in the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Cu
belt range in composition mainly from gabbro and diorite,
through quartz diorite and tonalite, to granodiOrite, locally
with phases as felsic as monwgranite; they constitute the
coastal batholith. Individual plutonic complexes were em-
placed over intervals of 3 to 14 m.y. (Dallmeyer et al., 1996).
TABLE 1. Selected Geologic Characteristics of POrphyry Cu, Fe oxide-Cu-Au, Manto-type Cu, and VMS Deposits and Principal Prospects, Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Belt, Central Andes

'"
Status and Production +
2003 reserves (million Ore-related
Deposit! production' metric tonnes) hypogene
prospect (metri c tons and grade (%) Intrusion alteration Mineralization Structural
(type) Cu x 1,000) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Host rocks (J!lineralization) Age (Ma) style control Key references
Quartz diorite Cretaceous
RaUl- porphyry body, marine volcano- Veins, mantos, Vidal el aI. (1990),
Condestable Mine Sulf: >25@ 1.7 Cu, dacite porphyry sedimentary Zircon: and disseminated NW de Haller et al.
(Fe oxide-Cu-Au) 11.2 0.9 gil Au, 6 gil Ag dikes rocks Calcic (ep) 116.5-113 bodies an NE faults (2002)
Massive sulfide Present:
Cerro Lindo Sulf, 41.6@0.8Cu, Andesite Cretaceous Late Early lenses and intersecting NW and
(VMS) Prospect 5.1 Zn, 35 glt Ag porphyry dikes volcanic rocks Sericitic (cp) Cretaceous stockworks and NE faults Hinostroza (2003)
Cretaceous
Andesite and volcaniclastic Calcic + vein ike Injoque et at.
Mina Justa Ox + sulf: 209 @ dadle porphyry rocks and K-feldspar Biotite: 160 4; replacement Important: NE (1988), Moody el
(Fe oxide-Cu-Au) Prospect 0.86 Cu, 0.1 gil Au dikes andesitic sill (ep, bn, ee) Sericite: 154 4 body listric fault aI. (2003)
Potassic, inter-
Composite Jurassic volcanic mediate argillic, Important:

diorite to rocks and sericitlc, and intersecting
Buey Muerto 0" 219@ granodiOrite monzodiorite advanced Biotite: 137 4; Porphyry Cu NNE and
(porphyry Cui Prospect 0.36 Cu (0.2) porphyry slock stock argiIlie (ep) Sericite: 132 4 stockwork NW faults Perell6 et aI. (2003b)
Cl
'" Microdiorite
intrusions: Important:
Michilla Mine Ox + sulf: 65 @ Microdionte and JurasSiC Sodie (ee-dg, 159.9.0.7- Steep breccias ENE-trending Wolf el aI. (1990),
."
(manto-type Cu) 52.7 1.0 Cu andesite dikes volcanic rocks bn, cp) 137.4. l.l and mantas dikes TIistd el aI. (2003)

t-
Tassinari et al.
t-
o.
Ox: 154 @ 1.04 Cu. JurasSiC volcanic Sericite: ISO 4; Important: (1993), Ramirez
Mantos Blancos Mine Sulf, 115.9 @ 1.20 and sub- Sodie (bn, Rb-Sr error- Mantas, lenses, NW,NS, (1996), O' rego el
(manto-type Cu) 147.1 Cu, -14 gil Ag Andesite dikes volcanic rocks ee,cp) chron: 158 6 and veins and N E faults al. (2003)
V;la el aI . (1996),
0" 212 @ 0.63 Cu. Potassic, Vein breccia, Orrego et al.
Mantoverde Mine Sulf: >400 @ 0.52 JurasSiC chloritic, and SeriCite: 123 3, stockworks, and Important: (2000), Zamora and
(Fe oxide-Cu-Au) 60.2 Cu, 0.11 gil Au Diorite dikes volcanic rocks sericitic (cp) 1213,1l73 breccia manto NNE fault Castillo (2001)
Biotite: 116.51
0.26,115.14.
0.18, 114.9 1.0,
114.6. 1.6,
Candelaria sulf: 114.1 0.7;
470 @ 0.95 Cu, Amphibole: 116.6
0.22 gil Au; Cretaceous 1.2, 111.7 0.8; lly.n el aI. (1995),
Candelaria-Punta Punta del Cobre volcanic and Molybdenite: Mantos, breccias, Important: Marschik and
del Cobre (Fe Mines sulf: - 120 @ 1.5 Diorite and volcaniclastic Potassic and 115.2.0.6, veins, and NWand FonlboM (2001),
onde-Cu-Au) 257.0 Cu, 0.2-<J.6 gil Au dacite dikes rocks sadie-calde (ep) 114.2.0.6 stockwarks NNW faults Mathur et aI. (2002)
SulE 300 @0.70 Uaumett et al.
AndacoUo Mine Cu, 0.015 Mo, Tonalite Cretaceous Potassic and Sericite:

Present: NW (1975), Munizaga
(porphyry Cui 20.0 0.23 gil Au porphyry volcanit rocks sericitic (cp) 112 10 sloc ork and NNW faults el aI. (1985)
TABLE 1. (Cont.)
Status and Production +
2003 reserves (million Ore-related
Depositl production! metric tonnes)

prospect (metric tons and grnde (%) Intrusion teration Mineralization Structural
(type) Cu x 1,000) (cutoff. % Cu) composition Host rocks (mineralization) Age (Ma) style control Key references
Holmgren (1987),
Cretaceous Steep. irregular Important: Wilson and Zentilli
volcanic and K-feldspar: structurally con- intersecting NS. (1999), Boric e' aI.
Mine volcaniclastic Sooic + chlorite 106.0. l.l-IOO.5 trolled bodies EW, and (2000), Wilson et
EI Soldado 70.5 Sul[ 476@ 1.11 Cu Andesite dikes rocks (bn, ce, cp) ;t 1.5 and veins NW faults 01. (2003)
Albite: 102 :% 5
Whole rock: Important:
Sodic + 110 * 4; NW-EW, NS- Munizaga et al.
Abendoned Sulf. 19@ Diorite body and Cretaceous chlorite-sericite Rb-Sr isochron: Mantos and NNE, and (1988). Sanc et aI.
1..0 Aguirre mine 1.66 Cu (0.4) andesite dikes volcanic rocks (bn, ce, cp) 113.3 breccias NE faults (2003)
Abbreviations: bn '" bornite. cc E chalcocite, cp '" chalcopyrite. dg IE digenite. Ox ". oxide. Sulf :: sulfide
! Figures from Comisi6n Chilena del Cobre and Direccl6n General de Mineria (Peru)
or. Z g'
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854 SILLITOE AND PERELL6
Abundant basaltic to andesitic dikes cut many of the plutons
and their country rocks. Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits, particu-
larly those of vein type, share faults with diorite porphyry
dikes, whereas the porphyry Cu deposits are centered on
small stocks of diorite to granodiOrite porphyry (Sillitoe,
2003). These minor intrusions, in common with the Jurassic
and Early Cretaceous plutOniC rocks, are hornblende bearing,
metaluminous, and calc-alkaline, although the gabbros are
tholeiitic in character (e.g., Pichowiak et aI., 1990; Pichowiak,
1994). All the intrusions are I type (Ishihara and Ulriksen,
1980), with Sri of 0.704 to 0.705 in the Middle to Late Juras-
sic sub-belt and 0.703 to 0.704 in the Early Cretaceous sub-
belt, the more primitive Early Cretaceous ratios taken to in-
dicate maximal crustal thinning (McNutt et aI. , 1975; Berg
and Baumann, 1985; Pichowiak, 1994).
Principal mineralization features
The Fe oxide-Cu-Au mineralization is characterized by a
variety of styles, including veins through breccia pipes, calcic
skarns, and composite deposits comprising varied combina-
tions of hydrothermal and tectonic breccias, stockwork wnes,
and replacement horiwns besides veins (Sillitoe, 2003; Table
1). The largest depoSits are composite, as exemplified by
Mantoverde (Vila et aI., 1996) and Candelaria-Punta del
Cobre (Marschik and Fontbote, 2001). Laterally and verti-
cally extensive Fe oxide-Cu-Au veins commonly occur as
swarms cutting diorite or, locally, more felsic plutons, with
diorite porpbyry dikes along the same controlling structures
being immediately pre- to synmineralization in timing. In
contrast, the composite deposits are hosted by volcanosedi-
mentary sequences in proximity to plutons, with some exam-
ples concealed beneath largely barren carbonate units (Ryan
et aI., 1995; Sillitoe, 2003).
The Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits are defined by their abun-
dance of magnetite and/or specular hematite, which are ac-
companied by mainly chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and ar-
senopyrite, although bornite is recorded locally. A marked
feature of several depoSits (e.g., Candelaria-Punta del Cobre,
Mantoverde) is an upward and/or outward change from mag-
netite to hematite. A distinctive Fe-Cu-Au-Co-Ni-As-Mo-U
geochemical signature characterizes the depoSits. Alteration
in the composite deposits is complex and comprises varied
combinations of potassic, calcic, and sodic assemblages (Table
1). Magnetite-dominated deposits tend to have a gangue
composed of actinolite and apatite clinopyroxene, whereas
those with hematite are typified by chlorite and sericite (SilIi-
toe, 2003, and references therein).
The manto-type Cu deposits occur as strata-bound dissem-
inated bodies, steep hydrothermal breccias surrounding bar-
ren, fingerlike, diorite plugs, and related veins, mostly within
the basaltic to andesitic volcanic sequences (Table 1). How-
ever, the largest deposit, Mantos B1ancos, is unique in being
partly hosted by felsic volcanic rocks and subvolcanic intru-
sions (Ramirez, 1996; Orrego et aI., 2003). The highest grade
parts of manto-type deposits, typically controlled by highly
permeable faults, hydrothermal breccias, dike contacts, vesic-
ular flow tops, and flow breccias, are characterized by hypo-
gene chalcocite and bornite, which grade outward and down-
ward through chalcopyrite plus pyrite to minor distal
concentrations of pyrite, reflecting depletion of Cu in the
mineralizing fluids (Sillitoe, 1990; Maksaev and Zentilli,
2002). The mineralization typically contains byproduct Ag but
no appreciable Au. The chalcocite-bornite cores of the larger
deposits are commonly localized at original redox boundaries
in the host stratigraphic packages and are overlain or flanked
by sulfide-deficient wnes containing hypogene hematite (SiI-
Iitoe, 1992; Kirkham, 1996). Albite, chlorite, and quartz are
the main gangue minerals in the cores of deposits (Table 1).
The Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous porphyry Cu de-
posits tend to be dominated by potassic (biotite, K-feldspar)
and overprinted intermediate argillic (chlorite, greenish
sericite, illite, and/or smectite) assemblages, although sericitic
(quartz-sericite [fine-grained muscovite]) alteration occurs at
Andacollo (Uaumett et aI., 1975) an1 Buey Muerto, where
traces of pyrophyllite and dickite are also present (Pere1l6 et
aI., 2003b; Table 1).
Paleocene to Early Eocene Belt of the Central Andes
Mineralization types and economic Significance
The Paleocene to early Eocene belt, the third largest Cu
concentration in the central Andes, extends for -1,900 km
from southern Peru to central Chile (Iat 17"-32 S) and aver-
ages 30 to 50 km in width (Fig. 6). The belt is defined princi-
pally by porphyry-type depoSits but also includes several
groups of generally small, tourmaline-bearing breccia pipes,
especially south of latitude 26 S (e.g., Ruiz et aI. , 1965; SilIi-
toe and Sawkins, 1971), an enargite-bearing vein deposit at EI
Guanaco and an Fe oxide-Cu-Au vein at Dulcinea. The
largest breccia deposits are Cerro Negro, near Cerro Verde-
Santa Rosa, southern Peru, and Santa Catalina in the Sierra
Gorda district of northern Chile, both located in porphyry Cu
districts. The largest porphyry Cu deposits are all Mo rich and
occur near the northern termination of the belt, at Cerro
Verde-Santa Rosa, Cuajone, Quellaveco, and Toquepala (Fig.
6). The most important porphyry Cu-Mo deposits farther
south are at Cerro Colorado and Spence. Porphyry Cu-Au
prospects are small, such as Carmen (Rivera and Peri, 1991;
Camus, 2003) and others plotted in Figure 6.
The Paleocene to early Eocene deposits have accounted for
much of Peru's Cu production since 1960, when Toquepala
came on stream, and still contribute roughly 55 percent of the
nation's output. In contrast, the Cerro Colorado and Lomas
Bayas depOSits, the main producers in the northern Chile part
of the belt, had startups in 1994 and 1998, respectively. In
2003, the porphyry Cu deposits of the belt were responSible
for production of 619,000 t of fine Cu (Table 2).
Tectonomagmatic setting
The Paleocene to early Eocene belt in southern Peru is sit-
uated along the oceanward slopes of the Western Cordillera
at elevations of 3,000 to 3,700 m, whereas in Chile it lies im-
mediately east of the Longitudinal Valley at lower elevations
(Fig. 1). All the main porphyry Cu-Mo deposits in the belt are
hosted by Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, calc-alkaline, an-
desitic to rhyolitic volcanic rocks, which are intruded in places
by batholiths emplaced immediately prior to the porphyry
stocks (e.g., Beckinsale et aI., 1985; Clark et aI., 1990; Marinovic
and Garda, 1999). The silicic volcanic rocks in the northern
Chile part of the belt define a series of large ash-flow calderas
ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE 855
10'
0'
10'
o
I
80"

L DEPOSIT TYPES
Porphyry Cu-Mo
10'
Porphyry CrAu
t:. Tourmaline brecca
= Enargite vein
- K>CG
_ Major tectoni:: dSCOfltiflUity
COLOMBIA
BRAZIL
10'
BOUVIA

""",,- . """"
500km
I
SANTA AOSA.IG)
""""" ....
Q,"',-,,"oo ....,
TOQUEPALA,n.allj
"""", .. +-""1::"
""""''''''''''''''' ....
20'
ARGENnNA
Flc . 6. PaJeocene to early Eocene Cu belts of the Andes, showing main
deposits and prospects and their genetic type. Also shown are the three main
transverse discontinuities in the Andes. Numbers in parenthesis after deposit
names are isotopic ages (approximated), taken from compilation by Sillitoe
(1988). with .dwtions from Sillitoe et aI. (1982). Boric et aI. (1990). J. D.
Lowell (unpub. rept.. 1999). Rowland and Clark (2001). J. Perell6 (unpub.
data, 2002, 2004). Bouzari and Clark (2002), Camus (2003), P. Fem4ndez
(pe ..... commun . 20(3). and Quang et aI. (2003).
(e.g., Arevalo e l al.. 1994; Hivem and Mpodozis. 1994;
Cornejo et al .. 1997). Precambrian basement crops out only
in the northernmost part of the belt but is assumed to extend
to at least latitude 26" S (Hamos. 2000, anu references
therein). Substantial parts of the belt nurth of llItitude 21 S
are concealed beneath thick sequences of lut e Oligocene and
younger ignimbrite sheets (e.g., Tosdal et III.. 1984).
The southern Peru part of the belt . except for the Cerro
Verde-Santa Rosa deposit, lies alongside the steeply dipping,
orogen-parallel Incapuquio fault system. which Is Imceabl e
for 140 Ian to the vicinity of the border with Chil e. The poorly
understood fault system was clearly active during p0'l,hyry
Cu emplacement (Zweng aod Clark, 1995; Concha and Valle.
1999). The Incapuquio fault itself shows evidence for normal .
sinistral transcurrent, and reverse motion (Wilson and Garda,
1962; Jacay et al. , 2(02). It is assumed that the Incapuquio
fault system facilitated at least part of the contraction and up-
lift that accompanied porphyry Cu emplacement (Noble et
al. , 1985; Sandeman et al , 1995; 1999). In
northern Chile, however, ma/'or orogen-parallel faults have
not been recognized in the be t, which was underlain by rela-
tively thin crust under a moderately extensional stress regime
and characterized by discontinuous normal faulting (Arevalo
et al ., 1994; Cornejo et al., 1994; Cornejo and Mpodozis,
1997).
The dated hydrothermal breccia pipes in the northern
Chile part of the belt range in age from 66 to 60 Ma (Sillitoe,
1988; Fig. 6), whereas most of the large porphyry Cu-Mo de-
posits are appreciably younger (62--51 Ma; Boric et aI. , 1990;
Rowland and Clark, 2001; Bouzari and Clark, 2002; Camus,
2003; Quang et aI. , 2003; Fig. 6, Table 2). The porphyry Cu-
Au prospect at Carmen yielded a 66 Ma age (Camus, 2(03),
similar to that of nearby tourmaline breccia pipe clusters (Fig.
6). The largest porphyry Cu deposits in the belt concluded arc
development (e.g. , Saodemao et al ., 1995).
The porphyry Cu stocks are multiphase intrusions with
variable compositions ranging from tonalite to quartz mon-
zonite (Table 2). These stocks in the southern Peru part of the
belt reported Sr; between 0.7044 and 0.7054 (Beckinsale et
al ., 1985). The granodiOrite porphyry at the Cerro Verde-
Santa Rosa deposit has a LaIYb ratio of 20 to 22 (Le Bel.
1985), indicating thickened crust, and substantially higher
than those (&--10; Williams, 1992) for porphyry Cu and brec-
cia pipe districts underlain by attenuated crust in the north-
ern Chile part of the belt.
Principal mineralization features
The Paleocene to early Eocene porphyry Cu depoSits are
characterized by potassic, sericitic, intermediate argi llic, and
advanced argillic (quartz, alunite, andlor pyrophyllite, dickite)
alteration (Table 2). Potassic assemblages are ubiquitous and
typically formed Simultaneously \vith stockwork chalcopyrite
and minor bornite mineralization, except at Cerro Colorado
where early biotite-albite alteration is defici ent in Cu and in-
termediate argillic assemblages constitute the main Cu-bear-
ing stage (Bouzari and Clark. 2(02). Sericitic alteration over-
printing the potassic assemblages is also commonly Cu
bearing and was responsible for approximately 60 to >90 per-
cent of hypogene Cu tenor at Cuajone, Quellaveco, and
Toquepala (Zweng and Clark, 1995; Concba and Valle, 1999).
TABLE 2. Selected Geologic Characteristics of POrphyry Cu Deposits and Principal Prospects, Paleocene to Early Eocene Belt, Central Andes

Ol
Status and Production +
2003 reseJ'Ves (million
production
l
metric tonnes) hypogene
Deposit! (metric tons and grade ('h) Po<phyry Host alteration Hydrothennal Massive Structural
prospect Cu x 1,(00) (cutoff, % Cu) composition rocks (mineralization) Age (Ma) breccias su16de veins control Key references
Sericite Cerro
Pa1eogene Verde: 61.8 :t
Suli, 1,470 @ volcanic and Potassic 0.7,62.0:t 1.1;
0.55 Cu, 0.015 Mo 1\vo phases: intrusive rocks, overprinted Sericite Santa Severn! Kihien (1975),
(including quam. Precambrian and surrounded Rosa: 62.2 :t 2.9; phases with Absent. but Important: Mathur et aI.
Cerro Verde Mine gene, 270 @0.8) monzonite metamorphic by sericitic Molybdenite: tounnaline and tetrahedrite NW regi onal (2001), Quang et
Santa Rosa 86.4 Ox: 85@ 1.1 Cu rocks (cp, bn') 58.6-58.9 0.3 dumortierite. present faul ts aI. (2003)
Manrique and
Suli, 1,400 @ Plazolles (1974),
0.64 Cu, 0.033 Sericite: Satchwell (1983),
Mo (0.4) (i n- Potassic 52.3. 1.6; SeveraJ phases: Absent. but Important: Concha and Valle
Mine c1uding super Three phases: Paleogene overprinted by Molybdenite: igneous enargite majorNW (1999). Mathur et
Cuajone 168.0 gene, 75 @ 1.5 Cui quartz latite volcanic rocks sericitic (cp. bn) 53.4 :t 0.3 breccias present regional faults aI. (2001)
Poorly defined
Severa] phases: concentric pattern
'"
monzonite. with potassiC NW.trending Estrada (1975),

quartz Paleogene surrounded Minor igneous intrusions and Clark et al.

