Physics Dictionary

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Philip Allan Updates
MarketPlace
Deddington
Oxfordshire
OXI50SE
Tel: 01869 338652
Fax: 01869337590
e-mail: sales@philipallan.co.uk
www.philipallan.co. uk
Philip AllanUpdates 2001
All rights reserved; nopartofthis publicationmaybe reproduced,
storedina retrievalsystem. ortransmitted, in any formorbyany
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording orotherwise
withouteitherthe prior writtenpermissionofPhilip AllanUpdates or
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bythe CopyrightLicensingAgencyLtd, 90 TottenhamCounRoad,

LondonWIP9HE.

ISBN 086003 377 5

Acknowledgement
Every efforthasbeenmadeto eliminateerrors andomissions inthe

text. To this end, Iwouldliketo thankDrChrisMeeforhis helpful

advice andfor his carefulreading ofthe manuscript.

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Printedby RaithbyLawrence& Co Ltd, Leicester
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Introduction
1
Ina dictionary of this size, itis notpossible toinclude all theterms you arelike!y
tomeetinyourstudyofAS orA-levelphysics. Instead, onlyimportanttermshave
beenincluded. This willhelpyou tolearnkeyfacts moreefficientlyand to acquire
abetterunderstandingofthe subject.
In thedictionary, eachtermis definedinup to fourparts:
(1) abriefdefinition
(2)furtherexplanationof the term
(3) anexample, whererelevant
(4)an examiner's tip, such as where the term is commonly misunderstood,
confusedwithanotherterm, usedinerrororfound inconjunction withother
terms.
In many cases, all four parts are not needed and the entry hasbeenmodified
accordingly.
For each termitmay be necessary to makea cross-reference to words shownin
italics in orderto understand fully the entry youare readfng. Cross-referencing
helps with understandingtheassociationbetweendifferentaspectsof thesubject.
To do wellinphysics, you needto appreciatetheselinks ratherthanlearna large
numberofisolatedideas.
Finally, appendicesA-Conpages 161-164provide tablesofimportantquantities,
symbolsandunits,formulaeandequations,as wellas physicalconstantsandother
useful data.
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AS/A-Level Physics

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absolute scale of temperature: see thermodynamic scale oj temperature.
absolute zero of temperature: the temperature at which any object has
1
I
l
,
I
f'
minimum internal energy; it is the zero of the thermodynamic scale oj
temperature.
.This temperatureis zero kelvin (0 K) or-273.15 degrees Celsius (QC). Foran
ideal gas, theenergyofits atomsis 2jero atabsolutezero.
T,fp In many calculations at AS/A-level, three significant figure accuracy is
ample and thus the conversion factor between kelvin and degrees Celsius is
f
r
.
takenas 273, rather than 273.15.
absorption coefficient: see attenuation.
f

Ii
i
(
t
i
absorption spectrum. line: thespectrumproducedwhenlightfrom ahotbody
passes througha coolergas; it appears as a series of separate dark lines on a
continuous spectrum.
Thespectrumshows the colours (wavelengths) of electromagneticradiation
absorbedbyatomsofcoolgaswhenelectronsintheseatomsmovefrom their
ground states to excited states. The Iint;s are theimages oftheslit atthefront of
the instrumentusedtosplit the lightinto its separatewavelengths. Whenan
electron in its ground state of energy E
1
absorbs a photonand moves to an
t
f:
excitedstateofenergyE
2
, thephotonabsorbedhasfrequencyJandwavelength

Agivenby
E
2
-E
1
= hJ= he/A
whereh is the Planck constant andcis thespeed of light.

ii"/"

?I-D- Absorption spectra maybe used to identify gases in the outerlayers of a

star.
T,''-' Note that only specific wavelengths are missing from an absorption
1m
spectrumbecauseanabsorbedphotonmusthavejusttherightenergytoexcite

the electronfrom its ground state to anexcitedstate. Photonsnothavingthis
correct energy will not be absorbed.
acceleration: the rate of changeof velocity with respect to time.
Instantaneousdeceleration =
AB
Calculation of acceleration from a velocity-time graph
For an object with a constantacceleration a, increasing its velocity from u to
vin time t gives
V-1I
a=--
t
\
\
or
v= u +at
This equation is one of the three equations of LlI1zjormly accelerated motion. A
negative acceleration implies thata body is slowing downin the direction in
which itis moving, andis referredtoasa deceleration ora retardation"
TIP Theequationv=11 +at appliesonlyto aconstantoruniformacceleration.
Remember thatan acceleration has a positive sign, while a deceleration or
retardation hasa negativesign.
acceleration of free fall: theacceleration of a body towards the surface ofthe
Earth whenthe only force acting onitis its weight.
:, Theacceleration offree fall (usualsymbolg) dependsonlocationontheEarth's
surface and also on altitude. For the purpose of calculations, the generally
accepted valueforg is 9"81 ms-z"
.TJP In an examination, you may be asked to describe a free-fall method for
the determination of g" Do not be tempted to describe a method using a
pendulumoraspring; thesemethodsdo notinvolvefree fall andwillscoreno
marks!

accuracy: the closeness of a reading onaninstrument to the true valueof the
quantity being measured"
Essential Word Dictionary
It is defined by the wordequation
changein velocity
1 __-'-- acce eratlon=
time taken
The SI unit of acceleration is metre persecond squared (mS-2). Since velocity
is a vector quantity, acceleration is also a vector. The magnitude ofanacceler-
ationis given by thegradient ofa velocity-timegraph"
VelOCity
Velocity
C
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I
I
----------
I
A B
Time
Constantacceleration= BC
P,
I ,
I ... "
I ""
1
I
I
I
1 ,
I "
I ,
Q- - - - - - - - - - - -
Time
"',..
.... '
AS;A-Level Physics
i
ij
r
'1
.- An accurateinstrumentWill-giver readings close to the true values",!""",
1
. TifP Do notconfuse accuracy withprecision. An instrument may
(give readingscloseto thetruevalues) butstillbe impreciseifitdoesL
if small scale divisions.
t
activity: whenreferringtoaradioactivesource, activityis the number ofnuel,
I
disintegrationsperunittime,
I
I
:: The Sl unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), where IBq is one disintegration
persecond: IBq = IS-I. Activit'y used to be measured in curies (ei), Where

ICi =3.7 x 10
1O
Bq.
j:,." .c_. TIP Activity should notbe confused withcountrate, Whereas activity is a
measureof rateofdisintegration, countrateis concernedwithrateofdetectioll
'-I, oLparticles or photons.
a-decay: see alpha decay.
adiabatic change: a change in the pressure, volume and temperature of a
system such that, during the change, no thermal energy enters or leaves
l thesystem.
Accordingtothefirst law ofthermodynamics, thismeansthatanyworkdoneby
thesystemis seenasareductioninitsinternalenergyorviceversa. Inpractice.
anychange thattakes place suddenlyis likely tobeadiabatic.
alpha decay: thespontaneousdecayofanucleuswiththeemission ofanalpha
particle.
J
:iJ Since analphaparticle is a helium ('iRe) nucleus, the decay of nucleusXto
nucleus Ymaybe representedby
---+- +We+energy
Frequently, someof theenergy released in the decay is seenas a gammaray
photon.
.;;TIP Rememberthatitis theparentnucleus thatis radioactive, notthealpha
particle.

alpha particle: aparticlethatmaybeemittedfrom a radioactivenudeus.
An alphaparticle (a-particle) contains two protons and two neutronsandis
thesameasaheliumnucleus ('iRe). Ithas achargeof+2eandmass4u.Alpha
particleshaveenergiesuptoseveralMeVandtravelatspeeds upto0.1cwhen
emitted from a nucleus but, owing to theircomparatively large charge and
mass, theyrapidlyloseenergy throughionisation andthushavelow penetration
in matter. The path length (penetration) of alpha particles in air is a lew
centimetres.Theyare stopped by a sheetofthick paper.
T!P Itis thesourceofalpha particlesthatis radioactive; notthealphaparticles
themselves.
alpha particle scattering experiment: the experimentcarried out by Geiger
andMarsdenunderthedirectionofRutherfordthatprovidedevidencefor the
existence, chargeandsmall size ofthe nucleus.
",ell 2
,[
:j.
- \
,
Essential Word Dictionary it
..
(
.
j
\
..
j
Evacuated
chamber
f
-i
,
:
Thin gold
fOil

1
,.
I
Angle of
a-particle deviation
Zinc sulphide 'l
source

screen and .
microscope

:p
..
:il
Theparallelbeamof alpha particles was incident ona thingold foil thatwas
e
onlyabout 100atomsthick.Thealphaparticlesweredeflecredbythefoil and
J
detectedas smallllashesoflight(scintillations) onazincsulphidescreenviewed

;'t
with a low-powermicroscope. Theapparatus was enclosed in an evacuated
J
vessel. Thefollowing observationsweremade:
f
'" the majority of alpha particles passed through the foil with little or no
f
deviation
..
Q a smallfraction (aboutIin 10
4
) ofthealphaparticlesweredeviatedthrough
:.I
anglesgreaterthan 90

The outcome of the experimentsverified Rutherford's nuclear model of the
atom. Namely:
i
I) the majority ofthe volume ofan atomis emptyspace (most alphaparticles
1
suffered smalldeviations)
" atthecemreoftheatomis a verysmall, butdense, chargedcore, called the
..1
nucleus (largedeviations of a small numberofalpha particles)
Subsequent experimentsshowed that the nucleus is positively charged. (See
.
I
also Ruthe7fordmodelof theatom; nucleus.)
alpha radiation: the outwardmovementof alpha particles from a radioactive
n..

';l
source.
The alpha particles carryenergyfrom the source and cause ionisation of the
medium throughwhich theytravel.
alternating current or voltage: term usually used in connection with the
mains supply restricted to a sinusoidal variation of current or voltage
withtime.
,- The v-alues of thecurrentI and the voltage Vat timetaregiven by

I = losin2nft= losinwt

V= Vosin21tft = Vosinwt

'-':;-

AS/A-Level Physics

where1
0
and V
o
are the peak ormaximumvaluesofthe currentandvoltage.
t1':
respectively, fis the frequency and w (= 2nf) is the angular frequency. TIlE
period Tof the currentorVOll.lge is equal to J If
ii;;' Remember that the equations could be given in terms of cosine, rather
thansine.The differencebetweenthetwu wouldbeconcerned with thephase.
ammeter: aninstrumentused to measureelectriccurrent.
Ammeters may be digital or analogue. The ammeter is placed in series with
the component through which the current is tobe measured, as in the first
diagrambelow (nolethecircuitsymbol loranammeter).Sensitiveammeters,
designed to measure currents of the order01 microamperes, are sometil11.es
calledgalvanometers.Thesymbolforacentre-readinggalvanometeris shown
in thesecond diagram.

I l
Ammeter connected to measure the current through R
----Iw)-----
Circuit symbol for a centre-reading galvanometer
amount of substance: the ralio of the numberof discrete particles (atoms or
molecules) of asubstance to [he numberof atomsin0.012 kg ofcarbon-12.
Amount oJ substance is measured in moles (mol). The number 01 discrete
particles (atoms or molecules) in one mole of substance is known as the
Avogadroconstant (symbol N'I or L)I The mole is oneofthebase quantities.
til
amp: see ampere.
ampere. A (also called 'amp:):the unitorelectriccurrentin the Slsystem ofunits.

It is one of the seven bose units and is defined in terms of the force between

f;',":'
,'1/

two long, straiglH, parallelwires. Inthediagrambelow, thecurrentill onewire
is situated in [he magneticfield p;oducedby the current inthe otherwire.

Hence, by the motoreffect, there is a force acting all each of the wires which
f,".'
:;:""
depends, in part, onthe size of thecurrentineachwire.

j
..
e::;

4
since thereare2n radin onerevolution.Also, from thedefinitionoftheradian,

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,
fSJii
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':'ill
i
ill
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arclength:radius xangle. Iftheobjectmovesthroughthearcin time6.[, then
dividing bothsides oftheequationby 6.[givesspeedalongarc= radiusx angular
speed, i.e,
v=" rw orw = vir
(See abocentripetalacceleration; cC11tripctalforce.)
T.iP The equationv:rw is importantas it links angularspeedwith thelinear
speed of an object moving ina circular arc 01 radius r,

angular velocity: theangularspeedinagivendirection, usuallyeitherclockwise
or anticlockwise; itis measuredin radianspersecond (rads-
I
).
d
AngulJr velocity is a vector quantity.
;;'.P Thetermangularvelocityis oftenusedwhen,strictlyspeaking,reference
shouldbe made to angularspeed.
antimatter: seeantiparticle.
antinode: a point on a stationary wave where the amplitude of vibration is
maximum.
The distance between two neighbouring antinodes is equal to one half
wavelength 01 the stationary wave.
antiparticle: eachnuclearparticle(proton, neutron, electron, etc.) appearstohave
anantiparticlewiththesame (e.g. mass) as thecorrespondingparticle
butwith the opposite charge.
Antiparticles are frequently createdwhen high-energyparticles are made to
collide with one another. Their lifetimes are short because, when they
encounter the equivalent particle, the particle and the antiparticle are
annihilated. Theirmassis seenas high-energygamma ray photons.
antiphase: twowaves oroscillationsarein antiphase whenthephase difference
between themis 180
0
orJt rad.
a-particle: see alpha particle.
apparent weight: the weightofan objectwhen it is weighed in a fluid.
According to Archimedes' principle, there is an upthrustacting on every object
immersed in a Iluid such that
apparentweight:weightina vacuum- upthrust
Foranobjectofvolume Vanddensityp, totallyimmersedina fluidofdensity
Po, the apparentweight ofthe objectis givenby
apparentweight= V(p - Po)g
wheregis the acceleration offree fall.
:"j" IfPPo, then the apparentweight is approximately equal totheactuJI
weight. This would be the Cilse, [orexampk, for a lumpof metal in air.
u-radiation: sec alpha r.zdiation.
Archimedes' principle: Archimedes' principle states that when an object is
totally orpartially immersedin afluid, itexperiencesInupwardforce (upthrust)
. ,
i
8
AS/A-Level Physics
equal to the weightoffluid displaced.
The upthrust results from the difference in jZuid pressure between the upper
and lowersurfaces of theobject.
D,:;:. Archimedes' principle is important whenconsidering apparentwei9hl,
flotation andMillikan'soildrop experiment,
;-i'if
C
' It is often [argot ten that air is a fluid and, as a result. whenanobject is
weighed in air, the measurementis notthe true weight. However, [or many
objectsthe upthrustis muchless thantheactualweig!:tandconsequentlythe
upthrust can be ignored. When'the upthrustis similar toorgreaterthanthe
actualweight. as in a hotair balloon, it cannotbe ignored.
astronomical unit, AU: theaveragedistancebetweentheEarthand thesun.-
approximately 1.5 x 1011 m.
Theastronomicalunitis aconvenientunitformeasuringdistances withinthe
solarsystem.Otherunitso[distanceusedinastrophysicsarethelight-yearand
theparsec.
atomic mass constant: see unifiedatomicmassconstant.
atomic mass unit: a unitofmassequaltoone-sixteenthofthemass ofanatom
ofoxygcn-16.
This unithas now beenreplaced by the um/iedatomicmass unit.
atomic number: see proton number,
attenuation: the reduction of the number of particles, or of the number of
photons, in a beamas a resultofthe beampassingthrougha materiaL
.' Fora parallelbeam01 initialintmsity[0' theintensity[afterpassing througha
thicknessxof materialis givenby
[ = [0e-P
wheref1 is a constant known as the attenuation coefficient or absorption
coefficientandismeasuredinm-
I
I
(theSIunit).Alternativeunitsarecm-
I
and
mm-
I
, etc. The equationis also applicable to, for example, theabsorptionof
betaparticlesorX-rayorgammarayphotons.Themagnitudeofthecoefficient
dependsontheabsorberandalso ontheenergyof theparticles orphotons
TIP Alow attenuationcoefl'icient corresponds to a bigb penetratingpower,
attenuation coefficient: see attenuation.
Avogadro constant: thenumberofatomsin0.012kg01 carbon-12; its symbol

is N
A
orL.
Since 0.01;2 kg of carbon-12 is one mole of substance, then the Avogadro
constantis thenumberof discreteparticles (atomsormolecules) in1mule of
anysubstance.The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 10
23
.


WireA WireS
Direction of
current

. t---
Directionof
-.... force
, Magnetic "
\ field due I
to wireA
Force betweentwowires
By definition, iftwo long straight parallel conductors of negligible cross-
sectional area are situated 1m apart in a vacuum, and if the force per unit
lengthactingoneachwire is 2 x 10-
7
Nm-
l
, thenthe currentin each wire is
1ampere.
TIP Someexaminationspecifications (syllabuses) donotrequire youto learn
this definition. However, you are expected to understand the basis of the
definition. Remember that electric currentis defined interms of the force
betweenparallel current-carrying conductors, notas rateofflow ofcharge.
TheequationL'.Q =1M is usedto define electriccharge.
amplitude: themaximumdisplacementofanoscillatingparticlefromits mean
position.
.':Amplitudeis ascalarquantityandis oneofthe definingquantities for simple
harmonic motionor for a wave. Fora particle undergoingsimple harmonic
motion, the amplitude ao may be shown ona displacement-timegraph. The
SI unitofamplitudeis the metre (m).
Displacement
aD
'\ / l' '\ /
oV ..." r ". r Time
aD
Amplitudeofan oscillation
. TiP Amplitude is the distance from a peak or from a trough to the mean
position; it is notthepeak-la-trough distance.
-'i

Ii
AS/A-Level Physics

angular displacement: the angle through which an object turns, usually
..
measuredinradians (rad).
Angulardisplacementis avectorquantityandso thedirectionofrotationmust

bestated.Theangulardisplacementinthediagramis 8radinananticlockwise

;,.(,'
direction.
<,H.
Final
" position
,
O'i9i'"
position
angular frequency: a measurement related to thefrequency of a sinusoidal
motion; itis measuredin radians persecond (rads-
I
).
:B Fora sinusoidalmotionoffrequencyf theangularfrequency wis givenby
w =2rtf
(See also simpleharmonic/11otion.)
I, TJP Do notbe tempted to use the S-I for angularfrequency. Frequency
is measuredinhertzorS-I.
angular speed: therate ofchangewithtimeoftheangulardirectionoftheline
joininganobjecttotheaxisaboutwhichitis rotating;it is measuredinradians
persecond (rads-
I
).
Original
position
Axis of _' \
rotation ' ,J

Final
:....:;J
position
. Ifthelinerotatesthroughangle MJ intimeM, theangularspeedw is,givenby
w=L'.8IM -
Foranobjectcompletingfrevolutionsperunittime, theangularspeedisgiven
by
w =2rtf
, i

'\$)l

Ii

f U ".
I::

..
Essential Ward Oictianary
background radiation: the radiation detected by a radiation counterwhenno
radioactive sourceis nearby.
'Background radiation detected in the laboratory is due mainly to cosmic
radiation and natural radioactive sources in the ground. When measuring
count-rate from a source, the background count-rate is deducted from the
measured count-rate in order to obtain a more reliable measurementof the
count-ratefrom the source (thecorrectedcountrate),
bar: a non-SIunit of pressure equalto0,1 MPa.
'Meteorologists frequently measure atmosphericpressure in millibars (mbar)
becausetheatmosphericpressure varies abouta value of 1000mbar.
baryon: aparticle composed oftriplets ofquarks.
.;In ASIA-level physics, thebest-knownbaryonsaretheproton andtheneutron.
Baryonstogetherwithmesons form thegroup of particles knownas hadrons.
base quantity: oneofthesevenphysicalquantitiesofthe51system bywhichall
otherphysical quantitiesare defined.
Thebasequantitiesare mass, length, time, temperature, amount ofsubstance, electric
current andluminousintensity. (Luminousintensityhasbeenincludedinthe
list for completeness; thequantityis notincludedinpresentASIA-levelspec-
ifications.) See base unit for the unitsof the base quantities.
base unit: oneof thesevenbaseunitsofthe51system, relatedtoabase quantity,
whose magnitude is defined withoutreferring to any otherunits (apart from
otherbase units).
Base quantity
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
Amount of substance
Electric current
Luminous intenSity
Base unit in SI system
Kilogram
Metre
Second
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela
Symbol
kg
m
s
K
mol
A
cd
AS/A-Level Physics
-::'S.

/l-decay: see beta decay.

becquerel. Bq: unit of measurement ofactivity of a radioactive Source where
I becquerelis equal to I disintegration persecond.
" T;P Activity in becquerel should notbe confused with countrateor wltLl
frequency, The becquerel is concerned with the rate of disintegration 01 a
source, whereas count rate measures the rate of detection of radiation by a
detectorandfrequency is the numberof oscillations madeperunit timeby a
vibratingbody:
.. activity - disintegrations persecond, unitbecquerel (Bq)
" count rate - COunts persecond, unitpersecond (S-I)
.. frequency - cycles persecond, i.rnit hertz (Hz) orpersecond (S-I)
1 beta decay: the spontaneous decay of a nucleus with the emission of a bela
particle.
i:i, Since a beta particle is an electron the decay ofnucleusXto nucleus Y
1... maybe representedby the nuclearequation
I',
.'.
1X -- + energy
r
Frequently, some of the energy releasedinthe decay is seenas a gammaray
photon.
,3 TiP It is theparentnucleus thatis radioactive, notthe beta particle.
beta particle: aparticle whichmaybe emittedfrom a radioactivenucleus,
.j Abeta particle (B-particle) is a high-speed electron, travellingatspeedsofup
to 0.99c. On passing through matter, beta particleslose energy by ionisCIliol1,
The pathlength (penetration) ofbetaparticlesis severalmetresofairorafew
millimetres ofaluminium. Abeta particle does notexistas asepara teparticle
withinthenucleus.Intheprocessofradioactivedecayofanucleus, aneutron
becomesaprotonandanelectron.Theprotonremains inthenucleusandtb.e
electronis ejectedas abeta particle.
beta radiation: theoutwardmovementofbeta particles from aradioactivesource,
The beta particles carry energy from the source and cause ionisation of the
mediumthroughwhichthey travel.
bifilar suspension: a uniformbeam, suspendedhorizontallyby two threadsof
equallength,
-....
d Supporting
horizontal
.
-
,
Axis for
oscillations
,
,
I
,

beam
L
/
11
W
'I"

The beamis madeto oscillateaboutaverticalaxisthroughits centre.Theperiod
T of small oscillations about the central axis.is related tQ the length L of the
threads and theirseparationd by the expression
Td C/ vL
77F Although the theory of the bifilar suspension is not in the ASI A-level
specification (syllabus),itdoesprovidea usefulmeansofassessmentofexperi-
mental techniques.
binding energy, nuclear: the work that wouldhave to be done to separate a
nucleusintoits constituentprolons and neutrons.
It may also be definedas the energy released if a nucleus is formed from its
constituentprotonsandneutrons.This bindingenergyis seenas amassdefect.
Thatis, themassofthenucleusis less thanthemassoftheconstituentparticles.
(See also I"zuclear fission; nuclearfusion; binding energypernucleon.)
. niP Bindingenergiesarefrequently quotedinMeV. where
IMeV =I million electronvolts =1.6 x IO-
13
J.
binding energy per nucleon: the bindingenergy ofa nucleus divided by the
numberof nucleons in thenucleus.
Binding energy
per nucleonl 91
MeV

7
6
5
4
3
2
o I i I I
100 50 o 150 200 250
Nucleon number
Variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number
.Since binding energy is energy released onformation of a nucleus, it follows
thatgreaterbindingenergypernucleonleadstogreaternuclearstability. light
nucleicanrelease energyduringnuclearfusion and heavynucleireleaseenergy
during mtclearfission. The peak ofthe graph, Le. the greateststability, is near
iron-56.

AS/A-Level Physics
_.
blue shift: see Dopplershift,

boiling: the process whereby molecules 01 a substance in its liqUid state enter
B
the vapourstate.
Boiling occurs in the body of a liquid and at one temperature- the boiling
point of the liquid. The boiling point is dependent on the external pressure
actingon theliquid. Boiling occurswhen thesaturatedvapourpressureis equol
tI
to the external pressure, In the process of boiling, bonds between molecules

;"'li"i!
arebrokenandexternal workis donebecausethevolumeofavapouris greater
thanthevolumeofthecorrespondingliquid.TIllS requiresenergy.To maintain
a constanttemperature, thermalenergymustbesupplied to the liquid- this
is thelatentheatofvaporisation (see specificlatentheat).
"np Note thatthelatentheatis referred to as 'latentheatofvaporisation'but
boiling occurs underdifferent circumstancesfrom those for evaporation.
Boltzmann constant: theratio ofthemolargasconstantRtotheAvogadroconstant
N
A
:
k = RIN
A
= 1.38 x IO-
23
JK-I
The constantk relates the mean kinetic energy of a molecule of mass m of an
idealgas to its temperature Tonthethermodynamicscale oftemperature: 11,,""
I
meankineticenergy= +m<c
2
>= _ c..
Thequantity<c
2
> is known as themeansquarespeed ofthe molecules.
Boyle's law: thepressureof afixed mass ofgas atconstant volumeis inversely
proportionalto its volume.
'. Fora mass of gas havingpressurePI at volume VI and pressure1'2 at volume
V
2
, thetemperature remainingcons\ant, andsince
pIX IIVandpV=constant
we can say that
PI VI =P2V2 =constant
Thelawwasdiscoveredby experimentandappliesto all gasesas longas they
areatasufficientlyhigh temperature- thetemperaturebeingdependenton
thegas itself. Boyle'slawappliestooxygenandnitrogenatroomtemperature

but notto carbondioxide. (See also idealgas law.)

TJP Remember that the law ilpplies to a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature.

..particle:see beta I'article.

see beta radi'llioll,
breaking stress (also called'strength', 'ultimatetensilestress'):thetensilestress
at whicha sample ofmaterial breaks.
In non-scientificlanguage, breaking stress is ortenrelerred to as the strength
of the material.
bridge rectifier: an electrical component used for the conversion of an

alternatingcurrentorvoltage supplyto a directsupply (see rectification).

12
y

brittle material: amaterialthatshowsnoplasticity whensubjectedtoadeforming

force.
The materialdoes undergoclastic deformation butbreakswithoutwarning.
(2.3- This behaviouris typical ofglasses, ceramics, concreteandcast iron.
T
AS;A-Level Physics
1
cantilever: a beam (e.g. a metre rule) clampedhorizontally atone endwith a
load fixed to the otherend. causingtheendofthebeamto be depressed.
Clam
p
____
Beam
-----------J
Weight
A loaded cantilever
TheperiodT ofsmallverticaloscillationsofthemassisrelatedto thedistance
L of themassfrom theclampby theexpression
T
2
IX L3
The equilibriumdepressionsis givenby
s IX L3
TGP Although the theory of the cantileveris notintheASIA-levelspecifica-
tion (syllabus), it does provide a useful meansof assessment of experimental
techniques.
capacitance: the ratioof thecharge Q ona conductorto its potentialV:
capacitanceC=0 QIV
The unitof capacitance is the farad (F), where
1farad (F) 1coulombpervolt (CV-I) =0
Capacitanceis notrelevant to aninsulatorbecause. whencharge is placedon
aninsulator. thereis no uniquevaluefor thepotential. Capacitanceapplies to
insulated conductors and to capacitors. In the case ofa capacitor, a potential
differenceV is appliedbetweentheplatesandchargesof+Q and-Q arestored
onthe plates.
capacitor: adevice for storing electriccharge.
A capacitor usually has two conducting plates. separated by an insulator. A
potentialdifference is appliedbetweenrheplates. resultinginoppositecharges
Stress
..----rFracture
Strain
Stress-strain graph for a brittle material
brittleness: the propertyofbrittle materials.
Brownian motion: the erratic random motion of small particles suspended in a
fluid, providingevidencefor therandomnatureofthemotionofmoleculesin
aliquid oragas.
A
Microscope
Light -+ Glass:s,ded cell
-+ U containing smoke
Demonstration of Brownian motion
." The particles mustbe small. suchas pollengrains inwaterorsmokeparticles
in air. Because of therandomnatureof themotionof molecules in thefluid.
there are. atany moment of time. more molecules striking one face of the
particlethananother. This causestheparticleto twistand turn.Themotionof
thepanicleis seenthroughthemicroscopeas aspeckoflightmovingerratically.
Brownianmotionprovidessomeevidencefor thepostulatesofthekinetic theol)!
ofgases.
'.-."" Itis the erratic motion of the particle, which is several thousand times
largerthanamolecule, thatdemonstrates therandommotionofmoleculesin
roo
alluid.
f .
t:\

.".