Suli, 1.670 @0.56 zonite. and volcanic and and overprinted breccias and alteration (1990), Kihie n
'"
Quellaveco Prospect Cu, 0.02 Mo (0.3) quartz diorite intrusive rocks by sericitic (cp) Biotite (?), 54.5 pebble dikes Absent geometry (1995)
Potassic and complex
Cretaceous potassicsodic wit five phases; Zweng and Clark
tll
Paleogene overprinted by Sericite(?): tounnaline Absent, but Important: (1995), Mattos
'"
'" volcanic and sericitic and 56 % 1; cias important. tetrahedrite along major and Valle (1999), ...
Mine SulE 778 @ 0.96 Three phases: Paleocene minor advanced Molybde nite: Barren and enargite NW regional Mathur et aI.
...
Q.
Toquepala 176.3 Cu, 0.047 Mo dacite intrusive rocks argillic (cp) 57.1 .0.3 eral diatreme present faults (2001)
Intennediate
Late argillic overprinted Biotite: Important: Important:
Ox (incl uding Cretaceous- by sericitic and 51.8.0.5; several phases; intersecting Bouzari and
Cerro Mine enri chment): SeveraJ phases: Paleocene minor advanced Molybdenite: tourmal ine NE and Clark (2002),
Colorado 128.3 228@ 1.0 Cu dacite volcanic rocks argillic (cp) 55:t 0.3 breccias Absent NW faults Cotton (2003)
Sulf (hypogene), Late
186 @ 0.54 Cu. Three phases: ceous volcanic Important: Important:
Sulf (supergene): quartz and Potassic Biotite: 57.00 several NE al ignment Rowland and
Mine 230 @ 1.14 Cu. zoni te to sedimentary printed by 0.6!l-56.61 tounnaline of hydrothe rmal Clark (2001),
Spence development Ox: 79@ 1.18 Cu granodiOrite rocks sericitic (cp, brl) :t 0.63 breccias Absent centers Tapia (2003a. b)
Important:
sericite. chlorite. Important :
Ox: 363 @ 0.34 Cu Paleocene Potassic with biotite. and NW, NE,and Boric et aI .
Mine + 252 @ 0.27 Cu One main granodiOrite. minor sericitic Biotite (?): tounna]i ne EW intersecting (1990). Camus
Lomas BardS 60.2 (ROW) (0.08) phase: dacite tonalite pluton overprint (cp) 57.9-57.1 1.8 breccias Absent faults (2003)
Abbreviations: bn :: bornite. cp = chalcopyrite. Ox :: oxide, Sulf = sulfide
I Figures from Comisi6n Chilena del Cobre and Direcci6n General de Minerfa (Peru)
! M illor su16de minerals italicized
3 ROM ", run of mi ne orc
ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE 857
Tourmaline-rich sericitic alteration characterizes a l-km' hy-
drothermal breceia body at Toquepala (Zweng and Clark,
1995), whereas smaller breccias at Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa
contain tourmaline plus dumortierite (Kihien, 1975; Table 2).
At Lomas Bayas and however, sericitic alteration is
subordinate and Cu is chiefly a component of potasSiC zones.
Advanced have been eroded from
above the main porphyry Cu depoSits in the Paleocene to
early Eocene belt, although they remain widespread in the
northern Chile part of the belt, as at Anillo and EI Guanaco
(Marquardt et al. , 1994; Fig. 6), the latter cut by the
major enargite-bearing veins. Pyrophyllite-bearmg assem-
blages at Toquepala (Zweng and Clark, 1995) and Cerro Col-
orado (Bouzari and Clark, 2002) are interpreted as the deep
roots of
Supergene chalcocite enrichment was a requirement for
ore generation at Cerro Colorado and Spence and deep oxi-
dation played the same role at Lomas Bayas. In southern
Peru, chalcocite enrichment produced the higher grade ores
mined initially at Cuajone and Toquepala, whereas oxide ore
has been more important to date at Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa.
Enrichment took place where pyrite-rich sericitic alteration is
well developed, whereas the oxide Cu mineralization is con-
fined to potassic zones containing only minor pyrite. The su-
pergene profiles developed since -42 Ma (Bouzari and Clark,
2002; Quang et al ., 2003, 2005) and, at least at Cerro Verde-
Santa Rosa, Cerro Colorado, and Spence, were active before
the hypogene porphyry Cu deposits in the middle Eocene to
early belt were formed (S@toe and McKee, 1996).
Fossilization of the currently observed supergene profIles in
the northern Chile deposits commenced at -14 Ma, but those
in southern Peru probably remain active (S@toe, 2005).
Middle Eocene to Early Oligocene Belt
of the Central Andes
Mineralization types and economic significance
The middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt of the central
Andes contains the largest concentration of Cu resources in
the world. The belt is defined by a orogen-parallel
array of Cu deposits and prospects extending for -2,500 km
between approximately lat 1330'S in southern Peru and 31S
in nortllern Chile (Fig. 7). Its width varies between 130 km in
southern Peru and 30 to 50 km in northern Chile, although
the late . age of the Taca Taca Baja prospect in
northwestern Argentina (Fig. 7) suggests an even locally
greater width. The majority of the deposits and prospects in
the belt are of porphyry type (Fig. 7, Table 3), ranging from
Au-rich, Mo-poor examples (Cotabambas, Esperanza) through
deposits carrying both Au and Mo (Los Chancas, Antapaceay,
Tintaya, Escondida) to relatively Mo rich, Au poor end mem-
bers (Rosario, Chuquicamata).
The southern Peru part, histOrically known as the An-
dabuaylas-Yauri belt (Santa Cruz et al ., 1979), also includes
Significant mineralization of skarn type, typically around
low-grade porphyry Cu stocks. The TIntaya skarn is the only
deposit being mined in this part of the belt, although recent
porphyry and skarn Cu discoveries at Antapaccay, Corocco-
huayco, Los Chancas, and Cotabarnbas also contain important
resources (Perell6 et al ., 2oo3a; Fig. 7, Table 3). In contrast,
80"
'0'
20'
DEPOsrr lYPES
Porphyry Cu-tle
Porphyry Co-Au
... Porphyry-related
Cu ""'"'
PERU
""" .... ""
Q1IM8ORo\ZO
""""""",,,,,,,,,.
UUlNNl Pl-37l
,""""""....,
(cz-3lt
""""""-" on
_ Major tectoni::: dsoontinuity
30"
o
,
SOOkm
,
' 0"
VENEZUELA
0"
'0"
BOUVIA
3!J
FIG. 7. MiddJe Eocene to early Oligocene Cu belt of the Andes, showing
main deposits and prospects and their geneti C type. Also shown are the three
main transverse discontinuities in the Andes. Numbers in parenthesis after
deposit names are isotopic ages (approximated), taken from compilations by
Sillitoe (1988) and Perell6 et al. (2OO3a). with additions from Carow (2003),
Masterman et aI. (2004), J. Pere1l6 (unpub. data, 2004. 2005). Rivera and
Paroo (2004), and mvcOl et aI. (2004).
TABLE 3. Selected Geologic Characteristics of POrphyry and Skarn Cu Deposits and Pri ncipal Prospects, Midd1e Eocene to Early Oligocene Belt, Central Andes
81
'" Status and Production oj.
2003 reselVes (million Ore-related
production I metric tonnes) hypogene
Deposit! (metric tons and grade (%) PorphY')' Host alteration Hydrothermal Massive Structural
prospect Cu x 1,(00) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Rocks (mineralization) Age (Ma) breccias sulfide veins control Key references
'IWo phases: Concentric
Sulf + 0" 200 @ granodiOrite Cretaceous pattern:J:tassic Corrales (2001),
1.0 Cu, 0.08 Mo, to quartz marine clastic surraun ed by Biotite: Important: Pere1l6 et al.
Los Chancas Prospect 0.12 Wi Au monzonite rocks sericitic (cp, hnt.) 32.0.0.8 n." Absent NS faults (2OO3a)
Potassic and
1Wo phases: Middle Eocene
granodiorite granodiorite overprinted by Minor igneous Important:
Sulf: 112 @0.62 to quartz and diorite intermediate Biotite: breccias and NE and Pere1l 6 et al.
Cotabambas Prospect Cu, 0.36 glt Au (0.2) monzodiorite plutons argillic (cp, bn) 35.7:t: 0.9 pebble dikes Absent NW faults (2OO3a, 2OO4b)
Six phases: Potassic over- Jones el ,). (2000),
monzonite Cretaceous printed by minor La.ge, Important: Fierro et al.
SulE 3B3 @ 0.89 to quartz marine, cal- intennediate NWand (2002), Perell6 el
Antapaccay Prospect Cu, 0.16 Wi Au monzonite careous rocks w-g;llic (cp, bnl' Midd1e Eocene latreme Absent NE faults ,). (2003a)
Potassic
Zwenf et al.
Cretaceous printed by minor (1997 . Fierro et
'"
Mine SulE 139 @ 1.23 Two phases: marine. cal- intennediate Molybdenite: ,). (1997), PereU6 t=:
t-
TIntaya 17.2 Cu, 0.23 Wi Au monzonite careous rocks (cp, bnl' 41.9.0.2 Pebble dikes Absent Important cl ,). (2003a)

6
Biotite:
'" 34.4 0.3;

Permo--Triassic Potassic over- Illite: 34.5 :t: 0.5;
volcanic and prinled by Alunite: Important: Important: Dick el ,). (1994), ."
Sulf 1,094@ sedimentary sericitic and 32.6.0.3; py. enarg, NE and NW Bisso el ,). (1998),
'"
f;l
1.03 Cu, Several phases: rocks. Paleocene advanced Molybdenite: Minor igneous tenn. bn. intersecting Masterman et al.
t-
Rosario Mine 0.025 Mo (0.45) granodiOrite intrusive rocks argilliC (cp, bnl' 33.3.0.2 breccia dg, ce. c:v faults. THled (2004) t-
o.
Sui, 741 @ 0.81 Cu Permo. Triassic Concentric Biotite: 35.2 :t: Important: Dick el ,). (1993),
(including super- volcanic and pattem:J:lassiC 0.3,34.7.0.3; NWandNE Bisso el aI. (1998),
gene: ISO @ Several phases: sedimentary surroun ed by Late intrusion: Minor igneous Minor: enarg, intersecting Masterman et aI.
Ujina 433.5 I. 71 CuI (0.45) granodiOrite rocks sericitie (cp. bn) 34.23.0. 13 breccia tenn. cp faults (2004)
Potassic over- Important:
Sulf (h)1X>gene); prinled by mod- Important ENE-trending
-500 @ 0.5-0.6 Cu. Two main erate sericitic and igneous and breccias and
Quebnoda Mine Sulf (supe'Sene); phases: quartz Paleozoic minor advanced Biotite: 35.0 :t: tounnaline dikes. NW and Hunl el ,). (1983),
Blanca 73.8 166@ 1.36 Cu monzonite intrusive rocks a<giIIic (cp, bn) 0.2,34.9 0.4 breccias Absent NNE faults Maksaev (1990)
Penno-Triassic
volcanic and Potassic with Ambrus ( 1977),
volcanosew- moderate Important: Maksaev (1990).
Sulf 650 @ 0.53 Four phases: mentary rocks. structurally Minor. igneous Present WNW and DiUes et aI.
Mine Cu; 0" B36@ quartz diorite JurassiC sedi controlled sericitic Biotite: and biotite-rich lal.,,)ly; py, NW faults and (1997), Gerwe el
El Abra 225.2 0.50 C" (0.26) to granodiOrite mentary rocks (cp, bn, ee) 39.1.1.2 breccias enarg. tenn late veins aI. (2003)
Potassic
printed by
sericitic. inter- Biotite:
Penno-TriassiC mediate argilliC, 36.2:t: 1.8; Important:
'orite, volcanic and and minor ad Molybdenite: Minor Igneous WNW-trending Pe,eU6 (2003),
Sulf; 648 @ acite. and volcanosedi- vanced w-g;llic 35.1.0.12, breccias and intrusions and J. Perell6, unpub.
Conchi Prospect 0.58 Cu (0.3) rhyodacite mentary rocks (cp, bn, ee) 35.34 0.13 pebble dikes Minor vein sets dala, 2004
J
TABLE 3. (Cem' .)
Status and Production +
2003 rese rves (million Ore-related
production I metric tonnes) hypogene
DCJ.X>Sitl (metric tons and grade (%) Porphyry Host alteration Hydrothermal Massive Stmctural
prospect Cu x 1.(00) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Rocks (mineralization) Age (Ma) breccias sulfide vei ns control Key references
Cuadra et a!.
Sulf (hypogene), (1997 . b). Cm,drn
1.300 @ 0.53 Cu. One main Triassic Potassic with Biotite: and Camus (1998),
Sulf (supergene); phase: volcanic rocks, minor structurally 32.7. 0.3; Important: Cuadra and Rojas
Radomiro Mine 180 @ 0.93 Cu. granodiorite to Cretaceous controlled Sericite: NE and (2001), Ossand6n
Tamie 297.1 0 " 850 @0.62 Cu monzogranite granodiOrite sericitic (cp. bn) 31.8:i: 0.3 Absent Absent NS faults et.1. (2001)
Biotite:
Sulf (hypogene), Paleozoic Potassic 33.4 :t 0.3;
5.400@ 0.48 Cu. amphibolite overprinted Sericite: Ambrus (1979).
0.024 Mo. and granitoids. by intense 31.1 :i: 0.2; Mathur et al.
Sulf (sup"gene), Triassic structurally Molybdenite: Important: (2000). Bali.,d et
2.229 @ 1.41 Cu. Three phases: granodiorite controlled 34.8:i: 0.2; Important: NNE st ruc- al. (2001).
Mine Ox:506@ granodiorite to and volcanic sericitlc (cp. Zircon: 34.6 :i: py, enarg, tures, vein sets, Ossand6n et al .
Chuquicamata 596.8 1.56 Cu (0.2) monzogranite rocks bn. dg. cv. ee) 0.2-33.3 0.3 Absent ee.cv and intrusions (2001)
Potassic over-

printed by Important in Sillitoe et al.
Two phases: Triassic sericitic and Biotite: 32.5; upper part: (1996). Millie, tl
Mine Sulf, 882 @ granodiorite intrusive and advanced Alunite: Important in py, e narg, Important: and QUiroga
MM development 1.02 Cu and daci te volcanic rocks acgilUc (ep. bn) 31.11-,'11.4 shallow parts bu, cc, cv NS rault panels (2003)
<:
Q
Potassic with

Several phases: minor structurally Import ant:
'" 0
Sulr + ox: 856 @ granodiOrite to Paleogene controlled N E-trending Rivera et al.
:s
Quetena Prospect 0.42 Cu monzogranite granodiorite sericitic (cp, bn) Late Eocene Absent Absent intrusions (2003b) <:
" Sulf (hypogene), Important:
'"
1.830 @ 0.5 Cu Triassic volcanic Potassic with Biotite: NE-trending
(0.3). Sulf (supe'- Several phases: rocks and structurally con- 37.3 . 1.3; Minor intrusions and Rivera et al.
gene) + ox: 720 granodiOrite to Paleoge ne trolled serititic Sericite: igneous NW-trending (2003a), Ri ve ra
Toki Prospect @ 0.4 Cu (0.2) monzogranite granodiorite (ep. bn. (I;) 34.52.0.20 breccia Absent vein sets and Pardo (2004)
Late Cretaceous Concentric pat-
volcanic and tern: potassic
Sulf, 443 @ 0.63 volcanosedi- surrounded by Biotite: Important:
Cu. 0.26 glt Au. Two phases: mentary rocks. intenned.iate 41.3.0.3; Important NE-trending
0 " 71 @0.42 granodiorite Middle Eocene argillic and Molybde nite: igneous intrusions and Perell6 et al.
Esperanza Prospect Cu (0.3) and dacite dacite domes sericitic (cp. bn}l -4l.BO:i: 0.13 breccias Absent raults. Tilted (2004.)
Permian intru-
sive rocks, Important:
Two phases: Carbonirerous Potassic, very NE-trending
0" 890@ 0.4 granodiOrite volcanosedi- minor sericitic intrusions and Camus (2001,
G.by Prospect C" (0.2) and dacite mentary rocks (ep. bn) Biotite: 43-40 Absent Absent minor raul ts 2003)
Potassic over-
printed by Late-mineral
sericitic and intrusion, hom- Important :
One main widespread ad- blende: 38.8 :i: Abundant and Important : NE-trending Pete rsen et al.
phase: diorite- Paleocene vanced argillic 3.4; Zircon: important py, enarg. breccias and ( 1996), Ri chards

Chimborazo Prospect Sulf 180 @ 0.8 Cu tonalite volcani c rocks (cp, cc, enarg, bn ) 38.09 .0.30 bast to ore ce, cv, bn dikes et "I. (1999)
CO
TABLE 3. (Cont.) 00

Status and Production +
2003 reserves (million Ore-related
production! metric tonnes) hypogene
Deposit! (metric tons and grade (%) Pmphyry Host aJteration Hydrothermal Massive Structural
prospect Cu X 1,000) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Rocks (mineraJization) Age (Ma) breccias sulfide veins control Key references
Maturana and
Potassic widely Monomict Sarlc (1991),
overprinted by Biotite: breccias, pebble Important: Richards et al.
Swf (supergene): Three phases: Penno-Triassic sericitic, chloritic, 37.40 0.18; dikes, local Important: NE-trending (1999), Monroy
Escondida Mine 1,280 @ 1.24 Cu. granodiorite to and Paleocene and advanced Zircon: barren tour- py, enarg, intrusions and (2000), Williams
Norte-Zaldivar 147.8 0" 330 @ 0.77 Cu monzodiorite volcanic rocks argillic (cp, bn, cv) 38.7.0.3 maJine breccias tenn breccias (2003)
Biotite: 34.8 1;
0.4,38.0 0.4,
37.5.0.6;
Alunite: 35.7 1;
0.3,35.4 0.2;
Molybdenite:
33.7.0.3;
Zircon: 37.2 1; Ojeda (1986),
Potassic over- 0.8,37.9 1.3, Padilla et al.
Five phases: printed by 37.7.0.8, Important: (2001), Richards
'"
Sulf (supergene): quartz mon- intenneruate 39.0 1.5; Late Important: NW-trending et aI. (1999, 2001).
t::
"
1,670 @ 1.59 Cu, zonite to argillic, sericitic, mineral dike, py, enarg, intrusions, Quiroz (2003),

Mine 0.021 Mo, granodiorite Paleocene and advanced zircon: 35.6 Abundant tenn. ce. pebble dikes, Padilla-Garza g
Escondida 758.0 0.24 glt Au (0.7) and rhyolite volcanic rocks argillic (cp, bn) 1; 1.2 pebble dikes cv, bn and veins et aI. (2004)

Biotite: 41.6 :t
0.6, 41.2 0.6; Gustafson and ."
Sericite: 41.9 1; Hunt (1975),
"' f:;
0.5, 40.84 0.46, Gustafson and
"
41.40 0.17; QUiroga (1995),
S.
Sulf. 974 @ 0.63 Potassic over- Zircon: 41.8 1; Cornejo et al.
Cu, 0.022 Mo, printed by 2.3,41.2; Minor, but Important: (1997). Watanabe
0.10 Wt Au (in- Paleocene and sericitic and Molybdenite:
c
y
. enarg.
intersecting et aI. (1999),
Mine eluding supergene: Four phases: early Eocene advanced 42.21;0.2. Abundant n,dg NEand NW Gustafson et al.
EI SaJvador 72.8 340@ 1.5 Cu) granodiOrite volcanic rocks a<gillic (cp, bn) 42.0 :t 0.2 pebble dikes present structures (200 1)
Potassic over- Biotite: Important: Ma<ch (1935),
Sulf (supergene) Several phases: Middle jurassic printed by 36.65 :t 0.03; Absent, NW fawts Marsh et al.
Abandoned + ox: 31O@ monzodiorite marine cal- sericitic Sericite: but enarg and NNE (1997). Camus
Potrerillos mine 0.95 Cu and dacite careous rocks (cp, bn, en"'1ll' 35.64 0.03 n.a. present thrusts (2003)
Potassic over-
Sulf (hypogene). printed by
362 @ 0.58 Cu, intenneruate
0.54 glt Au. Several phases: jurassic argillic, sericitic, Sericite: Important: Perell6 et al.
Sulf (supergene): quartz mon- volcano- and advanced 35.0.0.6; NWand NNE (1996), Palec-lek
103 @0.71 Cu, zonite to diorite sedimentary argillic
Alunite: Abundant Important: structures and and Caceres
La Fortuna Prospect 0.35 glt Au (0.4) and dacite rocks enarg, bn 32.8.0.3 pebble dikes py. enarg, ce intrusions (2003)
Abbreviations: bn '" bornite. cc '" chalcocite, cp '" chalcopyrite, cv '" covelJite, df '" digenite, enarg :II enargite, Ox ::0: oxide. Sulf '" sulfide, tenn = tennantite
I Figures from Comisi6n Chilena del Cobre and Direcci6n General de Minerfa Peru)
2 Minor sulfide minerals italicized
3 Minor skarn-type mineralization present
mineralization dominant
.5 Enriche ore mined out during 2004
ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE
1
the belt in northern Chile is made up largely of porphyry Cu
deposits that contain major supergene oxidized and enriched
zones (Fig. 7, Table 3), as well as several exotic Cu deposits
formed by lateral drainage of supergene Cu-bearing solutions
from actively forming enriched rones (e.g., Miinchmeyer,
1996; Sillitoe, 2005).
The principal deposits of the northern Chile part of the belt
are at least an order of magnitude larger than most others in
the central Andes. This region dominated Chilean Cu pro-
duction for most of the last century as a result of bulk mining
of Chuquicamata (since 1915), Potrerillos (1927), and EI Sal-
vador (1959). Output experienced a dramatic rise in the 1990s
when Escondida (1990), Quebrada Blanca (1994), Zaldivar
(1995), Radomiro Tomic (1996), EI Abra (1996), and Ujina
(1998) entered production. Current output comes essentially
from the Chilean part of the belt and Tintaya in southern
Peru (Table 3). Production from the Chilean mines in 2003
totaled 2.6 Mt of fine Cu or approximately 57 percent of
Chile's total (Fig. 7). The largest deposits are Chuquicamata
and Escondida, which together produced 1.4 Mt of fine Cu
during 2003, about 12 percent of world-mined Cu produc-
tion.
Tectonomagmatic setting
Northern Chile: In northern Chile, between lat 20' and 26'
S, the middle Eocene to early Ougocene belt coincides with
an elevated (3,500-5,ooo m) longitudinal range known as the
Cordillera de Domeyko or Precordillera (Fig. 1). The range is
cored by late Paleoroic plutonic and volcanic rocks and
flanked by intensely folded Late Triassic through Early Cre-
taceous volcanic and marine sedimentary sequences, which,
in tum, are overlain by Late Cretaceous continental sedi-
mentary and Paleogene volcanic units (Boric et al., 1990;
Maksaev, 1990; Mpodozis et al ., 1993a).
The porphyry Cu centers are genetically related to small
epizonal stocks, many of which are emplaced in the > 1,000-
km-Iong, orogen-parallel Domeyko fault system (Maksaev,
1990), which also acted as a control on the internal arrange-
ment of basement blocks in the Cordillera de Domeyko and
its northern and southern extensions (Fig. 8). The fault sys-
tem was llkely active during and subsequent to porphyry Cu
stock emplacement (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988; Reutter et
al., 1991, 1996; Lindsay et al., 1995). Some of the porphyry
Cu centers are localized on or near the main faults of the sys-
tem (e.g., Radomiro Tomie, Chuquieamata, MM, Escondida,
Exploradora), whereas others are farther away-9 km at EI
Salvador and 13 to 17 km at Rosario and Ujina (Fig. 8).
The Domeyko fault system is segmented in nature, with in-
dividual strands shOwing complex and unique histories. Fault
displacements and senses of motion are still relatively poorly
constrained, with dominant dextral (Maksaev, 1990; Reutter
et al., 1991; Lindsay et al., 1995) or sinistral (Mpodozis et al.,
1993a, b; Tomunson et al., 1994; Tomlinson and Blanco,
1997a; Dilles et al., 1997) strike-slip displacement, as well as
reverse motion (Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Skarmeta et al.,
2003a, b; McClay, 2004), with lateral translation of basement
blocks by tectonic rafting and block rotation (Yanez et al.,
1994; Arriagada et al., 2000, 2003), being proposed. Notwith-
standing these discrepancies, it is generally accepted that
three main segments of the fault system exist (Fig. 8): (I)
T
9
DEPOSIT TYPES
PorphyIy Cu-t.tJ
Porphyry CuAu
-"'"'" '"
._;-!: IneaIe synorogenk:
,:,"-
IL-
l"'. FWJlt
;r ............
,t FoIO-and-ttwustbeit
VQou"""""
IZJ TtrtiWy IJ)"'IOfOgeOIc depoIita _ Porphyry otlPP'f lJ10ck
E::;:] Paleogenli YOIcank: rocks 0 Early T.,-tlMy rockI;