Essential Word DictJ'onary
---11-
being stored on the two plates. The symbol for au electrolytic capacitor indicates
the polarit y of the plates. The polarity of an' electrolytic capacitor must be
followed. The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in farads (F).
I
Electrolyticcapacitor
The electrical symbol for a capacitor
capacitordischarge: the discharge of a charged capacitor through a resistor.

R

I
Electrons, carrying negative charge, move from the negative plate of the
capacitor of capacitance C through the resistor of resistance R and on to the
positive plate of the capacitor. The variation with time t of the current I in the
resistor and of the potential difference V across the resistor or across the
capacitor is given by the expressions
I = loe-
tiRe
V= Vae-fiRC
where Vo is the potential difference across the capacitor at time t = 0 and
l o= VoiR. The exponential variation with time t of the current lor the potential
difference Vis shown in the diagram below. (See also time constant; smoothing.)
I, V
'0' Va
oj -
o
Variation of current orpotential difference for a discharging capacitor
TlP Since the charge on a capacitor is proportional to the potential difference
between its plates, the charge Q is given by Q = Q e-IIRC.
o
AS/A-Level Physics
capacitorsinparallel: for capacitors of capacitance C\, C
2
and C
3
conneered in
paralleL the combined capacitance C is given by
C = C\ +C2 +C)
ri
lC
,

1-1
IC
' I
,; TIP The combined capacitance is larger than any individual capacitance.
capacitors in series: for capacitors of capacitance C
1
, C
2
and C
3
connected in
series, the combined capacitance C can be calculated from
lIC = lIC\ + 1IC2 + l/C)
--1HHP-
j}P The comuined capacitance is smaller than any individual capacitance.
Check your calculations to verify this, because many simple mistakes are made
in the working.
Celsius scale oftemperature: a scale of temperature based on the thermo-
dynamic scale of temperature.
Itis an arithmetical adjustment of the thermodynamic scale in which the zero
is shifted. The Celsius temperature t, measured indegrees Celsius (QC), is related
to Kelvin temperature T, measured in kelvin (K), by the expression
UOC = TIK - 273.15
TJ'P In ASIA-level physics, data forcalculations are frequently given toeither
two or three significant figures. The conversion t/QC = TIK - 273 is then
appropriate, but you should the full conversion.
centi-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
2
; its symbol
is c.
a.g. l centimetre = 1 x 10-
1
m = 1em.
Centigrade scale of temperature; a scale of temperature based on the
temperature of the freezing point and the boiling pOint of water and the
variation with temperature of the property of a substan.ce.
The scale relies on two fixed temperatures, or fixed points. The lower fixed
.j
point is the freezing point of water ar standard atmospheric presSl/re and is taken
as zero degrees Centigrade (0 QC). fhe temperature of vapour above wate r
-

F
.'
.j
i:W
:, ., -
....... ''f.......'
.. 0';:

.

I
boiling at standard atmosphericpressure is takenas the upperfixed point,
100DC. Temperatures otherthanat thefixed pointsaredeterminedassuming
that theproperty varies linearly withtemperature. Sucna scale is referred to
1.
>. I as being anempiricalscale oftemperature.
I
centre of gravity leG): the pointatwhichthe whole weightofabodymaybe
I
thought to act.
J
\
.:: The centre of gravity is the point aboutwhich an objectwill balance. Ifan
i
I
objectis thoughttoconsistof verymanysmallmasses, thecentreofgravityis
L
thepointaboutwhichthe moments of theweights of all these smallmasses is
zero. The position of the centre of gravityaffects thestabilityofanobject.
e.g. The centre of gravity of a uniform object is situatedatits geometrical
centre.
. TiP Show the weight of an object as a single arrow pointing vertically
downwards, with the arrowstartingatthe centreofgravity.
centre of mass: thepointthroughwhicha single force mustactfor the object
toaccelerate linearly withoutanyrotation.
i In a uniformgravitational[ield, the centre ofmass coincides with the centre o[
gravity.
centripetal acceleration: theacceleration, directed towardsthecentreofacircle,
ofanobject movingalong thearcofthecircle (see also centripetal[orce).
Speed, v
Acceleration, a
Acceleration. a
:J Althoughthelinearspeedof theobjectin thediagramis constant,its direction
is changing continuously andhenceits, velocity is changing. The objectmust
be accelerating. This acceleration is referred to as il centripetal acceleration
becilLlse the change in velocity is always directed towards the centre of the
circle. Foranobject withlinearspeed vtravelling in a circulararcofradius r,
thecentripetal dccelerationais givenby
a=v
2
lr
Since angularspeedw is givenby the expression I! = rw
a = vllr= rw
2
AS/A-Level Physics
I
e.g. Centripetal acceleration plays a part in geostationary orbits and inthe

motion of chargedparticlesin a magnetic field.
centripetal force: the force, directed towards the centre of a circle, that is
required for an object to travel along a circular path (see also centripetal
acceleration).
An objectofmass mhasaconstantspeedvalongthearcofacircle ofradiusr,
as illustrated in thediagram. The centripetalforce Fis givenby
F=mv
2
/r =mrw
1
where w is the angularspeed of the object. Note that the centripetalforce is
obtained from the equation F= ma, where ais the centripetal acceleration,.
Also, sincethespeedvis constant, thekineticenergyoftheobject isconstant.
The centripetal force does no work on the object since this force is at right
anglestoits instantaneousvelocity.
Speed, v
Mass. m
-F;;ce,F
Angular
speed, W
Circular motion
Ci.l e.g. Forceonachargedparticleinamagneticfield andforces ingeostationary
orbits.
TJP The centripetalforce is a resultantforce towards thecentre of the circle:
theobjectis notinequilibrium.
CG: see centreo[gravity.
chain reaction, nuclear: aseriesofsimilarreactionsinwhichoneoftheproducts
ofa reaction causesfurtherreactions to occur.
3.9. Oneimportantexampleis thefbsion of uranium-235
2iU +6n -- -- + +2bn +y+energy
Inthis reaction, aneutroncausesthefission ofauraniull1-235 nucleus,resulting
in either two or three neutrons being emitted. dependent on the isotopes
producedin thefission. Tllese neutronslllay causefurtherfissions. When the
majority of the neutronsgo on to cause furtherfissions, the chainreaction
'avalanches'andis said tobe uncontrolled.Inanuclearreactor, someneutrons
1
---
are absorbed so that the chain reaction continues at a steady rate. The reaction
is then said to be controlled.
0---.
Neutron
cf
/<
/.
","
o/;'f

"
/
d "
. . #J? (j'
FISSion WA1!
fragments
_/" '"

. 0---. v--

0--....

.......
\ Uncontrolled reaction
Fission
tragme:,ts I
0---.

Neutron 0-.....

2
.,.
'"
Neutron

0---.
absorbed

/
Controlled reaction
Chain reactions
charge carrier: a moving charged particle.
Since electric current is rate of flow of charge, the charge carriers constitute
an electric current. In metals, the charge carriers are free electrons which move
through the metal laltice. Charge carriers may be positively or negatively
charged as in, for example, conduction in a solution of sodium chloride. (See
also conventional current; drijt speed; Hal! effat.)
charged capacitor, energy of: the energy stored in a capacitor owing to the
separation of the charges on its plates.
For a capacitor of c,lpacitmlce C having a charge of magnitude Q on each of
its plates and a potential difference V between them, the stored energy E
is given by
1 Q1 1 V' 1 ,
="2 1="2C -="2Q-IC

AS/A-Level Physics
Energy is stored in the capacitor as a result of work done to transfer charge from
one plate to the other. For any capacitor. the variation with charge Q of the
potential difference V is as shown in the diagram below. Since energy = vb.q,
theenergy of the charged capacitor is represented by the area under the grap h,
i.e. energy = ;QV
-
v
v - - - - - - - - - - - :. ,.
Area vt.q
or _'1__ .
o t.q Q
i
Variation with charge Q of the pqtentiaJ difference V across a capacitor
.: T3? If you are asked to derive the formula +QV, be careful to indicate the area
between the line on the graph and the Q-axis. Do not learn all of the formulae
for energy. You must learn that capacitance C = QIV. SO, if you learn one of
the formulae (better E =+QV or E = tcv2), then the substitution of C = QI V
provides easy access to the other formulae.
charges, law of: a simple law to determine whether charges attract or repel,
namely:
," like charges repel
." unlike charges attract
Charles's law: the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is propor-
tional to its temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale.
Since V ex T and VIT =constant, if we take a fixed mass of gas having volume
VI at thermodynamic temperature TI and volume V
2
at temperature T2, with
the pressure remaining constant, we can say that
VI I T
I
= V21T
1
= constant
The law was discovered by experiment and applies to all gases as long as they
are at a sufficiently high temperature - the temperature being dependent on
the gas itself. Charles's law applies to oxygen and nitrogen at room temperature
but not to carbon dioxide. The history of the experimental discovery is
complicated by the development of temperature scales, as the original
work was nol done in terms of thermodynamic temperature. (See also idea!
Has law.)
--;;::.- Remember that the law applies to a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.
, \!';'
f'
('
..'

Essential Word Dictionary I"'... AS/A-Level Physics
I'"

circular motion: themotionofanobjectfollowing acircularpathaboutafixed The tangentialforce F required to maintain a constantdifferenceinspeed6.\1

point at constantspeed. between the glass sheets is givenby thewordequation

(X

"For an object ofmass In movingat speed vand'angularspeed0) ina tangentialforce area xnormalvelocity gradient

F i]A (6.vl6.x) &n' circularpathofradius r
The constanti] is known as the coefficient ofviscosity (viscosity) ofthe fluid linearspeedv rO)
andits SI unitis pascal second (Pa s). Note that the equation appliesonly to centripetal acceleration a vir r0)1
centripetalforce F mvIr mr0)2 streamlineflOW. (See also Stokes'law; Poiseuille'sequation.)
cloud chamber: apparatususedtomake visible the pathof ionisingradiation. TiP The force is parallel to thearea A and the velocity gradient (6.v/6.x) is
measuredatright angles to the area. Transparent
perspex
coherence: a termusedto indicate thatthe,phasedifference betweentwowaves
Foam'rubDer'
remains constantand does notvary withtime.
soaked in
alcohol and water
Fortwo wavestobe coherenttheymusthavethesamefrequency. Twomono-
chromaticlightsourceshavethesamefrequencybuttheydonotemitcoherent
.....-
waves. Light consists of shortpulses ofwaves (photons), andalthough the .....-Light
Radioactive source photonshavethesamefrequency, theyareentitledatrandomfrom thesource5
and consequently have no fixed phase differencebetween any twoof them.
Dryice
Coherenceandthe overlappingoftwowavesaretheconditionsnecessaryfor
inte7ference to occur. (See also two-source interference.)
Foam 'rubber'
collision: aninteractionbetweentwoormoreobjectsinwhichlinearmomentum
is transferredfrom oneobjectto another.
A simplecloudchamber
Contact between the objects is not necessary. Collisions may be eitherelastic
,5Air saturatedwith alcohol vapouris cooledby means ofsolid carbondioxide
.
'
.
collisions orinelasticcollisions.
(dry ice) so thatthe vapourbecomessupersaturated.Whenionisingradiation
I ... ::: e.g. Collisions occur in alpha particle scattering and repulsion between
passes through this vapour, itcauses ionisationand thevapourcondenseson
magnets.
theions. The pathoftheionisingradiation is seenas a 'vapourtrail'. The top
compression: aregionina mediumwherethe pressureis above average.
ofthechamberis rubbedtochargeitbyfriction inordertoremovestrayions.
:;; Compressionsareoftenassodatedwithsoundwaveswhereaseriesofcompres-

The cloud chamber is useful for the observation of alpha particle tracks since
sions and rarefactions move outwards from a sound source, carryingwave
the density of ionisation is great and the tracks are dense. However, the
energy.
ionisationproducedby betaparticlesandgamma radiationis far less denseand,
m ": e.g. AI01lgitudinal wave is made up of a series of compressions andrarefac-
consequently, thetracks are difficultto see.
tions.
. TiP Remember that we observe the droplets of condensed vapour, notthe
compressive forces: two forces acting on an object along a line inopposite
I
ionisedairmolecules.
directions so as to tend to its lengthalong thedirectionof theforces.
coefficient of viscosity (also calledjust'viscosity'): a measureof the viscous
The forces do not cause any translational orrotational motionof theobject.
(drag) forces in afluid.
(See also Young modulus.)
I
Consider a layer of fluid (e.g. oil) of thickness t,x betweentwo parallelglass
.e.g. Theforces actingin the compression of a spring.
sheets, eachof area A.
TiP Rememberthattwo forces areinvolved,althoughwemayonlyshowone
Area. A
ofthem onadiagram.Forexample,inanexperimentinvolvingacoiledspring
onabenchsuppurtingaload. the load is, obvioLlsly, oneofthetwO forces. The
otherforce is supplied by thebench. I
F""F F
condensation: theprocesswhereby moleculesofasubstance inits vapourslate
Definingcoefficientofviscosity returnto theliquidstate.

---
?'
.
."j.
I
I'
CondensationGilloccuratanytemperatureso,longasthetemperatureis such \'
,
thatthevapouris asaturatedvapour. Inthepmcessofcondensation,thelatent
\-
heat of vaporisation is released as the bondsbetween h10leCUleS are formed
(see specific latenl heut). Ascald with steamat 100ac is far moreserious than
one with water at 100C because of the latent heat of vaporisation being
released on condensation.
conductor, electrical: a material containingfreely movingchargecarriers.
;Undertheactionofasmallelectricfield, thechargecarriersmovethroughthe
conductor, constituting an electric current. (See also resistance, electrical;
resistivity.)
TiP Do not confuse electrical conduction with thermal conduction. It is
certainly unwise to reler to a 'conductor' unless it is clear which type is
beingdiscussed.
conservation of charge, law of: a fundamental law which states that electric
charge cannotbe createdordestroyed.
There are two types of charge: 'positive' and 'negative'. Equal quantities of
positive charge andnegative charge resultin an overall charge of zero. If, for
example,a negativecharge is createdonabody, thenaneHual positive charge
must befound somewhereelse.
conservation of energy, law of: energycannotbecreatedordestroyed, butit
canbe converted (transferred) from oneform to another.
Conservation of energyis a fundamental conceptthatapplies to all branches
of science, Many processes can be considered as conservation of energy or
energyconversion (transfer). (Seealsowork; heating;first lawof thennodynamics;
mass-energyequivalmce.)
conservation of linear momentum, principle of: thetotallinearmomentum
ofanisolated system in any givendirection is constant.
Theprincipleis a consequenceofNewton'sthirdlawof motion. I
i
C
,nr'" Thesystem mustbe isolated: a rocket takingoff from the Earth'ssurface
,.
is notan isolatedsystem because the Earth exertsforces on the rocket. Such
problems should be solved llsing the concept of the rate of change of
momentumof the exhaustgases equalling the thrust.
constructive interference: theinterferencethatoccurswhentwoormorewaves
meetatapointsuch th,)[ theresultantdisplacementis greaterthanthelargest
individual displacement.
Thisis asJ n:sull o[ theprhzcipll!ofsuperpositioll.Thewaves musthavethesame
frequenc" and Iransverse wavesmustbeeitherlInpolarised orpolarised in the
Sdme plane (see plJlaris<1tiol1). Completeconstructiveinterferenceoccurswhen
two wavesareinplrase (z.ero phaseangle).Theresultantamplitudeis thenthe
slim 01 tile individual amplitudes. (See also destmetivc intc/ference; two-source
interferCile'e.)

AS/A-Level Physics

i': Displacement
;:.;.: - .:
.\ r t /"
Resultant
'/Wave1

L!
f/ _- Wave 2
o )I
Time or distance
TJP Constructiveinterferencecanoccurwhenthereis a phaseanglebetween
the twowaves. Only if the constructive interferenceis to be total do the two
waveshave to be in phase.

continuous spectrum: adistributionof emittedwavelengthsof electromagnetic t1i
radiationproducedby a body, withnobreaksbetweenits extremevalues.
Continuousspectraareproducedby hotsolidsandhotgasesathighpressure.
i'J.'fi- Spectrumof whitelight.
control rod: a rod used in a thermalfission reactor to absorb neutrons andthus
control therate at whichfission reactions continue.
Control rods are frequently made of boron steel. When the rods are lowered
into the reactorcore, therateofreaction is slowed down.
conventional current: seeelectriccurrent.
cooling: theloweringof thetemperatureofanobject.
'.Frequently, whatis measuredis rateofcooling.Thisis thegradientofthegraph
whentemperatureis plottedagainsttime.Theunitis kelvinpersecond (KS-I).
TiP Donotconfuserate of coolingwithrateof loss of thermalenergy (heat).
Whenaliquidis freezing, its temperatureremainsconstant.Therefore,although
itwillbe losingthermalenergy, its rate of cooling willbezero.
corkscrew rule, Maxwell's: a rulellsedfor finding thedirectionofthemagnetic
field aroundastraight wire.
IfyOll imagine screwing a right-handed corkscrew in the direction of the
current, the direction of motion of yOllr thumb gives the direction of the
magneticfield. (See also magnl!ticfluxdensity due to along straight wire.)
cosmic radiation: radiation received onEarth from outerspace; it consists of
:.;
manydifferent types of particles and also electro71wgnetic radiation. '.,
.
Since cosmicradiJtion is a mixtureof particles and electromagneticwaves. it
is notconsidered to be partoftheelectromagneticspectrum. Someof thephoton
energiesareso great thal they mustbe due to processes in stars.

'>.'i.:' ltused to bt' tboughl that cosmic radiation is partof the electromagnetic
spectrum. andifyoulook at some old textboo],s, you will seethatit is included.

.... j
Z:>:f
l'

...... However, you shouldnot include it as partof.the electromagnetic spectrum
because cosmic radiation includes high-energyparticles.
coulomb,C: the 51 unit ofelectriccharge.
Itis thatchargeflowing persecondpastapointinacircuitin whichthecurrent
is 1ampere:
charge in coulombs =(currentin amps) x (time in seconds)
I'iQ =[/'it
where I'iQ is the charge passingthepointwhena current[flowsfor time /'it.
Coulomb's law: the force between two point chargesis proportional to the
product of the charges and inverselyproportional 10 the square of their
separation.
The force F acting on point charges Q! and Ql' separatedby a distance r, is
given by
F =kQIQZ/r
l
where k is a constant. The constant k depends onthemediuminwhichthe
charges are placed. For avacuum
k = I14TCeo
whereeo is thepermittivity offree space (8.85 x1O-1l Fm-
I
).Ingeneral, theforce
is reduced by an interveningmedium, thatis, the constant k is smallerfor a
medium than for a vacuum. Using thevalue 1I4TCeo for the constantk when
the charges are in air introduces only a very small errorand, at AS/A-level,
this approximationis madewithlittle or nocomment.
TIP Itis sometimes useful torememberthat 1I4TCeo '"9 x 10
9
, butbe careful
because this value is 10 onesignificant figure onlyand, wheredata for calcu-
lationsaregivento twoormoresignificantfigures, theapproximationisinap-
propriate. Do not confuse this constant k with the Boltzmann constant, which
is also denotedby the symbol k.
countrate:therate at which emissionsfrom a radioactive sourcearedetected;
it is measuredinS-1 (persecond),
:'.: Countrate is notthe sameas activity. This is illustratedby the fact thatactivity
has the unitbecquerel (Bq) where 1Bq =1S-I. The rateat which nudeidisin-
tegrate is the activity, but notall of theemissionswillbe counted. Someofthe
radiationwill beabsorbedinthesourceitself,andsomebetweenthesourceand
thedetector.Furthem10re, notall oftheradiationis directedtowardsthedetector.
couple: two forces of equalmagnitudebutacting in opposite directionswhose
lines of actionare parallelbutseparate.
A couple produces rotational motion but not translational motion. For two
equalbut opposite parallel forces, each of magnitude F, with theirlines of
action sqlaraledby a distance d, the magnitude of the turning effect of the
couple (the (orque of the couple) is given by
torque of couple =Fd

t'

.",.
"'.:1.",'

AS;A-Level Physics
I:

I
Torque is avector quantity andthe 51 unitoftorqueis newton metre (N m).

F
,
F
Two forces acting as a couple

:if e.g. The forces usedto turnthe l:).andle ofa screwdriveract as a couple.
I. ',J TIP Do not confuse the unit of torque with that of energy (thejoule). Both
i:
are the productofa force anda distance. In thecase oftorque, the force and
I' distanceareat rightangles. Forenergy, theforce andthe distanceD10ved are
i'
I
/'
alongthesameline.

criticalangle:whenarayof lightinan optically more dense mediummeets a
boundary with an optically less dense medium and is partially reflectedand
partiallyrefractedparalleltotheboundary,theangleofincidenceiis thecritical
angle C.
Medium 1,
optically
less dense
Medium2.
optically
moredense
",
(bl (c)
II
I
*
E
/j,,\
I
i <C i=C I> C
Critical angle ,!nd total internal reflection
For small angles of incidence, as inpart (a) of the diagram, the ray is partly
reflected and partly refracted away from the normal. For large angles of
incidence, as in part (c), the ray undergoestotal internal reflection. Inpart Ib)
the ray is partially reflected and any refracted ray travels patallel to the
boundary. The angle of incidence in (b) is referred to as the critical angle C.
Foranglesofincidence less thanC. refractionandreflectionoccur. Forangles
ofincidencegreaterthanC. therayis totallyinternallyreflected. At thecritical
angleC. theangleofrefractionis 90.Therefractive index 2111 for the rayonthe
boundaryfrommedium2 is given by
sin C

sin 90
Hence
sin C=2111
and
I n2 = _1_
sinC
...,.,
L

l
i
Essential Word Dictionary AS/A-Level Physics
I
[
02.. ::;. For glass in air. the refractive index In] about 1.5. Hence C= 42, This
fact is used in reflecting prisms. (See also optie-fibres.)
I
";;P Eememuer that critical angle can be observed only when a ray in an
opricolly moredense mediumis incidenton a boundorywithan Dpticollyless
dense medium. Also, criticol angle and totol internal reflection are not
phenomena of light only. They are commonto all waves.
critical damping: see damping, degrees of
current: see electriccurrent. I

i

current-voltage characteristics (also called'I/Vcharacteristics'):thevariation
td-9
-I.,
with potentialdifference Vofthe current1in a circuit component.

*
I
damped oscillations: oscillationsinwhichtheamplitudediminishes withtime
as a result ofdissipativeforces thatreducethetotal energyoftheoscillations.
A certain fraction of the total energy is lost during each oscillation. Con-
sequently, the amplitude decreases exponentially with time. Ifthe damping

forces are large, oscillationsmaynotoccur. (See also damping, degrees of)
MetalliCconductor Filamentlamp Semiconductordiode
atconstanttemperature
Displacement
TiP Alwaysdrawthecharacteristicforbothnegativeandpositivevaluesof V.
Theremaybesurpriseswhenreversingthepotentialdifference (as foradiode)!
Theresistanceis found using theco-ordinatesofasinglepoint, notthegradient

oI \ I \ / _..
ofthegraphline. Jj
----\---
Exponential decrease
ofamplitude
Lightly damped oscillations
e.!}_ The function of a car's suspension is to reduce the total energy of
oscillations.
TJiP Whensketchingagraphofdamped oscillations,becarefulto keepconstant
theperiod of oscillation. Start yoursketchby markingoff equal distances on
thetimeaxis for each halfperiod. It is very temptingto reduce the period as
theamplitudedecreases!
damping, degrees of: thedegree ofdampingdeterminestheform ofthedecay

of theamplitudeof vibrationofanoscillatingbody.
.Degree 01 damping is described inthree categories:
J light damping - the object undt'rgoes a numberof complete oscillations
with the amplitude of vibration decreasing exponentially with rime. The
greater the amount of damping, thegreaterthe rateofdecayof amplitude.
., criticaldamping- thedisplacementis reducedtozerointheminimumtime
, ....

possible withoutanyoscillations occurring.

28

EssentialWord Dictionary
" heavydamping- the displacementreduces exponentiallywithtime.There

arenooscillationsandthetimeforthedispla"Cement todecreaseby acertain
fraction is longer thanfor criticaldamping,This time irrcreasesas thedegree
of dampingincreases.
The three categories are illustratedbelow, together with undamped oscillations.
1
",
..
I
i
I
I
AS;A-Level Physics

;;X7"p_":I

TJP Thedaughternucleusmay, betransformedintoadifferent daughter
product.
deBroglie equation: an equation that relates the momentum p of a particle10
its assuciated wavelengthA.
The equation is
A= hip
whereh is thePlanckconstant. (Seealsowave-particleduality; electrondiffraction.)
decayconstant:see radioactive decay collstant,
deceleration:adecrease in thevelocity ofa body.
Itis said tobeanegativeacceleration wherethepositivedirectionis thedirection
of travel. Analternative namefordecelerationis retardation.
degreeCelsius. C: the unit of temperature difference on the Celsiusscale of
temperature.
It is numericallyequaltothekelvin, Le. the fraction 1/273.16ofthe difference
in temperature between the absolute zero oftemperature and the tn'plepointof
water.
degreeCentigrade. C: the unit of temperature difference on the Centigrade
scale oftemperature.
,It is numerically equalto the fraction 11100 of the differencein temperature
between the freezing point of waterat standard atmosphericpressure and
the temperature of vapour above water boiling at standard atl110spheric
pressure.
;; T1P Remember thatthe degree Celsius and the degree Centigrade have the
samemagnitude.Celsiustemperaturesare usedbecausetheyarerelatedtothe
thermodynamicscaleoftemperature andarenotempirical.
density:themassperunitvolumeofasubstance, definedbythewordequation
mass
density = ---
volume
Foran object ofmassMandvolume V; its densityp is given by
p =M/V
The 51 unitofdensity is kilogram permetre cubed(kgm-
3
).
f).<f]. The density of water is about 1000kgm-
1
; all solids and liquids have
densities of this orderofmagnitude. Ingeneral, the density of gasesis aboLlt
1000times less thanthatofsolids orliquids.
t:p When definingdensity, make sure that you indicate clearly thatthere Ls
aratio. Adefinitionsuchas 'mass ina unit volume' is not'llatisfactory.
destructiveinterference:theinterferencethatoccurs whentwoormore'waves
meet at a pointsuch that the resultantdisplacement is less than the largest
individual displacement.
Thisis asa result oftheprincipleo/superpositiol1.The wavesmusthavethesame
frequencyandbe outofphase, andtransversewavesmustbe either unpolarised
(See also damped oscillations.)
Displacement
01 \ 1 \ t
Displacement r
oI v, I' '-"

o I

Damped oscillations
)C
Time
Light damping

Time
entical damping

Time
Heavy damping
"TiP Do not confuse damping withresonance. Dampingis concernedwith the
dissipation of the energyofanoscil!<1ting body. On the otherhand, resonance
invulves theimpartingof energytoabodytomaintainamaximumamplitude
of vibration.
daughternucleus:a productof anuclearreaction.

fn a nuclear reaction a parent nucleus is transformed with the emission of
W
particles and/orenergy intoa daughterproduct:
parentnucleus -> daughternucleus

is
3
Essential Ward Dictionary
1
\
orpolarised in the sameplane (see polarisation). Complete destructive inter-
ference occurswhentwowaveshavethesameamplitudeandareinantiphase
(n: radphase angle). (Seealsoconstructiveil1!erfcrence; t\-\!C1'-SOurce il1terfcrCl1cc.)
Displacement r 1\
/ \ '-Wave 1 ,
' f , " . T,m,
Je. Ro,,'"'' " j
a distance
Wave 2
I
h
)
I

Destructive interference
Displacement
--,----- .
'f \r Resultant Time
or.. /\ J\ .:\ ,W"o2
Total destructive interference
<: TJP Destructiveinterferenceimplies an overall reduction in amplitude. Only
if total destructive interference occurs can the resultant amplitudebe said to
be zero.
diffraction: thespreadingofwavesatanedge ora slit so thatthewavesdonot
travelinstraightlines.
Diffractionis a phenomenonassociatedwithwavesandprovidesevidencefor
thewavenatureofelectromagl1eticradiation. Theextentof thebendingdepends
on therelative sizes ofthewavelengthofthewaveandthedimensionsof the
slit llsed to demonstrate the effect. The effect becomes more pronounced as
theslit width approaches the wavelength. Diffraction effects maybe demon-
strated using a ripple tank.
))))) it
) ++1
/ I I
Narrow silt
Wide sltt
Diffraction at a slit
.,
I
,
AS/A-Level Physics J1l 2;::-:
;
Notethat, if diffractiono[lightthrough asingleslitis beingdemonstr<lted, the
extent of the diffraction is small because, even with a narrow slit, the
r
w<lvekngth of the light is still hundreds of times smallerthan the slit widtho
(See also two-source i11lcrti'rc71CC.)
I
T;'"' When dr<lwing diagrams to illustrate diffraction, do make sure that the
wavefronts remain equally spaced. Thneis no change in wavelength, orlly a
change in direction, unlike the situation whererefraction occurs.
diffraction grating: a small sheelofglass ortransparenlplasticonwhich have
been markedmany hundreds ofparallel. equallyspaced lines.
. A typicalgrating will haveabout 1000 linespercentimetre,giving linespacings
ofonlya few wavelengthsoflight. Parallel monochromaticlight (possiblyfrom
a laser) is directednormallyonto thegrating.Aseriesofbright. symmetrically
spaceddots is observedonascreenplacedsomedistanceawayfrom thegrating,
Correspondingp<lirs 01 bright dotsarereferredtoas 'ordersof dirfractedlight'.
Third order, n =3
DiffracllOn
Second order, n=2
gra1lng
First order, n=1
Incident 'I.. Zero order, n= 0
light iJ 1
First order, n=1
Second order, n=2
Third order, n=3
Use of a diffraction grating '-1
.'
The wavelengthAoftheincidentlightmaybedetermined, knowing thespacing
d of neighbouring lines on the grating and the angle of diffraction eof any
orderofdiffractecllight.
, For thefirst order, A= d sin(II
" Forthe second order, 2,1. = d sin()1
c Forthe third order, 3,1. = d sin8
3
Forthe nth order, I1A = dsin011
'I
The sp<lcing d of the lines (lhegriltil1g element) may be determined from the
numberN oflines per unitlength of thegrating.
d= liN
)
(See <lisa ddJractiol1.)
'?i
'; .....