Paleozoic basement
Flc. 8. Structural setting of the middle Eocene to early Oligocene Cu belt
in northern Chile, shO\Ving deposit types . Domeyko fault system, and syn-
orogenic clastic sedimentary depoSits within and near the arc. The exotic
oxide Cu deposits, sourced by porphyry ell deposits in this belt during early
to middle Miocene supergene activity. are shown for reference only. Note
that hypogene Cu deposit fonnaHon is syntectonic. Schematic geologie sec-
tion (along line A-B in map) emphasizes importance of reverse faulting.
Structura1 segments I. 2. and 3 are discussed in text. Fault systems from
SERNAGEOM1N (2002), synorogenic deposits from Pere1l6 et al. (2003a),
and section from Mpodozis and Ramos (1990) and Skarmeta et at. (2OO3a).
862 SILLITOE AND PERELL6
from Chuquicamata northward, a group of north-trending
faults with Miocene reverse and sinistral motion is superim-
posed on older structures possessing evidence for Late Cre-
taceous, Paleocene. and Eocene reverse, Eocene sinistral,
and Oligocene dextral motion (Lindsay et al., 1995; Reutter et
al., 1996; Dilles et al. , 1997; GUnther et al. , 1997; Ladino et
al., 1997; Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997b; McInnes et al.,
1999); (2) between Calama and just north of Exploradora, the
predominant structural fabric appears to result from major
clockwise rotation of basement blocks during the Eocene
(Mpodozis et al., 1993a, b; Aniagada et al., 2000, 2(03); and
(3) south of Exploradora, in the EI Salvador-Potrerillos re-
gion, there is evidence for sinistral transpressive deformation
during the Eocene (Tomlinson et al., 1994), superimposed on
Late Cretaceous and Paleocene contractional faults, with
strain partitioned between strike-slip and thrust structures in
a fold-and-thrust belt cutting Mesozoic marine sedimentary
rocks (Cornejo and Mpodozis, 1996). South ofPotrerillos, be-
yond these three formal segments, deformation was accom-
modated by a series of Eocene through early Miocene high-
angle reverse faults (Martin et al., 1995, 1997), which
involved large crystalline basement blocks and gave rise to an
overall thick-skinned structural style (Moscoso and Mpodozis,
1988; Nasi et al., 1990).
There is general agreement that the Domeyko fault system
was intimately associated with the Incaic contractional
orogeny, active from the middle Eocene to early Oligocene,
and responsible for much of the uplift of the Cordillera de
Domeyko and its southern extensions (Maksaev and Zentilli,
1988, 1999; Pere1l6 et al., 1996). At least some of the strands
of the Domeyko fault system, as well as several oblique,
northwest-trending lineaments (e.g., Salfity, 1985), are reacti-
vated Mesozoic, Paleozoic, or older faults, including Jurassic
backarc basin-bounding normal faults that were inverted as
high-angle reverse structures (Sillitoe, 1981; Mpodozis and
Ramos, 1990; Cornejo and Mpodozis, 1996; Cornejo et al.,
1997; GUnther et al., 1997; Skarmeta et al., 2003a, b; McClay,
2004). The erosion products generated by middle Eocene
through middle Miocene uplift of the Cordillera de Domeyko
led to deposition of several kilometers of synorogenic terres-
trial sediments in adjacent basins (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988,
1999; Maksaev, 1990; Tomlinson et aI. , 1999; Mpodozis et al.,
2000; M podozis and Pere1l6, 2003; Fig. 8).
The middle Eocene to early Oligocene porphyry Cu de-
posits and prospects of northern Chile characteristically occur
in clusters or alignments of three or more, some apparently
located at the intersections between faults of the Domeyko
system and broadly northwest-trending lineaments (e.g.,
Richards et al., 2(01). The greatest number of discrete por-
phyry centers is obseIVed in the Chuquicamata cluster, com-
prising Radomiro Tomic, Chuquicamata, MM, and the re-
cently discovered Quetena, Toki, Genoveva, and Opache
deposits (Camus, 2003; Rivera et al. , 2003a, b). Structural
control is important in all major deposits of the belt (Table 3)
but is perhaps most clearly developed in the 13-km-Iong,
north-northeast- trending Chuquicamata-Radomiro Tomic
system, where intrusion and alteration-mineralization geome-
tries are both strongly influenced by fault structures (Lindsay
et al., 1995; Ossand6n et al. , 2001; Fig. 9a). Other notable
examples include the northwest-trending main porphyry
intrusion at Escondida (Ojeda, 1986; Padilla et al ., 2001), the
dike array at Esperanza (Pere1l6 et al., 2004a), and the thrust-
controlled geometry of the Potrerillos and Esperanza stocks
and their associated alteration-mineralization (Tomlinson,
1994; Pere1l6 et al., 2004a; Fig. 9b).
Independent of size, all porphyry Cu deposits and
prospects in the belt formed in a brief time interval of -13
m.y., between apprOldmately 44 and 31 Ma (Fig. 7, Table 3).
This remarkably brief metallogenic epoch, characterized by
overall volcanic quiescence, followed eastward translation of
the magmatic front from the Paleocene to early Eocene belt
to tl,e Cordillera de Domeyko and was abruptly terminated
by post-31-Ma migration of the arc to the east (Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1988, 1999; Maksaev et al ., 1988; Maksaev, 1990;
Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990). Coeval volcanism along the
Cordillera de Domeyko was restricted to a few dome centers
and related pyroclastic and lava flows (Mpodozis and Pere1l6,
2(03), whereas the more widespread intrusive activity seems
to have been confmed to clustered or aligned centers sepa-
rated by relatively large amagmatic gaps. The porphyry Cu
districts are commonly spatially associated with much older or
precursor magmatic centers, such as Late Cretaceous alkalic
gabbro at Escondida (Marinovic et al., 1995; Richards et al.,
2(01), Late Cretaceous granite in the Collahuasi district
(Masterman et al. , 2(04), Paleocene fel sic caldera at EI Sal-
vador (Cornejo et al. , 1997), and middle to late Eocene gran-
odiorite and diorite at many localities (Mpodozis et al., 1993a;
Cornejo and Mpodozis, 1996; Dilles et al., 1997; Richards et
al., 2001).
Porphyry Cu-bearing stocks in the belt are multi phase, with
as many as five porphyritic intrusions recorded at Escondida.
The intrusions range in composition from biotite horn-
blende-bearing quartz diorite to quartz monzonite and mon-
zogranite, although the majority includes one or more phases
of granodioritic composition (Table 3). Intermineralization
dacitic intrusions are present in a number of deposits, and
rhyodacitic dikes and domelike intrusions are locally impor-
tant as late-mineralization phases. Although the porphyry Cu-
bearing intrusive complexes generally show an evolution from
preore intermediate composition to more felsic inter- and
late-mineralization phases richer in SiO, and K,O (Camus
and Dilles, 2(01), a reversal of the trend to more mafic mag-
matism is also locally present, as evidenced by the evolution
from granitic through granodioritic to quartz dioritic intru-
sions in the EI Salvador district (Cornejo et al ., 1997;
Gustafson et al., 2(01). The porphyry Cu-bearing stocks are
I-type and belong to the magnetite series of Ishihara (1981).
They are high to moderate K calc-alkaline in composition,
with high Fe,O,fFeO ratios indicative of oxidized melts (Ishi-
hara et al., 1984). They are also characterized by remarkably
restricted variations of Sr and Nd isotope ratios, with low Sri
of 0.7042 to 0.7045 and positive t ~ ratios of 1 to 4 (Rogers,
1985; Zentilli et al., 1988, 1995; Maksaev, 1990). Avatlable
LalYb data for ore-bearing stocks at EI Salvador (20-25;
Cornejo et al., 1997) and other northern Chile porphyry Cu-
Mo deposits (15-35; Mpodozis et al., 1995; Haschke et al.,
2(02) suggest that magmas evolved during a period of crustal
thickening when amphibole-bearing lower crust was being
transformed into anhydrous gamet-bearing eclogite (e.g., Kay
et al., 1999; Cornejo and Matthews, 2000).
ANDEAN eu PROVI NCE
Flc. 9. Features of porphyry ell deposi ts in the middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt of northem Chile. ll. The
Chuquicamata porphyry Cu-Mo deposit, looking south across the 4-km-long open pit, showing the postmineralil' .. ation \Alest
fault that delimits Cu-Mo mineralization to the west (indicated by arrows), a broad zone of pervasive sericitic alteration
(white) related to a swarm of fault-controlled D vei ns extending eastward from the fault, and potassic alteration on the
benches farther east. 1994 photograph. b. Drill core sample from the thnlst-controlled, massive crystalline anhydrite body
that transecl'i the deep (500-600 Ill ) parts of the Esperanza porphyry Cu-Au deposi t, with 45-dipping tectonic fabri c de-
fi ned by gamet-sulflde schlieren. Sample 20 cm long. c. Drill core sample showing the three main alteration types at the Es-
perarw..a porphyry Cu-Au deposit. Early potassi c (biotite- K-feldspar-magnetite-chalcopyrite-bomite) alteration (K) is cut by
an intermediate argillic (sericite-chlorite-pyrite) assemblage (IA) zoned around a chlorite-pyrite-chalcopyrite vein!et, which,
in tUI11 , is cut by a D-t)1>e pyrite-quartz veinlet enveloped by a sericitic (quartz-sericite-pyrite) assemblage (S). Sample 10
cm long. d. Northwest-striking swarm of sheeted 0 veins (between and parallel to arrows and marked by jarositic limonite)
overprinting oxidc Cu-bearing potassic altemtion at the El Abra porphyry Cu- Mo deposit. e. The advanced argillic Iithocap
above the Escondida porphyry Cu-Mo depOSit, looking northwest. Exploration shaft is located in area of maximum distur-
bance in the foreground. at foot of Cerro Colomdo Chico. 1984 photograph.
863
Southern Peru: The middle Eocene to early Oligocene
belt of southern Peru (Fig. 7) encompasses parts of lhe in-
termontane depressions between the Eastern and \"'estern
Cordillera and the northernmost Altiplano at elevations be-
tween 3,400 and 4,700 m (Fig. 1). Copper mineralization is
spatially and temporally associated with the middle Eocene
to early Oligocene (-48--32 Ma), calc-alkaline Andahuaylas-
Yauri batholith, a composite body emplaced into cl astic and
carbonate st rata of Jurassic to Cretaceous age (Pere1l 6 et
a!. , 2003a). Batholith phases include cumulate gabbro and
diorite, emplaced between 48 and 43 Ma, and granodiorite
and quartz monzodiorite, between 40 and 32 Ma. Coeval
Eocene to early Oligocene volcanic and sedimentary rocks
occur in the region and are interpreted to have accumulated
mainly in transtensional and contractional synorogenic
basi ns (e.g., Pere1l 6 et aI. , 2003a). Major faul t systems, some
>300 km long, occur in the region and most display evi-
dence for both high-angle reverse and strike-slip moti on.
The southern Peru part of the belt differs in two main ways
from its counterpart in northern Chile: lack of intimate as-
sociation between regional faults and porphyry Cu-bearing
stocks, and domination by thin-ski nned, fold-and-thrust belt
style structures, without involvement of crystalline base-
ment , although upl ifted Paleozoic plutoni C bl ocks are com-
monplace farther north and northeast (Pere1l 6 et a!. , 2003a).
In common with the northern Chile part of the belt, how-
ever, many of the regional faults, in parti cul ar those that de-
fine the limit between the Western Cordill era and Altiplano,
864 SILLITOE AND PERELL6
are inferred to possess Mesozoic and/or Paleozoic ancestry
(Pere1l6 et al., 2003a).
A wealth of K-Ar data, coupled with Re-Os and apatite fis-
sion-track ages, demonstrate that porphyry Cu alteration and
mineralization in the southern Peru part of the belt took place
during the middle Eocene to early Oligocene (-4WO Ma;
Pere1l6 et al., 2003a, 2004b; Table 3). Therefore, ore forma-
tion accompanied batholith emplacement, volcanism, and
sedimentation during a period of intense deformation, crustal
shortening, and regional uplift defining the Incaic orogeny
(Perell6 et al ., 2003a).
The porphyry Cu stocks, comprising cylindrical, dikelike,
and stratigraphically controlled bodies of sill-like form, are bi-
otite- and/or hornblende-bearing intrusions of mainly gran-
odioritic composition, although monzogranite, quartz mon-
zonite, monzonite, and monzodiorite occur locally (Table 3).
Limited geochemical data show that the stocks are moderate
K calc-alkaline in composition and moderately to highly en-
riched in light (L)REE, with La/Yb ratios ranging from 15 to
20 but with local higher values (20-45) in some late-mineral-
ization intrusions at Tmtaya (Carlier et al ., 1989), which else-
where in the Andes are taken as indicative of thickening crust
(e.g., Kay et al., 1999).
Principal mineralization features
Porphyry Cu mineralization in the belt is associated with
potassic, intermediate argillic, sericitic, and advanced argilliC
alteration assemblages (Table 3). In addition, a deep-level al-
bite-actinolite-magnetite assemblage is reported beneath Cu
ore at EI Salvador (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995), and a hy-
brid calcic-potassic assemblage, defined by actinolite, horn-
blende, clinopyroxene, biotite, and K-feldspar, is prominent
at Cotabambas (Pere1l6 et al., 2004b).
All deposits in the belt contain potassic alteration, in which
biotite and K-feldspar are the dominant alteration minerals
(Fig. 9c), and uni- or multidirectional quartz veinlets. Chal-
copyrite, with or without bornite and digenite, is dispersed
throughout the quartz veinlets and is present, to lesser de-
grees, as disseminated grains in the enclosing rocks (Table 3).
The bornite and digenite are concentrated in the deeper, cen-
tral parts of deposits, where Cu tenors are typically higher.
The potassic alteration accompanied the prinCipal Cu intro-
duction event in most of the deposits. In several major de-
posits of the Chilean segment, including Rosario (Bisso et al. ,
1998), El Abra (Ambrus, 1977), Radomiro Tomic (Cuadra
and Camus, 1998), Quetena (Rivera et al. , 2003b), and Gaby
(Camus, 2(01), the potassic alteration predominates over all
other alteration types (Table 3). Hydrothermal magnetite is
an additional common component of Au-rich potassic assem-
blages, as at Cotabambas and Esperanza (Perell6 et al. ,
2004a, b; Fig. 9c). In the many porphyry Cu centers hosted
by carbonate rocks in southern Peru, calc-silicate alteration,
dominated by gamet, diopside, and actinolite, developed syn-
chronously with the potassic alteration, and associated skam-
type Cu-Mo and/or Au mineralization is commonplace (e.g.,
Las Bambas, Katanga, Tmtaya; Perell6 et al., 2003a; Fig. 7;
Table 3).
Intermediate argillic alteration is a component of ore zones
in several depoSits and prospects throughout the belt, includ-
ing Cotabambas and Tintaya in southern Peru (Pere1l6 et al.,
2003a) and Conchi (Pere1l6, 2(03), Esperanza (Pere1l6 et al. ,
2004a; Fig. 9c), Escondida Norte (Williams, 2003), Escon-
dida (Padilla et al., 2(01), and La Fortuna (Pere1l6 et al .,
1996) in northern Chile. Chalcopyrite, generally accompa-
nied by pyrite, occurs in some intermediate argillic vein let as-
semblages but locally constitutes monomineralic veinlets.
Copper contents are generally lower than those of the earlier
potassic alteration zones, with a Significant remobilization of
chalcopyrite and bornite documented at Cotabambas and Es-
peranza (Pere1l6 et al., 2004a, b) and suspected elsewhere (cf.
Sillitoe, 2000a). At Escondida and Ujina, however, intermedi-
ate argillic alteration accompanied renewed input of both Cu
and Mo (Padilla et al., 2001; Quiroz, 2003; Masterman et al. ,
2004).
Sericitic alteration occupies appreciable rock volumes in
the shallower parts of several less deeply eroded major de-
posits in the Chilean segment (Table 3). Broad sericitic halos
to potassic cores (e.g., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970) are not typ-
ical but are developed at Esperanza and Ujina (Bisso et al .,
1998; Pere1l6 et al ., 2004a). In marked contrast, the majority
of the porphyry Cu deposits, particularly those defined as
giant and behemothian by Clark (1993), possess major
sericitic alteration zones that overprint the central parts of
Cu-bearing potassic assemblages (Sillitoe, 1992), most no-
tably at Chuquicamata (Ossand6n et al., 2(01), MM (Sillitoe
et al., 1996), Escondida Norte-Zaldivar (Maturana and Saric,
1991; Williams, 1993; Monroy, 2000), Escondida (Ojeda,
1986), and El Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). The ver-
tical extent of the structurally controlled sericitic zone at
Chuquicamata is > 1,000 m (Fig. 9a). Swarms of sericite-bor-
dered, D-type veins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) that over-
print potassic alteration are interpreted as the structurally lo-
calized roots of formerly more extensive sericitic alteration
zones that were lost to erosion (Sillitoe, 1992). Those at El
Abra (Fig. 9d), Radomiro Tomic, and Quetena are barren, al-
though elsewhere they may contain appreciable hypogene Cu
(see below).
Sericitic alteration zones are typically the roots of advanced
argillic-altered lithocaps (e.g., Sillitoe, 1995a, 2000a), the
transition being characterized by pyrophyllite, dickite, anellor
alunite, as well as generally subordinate andalusite and dias-
pore. Such transitional alteration assemblages are docu-
mented at Chuquicamata (Ossand6n et al. , 2(01), MM (Silli-
toe et al., 1996), Chimborazo (Petersen et al. , 1996),
Escondida Norte (Williams, 2(03), Escondida (Padilla et al. ,
2001; Fig. ge), El Salvador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975;
Watanabe and Hedenquist, 2(01), and La Fortuna (Perell6 et
al., 1996). Similar advanced argillic assemblages are also typ-
ically integral parts of fault-controlled massive sulfide veins
and hydrothermal breccias, including pebble dikes, as at Que-
brada Blanca, Rosario, MM, Escondida Norte-Zaldivar, Es-
condida, and La Fortuna (Ojeda, 1986; Sillitoe, 1992; Dick et
al., 1993; Perell6 et al., 1996; Sillitoe et al., 1996; Padilla et al.,
2001; Milller and Quiroga, 2003; Williams, 2003).
Some of the highest hypogene Cu tenors are inVariably in
the form ofhigh-sulfidation overprint assemblages contained
in the late-stage massive sulfide veins and their adjacent
host rocks. Where multiple overprinting took place, as at Es-
condida and Chuquicamata, Cu grades may be enhanced sev-
eral times (e.g., Padilla et al., 2(01). Such veins are typically
ANDEAN Gil PROVINCE 865
dominated by pyrite, enargite, and bornite, but chalcocite,
covellite, digenite, and tennantite are also common con-
stituents at Rosario, EI Abra (Maria vein), Chuquicamata,
MM, Chimborazo, Escondida, Escondida Norte-Zaldivar,
and La Fortuna (Table 3).
The middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt in northern
Chile undelWent leaching, oxidation, and cumulative super-
gene enrichment, mainly during the early to middle Miocene
under arid to semiarid climatic conditions (Alpers and
Brimhall, 1988; Maksaev, 1990; Sillitoe, 1990, 1992; Sillitoe
and McKee, 1996). The supergene profiles developed during
a period of steady and moderate surface uplift and exhuma-
tion (Maksaev, 1990; Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1999; Sillitoe, 2005). Fossilization and preservation
of the resulting oxidized zones and any underlying chalcocite
enrichment were caused by onset of hyperaridity in the late
Miocene (Alpers and Brimhall, 1988; Sillitoe and McKee,
1996), with climatic desiccation being attributed to the cou-
pling of coastal upwelling of cold Antarctic water delivered by
a north-flawing ancestral Humboldt Current and tectonic up-
lift of the central Andes (Alpers and Brimhall, 1988; Sillitoe
and McKee, 1996).
Key factors influencing effective leachi ng and Cu sulfide
enrichment, as exemplified by the Chuquicamata and Escon-
dida depoSits, include: (1) permeability enhancement due to
structural preparation by major fault zones andlor fault inter-
sections; (2) low neutralization potentials induced by sericitic
andlor advanced argillic alteration assemblages; and (3) acidic
conditions generated by oxidation of pyrite-rich zones, partic-
ularly where high hypogene Cu contents exist in massive sul-
fide veins. In contrast, where these pyritic, feldspar-destruc-
tive alteration assemblages are poorly preserved, as in much
of southern Peru and at EI Abra, Radomiro Tomic, Quetena,
Esperanza, and Gaby in northern Chile, supergene chalcocite
enrichment was minimal and in situ oxidation in reactive host
rocks was the main supergene process. Lateral flow of surfi-
cial water, controlled by local hydraulic gradients, caused ap-
preCiable transport of dissolved Cu beyond some actively
forming enrichment blankets to generate major exotic oxide
Cu deposits, as at Sagasca in the Paleocene to early Eocene
belt, and Mina Sur, EI Tesoro, and Damiana in the middle
Eocene to early Oligocene belt (Sillitoe, 1992, 2005; Miinch-
meyer, 1996; Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Fig. 10).
Flc. 10. Miocene to early Pliocene Cu belt of the Andes. showing main
deposits and prospects and their genetic type. Also shown are the northern
to central Peru segment, the Maricunga-EI Indio and central Chile sub-belts,
and the Fara1l6n Negro district emphasized in the text (gray shading) and the
three main transverse discontinuities in the Andes. Note that the exotic Cu
deposits were fonned during supergene oxidation and enrichment of por-
phyry Cu deposits in the Paleocene to early Eocene and middle Eocene to
early Oligocene belts. Numbers in parentheses after deposit names are iso-
topic ages (approximated), taken from compilations by Sillitoe (1988) and
Noble and McKee (1999), with additions from Vila and SilJitoe (1991),
Losada-Calderon et aI. (1994), R.H. Sillitoe (unpub. data, 1997, 2002),
U,bina et aI. (1997), Perell6 et aI. (1998), S.,.", and CIMk (1998), Cendall et
aI. (2000), Muntean and Einaudi (2001), Perell6 et aI. (2001, 2003c, d), J.
Pere1l6 (unpub. data, 2002), Spencer et al. (2002), Camus (2003), C. Feebrey
(pers. commun., 20(3) , F. Malbnin (pers. commun., 2(03), Mpodozis and
Kay (2003), Rasmussen et aI. (2003), Bendezu et al. (20(4), Gustafson et a1.
(2004), and Noble et aI. (2004).
1\1 iocene to Early Pliocene Belt of the Central Andes
MineralizatiOll types and economic significance
The Miocene to early Pliocene belt of the northern and
central Andes extends semicontinuously for -6,000 km, be-
tween southwestern Colombia and central Chile-west-central
o
!
80"
500km
!
""
DEPOSIT TYPES
Porphyry Cu-Mo
Porphyry Cu-Au
.. Porphyry-f8lated skarn
WI Enargite-bearing replacement
= Enargite vein
l1 Tourmaline breccia
_ Exotic D.J
p Red bedCu
_ Major tectonic discontinuity
BRAZJL
BOUVIA
866 SILLITOE AND PERELL6
Argentina (Fig. 10; Sillitoe, 1988, 1990). The economically
most important and best defined segments of the belt are pre-
sent in northern and central Peru and northern and central
Chile and contiguous northwestern and westcentral Ar-
gentina, where the Maricunga-EI Indio and central Chile
(Los Pelambres-EI Teniente) sub-belts and the Farall6n
Negro district are preeminent (Fig. 10). Only these most im-
portant parts of the belt are described in this section.
The northern Peru to central Chile part of the belt contains
the most varied eu metallogeny of the entire Andes, with por-
phyry, breccia, skarn, enargite-bearing carbonate replace-
ment, high-sulfidation epithermal enargite vein, red-bed, and
exotic oxide Cu deposits al l present. Porphyry Cu-Au deposits
are common and include Cerro Corona, Minas Conga, and
several others in the Cajamarca sub-belt, Cerro Casale in the
Maricunga-EI Indio sub-belt, Bajo de]a Alumbrera and Agua
Rica in the Fara1l6n Negro district, and Piuquenes and other
deposits in west-central Argentina (Fig. 10, Table 4). Copper
skarns, particularly the giant Antamina Cu-Zn-Mo-Ag deposit
(Fig. lla)-the world's largest Cu skarn- and much smaller
Magistral Cu-Mo prospect, as well as complex, polymetallic,
enargite-bearing veins and replacements in carbonate and as-
sociated rocks are important metallogenic constituents of the
northern and central Peru segment, as at Cerro de Pasco,
Marcapunta (Colquijirca), Yauricocha, and Morococha (Fig.
10). These deposit types are rare elsewhere in the Miocene to
early Pliocene belt (Petersen, 1970), although volcanic rock-
hosted, enargite-bearing, high-sulfidation epithermal veins
are present at Laurani, Famatina (La Mejicana), and EI Indio
(Fig 10).
The Cu resource of the belt is mainly contained in the giant
porphyry Cu-Mo deposits of central Chile, Los Pelambres,
Rio Blanco-Los Bronces (Fig. lIb, c), and EI Teniente; the
latter the world's largest. These deposits produced 1.14 Mt of
fine Cu in 2003, a quarter of Chile's total (Table 4). Mining at
EI Teniente began in 1906 (Camus, 2003), whereas small-
scale production commenced at Los Bronces in 1916. Copper
output from the central Chile sub-belt increased dramatically
in the second half of the last century, with major expansions
at EI Teniente and Los Bronces and startup of large-scale
Flc. 11. Features of Miocene to early Pliocene porphyry Cll deposits in the central Andes. a. Antamina skarn Cu-Zn-Mo-
Ag deposit, showing the west-dipping contact (indicated by arrows) between gossan replacing garnet skarn (lower valley side)
and overlying marbleized limestone. 1997 photograph. b. Donoso orthomagmatic breccia, Rio Blanco-Los Bronces porphyry
Cu-Mo deposit, showing angular clasts of sericitized quartz mon'l.Onite cemented by tounnaline (black), quartz (whi te ), and
chalcopyrite (bronze) . Sample 30 cm long. c. Steep contact of the postmineraliz.'l.tion diatreme (indicated by arrow) cutting
altered and mineralized porphyry and volcanic rocks, Rio Blanco-Los Bronces porphyry Cu-Mo deposit. 1970 photograph.
d. Bajo de la Alumbrera porphyry Cu-Au deposit, shOWing potassic core (brown), sericitic annulus (white), and propylitic pe-
riphely (dark). The prominent low, dark hill within the potassic zone (indicated by arrow) comprises an early porphyry phase
hosting an intensely developed stockwork of quartz-magnetite vein lets rich in Cu and Au. 1970 photograph.
ANDEAN Cu PROVINCE 867
production at Rio Blanco (1969) and Los Pelambres (1999).
Several Miocene porphyry CuoMo prospects in northern and
central Peru (Rio Blanco, Canariaco, La Granja; Fig. 10) are
also large but nonetheless remain unexploited. The Bajo de la
Alumbrera porphyry Cu-Au deposit (Fig. 10d) entered pro-
duction in 1997, but Cu-Au prospects elsewhere in the belt,
including those in northern Peru, the Maricunga-El Indio
sub-belt, and the Farall6n Negro district, have yet to demon-
strate their economic viability (Fig. 10; Table 4).
Tecton01lUlgl1wtiC setting
Central Chile sub-belt: The late Miocene to early Pliocene
sub-belt of central Chile extends for approximately 400 km
along the Principal Cordillera, between lat 32 and 35S (Fig.
1). It is principally defined by a narrow, north-trending array
of major deposits that formed between approximately 12 and
4 Ma, although numerous porphyry Cu prospects of the same
general age occur beyond the sub-belt, especially immedi-
ately east of the border with Argentina (Fig. 10).
Volcanic and plutOniC rocks within the sub-belt are asSigned
to three main stages (Kurtz et al. , 1997; Kay et al. , 1999; Kay
and Mpodozis, 2001; Maksaev et al., 2004): (1) mafic to silicic
flows and volcaniclastic strata that accumulated in a large,
fault-controlled extensional basin during the late Eocene to
early Miocene (37-21 Ma; Charrier et al., 1996; Godoy et al.,
1999; Kay et al. , 1999), which are cut by approximately 20 to
16 Ma plutons at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces and in the El Te-
niente area; (2) andesitic to dacitic flows and pyroclastic units
of middle to late Miocene age (-16-7 Ma), intruded by co-
magmatic granodiOrite plutons and porphyry Cu-bearing
stocks between -12 and 8 Ma; and (3) Rio Blanco-Los
Bronces and El Teniente porphyry complexes oflate Miocene
to early Pliocene age (-7-4 Ma), followed, at EI Teniente, by
postmineralization hornblende-bearing dikes between 4 and
3 Ma. Contractional deformation events, involving crustal
shortening, thickening, and regional uplift, took place at 19 to
16 and 8 to -5 Ma (Kurtz et al. , 1997). The latter event
caused most of the uplift and exhumation in the sub-belt, with
surface uplift rates of 3 krnlm.y. claimed at the latitude of EI
Teniente (Kurtz et al., 1997), and concomitant eastward mi-
gration of the arc front (Kay et al. , 1999). The erosional prod-
ucts generated during the regional uplift were deposited in
synorogenic basins along both sides of the orogen, but only
the foreland sites are preserved, east of the continental divide
in Argentina (Perez and Ramos, 1996; Giambiagi et al., 2001;
Perez, 2001; Fig. 12), where they underwent hybrid, thin-
and thick-skinned deformation (Giambiagi and Ramos, 2002).
In marked contrast to the late Eocene to early Oligocene
belt of deposits in northern Chile, these younger, giant Cu de-
posits are not observed to lie on major regional faults, al-
though the Aconeagua fold-and-thrust belt is located imme-
diately to the east (Cegarra and Ramos, 1996; Fig. 12). Along
the western side of the sub-belt, the regional Pocuro fault
may have controlled Miocene uplift and inversion of Meso-
wic and Cenowic basins (Godoy et al. , 1999; Camus, 2003;
Fig. 12). Nevertheless, smaller scale structures, structural
corridors, and intersecting faults are important in all depOSits,
as exemplified by the -14-km-long, northeast-trending EI Te-
niente fracture zone (Garrido et al. , 1994; Skewes et al. , 2002)
and the -12-km-Iong, north-northwest alignment of the
entire Rio B1anc-o-Los Bronc""s system (Serrano et al., 1996;
Table 4).
The porphyry Cu deposits lind prospects in the sub-belt are
associated with multi phase porphyry !ntn.slons comprising
quartz monwnite, quartz monzodiorite. quartz diorite, dior-
ite, and/or dacite that intrude Tertiary vole"n!c and plutonic
rocks of the different magmatic stages described above (Table
4). Cretaceous volcanic rocks are also present at Los Pelam-
bres (Sillitoe, 1973b) and marine sedimentary rocks of Juras-
sic age occur at El Pach6n (Pach6n S.A. Minera, 1999; Tubl e
4). The porphyry Cu-bearing stocks are I-type and be long to
the magnetite series of Ishihara (1981). They lire typical
medium to high K calc-alkaline in composition and possess
chemical affmities typical of central Andean Tertiary igneous
rocks (Stem and Skewes, 1995). Their high Fe, O,tFeO ratios
(1-3; Garrido et al. , 2002) imply a high oxidation state. Asso-
ciated intermineralization intrusions and hydrothermal brec-
cia complexes are characterized by restricted ranges of Sr.
(0.7041-0.7046) and Ei;J (0-4; Skewes and Stem, 1994, 1995)
and in the case of El Teniente, high LaIYb ratios (2()...Q()), in-
terpreted to reflect thickened crust (Camus, 2003). Intermin-
eralization dacite intrusions are common in all deposits and
late-mineralization latite dikes are recognized at Rio Blanco-
Los Bronces and EI Teniente, with the former deposit also
having rhyodacite porphyry and related diatreme breccia
(Fig. 11e; Table 4). There is a general trend for younger in-
trusions to display more evolved compositions, with higher
SiO. and K,O contents, as is observed at Los Pelambres
(Atkinson et al., 1996) and Rio Blanco-Los Bronces (Stem
and Skewes, 1995; Serrano et aI., 1996). However, the reverse
is apparent at EI Teniente, which contains postminerali7.ation,
hornblende-bearing andesite dikes (Skewes et aI. , 2002), in-
cluding possible Jamprophyric varieties (Cuadra, 1986;
Skewes et al., 2002), suggestive of the existence at depth of
more mafic magma.
Maricunga-El Indio sub-belt: The northern continuation of
the central Chile sub-belt follows the Argentina-Chile fron-
tier between lat 2SO and 31 S, where it constitutes the Mari-
cunga-El Indio sub-belt (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Fig. 10).
Calc-alkaline magmatism was active at broadly the same
times as in central Chile, although shallower erosion levels
preserve widespread stratovolcanoes, dome complexes, and
shallowly emplaced stocks. Several discrete pulses of volcan-
ism, each followed by magmatic lulls coincident with contrac-
tional deformation and crustal thickening events, took place
between 26 and 7 Ma (Kay et aI. , 1994, 1999; Martin et al.,
1995, 1997; Mpodozis et aI., 1995; Clavero et aI., 1997; Kay
and Mpodozis, 2001). The late Oligocene to early Miocene
rocks possess low to moderate LaIYb ratios (7-21), whereas
younger rocks display higher ratios, commonly >20 until 16
Ma, indicative of progressively thickening crust. Cessation of
contractional events in the Maricunga area at -12 Ma is sug-
gested by normal faulting and LalYb ratios of 15 to 22 (Kay et
aI., 1994; Mpodozis et al ., 1995). The second and prinCipal
contractional event is recorded by progressively increasing
LaIYb ratios, which reach maxima of 55 to 75 in trivial vol-
umes of rhyolite and basaltic andesite erupted at -6 Ma (Kay
et al. , 1994; Mpodozis et al. , 1995).
The porphyry Cu-Au and CuoMo prospects (e.g., Cerro
Casale, Regalito) in the northern part of the Maricunga-El
TABLE 4. Selected Geologic Characteristics of POIphyry and Porphyry-related Skarn Cu Deposits and Principal Prospects, Miocene to Early Pliocene Belt, Central Andes
'"
&l
Status and Production +
ZOO3 reserves (million Ore-related
production
l
metric tonnes) hypogene
Deposit! (metric tons and gmde (%) Porphyry Host alteration Hydrothennal Massive Structural
prospect Cu x 1,(00) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Rocks (mineralization) Age (Ma) breccias sulfide veins control Key references
Potassic over-
Cretaceous printed by inter-
marine ca]- mediate argillic
"",eous and sericitic. Uosa et aI. (1999),
rocks and Periphera] L10sa and Veliz
Perol SulE 429 @ 0.31
Eocene advanced Orthoclase: Minor igneous Important: (2000), Gustafson
(Minas Conga) Prospect Cu, 0.78 r!/I Au gran 'orite intrusions argillic (cp, bnl' 15.80.0.09 breccias Absent NW faults el aI. (2004)
Potassic over-
Cretaceous printed by inter- Uo,a el aI. (1999),
marine cal- mediate argillic Important: Uosa and Veliz
Chailhuag6n SulE 190 @ 0.28 One phase: careous and sericitic Biotite: Minor igneous NNE-trending 2000), Gustafson
(M inas Conga) Prospect Cu, 0.77 r!/I Au granodiOrite rocks (cp, bn) 15.58.0.1Z breccias Absent intrusions el aI. (ZOO4)
Biotite: 10.15 %
0.04; lllitized Important:
SulE 559 @ 1.24 Cretaceous Potassic over-
&Iafoclase;
severa] phases, O'Connor (1999),
Cu, 1.03 Zn, At least five marine caI- printed by inter- .9 .0.06;
and Important: Love et aI. (2003,
'"
Mine 0.OZ9 Mo, 13.7 phases: careous mediate argillic Sericite(?):
c. rea.ti c
NW thrusts 20(4), Redwood
"
Antamina 341.4 r!/I Ag (0.7) monzogranite rocks (cp, bnl' 9.8.0.Q7 Absent and fold axes (ZOO4)
"
recctas
Potassic over- Present: py, Important:
Cl
'" printed by inter- Biotite: tet, stibi- domlnantlr NS

Cretaceous mediate argilliC, 15.3.0.7; Important: oluzonite, thrusts and
marine caI- sericitic, and igneous brec- luzonite, ENE-trending Perell6 et al.
"
Sul[; lOS@0.74 Two phases: =eou, advanced 14. 3:l 0.02, cias and few realgar, intrusion (ZOOl), J. Perell6, <:l
Magistral Prospect Cu, 0.05Z Mo (0.5) granodiOrite rocks argillic (cp) 14.63.0.02 pebble wke, orpiment corridor unpub. data, 2001 f;l
Permian Poorly deAned
[::
volcanic concentric pat- Apparently
Q.
Four phases: and Triassic- tern: potassic absent, but
diorite, grano- JurasSiC surrounded and

Alvarez (1999),
Sul[; 618 @0.71 diorite. quartz calcareous overprinted by Biotite: tenn, an Important: Noble and
Toromocho Prospect Cu (0.5) monzonite rocks sericitic (cp) 7.4 % 0.3 Important cv present NW faults Mckee (1999)
Potassic over- Vila and Sillitoe
printed by Biotite: (1991), Mpedoz;,
SuiI', 1,285 @0.35 Miocene sericitic and ad- 13.89 0.04; Minor: igneous el aI. (1995),
Cu. 0.02 Mo. volcanic vanced argillic in Alunite: and tourmaline Present: Present: NNE Muntean and
Cerro Casale Prospect 0.7 r!/I Au quartz onte rocks upper parts (cp) 13.91 .0.04 breccias tet-tenn. cp and NW faults Einauw (2001)
Biotite: 7.1O:l
0.13,6.98 .0.08, Sasso and Clark
6.83 .0.07; (1998), Ulrich
Concentric pat- Sericite: 6.75 % and Heinrich
Seven phases: Miocene tern: potasSiC 0.09; Zircon, 7.10 (ZOOl ), ProlTelt
Bajo de la Mine Sulf, 805 @ 0.54 dacite to volcanic surrounded % 0.07, 7.98 % Minor: igneous Present: (ZOO3), Harris et
Alumbrera 203.7 Cu, 0.64 Wt Au rhyolite rocks by sericitic (cp) 0.14, 8.0Z 0.14 breccias Absent NNW faults aI. (2004)
Precambrian- Important:
early Potassic over- Biotite: phreatiC and Pere1l6 et aI .
Paleozoic printed by in- 5.10.0.OS; phreato- Important: (1998), Rojas et
Sul[; 750 @0.66 Severa] phases: metasedi- tense sericitic Alunite: magmatic, Important: intersecting aI. (1998),
Cu, 0.037 Mo, monzonite mentary and advanced 4.96 % 0.08, barren late- Cy, cv, enarg. NE and Landtwing et aI.
Agua Rica Prospect 0.23 r!/I Au (0.4) to dacite rocks argillic (cp) 4.88.0.08 mineral diatreme n, cc NW faults (ZOOZ)
-------;;
T ABLE 4. (Cont .)
Status and Production +
2003 reserves (million Ore-related
production I metric tonnes) hypogene
Deposit! (metri c t ons and grade (%) Porphyry Host altemtion Hydrothe rmal Massive Stlllctural
prospect ell x 1,000) (cutoff, % Cu) composition Rocks (mineraliz.:ltion) Age (Ma) breccias sulfide veins control Key rere rences
Biotite: 10.2",
0.2, 9.9 :I: 0.2;
Biotite and
seri cite: J 2.39 :i:
0.10- 10.19.0.09,
Molybdenite:
Concentric IU8.0.04.
Sule, 3.300 @ 0.63 Cretaceous pattem: 11.08 :t 0.04; Absent, Si llitoe (1973,
Cu, 0.016 Mo (in- Four phases: volcanic potassic Late-minernl, Present: but minor Present : 1988), Atkinson
eluding supergene: quartz diorite rocks and surrounded and zircon: pe3mlltoidal As-rich intersecting el al. (1900).
Mine 560 @ 0.93 Cu) to quartz tonalite overprinted by 11 .56 :t: 0.15, an tounnaline stnlctures NNE and Be rt ens et al.
Los Pelmnbres 335.5 (0.4) monzonite pluton sericitic (cp, bn) 11 .24 .0.12 breccias recorded NNW faults (2003)
Jurassic Poorly defined
mari ne ca1. concentric pat Absent. but Important:
SulE 2. 106 @ Two phases: careous and tem: potassic Importnnt: py. e narg, NW-trending
0.55 Cu, dioritetonalite. Cretaceous surrounded by tOllnnali ne tenn, and tet intrusion Pach6n M illera
).
EI Pach6n Prospect 0.013 Mo (0.45) dacite volcanic rocks sericitic (cp, bn") Latc Miocene breccias in breccias corridor S. A. (1999)
<:
0
Bioti te: 4.59-
~
<:
5. 12; Sericite: Important:
"
" 4.40 0.15. major con:r.lex
:i
4.37 .0.06, with abun ant Absent, but Important : Wamaars et al.
0
Several phases: Zircon: 6.16- tourmali ne py. luzonile. NNW-trending (1985). Se rnmo el <:
quartz mon- Miocene 5.08; Late- bret:cills. enarg. and mine ralized al. (1996). Vargas :;:
zonile. quartz volcanic and Potassic mineral dia barren late- tenn in corridor and el aI. (1999).
"
'"
IHo Blanco- Mines SulE 6.991 @ 0.75 monzodiorite, int nlsive overprinted by treme. zircon: mineml mi nor late NE faults and Deckart et al.
Los Bronces 468.5 Cu. 0.02 Mo (0.3) dacite, latite rocks sericitic (cp, bll) 4.92 0.09 diatreme veinlets fractures (2005)
Biotite and
sericite: 5.06
0.12-4.37.0.10,
Molybdenite:
6.30 0.03. 5.60
.0.02.5.01-4.96.
4.89 0.01>-4.78
0.03, 4.42 Important:
0.02; Zirt"On: 6.46 igneous, biotite,
Miocene 0.11-5.28 anhydrit e, and Camus ( 19'7S.
Sul f: 12,480 @ volcanic 0.10; Late tourmaline 2003). Cuadr.
0.63 Cu, 0.02 Mo Five phases: rocks and mineral intru- breccias, low- Absent, but Present (1_1_ ..
(i ncluding supe r- quart'1: diori te- mafic Potassic locally sions, zircon: gmde late- py. tet-tenn, intersecting ~ S ... (2OOl).
Mine gene: 956@ tonali te and laccoliths overprinted by 4.82 .0.09. mineml stibnile, and NE. and M.-. .....
EI Te ni ente 334.3 1.68Cn) dacite and sil ls serici tic (cp. bn) 4.58. 0.10 diatreme bn in vein lets NW r.aults (iOOf)
Abbreviations: btl '" bornite, cc '" chalcocite. cp '" chalcopyrite. cv '" t.'ovellite. enarg '" enargite, Sulf ", sulfide, tenn '" tennantite, tet tetrahedrite
I Figures from Comisi6n Chilena del Cobre and Dirccci6n General de Mi neria (Peru)
2: Minor skarn-type mineralization present
3 Skarn-type minemlizlltion dominant
Co
~ Minor sulfide minernls italicized
0>
<D
870 SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
LOS
CERRO BAY" De.
A
G Neogene synorogenic deposits
CORDON DE LA
RAMADA
A
[=:J Other geologic units
Neogene volcanic arc
1:::::::::1 Neogene synorogenic deposits
[] PermoTriassic basement
? Reverse fault
? sNormaJ fault
/' Cross section
Porphyry Cu-M>
Porphyry Cu-Au
SOkm
B
+
_ Porphyry copper stock (projected)
Dominantly late Mesozoic and Tertiary volcanic rocks
Mesozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks
./ Reverse fault
[::J Permo-Triassic basement
Flc. 12. Structural setting of the Miocene to early Pliocene Cu belt in northern Chile, showing deposit types, main faults
of the Aconcagua fold and thrust belt, and synorogenic clastic sedimentary deposits within and alongside the arc. Note that
eu deposit formation is syntectonic. Schematic geologiC section (along line A-B in map) emphasizes importance of reverse
faulting. Fold and thrust belt and synorogenic deposits rrom Ramos et al. (1996), raults in Chile rrom SERNACEOMIN
(2002), and secti on Simplified from Cristallini (1996).
Indio sub-belt were generated during the modest crustal
thickening event between 18 and 14 Ma (Fig. 10), whereas
mineralization coincident \vith the extension-related volcan-
ism between 23 and 21 Ma (Sillitoe et aI. , 1991) and during
tectonic relaxation at 14 to 12 Ma (Sillitoe et aI., 1991;
Mpodozis et aI., 1995) gave rise to Au- and Ag-rich, but Cu-
poor porphyty and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits (Vila
and Sillitoe, 1991). Farther south, at EI Indio, the enargite-
bearing veins formed during the contractional event in the
late Miocene (9--6 Ma; Bissig et aI., 2001).
The Cu-Au-bearing pOlphyry stocks are multiphase, horn-
blende biotite-bearing, fine- to medium-grained quartz
diorite porphyries intruded at subvolcanic levels (Vila and
Sillitoe, 1991; Mpodozis et aI. , 1995; Muntean and Einaudi ,
2001). In contrast, the porphyry Cu-Mo prospects are re-
lated to stocks of dacitic composition (e.g., Pere1l6 et aI.,
2003c). The porphyty depOSits and prospects tend to occur
as clusters or alignments localized at or near key structural
sites, especially regional faults cutting basement rocks and
fault intersections.
ANDEAN Gil PROVINCE 871
FarallOn Negro district: The FaralJ6n Negro district li es in
the Andean foreland, -500 km east of the Chile-Peru trench,
at the transition between two Neogene physiographic
provinces, the Puna and Sierras Pampeanas (Figs. 1, 10). This
transition w ne coincides with a discontinuity in Mesozoic and
Cenozoic geology, geomorphology, and metallogeny (Sillitoe,
1974; de Urreiztieta et aI., 1996; Sasso and Clark, 1998). The
district broadly overlaps the Farall6n Negro volcanic complex,
a large, multicentered edifice of shoshonitic to high K calc-al-
kaline composition, made up of several basaltic to silicic vol-
canic units with ages mainly between 8.5 and 6.8 Ma (Sasso
and Clark, 1998; Proffett, 2003; Harris et aI. , 2004). These
rocks unconformably overlie Miocene continental sequences
and Paleozoic crystalline basement (Caelles et aI., 1971;
McBride et aI., 1976), the latter exposed in the contiguous
Sierra de Aconquija block, host to the Agua Rica porphyry Cu-
Au-Mo deposit. Stocks and dikes of dacitic to rhyolitic compo-
sition were emplaced between -8 and 5 Ma in both the Faral-
16n Negro volcanic complex and contiguous areas (Perell6 et
aI. , 1998; Sasso and Clark, 1998; Harris et aI. , 2004).
Regional uplift and contractional defonnation were active
since 10 Ma (Jordan et aI. , 1983; Allmendinger, 1986; Cough-
lin et aI. , 1998; Perell6 et aI., 1998; Sasso and Clark, 1998;
Ramos et aI., 2002), resulting in juxtaposition of the Sierra de
Aconquija basement block and FaralI6n Negro volcanic com-
plex on regional reverse faults between - 10 and 5 Ma and
since 3 Ma (Coughlin et aI., 1998; Ramos et aI. , 2002).
Northe", and central Peru segment: The segment extends
for - 1,000 km along the Western Cordillera between lat 6'
and 13' S (Figs. 1, 10), where it is centered east of the Meso-
zoic and early Paleogene coastal batholith and formed in
stratigraphically and structurally complex Paleozoic to Ceno-
zoic rocks dominated by marine-carbonate sequences. M ulti-
pIe episodes of contractional tectonism affected these rocks,
with the most important and Widespread events being in the
Late Cretaceolls (Peruvian), middle Eocene (Incaic), early
Miocene (Quechua I), middle to late Miocene (Quechua II
and III), and latest Pliocene to early Pleistocene (Megard,
1984; Sebrier et aI., 1988; Sebrier and Soler, 1991; Benavides-
Caceres, 1999; Noble and McKee, 1999).
Magmatic rocks along the belt are of typical calc-alkaline
composition. Several pulses of volcanism and intrusive activ-
ity, broadly contemporaneous with mineralization, took place
during the Miocene (-24-4 Ma), since when magmatism was
inactive. Intermediate-composition lavas and pyroclastic rocks
are dominant, \vith deposition of local silicic ash-fl ow tuff
accompanying emplacement of late phases of the Cordillera
Blanca batholith in north-central Peru and farther north.
Minor, but conspicuous amounts of basalt in the volcanic se-
quences (Noble and McKee, 1999) show that mafic magma
existed at depth. Limited chemical and Sr; and i;J isotope
data for the igneous rocks from the belt are consistent with
magma derivation from relatively discrete sources in the
lithospheriC mantle or underplated mafic crust (Noble and
McKee, 1999).
Porphyry Cu prospects and related ClI-bearing skarn de-
posits are associated with calc-alkaline, granodiOrite to mon-
zogranite, Single to multiphase porphyry stocks emplaced into
intensely folded and tllrusted, mainly Cretaceous carbonate
and clastic strata (Table 4). Coarse-grained dacite or quartz
latite porphyry, typically occurri ng IlS dome c'Omplexes, is
promi nent in many shallowly eroded deposits (e.g. , Cerro de
Pasco, Marcapunta, Julcnni; Fig, [0), Regional thrusting and
reverse faulting during the Miocene Quechuu cv nts reacti-
vated older structures of the Eoc'Cne Incule fold-nnd-thrust
belt defined by Megard (1984), althollgh distinction between
these two deformation ages is not eusy (e,g" SUllins, 1977).
Evidence for syntectonic emplac'Cment of' porphyry Cu stocks
and dikes during Quechuan phases comes rrom Anhornin"
(Love et aI., 2003), EI Galeno (C6rdova and Hoyos, 2000),
Magistral (Pere1l6 et aI. , 2001), and Pachag6n (Per 11 6 et nl. ,
2oo3d), and is suspected elsewhere.
All ClI deposits in ti,e northern and central Peru segm ' nl
formed between -20 and 6 Ma (Fig. 10). Mineralization ap-
pears to have taken place Simultaneously throughout the seg-
ment at many different times and places during the Miocene,
altilOugh the 20 to 18, 15 to 13, and 10 to 7 Ma intervals are
suspected to have been the most fertile (Noble and McKee,
1999).
Principal mineralization f eatures
The major porphyry Cu-Mo deposits of central Chile are
characterized by large areal extents (3-6 km'), multistage hy-
drothermal breccias, and very low Au tenors. Early alteration
is principally potassic and associated with Cu mineralization,
although Cu- and S-poor assemblages characterized by calcic
acti nolite, oligoclase-albite, and magnetite define an even
earlier event at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces (Skewes et aI., 1994;
Serrano et aI., 1996) and EI Teniente (Skewes et aI., 2002),
Biotitization. particularly intense in andesitic and more mafic
host rocks, is associated with the first major stage of chal-
copyrite and bornite introduction. At Los Pelambres, potassic
alteration also contains andalusite and corundum (Skewes
and Atkinson, 1985; Atkinson et aI. , 1996), whereas at Rio
Blanco-Los Bronces magnetite, specular hematite, and tour-
maline are accessory alteration minerals (Serrano et aI.,
1996). Approximately 50 percent of the hypogene mineraliza-
tion at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces (Serrano et aI., 1996) and >80
percent at EI Teniente (Camus, 1975, 2003) are contained in
biotite-dominated potassic alteration, which also hosts a
major part of ti,e hypogene ore at Los Pelarnbres (Atkinson et
aI., 1996) and the contiguous EI Pach6n deposit (PacMn S.A.
Minera, 1999).
Sericitic alteration is present in all the central Chil e por-
phyry Cu deposits. At Los Pelambres and EI PacMn, it occurs
mainly as barren, pyritic halos surrounding the potassic cen-
ters (Sillitoe, 1973b; PacMn S.A. Minera, 1999; Table 4),
whereas at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces and EI Teniente it is
mainly confined to certain hydrothennal breccia bodies. Ad-
vanced argillic alteration is scarce in the major central Chile
porphyry Cu depOSits, probably because of relatively deep
erosion levels, although the basal parts of lithocaps are pre-
served in several prospects within and east of the sub-belt
(e.g. , Piment6n, EI Altar, and Los Bagres Sur; Fig. 10). High-
sulfidation sulfide assemblages are widespread at EI Altar and
Los Bagres Sur but in ti,e major deposits are restricted to rel-
atively minor occurrences of enargite, iuzonite, tetrahedrite,
and tennantite in sericitic breccias and veinlets (Table 4).
An outstanding feature of some, but not all , central Chile
porphyry Cu deposits and prospects is the presence of
872 SILL/ TOE AND PERELL6
voluminous hydrothennal breccias (Howell and Molloy, 1960;
Wamaars et al. , 1985; Skewes and Stern, 1994, 1995; Serrano
et al., 1996; Vargas et al., 1999; Skewes et al., 2(02). The ore-
bearing breccias are considered of orthomagmatic origin,
whereas later barren breccias are products of phreatomag-
matic processes (Sillitoe, 1985; Fig. llb, c). The breccias vary
in fonn from dikelike bodies to well-defined funnel-shaped
pipes, with diameters ranging from tens of meters at Los
Pelambres (Sillitoe, 1973b) to >1,200 m in the case of the
Braden pipe at El Teniente, which has a known vertical extent
of 1,800 m (Camus, 1975, 2003; Cuadra, 1986). At RIO
Blanco-Los Bronces, multiple centers of texturally diverse
breccias, occupying a total volume of -3 km
3
, define a -12-
km-long and >1-km-wide, north-northwest-striking corridor
(Warnaars et al., 1985; Serrano et al., 1996; Vargas et al.,
1999; Fig. llb, c). The breccia complexes formed throughout
the evolution of the porphyry Cu systems, as suggested by the
presence of actinolite, biotite, chlorite, anhydri te, or tourma-
line as principal cementing minerals (Warnaars et al., 1985;
Serrano et al., 1996; Vargas et al. , 1999; Skewes et al., 2(02).
Tourmaline-cemented, sericitic-altered breccia is transitional
downward to potassic-altered breccia (e.g., Vargas et al. ,
1999). High-grade (>1 % Cu), breccia-hosted ore is present in
all deposits of the sub-belt but is most Significant at Rio
Blanco-Los Bronces where an estimated 50 percent of the Cu
is contained in breccia (Serrano et al ., 1996). The proportion
of the Cu resource hosted by breccia decreases appreciably to
10 to 15 percent at El Teniente (Camus, 2(03) and to only 2
to 3 percent at Los Pelambres (A. Gonzalez, pers. commun.,
2(03), although larger percentages have been proposed
(Skewes and Stern, 1994, 1995; Skewes et al ., 2(02). More-
over, the volumetrically dominant hreccia at El Teniente is
the predominantly subore-grade Braden pipe.
Porphyry e u-Au deposits and prospects in the Miocene to
early Pliocene belt (Fig. 10) share all the geolOgiC features of
such systems elsewhere. These include dominance of mag-
netite-rich potassic alteration variably overprinted by inter-
mediate argillic assemblages and an overall sympathetic
relationship between Cu and Au grades. The alteration-
mineralization zoning at Bajo de la Alumbrera and other por-
phyry eu prospects in the Farall6n Negro district (Fig. lld),
in common with the Au-poor Los Pelambres deposit (see
above), confonns closely to the classic geometry defined by
Lowell and Guilbert (1970), with potassic cores surrounded
by annular sericitic zones (Sillitoe, 1973c; Proffett, 2003). Hy-
pogene Cu-Au mineralization at the Bajo de la Alumbrera de-
posit (Sillitoe, 1979; Ulrich and Heinrich, 2001; Proffett,
2003), and most other prospects in the belt (James and
Thompson, 1997; Llosa et al. , 1999; Muntean and Einaudi,
2(01), occurs as quartz-magnetite-chalcopyrite stockworks
contained within the potassic zones (Fig. lld). In contrast,
the Agua Rica porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit in the Farall6n
Negro district displays more complex alteration-mineraliza-
tion relationships, with early potassic alteration intensely
overprinted by the main Cu-bearing sericitic and advanced
argillic assemblages and numerous hydrothermal breccias, in-
cluding a diatreme complex (Koukharsky and Mirre, 1976;
Pere1l6 et al. , 1998; Landtwing et al., 2002; Table 4). Else-
where in the belt, advanced argillic lithocap remnants, such as
those at Minas Conga (Llosa et al. , 1999) and Cerro Casale
(Vila and Sillitoe, 1991), are poorly mineralized, although that
above porphyry eu-Au centers at Yanacocha hosts the world's
largest high sulfidation Au deposit (Gustafson et al. , 2(04).
The Antamina eu-Zn-Mo-Ag and other much smaller
skarn deposits in the northern and central Peru segment abut
composite porphyry stocks displaying potassic alteration and
low-grade porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization (e.g., Redwood,
2(04). Garnet-rich exoskarn hosts much of the ore (Fig. 11a).
In other similar systems, such as Magistral, La Granja, and
Pashpap (Fig. 10), the porphyry-type mineralization is higher
grade but still subeconomic (e. g., Schwartz, 1982; Torres and
Enriquez, 1997; Pere1l6 et aI. , 2001; Table 4).
Elsewhere in the northern and central Peru sub-belt, enar-
gite-bearing, carbonate- replacement bodies occur in the cen-
tral parts of complexly zoned polymetallic districts, as at
Cerro de Pasco, Marcapunta, Yauricocha, and Morococha
(Petersen, 1965, 1970; Sillitoe, 1990; Noble and McKee,
1999; Bendezll et al. , 2004; Vidal and Ligarda, 2(04). Some of
these bodies are located alongSide stocks containing porphyry
eu alteration and mineralization, as observed at Morococha-
Toromocho (Alvarez, 1999). Petersen (1970) included such
deposits in his zoned Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag deposit category, and
Noble and McKee (1999) considered them as a hallmark of
the metallogeny of northern and cent ral Peru. The deposits
are extremely varied in form and include veins, breccia pipes,
mantos, and irregular bodies, the larger examples displaying