:,.
1'';
.f::
. Ie;
I"
. T1P Ifasked ro find how many orders of diffracted lightwill be seenwith a I
1
particubrgrating. substitutethevalueof thewavelengthA.of thelightintothe
I
formLila 11), = dsineand remember thatsinecannot be'greater than 1. For 1"
griltings with a small grating elementd, there may be only oneortwoorders j:
of diffracted light I
r
diode:an electrical device thatallowscurrem through it in onedirection only,
The 'ideal diode' has infinite resistance in one direction and a small finite
resistance in the other. The variation of current I with applied voltage V is t
I,'
shown in the first diagram below, The circuit symbolfor a diode is shownin

the second diagram, The direction of conventional current when the diode
j
conductsis shownby thearrowhead, Whenthediodeis conducting, it is said r
t
to be forward biased, Whenit is notconducting, it is reversebiased,
'" F
t-
Ii
f
y.

11::
ic"
1)
I't.

1/
v
i
ji
F
,.
i,;
I;
v
Current-voltage characteristic for an ideal diode
!L:
j!;,
h

I: ----+---,@f-t--
h

j}'

+
Forward biased
Circuit symbol for adiode

e,g. Diodes are used[orthe rectification ofalternatingvoltages,
displacement:the distanceofanobjectur apoint, inaspecifieddirection. from
some rderencepoint.
Displacement is a vector quantity and it'defines the positionof a point with
f1 reference [0 afixed p'Jsition.

ail
.....
AS;A-Level Physics

North
+
p
5km
,
F'
Displa'cement of apoint
Inthediagram. thedisplacementofPfromFis 5kInatanangleof 40
C
eastof
north.
:H e.g. Displacementis usedto define the positionof a pointundergoingosciUa-
tions andfor definingwhatis meantby transverse wavesorlongitudinalW'lves.
':'1 TlP Do notconfusedisplacementwithdistancemoved.Anathlete runninga
1000 m race completesfour lapsof the track. His distance moved is 1000m
buthis displacement[romthestartingpointis zero!
displacement-time graph: a graph shOWing the variation with time of the
displacement of anobjectora point.
is a vectorquantity and, consequently, such graphs describe
motion in one direction only (e.g, upwards and downwards. left andright).
Thegradientatapointonadisplacement-timegraphis ameasureof thevelocity
of theobjectatthattime.
Displacement i Displacement,;
It
I
I
I
,
.
1
I I
I
I "
:A --------S
I
1
X y
Time Time
BC . 2X
Constantvelocity =AB InstantaneousvelOCity =Xy
Calculation of velocity using displacement-time graphs
np Apositivegradientis a velocityin thesamedirectionas thedisplacement.
Anegative gradientmeans that thevelocityis inthe opposite directionco the
displacement.
distance-time graph: a graph showing tile variation with time of thedi5tance
travelledby an object.
Distance travelledcannotdecrease, butonly remainconstantorincrease.Thus
tile line uf the graph can nevershowa decrease.
O,,,'"CO r
0:'00 /
L
1
l - Time
Time
Stationary
Constant speed
Distance t
0'''0001 ~
Time L
Time
Acceleration
Deceleration
Distance-time graphs
Distance travelled is a scalar quantity. The gradient at a point on a distance-
time graph gives the speed of the object at that time. An increasing or decreas-
ing gradient indicates whether the object is accelerating or decelerating
respectively.
Distance ...
Distance
j
~ z
,C
/ / I
I <- I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
B
/ I
LA
I
I
X "------------y

Time
Time
BC
Constant speed = AB Instantaneous speed = yz
XY
(speed increasing with time)
Calculation of speed
TiP Note that since distance travelled is scalar, the gradienr of the graph gives
only the magnitude of any acceleration along the direction in which the object
is moving.
Doppler shift: the apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a wave
when there is relative motion between the source of the waves and the
observer.
-::>
~
AS!A-Level Physics
f
~ m
,For a wave of speed c, frequency land wavelength A, if the chal1ge in freC\uency
and wavelength are !':.( and !':.A respectively, when the relative speed between
source and observer is Y, then
vic = !':.flf = !':.AI Ie
I
In astronomy, if the apparent wilvelength is longer. the light is silid to have
been red shifted and the source IS moving aWilY from Earth. Blut' shift indicates
a source moving towards Eanh.
I' drag forces: see viscolls forces.
drift speed: the average speed at which charge carriers move through a conductor
when there is an electric current in the conductor.
For a conductor carrying a current I at right angles to an area of cross-section
I, A, the drift speed Y is related to the current by the expression
I = nAqv
~
where 11 is the number of charge carriers per unit volume (the number density)
and q is the charge on each carrier. (See also Hall effect.)
e.g. For copper, n ~ 10
29
m-
J
, giving typical drift speeds of about 0.5 mm S-l
Drift speeds are much higher in semiconductor materials where n is lower.
TJ;'=" Although drift speed is low, a lamp will light almost immediately when
the current is switched on. It should be remembered that the electric field
(
(which makes the carriers move) travels through the wires at the speed of
electromagnetic waves. Thus all carriers are milde to drift along the wire at
almost the same time.
ductile material: a material that is capable of having its shape changed
permanently without breaking.
Once the material is plastic, a small increase in stress can cause a large increase
in strain, resulting in a permanent change in shape.
Stress
\ _ ~ ~
PlastiC
change
Strain
Stress-strain graph for a ductile material
"'.D. Copper is a ductile material since it can be drawn OLlt into thin wires.
:;
~
I
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k<

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I'
..,

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.

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I
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iii
efficiency: the ratio of the workgot outof a machine to theenergyputin:
I.'.. ' . workgot out
efflClency E
energyputm

l,
Efficiency is often expressed as a percentage. In any machine there is bound
Iii_i,.,
tobesomewastageofenergyin, for example,overcomingfrictionalforces. As
;II/t"
:l""i
a result, in anypracticalmachine, efficiency is less than 100%.
}e.g. Efficiencyis animportantcharacteristicof aheatengine.
1 ' " elastic collision: acollisionbetweentwoormoreobjectsinwhichkineticenerHY
,( "
is conserved.
I
Thatis, the total kinetic energy of theobjects before the collision is equal to
I.[I!: the totalkinetic energy after the collision. No kineticenergyis converted I ..
Ii.
(transferred) intoanyotherform of energy.As in all types of collision, linear
'.
ii
I
F! momentum is conserved. An alternative way in which an elastic collision
betweentwoobjectsmaybedefinedis tosay thatthevelocityofseparationis
equal to the velocity of approach.
'I': Before
AS/A-Level Physics

collisions may yield results which are a good approximation to the actual
situations.
e.g. Elastic collisions occurduringalpha particle scatteringand theradioactive
decay of a nucleus.
TiP Rememberto state thatkineticenergyis conserved; it is notsufficient1O
state that'energy is conserved', because this is truein all situations!
elastic constant: seespring constant.
elastic deformation: achangeinshapeofasampleofmaterialsuchthat,when
thedistortingforcesareremoved,thesamplereturnstoitsoriginalshapeandsiZt,
elasticity: the tendency of an objector a sample of materialto return to its
original shapeandsize whenanydeforming forces areremovedfromit.
',; Elasticityis theopposite ofplasticity. (See alsospring constant; Hooke's law.)
elastic limit: the maximumstress which canbe applied to anobjectsuchthat,
whenthestress is removed, theobjectreturnsto its originalshapeandsize.
If theelasticlimitis exceeded, theobjectwillbehaveplastically, i.e. it willhave
apermanentchangeinshape whenthestress is removed.
D e.g. The limit up to which Hooke's law, the spring constant and the Young
modulusapplyorhave meaning.
electrical energy: energy associated withanelectriccurrent.
':; Fora source of electricalenergy (e.g. a batteryoragenerator) of electromotive
force Esupplying currentI, theenergy convertedintoelectricalform intime t
is given by
electricalenergy=EIt
Similarly, for a resistorofresistanceRhavingapotentialdifference V acrossil
whencurrentI flows throughit for time t, the electrical energy convertedis
givenby
electricalenergy= VIt
In the SI system, electrical energyis measured injoules (J). Since electrica'
resistance Ris definedas R=VI I, electrical energy is given by
energy - (V
2
IR)t=J2Rt
e.g. The kilowatt-hour is acommonly used practical unitof electricalenergy..
TIP Rememberthatenergy=power xtime. So longas you knowthepower.
thereis no need to find the current and voltage in order to calculateenergy_
You should !eJrn the formulae energy =VIt and R=VII. The other formulae
for energyCJn then be derived quickly if you need them.
electrical power: eitherthe rateof supplyofelectrical energyby J sourceorthe
rateofconversion (transfer) ofelectricalenergyto otherforms inan electrical
component.
Forasourceof electricalenergy (e.g. a bJtteryoragenerator) ofelatromolivr
force Esupplying electriccurrentI
electrical power P= EI
:\i
collision
I
'.!ti

..
After
collision I
..
ti
U
1
..
u
2
-
m
1
..
m
2
-
v
1
v
2
Head-on elastic collision
I.
The elastic collision maybeSLlllllllurised as:
conservationof kineticenergy: + = + t m2vl
velocity olseparation= velocity of approach: 1/2 - VI = uJ + u
2
'I
conservationollinearmomentum:I11tUj - 11I2U2 = I1IIVI + /'Il2V2
In practice, very few collisionsare whollyelastic. Asmallfractionofthekinetic
energyis convertedintootherforms. Nevertheless, calculationsassumingelastic
-...
39
I
Iftheelectrical component has a potel1tialdlfferCl1ce Vacross it, then
llrfl
; ,
electrical powerP= VI
In the 51 system, eJectncaJ power is measured in waw"(W), where I watt is
I joule per second (J s -I). Since electriCc11 resistance R is defined as R = VIJ,
powerP is givenby
p= V
2
IR=I
1
R
1
, :;\l TIP You shouldlearntheformulaeP=VIandR =V11. Theotherformulaefor
;1
powercan thenbe derived qUickly if you need them.
I'
electric charge: foraconstantelectriccurrent1ina circuit, theelectriccharge!J.Q
;!
iI
passingone point in thecircuitin anintervalof time!J.t is given by
!J.Q = 1M
':'1; Chargemaybe defined by the word equation
chargepassingapoint= current x time for which currentflows
The 51 unit of charge is the coulomb (C). There aretwo types of charge, and
whenequalquantitiesofthesetwotypescombine, theresultantchargeis zero.
Hence the types of charge are referred to as 'positive' and 'negative'. By
convention, thechargeon anelectron is negative.
TiP Remember that the base quantity is electric currentand thilt charge is
definedin terms ofcurrent.
electric current: a flow of charged particles, which may be positively or
negatively charged.
:.; By convention, thecurrentinanexternalcircuitis from thepositiveterminal
ofthe powersource towards the negative terminal.The currentis referred to
as the conventional current and is a flow of positive charge. In a metallic
conductor, charge is carried byelectrons that are negatively charged. Electron
flowis in theoppositedirectiontoconventionalcurrent. Currentis one ofthe
base quantitiesinthe51 system; it is measuredin amperes (A).
Of-----,
+
Conventional
current
Electron flow
Conventional current and electron flow
electric field: a region ofspace wherea force acts ona stationarycharge.
eThe directiun of the electric field is the direction of the force on a positive
charge.
.1-; AS/A-Level Physics

TiP Thedefinitionis in termsoftbeforce onastationarycharge, although the
force is unchanged regardless ofspeed.Itshould be rememberedthata force
ona moving charge could indicate thata magmticfield is present.
electric field lines: lines that show the direction of the force acting on a
stationarypositive pointcharge in thefield.
Isolated positive Two unlike
charge charges
Electric field patterns
D, Electric field lines do not touch or cruss and are normal to any conducting
surface. The pattern of the field for an isolated spherical conductor is of
particular significance. From outside the sphere, all the lines appear to be
diverging from its centre. The sphere acts as a point charge with the charge
situated atits centre, Le. a radialfield.
electric field strength: theforce perunitpositivechargeactingonastationary
charge placedatthatpoint.
IfaforceF acts onastationarypositivechargeQ, thentheelectricfield strength
Eis givenby
E=FIQ
The 51 unit of electric field strength is, by definition, newton per coulomb
(NC-
I
). Electric field strength is equal to potentialgradient andtherefore its
unit may be given as volt per metre (Vm-
1
). (See also Millikan's oil drop
experiment.)
electric field strength of a point charge: given by the expression
E =
where Eis the electricfield strengthat apointdistance r from a point charge
QandC
u
is thepermittivityoffreespace.
The expressionis derivedusing Coulomb's law
+,'.
F=QlQ2/4JtF.or
and rememberingthatelectricfield strengthis force perunit charge (FI Q).
TIP The Iormula applies to a charged spherical conductorwhenthedistance
ris greaterthan the radius of thesphere.
electric potential: the electric potential at a point is the work doneperunit
positive charge inmoving a pointcharge from infinity to thepoint.
Positivecharge and
earthedplate

40

'ii
I .
W
,il
"I
III
N)
l
ifi
i
I

I
.;J."
The potential at infinity is ,defined as zero. Potentials may be positive or
negative, depending on whether the potential is due.to a positive or to a
negative charge. Work mustbe done on a positive charge in moving it from
infinitytowardsafixed positivechargeandthusthepotentialis positive. Work
is donebyapositive chargein movingit towards anegativecharge, resulting
in a negative potential. The electricpotential Vat a distance r from a point
charge Qis given by
V=Q/4nc
o
r
where co is the permittivity offree space. In the SI system, electric potentialis
measuredinjoulespercoulomb (JC-
1
) orvolts (V). Note that, if thepotential
ata pointis V. thenthe workdone W inmoving a charge Q from infinity to
thatpointis
W=VQ
,;2, TiP Theformula appliesto achargedspherical conductorwhenthe distance
r is greaterthantheradius ofthesphere.
electricpotential difference: the electricpotentialdifference betweentwo
points is the work done per unit chargein moving a smallpositive charge
betweenthetwo points.
Itis sometimesloosely called 'voltage'. Potential difference is defined by the
word equation
workdone W
potentialdifference V= h 'f d Q
c argetrans erre
The equationmaybere-writtenas ,
W 6.t
potentialdifference V = M xQ
where 6.t is the time duringwhichthe charge is transferred. Referring to the
definitions ofelectrical powerPandelectriccurrent]
potentialdifference V = PI]
The SI unitofpotentialdifference is the volt (V). Itmay also be given as the
wattperamp (WA-I).
TiP The work done is a transfer of electrical energy to some other form,
e.g. thermal energy in a resistor. This fact is important when distinguishing
a potential difference from an electromotiveforce, where someform of energy
is transferredinto electrical energy.
electromagnet: a device which behaves as a magnet only when an electric
currentpasses throughits coils.
The currentin acoil of insulated wire wrapped arounda soft iron core causes
thecore tobe magnetised.Whenthecurrentis switchedoftthesoftironloses
its magnetism. As well as behaving as a temporary magnet. the soft iron
increasesthe strength of themagneticfield by up to 1000times.
." .
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AS/A-Level Physics

electromagneticinduction:thesettingup. orinducing, ofanelectromotiveforce
(emf) in a conductorwheneverthereis a change ofmagneticjluxlinkage.
The magneticflux linkagemaybechangedeitherby changing themagnitude
of the magneticflux orby moving a conductororcoil relative to a D1agnetic
field. An emfis always induced when there is a change in (magnetic) flux
linkage. Ifthe coil forms part of a continuous circuit, then there willbe an
inducedcurrent. (See also electromagneticinduction, laws of)
Magneticfield in coil jW
changes while magnet
IS moving
N,
emf inducedacross
wireas wire cuts the
emf
induced
across
coil
magneticfieldlines

Changing the magnetic flux linkage
oj TOP When defining electromagnetic induction, always refer to inducedemf.
Theremaynotbeaninducedcurrentalthoughthereis achangeinflux linkage.
electromagneticinduction,lawsof:thetwolawsofelectromagneticinduction
are Faraday's law, whichgives the magnitude of the induced emf, andLenz's
law, whichgives the direction.
:;Faraday'slawstatesthattheemfinducedinaconductorisproportionaltothe
rate of change of magneticflux ll'nkage. Ifthe magnetic flux linkage H is
measuredinweber-turnsandtheemfEinvolts, thentheconstantof propor-
tionalityis unityandthemathematicalrelation forFaraday's lawis
E= -d(N)/dt
The negativesignis involvedwiththedirectionoftheemfand is explainedas
partofLenz's law.
Lenz's lawstatesthatthedirectionoftheinducedemfis such thatitproduces
effects to oppose the change causing it. This law is a consequenceof the law
ofconservation ofenergy. An emfis sourceofelectricalenergyandthat energy
musthave comefrom somewhere. The emfproduces effects (e.g. aInagneLic
field due to theinducedcurrent) whichoppose the change (e.g. thismagnetic
field dueto theinducedcurrentopposesthechangein the magneticfluxgiving
rise toit). Consequently, workhastobedone to overcomethis oppositionand
energy is conserved.
Since the induced emfproduceseffects to oppose the change in flux linkage,
there must be a negative sign in the formula for Faraday's law to indicate
A'J

1
-J,".
g"l':'
'c "
AS/A-Level Physics - _.",.,-',
TiP In practice, there is no real division betweenparls of the speclrum and
opposite directions. Analternativewaybywhich thedirectionof theinduced
theregions are not all of theSill11e size. Visible lightoccupies a verysmallpan i
emfin a conductormaybe fuund is Flel1!ing's right-hand rule.
i:;C. When statingFaraday's law, always refer to the induced emf. There will
always be an induced emf when there is a cbange in flux linkage but lhe
current willbezeroif the circuit is notcomplete.Manystudentsstate, forLenz's
law, that the emf opposes lbechangein flux linkage. This muslbe untrue-
how can an emfoppose motion, for example? It is important that you stale
thintheemfproduces effects that oppose ...
electromagnetic radiation: thatgroup of waves which make up lhe electro-
:::
magneticspectrum.
!i
The waves are transverse waves andconsistofoscillatingelectricandmagnetic
Iiii
ii
;1
fields (vectors). All electromagneticwaves travel with the same speed ina
;1 vacuum (3.00 x 108ms-l).
:'
electromagnetic spectrum: the range ofelectromagl1etic waves listed according
,I
10 their originsandproperties.
Ii! The spectrumis usually giveninorderofdecreasingwavelength.All types of
II electromagneticwavetravelatthesamespeed (3.00 x 10
8
ms
l
) in a vacuum.
I
Name Uses Wavelength Origin Oetection Properties
Radio Radio Communications.
waves
>10cm Oscillating Reflected by
'adloastronomy
easily
diffracted
electrons aerials ionosphere,
Microwaves CommunicationS,
Imm
10cmto Magnetrons Tuned Reflected
cooking
absorbed
by water
Infrared
cavities by metals.
1mmto Photography. Eminedby Satellite
IIRI
Hotbodies
all bodies surveying.
aboveOK,
700nm heatingeffect
TV controls
penetrates
fog
Visible 700nmto Colour Sight.
400nm
Hotbodies. Eye.
photography communication
de-eXCitation
electron
Ultraviolet 400nm Photography. Causes skin Food Mercury
(UV) lamps, fluorescence, cancers, sterilisation.
electron
to 1nm
solid-state absorbed atomicstructure
de-excitation in upper
atmosphere
X-rays
detectors
1nmto X-ray tube. Photography, High Diagnosis.
Ipm de-excitation fluorescence radiotherapy.
ofinner
penetration,
astronomy
electrons
health hazard
I
Gamma 1pmto Very highly Nuclear Photography. Diagnosis.
rays (y-raysl 11m GMcounter, penetrating. radiotherapy
SCintillation
decay
health hazard
counter
I
I
I
of thecompletespectrum. Cosmicradiationis a mixture ofpanicles anddec-
lrol1lilgneticradi,\tiol1, originatingin Duterspace. CosmicrJdiation should not
,
be included as a region of the electromagneticspcctrum.

electromagnetic waves: waves consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields (vectors) thatare at right angles to each otherand to the direction of
t-
movementof the Wilve energy.
I
r,
I'
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. They are classified into different
,.
groups, dependent on their origin and properties, giving rise 10 the electro-
L magnetic spectrum. The energy of electromagnetic waves is transported in
jo discretepacketsknownas photons, wheretheenergyofeachphoton is propor-
:.
tionaltothefrequency oftheradiation. Increasedintensity is seenas anincre<Jse
in the number of photons per unit time per unitarea. All electromagnelic
waves travelatthesamespeed in a vacuum (3.00 x lOsms'
l
).
electromotive force (emf): theenergy transferred per unit charge from some
form into electricalenergywhen chargeis moved round a complete circuit:
emf= (energy transferred)Icharge
The SI unit 01 emf is joule per coulomb (J C- ' ) or volt (V). The emf ofa
supply may be determined by measuring the potential difference between
theterminalsof thesupplywhenthesupplyis notdeliveringanycurrent(open
circuit).
e.g. A battery with an emf of 1.5V converts 1.5J of chemical energy to
electricalenergywhen ICofchargeis transferredaroundthecompletecircuit.