conversion of limestone to quartz and pyrite. This replace-
ment assemblage, which may be considered as a low-pH
eqUivalent of skarn (Einaudi, (982), is accompanied by
sericitic and/or advanced argillic alteration in adjacent oon-
carbonate litholOgies (Einaudi, 1977; Sillitoe, 1990; Vidal and
Ligarda, 2004).
Mature, multicyclic enrichment blankets are absent at the
eu deposits in the Miocene to early Pliocene belt, primarily
due to their youthfulness and the commonly unsuitable late
Cenozoic and presently prevailing climate, particularly in
northern and central Peru and central Chile, where steep,
deeply incised topography and Quaternary glaCial erosion are
additional inhibiting factors (e.g. , Redwood, 2004; Sillitoe,
2(05). Reactive host rocks and low pyrite contents also mili-
tate against enrichment in some of the deposits (e.g. , Baja de
la Alumbrera). Nevertheless, there are exceptions, such as the
supergene chalcocite additions to shallow hypogene zones at
several major depOSits and important prospects (e.g., RIO
Blanco, La Granja, Toromocho, Agua Rica, Los Pelambres,
Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, El Teniente; Braun et aI. , 1999;
Schwartz, 1982; Alvarez, 1999; Pere1l6 et al., 1998; Atkinson
et al ., 1996; Warnaars et al., 1985; Cuadra, 1986, respec-
tively). The enrichment is believed to have taken place during
the last 3 m.y. and to be still active (Sillitoe, 2005).
Metall ogenic Discussion
Porphyry Cu deposits
Allert/tion-minerali;;ation ;;aning: Andean porphyry Cu
Mo Au depOSits, in common with those elsewhere, display
a gross vertical alteration-mineralization zoning from deep
potassic through sericitic zones of varied geometry to over-
lying advanced argillic lithocaps (e.g., Si llitoe, 1995a, 2oooa;
Fig. 13). Pyrophyllite is particularly characteristic of the
ANDEAN CII PROVI NCE 873
: . : . .' )---:c-
....:. x
, '
x
x
,
'.'
.- ::
,
,
,
t
,
,
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, ,
+
+,
' + '
,
,
0+"
,
, +,
x x x
x
+ , ,
"+ 0
,
x x
x
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x . + ' + '
,
, ' + ' +
+ <-
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,+ '
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: + +
+ '
, X
'+.
. t .
, '1\
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00 + 0" x
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x
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,
Coeval volcanic rocks
Multip/1asestock
I".' .' :1 Advanced argillic tithocap
C8 Sericitic zone
/ Massive sulfide vein
Reverse fault
Undifferentiated Mesozoic rocks
Paleozoic basement
I', ': : 1 Potassic zone
FIG. 13. Cartoon showing typical alteration zoning and degrees of te lescoping in Andean porphyry Cu deposits. Note the
telescoped deposits in the uplifted fault block, contrasting wi th the lack of telescoping in the deposit beyond it, where coeva1
volcanism is well developed. The telescoping in the uplifted block varies from strongly to nonfault controlled. of
deposits is not necessarily implied. See text for further discussion.
sericitic to advanced argillic transition. Early. Cu-deficient
ca1cic-sadic assemblages may be preselVed as remnants, es-
pecially at deep levels, within or beneath potassic zones. Fur-
thermore. chlOrite-bearing intermediate argillic alteration
acts as a transition between the potassic and sericitic zones in
some systems, including many of those rich in Au. Where car-
bonate host rocks predominate, calcic skarn abuts the por-
phyry stocks and quartz-pyrite alteration characterizes the ad-
vanced argillic environment. Therefore. the fundamental
controls on the dominant alteration type obselVed are erosion
level and host-rock composition. Neveltheless, shallowlyex-
posed systems, with preserved lithocap remnants. are known
from all the Andean metallogenic epochs: Triassic (Lila).
Early Cretaceous (Buey Muerto), Paleocene to early Eocene
(Sierra Gorda), middle Eocene to early Oligocene (Escon-
dida), and Miocene to early Pliocene (Agoa Rica).
The overall alteration-mineralization architecture is heavily
dependent on the structural setting and degree of telescoping
of Andean porphyry Cu systems (Fig. 13). These factors vary
between structural blocks, as a result of stress partitioning,
and do not appear to be constant throughout entire segments
of a metallogeniC belt. in structural blocks characterized by
high rates of synmineralization tectonic uplift, at least 100 to
200 mlm.y. (Maksaev and Zentilli. 1999), the vertical alter-
ation-mineralization sequence tends to be highly telescoped,
with appreciable overprinting and mineralOgic reconsti tution
of earlier and deeper zones during younger and shallower hy-
drothennal events. The overprint geometry. espeCially the
form and position of the sericitic and deep parts of advanced
argillic wnes, is highly influenced by faults active during de-
posit genesis (Fig. 13).
The mineralogic reconstitution of earlier alteration-miner-
alization zones can either add or remove Cu and Au. Super-
position of intermediate argillic or sericitic on potassic alter-
ation in porphyry Cu-Au deposits commonly causes partial
leaching of Au, although exceptions exist (e.g., Perol at Minas
Conga and Agoa Rica; Fig. 10, Table 4). Sericitic alteration
overprinting potassic zones, common in porphyry Cu-Mo de-
posits, may be pyritic and essentially barren or, alternatively,
contain Cu-bearing assemblages dictated by a range of sulfi-
dation states. These latter assemblages, also pyrite rich. may
be dominated by chalcopyrite (e.g., Paleocene-early Eocene
belt of southern Peru) or bornite. chalcocite, and/or covelUte,
with or without major amounts of enargite (e.g., middl e
Eocene-early Oligocene belt of northern Chile). Where
structural control is particularly severe, as in the largest
deposits of the middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt of
northern Chile (Rosario, Chuquicamata, MM. Escondida
Norte-Zaldivar, Escondida), these high-sulfidation sulfide as-
semblages constitute massive sulfide veins (Fig. 13). com-
monly rich in enargite. but elsewhere are of mainly dissemi-
nated habit (e.g. , Miocene-early Pliocene belt: Canariaco. El
Altar. and Los Bagres Sur; Fig. 10). Enargite also dominates
the massive sulfide bodies that replace carbonate rocks in the
lithocap environment . In other deposits where structural con-
trol is less evident, chalmpyrite-bearing sericitic alteration
may be confined to hydrothermal breccias (e.g .. Rfo Blanco-
Los Bronces). In structural domains characterized by high
synmineralizatioll uplift rates. perhaps attaining 3 kmlm.y. at
El Teniente (Kurtz et al. , 1997), lithocaps and subjacent
sericitic zones could be lost to erosion in as little as 1 m.y. to
reveal the deeper potassic cores. In contrast, porphyry Cu
874 SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
deposits in structural sites that apparently underwent slower
exhumation during mineralization tend to be less telescoped
and to display classic alteration symmetry, with potassic cores
surrounded by sericitic halos in their upper parts (Fig. 13). In
such deposits, ti,e sericitic alteration is typi cally Cu defi cient
(e.g., Esperanza, Bajo de la Alumbrera).
Hydrothennal breccia.s: Many porphyry Cu deposits in the
Andes, as elsewhere, contain relatively small volumes of hy-
drothermal breccia as parts of their Cu ore w nes or as post-
mineralization diluents, although some exceptionally large
deposits lack breccia (e.g., Chuquicamata; Ossand6n et a1. ,
2001; Tables 2-4). Three depoSits, Toquepala, Agua Rica, and
Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, are notably rich in Cu-bearing brec-
cias, with or without tourmaline, which constitute upwardly
flared bodies that exceed 1 krn
3
. The largest breccias, 1 to 2
Ian across at surface . are the phreatomagmatic diatre mes in
the Antapaccay, Toquepala, Exploradora, Agua Rica, RIo
Hurtado, Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, and EI Teniente deposits,
all notably late- to postmineralization in timing (Tables 2-4).
Notwithstanding their large sizes, all these breccias are ac-
companiments to normal porphyry Cu stockwork-style min-
eralization. Assignment of such breccia-rich porphyry Cu de-
posits to a discrete megabreccia deposit type (Skewes and
Stem, 1994, 1995; Skewes et al., 2(02) lacks convincing geo-
logic support.
The porphyry Cu depoSits exceptionally rich in Cu-bearing
andlor postore breccias, as well as hydrothermal breccias in
general, are widely scattered throughout the central Andean
Cu belts (e.g., Toquepala, Antapaceay, Exploradora, and Agua
Rica; Figs. 6, 7, 10), and are not an exclusive feature of the
Miocene to early Pliocene belt in central Chile as implied by
Skewes and Stem (1994, 1995). This fact casts serious doubt
on the concept of rapid exhumation-induced "tectonic trig-
gering" as a unifying explanation for hydrothermal breccia
formation in the central Chile sub-belt (Skewes and Stern,
1994, 1995).
Lifespans and deposit size: A comprehensive isotopic study
of the giant EI Teniente porphyry Cu deposit showed that
multiphase intrusion, pre- and postore brecciation, and four
distinct alteration-mineraliL1tion events spanned approxi-
mately 2 m.y. (Maksaev et al ., 2(04). Compilation of other re-
cent estimates of the lifespans of central Andean Cu deposits
suggests that most of them were active for 1. 2 to 2. 1 m.y., al-
though estimates range from as littl e a. 0.27 m.y. at Potreril-
los to - 3. 6 m.y. at Escondida (Fig. 14).
Apparent time intervals of - 2 m.y. between ore-bearing
potassic alteration and overprinted high-sul fidati on Cu stages
at the Rosari o, Chuqui camata, and Escondida deposits (e.g.,
Ballard et aI. , 2001; Masterman et aI. , 2004; Padilla-GaI-,w et
al ., 2004) have been interpreted by some investigators to
imply that tI,ese giant deposits resulted from the superposi-
tion of two temporally discrete porphyry Cu systems (Zentill i
et al., 1995; Reynolds et al., 1998; Ballard et aI. , 2001; Os-
sand6n et al ., 2001; Padilla et al ., 2001; Padilla-Garza et aI. ,
2(04). Harris et al . (2004) used the same concept to explain
the I-m.y. separation between the two main Cu-mineralized
porphyry stages that constitute the Bajo de la Alumbrera
deposit. This two-stage concept seems an unlikely explanation
for either the longevity or large size of Andean porphyry Cu
depOSits because of the improbability of two discrete porphyry
ESCONDIDA
BA.JO DE
RiO BLANCO.;.LOS BAONCES
o 2 3 4 5 6
Flc. 14. Compilation of the approximate lifespans of selected porphyry
CU systems in the central Andes. Durations (dots) and errors (bars) taken
from Marsh et a1. (1997). Ball ard et aJ. (2001), Custafson et aJ. (2001), Os-
sand6n et aJ. (ZOO1), Love et aJ. (2003), Harris et aJ. (2004), Maksaev et aJ.
(2004), Masterman et aJ. (2004), Padilla-Carza et al. (2004), and Deckart et
aJ. (2005). Note the preponderance of depOSits wi th calculated li fespans of 1
to 2 m.y.
Cu deposits commonly being superimposed one on the other;
and the failure to encounter at any of these supposed two-
stage depOSits any evi dence to support two potassic through
advanced argillic alteration sequences and the corresponding
reversals of veinlet generations (e.g., A follOwing 0 type).
Rather, these 1- to 2-m.y. lifespans are believed to reneet the
protracted, pulsed histories of intrusive and hydrothermal ac-
tivity at most of the dated Andean porphyry Cu centers, irre-
spective of their size and Cu content (cf. Maksaev et aI. , 2004;
Masterman et al ., 2004).
Fe oxide-Cu-Au and "11m to- type Cu depOSits
In contrast to the porphyry Cu deposits, the main issues
surrounding Andean Fe oxide-Cu-Au and manto-type Cu de-
posits are genetic in nature, in large measure because of their
commonly uncertain relationships to intrusive rocks. Iron
oxide-Cu-Au deposits of the middle to late Mesowic belt are
currently considered to be the products of either magmatic
nuids (Ruiz et al ., 1965; Sillitoe, 2(03) or basinal brines
heated by intrusions (Haynes, 2000; Hitzman, 2000). The
spatial and temporal relationships of many Fe oxide-Cu-Au
depOSits, especially those of vein type, to diorite plutons sug-
gest a connection to mafi c magmatism. The intimate relati on-
ships ,vith the slightly older or synmineralization diorite dikes
underscores this connection still further (Sillitoe, 2003; Table
1). A deep source for the magmatic fluids seems likely, with
deli ve,y to the minerali zation sites utilizing the closely related
major brittle-ductile fault systems (Fig. 5).
NOhvithstanding the distinctive geolOgiC features of the
manto-type Cu deposits, some investigators consider them as
shal low variants of Fe oxide-Cu-Au depoSits (e.g., Vivallo and
Henriquez, 1998; Haynes, 2000; Orrego et al ., 2000). This in-
terpretation is supported by the presence of widespread al-
bite alteration, calcite, and minor hematite, as well as the spa-
tial relationship of a number of deposits to diorite bodies,
features shared with some Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits. How-
ever, the asymmetric sulfide-oxide zoning and lack of Au, Co,
ANDEAN Gil I' ROVINCF.
875
Mo, Ni, and U in the manto-type Cu deposits contrasts with
the Fe oxide-Cu-Au systems.
The origin of the manto-type Cu depOSits may be linked di-
rectly to magmatic fluid exsolution (e.g. , Holmgren, 1987;
Wolf et aI. , 1990) or to fluids generated during regional low-
grade burial metamorphism of the volcano-sedimentary piles
(Sato, 1984; Sillitoe, 1990, 1992). Maksaev and Zentilli (2002)
suggested that Cu-bearing basinal fluids were mobilized dur-
ing pluton emplacement, which is broadly coincident with the
JurasSiC and Early Cretaceous manto deposit events. Manto-
type Cu mineralization is localized where S- and Fe-poor flu-
ids, of whatever origin, cross redox fronts and encounter or-
ganic matter or diagenetic pyrite or undergo cooling andlor
mixing with meteoric water (Sillitoe, 1992; Maksaev and Zen-
tilli , 2002; Wilson and Zentilli, 1999). Genetic debate is likely
to continue until any linkage of Fe oxide-Cu-Au and manto-
type Cu deposits to stocks or plutons, as well as to one an-
other, is satisfactorily resolved.
Tectonomagmatic Processes and Andean Cu Metallogeny
H'Ipogene deposits
Regional-, district-, and depoSit-scale geolOgiC relationships
and isotopic ages for Cenomic Cu deposits of the central
Andes suggest that the three economically preeminent por-
phyry Cu belt segments-the middle Eocene to early
Oligocene of northern Chile, Miocene to early Pliocene of
central Chile, and Paleocene to middle Eocene of southern
Peru-were generated within intervals of -7 to 13 m.y., dur-
ing which contractional tectonism was active. The contraction
is manifested by high- and low-angle reverse faults, which had
only modest transcurrent components of motion (Camus,
2003; Skarmeta, 2oo3a, b; McClay, 2004). Although the faults
were crucial to the location and geometry of some deposits
(e.g. , Chuquicamata), they are not considered to have been a
basic prerequisite for porphyry Cu formation. Rather, ex-
treme upper crustal shortening and thickening accommo-
dated by these regional fault systems, and the consequent
rapid surface uplift and exhumation (e.g., Maksaev and Zen-
tilli , 1988, 1999; Maksaev, 1990, Skewes and Holmgren, 1993;
Skewes and Stern, 1994; Perell6 et aI., 1996; Kurtz et aI. ,
1997; Kay and Mpodozis, 2001), are considered as the funda-
mental controls on the genesis of giant porphyry Cu deposits
(cf., Sillitoe, 1998). Nevertheless, contractional events result-
ing in lesser amounts of crustal thickening (say, to 40 km),
such as that which produced the early Late Cretaceous inver-
sion of the Mesozoic backarc basins (Mpodozis and Ramos,
1990; see above), appear to be metallogenically rather infer-
tile. Severe contractional conditions can impede magma vent-
ing and thus favor efficient magma storage in large, confined,
shallow-level chambers, from which unusually voluminous
amounts of magmatic fluid are eventually released for por-
phyry Cu formation (Sillitoe, 1998; Perell6 et aI ., 2oo3a; Stem
and Skewes, 2003; Fig. 15). Decompression, linked to rapid
exhumation, may contribute to the fluid release (Sillitoe,
1998). The giant depoSits appear to be confined to magmatic
fronts rather than to backarc regions, because that is where
both Andean magmatism and deformation are focused.
IsotopiC data, summarized by Maksaev (1990), Sillitoe
(1990), and Camus (2003), show that the ore-related magmas
a
b
c
Active vOlcanlam .........
Manto-type Cu depoaI1
Smo'_Co_
in volcanic sequence
Small porphyry Cu deposit
?
l.a<ge """""'" Co_
atop large parental dlamber
ubducted crustal sliver
Flc. 15. Cartoon tectonomagmatic sections of the centraJ Andean margin
of northern and central Chile, shOwing selected features relevant to Cu belt
fonnation. a. Exte nsionaJ to transtensionaJ arc (e.g., Middle JurasSic-Early
Cretaceous belt), characterized by abundant andesitic to basaltic volcanism
and intra- and backarc marine basins. developed over thin crust during steep
subduction. Iron oxide-Cu-Au and manto-type Cu deposits predominate
over the small porphyry Cu deposits. b. Neutral to mildlyertensionaJ mag-
matic arc (e.g., PaJeocene--early Eocene belt), characterized by abundant in-
tennediate-compositi on volcanism, developed over fairly thin crust during
relatively steep subduction. Porphyry Cu deposits are relatively small and low
grade. c. ContractionaJ magmatic arc (e.g., middle Eocene-early Oligocene
and Miocene-early Pliocene belts) without Significant volcanism developed
over a thickening crust during low-angle subduction. Porphyry Cli depoSits
include giant. high-grade examples. Note active subduction erosiOIl . Inspired
by Skewes and Stem (1994), Sillitoe (1998), and Ramos (2000).
are of unexceptional oxidized, calc-alkaline composition and
dominantly mantle parentage (see above), albeit with volu-
metrically restricted contributions from the lower crust and
subducted slab. The elevated LalYb ratios (>20; see above) of
ore-related magmatic rocks in the (.'Ontractional arc segments
may be products of basalt-induced partial melting at the base
of thickened lower crust, or alternatively, of partial melting of
the mantle wedge contaminated by crustal material tectoni-
cally eroded from beneath the forearc (e.g., Cornejo et aI.,
1997; Kay et al. . 1999; Haschke et al. , 2002; Stem and
Skewes, 2003; Kayet aI. , 2005; Fig. 150). The adakite-Iike sig-
nature (steep REE patterns, heavy REE depletion, and high
876 SILL/TOE AND PERELLO
Sr and Na contents) emphasized recently for intrusions host-
ing giant porphyry Cu deposits in nortllern and central ChUe
(e.g., Oyarzun et al., 2001; Haschke et al., 2002; Kay, 2003),
may be an additional indicator of magma genesis during
crustal tluckening and/or subduction erosion (Kay, 2003; Kay
et al., 2005), although Stem and Skewes (2003) attributed it
to crystal-liquid fractionation and lIuid transfer processes in
upper-crustal magma chambers. Volumetrically minor basaltic
lava broadly synchronous with Cu mineralization is recog-
nized in the contractional arcs (Mpodozis et al., 1993a; Noble
and McKee, 1999; Skewes et al., 2002), suggesting that rela-
tively primitive mafic magma was able to penetrate the thick-
ened crust locally.
The contractional events coincident with Cenozoic por-
phyry Cu formation, in southern Peru and nortllern and cen-
tral Chile, are inferred to be responses to lIattening of sub-
ducted slabs, leading eventually to cessation of magmatism
and eastward arc migrations (Skewes and Stem, 1994; Sande-
man et al., 1995; Kay et al., 1999; Haschke et al. , 2002;
Mpodozis and Pere1l6, 2003; Pere1l6 et al., 2003a), in combi-
nation with subduction erosion of the forearc (Stem, 1991;
Kay et al., 2005; Fig. 15c). In the case of the middle Eocene
to early Oligocene belt, the slab lIattening may be linked to
accelerated convergence rates between the Farallon and
South America plates (Pardo Casas and Molnar, 1987). In
central Chile, in contrast, slab lIattening has been related di-
rectly to progressive oblique subduction of the Juan Fernan-
dez aseismic ridge (e.g., PUger, 1981; Yanez et al., 2001), in
part based on an inferred southward-younging of the Cu de-
posits (Skewes and Stem, 1994, 1995; Kay et al., 1999; Kay
and Mpodozis, 2001). We note, however, that there is a lack
of systematic longitudinal changes in age of the Cu deposits
within each of the three Cenozoic belts (Figs. 6, 7, 10), sug-
gesting that the slab lIattening and contraction were essen-
tially synchronous along their fulllengtllS during metallogenie
epochs. Therefore, although ridge subduction may have
played a role in slab lIattening, it would appear to have no di-
rect relationship with Cu deposit generation in central Chile
and contiguous Argentina.
The Quechua II and III contractional phases of northern
and central Peru may have been a consequence of slab lIat-
tening caused by collision of buoyant oceanic features , in-
cluding the Inca Plateau at -12 Ma (Gutscher et al. , 1999)
and the aseismic Nazca Ridge at -7 to 5 Ma (Machare and
Ortlieb, 1992; JaUlard et al. , 2000). Notwithstanding forma-
tion during the Quechuan orogeny, the Miocene to early
Pliocene Cu belt in northern and central Peru contains por-
phyry Cu depOSits of only moderate size and grade, although
the Antamina porphyry-related skarn, formed during uplift
(Love et al., 2003), does attain giant status. The intermediate-
size, but relatively high grade, hypogene porphyry CuoMo de-
posits in the inland Middle to Late Jurassic belt of southern
Colombia and southern Ecuador formed in an uncertain tec-
tonic setting, which may have either just preceded or over-
lapped the regional contraction induced by latest jurassic col-
lision of an exotic terrane at the continental margin (Aspden
and Litherland, 1992). The telescoping of the broadly con-
temporaneous Zamora batholith and porphyry Cu stocks in
the Pangui trend of southern Ecuador may be taken to favor
the latter possibility.
Although most major Cu depoSits in the Andes formed dur-
ing contractional tectonic regimes, those of middle to late
Mesozoic age in southern Peru and northern Chile and Pale-
ocene to early Eocene age in northern Chile were developed
during periods of regional extension (Fig. 15a, b). The por-
phyry Cu deposits in these belts are characterized by low hy-
pogene Cu contents 0.4%) and typically small size 250
Mt), although Spence is exceptionally large. Furthermore,
there is a strong suggestion tllat ti,e porphyry Cu-Au deposits
and prospects were generated where coeval volcanism was ac-
tive, implying that tectonic conditions were either extensional
or, at most, moderately contractional (e.g., Maricunga-El
Indio sub-belt and Farall6n Negro district; Fig. 10; see
above), Crustal thinning during extension favored extensive
volcanism and prevented formation of the large, shallow
magma chambers and voluminous derivative lIuids thought to
be the fundamental requirement for the genesis of giant por-
phyry CuoMo deposits (Fig. 15).
The middle to late Mesowic extensional belt in southern
Peru and northern Chile is also the site of Fe oxide-Cu-Au
and manto-type Cu deposits (Fig. 15a), both of which are
conspicuously absent in much of the Andes, particularly in
the Cenowic contractional metallogenie belts (Sillitoe, 2003).
It would appear tllat the attenuated crust and consequent
high heat-llow regime in the Middle to Late JurasSiC and
Early Cretaceous arcs were especially propitious for Fe oxide-
Cu-Au and manto-type Cu formation, with at least the former
deposit type being closely linked to the mafic plutonism that
was Widespread under these tectonic conditions. However, a
fuller understanding of why extension favors the formation of
Fe oxide-Cu-Au and manto-type Cu deposits awaits resolu-
tion of the genetic debate. The Mesozoic metallogeny of
northern and central Peru is also typified by VMS deposits,
which worldwide are favored by submarine extensional set-
tings (e.g., Lentz, 1998; Sillitoe, 1999).
The Cenozoic evolution of the southern Andes, south of ap-
prOximately latitude 36" S, is also mainly extensional in char-
acter (Ramos, 2000). Hence, as with the middle to late Meso-
zoic coastal belt in the central Andes, the crust remained thin
and volcanism was Widespread, pOlticularly from the Eocene
through Neogene. These characteristics, combined with ex-
ceSSively deep erosion levels SOUtll of latitude 43" S, lead to
only vestigial development of porphyry Cu deposits
(Mpodozis and Perell6, 2003).
Supergene modification
The overriding controls on the fonnation of supergene pro-
files in Andean Cu deposits are uplift and erosion rates, and
hence climate, since at least 42 Ma (e. g., Alpers and Brimhall,
1988; Sillitoe, 2005). Cenozoic uplift may be a control of cen-
tral Andean paleoclimate (see above) but the opposite may
also be true, with aridity actually being instrumental in the
rise of the central Andes. Lamb and Davis (2003) suggested
that climate-controlled sediment starvation of the Peru-ChUe
trench deprived the subduction interface of its lubrication
and, in conjunction with tectonic erosion of the forearc, in-
creased shear stresses to the levels needed to raise and sup-
port the high Andes.
Supergene profiles in the more plUvial nortllern and south-
ern Andes, where erosion rates are high, are typically stunted
ANDEAN ell PROVINCE
i!77
compared to those in the arid central Andes. In the central
Andes, however, the difTerential Cenozoic uplift of tectonic
blocks described above also exerts a powerful influence on su-
pergene oxidation and enrichment. Where tectonic uplift
rates are excessive, erosion tends to outpace supergene
processes (e.g., Famatina in the Miocene-early Pliocene belt
of northwestern Argentina; Fig. 10), whereas relatively low
uplift rates result in restricted supergene development (e.g.,
Bajo de la Alumbrera in the same belt ). Maintenance of a bal-
ance between rates of denudation and supergene processes
under appropriate uplift mnditions results in optimal super-
gene profile development, as in much of the middle Eocene
to early Oligocene belt of northern Chile, where exhumation
rates during early Miocene supergene activity approximated
50 m/ m.y. (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1999). Development of the
immature PHo-Pleistocene enrichment in the central Chile
sub-belt took place during less violent uplift and exhumation
than accompanied deposit emplacement.
Exploration and Discovery
Exploration targets and methodologies
The first wave of Cu exploration in the central Andes, dur-
ing the first half of the twentieth century, chiefly involved ap-
praisal of known Cu occurrences, many of them sites of small-
scale mining of high-grade, oxidized Cu are. Cuajone,
Toquepala, Chuquicamata, Potrerillos, Rio Blanco-Los
Bronces, and EI Teniente are major porphyry CuoMo de-
posits that were first recognized in this way (e.g., Richard and
Courtright, 1958; Lacy, 1991; Camus, 2003). Other known Cu
prospects that were preliminarily explored at the time but did
not attain deposit status until the 1960s or 1970s, include the
Antamina and Tintaya Cu skarns; Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa, EI
Abra, Andacollo, and Los Pelambres porphyry Cu deposits;
Mantos Blancos manto-type Cu deposit; and Mantoverde Fe
oxide Cu-Au deposit (Concha and Valle, 1999; O'Connor,
1999; Ambrus, 1977; Llaumett et aI., 1975; Sillitoe, 1973b;
Ramirez, 1996; Vila et al., 1996). Copper exploration in the
northern and southern Andes before 1950 was minimal.
From the 1950s onward, numerous efforts were made in
arid parts of the central Andes to identify previously unrecog-
nized c'Olor anomalies, which might represent leached cap-
pings, using aerial photography, fIXed-wing overflights and,
since the early 1980s, false-color satellite imagery. The
leached capping at Quebrada Blanca was inspected in 1957
during ground follow-up of one of the first color aerial photo-
graphic surveys conducted in the world for the purpose of
porphyry Cu exploration (Hunt et al., 1983). The leached
capping above the Escondida porphyry CuoMo deposit was
claimed in the early 1960s, after identification from the air,
but was not seriously tested for nearly two decades (Sillitoe,
1995b). Overflights conducted in 1980 and 1981 to target al-
teration wnes of epithermal affiliation in the high Andes of
northern Chile and northwestern Argentina paved the way
for discovery of the Cerro Casale porphyry Cu-Au deposit
(Vila and Sillitoe, 1991).
Detailed geologic mapping was the main tool used to ex-
plore a number of well-exposed leached cappings in the
1950s and 1960s, with discovery of the El Salvador and Cerro
Colorado porphyry CuoMo deposits and Michiquillay and
Quellaveco prospects (e.g., Swayne and Trask, I \)f,(); Ilolllsll'[
and Sirvas, 1974; Hart, 1991). Some of the earli esl illlluc...,d.
polarization (IP) geophysical surveys were also applied 10 por.
phyry Cu exploration during this period, and successfully otll
lined the Cerro Verde-Santa Rosa, Cuajone, and Quclluvec<I
porphyry CUoMo depoSits (Lacy, 1991; Arc", J999). In II."
late 1960s and early 1970s, additional porphyry deposits. in
particular EI Abra, Bajo de la Alumbrera, and Los Pelamhr"s.
were discovered by drilling geolOgically and geochemically
defined targets within previously known altered and leached
zones. Prospect-specific ex-ploration, reliant upon compre-
hensive geolOgiC and geochemical studies, was recommenced
in northern Chile during the late 1970s. The leached capping
identified at Quebrada Blanca 20 years earlier, using aerial
photography, was subjected to detailed geolOgiC, alteration,
leached-capping, and geochemical appraisal and drill tested
in 1976 to 1977 to discover a supergene-enriched porphyry
CuoMo deposit (Hunt et al. , 1983). The nearby Collahuasi
prospect, the site of Chile's largest vein-type Cu mining oper-
ation at the beginning of the twentieth century and recog-
nized for its porphyry potential since the 1950s, was subjected
to similar geolOgiC study and drill tested in 1978 and 1979 to
discover the Rosario porphyry CuoMo deposit (Hunt, 1985).
During the 1970s, in the pluvial, jungle-covered northern
Andes, reconnaissance drainage geochemistry was lvidely
conducted and proved a very successful tool for porphyry
Cu recognition. Regional surveys detected the Pantanos-
Pegadorcito and Mocoa prospects in Colombia (Ramfrez et
al., 1979; Sillitoe et al. , 1984), the Chaucha prospect in south-
ern Ecuador (Fozzard, 1991), and the La Granja, Caiiariac'O,
and other prospects in northern Peru, in addition to a PbZn-
Ag anomaly that was shown subsequently to be derived from
ti,e Yanacoeha high-sulfidation Au deposit (Baldock, 1977;
Cobbing et al., 1981). More recent, but similar, drainage geo-
chemical surveys during ti,e 1990s led to discovery of the
Pangui porphyry Cu trend of southern Ecuador (Gendall et
aI. , 2000) and the Rio Blanm and Minas Conga prospects in
contiguous Peru (Braun et aI., 1999; Llosa et al., 1999).
Systematic regional exploration programs in the Chilean
porphyry Cu belt, as broadly defined at that time (Ruiz et ,J.,
1965), were initiated at the end of the 1970s but did not be-
come commonplace in southern Peru until the 1990s because
of serious SOCiopolitical impediments during the preceding
two decades. The first carefully conceived regiomJ e,,,lo-
ration program for supergene-enriched porphyry Cu deposits
beneath gravel and/or volcanic cover was initiated in )979 and
resulted in discovery of the (partly outcropping) Esmndida
and Escondida Norte-Zaldivar porphyry CuMo deposits two
years later (Lowell , 1991; Ortiz, 1995).
Porphyry Cu exploration, espeCially in nurthern Chile, be-
came highly c'Ompetitive during the J980s and 1990s, and re-
mains so today, with oxidized and/or enriched zones con-
cealed beneath gravel or volcanic cover being the prime
objective. Exploration e/1tlrts are usually tightly focused on
the Paleocene to early Eocene and/or middle Eocene to early
Oligocene porphyry ClI belts defined by Sillitoe (1981, 1988).
Three direct exploration approaches, used separately or in
various combinations, have been adopted: (1) careful geolOgiC
and geochemical apprai"J of exposed bedrock peripheral to
covered areas in search of distal porphyry Cu features (e.g.,
878 SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
alteration along faults, propybtic alteration halos, peripheral
veins, or geochemical anomalies), which is essentially the
basic premise of the program that resulted in the Escondida
discovery (Lowell , 1991); (2) geochemical surveys, using par-
tial-extraction analytical techniques, conducted over covered
areas with the aim of detecting subtle, low-order, multiele-
ment anomali es derived from buried porphyry Cu centers
(e.g., Cameron et al. , 2002; Kelley et aI. , 2003); and (3)
ground or airborne geophysical surveys designed to target sul-
fide concentrations beneath covered areas. The geophysical
methods tl13t have been tried include ground magnetics, IP,
electromagnetics, controlled-source audio magnetotellurics,
and audio magnetotellurics; and airborne magnetics, electro-
magnetics, and gravity gradiometry. Some explorers have
used faults, transverse lineaments, and/or structural intersec-
tions interpreted from geolOgiC maps and satellite imagery as
targeting guides. Nevertheless, all modem explorationists
used satellite imagery as a field aid to location and geolOgiC
interpretation. A radically different exploration approach,
adopted by a single company in 1993, involved pattern
drilbng of available covered areas, hundreds of square kilo-
meters in size, in the Paleocene to early Eocene belt of north-
ern Chile. The program, now discontinued, resulted in dis-
covery of the concealed Spence deposit (Sillitoe, 2ooob). The
only other belt that has been seriously investigated for its por-
phyry Cu potential over the last two decades is the Miocene
to early Pbocene belt in central Chile and adjoining Ar-
gentina, where at least partly outcropping alteration zones
and hypogene mineralization continue to be the main focus.
Several already-known porphyry Cu prospects in the north-
ern and central Peru part of this belt underwent renewed ex-
ploration, including drilling, but without demonstration of
economic viability.
Iron oxide-eu-Au mineralization is the only other deposit
type that has seen intense regional exploration effort in the
Andes, \vith the first programs being organized shortly after
discovery of the Candelaria deposit in 1986. The programs,
which focused on the Early Cretaceous part of the coastal belt
in northern Chile and, subsequently, southern Peru, em-
ployed electrical geophysical metl,ods andlor magnetometry,
because of the intense IP and magnetic responses associated
witl, the concealed Candelaria deposit and its immediate en-
virons (Ryan et al., 1995). More recently, airborne gravity gra-
diometry has been tested. Integrated approaches have been
less commonly adopted, although discovery of the only signi f-
icant Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposit in the central Andes since Can-
delaria, at Mina Justa (Marcona district) in southern Peru
(Fig. 4b, Table 1), resulted from drill testing geochemical and
IP chargeability anomalies in the vicinity of small , abandoned
oxide Cu workings (Moody et aI. , 2003). Formalized search
for manto-type and VMS Cu minerilization in the middle to
late Mesozoic belt of Chile and Peru, respectively, has been
mainly confined to the vicinities of known districts.
Recent discovert} case histories-(I sfJnthesis
Case histories of probably the 23 most important Cu dis-
coveries in the Andes during the last 30 years (Fig. 16a), since
formal exploration programs were widely implemented, re-
veal a clear pattern and emphasize the superiority of certain
exploration methods over others, as compiled and analyzed by
Sillitoe (1995b, 2ooob). More than 80 percent of the discover-
ies are porphyry Cu-Mo and Cu-Au deposits, with the re-
mainder being of exotic oxide Cu or Fe oxide-Cu-Au types
(Fig. 16b). Fifteen, more than two-thirds, are located in the
middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt , four in the Miocene to
early Pliocene belt, three in the Mesozoic belts, and one in the
Paleocene to early Eocene belt (Fig. 16c). All but San Carlos,
Mirador, and other deposits in the Pangui trend, southern
Ecuador and Rio Blanco in contiguous Peru (Figs. 2, 4, 10),
are in the arid, bttle vegetated parts of the central Andes.
GeolOgiC work, mainly involving standard recording and in-
terpretation of geologic, alteration, and leached-capping fea-
tures in outcrop, was directly responsible for siting discovery
drill holes at 19 of the 23 deposits (Fig. 16d). In the case of
Damiana. however, the geolOgiC work was conceptual in na-
ture and led to prediction of the existence of the exotic oxide
Cu mineralization using a genetically based deposit model
(Sillitoe, 1995b). In 11 of these 23 discoveties, conventional
rock-chip, soil, andlor talus geochemistry, with analysiS for
Cu, Mo Au, was closely integrated wi th the geolOgiC work
and a crucial component of the case histOlY (Fig. l6d). More-
over, at San Carlos, Mirador, and other prospects in the Pan-
gui trend, and at Rio Blanco and Minas Conga, follow-up of
c1earcut drainage Cu geochemical anomilies (5->10 times re-
gional background) resulted in initial target identification
(Braun et al. , 1999; Llosa et al., 1999; Gendall et aI. , 2000).
Three of the discovery sites were first inspected because of vi-
sually distinctive color anomalies caused by leached cappings,
two of them identified from the air and one using specially
fl own color aerial photography (see above). Vse of satellite
imagery and airborne scanners have not led directly to dis-
covery in the Andes, perhaps surprisingly in view of their ap-
parent efficacy, although Dick et aI. (1993) did emphasize the
role of the fonner in delimitation of the mineralized systems
in the ColiallUasi district. Two of the discoveries, the Cande-
laria Fe oxide-Cu-Au and Antapaccay porphyry Cu-Au de-
posits, were made serendipitously during exploration for ex-
tensions to small skarn Cu prospects (Fig. 16d), whereas
initial evidence for Cu mineralization at MM came from a
condemnation drill hole. Spence, the Outcome of a regional
program to test covered areas (see above), and Quetena, dis-
covered during step-out drilling near the already known Toki
and Genoveva deposits (Rivera et aI., 2oo3b), are two exam-
ples of exploration success resulting from pattern drilling.
Ten of the discoveri es are entirely concealed below un min-
eraJizecl cover rocks, which are here taken to exclude leached
capping, and eight of the 14 discoveries made during the last
13 years are totally bl ind (Fig. 16e). The unmineralized cover
rocks are mainly gravel sequences, but pastore ignimbrite
predominates over gravel at Vjina (Dick et al. , 1993) and a
preore carbonate sequence caps Candelaria (Ryan et al.,
1995). Categorization of the discoveries, in a similar manner
to that proposed by Miller (1976; cf. Sillitoe, 1995b), reveals
that seven of the 13 outcropping deposits are located in old
mining districts or near known e u occurrences , six are in vir-
gin areas distant from known mineralization, and none is
close to an operating mine (Fig. 16e). In the case of the con-
cealed deposits, five were found near operating mines, four in
old mining districts or near known Cu mineralization, and
only one in a virgin area (Fig. 16e).
MIDEAN Cli PROVINCE 879
e
d
1975
c
1975
b