TiP Rememberthatthe energytransferis to electricalfromsomeotherform. -
This is important when distinguishingbetween emf andpotentialdifference.
Despiteits name, do notbetemptedto defineemfas aforce. An emldoes nol
pushchargearounda circuit.
electron: amember of thegroupoffundamentalparticles knownas leptons.
. The electron has a charge of -1.6 x 10.
19
C and a mass (when at resl) of
9.11 x10-31 kg. Electronsarefound inorbitalsaroundthe nucleusofanatom.
(See also electrol1 difJractiol1; thermioniceffect; photoelectriceffect; emissionspectrum.)
electron diffraction: atechniqueusedtoinvestigatethespacingorcrystJIplanes
and the structureofsurfJce films.
Electrons hJve a wavelength associJted with them tllat is dependent on
their momentum Jnd is given by the de B!'(1glie equation. Consequently, J

beam 01 electrons is diflrJcted as it passes through a crystalline maleriJI
in very mllch the SJIllC way as is an X-ray bealll. The eIlcct may be dem-
onstrated in the laboralory. ii.. narrow beam of electrons is directed at a

thingold foil orcarbonlilm. Adetectingscreenbeyondthetilm showsaseries
of concentric rings similar to that obtained when a laser beam is passed

44
throughaglass sheetcovered withafine powder. (See also X-ray diffraction;
neutron diffraction,)
electron scattering. high-energy: a teclmiqueusedtoinyestigatethenucleiof
atoms,
Very-high-energy electrons (energiesof theorderof GeV) arescatteredby the
nuclei of atoms since the associated de Broglie wavelength (given by the de
Broglie equation) will be very short. The degree of scatteringmay be used to
determine the radius and composition:ofnuclei.
electronvolt. eV: a non-51 unit of energy equal to the energy gained by an
electron whenit is accelerated throughapotentialdifference of I volt.
;ill Sinceelectricalenergy= chargex potentialdifferenceandtheelementary charge
is 1.6 x 10-
19
C (see Millikan's oil drop experiment),
leV= 1.6 x 10-
19
J
The electronvolt is used in atomic physics because the binding energies
of electrons are of the order of a few eY. Furthermore, nuclear binding
energies are of the order of MeV, where 1MeV (mega-electronvolt) is
1.6 x 10-
13
J,
Jj)i Til' Thenumerical valueof theelectrOllvolt, injoules,is equalto thenumerical
valueof the elementarycharge incoulombs,
elementary charge: the smallestquantityof chargewhichcanexistseparately.
This implies that chargeis quantised. Thevalue of theelementarychargee is
1.602 x 10-
19
C. The charge on anelectron is -1.602 x 10-
19
Cand that on a
protonis +1.602 x 10-
19
C. (See Millikan's oil drop experiment.)
emf: see electromotive force,
emission spectrum. line: a series of separate, differently colouredlines on a
black background corresponding to the wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiationemittedby atomswhenexcitedelectronsintheatomsreturntotheir
ground states.
,'J Thelinesare the colouredimages of theslitatthefrontof theinstrumentused
tosplit thelightintoitsseparatewavelengths. Whenanexcitedelectronreturns
from an energy level E
2
to a lowerone'ofenergy Et, aphoton is emitted. The
photonofradiation has frequencyf andwavelengthAgivenby
J@
(E
2
- E
l
) = hf= he/A

whereh is the Planck const.nzt andcis thespeedoflight. Note thatlinespectra
are produced by gases at low pressure where the atoms are well separated,
Forgases at high pressure, theatomsinterfere with eilch other. causing their
energy levels to change. Thus the sun and hot solids produce a continuous
spectrum,
empirical scale of temperature: a scale of temperature that is based 011 the
variation with temperature ofa property of a substance, assuming that the
property varies linearly witl1 temperatute.
'',',"
t;.
AS/A-Level Physics
I

Any property which varies with temperature may be used, e.g, volume of a
liquid, pressureofagas, electricalresistance.If athennometeruses the propeI1y
XofasubstancewhichhasavalueXo atOc, avalueX1ao at 100Candavatee
XI at tc, then the temperature t on the empirical Centigrade scale 01 that
thermometeris given by
t = (Xl - Xu)! (XlOO - Xol x 100C
Property, X
X,oo
XI
X
o
I:

\-'"
i ..
i'-
100 Empirical
.'1'- o
temperaturetC

l:::

Sincenopropertyvarieslinearlywiththermodynamictemperature, empirical
I,
temperatures ondifferent thermometers only agree atthefixed points (0' C
and 100C).
J1! e.g. The thermistor thermometer, the thermocouple thermomeler and theliqwd-
in-glass thermometer allgive temperaturevaluesonempirical scales.
1- energy: thestoredability todo work.
Pi; Therearemanydifferentforms ofenergy;workisdonewhenenergychanges
from oneformtoanother.Energy hasthesame Slunitas thatof work-1]le
joule (J) - and is ascalar quantity.
.til e.g. Kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, eiectrical energy.
energy level: theamountof energyof an extra-nuclearelearon;a,bove tnatof
anelectronintheground state, possessed bytheelectronwhileitisin an orbi1al.
aboutthe nucleusof anatom.
Whenanatomabsorbsenergyand,as aresult, aneIectronmovesfromalowel'
energylevelto ahigherlevel. itis said to beinanexcited state. The energyleYels
within a hydrogenatomare illustrated in the diagram. Note that theenergy
levels areshown as beingnegative.Thatis, energymustbeprovided inorder
foranelectrontomovetoahigher, orexcited,state. (See alsoemission
absorption spectrum; ionisation.)
47
L
"1'
. . ~ ;
Essential Word Dictionary,
i
" ,
Energy/eV
0 _
Many leyels,
- 0,25 ------ _
} close together
- 0,88 --------_
- 1.50 -------__
- 340 ---- _
r
- 13.60 --- _
Ground state
Energy levels within a hydrogen atom
TIP It is importantto realise thattheenergylevelswithinanatomhavespecific
valuesandthat electrons cannothaveenergies betweenthese values.
equations of motion: equationswhichrelatechangein displacement (distance
moved) s, timetaken t, initialvelocityu, final velocity vand uniform acceler-
ation a.
i:', Theequationsmaybederivedfromthedefiningequationsforaveragevelocity
andfor uniformacceleration. Theequationsare
v:U + at
s:ut+tat
2
i'
v2 : u
2
+ 2as
These equations apply to uniformly accelerated motion. It is assumed that
s: awhent : O.
. TiP Note that, ineachof theequations, oneof the variables u, v, sort is not
included. Whensolvingproblemsinvolvingtheseequations,itis often helpful
to list thevariables thatareknown. You should thenchooseanequationwith
onlyoneunknownvariable. Rememberthattheequationsapplyto uniformly
accelerilted motion- do not try to use them forsimpleharmonicmotion!
equilibrium: anobjectwhichremainsatrestormovingwithaconstantvelocity
undertheaction ofa number01 forces is silid to be in equilibrium.
The conditionsnecessaryfor an object to be in equilibriumare:
, thealgebraicsum oftheforces acting ontheobjectin anydirection mustbe
zero
"'it:'
AS/A-Level Physics
-1
~ ~ I > ~ ;. theillgebraicsumof themoments01 theforces aboutanypointintheobject
,
must be zero "
Note that. when finding i1 sum, both lorce and moment of il force are vect.or
quantities. There Me three types of equilibrium:
stable- the celUre ojgravity rises when the object is displaced slightlyfrom I
m
its equilibriumposition
". unstable - the centre of gravity,falls when the object is displaced slightly
from its equilibriumposition
" neutral- thecentreof gravity remainsat thesameheightwhentheobject
is displaced from its equilibrium position
The different types of equilibrium maybe illustrated using a ball, a spherical
bowlandaflat surface.Thecurvatureof the surface (concave, convexorflat)
determines themotion 01 the ball whenit is displacedslightly.
~
~
o
Stable Unstable Neutral
Different types of equilibrium
-np Rememberthattherearetwo conditionsforanobject to bein equilibrium.
Students frequently quote only one of the two conditions, usually failing to
considermomentsof forces.
error: thedifferencebetweena measuredquantityandits truevalue.
If the truevalueis notknown,thenitis morecorrectto referto anuncertainty.
Insometexts, theterm'probableerror'is usedasanalternativeto uncertaint.y.
(See also precision.)
".-up An erroris eitheraboveorbelowthetruevalue, thatis, it is eitherpositive
orit is negative.The symbol:!:is used withan uncertilinty because thedoubt
is inbothdirections.
evaporation: the process whereby molecules of a substance in its liquid state
leave the surfaceof the liquid to enterthe vapourorgaseous stilte.
Evaporation can occur at any temperature at whichliquid is present. Inthe
process of evaporation, bonds between molecules are broken and external
work is done because the volume of a vapouris greater than the volume of
thecorrespondingliquid.Thisrequiresenergy. If energyis notsuppliedto the
liquid, its temperature Will fall - coolingby evaporiltion.This is theprinciple
of the refrigerator.To maintaina constanttemperature, thennillenergy must
be supplied to the liquid - this is the latent heatof vaporisiltion (see speciji"c
latentheat).
excited state: when the energyof anextra-nuclearelectron withiniln atom is
greater than theminimum, the electron is said to be inan exdtedstate.
. . . ~
'?':>
Energy has beenabsorbed by the atom (e.g. -as a result of heating) andsome
of tIm energyhas beentransferred to anelectronso thatitmovestoahigher
ener.qy level. (See also emission spectmm; absorption spectrum.)
exponential change: achangesuchthattherate ofgrowthortherate ofdecay
ofa quantity is proportional to the amount ofthequantityat thattime.
.Foran amounty of aquantity. therate of increaseofthequantityis given by
dy/dt. Thus. for anexponentialincrease ofy with time t
dy/dt= ky
where k is a constant. This equation represents an exponentialgrowth. Ifthe
quantityydecreases with time. thendyldtis negativeand
dy/dt= -ky
where kis aconstant.This equationrepresents an exponentialdecay.
exponential decay: achangesuchthattherateofdecayofaquantityispropor-
tional to the amountofthequantityatthattime.
,gl Thecalculusformoftheequationrepresentingexponentialdecayis-dy/dt=ky
and thesolution of this equationis
y=yoe-
kl
whereYo is the value ofquantityy at time t =O. The solutionis illustratedin
thediagrambelow. Oneverysignificantfeatureofanexponentialdecayis that,
nomatterwhat thestarting valueofy. thetime taken to halve thevalue ofy
is constant. This is also illustratedinthe diagram.
Y
y
Y!2
I
I
I
I
Y/4 r------:--------' Y!8 ---
I I
L

o I I I I.
o T 2T 3T 4T
,

,; 'e.g. Radioactive decay, half-life and capacitor discharge are all examples of

exponentialdecay.
Tl? Exponentialchangesdonotalways involvetime.Theabsorptionofgamma
radiation in matterfollows anequationof the form
1=1
0
e-
kx
where 1
0
is the intensity I of radiation for thickness x =0 of absorber. The
':-'\
:1
'0
AS/A-Level Physics
beam of gamma radiation is said to undergo attenuation. In some texts, the
exponential function is written as 'exp'. Thus, y =yoe-
kt
would be shownas
y = yoexp(-kt).
exponential growth: a change such that the rate of growthof a quantityis
proportional to theamountof the quantityat thattime.
:;: The calculus form ofthe equationrepresentingexponentialgrowth is
i
t dy/dt= ky
andthe solutionofthis equationis
l.." y=yoe
kl
t;
i:
whereYo is the valueof quantityy at time t= O. In theory, thegrowthof the
--. j-t
l
\-:.-
quantitywillincreaseindefinitely.Inpractice, someeventwilloccurtoprevent
furthergrowth.Forexample. exponentialgrowthofamplitudeofvibrationof
anobjectwilL inevitably, leadto the destructionof theobject.
Y
.
I'{"
Yo
oI
o
. ;
Asecondformofexponentialgrowthinvolvesanincreaseto aconstantvalue.
Themathematicalexpression for suchagrowthis
y =yo(I - e-
kl
)
whereYo is the value ofy attime t =00.
Y
Yo - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
;1
'''.g. Charginga capacitor, time constant.
TiP In some texts, theexponentialfunction is writtenas 'exp'.Thus,y=yoc
kr
wouldbe shownasy= yoexp(kt).
extension: theincreasein lengthofanobjectasaresultof, forexample, applying
tensileforces to theobjectorheatingit.
1
I
Essential Ward Dictianary
AS/A-Level Physics
A decrease in length (a compression) is denoted as a negative extension. That
is, if an extension is shown as 6.1, the corresp\,mding compression would be -6.1.
(See also spring constant; Hooke's law.) I
Tj';=: The symbol 6. is used to represent 'change in ... ' Thus, 6.1 means 'change
in 1'.
~
Do not confuse extension with extended length:
~
extended length = original length + extension
us
farad, F: the SI unit of capacitance equal to one coulomb per volt.
The farad is a large unit and, in practice, capacitance of capacitors is generally
measured in microfarads (!J.F) or picofarads (pF).
l!J.F = 10-
6
F
IpF= 10-
u
F
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction: see electromagnetic induction, laws
of.
femto-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
15
; its symbol
is 1.
12:.g. 1 femtometre = 1 x IO-15 m = 1 fm. Nuclear diameters may be quoted in
femtometres.
field: see force-field.
field of force: see force-field.
first law of thermodynamics: a statement of the law of conservation of energy;
that is, for any system
increase in thermal energy external work done
~ . intemi:zl energy = supplied + on the system
The three quantities, as they are specified above. are all positive. If thermal
energy is removed from the system, that quantity is negative. Similarly, if
external work is done by the system, that quantity is negative in the equation.
Note that there are different ways of expressing the law, depending on the
direction of each energy transfer. The important point is to ensure that. when
stating the law, the correct directions of energy transfer for all three quantities
are made clear.
~ g _ You should be Iamiliar with the application of the law to an adiaba tic
change, an isothermal change and evaporation.
fission, nuclear: see nuclear jlssion.
Fleming's lett-hand rule: a technique used to predict the direction of the force
on a current-carrying wire or on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field.
Hold the first two fingers and thumb of your left hand at right angles to one
52
~ ~
'
""'""T
AS;A-Level Physics
another. When thefirstfingerpoinl5 In theuirection ofthemJgnetic field and
the second fjnger poil1ts in the direction of the current, thenthe thumb gives
the direoioll of the force (or motion) on the conduetor'oron the charged
panicle.
First finger
Field
Second finger
=
Current
Force or motion
(
TlP Remember that the Current direction is the direction of conventional
current. i.e. thedirection of movement ofpositive charge.
Fleming's right-hand rule: a technique used to determine the direction ofthe
induced emfin a cunductormoving through a magneticfield.
.:H[)ld thefirst two fingers and thumbofyourrightbandat rightangles toone
Jnother. When thefirst fingerpointsin thedirection of themagneticfieldand
the thumb points in the direction ofmotion, then the second finger gives the
direction oftheinducedemforCUrrent.
tFirst finger
Secondfinger
roo'
Inducedemf
orcurrent
1
~
Thumb--------rr-.
MDtlon
i
\
TJP Acurrent is induced onlyif there is J compkte circuit. An emfis always
induced when there is a chJnge in flux linkage.
flotation, principle of: an object lIoals in a fluid when it displaces a weight of
lJuid equJI to its own wcight.
Theprincipleis all uutcome ofArchimedes'principle. There is Inuplhrustacting
on the objectand, whentheobject floats, this upthrust is equal to the weight
of the object. Its aPl'drmt we(qht is then zero.
fluid: eithera liquid ur a gas but not a solid.
In a fluid, there are forces between molecules but these forces are nol rigid.
The molecules are free to move about withi.n thebody of the fluid, unlike in
a solid, whereatoms/moleculesare heldinfixed positionsin a rigid structure.
Aconsequellceofthis is thatsolidswill transmitforces wllereas liquidstransm.it
pressures.
. :TIP In everyday language. weusetheword 'fluid'tomeana liquid (hydraulic
fluid, fluid balance in the body); you need to remember that gases are also
fluids.
fluid pressure: see pressure in 17 fluid.
fluorescence: the emission oj visible light from certain substances when clec-
Irol17l7glletic W'lves ofshorter wJvelength are incident on them.
.Fluorescenceis onemeansbywhich ultravioletradiarion is detected. Ultraviolet
lightincidenton fluorescene producesyellow-green light. on quininesulphate
it produces blue light and OIl chlorophyll, red light. Fluurescence mJy be
produced when particles are incident on the substance. For example. high
energy electrons colliding Wilh a screen covered with zinc sulphide causes
green light to be emitted.
e.g. Theeffect is used in television tubes andcathode-rayoscilloscopes.
flux linkage: see magl1Cticfluxlinkage.
focal length: see principaZ/oeus.
focal point: seeprincipal/Deus.
force: a vector qUa/lIity that may change the shape ofan object or, if the object
is free to move, cause an acceleration.
Force is defined as the rateof change of momcnlwn ofan objectwhich is free
tomove,ForachJngein momentumt.p occurringintimet.t, theforce Facting
in the direction of the change in momentum is given by
F;6pl6t
Jf [he body has constant r n a s ~ 111. then
61' ~ mt.v
when'6vis the change in velocity, Thus
F;m(M/61)
Bydefinition, acceleration a ~ 6vlt.!and hence, for a body uf constant mass,
F;n1l7
As luree is a vector qUJntity, the arruI,\ rer)['(;senlJng Iurce should JlwJys be
shown stJrting at the puint where the fl)rct' is being <1pplinl. The S[ unit of
[()ill' IS the Ill'\I'IO!l (N).
-c. Rt'lllel1llwr thai [nIce is defined by relcrence 1Il1l1OnientUl11 chJllge. The
l'L]liJtinll F =111,1 is not the defitllngequJtion lor [orce bl'cJUSt' this equdtionis
.1 sp\'clJI CJse uJ the more general equJtion F =6.)'/.l.r.
forced 'frequency of vibration (Jlsocalled 'unpressed In'L]uency'): the Jrequency
.11 which a bully is lllilde tu vibrate by irnpusing J pniudic[urce on it.
';i,g. Resot/allce uccurs when the IlalUr,,1 fre'/llet/n' [II vibrL1tioil of an object is
equJI to the Joreed lrequency.
force-field (also called 'lield', 'field uf lorce'): a region of space that can be
mapped with Jines of force orwith lines 01 potential
Fm AS/A-level physics, 1he fields which are studied are electricfields, gravila-
lil7n'11 fields and nwgneticfic!ds.
Lines offorce in a field are USUJlly plolted in .1 two-dimensional plane.
Remember tlIJt, in prJctice, fields occupy d region of space and ure three-
dil11cnsionJl.
freezing: the change in stJte of a SuustJllCe from liquid tu solid without any
chal1gl' in tel1lperJture.
The IrL'c'zing process involves the releJse of thnmJ\ energy by the substance
olS rigid altractive bondsbetweenatoms and molecules Jrc formed,
Freczing should nut be confused with fusion: fusion (melting) is, in fJct,
the reverse of freezing.
frequency: in vibration, the numberof uscillatil1ns madeper unit time.
The51 unit ojfrequency is the hertz (Hz), which is equJJ to oneoscillation (or
cycle) persecond.
I Hz = I SI
Frl'quency (in hcrtz) is related to period of oscillJtiof] T (in seconds) by the
expressiun
f= liT
When carrying out cJlculations involving simple h<1rl11onic mtJlion, the term
<1l1glll<1rjre{lllel1cv IllJy be used. Angular frequency W IS related to frequencyf
(in Hz) by the l:xpressioll
{'j = 2rtf
where w is measurcd ill rJdiJIlS persecund (radSI).
, .' Thc pitch of.1 ,ound is relJled to the lrequency uf.1 wave. The UKmJil1s
electriCity supply is delivl'led ell .1 lrequency of Jhuut 50Hz.
Do nlll ddil1l' frequency as the 'numbero!lhcillatiunsin unit time'. The
II1Ust be clcM, i.t'. 'l1umher(li "scillall(lll, per umt time'. Du not clmfu,e
Ihe ullit 01 Jltivlty or01 C(IUIlI Idle with lhal oiliequellcy. All holve the Slunil
SI. Huwever. activity and cuunt rateJJT 'lillll1t,persecond'Jnd therefore the
,.-
AS!A-Level Physics
unit hcrtz (oscill,llIOIlS pcr second) is inappropriate.
fuel: tlic l1aml' givcll to Jny substJnce that providcs .1 stme olusl'lul energy
.... Pctrol is ,1 fucl ill tholt it containschemical energy that1',111 Ill' trJlls!ormed
lIltu kinetic energv in .1 Celr engine,
.-re Do not cllnlllSc fuel energy. A luel is a lurm or ellng\,.
fuel rod: J lwllll\\ JllL'tal alilly tubc, .seakd elt 1)(llil l'I](\), tile juel
(e.g. UrJlliUIll-235) lurJ tllerlllallissioll reactur.
full-wave rectification: Sl'e reclijleatioll.
fusion: llll'pwcess Ilr Illelting wllereby a ,ubstelIlce cllJnges steltL' frum solid to
liquid witlJlJllt any change in temperature.
Thermal energy (latent heat) must be supplied lu breJk SOllle of LJlt: rigid
attralTive bonds between atoms andmolecules (see spfeifie latellt hcat).
'-;,,:. Fusion, llI' melting, is nottnbeconfused with Iluclearfm'ioll, in whichtwo
light lluclei combine to fllrm one heaviernucleus with the rL'lease of energy.
fusion, nuclear: see nuclearfusion.
.....
)
00
-.I
----r-
"
.,...
" ..
.....:.;..
\...
.
"
- '" '.') ...

gammadecay:thespontaneousdecayofa nucleus with theemissionofgamma
radiatioll.
LThe gamma decay of a nucleus frequently accompanies alpha decay or beta
dewy. Alpha or beta decay usually leaves the daughter nucleus in an excited
state. The daughter nucleus emits energy in the form of a gamma ray photon
in orderto reach its groundstate.
.'. T7P It is the parentnucleus thatis radioactive, notthe emitted particles.
gammaradiation:electromagneticwaveS with wavelengthsin the rangeofabout
1pm to 1fm, having shorter wavelengths thanXrays in the electromagllrtic
spectrum.
.Gamma rays are produced by the de-excitation of a nucleus and frequently
accompany the emission of alpha radiation or beta radiatioll from a nucleus.
Gamma rayphotollS travel atthespeedoflightand havenochargeorrestmass.
Hence they cause comparatively little ionisation in matter and are highly
penetrating. Several centimetres of lead ormetres of concreteare required to
absorb gamma rays. Gamma radiation may be detected using photographic
films, Geiger-Miiller tubes or scintillatioll cot/Ilters. Highenergy gamma ray
photonsareverypenetratingandwhenabsorbed in livingtissue, causeahealth
hazard. Cells may be damaged, resulting in tumours, ortheymay be killed.
e.g. The fact thatgamma radiation is highly penetratinggives rise to its use
for the detection of irreguiJrities in metals, pipes, etc. Medical uses include
diagnosis in deep-body strLlctllTCS and radiotherapy.
TiP Gamma rays andXraysaredistinguishableonlyfrom theirorigins: gamma
r.Jys Me produced as a result uf nude.Jr de-excitation; Xrays .Jre .Jssociated
with the deexcitatiun of innerelectrons or the r.Jpid acceleration of charged
particles.
gas: oneolthefuur states ofmalleI'.
The lJlulecules01 a substancein thegaseous statehave negligibleforces between
them. Consequently, a gas has no lixed shape or volume since it will always
fully occupy the vessel into which It is placed. The molecules of a gas are in
AS;ALevel Physics

nlndonzmOlian andcollidewitheach otherand thewallsofthevesseL Itis these
collisions with walls of thevessel thatgive rise to thepressureof thegas. There
is little to distinguish a gas frum a vapour. It is frequently said that a vapour
may be condensed by merely increasing the pressure. A gas lTlust be cooled
before pressure is appliedIn ordnto liquefy it. IngeneraL the densityofa gas
is about one thousand times less than that of a liquid ora :;elid. This suggests
thatthemean separatiun of moleculesin a gasis aboutten timesgreaterthan
that ip a liquid or J solid. (See also Cllndmsation; idealgas; Brownian l11otion.)
gas constant, molar: see molargas constan!.
y-decay: seegamma decay.
Geiger-Mullertube: equipment used for thedetection of ionising radiation.
Steel casing
Insulation
Mica
window---
R
Gasat / Centre
lowpressure electrode
+
High
voltage
::An electrode set along the axis of the tube is maintained at a high potential
withrespectto theoutermetalcasing. Whenionisingradiationentersthetube,
thelow pressuregas inthetube undergoesionisation.Theseionsareaccelerated
towards the centre ekctrode and the casing, depending on the sign of their
charge. The ions collide with gas atoms, causing further ionisation.
Consequently, a pulse of current is produced and a voltage pulse is detected
across the resistor R. These pulsescanbe amplified and counted.
:', TiP The Geiger-Miiller tube is the means by which the radiation is detected.
A separate counter is required to count the voltage pulses. Strictly speaking.
the whole apparatus should be referred to as a 'Geiger..Mliller tube and
counter'. However, it is frequently called a 'Geigercounter'.
giga-: prefix used with a unit to denote the multiple ofx 10
9
; its symbol is G.
e.g. 1gigawatt= 1x lOoW = 1 GW.'Gigawattsare frequently usedto measure
the outputpoweruf cleClrical generatingstations.
GM tube: see Geiger-Miillatube.
y-radiation: seegamma rodiatlell.
gradientofa graph: the slope of a graph at a particularpoint.
Gradienl IJI is given by
m = change in vvalue = L'.y
changein xvalue (I.x
"."
l:
For a straight-line grilph, the grildient' can be determined by drawing a right-
ilngled triangle with the line ilS the h)'pOletlUse. The lengths of the other two
sides are measurnL U the graph line I'> J curve', then a rangent Ie) the curve
must be drilwn at the poillt in questiun. Tilt, triangle for the' calculiltion of the
grJdient is then drJ wn on this t,ll1gen1.
v'" V +
I
I
p
'1" I !
I"
I ('
I
I
I
"-------------
x x
Gradlenl = Gradient at P =

;'-:j. Speed Ciln be cJlculilted from the grJdient 01 d distance-time grJph; ilcce]-
eration from a velocity-time graph.
-:;: In order to helVe suflicient reliability ""'hen calculJting the grJdicnt, the
triangle drawn should have a hypotenuse of length at least half the length of
the graph line.
grating element: the sepilration of corresponding points on two adjacent slits
01 a diffractiongrating.
For a grating having N lines per unit length, the grilting element dis given by
d= liN
TiP rr the number of lines is given as N per metre, then IIN = d has the unit
metre.
gravitation: the attraction between any two masses within the universe.
The nature of the lorces between masses is summarised in Newton'.I' la,v of
.qmvitlltirJ/l.
gravitational constant: see u/1iversal col7.ltmf/,J{gral'ilation.
gravitational field: a region of sp,lCe whl'l'c a mass experiences d force, The
direction 01 the field is the direction ollhe force on the mass.
The magnitude of the grilvitatiollJI [urce depends 0/1 the size of the mass. It
dlles not depeml OIl wllether the oLlject is moving ,nstationary or whether it
is charged, SillCe gravitation is il Illutu,ll h,rce between ilny two masses, there
IS agravitatiollal field surrounding every llIilSS,
.c. c' Etleers o! ,1 gravitiltiOJlill lield include wClgl/! and the elccclcrorioJl rJ/jiw
felll.
gravitational field lines: lines repl'l'ol'lltln;..: tilt' dirl'ctioll oj a force OIl il point
Illass ill a grm'ilOllLJ/wllield.
Field lilles Ill'Vl'r touch or cross. Diverging lines repn:sent a field decreClsing li,
strength and, couvcrsely, CtlIlvt'fging [illl'S represent a field in
strength. The gravitatillilill field rl'prl'seIlled in the diagram is of IlJuiClllJr
importance. For J sphericill uniform mass, the field lines ilppear to converge
on the centre orlile sphere. Thus, for ilIl)' poinl outside the sphere, the spllere
behilves as if all its Illass were conccntrilted at its centre. This apprClximatirm
is frequentfy used for astronomicill bodies (sun, Earth, moon).
"
\ I
\ rJ/
.

Gravitational field due to a spherical mass
TiP The point-mass approximation holds only for regions outside the sphere.
gravitational field strength: the force per unit mass acting on a small mass
placed at a point in the gravitiltional field; it is usually given the symbol!1-
Grilvitationill field strength may be defined by the word equation
grilvitational field strength g= grilvitational force F
mass m
The 51 unit for gravita tional field strength is newton per kilogram (N kg-
'
,_
Gravitational field strength is a vector quantity. Since gravitational forces are
afways attractive, the direction of a gravitational field is always associated with
iltlraction. According to Newton'S second law
force = mass x acceleration
so the accclerario/1 offreefall is numericillly equal to the grilvitat.0.J1.ill field '
strength,
TJP Some examination questions ask for differences between the VilriuuS types
of force-field. Remember that gravitational field strength is alwilys <lssocia[ed
with iln attractive force only (compare with electrostiltics, where the lorce.'
mil)' be attractive or repulsive).
gravitational potential: the gravitiltional potential at a point is the work dune
per unit mass in bringing il point mass frum infinity to that point.
Grilvitational potential is a scalarqUlIn/ifyami its SI unit is joule per kilugram
(.J kg-I). Tile grilvitational putelHiill Jt infinit)' is defined as Lwing zero. ThncfiHt
since gravitationillrorces are illways ilttractive, work is done by the puint mass
as it moves from infinity and so all potentials are negative. The gravitatiunal
potential qi at a distance r from a point mass Mis given by
rp = -eMir
--
--
r

!li..
where G is the universal cons/an/ Note that, if the potential at a
point is rp, then the work done HI in moving a mass m from infinity to that
point is
w= 1'111
gravitational potential energy: the gravitational potential energy of a mass at
a point is the work done on the Jllass in moving it from infinity to that point.
If the gravi/arional po/en/ial at a point is cp, then the gravitational potential energy
of a mass m at that point is given by
gravitational potential energy = -rpm
Gravitational potential energy is measured in joule (J) in the 51 system, Its
value is negative because, by convention, the zero of gravitational potential
energy is taken to be zero at infinity. Since all gravitational forces are attractive,
work is done by the mass as it moves from infinity and thus the work done on
the mass is negative. Ncar to the Earth's surface, of most interest are changes
in gravitational potential energy when a mass is raised or lowered vertically.
For a mass m moved through a vertical distance 611, the change in gravitational
potential energy 6E
p
is given by
6E
p
= I11g617
where 9 is the acceleration oIIrcc Iall, assumed constant over the distance 617.
;': TiP Although the zero of gravitational potential energy is taken as being at
infinity, for converrience we often choose an alternative zero. For example, when
raising a crate of mass 12 kg from floor level on to a shelf at a height of 1. 7 m,
we might say that the potential energy of the crate is (12 x 9.8 x 1.7) = 200J.
That is, we have assumed a zero of potential energy at floor level, rather than
talking about the change in gravitational potential energy.
y-ray: see gamma radiation.
ground state: when the energy of an extra-nuclear electron within an atom is
at its minimum, the electron is said to be in its ground state.
AS/A-Level Physics
hadron: a particle composed of either two or of three quarks.
Bclryolls (pr%ns and I1cu/rl171s) are composed of three quarks, whereas mesol1s
contain two quarks. Hadrons are not regarcled as fundamental particles in
themselves because they are made up of quarks.
half-life: the half-life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for half the nuclei
in a sample of the nuclide tCfi:lecay; it is given the symbof t+ and its SI unit is
the second (s).
. Note that half-life may be defined as the time for the activity of a sample of
the nuclide to be halved. The nature of the decay curve is exponential.
Number of nuclei.
activity
N
Nl 2 i-------:
I
I
I
N/4 ----:--------:
NIB .
N/1 f ; : I Time
o r2-
,
2r2-
, 3r+
4r2-
,
Half-life and radioactive decay
Half-life /+ is related to the ra,li,Jactive decay COI1S/,1I1/ Aby the expression
A = ln2 = 0.693
(See Jiso randomncss; spon/antilv.)
TlF When defining hall-lile, make sure yuu stress that it is the number of
nuclei (or the Jctivity) of the particular nuclide, Remember thaL when the
nucki tlecily, the dilughtn pruducts mill' abu be rildiuilctive, The haH-life uf
sum, nuclides is very IOllg, CUllsequently, hJlf-lite Ciln be expresscclm years,
half-wave rectification: sec rccll/i"Jllc111,
Hall effect: when al11agnt'tic fidel acts at nglll ang!cs to J slicc ula currellt-
carrying IllillerJal. a potentia! dilkrencc (It,ll! vollage, 1'1-1) is creilled at right-
angies III bOTh tilt' current and the magnellcfidd.
...----.
Slice
of material

/
/
'"

, "'---... Conventional
, , current (positive
'-. charge carnersl
Formation of a Hall voltage
Since the ,limBecarriersin theslice ofmaterial Me movingat rightangles to a
magnetic field, there is a force acting ()Jl them, the direction being given by
Fleming's ltjr-hand rule. This force erea'tes a greater concentration of charged
particles along olle edge of rheslice and henceil difference in potentialacross
the slice - tbe Hall voltJge VH The milgnltlldeof tbeflaIl voltage is determined
by the concentration of charge carriers. tbe current ilncl the magnetic flux
density. If all othl'rfactors ilre keptconstant, the magnitudeof theHall voltage
may be used as a means uf measuring l11ilgnetic flux density,
Hall probe: an instrument used to measure milgnetic!'lux density.
Theinstrllmemis based un theprinciple uJ the Hall cffect. Theprobe, comaining
a tbin slice uril scmiconduCliJrmaterial, is placed in the milgneticfield and rotated
to give a nlilximul1l meterreilding. The meterreading is calibrated clirectly to
read flux density normaltu thl' probe. 1
heat capacity: sec Iherma!cal-hit'i/y.
heat engine: ,1 IllachiJle which receives tl1LTlll.1) energy at a high tel11\llT.1ture,
eunvcrba, ll1uch o[ it as possible inlo useful wurk ilnd passe, the remainder
tu cuulnSUIToullliings. '
TIlt' tbeurl'licill e((icl<:IlC)/ uf such all ellgim' depends un the temperatures ill
which il ojJer.1tl's, 11 therlllal energy ()II is received ilt thermodynilIllic
temperalure Til ilnd iln Jll1Ullllt !2L is remuved at therl1ludynilmic temperilture
TL, the IISdlli work done is (()II - QLl clnd the efficiency is given by
effiCIency =(QH - QL)/QII =(TH-Ttl/Til
E4
AS;A-Level Physics
Note that tl\l:' i1ClUil! efficiency will be It's, th,ln thl' theoretical e1riciency, The
<:'ll'iciency can nl'verbe 100% beciluse T[ can never be 0 K,
heating: a trillls!el'uf ellerg') toall ubJl'l'( resuhing in ,lll inert'ilse in thl'r,lIlcllllll
killt'ticor pulenllal energies uf tltt' at(lnlS ,II' IlIll!cCU!t-S uf tIl, ubjen.
TIll:' incrl'as, is llbserved ilS l'ither a rise III telllperaturc or illl illcrease In {Jle
i.llternal energy (lIthe object.
2,::;:, Heilting (therIllal energy supplied) is olle laCl(lr ill the.lirsrIc/w ofIhem'l]'
dynomhs,
;'";,-:;' Heating is il process, It is appropriatl' at AS/A-level tu thinl, ofthermal
energy being transferred when all object is being heated.
heat pump: a milchineto pump thermilJ energy lrom aluwertemperilture co a
hIgher temperature.
s.,S. A refrigeriltor uses a heat pump tu rel1love thermal energy [rum the ice
compartmentandsupply it to the outsilkair, which is at a iJighnternperallll'e,
-::":.0, Work must be done to 1110ve tlterm,]l energy from a lower to il higher
temperilture,
heavy damping: see dl1lnpin.'f, degrCfs of
helical spring: a spring formed by wlnding a wire round a cylinder.
The usefulness of a 11ylical spring is that, so lung as the elastic limit i" not
l".ceeded, Hooke's lawis obeyed andforce Fis propurtionillLO extensionx, i,e_
F= kx
wbere kis the springcollslanl.
Amass-springsystemfor themeasurementortheacceJeriltion orfree fall;
the newton-meter.
'''','0 There are othertypes of spring in COIllmon use in laboraturies such as il
spiralspring, round in moving-coil melers. However, where the typeof spring
is nOl sp,cified, reference is uSllilIly being lllade to a helicill spring.
hertz, Hz: the Sf unit offrequencv:
J hertz= I uscillation persecond,
Rl'l1lember thaI the hntzis ass(1l'I,lIed with llscilbtions Do !'lot confuse
hcrv with b<:cLIII<'IcI, [Ill' unito!Jl'tivity. The bl'equLTci is associalt:d withCOlltll'5
j1l'l' ullit time, nllt oscillallolls.
homogeneity: wilen applied 10 equiltimls, IWll10gcneity 111l'allS that each term
in th,eljll,llioll ll1ust Ulrrespund to the S,lIll, physic,ll ljuilntity,
III the equ,ltioll
s= ILL + ai'
Wl' kl1(lvV Ihilttheterms.1re ,1', Iii andtallEach ot the terms mustbethesame
.,

"'"
-'-'
f
:ii,,,,.,
physical Cjuantity. In this case, .I is distance travelled and so ut and+at
2
must
also each represent distance.
Hooke's law: stressis proportionaltostrain. provided thee!dstitlimithas notbeen
exceeded.
For a sample of materia! that docs not significJntl)' in cross-sectional
Jrea, Hooke's law is simplified to become 'force is proportional to extension,
provided thattheelasticlimitllJS nutbeenexceeded'. Hooke's lilw is frequently
applied to the extension ofsprings underload. (See alsospring cOllstanl; Youllg
modulus.)
Hubble constant: see Hubble's law,
Hubble's law: the speed of recession of a galaxy is proportional to its distance
from Earth.
For a galaxy at distance d from Earth and recedingatspeed v,
v= Hod
where Hois the Hubble constant. Sinee it is difficult to measureastronomical
distances with precision. there is doubt about the precise value of H
o
. It is
generally accepted to be about 75kmS-I Mpc
1
This means that. for each
million parsecs to a gabxy, the galaxy's speed away from Earth increases by
75kmS-I.
eE Hubble's lawmaybe used to estimate the age of the universe,
hysteresis: a termapplied to a material understress. Hysteresismeansthatwhen
the materiill is stressed elastically, the stress-strain curve does not have the
same shilpe as when the stress is removed.
Stress
o,----
o Strain
Hysteresis loop
The ilrca enclosed within the loop (the hysteresis loop) is a measure of the
energy expendedduringonecompletecycle oftheapplicationdnd removalof
lhe stres,.
I-lysreresis IS a phenomenon observedin magnetism. If amagneticmaterial
is mJgnetised and then demagnetised, energyis expended.
ice point: thetemperatureora mixtureofpurewaterandmeltingicein thermal
equilllJrium atstandardatmosphericpressure.
Sydefinition, this tempemtureis zero degrees Centigrade (DoC). Itis 273.15K.
ideal gas: agas thatobeysthegas laws (Boyle'slaw, Charles'slawandthepressure
law) orthe ideLllgas lawat all values ofvolume, pressure and temperature.
Such a gasdoes nolexist, since ill! gases deviatefrom thegas lawsto a greater
or lesser extent. However, for a gas al relatively low pressure and at a
temperaturewellinexcessofits boilingpoint, thegas doesapproximateto the
ideaL For example, oxygen and nitrogen at room temperature and a few
atmospheres pressure do approximate quite welL Rememberthat the early
experiments were conductedwithair! (See also kinetictheory ofgases.)
ideal gas equation: see idealgaI hlW.
ideal gas law (also called 'idealgas equation'):anequationrelatingthepressure,
volumeandtemperilture ofan idealgas.
.. Fornmolofanidealgas havingavolume Vatpressurep andthermodynamic
temperature T
pV =nRT
where Ris a constilnt known as the molargas constant (R = 8.31 JK-
I
mol-I).
Thelawappliesto anymass, measuredin moles, ofanidealgas, If thepressure
PI, volume VI and thermodynamic temperature T
I
of a fixed mass of gas are
changed to pressure P2' volume V
2
andthermodynamictemperatureT2, then
the eCluation may be written in the form
PI VI/TI = P1 V]/T]
This form of the equatiun is very useful wherechanges are being made to a
fixed mass ofgas.
;",P II youareasked ilbouttlleideal gilS law, then youranswershouldbebJsed
on the equationpV =nRT.
image in a plane mirror: ,1n image thatmaybetracedusing thelaws ofreflection
oflight,
h7

... ",/
>" \')' ,Mirror

The image is:
.. a virtual image
" laterallyinverted (left to right)
erect
'" the same size as the object
" the same distance from the mirroras the object
" directly behind the object; thilt lS, rhe lme juining object to image is at right
ilngles llJ the mirror
E_';:_ Avoidance of parallax error whenreadinga scale.
, TJP Remember that theimage is lateriJlly inverted, Do notbe temptedto say
'inverted'. became that wouldalso mean 'upside-down'.
impulse: the productofa force F acting011 an object and thetimeMfor which
the force acts:
impulse F6.t
NC\vt071'S sccond law ormotion relatesforce to rateofchangeofmomentum6.p/ M,
that is
F 6.p/6.t
Thus
impulse F6.1 6.p
The impulse ileting on an ubjcct thilt is free to mllve is equal to its change
in momentum. 11l1pulst: has the same unit as momentum; in the SI system,
rhe unit illJy bt: <]tloted ilS kilogrJll1 metre per secund (kgm S-I) or newton
sccond (Ns).
"-:.'" In evervdav bnguilge, all impulse implles rhat the ellect takes place in a
slwrl pniudoj time. In physics, the rimc /';t lllay be short (as III J collision) or
long (ilS III rhe /iring of a rucket engine)"
indicator diagram: a grapb sbowingthe viHiatilll] ul pressure with volume for
a system
SB
AS/A-Level Physics
OnesuchdiJgram for ilir in il cylinderis shownbelow. DuringthecllJngeAB.
theiliris compressed, work beingdoneon theair. It is then heatedilt constant
volume during Be.The Jir then e)\j1ands (CD), doing external work before It
is cooled during DA to retUrJl it to its stdrtlngpoint.Theair hils passed thmugh
il complete cycle. The uselul work dune by the ilir is represented by the iJreJ
ABeD.
Pressuret c
B
::f
A
Volume
induced emf: aneleetr071lOtiverDrce (emf) generatedin a conductorwheneverthe
conductor cuts magnetic field lines or a magnetic field changes al-ound tbe
conductor, I.e. thereis a changt: in I1wgneticflux linkage (seealso electrom'lf]lUUC
illdLlc{ltm; Fdr<1ddY's laws oIclcl'u"Ollld.'!I1<'lIC indllctlOll).
inelastic collision: a collision in which kirwtic cncrgyis not conscrved.
Someoftheinitial kineticenergy;or thecollidingobjectsis convertt:d intosome
otherform (e.g. tbermal energy). As in any collision, linear momentum and
[otill energyare always conscrvcd.
infrared radiation URI: electrollwgnetic waves with wavelengths in the range of
about Imrnto700nm, lyingbetweenmicr[llvaves andvisible light in theelec/ro-
magnetic spectrum.
Infrared radiation is emittcd by all bodies above 0K. The spectrum of [he
radiation andits intensity is dependentOll the natureand temperalure orrhe
sllrlace or thebody. Consequently, infrared radiation is used for the detecrlon
ofhotbodicsandforsurveymgthe Earth from satellites.Theradiationmay be
detected with photodiodes orby means of its heatingeffect.
insulator, electrical: a materi'll that duc, not ClJnt,lin any frce-moving charge
carriers.
Electrical insul,llors do lIot clIl1duct .ln electrk current. However, their
insulatingprupntiesl1Iay fail when.l l<lI"ge eh'l'tri,Iicld is ilpplied. Electronsare
tht:n stripped of! atoms ilnd these then move, constituring a currenr.
intensity: lire illtensit)' ofil Wille is tilt: wave energy incident per unit t1l11C ptt" ...,;i
,
lInJl cHCil normdl to thc wave.
In the 51 system, intensity is measured in watts per metre squared (W m-
2
).

Inteilsily ora sil1l1S0iddl wave is proportional 10 tire squareof the amplitude of
j
ill
..

wi

I

,01' -= i,
thewave. Formonochromilticlight. the intensityis proportional to the number
ofplWIDI1S PilSSlJ1g perunit tIme through unitllJ'ea. Ifthefrequencyofthelight
mcrCil,CS, then, for constant intensity, the number of pholons per uml time
per unit area decreasfs.
e.}. Inlfnsity is an important factor when considering the phOh'e!cctric c/Tect.
intercept: thepointat which the IiIle of a graph cuts they-ilxis lorx =0 (they-
intercept) or the point where the line of a graph cuts thex-axis for y =0 (the
x-intercept).
'] /
oj /'
0,/\ .
x
v-intercept_}, x-Intercept
Intercepts on a graph
T:P Inorderto reildoffaninterceptfrom agraph,theorigin ofthegraph must
be shown.
interference:aneffect thatoccurswhen twoormorewavesoverlapto produce
a new wavepattern,i.e. a change in amplitude.
, Interferencepatternsprovideevidencefor thewavenatureof electromagnetic
waves.
..,e.g. Destructive iJ1lerference, constructive inte7ference, two-source interference (see
also cohcrmce).
-.: TIP Interference is explained in terms of the principle of superposition.
Interferenceis theresultofsuperposition, provided thatcertain conditionsare
fulfilled.
internal energy: the sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of the
individual molecules of an object.
An increasein internalenergyresultsineithera rise in temperatureorachange
of state of the object. Increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules is
accompanied by a rise in temperature. Changing state (melting, boiling,
freezing, etc.) involves changesin bondenergybetween moleculesand hence
changes in potential energy. An ideal gilS has no intermolecular forces and
therefore its internillenergyconsists ofonlyktneticenergy. Generally, changes
lJ1 internal energy are more important than the total internal energy of the
object. Internal energy maybe ch"nged by eitherheating the object or doing
work. (See also thermal CL1pLlcity.)
AS/A-Level Physics

TJP Therlefinition makes refcrence [l) 'random'kineticandpotentialenergies;

the kineticenergy01 an objn'tas it is fillling towardsEarth is not randomand
so I, not intemaJ energy
internal resistance: the resistance to movementofcharge (current) within iJ n
elenrical powersource.
Thl' dlect of internal resistance is tu reduce the potenllal dillerence between
the terminills ofthesupply (the terminal potentialdifference) when thesupply
is delivering a current.
For a supply 01 eleclrol7lOlive force (emf) E and terminal potential difference V,
the potential difference across the internal resistance V, is given by
V,=E-V
Thepotentialdifference V, is sometimesreferred toas last volts andif thesupply
is delivering current I, then, by Ohm's law
lost volts V, = lr
wherer is theinternalresistanceofthesupply. Internal resistanceis responsible
for energy losses within the supply itself. In dry batteries, internal resistance
increasesas the battery'runsdown'.
. T:? Any supply delivers maximum power to the external circuit when the
externalresiswnce01 thecircuitis equal to the internalresistanceof thesupply.
ionisation:theprocesswherebyneutralatomslose electronstobecomecharged
particles oriOIlS.
Ionisation may come about as a result of heating, application of large electri.c
fields orbombardingwith high-energyparticles. Whenanelectronis removed
from a neutralatom, theelectronis said tobeanegativeionandtheremainder
of the atom is a positive ion.
. e.g. Ionisationassociated withalpha particles, beta particles andga711711a radiation,
and theirdetection using a Gci.qa-Miiller tube.
IR: see infrared radiatioll.
isothermalchange:a change in thepressureandvolumeof a systemsuch that
thermill energy is allowcd to ente!' orleave the system in order to maintain
constanttemperature.
In practice, Sllch a change takes plilce when thechange is made slowly and
the containing vessd has thin conductingwalls. (See also Boyle's law.)
isotopes: two or more forms 01 the sameelement,having the same number of
prl1{O/"lS but different numbersof Ilclitrons in theirnuclei.
Isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different IlIldcon
Ilwnbers. Different isutllpes maybeidentifiedbygiving the llJl11e of theclement
and its nucleon number.
2.;]. Neon-20 clnd nelln-22 are lwo isotopes of neon.
IJV characteristics:sec ClI rrent-voltage characteristics.

-"
Essential Word Dictionary AS;A-Level Physics
..... .....,.....- ......"""'";..,;
:'
1 ';
JET nuclear fusion project: JET (Joint EuropeanTorus) is Europe'sattemptto
control the I1I1c1ear{usiol1 reactionofisotopesofhydrogL'n in orderto maintain
a cantinuous reaction.
The torus was built at Cufbam in Oxfordshile. UK. In 1992, JET generated
moreenergythanwassupplied fora veryshortperiudoftime,butthereis still
much research to be done Llefore the me thud will be efficient enough to
generateelectricity. The main prublemis lhe containmentof the plasma.
joule. J: the SI ullit ofenergyorwork dtJllc.
Oilejoule 01 Walk is done when a fOlce of une newton moves its point of
appliL'ation by one metre in the direction of the fmce. The joule may be
expressed as the newton metre (N m). Its basL' units are kg m
2
S-2
YJ'F When defining thejoule, make sure that you mention the direction of
movementofthe force.
"'''i .'." . . .-.

-' :-. ..,-
kelvin, K: the Sf unit 01 temperature difference.
It is defineddS thefraction 1/273.16ofthedifferenceintemperaturebetween
the dbsolute zero and the tfirle point ofwater.
Kelvin scale of temperature: see thefmodynamic scale oftempemrurc.
kilo-: prefix used witha unit to denote the multipleofx 10
J
Its symbol is k.
.9.g. Electricpowelis oftenmeasuredinkilowatts. 1kilowatt=1x 10JW =1kW.
kilowatt-hour. kW h: a unit ofenergy.
It is. notanSI unitbutis widelyusedas a practical unit(e.g. in thehorne,where
elenric:d energy suppliers refer to the kilowatt-hour as the 'Unit'). One
kilowiltl-houris theworkdonewhenanappliancetransfers workata rate01
1000W (1000JS-I) fora time of 1 hour.
1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 h
=1000Wx (60 x 60)s
=3.6xl0
6
J
=3.6MJ
kinetic energy: theenergy ofa mass due to its lllotion.
The kineticenergy E
k
ofJ body ofmass 111 llloving at speed v is given by
2
Ek =tJ11V
Kineticenergyis a smlar quantity and, in theSf system, is measured in joule (J}.
?_.;. The energyofthe ofan ideal gas is wholly kinetic.
n:-'" Kincticenergyis proportiollal to (speed)2.A doublingofspeedmeansJour
times the kinetic cnergy. Similarly, increasing speed from 10mS-l to 20mSI
requires only onelifththe energy requin:d to increasespeed from 70l1l IL'
80111 S-I.
I<inetic theory of gases: iI l1lodel ufgases uscd ro explain why they obey [he
g,lS lznvs.
Assumptions, or pUSlul,ltes, Me made about the n,lture ofgils lllolecules ann
thell Nnvtol/'s IellVS of JIloII,Jil are applied in order to predict their bchavLL)uJ.
The assumptions (postulates) of the kinetIc theory ofgases are:
) all gases consist ofa very largenumberofalUms or molecules
-;

J_
.'J._....
ZI'"
theawmsormoleculesbehaveas if theyare'hard,perfectly elastic, identical
spheres
" there are no forces of atlraClion or repulsion between aroms or molecules
'..!Illess theyarcin collision with each otherorwith thewalls ofthecontaining
vessel
;, the motion ofthe atoms or molecules is totally r,mdom
the total volume of theatoms urmolecules is negligible compared with the
volume ofthe containingvessel
'" thelllneof collisionsis negligible comparedwiththetimebetweencollisions
Foran ideal gas containing n moleculesperunit volume, eachof mass 111 and
havinga mean square speed <c
2
>, it canbe shownthatthepressurep ofthegas
is given by
p; +I'lm <c
2
>
Since the density p of thegas will begivenby p; 11111, then
p; +p <c
2
>
Ifthe equation p ; +11111 <c
2
> is combined with the ideal gas equatiol1, then it
can be shownthilt
fIJI <c
2
>;
where k is a constant and T is the thermodynamictemperature.The constant
k is known as the Boltzmanl1 constal1t and is equal to 1.38 x 10-
23
JK-
J
The
eC]uation is important in that it links the mean kinetic energy+111 <c
2
> of a
molecule to the temperatureof thegas.
::::: TJP Ifyou areasked togive theassumptions, makesureyoustatethatit is the
total volume (notthevolumeofasinglemolecule) thatis negligible compared
with the volume of the containing vessel. In some books you will find that
'kineticenergy is proportional to the thermodynamictemperature' is given
as an assumption, This is not so. This relationship is based on the other
assumptionsandtheidealgas eC]ui11ion.
Kirchhoff's first law: thesumofthecurrentsenteringanyjunctioninanelectric'
circuit is equal to thesumofthe currentsleaving thatjunction.
:, Forthejunctionshown in the diagram
IJ+12;1,+14
0;(
A
I
ASjA-Level Physics
Kirchhoff's second law: in any closed loop ill an electriccircuit, the algebraic
sum of theelcctromOllve forces in the loop is equal to tbe algebraic sum of the
potential differCl1ces ill thatloop.
A
1
1
/3
I d
R
3
I
]
R
1
I
!
E
/2
I
2
E
H, I 1
1
C '---jf-----
!
i 0
!
Inthediagram. for the loop ABEFA
E
I
; I,R, + IjR J
and for the loopACDFA
E
I
- 2 ; -12 Rl +IJR I
Kirchboff'ssecondlawis a consequenceofthelawofconservation of energy. An
emf represents energy per unit charge converted (transferred) into electrical
energyfrom someotherform, whereasapotenti,l!difference representsenergy
converted (transferred) from electrical to some other form. Clearly, energy
inputto the circuit mustequal energyoutputfrom thecircuit.
Kirchhoff's first law is a consequence oi the law of conservation of charge.
Sinceelectriccurrentis rateof flow ofcharge then, lorcharge to be conserved,
rate of flow mustalso be conserved.

'J
laminar flow: see streamlinejlow.
laser: a source of monochromatic radiation in the visible, infraredorultraviolet
regions of theelectr,mwjneticspectrum.
"The letters laser stand for light amplification by the stimulated emission of
radiation. Laser light is coherent and is emitted in a parallel beam (see
coherence). Thebeammaybe ofrelativelyhigh intensityand ifvieweddirectly,
may well causedamage to the retina of the eye. evenblindness.
latent heat of fusion: see specific !cUCJ1t heal.
latent heat of vaporisation: seespecific latent heat.
Idr: see 1(<jht-dependel1l resistor.
led: see light-emitting diode.
length: a base quantityin the 51 system; its unitis themetre (m).
One metre is the distance travelled by in a vacuum in a time of
tl299 792 458 second.
lens formula: a relationship between theobject distance u, the image distance
vand thefocallen:)th f of a lens.
tlu+ l/v= Ilf
To allow thefOrrJwla to be used inall situatio!1S, asign convention is employed:
" real objects and ITal images have positive values for uand v. respectively
) virtual objectsand virtualimageshave negativevaluesloruand1', respel1ivcly
, ClJi1verging lenses havl' a positive value lorf
, diverging lenses havl'a negative value forf
Lenz's law: sel' electrNl1djneticillduction. !clWS of
lepton: a groUJl oj fundamental particles including theelectrOil.
Thl'se light particle' are associated with the weak Iluclearforce.
light: morecurrenl\' referred toas visible light. Light consists of transverse waves
in the visible spectrum, whichis onesnlall partorthe cleUrol1laiJllcticspectrum.
Thl' eyeis sensitive toelectromagneticwavesin this partorthe spectrum, inter-
preting change in wavelength (or lrl'Ljucn!'y) as a changeincolour.The range
of wavelengths detected by the eye varie) with indiVIduals but is generally
A:iA-Level Physics
<lL"ccj1led ,1S 700Ilill 1,1t' red Ilght (frequency 4.3 x 1014 Hz) to400nmforviolet
ligllt (IretjuelICy x lO14Hz).
light damping: see dclllll'ill.'7. Jj.
light-dependent resistor (Idr): arestst"rwhose rcsiswl/cc decreases as theinrcl\,!t\"
llf light falllllg on it incrL'ascs.
The ch,lllge ill resistance with lJght inlensily IS non-linearand typically
resistance in ll1Uonlight = 2MQ
resistancl' in bright sunlight=200Ll
Liglrt-dl'pemknt resistors are used ill putCll/llll divid,,. circuits lor the
moniLoring oflight intensity.
light-emitting diode (led): a di(Jdc that l'lnits light wilen it is lorward biased,
i.e. Cllnductinga current.
Thediode does 1101 elllitlight whenit IS Illlt COrIdllcting. Generally. a pOlcnttal
difference of about 2 V must be applied to the diode before it condllcts ami
emits light. The light emitted by a particular diode is of Llile colour. Lighl-
emilling diOlks me rel<llively little power and, being solid. are rubust. They
arl' lrequently uSl'd as warning lights on instrumentpanels.
light-year, Iy: ,1 nOrI-51 unitofdistance used in astronomy. whichis eLjLlal !Othe
dislal1l'e t!Jal light will travel in a vacuum in one year.
Since liglIl travels at a speed oJ 3.00 x III S-I in a vaCUUlll and thereare
3.15 x 107 s inoue year, 1light-yearis equal tll 9A5 x IOI'n1. Other uniLs 01
distance used in astrophysics are thep,lrsCC and theastrollomicallll1it.
.-.;,P The light-year is a unit of dist,allce, not time.
limit of proportionality: wilen thestressapplled to asampleofmaterial is plotted
against strain, limit of pruportionality is thepoint on the graph at which the
line is nolongerstraight (see also Hookc's law; elasticlimit).
line spectrum: see emission spectrum; absorption spectrum.
liquid: one 01 theJourstates Llf matler.
A liLjuid is charaClerised by the lact that it has a lixed volume but no l'ixed
shape. There arl' forces or attraction between the molecules (hence thefixed
volulllej but the rigid rmces seen in a solid nu longt'r exist. so the molecules
can move throughoutthe body01 theliquid. Aliquid andasolid have approx-
imately thl' same density. suggesting that the separatiun01 molecules is <lbOUl
thl' S,1me in both. The separJtioll 01 l1lukcult-s is aboutone-tt'nrh 01 that in J
:ldS .
liquid-in-glass thermometer: a general-purposedirect-reading thermorneltT.
Capilialy tube
Thin-wailed Scale ""..
bulb '........ ,

1 ..
Glass stem
(I
76
"'"""T'

The temperature ronge of the thermometer depends on the liquid used.
Mercury-in-glass thermometers can be used from about-20C tn about +1,5ooC.
If the liquid is ethanol, the range is about -I OOC to +50C. The sensiti\'ity,
i.c. the distance between scale markings on the stem of the thermometer,
depends on the volume uf the bulb and the bore of the stem. Its thermol
capacity and response time are relatively large and therefore it cannot be used
for measuring rapidly changing temperatures or the temperature of a small
object. Other types of thermometer include the thermistor thermometer ond the
thermocouple thermometer.
longitudinal wave: a wave in which the displacements of the particles in the
wave are along the direction of transfer of energy of the wave.
Direction of Direction of
displacement energy transfer
Direction of displacement in a longitudinal wave
r The oscillations of the particles in the wave give rise to regions where the
particles are closer together than normal. These regions are known as compres-
siol1s, since the pressure is above normal. Conversely, regions where the
particles are 1110re widely spaced are also 'created. These regions are known as
rarefactions, since the pressu re is below normal.
I
Undisturbed layers
of medium