r.oJ
U

D
..
OUTCROPPING DEPOSIT
Near operating mine
In old mining districV
near knoVv11 mineralization
In virgin area
1980 1985
Geologic work
Geologic work and
geochemistry
1985
Paleocene-early Eocene belt
Mesozoic belt
1990
Near operating mine
In old mining districV
near known mineralization
In virgin area
2000
Geologic work and
geophysics
Drilling
Serendipity
1990 1995 2000
Miocene-early Pliocene belt
II Middle Eocene-early Oligocene belt
II Porphyry Cu-Mo Porphyry Cu-Au
D ExoticCu Fe oxide-Cu-Au
16
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
DISCOVERY YEAR 1975-2004
1 Quebrada Blanca
2 Rosario
3 Escondida
4 Escondida Norte-Zaldivar
5 Candelaria
6 Cerro Casale
7MM
8 EITesoro
9 Ujina
10Damlana
11 La Fortuna
12 Agua Rica
13 Minas Conga
14 Spence
15 Gaby
16 Rro Blanco
17 San Carlos
18 Antapaccay
19 Los Chancas
20 Esperanza
21 Tokl
22 Mina Justa
23 Quetena
Flc. 16. Histograms summarizing type, location, and discovery methods of Andean eu deposits during the last 28 years.
a. Deposit names and discovery year. b. Deposit types. c. Host metallogenic belts. d. Principal discovery methods. c. Loca-
tions of outcropping versus concealed deposit discoveries. Taken in part from Sillitoe (l995b, 2000b).
Although expenditure on partial-extraction geochemical
techniques and ground and airborne geophYSics has been ap-
preciable over the last ten years or so, particularly in the
search for blind deposits, these methods made no contribu-
tion to the decisions to drill; however, at both Mina Justa and
Esperanza, ground geophysics influenced the siting of the
discovery holes (Moody et al. , 2003; Pere1l6 et al ., 2004a).
Nevertheless, an airborne magnetic low, judged to be similar
to those that encompass several major porphyry Cu districts
in northern Chile (Behn et ai. , 2001), contributed to selection
of the Gaby area for detailed geologie work, albeit as only a
third-priori ty target (Siliitoe, 2ooob; Camus, 2003). The hy-
perarid climate and deep saline ground-water conditions over
much of northern Chile and southernmost Peru Oat 18"-26
880 SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
S), at least below about 3,500 m in elevation, militate agai nst
the use of electrical geophysical methods, which historical ly
have had a poor record throughout this region. Geophysics
proved more valuable in the postdiscovery delineation of de-
posits: airborne electromagnetic conductivi ty and magnetics
at San Carlos and nearby prospects (Gendall et al ., 2000), IP
chargeability and magnetics at Minas Conga (Uosa et al. ,
1999), electromagnetic conductivity at Mina Justa (Moody et
al., 2003), IP resistivity and chargeability at Vjina (Dick et al .,
1993), and magnetics at Esperanza (Pere1l6 et al ., 2oo4a).
Future exploration. strategies
Bearing in mind Andean Cu metallogeny, the variety of ex-
ploration approaches adopted previously, and the synthesis of
discove ry case histories presented above, an overall strategy
for Cu exploration becomes readily apparent. Clearly, por-
phyry Cu deposits should constitute the principal exploration
objective, \vith highest priority being asSigned to oxidized and
enriched zones in the premier middle Eocene to early
Oligocene belt of northern Chile and southern Peru. High-
grade hypogene deposits, perhaps upgraded by immature en-
richment, in the Miocene to early Pliocene belt, especially in
central Chile and contiguous Argentina, constitute a second-
priority target. On the basis of the recent history of Andean
discovery, the Paleocene to early Eocene belt is assigned
lower priority (Fig. 16c), and the late Paleozoic to early Meso-
zoic belt is discounted. Once the sociopolitical situation im-
proves in Colombia, the Paleocene to middle Eocene belt of
the Western Cordillera could also provide new discoveries, as
indeed could some other parts of the belts discussed above.
Porphyry Cu-Au deposits are not considered particularly
high-priority targets in the Andes because the known exam-
ples have either relatively low hypogene Cu tenors andior
small sizes, as refl ected by the fact that five of the six deposits
of this type included in Figure 16b are yet to be developed. A
case might also be made for undertaking Fe oxide-Cu-Au ex-
ploration in the middle to late Mesozoic belt of northern
Chile and southern Peru, although the apparently small to
moderate size of most deposits of this type known to date, in
common \vith Andean manto-type Cu and VMS depoSits,
makes them a somewhat unattractive target for major compa-
nies. In stark contrast to the northern and central parts, the
southern Andes (Fig. 1) are not recommended for porphyry
Cu exploration, although there may be potential for Fe oxide-
Cu-Au and manto-type Cu deposits in the southern continu-
ation of the middle to late Mesozoic belt as far south as lati-
tude 39" S.
The projected trend is to seareh for concealed porphyry Cu
deposits in northern Chile and southern Peru. The best
means of achi eving success is considered to be by extrapola-
tion of exposed, but typically subtle, geolOgiC and geochemi -
cal features beneath cover. However, direct geolOgiC dril ling
of the covered areas can also bring success, particularly when
conducted in the geolOgiC context of an already-known por-
phyry Cu cluster (e.g., Toki cluster; Rivera et aI. , 2oo3b). Lib-
eral use of cheap drilling technology as a means of better
understanding geolOgiC relationships has the added advan-
tage that it may also invite serendipity! It is particularly evi-
dent that exploration focused in the vicinities of known de-
pOSits or prospects, wi th the concept of a porphyry Cu (or
VMS) cl uster or alignment in mind, is a particularly effective
strategy. It is evident that search for concealed Cu deposits
beyond known districts or occurrences is a far more di ffi cult
undertaking (Fig. 16e), probably less likely to be rewarded
with success.
Notwithstanding the necessity of explOring beneath cover,
continued search for partially exposed porphyry Cu systems
should also be part of any comprehenSive exploration pro-
gram. Our recent experience in the Paleocene to early
Eocene and middle Eocene to early Oligocene belts of north-
ern Chile and, in particular. southern Peru strongly suggests
that outcropping porphyry CUoMo and Cu-Au centers remain
to be found there. These are likely to be prospects dominated
by pyrite-poor potassic alteration. which. upon exposure to
supe rgene weatheri ng, give rise to much less prominent sur-
face color anomalies or, in some cases, none at all The
Miocene to early Plioc'Cne belt may be considered even more
likely to possess currently unrecognized porphyry Cu centers
partially exposed at surface. as may the jungle-covered belts
in Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru.
Careful geolOgiC and conventional geochemical work. in-
cluding leached-capping interpretation (e.g .. Sillitoe. 2005)
and alteration mapping. is judged as ti,e best means of ap-
praising such outcropping prospects. Previous work by com-
petitor companies in no way downgrades the potential of
prospects; indeed the opposite may well be the case (Sillitoe.
1995b. 2oo0b). bearing in mind that 10 of ti,e 23 deposits an-
alyzed here were the subject of previous drilling campaigns
unrelated to the ones responSible for actual discovery. In view
of the proliferation of largely untested Cu shomngs through-
out much of the middle to late Mesozoic coastal belt. a geo-
lOgically based rather than geophYSical approach to Fe oxide-
Cu-Au exploration needs further e mphasiS, with special
attention being paid to modeling alteration systems and their
outcropping Cll mineralization, in a fashion similar to that ap-
plied to porphyry Cu prospects.
A different approach to Cu exploration in northern Peru,
l'cuador. and Colombia is dictated by the wetter climate and
consequent demonstrated effi cacy of conventional drainage
geochemistry. It might be remarked that drainage sampling is
a task for experienced geolOgists because of the high proba-
bility that any mineralization exposed in a particular drai nage
catchment will be directly identi fied. and even followed to
source. by means of float mapping before the stream-sedi-
ment analytical results become avai lable. Nevertheless. as in
the drier parts of the Andes. attention to old districts and
prospects and known Cu occurrences. as well as careful
prospect-scale geologie work. are li kely to be important for
success.
We argue that ground geophysics is normally best reserved
for speci fi c prospect- or district-scale investigations that are
undertaken once first-pass drilling information is available as
a control on interpretation and anomaly definition, irrespec-
tive of whether the area is exposed or concealed beneath
cover. Partial-extraction geoche mical techniques e mployed in
the central Andes have not lived up to initial claims by their
proponents and are not recommended as a routine compo-
nent of exploration in the region. Furthermore, given their
dismal track record to date and current budgetary rest rictions
in most exploration and mining companies. ai rborne geophysiCS
ANDEAN ell PROVINCE BBI
would appear difficult to justiry as a routine Cu exploration
technique, although airborne magnetics clearly assists re-
gional geologic mapping. The obvious exception to this state-
ment, however, would be exploration for VMS deposits in the
late Mesozoic belt of c-entral and northern Peru. Electromag-
netic andlor gravity techniques have demonstrated utility in
discovery of massive sulfide bodies, not only in the Tambo-
grande district (Tegart et al. , 2000) but worldwide.
The great challenge in the Andes, as elsewhere, is to obtain
an acceptable return on exploration investment, especially if
programs are focused on the most mahIre parts of the region,
in particular the Cu belts of northern Chile. Thi s reality be-
hooves Cu explorationists to optimize search strategies and
approaches and to ensure they are underpinned by state-of-
the-art geolOgiC concepts.
Conclusions
More than 95 percent of Andean Cu resources are present as
porphyry Cu and, generally minor, related skarn deposits. The
only other economically Significant Cu deposits are of Fe oxide-
Cu-Au and manto Cu types. VMS and red-bed Cu mineraliza-
tion is relatively minor and currently unworked. The largest
porphyry Cu deposits define three linear, age-restricted metal-
logeniC belts: the preeminent middle Eocene to early
Oligocene belt in southern Peru and, particularly, northern
Chile; ti,e Miocene to early Pliocene belt, particularly in cen-
tral Chile; and the Paleocene to early Eocene belt, especially in
soutllern Peru but also extending into northern Chile. Meso-
zoic and older porphyry Cu belts are of reduced importance.
Although all ti,e major Andean porphyry Cu deposits are Ter-
tiary, there is no clear spatial or temporal trend of increasing
size and grade of individual depoSits. Nevertheless, ti,e Cu
belts and their host magmatic arcs in ti,e central Andes, from
southern Peru to central Chile, young progressively eastward,
potentially in response to a longstanding series of subduction
erosion events at ti,e continental margin (Rutland, 1971;
Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Stem, 1991; Haschke et al. , 2002).
In the northern Andes, such systematic migration of ti,e Cu
belts is absent because of Mesozoic and Tertiary accretion of
oceanic terranes (Sillltoe et al. , 19B2). Witllin the individual Cu
belts, however, tI,ere is no evidence for any temporal migration
of deposits, \vitll entire belts apparently being Simultaneously
active throughout tI,eir 1,600- to 6,000-km lengths.
The three premier porphyry Cu belts in the Andes are be-
lieved to have formed during contractional tectonic events of
regional extent characterized by high- and low-angle reverse
faulting of both tI,ick- and thin-skinned types. The contrac-
tional pulses may be related to flattening of underthrust slabs,
at least in some cases involving the subduction of buoyant
oceanic features. The contraction induced crustal tI,ickening,
suppression of volcanism, surface uplift, and consequent ex-
humation. Magma trapped in large, shallow chambers, which
were favored by these tectonic conditions, is thought to have
supplied the voluminous fluids necessary for generation of
the giant porphyry Cu deposits. However, there is no con-
vincing linkage between subduction of oceanic features, such
as aseismic ridges, and speCific sites of giant Cu deposit for-
mation. It is concluded that the exceptional Cu endowment of
the central Andes is a direct result of the occurrence of tI,ese
three contractional magmatic arc segments.
There is no euncretc evidence that the e"ireme e u ton-
nages in giant hypogene porphyry depoSits are related to the
details of tl, eir internal anatomi es (Clark. 1993). Neverthe-
less, it is recogni zed that telcsmping induced hy rapid
synmineralization exhumation is commonly an il11/xH1ant con-
tributor to grade development as are certain wa I-rock ("'OITI-
positions (e.g., massive limestone at Antapaccu), and mafic in-
trusions at EI Teniente; Sillitoe, 2(04 ). Exceptional si'l.
cannot be conSistently related to unusual geologie features
(e.g. , Ossand6n et al. , 2001) or to superpositi on of discrete
magmatic-hydrotllermal systems (e.g., Reynolds et aI. , 1998;
Ballard et al. , 2001; Harris et aI., 2004). Copper grade and
mineability in nortllern Chile, however, have been pro!ounuly
influenced by supergene enhancement consequent upon tee
tonic uplift . NotWithstanding the overriding control by con-
tractional tectonism, there is no obviously unique structural
niche(s) that favor porphyry Cu localization. Nor is tI, ere a
consistent control apparent by transverse lineament intersec
tions \vitll ti,e contractional arcs, such as those proposed by
Richards et al. (2001).
Given that the three premier Cu belts span fundamentally
different geolOgiC terranes (e.g., Ramos, 2000) and are both
underlain and hosted by a variety of rock units, crustal influ-
ences on the provision of Cll are not evident. Similarly, in
view of the fact that Au-rich and -poor porphyry Cu deposits
are scattered throughout the Tertiary belts and locally occur
togetller \vithin individual deposit clusters, crustal influences
on Au concentration (e.g. , Camus, 2003; Leveille and
Williams, 2003) are also discounted. Instead, Cu, Mo, and Au
have been episodically introduced into ti,e upper crust for al-
most 300 m.y. from an ultimate source in eitller tlle mantle
wedge andlor subducted material (e.g., Sillltoe, 1972b;
Hedenquist and Richards, 199B), although it is accepted that
this process has no practical bearing on eitl,er the shaUow for-
mation or search for giant Cu deposits.
Appraisal of exploration strategies that have proved suc-
cessful in the Andes during the last 25 years or so predicts
that a geolOgically based approach, supplemented by stan-
dard geochemical methods and complemented by timely drill
testing, is likely to be the most cost-effective means of Cu de-
posit discovery, irrespective of whether the target is in out-
crop or under cover. Nevertheless, we feel that future explo-
ration endeavors would benefit from a greater input of
conceptual geology by leading to a more predictive approach
to ti,e search procedure. The empirical geologie facts and
four-dimensional relationships at regional, district, and de-
posit scales, as emphasized in this paper, are thought likely to
be the most useful exploration tools for future dismveries.
Acknowledgnlents
This article relies on our collective experi ence in Cli explo-
ration throughout the Andes during which we have had the
pleasure of working with numerous individuals from many
companies. They are all thanked anonymously for unselfishly
sharing information over the years, although none is held re-
sponsible for the views expressed. In particular, however, we
owe a particular debt of gratitude to Constantino Mpodozis
for improving our understanding of regional geolOgiC rela-
tionships. JI' also acknowledges Antofagasta Minerals for gen-
erous provision of some of the time required for preparation
882 SILL/TOE AND PERELL6
of this article. Hector Poblete and Claudio Montecinos are
thanked for preparation of the figures. Constantino
Mpodozis, Juan Carlos Taro, referees Francisco Camus and
Marcos Zentilli, and editors Rich Goldfarb and Jeff Heden-
quist reviewed the manuscript and made numerous valuable
suggestions for its improvement.
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