1<-+-: Direction of
movement
, ,
Disturbed layers
of medium
cotresslonr Compression Compression
i
! J""oo1
i
I
Rarefaction Rarejacllon Rarefaction
Compressions and rarefactions in a longitudinal wave
.. e.g. Sound waves.
. TiP When stilting what is meant by a !o'ngitudinol wave, be very careful to
specify 'direction of transfer of energy of the wilve', not merely 'direction of
the Wiwe'.
AS/A-Level Physics
lost volts: the difference between the electromotive force (emf) of an electrical
supply ilnd its terminal potent ial difference.
lost vol ts = emf - terminal poten tial diffen:nce
Lost volts arise because the supply has to provide a potential difference in orcter
to drive current through the supply itself. The lost volts constilUte the potential
difference across the lillenwl resist'1I1ce of the supply.
"'n
"1\ .." ."
.. ,,1
"'I
,
..1
',t.
J
,.j

',;",
.. ..
machine: a dt:vice thaI either lranslorms energy into a more useful form or
chJnges tbe magllilude ofJ force (see also c{(icil'1lcy; c,7I1servarioll of el1crgy).
e.g. The engine af J car may be thought of JS being a mJchine in that it
COilverts chemicJI energy into kineticenergy01 the movingvehicle.Nutcrackers
Jpply large lorces ttl a nut when smailer toru:,s are applied at the ends of the
llandks.
11 mUSl be remembered that it is nlll pussible tu obtJin 'sometlltllg for
nuthing'. Moret:llergy hJS to be putinto themachme t11Jn is obtained,1S useful
output work.
magnetic field: a region of space where a lll,lgnetic pole, J currellt-carrying
((Inductur orJ moving chJrgedjJJrticle will expcrience a force,
MJgnetic Jields Jre produced by mJgnets or by current-cmrying conductors.
A magnetic Jield is represented by a series of lines, eJch llaviug a direction.
EJch line gives the direction in which a 'Irt:c' north pale would move in the
magnetic field. Magneticfield lines can nevertoucb orcross. Thecloseness af
the linesindicJtes the strength aftheIield.
(
\
"'::::if ",.-- .,
/
I \''-_.-__
\', ./ 1 \
{ i \
/
I ;
\
\. / I
\ / /

Magneticfielddue toa barmagnet
AS/A-Level Physics
o;:i. Flonili!;"sIcji!z,llld rillealld the17I0ior c!JeLi are used in urder to dlslingui 5fl
a magnetic field lrom all cleclricjicld.
.. :c A magnetic held I1la)' bl' distinglmhed from all eJcctril fil'ld in th,l, J
l'ltarged paniclel'xperiences,1 lurl'l' in,1 lllJgltl'ticfield only whenit is I1llwlIlg
1n an electric lield, thl' saml' furl(:' alls Oll the charged piHticle whetheril IS
statioltarv urnlOVlllg. Du Itot forgl't thell the field linohavedirl'CliuJl.
magnetic field due to a coil or solenoid: see I7hlgllClic!IIIXdcnsilyduc10 a [('it
magnetic field due to a conductor: see maglletier711x dnlsuy
dllc 10 a !L1/'/;J strdl.'}hl wire. .
magnetic field strength: set: 11U18llCrie )lux dcrzsily.
magnetic flux: the product af the l71agnctie(7ux dcnsily and the Jrea normal to
the field through which the fit:ld is passing.
Fora magnetic flux density B at an Jnglefj to an area A. lhe magneticIlux r/J
is given by the equation
= BA sin{i
Area, A Area. A sing
7/ ----.B )"
Magneticfluxthroughanarea
The SI unIl 01 lllJgnetic flux is the weber (Wb) which is tesla metresquared
(1 Wb = 1Tm
2
). IfmJgnetic!luxdensityis modeiled as the uumber ufJinesof
mJgneticforce per unit area, then magnetic flux is the tolJl numberof ILnes
passingthrough anarea. Magneticflux is a concept vitJI [or the understanding
ofelectromJgneticinduction.
magnetic flux density (also callcd 'magncticfield strength'):a meas ure 01 the
magnitude (strength) ofa magneticfield.
Lines ut llldglll'tlC [urn' (flux Jincs) Jre u;,ed to represent a mJgnetic field, and
the closer togl,tiIer the lim's, the strungerthe field. Mdgnelic llux density call
be thuught 01 as the llumber of lines of 1ll,lgnetic for,.'I.: passing normally
through unit area. In the 51 system. magnetic flux demit)' is ctdined by
rdnel1ce tLl the mOIL1r <,jfee!. The unir (If maglwtic flux density is llle tesla (I)
'!1!l
ur weber per metre oquClred (WbIll-C). (See also !7lagncricj7l/x; I7wf}!7clic (ii/X
Imi:agc: c1ectrolllagnericinductioll.)
...
I
;'
-i
80
I!\l

, .
.

.. magnetic flux density due to a coil: thestrengthofa magnet.icfield causedby
a current-carryingcoil; the usual coils thatat:e studiedaretheflat coil and the
solenoid.
The flux densityB at thecentreofa flal coil of radius r haVingN turllS is given
by
B =PaNII2r
whereflO is the perll/cability offrcc spacc. The flux density B along the axis ofa
long solenoid haVing 11 turnsperunitlength is given by
B =Panl
In each case, theflux density is calculated on theaxis ofthe coiL atits centre.
The formulae assume that thecoils are in a vacuum, though, in practice, the
formulae alsoapply to coils in air.

/
!
Flat coil

Current 'up'
Solenoid
/
Direction of
magneticfield
Fingers grasping
coil in direction
ofcurrent
Magnetic field due to a flat coil and a solenoid
The direction of the magnetic field is found using the right-hand grip rule: if
\'UU imagine grasping the coil in your right hand, with your fingers pointing
in the direction of the current, then your thumb gives the direction of the
l1Jagnetic field.
AS/A-Level Physics

:. TiP When drawinga diagram of thesemagneticfields, startbydrawinga field

line a long the axis of the coil.
magnetic flux density due to a long straight wire: in a vacuumatadistance r
frolll a vvire carrying current I, magneticflux densityB is given by
B = p
o
Il2nr
wherepQ is thepnmcaf,iliiy ofJiw spacc.
:Fora wirein air, the formula is correctto loursignificantligures. The direction
of the magnetic field is given by Maxwell's corkscrew rule: ifyou imagine
screwinga right-handed corkscrewin thedirectionofthecurrent. thedirection
of motion of your thumb gives the direction of the magneticfield.
CurrentIn
wire
Magneticfield lines -
concentricCircles In
plane normalto
wire
Directionofrotation
ofcorkscrew
Magnetic field due to a long straight wire
TIP When drawing a diagram to represent the do notforget
thatthefield linesareconcentriccircles, withincreasing asdistance
from the wire increases- use a pairofcompasses! I
magnetic flux density due to a solenoid: see magnetic flux dcnsity'duc to a coil.
magnetic flux linkage (alsocalled 'flux linkage'): the product, ina coil, ofthe
magnetic flux passing through the coil andthenumberofturns on the coil.
Using themodel of magneticflux density as the numberoflines of magnetic
force per unit area, the magnetic flux is the total number of lines passing
through, orlinking, each turnofthecoil.Ifthis flux linksN turns (thenumber
ofturnsonthecoil), then themagneticfluxlinkageis N. The unitofmagnetic
flux linkage is the weber (Wb), althoughtodistinguish it from magneticflux,
it is frequently referred to as 'weber-turns'. Magnetic flux linkage is an
important concept in the understanding of electromagneticinduction. (See
also Faraday's law of cleciromagncric induction; LCl1z's law.)
magnets, law of: J simple law to determine whetherl1lagnetic polesattractor
repel, namely:
, like poles repel
) unlike poles at[l'act
magnification, linear: linear l1lagnificatioll produced by a lens where
'f" length ofimage
l11agm lCa[Jon 11! ='
length ofobject
, For an obJeCl, distance Ii frum a lens with llnage distancc l', the magnification 111
is given by
nI=\'!U
manometer: i1 device uscd tu nlCaSU1T pressure dilkrence.
It consists of aU-tube, partialfy filled with liquid (lllknsity I). One arm of the
manometer is connected to the pressurc SUI1p!\' and lhe other is left open to
the atmusphere.
AtmospheriC pressure
Pressure,
I
P-i

E
Liquid
densrly, p
Using the formula for pressure in a fluid
pressure p = atmospheric pressure + lip:]
where h is tbc difference in venical height 01 the liquid levels and g is the accel-
eratioll 01 free lall. The pressure differences that can be measured are dependent
on Ihe length of each arm of the U-tube and tbe density of the liquid used.
mass: a base quantity ill the SI system; its unit is the kilogram (kg).
It is a smiLJI" qualltlty and is a measure of il body's resistance to change in velocity"
Unless travelling al speeds dose to the speed of light. mass is constant and does
not depend on allY gravitational field. The weight IV 01 an object of mass In
undergoing free lall with an acceleration g is given by
W= IIlg
-;;P Do not conluse mass with LlI1WUllt 4 SUbS/Llllce. The latter quantity is
l11eilSllred IU 11101es.
mass defect: see bi/1ding energy, nuclear; /J7L1SS-LIll'19Y equivaiencl'.
equivalence: when an ubjcct acquires Jll ,1l1lUlIlll of energy (Jor
cxample, its killetic L'llcrgy incrcases), then its mJSS illcreilses,
This is L':'lnessecl in tL'nns of the equJtilJn
1'1 = (21'111/
wberL' 1'1 is tbe acquired energy, I'1I1l is the inCITdSl' in nlclSS and c is tit!:' spel'd
uf light. (S!:'l' als() IlIdSS de/L"d; biJ1dil1:} en('I",'I)'. /ll.1(lc<lI".)
Thc" wmd 'equiVJlelll'C' h illlp(lrlillll. Will'[1 Illl' slows down JIllI
l()sL's kinetic t'llergY, liS !1l,lSS decreases. Tlte !1l,lSS is [lOllost but it is dispersed
t::.....

AS/A-Level Physics
as tin equivalenl amULilll uf l'ncrgy. Mass and energy are eljuiv'alelll; there 1>
no cOllversiun from eIH:TfW 10 mass or vice versa.
mass number: see 11/.I<leoli mill/her.
mass-spring system: a 'yql'lll comistillg of a verticallwlical spring, ilxed al il'i
uppn end, from which is suspended a mass.
/ Support
j
:::>
:::> HE
:::>---
:::> sp
:::>
:::>
L Mass
For smalf vertical oscillations of the mass Ill, such that the amplitude uf the
oscilfatiom is less than the static extension c of the spring, the period T oi
oscilfatiull of the mass is given by
T = 2rrf(1Il1 k) = 2n {(elg)
wherc k is the spring constant (elastic cOllStant) of thc spring and.'l is the accei-
eration offree faii.
';.:;;_ The mass-spring system may be used to determine k dynamically rather
than by the static extension of [he spring. [t may also be used to determine g.
TP H you are asked to describe a method for the determination of 9 by free
falL do not describe a mcthod involving a mass-spring system: a mass-spring
system is not free fall.
material dispersion: the spreading OLlt of a lighl pulse as it travels along an oplic
}TIne owing to the lighl having different speeds in the fibre,
The refractive index uf the material of the optic fibre depends on the wavelength
oj light. Since refractive index is determined by the speed of light in the
material. then difkrl>lll wavl'lellgths will have different speeds in the fibre_ A
short pulsc of light entcring a fib[T will be spread OLlt according to wavelength
as it tr,web along the fibre" Tile pmbk[1l (If material dispersion can be overcome
by L1siug ll1unochromaliL' light, ,1S prudLlced by a laser.
Maxwell's corl<screw rule: sce corkscrClv ruk 1I-laxwcll '.I'.
mean kinetic energy: in an Ideal gas the mcan kinelic energy 01 a rnolecLlIe i5
proportiollal to the thermodynamic temperature T and is given by the
eApression
meall kinl'tic energy = <c
2
>= fkT
where k is the B"lcl1Iallll COIISI,lI:1l,
.....;
11'""

Essen6al Word Dictionary AS/A-Level Physics
NOll' tilell, at any particular temperJture, molecules of different gases have the
sallle meJll kinetic energy if they can be as being ideal. Their mean
sqllare speeds <c"> would be different. .
mean square speed: the mean, or average, value of the (rnoleculJr speed)"; its
symbuIis <c">.
Jf [1, c", (j, (4' [5 ... C
N
are the speeds at anyone time of N molecules of a gas,
then the mean square spet'd is given by
2
<c"> = (c
l
" +c/ +CJ2 +C4
2
+ C5 + ... cN")/N
Although mean square speed is defined above, it is never calculated using this
equation. There are roo many molecules! The value is, however. important in
the development of the kinetic theor)! ofgases.
e.g. Mean square speed is important when considering mean kinetic energy of
a gas molecule and pressure of an ideal gas.
:.: TIP Do not confuse mean square speed <c
2
> Wilh the square of the mean
speed <c
1
>: they are not the SJme quantity.
mega-: prefix used with a unit to denote the multiple of x 10
6
; its symbol is M.
3.g. I mega-electronvolt = I x I0
6
eV = I MeV. Mega-elecrronvolts may be used
to meJsure nuclear binding energies.
melting (also called 'fusion'): the change in stale of a substJnce from solid to
liquid without any change in temperature.
'The melting process, or fusion, involves the absorption of thermal energy by
the substance without any temperature rise -latent heat of fusion (see specifiC
1<ltent heat). This energy is needed to break some of the attractive bonds between
atoms and molecules.
meson: a partical composed of two quarks.
" The strong nuclear force between nucleons is transmitted through the exchange
of mesons. About 50 different types of meson have been discovered. Mesons
together with baryom form the group of particles known as hadrons.
metre, m: the base unit of length in the 51 system.
The metre is defined as the distance travelled in a vacuum by light during a
time interval of 11299792 458s, tllat is lie, where e is the speed of light. Note
that the speed of light in a vacuum cannot be measured. It is fixed by the
definition of the metre.
7"P Do not cunfuse the unit symbol m with the prefix m (milli-). The prefix
does nut have J space bet ween it and the unit whereas the symbols for two
units wOlrld have a sp,1Ce between them. For example, ms-
I
would be 'per
millisecond' whereas rn S-I is 'metres per second'.
micro-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
6
; its symbol
is IJ..
Capacitances are sometimes quoted in microfarads.
J microlarad = I x 10-
6
m = I
microwaves: electromaglleti, wm'cs with wavelengths in the range of about
10 cm to I III 111, lying bl'lwecll radio waves and ill(rared radiation in the clectro-
magnetic spectrum
Microwaves may be focused allc1 are used extensively for radJr Jlld for commu-
nication purposes, including satellite communication. Sume microwaves are
absorbed by water, whne the wave energy is converted into thermal energy.
Consequently, microwaves are hazardous to human hc;:l!th but are used in
'microwave ovens' forcouking.
milli-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
3
; its symbol is m.
,e.g. 1 millimetre = 1 x I O-J m = I mm.
T.IP Be careful not to leave a space between the prefix and the unit. The symbol
ill on its own represents metre. So, 2 illS means two milliseconds but 2 III 5
means two metre seconds.
Millikan's oil drop experiment: an experiment that enables the elemCl1tary charge
to be determined.
. Essentially, the apparatus consists of two horizontal metal plates between which
there is a potential difference.
Variable d.c.
supplyof
several kV l
t: !,I Je'" p,,,j!
I /
/ Light
Apparatus for Millikan's oil drop experiment
Oil drops are intrad uced into the space between the plates through a hole in
the top plate and then viewed using a microscope. The oil drops are charged
by friCtion from an Jtollliser. First, the potential difference between the plates
is adjusted until the drop is slationJry. Under these circumstances
apparent weight of drop = chJrge on drop x electric field strength
The drop is then alluwl'd [0 fall freely under gravity and acquires a terminal
speed due [() viscous drag. The drag fmce is given by SIiJ/.:es' law
apparent weight of drop = viscous drag
Knowing the density of the oil Jndlthe viscosity of the air. the charge on the
drop can be determined. Millikan measured the charges on many oil drops and
found that the chJrge was J!ways J lllultiple of 1.6 x 10-
1
" C. This villue of
charge was taken as the elementary charge.
moderator: a IllateriilJ (e.g. grilphile) used in il rl/crl11111 Jissicl l1 remr,'r to slow
down til(:' high-speed nl'l.llro!1S produced III lhe' tissioll reaCliof!, so that they
lI1ely CelU\l' lunher UsslOm oj urilniull1 nuell'! illigh-specd ne'LItrOm donol CJuse
the [iSSiOII ul urJllium-2J5).
The Iltl.ll!om cullide 1r1l'!asticillly wIth graphite' Iluclei, thus losillg SOI1lt' of their
Kinetic energy.
:-;,p Du nut cOlllusC' thl' moderalo! with the cIJlllr,,1 r'''is. Control rods absorb
neutruns.
molar gas constant: the constilJ1t ill the idelllgds IdW equatIlJl1, hrivell the symbol R.
For 11 mol of iln ide'll gas having a volurne Vat pressure p and thermodynamic
tl'mlwrature r. the molar gas constant R is given by
R=pVlnT
The Velllll' of R is S.31 J K-
1
mol-
l
, The mobr gas constant R is related to the
BollZlI1dll1l (Ol1st,1I1! I: and the Avogndro COIlShJll1 IVA by the expression
I: = RIN
A
mole: unit 01 measmeme'lJ1 of amount of subslJl1ct'; its abbreviation is mol.
(Jill' muk of any substililce cnntilins a nUllllwr of molecules (or iltoms if the
Subst,ll1le IS II!IJllillomiL') equal to the Avo8aclro C0I7Sh1Ilt. The mass, lllcasured
ill grc1nls, of onc moll' uf any substance is numerically l'qual to the relative
rnolecnlarl atomic ,veight of the substance.
,. The Illulecular wt'ight of nitrogen is 28 and so one mole of nitrogen has
mass 28 g.
moment: the turning effect of a force.
It is equal to the product of the force and thl' pcrpendicular distancl' of the line
of actioll uf the force lrom the pivut P (fulcrum). In the diagram, the moment
uf thc furce about puint P = Fd.
F
p-:/
,/ /
Moment of a force
The SI unit ulllIe mument uf a lorce is newtoll metre (N m). Moment is a
vedor '1II'II][il\l, being either c!ucKwisl' or all1lc1uckwise.
3. The lor'I!/(' uf a "ollplc is a 11101nelll,
Du I1UI CUl1fllSe lile unit ul ll1ul1lenl of a furce with that ul energy (the
joule), Buth are the pruduct 01 a Illrce and ,1 distance. In the casl' of momelll

AS/A-Level Physics
01 a lorce, thc force ilnd dis[ilnce are' al right angks. Fur energy, the force end
disl.1l1Ce moved arc along the same lint'.
momentum: tIlt' \.Hllclu\'l 01 the IlIass 01,111 ol>jeL1 ilno Its VeiOCil\l:
mlJnlcntulll = 1I1JSS x velocity
Sillce vdodl\' is ,1 l'l'c!,'rqlldlllif.\', []IOIIICllIUIll is ,1hll ,1 Vl'ClOI. Jl is sOlTll'limes
given tile wm[JoIIJ, and its SI unl! IS kilogram nH'trl' pl'l' st'cond (kg 111 ,-1\
(See also NCH'r,'11 's sccond 1m" o/mol1071; C"71StTl'LJtioJl vi llilCilr l11l'iIlClltWI1. prillCipi.:
,'I j<'l'cc; de Broglil' (<JlIarien.)
A (()mmon mistaKe is to define mumcntum as 'mass x speed'. Rerneml1er
thaI momentum is a vector quantity and must be ddined in IcrIllS 01 the
velocity of thl' object.
monochromatic light: light of one wavelength.
Taken literally, Illonochromatic liglll mCilm light uf une colUllr; 11lJwevcr,
colours mJy haw a rangc of wilvelength" so in physics 'monochroma tic' mea.DS
une wavelength.
Li1Sl'7' light b monochromatic.
motor effect: when a cLlrrel1l-carrying cunductor is at an angle 10 a maglletic
field, or a charged particle moves at an angle to a magnetic field, the conducLOI
or charged particle experiences a force.
Cun ent
-- ----/-
/T Magnetic
field
Force
Tile direction tl]' the furce is by Fleming's IcJI-izmzd rule. For a conductur
uf length L carryil1g current J at an angle (Ito a field uf nux dellSity
B, the lorce F ,lCung on lhe conductor is given by
F = BlL sinO
Simdilrly, cl charge 'I llluving elt speed \' .11 all angle () liJ a magnetic field ulllLl:\.
dellsity B is giVt'll by
F = Bill-' si nil
"'"
TIll" equJtiun F = BIL sinO is the basis olthe definition 01 the Slunil 0]' magnetic
tIll' dcnsity (the tesld, T).
Whell lISil1g Fleming's kit-hand ruk, renlt'ml'C!' that the second lingeJ
ill
pUilIlS illl,he dirn'tiun 01 conventitll1<11 cllrrent. When predicting the directioll
81
ii
II
--r'

of the force on electrons, the second finger points in the opposite direction to
the movement of the electrons.
....,,.
multipath dispersion: the change in shape of a light signal,(a pulse) as a result
of passing down an optic fibre.
Dispersiun resulb from light !akmg difkrenr routes along the fibre. Multipath
dispersion is reduced by making the fibre as thin as possible.
Cladding Core
/ /

Jl
Input
pulse
Output
pulse
nano-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
9
; its symbol
is n.
.>e.g. I nanometre = 1 x 10-
9
m = I nm. Wavelengths of light are frequently
quoted in nanometres.
natural frequency of vibration: the frequency at which an object will vibrate
when it is allowed to do so freely (i.e. with no external forces acting on it).
e.!). Resonal1ce occurs when the natural frequency of a vibrating object is equal
to the forcedfreque11CY of vibration.
neutral equilibrium: an object is in neutral equilibrium when it does not return
to its original position after it has been displaced slightly; its centre of gravity
stays at the same venical height.
e.g. When d small ball on a horizontal surface is displaced, it will roll away
and come to rest at another position.
'J TIP The difference between unstable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium is
that the centre of gravity falls for unstable equilibrium whereas it stays at the
same height when the equilibrium is neutral.
neutron: an uncharged panicle with a mass almost equal to that of a proton:
mass of neutron = 1.67 x 10-
27
kg
. Neutrons are found in the nuclei of atoms where, together with protons, they
are known as nucleons. The neutron is not a fundamental particle but is
composed of quarks. During bew decay of a nucleus, the number of neutrons
in the nucleus decreases by one and the number of protons increases by one.
In effect, a neutmn has decayed to become a proton and an electron:
on --Ip +_qe +energy
The reaction is possible because the di!lerence between the mass of a neutron
and thilt of il proton is ilbout twice the mass of ,lTI electron. Neutrons may exist
ol\tsiue the nucleus and are tben known as 'free' neutrons. Free neutrons are
responsible [or nllc/ear fi.l'.I'iol1.
neutron diffraction: a technique Hsed for determining crystal structure by
diJIrilctiol1 of a beam of neutrons.
n1
Till" wavekn!,lh of a neulron is rcla\\::d III its speed by the de Broglie eilzlOtiorl.
Aneutron with aspeedofabouT 4 x 10.
1
m,-I will howe awavelengthofabout
to-
10
m. This dlstilnce is about the saml' as the spacing <:If atoms in a crystal
I';eutrun dillraclion leLilIlJLjUeS 'IIT jl,lUlicularly usdul in the sludy llf crystals
cuntainill!, l1ydro!,en atOins. NelllWI1S Me sInlllg!y scaltered by hydrogen
alUiIlS. On the ulhcr hand, sudl ,11Ull1S ,c,llter X-rilYs only vcry weakly. (See
also .\-raydWi',7Clioll; elccln11l di//i,1l'lioll.)
neutron-induced fission: Sl"e lil/cicill
newton, N: the S111nil uf force; itis delinl'll ,1S ,hal lurcerequired 10 giveafreely
moving body il raTe of chilnge of momelllUln of 1kgms-
1
in the direction of
the lorce.
Allematively, tile newton nJay be defined as lhat force required togiveamass
of 1kg anacceleration of 1ms-
2
in the direction of the force.
-:,'r' Srnce lorce is a vector ilzlOntiry, when defining the newton it is necessary
to stale Ihat the change in momenlum 01' the acceleration take place in the
direction 01 the force.
Newton's first law of motion: a body stays at rest orcontinues to move at
constantvelocity unless a resullanl lurce acts on it.
Nute thatforces mayact on lhebody whenit is atrest ormovingwithconstal1l
velocity. Huwevcr. under these cirCUl1lSlanCes, there must be more than oue
force so thai IIIe forces are balanced li.e. there is flU resultant force).
S0;. An object 1,1lling al cunstant speed lhruugh <.Iir (its terminal velucity) is
obeyingNewton's first law uf motion.
Newton's law of gravitation: the mutual rorce or ,1ttraction between anytwo
pointmasses is proportional 10 the productof the massesand i.nverselypropor-
tionaltothe squareof theirseparation.
For two POilll masses M and m, wilh scparation r, the mutual force For
attri/ction is given by
F=GMmlr
l
where' Gis the lIllivendlcollstalltofgravitalion (C = 6J,7 x 10-
11
Nm
2
kg-
2
).
r;:o When statingthelaw, you mustspecily lhat Ihe masses are puintmasses.
1n practice, point Illassesare notpossible, but the lawapplies 10 masses whose
separaTion is much greater than theirdimensions (separation radius).
Newton's laws of motion: threelaws which sUJ1ll1hHise theerrectsurfOl'ces Oil
tlte J1]oliun 01 bOllies.
They ,1re the IUlld,ll1lL'nlal jll'inciples oj Nc'vvtunian mechanics. (See M:Wltlll '0'
jlrst 1,IW or IIw:il11l; NewtCII's Sl'c'lJJ1d law ef mot/en; Newtoll '.I' third Imv ,,/
IIlll li'"1.)
Newton's second law of motion: thL' (llchange ofmomentumPI' anobject
is pnlplll'lll'nal to the reslIllLlnl 101'(e anillg 'In the (l[ljeel and tc1kes pl'lee in
the direeliun uf lhe resulunt ruree.
AS/A-Level Physics
For<.I change ofmomentUl1l 6.p l<.Ikil1g pbcein time!'J.t, theresultantLoree Fis :"-
given by
F= !'1pl6.t
Momentum is the pruduct uf IllJSS 111 <.Ind velocity v. Iftbe mass oJ theol'jccr
is conslanT, lhen
F= !'1(ml')/M=m(6.vIM)
The term !'1vlM is rale of change ofvelocity, which, by definition. is accelera-
tion ,I. Thus, for Cllnstant mass ,
F =ma
The equations F = 6.pl6.t and F =, ma are theequations by which furce and IlS
unit, the newton, are defined.
.TJP Be careful to ddine Newton's second law in terms uf rate of of
momentum.Any definition basedonF= ma is a simplification in whichmass
is assumed to be constanT. This is not the case in, for example, a rockcl.
Newton's third law of motion: whenevera force actson a body, anequal bUI
oppositely directed force ofthesamekind acts onanotherbody.
Implicit in the laware theassumptions thatthe forces:
occurinpairs
;, Jreofthe same kind (e.g. magnetic. electric)
10 are of equal magnitude
.;) act along thesame line but in opposite directions
" act ondifferent objects
The lawaI'conservation ofmomentum is a directconsequenceof Newton'sthird
law.
C TiP The law is frequently summarised as 'action and reaction are equal bur
opposite'. However, thisis ratheranover-simplificationandshouldbeavoided.
node: a pointona stationary wave where the amplitudeof vibration iszero ora
minimum.
.. Thedistancebetweentwoneighbouringnodesis equal toonehalfwavelength
or the stationary wave.
normal: a line drawn atright-angles to anotherline ora surface.
When rderringto rellectiun orrefraction, the normal is a line drawnat right
angles 10 thesurface al the pointwhere the incident ray meets surface.
nuclear equation: an equation usingthe representation of individual nuclei in
orderto illustrate a nuclear reaction.
In anynuclearequation, 111tcleOll number, protO/1 nl/mber andmass-encl'gymllst
be Cllnserved.
...
9.;i. For the alpha decay oj rJdium (R<.I) to furll1 radon (Ril), [Ill" nuclear
equation IS

---- + +energy
iii
" conservationof nucleon number: 226 =222 +4
3
..
--r
I
I
I
I
.', cOl1Servation ofproton number: 88 =86 + 2
, (ol1servation of mJss-cnergyis cunfirmeo using Einstein's equation E=I11C
2
An l'lcctron is dl'nnted by _lie.
nuclear fission: thl' splittingofel IlIlc!CI/,I of high I1I1c1COl1lUllnZ,cr into two smJIler
nuclei of JpproxilllJtelyequJI mJSS with the rckJse ofenergy.
A l1L1ckus of uranium-235 ll1<1y be mJde to undergo fission when
bombarded by a neutron (this is known as induced fission).
2Jiu + bl1 ----""' ----""' + +2\111 + l' +energy
Note thelt the nuclei produced inthis fissio]\ rCJction are notalways and
but we do know that the resulting nuclei will be of approximately the
same mass and that tithtrtwo or three nl'utrons will be produced. (See also
chain reaction; bindill3 magy; binding energy per llucleO/I.)
nuclear fusion: thebuilding up ofalargernucleusfrom two nucleioflowl1ucleon
numbcr, with the release of energy.
In general, fusion reactions require very high temperatures and pressures.
Research into controlled fusion reactions is being conducted in the UK with
what is known as the JET nuclear fusion project (Joint European Torus).
DCLlIl'rJull1 fH and tritium1H are used as fuel to producefusion energy.
1H + jH iHe+ bn + energy
(See also bindingmergy, nuclear; bindingmer.']y pernucleon.)
nuclear reactor: see thermalfission reactor.
nuclear representation: ashort-hand means by which lhedetails of anucleus
maybe written down.
The elementis identifiedbyits chemicalsymbol; the numberofprotonsin the
nUClt'IIS is given by the pr%ill1umber Zand the total numberofprotons and
neutronsby the Ilucleon numberA. So thegeneralnuclearrepresentationofan
elementwithchemicalsymbol Sis 1S.
e.;;. The nuclear representation of lithium-7 is This shows that litbium-7
has three protonsand four neutronsin its nucleus.
:-J? The protonnumberalso gives the numberof extra-nuclearelectrons in a
neutralatom of theelement.
nucleon: the namegiven toeitheraprotonoraneutron (seealso JlUcle0l1l1lll11ber).
nucleon number (J!so called 'mJSS number'): the numberDf nucleons (that is,
protons plus neutrons) found in the nucleus of In isotope of all element.
Nucleon numberis giventhesymbol A Jnd is onl'of the two numbers used to
repl'esenta nucleus; the uthtrbeingtheprowlll1l1JllbcrZ. Ifthechemicalsymbol
ofan elemenl is S, then a nucleusof this elementwould be represented by is.
'.. ' The numberof neutronsin J nucleus is [ound by sublr,lcting thenucleon
l1umber fwm the proton number. For example, is allucleus oluraniulll,
91 protons Jnd 146 neutrons. The pruLon number aho gives the
numbl'r uf eleorons orbiting the nucleus of a neutral alom.
I
nucleus: the central Cilre uf an atomcontainingprotol1s and 11l'1i1r0I1S.
A nucleus hJS J diall1eter ol about la-
14
m (compare thal with an atomic
diameterofJbout iO-
llI
lll), Jnd contains the ffiJjority of the mJSS of theatom.
I
NucleJr material is very cleme (about J0
1
-1 kg m-'). A l1ucleus is positively
cllarged. High-energy eil'ctroll sCJl1ering has shown thJt the radiu:, I' of a
nucleus having a nucleon numberA is given by the expression
I' = roA
lIJ
where 1'0 is the radius of a hydrogen nucleus (about 1.4 x 10-
15
mi (See also
l1uclcaI' represL'll t'Jtion.)
nuclide: a paniculJr species (type) of nucleus that is specified by its proton
numberalld neutron number.
',iP Do not confuse nuclide with l1eutrOI1 [J[ nucleu,r (a neutron is a panicle
found within a nucleus).
ohm, n:the 51 ullituf resistance.
_, The resistJnce of a resi.tor is given by the word equation
potentialdil'ference (volts)
reSIstance (ohms) = -'--------------'-----'--
current (amps)
1Q=IVA-
1
- TiP Resistance is calculated by dividing putentiaJ differencebytheparticular
valueofcurrentit GILlSeS; it is notfound from thegradientofa graphofvoltage
against current.
Ohm's law: lora CiJnductoratconstanttemperature, thecurrentintheconductor
is proportional to the potentialdifferenceacwssit:
currcntI ex potentia] difference V
,.1-lence, V=IR, where Ris the resistance ofthe cunductor.
TIP The statement of Ollm's law oeals witliproportionality- the equation
V = IR is effectively the defining equation of resistance, not a statement of
Ohm's law
optic fibre: thin [ibn: madeofvery pureglass used for thetransmissionoflight
pulses overlong distances.
Lighttravelsalollg theopticfibre as a resultoftota!il1lerna/reflection. Thefibre
is very thin (a few in diameter) tq avoid I11I/!til'ilth dispersion.
.,'

/''-v "\
"/ '\\
\: /.-\' \ '. '>'
"r'
'. \ .
'0
/ '()- Cladding Core 'Y
Section through an optic fibre
e.g. In medical diagnusis, opticfibres an' usedin endoscopes lU illuminateand
view theinterioroj the body.
::.>:'
AS/A-Level Physics
-;OJ."' It L<; notnnly light that can bl' transmitted through npticfibres; in optical
cnll1nlulliG:llion, torexample, infrared radiatiull is usually lIsn!.
oscillation: a Hhliid-iro 11\\)1 "lm'I,! oJ ,1 particle abuLit a fixed point.
The particle moves away frum the li\.ed puinL slows down and SlOpS, then
relLlrilS tl) the pUltll, overs!Ju()ts ;md sluwsdUWll. 1t then rL'verses its direCliui1
ofllllJliull, returning10 the fiAL'd puin!.The completemUlioll is [[len repealec!.
l /:
\'
D tJ

An oscillafion about a fixed point
e,g. Oscillations of a simp!t pendulum bob; oscillations ofa point in a WilVI'
...

iii
"
I

Essential Word Dictionary I
i
1
.. _-, .,.,,"A' ;-'.r. .....

...,-,'
... ....
parallax error: il random error (uncertainly) broughtabout by not looking at
right-angles Lo a SCille when thescale reading is being taken.
ParaIlil>; errors shouldbeminimisedbyplacingaplanemirrorbehind the
scale orusing a set-square.
parent nucleus: a term used in nuclear physics to indicate a nucleus which is
trilnsformed WIth the emission of pmticles and/or energy to form another
nucleus (thedaughter Ilucleus):
parent TIl/cieus -> daughternucleus+particlesand/orenergy
parsec, pc; a unit of measurementofdistance inastronomy.
It is defined ilS the distance at which oneaslrol7omiwlunit (1 AU) perpendi-
cular to the observer's line of sight subtendsan angle ofonearcsecond:
I pilrsec = 3.09 x 10
16
m = 3.26 li!filt,years
AstronomiGl1 distances are so lorge that the megaparsec (Mpc) is often used.
pascal, Pa: the S1 unit for themeasurementofpressure ortensile streSs.
Onepilscal is equal to onenewtonpermetresquared (Nm-
2
). theforce being
normal to the area. The base unitofthe pascal is kgm-
I
S-2
path difference: theextraclistance thatonewavetravelscompilfed with anotller
wave.
This path differenceis usuallyexpressedin termsof the wavelengthofthe two
waves. Path differencegivesrise toa phasedifferencebetweenwaves. Fortwo
Wilves initially in phase and of wavelength A. a path difference x can be
expressed as
path dilierence = X/A wavelengths
phase difference = 2rc(x/A) rad = 360(xU) degrees
Path diI:erence is often thequantity thilt is used whenexpliliningiln interfer-
ence piluern. (Seealso fWo-source inwference; dljji'aL'/i,m!:JratiI1!f.)
pd: see p, l lmtlt1/<iifF'rellce.
peak value: seealtcnhllil1!:J currenlor vallil:!c.
pendulum: seesimplependulum.
penetrating power: wcatt<:llllilfioli.
AS/A-Level Physics

<-:.
period: tIle time taken to complete oneoscillation in a vibrating system.
Foraparticle undcrgomgSlJl1ple harmonicmotion. theperiod Tmaybe shown
un a dlsplilcemenl-time grilpil The Slunitof period is thesecond (S).
Displacement I
III(
a'p
T
Cl L.
\ IT \ In Time
I T
Periodofan oscillation
It can beseen from thegr'lph that period may be defined as the time elapsed
betweensuccessiveoccasionswhena particleis movingthruughthesamepoint
in thesamedirection. Period ofoscilliltion T (in seconds) is relatedtoJrequmcy
(inhertz! by theexpression
T= 1IJ
permeability of free space: a constant relating magnetic flux density Bat a
point to currentin a wire orcoil when in a Vilcuum.
The permeilbility of[rce space is given the symbolflO andits S1 unit is henry
permetre (Hm-
I
).
flo = 4rc x 10-
7
H m-
I
Foracurrent1, themagneticflux densityB isgiven bythefollowing equations:
'0 at distancer from a longstraight wire: B=flo
JJ2rtr
"; at thecentreofa flat coil of radius r havingN turns: B= flo
N
l/
2r
,> along theaxis of a long solenoid having 11 turnsper unitlength:B= POllT.
TJP It is quite likely that you are notfamiliar with the unit ofPo: the henry
is a unit associated with electromagnetic induction that is beyond most
AS/ A-level specifications.
permittivity of free space: theconst'antEo intheformula representingCoulOn? b's
law. namely
F = QI Q2/4rtcur2
The constant has thevalue 8.85 x 10-
12
Fm-
I
(farad permetre).
TiP It is sometimes useful to rcmember that 1/4rtc() =9 x I butbe cJreful
becilllse this result is to onesignificant figure. and dilta for ffiilny calcu!Jtions
aregiven to either tWt) or three signiIicant figures.
peta-: pre!ix used with il unit to dcnote the multiple of x 1015; its syrr;bol is P.
10
15
:'. 1petametre= I x 111 = 1Pm.
phase: ilD ilngle ineitherdegrces (0) or rJdians (rild) which gives il l11eilsure of
the fraction uf il cyclc tlhlt IlilS been completed hy an oscillating particleor by
a wave.
One orcycle correspondsto 360"or2IT rad. Foraphaseangle rjJ, the
fraction of the oscillation orcycle that hasbeen completed is given by
fraction = 1fJ/2IT. where if) is in rad
fraClion =/%0, where if) b ill degrees
ISlT aIso p/wsedilference.)
phasedifference:a nlcasure oj howmuch llllC' wave is outofstep withallOther.
Phase difJereIlce is measured in either degrees (e) l1r radialIS Irad). A phase
diHt'fel1ce of one cycle corresponds to 3('()O or 2IT rad. Itis important to state
whether the wave in question leads or lags behind the reference wave.
D,,,I,cem,c'b.
w,ceA 0: !\ I.
Time
I Vrvu
I it-
"-:'
Displacement,
wave B
Displacement,
waveA
Displacement,
wave 8
01/ \ ,i \ 1/
Time
or \ / \ /
x

.x
-
Determination ofphaseangte
AS/A-Level Phys ics
III the diagram, wave A kadswave Bby the phase angle rp given by
(p (rad) = 2rrWT) or2rr.(.\!A)
(/i (") = 360(i1T) or )(,0(.\1/,)
'1n phase' ,1 angle oj zero. 'Out of phase' rders lU cl phaseangle
thai is not zt>[o. Antiph<lse is tht, term used lur a phase difference of J80
0
[II'
Jt rad. (See a!su
Du nut conlllSe 'lead' and 'lag', fn the diagram, it may be thuught [hat
wave Alags behindwave B the ereSLS o[wave Aare further 1O the/eLt
than those 01 wave B. However, 'Lime' is plulled on thex-axis, so lurtherIdt
l11e,lllS an earlier time and hence ,1 lead.
photoelectriceffect:theejection ofan ekcLmnfrom ameta]surface whenthe
sudaeeis irradialcd with e!cclrol1wgnclicradiolion ofa high enough frequency.
The lowest frequency thatgives rise to theejeCllun ofelectronsfrom a particular
surface is knuwn as the thresholdfrequCl7cy. For many metals, this frequency
lies ill the ultravioletregionof the electromagneticspectrum, butfortheaikali
metals, it lies within the visible region. The following observations are made
for the phutoeleclriceHect:
,; theplllltuelectricellect is notol;served fur frequenciesless than the lhresl1(]ld
lrequency for Lhat surface
" the maximum kinetic energy 01 a photoelectron depends on the Irequel1cy
PI' the incident radiation and no[ on the intensity uf the radiation
;, at constantfrequency, therate ofejection ofelectronsincreaseswithincrease
of intensity of the incident radiation
" the ejection of an electronoccurs within a very short time of the arrival of
the radiillion (Jess than 1!lS)
These observations cannot be on the basis 01 a wave nature for
electromagneticradiation and rise to theconceptofa photon asaparticle
uf electromagnetic radiation, The kinetic energyofa photoelcctron is related
to the threshold frequency and other [actors by the photoelectric effect
equation.
photoelectriceffectequation:a statement of the lawofconscn'ation ofmogy,
related to the photoelectriceJfect.
Fur ,1 p!zoton of light incident on a meLa! surlace, some of the phoLon energy
will be Llsed III provide the worl:(1IIIl'/i"1I l'Ilcrgr (the energy required to eject
an electron from the surface) and, for all electron at the surface of the metal,

thl' remaindero[ theenergywiU be seenas kineticenergv.This kinctic
is a maximuill. The photoeltctricequdlion can be written ,1S
..
phuLOn = wl,rk function + maximum kinetic
energy energy enngy01 elecLron
hl'= lifo +(+I1IV

2
)",0,
wherelisLile frequency of the incident radiation.;;; is the llircsholdjieqllfncy,
.,J
01/ \ ,I \,/
II
II
-I

: i
j?,:::<
his rhe Phll1Ck COl1Slm71 and 11171,2)lllo" is the kinetic energy of In
t'milted eleclron. The product 11/0 is equJ,1 LO the work function
EkctrollS below thesurfJcewould I'(:'quir'e energyto bring(hem to thesurface
and thus would have less \-..inl:'tic ent'l'gv.
0 ..::. Till:' photoelectric ellen provllks a simple 111i",lnS by which the Pldnd;
const,lnt II may be determined.
photon: aquantum of elcctl'(lI11Jgm'tic energ'y'.
LlCh Ljuantum ur 'pJcket' is adiscrete qUJntity of energy, dependent unly on
the frequency of the radiation. Phuton energy E is related to [rt'quencyfby
the exprt'ssion
E= hf
where h is thePlal1ck COilSlal1l. Since frequency is related 10 wavelength ), and
thespeed Coflight in a vacuum by the expression c =P" it follows thai
E=hf= hcU
Increasing the intensity of J beam of e!ectronlclgnetic rJdiation of one
frequency meJns thatthe rJteof,1lTival of photollS hasincreased. Eachphoton
still hJS the SJme energy; however, where the frequency of the radiation
increJses but the intensity relllains constant. the photon energy wilJ increase
and the rate of Jrrival of photons wilJ decreJse.
pico-: prefix used with a unit to denote the sub-multiple of x 10-
12
; its symbol
is p.
1picofarad =I x10-
12
F=1pF. Sl11all-vJlue capJcitJncesare often quoted
in picolarads.
pitch: the subjective perception of thefrequency of sound.
Pitch is often thought to be the same as frequency but, more precisely, it is
wbJtwe beJrwhenfrequency is interpretedby ourears andbrain.ThJtis, it
is the ['esponse of the eM to a pJrticular [requency of sound.
Planck constant: a vJlue thJt relates tbe energy of a plzolol1 to its frequencyf;
its symbol is h.
The energy E is given by
E =h(
The p!Jnck constanthas the vJlue 6.63 x 1O-}4J s.
plasma: the fourth state of matter, consisting of tree electrons Jnd Jtoms from
which the electrons hJve been stripped.
AplJslllJ exists onlyat very bigh temperatures.The thernlJIenergy is so greJt
thJl electrons hJve broken tree of the nuclear Jltraetion, giving rise to free
electrons ,1nd positivt' ions moving randomly at very high speeds,
PbsmJis important in nuclcdI' reJctions in thesunand in theJET Illlcicor
fusion proial,
T'p Plasllla physics is not studiedat ASIA-level; however, you should be aware
of the existence of a plJsma in Drlkr to understand nuclear fusion reactions.
AS/A-Level Physics
.',
plastic deformation: J pennJnentchangein shapeor size ofJ sJmpleof material
when the sJml'1e has been understress.
The 1l1,1lerial undergoes a chJnge in internal structure.
plasticity: the tendency01 Inobil'Ct orasamplt'of IllJteriJllll reLJiu anychJnge
in shape orsize when Jill' deforming [mcesarl' removed from it.
PI,lOtiOlY IS the uppusite ul elm/icily.
Poiseuille's equation: In equation thJt gives the volume flow rJte o[ fluid
through acylindrical ripe.
For a pipe uf rJdius ,. aud length I
volume flow rate = (rrISIJ)/A(pJl)
,
.\"
where p is the pressure difference between the ends of the pipe and '7 is the
coefIicienl oj viscosity of the fluid. Note thill the fluid flow must be streamline.
The dependence of flow rate on the fourth power of the rJdius shows the
crucial role of radius on [low rate.
polarisation: where theosciIlJtionsinawaveareconfined to onedirection only,
the direction beingat rightanglesto thedirectionof prOpJgatlonof thewave_
Only trJnsverse waves lllaybepolJrised.Polaroid sheetsmayhe used to polJrise
a beam o[ light (eiCCII'OII1<lfJl1flic nldiatiol1). A PolJroid sheet allows theelectric
vector in one direction only to be trJnsmitted. This direction is referred 10 as
tIle direction of polarisation. Whep a second sheet of PolJroid (called 'the
anJlyser') is introduced behind thefirst sheet(called the 'polariser') Jnd rotJted,
the intensity of trJnSmilledlight is reduced, becomingzeroatthepointwhere
tbedirection 01 polJrisation of the two PolJroid sheetsJreat right Jngles (the
PolJroid sheets JreSJid to be 'crossed').
Polaro,d sheet
//
1
Unpolansed t..... II
light
Analyser
"',"",,,
I
C
transmission
u"pc'",'''d...Jf (I. t
No
light ...
d
'v
v
,/
Polarisation of light
Microwaves mJy be polamed using J metal grid. The electric vector parJllel
to the lines of the grid is Jbsorbed.
co.. :;' Light is polarised on rdlection Irom asur[Jce- hence the use of PolJroid
sunglasses to reduce glare.

10;
TJP II i, a common misunderstanding tbJt J diffrJction grating produces
polarised light- with the lines ot tbe grJtjng acting J, apolJl'iser- this is
nut su. RcmembnIllat poIJn,a[ionis J phenomcnonJssocidted vvith trJnsvcrse
wave's unly.
Polaroid: c1 llIJllu[Jcturn's!lamefor sheets uj J nl\[uccllulosemJterialcovered
with cryslJ1, ut quinine iodosulphatc lhJt polarises light.
All thecrystalsJITlined up and theelectricveuorof tlw light (an clcctrom'lg71ctic
wavc) In the directiun of the crystals causes eleuronsin thecrystals to vibr,lte,
tbus absorbing the energy associated with th,lt vector. TI1e electric vector
norl11JI to tbe direction 01 alignmentof the cryslals i, transmitted.
polymeric material (also called 'polymer'): J mJterial consisting of molecules
comprising lung chJinsof atoms.
Such mc11eriJls Jrc capable ut large.mains vvithoUI breaking. Different values
of strJin are obtained 011 increasing and then decreasing thestress.
Stress
Strain
Stress-strain graph for a polymeric material
e.g. Rubber is a polymeric material and has J breaking strilin of around 5
(compilre this with copper. Wllich has il breilkingstrilill uf about 0.05).
positron: oneof the fundamental particles, havingthesamemassas aD electron
but with apositive charge equill in milgnitude to that of the electron.
potential difference (pd): [heenergyperunit ch,uge translerred [romt'!ectrical
energy to some other form when charge pJsses through an electrical
L'(ll11poncnt:
eneruy tr,\I1sferred W
potellli,l! dilference V = --<:'-------
chilrg!:' Q
Thc putenliJl difference is meilsuredilcross thl' cumponent. The SI Uilit 01
pl1lenlial dillerenl'e is jouleperulu!omLJ (J C-
I
) or\'olt (V).
:"::0 Remcmberthill the energy Iransler j, Irom clectricilllOSOllie othnform.
ThiS is imfH)rl,ll1l when distinguishing between po\ellLial dif!erence and eil'ctro-
l77tH!1 '('
potential divider: two resistors (Unllelted in series with asupply vo!ti:lge.
TIll" p(ltcllti,rl d,jftTCI1CC (pd) across eJcll uj the tWll rL'sisturs is It'ss thJn the
l'ICL'lr"lIlotivc jorce (L'mf) of the stIppl v.

... -:..:-
AS/A-Level Physics
R
2
T
E ,
V
R
1
1
0
Forthe circuit shown in the diagram
pd across RI VI R j
emfofsupply =IF = R
I
+R
2
Ifthe resistorR
2
is replaced withathermistor, alight-dependent resislO r orastrain
gauge, theoutputvoltageacrossR[ is dependentontemperature,lightintellsity
orstrain, respeCTively.
_: e.g. One type of potenrial divideris apotentiometer.
n
---
E -: , I
_:
1
I
AJ
6Variable

I
A potentiometer circuit
Avariilhle direct voltage maybe obtained from afixed stlpply voltage. Moving
the sliding contact from A to B in the circuit illustrated increases the Oll[put
from zero to E.
:-:,'" f'ememberthilt. in thediagrilJ11 of the potelltiJI divider. as the reslstClnce
uf R: increClses, the vultage Clcross R[
potential gradient: the riltl' of change of dectricputential with dist.:ll1ce: 51
unit is volt per metre (V m-
1
).
Fur pc1rallcl conducting plclles whuse' dimensions are lilrgl' comp<lred wi!h
tlleir separJtiun, the electric field between the plates is as shown in IJ1e
diagram.
,.
Essential Ward Dictionary AS/A-Level Physics
1
;-:P For the pOLentiometer to 'balance' (l.e. nocurrentin tbegalvanometer),

r+V
the emf01 Lhe drivercell must he greaterthan thatof the cell under test.
I
((ir' j Ii j IJj 1)1\
\1 III I I rI /
Electric field between parallel plates
Over the majority of the space between the])Iates, the electric field lines are
paralleland equallyspacedandthus tbe electricfieldis uniform. Fortwosuch
plates, separatedbydistancedand witha potentialdifferenceV betweenthem,
Lhe electricfield E between the plates is given by
E=V/d (the potentialgradient)
In many calculations, the 'edge effect' where the field is non-uniform is
neglected.
potentiometer: seel'0tcl1tidldivider.
potentiometer, slide-wire: i1 devicc used[orthecompaIisonofpotcl1tialdifferenccs
orr:leclrolllOtivc./'ncr:s.
Itconsistsofa uniform homogeneouswire connectedto a lJi1ttery (drivcrcell).
The potential difference along the wire is proportioni11 to the length of wire,
providcd thecurrel1lin the wireis constant. WiththecellofemfE] connected
as shownin thedii1gri1m, thegalvanometer(milliammeter) showsnodeflection
when the sliding contact (jockey) is i1t X andPX=L
I
. Fora second cell ofemf
" the lengthPX forwhich therewillbenocurrentin thegalvanometeris L
2
Then
E]/E2 =L]/L
2
Driver
,Icell
A slide-wire potentiometer
power: the rilte ofdoing wol'!, or the ratt' of translerof t'ncrgy.
It is defined hI' the word cqUdt]on
wol'!, dont'
power=
. time taken
or
energy transferred
power= time ti1ken
Power is a scali1r quantity and, in the 51 system, is measured in watts (W)
where I W = 1JS-I. Since WN!: is the product offorce Fand displ<1cCl1IfI1t x, if
this workis done in time t, tllcn
power= Fxlt
Butx/tis velocity v, and hence
power=FI!
Note thatvis thevelocity in the direction oftheforce. ElcctricpowerPis related
to potentiJI difference Vand cllrrentI by the expression
P= VI
power of a lens: the reciprocJI of tile focal length of a lens, when thc focal
lellgth is measured in mctres.
The unitoflens poweris thedioptre (D) orm-].Thus, a diverging!ensoffocil1
length25cmhasfocal lengthf=- 0.2'5m andpower- 4.0D. Foracombination
of lenses in contact, the total power is found by addition of the individual
powers.
TiP Remember to apply the sign convention (see lens formula for more
information).
precision: a Lerm used to describe the level of uncertainty in an instrument'S
scale.
.A metre rule will have a precision of :t1 mm, whereas a micrometerscrew
gaugeis preciseto:to.OJ mm. Manyinstrumentshi1ve a precision that exceeds
their accuracy Although a digitJI voltmeter may have a precision of :to.01 V,
its readingmaydmerfrom the true vi1lue by 0.1 V
TlP Do not confuse precision with accuracy. An instrument may be precise
(i.t'. have small scale divisions) butstill be inaccurate (give readings far from
the true vJlues).
prefix: used with SI system units to indici1te a lllultiple ora sub-multipleofthe
quantity.
Each prefix has a symbol which IS written in front of tht unitsymbol.
0'.;'. Theprefix milli- indicJles one-thousandth (x 10-
3
) Jnd hilS the symbol n1.
A millimetre (mm) is olle-l!loUSJlldth ofJ metre.
Prefix Symbol
peta x 10'" P
lerCl x 10
'2 T
glga x 10" G
mega x 10" M
kilo '!' 10
3
k
centl c x 10-2
milll x 10-
3
m
micro x 10-
6
I-l
nano x 10-
9
n
pica 10-
12
p
femto xl0-
15
f
- T:P Note that all prefL\:es indicating a multiple of the quantity are capital letters,
except lor kilo (k), while those indicating a sub-multiple are lower-case letters.
When writing down the prefix to a,unit. do not leave a space between the
prefix and the unit: Tm means terametres but Tm means tesla metres!
pressure: force per unit areiJ, where the force is JClIng at right angles to the area.
- For iJ force F acting rlOrmally on area A, the press ure p is given by
p = FIA
The Sl unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equal to 1 newton per
metre squared (1 Pa = 1N mol).
e.g. Pressure in a fluid and pressure of an ideal gas.
,TiP Do not deIine pressure as the force acting at right angles to a unit area.
The ratio of force to area must be made clear. Also remember that pressure is
defined in terms 01 a force normaI to an areCl.
pressure in a fluid: pressure in a fluid acts in all directions and is transmitted
through the fluid; it is a scalar (Iuall/ity.
. for an incompressible liquid of densily Ii (in kg m-
l
), the pressure p (in Pal at
depth h (in m) in the liquid is given by the equation
p = pgh
where g is the acceleration of free fall. This formula does not apply directly to
gases because. since gases can be compressed easily. their density increiJses with
depth. The pressure in the EiJrth's atmosphere varies exponl"lltially (Jpproxi-
ll1ately) with depth.
pressure law: the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is pro-
portional to its thermodynamic temperature.
fur ,1 ol gas hClvlIlg pn:,ssLlrc 1'1 ,11 thermodynamIc temperature T
1
and
pressure 1'1 attelTIperalUrt' T
2
with tl1e volume remaining constant,
p ex T and piT = constam
AS/A-Level Physics
Wc can also say that
pJT
I
= p"IT2 = constant
Tlw LlIv was discovered by experiment and is largely the work of Gay Lussa<:
The L1W applies 10 all gases as IOllg as they arc at a SU1JICiClltly high temperaLUI'l'
- the al'[ualtel1lper,lIUl-C bcing depcndent on the gelS itself. The pn:ssure law
applics tu oxygclI ami nitlOgcn ,11 roOIll temperature but not 10 cClrbon diOXide.
Tile Iiisturv 01 [11(' expnimelltaJ discovery is complicated by the dc' VciOjllllCl1L
of tCl1lperallllT sl'ales. The origmal work was not done in terms of thermo-
dynamic temperature. (See Jlso ideal.'Jos low.)
';j;-; Remember that the bw applies to Cl lixed mass of gas at constilllt vulLlIJ1t".
pressure of an ideal gas: pressurc that is related to the mean squ(]re speed <c
l
>
of the molecules by the expression
pressure p =+p <c">
where p is the density of the gas.
II the number of molecules per unit volume is n and each molecule has mass
m. then
2
I'=+P <c > =+Ilm <c">
The import,tnce uf these equations is that they link properties or individual
mulecuks (e.g. mean square speed) 10 a property of the whole gas (i.e.
prcssure). (See also kinetililteor)' ofgoses.)
principal axis: a line drawn at right angles to the plane of a lens lhrough iLs
cel1lre.
, Planeofconverging lens
I
PrinCipal
aXIs
I
,
,
,

,
,
: PrinCipal
, aXIs
,
,
R
,--------- Plane of diverging lens
Principal axis of a lens
Itgives the initial direction 01 light when defining principal fOCUS.

102

Essential Word Dictionary j
AS/A-Level Physics

principal focus (,l1so called 'focalpoint'):thepoiilt to which rays oflight, initiaHy
paralleland close to theprinCipii! <lxi:;, conveLge (orfrom which theyappearto
diverge) afterpassing througha lens.
Converging
lens '----'" focus I
I 4@ ::,';"po
Diverging

/ .; _< _ , Pflncipal
__ aXIs

Pflnclpal
focus
Principal focus of a lens
Thedistance from thecentreof thelenstotheprincipal locusis known as the
focal lengthof the lens. (See also !eIl:; formula.)
principle of moments: for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of all the
clockwise moments about any puint must equal the sum of all the anticlock-
wise moments about that same point.
-;';,'0 Rememberthat a statemcntof the principle of moments is only one of
the two conditions that must be fulfilled lora body to be in equilibrium (the
otherbeing that the algebraic sum of theforces acting on the object in any
directionmustbezero). When solving problems usingthisprinciple,it is often
helpfulto writedowna wordequatiun listing all momentsbeforesubstituting
values. Taking momentsabouta pointthrough which a force acts means that
the momentofthat force abollt the point is zero; the force does notenterinto
the eljuatiL1Ji for moments about that point.
principle of superposition: when two waves meet ilt a point, the resultaJ1[
disl'!aCCI!lC111 is equal 10 the veCWI sum o[ the individual displacements.
The two waves must be of tIJe Sallle type (sound, electromagnetic, etc.) and,
il theyalT lrLlIlSI'C/"se \1'IlI I L'S, the direction of theirpohlrisatioll mustbe the same.
The principlecanbeused tu explain theformation ofstdti011Llry waves and
illle/feren.:e jliltterns.
Displacement
R",,'''", b

1
Displacement i
I V \ Time
U(\
. , ..
Superposition
TIP Do not confuse superpositioll with constructive or destructive interfer-
ence.Theprincipleofsuperpositionis a statementofhow two wavescombine.
progressive wave: a waveinwhichenergyis carriedfromonepointto another
by meansof vibrations oroscillations within the wave.
.Particles within thewavearenot transportedalongthewave.In a progressive
wave, neighbouring particles vibrilte with the same amplitude but are out ot
phase.
9.'.]. Sound waves ande!ectromdglletic waves are both progressive waves.
TJ? You may be asked to compare the properties of stationary waves and
progressive waves. II so, you mustinclude in your discussion energy trallsfer
and the phaseand <:llnplitude ofvibration ofpanicles.
projectile motion: the resulta.l1l motion ofan objectwhenit is free tomove in
both the horizontal and vertical directions.
When analysing the motion of a projectile, the horizontal motion is treated
independently of the vertical motion so that the equations of motio71 can be
applied.Assumingthatairresistancemaybeneglected, theobjectwill continue
with consta.nt speed in the horizontal direction. In the vertical direction, the
objectwill have the acceleration of free fJIl.
If <:In object is projected upwards from groundlevel, the time to return to
groundlevel is twice the timeto reach lllaximum height. At maximum height.
the vertic<:ll velocity is zero.
proton: a panicle havinga positive chilrgeequalin magnitude to thecharge on
an electron Jnda I11<:lSS approximately ellua] to that of a neutron:
charge all proton + 1.6 X 1O-
14
C
mass of proton 1.67 x 10-
27
kg
ProtOIlS and neutronsarecollectively referredtoas nucleons. Aproton is not a
'1-=::--1
AS;A-Level Physics
fundamental p:1rticle but is composed of quarks. The lightest isotope of
hydrogen has d single proton as its nucleus ..
proton number (<:Ilso ealku 'Jlllmie number'): the number 01 prolons fllund in
till' nucleus of an iltmn
Prolon number is given the' sYl1lbul Z 'lild is 111](' lllthe (wo numbers used III
represent a nucleus, the other being the IIII,'leoII II/lmber A, Ifthe ehel1licill
symbol uf iln element is S, then <:I nuclell> althis elcnlelll would be represented
by ~ S
':'; TIP The proton number also gives the T1lllllber of electrons orbiting the nucleus
of a neutral atom.
'........--- -:-
" ..;.' ~
::,:1
quantisationofcharge:a term referring to the fact thilt charge is nOl a cOIltin-
uously varia ble q uantit y.
TIlt' smallcst cllJnge ill charge is known as the elfIJlCl1tLll)' charge, <:Ind lias the
magnilLlde of the charge on <:Ill electron, (See also Millikan's oil drop experimmt.)
quantum:see photol1; Planck constant.
quark:a fundamental particle th<:lt cannot exist separalely but only in p,11rs ur
triplets.
Six different qUilrks, and their correspondi'lg al11iquarks, have been idcl1lilkd.
Of importance in AS/ A-level physics a n ~ the up-quark, which has a chilrge 01
+fc, and the down-quark, which has a charge of -teo
e.[;. A proton is cumposed of two up-quarks and one down-quark. A 11CUtTDI'I
consists of one IIp-qllark and two down-quarks. (See also bm)'QI1: meson.)
..
~ ':"? rl
then
A =Aoe-i,t =Aoexp(-At)
where Au is the initial activitv (i.e. at time 1= 0). The equations may also be
wntten in terms u!lzc1lFIi!e tf' since I,t += In2, and so
N =Noexp(-t In21t+J
and
A = AoexpH
radioactivity: see radioactive dewv.
radio waves: elcctrom,Jg71etic H'avcs with wavelengths that are longer than
about 10 cm.
Theyarepruducedbyaccelerating (oscillaring) electrons.
Radio wavesare llsed lorcommunication.Theyarealso emitted bysome
aSlrollol1licalbodies.
random error: see IIIzcertainty.
random motion: th,' erraticand unpredictable' motion 01 anatomor molecule
in a liquid ora gas.
Neither the speed nor the tlirection oT a particular atom or molecule can
be predicted. The atom or molecule repeatedly changes speed and direction
as a result oj collisium with other atoms or molecules or the walls of the
tontalller.
9.;']. Brownian motion of small particles in a fluid results from the random
motion ofmolecules of the fluid.
randomness: a tnl1l used to describe the nature01 radioactivedewy.
In ,my sample of a radioactive materiaL it is not possible to predict which
nucleuswill decaynext and thusthedecaysappearrandomlythroughout the
sample. Although the decays in the sample may be random, any nucleus has
a constalH probability ofdecay perunit time, referred to as thedecay constant.
TFF Do not confuse randomness with spolllamity.
rarefaction: a region in a medium where the pressure is belowaverage.
Rarelactions oftenassociated with sound waves where a series o! rarefac-
tions and compressiol1s move outwards [rom a sound source, carrying wave
energy.
'",e;. A!ol1gitudil1a!lv'll'eis made upofa seriesofrarefactionsand comprcssiol1s.
ray: thedirection in which the energy 01 a wave is travelling.
Rays are drawnat right angles to wOlcli-onts.
Do not lorget that a ray has a direction and hence arrowheadsshould be
drawn on rays.
rectification: the means by which alternilting currenl is Ctll1verted imo direct
current.
Hilll-wave rectificiltioll l11ay be achieved using the circuit shown in diagrillll
(a) below.
-1'1::::'
l,v
AS/A-Level Physics
Diode
V
s
-
t
RU1V
p
r I
(a) Half-wave rectification
Assuminglhatthediodeis ideilJ (it hasinfiniteresistanceinonedirectionand
a smalllinile resistance in the other), the snpply voltage Vsand the voltage
across lhe resisttll" V
R
wilJ be ,1S shown in (hi.
':h {\ L.
'"b '0 r.
0, Time
(b) Output voltage for half-wave rectification
Notl.: that rectification means that the current or voltage is in one direction
only; it doesnotmeana constantcurrentorvoltage. Full-wave rectilication is
achieved usinga bridge rectifieras shown in (C).
I
A D
v
s
1
I
I. j
------ V
R
Ii
(c) Full-wave rectification

I
l1li

'-'-'

!'JI\O

.": _.
radial field: il field of force inwhich the field lines eitherdiverge from il point
orconverge to a point.
The field becomes progressively weilker with increilsing distance from the
point.
e.g. Theelectric field due to a point charge and the gravitational field due to
a point mass Me examplesofradial fields.
radian, rad: a unit for themeasurementofilngle.
Olle rildiJIl is that angle subtended at thecentreofacircle by an arcequalin
length to the radius.
1rad
Radian measure
Sil1ce thecirculllferenceofacircle is 01 length 2il: 1", then thereMe 2nl"II" = 2il:rild
III one t-evo]ution and 360
0
= 2nrJd.
radioactive decay (also called 'radioactivity'): the spontaneous decay of a
llucleus with the emissionofan alphJ particle ora beta particle, and usually
ilccump.:Jllied by the emission ofJ gamllla ray photon.
The radiOJctive milteriaJ COnlJiIlS unstable nuclei that decay to form an
i>OlOpe of illluther element. Gilll1ma rilY photons are emitted so that the
AS/A-Level Physics
new nucleus is llot in illl excited energy stilte. The new nucleus may, itself.
be radiuactive
Alphd dewy, hcla dCCd!' (St'l' Jlsn hal(h(c; I"adi,ldctivc ,Iced\'CDI1S/(II1t).
T,'.:; The isolupe elllilling till'alph'l rJrticleorbc,ta particle and/orgamma ray
phlllon IS radioaClive; the l'nliss!()nS themselvL's arL' nul rJdioactive.
radioactive decay constant: the probability Dr decay per unit time oj a
nucleus.
The dL'cay constant is fundamental to the understanding of radioactive decay
in thal the process is spontaneousand random. The decJyconstantexpresses
this randomness. If. in asample ufN nucleiofa radioactiveisotope, dNnuclei
decay in a time dt. lhen the probability of decay is -dNIN. (The minussign is
necessilrY because[he numberof nuclei is decreasing.) Therrobabilityofdecay
per unit time is given by
(-dN/N)/dt
and this is equal to the decayconstantA. Hence,
A=(-dNIN)/dt
Re-arranginggives
dNIN =-Adt
Thesolution of this equation is an expDnential function and is given by
N =No ell
This equatiun is the radioactive decay equatiol1. The equation
A= (-dNIN)/dl
may be re-arranged in the form
dNldt=-..I.N
Since dNldt is the rate of decay of the nuclei, that is, the activity of the
sample, the activity A is related to [he number N or nuclei present by the
expression
A =-..I.N
The decay constant Ais related to the half-life of the rildioactive isotope by
the expression
= In2 = 0.(,93
TJP Although the decay constant is related directly to what is rneal1l by the
randomness of radiuaetiI'e decJy, the decay constant cannut be measured
directly. Instead, hall-life is determined Jnd then the decay constant is
cdlculated rrom this.
radioactive decay equation: an e(]lIJtion thal relates the number N of
radioactive nuclei l"emaining aftertime I to the initiaillumberNo:
N=Noe-;.! =Nuexp!-At)
Since the acrivirl' A,,[the sdmple is l'eldled to the l1umber of lluclei presel1lby
the expression
A =-..I.N
l
Normal
Angle of
InCident ray
Hlc:dellce
I ,
Medium 1
Speed c,
Medium2
Speed c
2
Refracted
ray
Refractionoflight
The first lawis simililr to the first Jaw of reflection and tells us that rdrilction
is atwo-dimensional phenomenon thatGan be fully representedonaflilt piece
of paper. The second law enilbles the direction of tbe relrilcted ray to be
determined.
sinilsinr;II
where /1 is a constant[orthe wave passing from one medium to anotherand
is knuwn as the refrocliw index. Refraction is a result of a change in speed of
the waveas it travelsfrom onemediumtoanother. Refractive index is related
to the speedsbytht'equation
71;'1/c2;sillilsinr
Note that, if thewilve passes from medium2to medium Ltherefractive index
2111 is related to the refractive index 1112 for the wave passingfrom medium J
to medium 2 by theexpression
2 nl;11 1112
e.g, The refractive indexfor light travellingfrom ilir toglass is aboutt andfor
light travelling from air to wateraboutt.
refractive index: iI propertydefined using the laws of refraction (see refraclioll
oflig17 I, !mvsof).
Considera wave trilvelling ilcruSS it boundarybetween two media. Thespeed
of the wilve in medium I is c\ and ill medium 2is C2'
Medium 1
Speed (,
, I
Medium 2
,
Speed c,
: ; ~ : : - ~ .
AS/A-Level Physics
In medium L the angle of incldl'nce i, i, illll! in medium 2 the angle of
refraction i,r. Therefrilctive inde:.: Ill,tor the Wdve traveillng [rom medium
to medium 2is
III,;sinilsinl;,'I(c,
TJll' refractive imiL':.: ,Ill whentravl"1hng 110m l11edium 2t(, ml'dium 1is related
1lJ III:hI' the l':\prcssi()]1
,Ill = lilli,
C).;,. Refraetivc' imie:.: is the bJsls [or the understilnding 01 critico! <lng!e, lold
infernoIreJleetioll, rdh'lingprisms and opticfibres.
resistance. electrical: the ratio o[ the pOlentio!difference Vacross a component
to the current 1through it.
resislilnce R ; VII
ResistJnceis measured in 011111 (Q). Formost electricJI components, resistance
chJngeswith temperature.in the region ofroom temperature, ml:'liJls generally
show a slight increase 01 resistance with ternperilture rise. (See also !(qlzt-
depel1denl resiSlor; tlzcrmiS{(1r.)
&.[}. Resislors are silid to have resistance.
T]O' Resistance is cillculated bydividingaspecificvalueofpotentiilldifference
by the corresponding villue o[ current. itis nO[ determinedfrom the gradient
of the eurrent-voltilge chitrileterisllc.
resistivity: a rebtionship between the dimensions of iI specimen of a milterial
and its resistance that is Cllllstant ilt constanttemperature.
For asampleofkngthL, with a uniform cross-sectionalareaA ilnd resistance
R, the resistivityp is given by
p;(RA)IL
The unit of resistivity is uhm metre (Qm).
TJP When defining resistivity, it is best either to give a word equation or to
give theequiltionin symbolsilnd then toexplain thesymbols. Rememberth.at
A is cross-sectional area, notmerely'area'. Also, be careful withthe unit- it
is notQ rn-
I
.
resistor: iln electrical cul1lponent thai limits thesize of the currt'ntin J circuit.
The villue of the resislL1lzee (If the resistor is meilsured in ohms (Q). Aresistor
is characterisedby theL:Ict thill e!ellried!merelY is dissipilted in it. ChdlBewrri.:rs
migrilte through the resistor, colliding with i1111IllS ur moleculesor thematerial
and I hus increilsing thei1mplitucte ofvibriltion olthei1fOms ur molccules. SUllIe
of the energy uf the charge carriers is lrilnskrred tu the vibrating illlll1lS or
mukcuks.
-' ..' T!lerillistors allli li8111depelidelll/ resiSlurs.
resistors in parallel: a11 I11lIberor rt'sistors connectedsuch thilt the total cuneD!
is sharect berween i111 ur the resistors.
The terminalsof each inctividuill resistorareconnected to thesametwopoints.
"" ...., ..
iLl
~
:.01;,
.. -.-":':;:.,
A and C conduct during one half of the cycle of the alternating supply
and diode, 13 and 0 in the other. The voltage \/R across the resistor and the
supply >oltage V
s
are shown in (d).
\is i
, 1\ (
oM IT'
I
V
R
or v Y Y Y
Time
(d) Output voltage for full-wave rectification
Note that the output is in one direction but is not constant. The variation in
the output is rC'duced using smoothing.
TIP It is usdul to rt:member that all the diodes 'point' from one end of the
output resistor towards the other end. Remember too that the supply voltage
may not be appropriate for the n:ctifier - iIthis is the case, then a transformer
is req uired.
red shift: see ]Jopplershift.
reflecting prisms: prisms used to reflect light using tClal illtemalreflection.
The critical angle for a glass-air boundary is about 42 and thus, for an angle
greater than this, the rays are reflected.
45
0
'

Reftection through 90
0
Inverting prism
Such prisms reflect hglll without giving me to multiple images.
r t
......".,....,
r
'i'
AS/A-Level Physics
reflection: the ch,lnge in directiun of ,1 wave at the surface uf a medium such
that the wave stays in the same medium. The change in direction is governed
by llie lilws of reflection (see ref/eqitlll0(1(,,111, lawsoj). Rd1ectiun is IlOI confined
tu light: it is a phenumenun associated with all WJves.
I{dlec[lon differs InmJ rdrac,tion in thaI. [or reflectiun. the wave stays in
the SJme medium. For reflacllon, the wave changes medium.
reflection of light, laws of: laws goveming the change ill direction of a wave
whcn it is rdlected at a surface.
The laws are:
" The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the sa me plane
, The angle or incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
In effect, the first law states that is a phenomenon that may be fully
represented by a diagram drawn,on a flat piece of paper. That is, it is a two-
dimensional phenomenon. The second law enables the reflected ray to be
traced.
Normal
Angle of Angleof
InCidence reflection
InCident Reflected
ray ray
YI Reflecting
.. / / / / / / / / / / / / / ,/ / / " / ".. / / / / / 7 / /" surface
Reflection of a wave
'cf' Always draw in the normal and practise using a protractor!
refraction: the change in direction (bending) of a wave as it passes [rom one
medium to another.
_The extent of the bending depends on the refractive index betwee n the two
media and is governed by the laws of refraction (see refraction oflight, law>'
a}). Refraction is not confined to light: it is a phenomenon associated with
all waves. It occurs as a result of a change of speed of the wave bet ween the
two media.
:_'p Refraction differs from reflection in that, for refraction, the wave changes
medium. For rerlection, the wave stays in the same medium.
refraction of light, laws of: laws governing the change in direction of a WclVe
wilen it passes from one medium to another.
The 1,1 ws are:
[he incident ray, the I-dracted ray and the normal all lie in the same
plane
the sine uf tlw angle of incidence divided by the sine uf the aJlgle of refracrion
is a constant fur any two media
11R
-'
I
'"
ti% R,
R
I
J
~
The combined resistance R ofresiSlllrs of resistancesR
I
, R
2
, R" etc., connected
in palclllel is given by
llR = llR I + liRe + lIR j + '"
lt is important to note that the combined resistance is less than the smallest
resistance.
TlP Acommon mistake is tofail to take the reciprocal when finding the final
answer. Check that your answeris less than the smallest resistance.
resistors in series: a numberofresistorsconnectedsuch thatthesamecurrent
passes through all of them.
The resistors are connected end to end.
R, R
2
R
3
The combined resistanceR ofreSlsWrs ofresistances R
I
, R
2
, R
3
, etc., connected
in series is givenby
R = RI +R2 +R, + ...
Note that the total resistance is greaterthan each individual resistance.
,3-,0 The palmtial divider comprises resistors in series.
resolution of a vector: see veclar resolution.
resonance: a phenomenon that occurs when the frequency at which an object
is beingmade to vibrate (theforced frequfI1cy ofvibratio71) is equaltoits natural
frequency of vibration.
Theamplitudeof vibrationis amaximumat thisfrequencyandis limited solely
by the degree of damping. Theeffect of increased damping is to:
reduce the amplitllde of vibration atall frequencies
'.' reduce the sharpness of the resonance peak
, shift thepeakslightly towards lowerfrequencies
Amplitude
oI
Resonant
frequency
Resonance curves
1
AS/A-Level Physics
i
i
e.;. Resonance lUbe, tuninga radio.
TiP When defining resonance, do not forget to include 'Vibrating at
maximum amplitude'. ManyslUdents discuss frequency withoutmentioning
amplitude.
resultant: thenamegiven to a single vectorthatis equivillenl, in magnitudeand
direction, to two ur more vectors.
The resultant of two vectors may be found using a vector Irimlgle.
'j:o.' Ifyou are askeclto find a resultant, this automaticallyimpliesdirectionas
well as magnitude.
retardation: a decrease in tIle velocity of an object; it is defined as being a
negatiVe' acceleration, whereacceleration is measuredin the direction of travel
of the object.
An alternative name lor retardation is deceleration.
right-hand grip rule: a techniqueusedtofind thedirection of themagneticfield
inside a flat coil ora solenoid.
Ifyou imaginegraspingthecoil inyourrighthand, withyourfingers pointing
in the direction of the current, then your thumb gives the direction of the
magneticfielcl. (See also l1lagnftic(lux density due to a coi!.)
ripple tank: a shallow tank ofwater used to demonstrate\NaVe phenomena.
The tank has a transpal"Cnt base and the water has a depth of about 1cm. A
vibrator sets up ripples on the surface of the water. Plane wavefronts are
produced by a long straight vibrator touching the watersurface, and circular
wavcfrontsradiatefrom a small pointedvibrator.Thewavelengthoftheripples
maybechangedbychangingthefrequency ofthe vibrator. Generally, thetank
is illuminatedfrom aboveandtheripplesareobservedas 'shadows'onascreen
belowthe tank.
e.g. A ripple tankmay be used to demonstrate reflection, refraction, dIffraction
and inle7!ere71ce of waves.
rms speed: see roo/-mean-square speed.
root-mean-square speed (rms speed): thesquarerootof themean, oraverage,
value of the molecularspeed squared; its symbol is ";<c
2
>orCrm'.
IfCI, C
2
, Cj, c
4
, C, ... CN are the speeds at anyone time ofN molecules ofa gas,
then the root-mean-square speed is given by
c,m, =";[(C
I
2
+ c/ +C,2 + C4
2
+ C5
2
+ ... cN1)1N]
Although the rms speed is cidinelklbove, it is never calculated using this
equation. The quantity calculated using equations based on tIle kinetic
theory of gases is the mean square speed <c
2
>. By taking the square root
of this quantity, we have the rrns speed, which tells us somethingabout the
speeds of the molecules. Note thal tbe rms speed is not the same as the
mean speed.
~ lt is used in the I:illelic l!7eL
'
rv oIgases.
~
~ ~ ~ 'ii"/
1"".J
Rutherford model of the atom: a model propDsed in 1911 in which the atom
was CDnccived as a very small positively ch.arged nucleuscontaining most 01
the mass of rhe atom, around which orbits a number negatively charged
e!l:nruns; thenumller01 elt'L'trollS is suchas 10 milkt, thl'overall chClrge onthe
arom neutral.
The electrolls were rhought to orbit at very high speeds such that theycould
be thought 01 as clouds of negativecharge known as orbitals. (See also eIleryy
lcvels; em/,\siol1 spectrum.)
i
i
I
I
I
AS/A-Level Physics
-;. __._ .... .l.:.:... ..... ........ ...
saturated vapour: see vapour.
saturated vapour pressure (SVP): see vapour.
scalar quantity (also calledjust 'scalar'): a quantity that has magnitude only,
notdirection.
.Scalarquantitiesaredescribedfully bygiVing theirmagnitudeandunit. Scalars
can beadded algebraically.
e.g- Mass, speed, C11ClHY are scalarquamities.
7TP Look carefully at the situation in which the quantity is being meL!.
'Distance between two objects' has magnitude only and is a scalar. However,
'distancefrom a fixed point' mayinvolvedirection and would then beaVCCtl1!'
quantity,
scales of temperature: see temperature scale.
scintillation counter: a counterdesigned to measure the COUllt rate from Cl
radioactive source.
The scintillator produces a small flash oflight whenevera panicle orphoton
of radiation from a source is incident on it. A photomultiplier tube convert5
each flash of light into a pulse of current. The current pulses call then be
detected and coul1ted. Scintillation counters will provide information aboul
the distribution of energy in the radiation, as weU as identifying thetype oJ
radiation.
semiconductor: a material thatis aninsulatoratabsolutezero buta conductor
at higher temperatures.
As temperature rises, rhe !lumberof clWrjfcarriers available to canyelectric
current increases. Semiconductor materials may be produced such thar lile
DlJjorily01 chargecarriersareeithernegJtivelychargedorpositively charged.
(See also dilhic; lijhl-cJ71iuil1g diode; I(<]hl-depmdent resistL)r.)
_SemicUllllucturmaterialsareat thefoundation 01 the lI1udern electro11lcs
indmtry.
:":<!l
shm: see simple Iwnnollic1110tiol1
..
sign convention: see lensjimnula.
124
"'I
I'
i
I

I
I
I
I
-._- r
simple harmonic motion (shml: the motion of anobject such that its acceler- D,splacement, x
ation is proportiunal to its displacement from a fixed point and is always
direClt'd towards that point.
For an object having displacnlletlt x and acceleratioTl a, simple harmonic
.
motion is defined by the equalion
o !""= t
(1 =
, ,
The minussignshows thattheaccelerationis alwaysdirecledtowardsthefixed
, I
, I
, ,
point wherex = 0, and w' is a constant.
a
PotenliaI
energy, E
p
---'--------,0 o
x -x
o o +;0
,
I
I
KinetiC
energy, E,
Variation with displacement X of the acceleration a for shm ' /
l\f\1\!\
o
t
The gradient of the graph is _w
2
andXu is the amplitude of the motion. The
physical significance of the constantw
2
is thatits squareroot (wi is relatedto
the period Tof the oscillationsby the expression
energy, E\
Mol 1
T = 2nlw
Since frequencylisgivenby1= liT, it follows that
w =2nlT=2nl
o
The constant (j) is referred to as the angular frequency and is measured in
Variation with time of the energy in simple harmonic motion
radians persecond (rads-
I
).
simple harmonic motion, energy of: the kinetic energy, potentialenergy and
Thevariations with displacement xof E
p
Ek andE, areshownin thediagram
total energyassociated withan object undergoingsimple harmonicmotion.
below.
a the motionis undamped. thereis a continuousinterchangebetweenkinetic
Energy i
energyE, and potemialenergyE
p
withthetotal energyE, remainingconstant.
Foran object of mass 117 vibrating at lrequencyI (angularfrequency w = 2nj)
E,
..o1\J
and having amplitudeXo

E' , ---1-
potential energy Ep =tmw
2
x
2
=21l1rr'Fx
2
,
kinetic energy12', =tl111U2(Xll" - x
2
) = 2llm
2
p(xo
2
- x
2
)
2
..... -0
-0? ' towl energy E, = E
p
+ E, =tlllW
2
X
u
= 217m2px02

The variation with time t ofthe energy is shown in the diagram lJelow. Note
-x ..... '; .
o
thatonesolution for displacement has beenincluded in orderthatphase may
,"
\."
Variation with displacement of the ep
be iJlustrated.
.
".,..--;:
The for the variatioll with time of E and E
k
have twin: the
p
IITljUl'llCy of thill fur thl' displacemclll x: FurtlJermurt', tht' curves are
SillllsuidiJi, nul 'half-wdvt' reetiliuJ'.
simple harmonic motion, solutions: eljllaliu!l' describing rl]t' motion 01 an
ubjeCl Ihal IS withSllllplfIhlrillOllicmotion (shm).
furInubjt'ct of mJSS m oscillating with amplitude.YiJ and lrequencyf
period T=1if
dngular lrequencyw 2n[
If x = when time t= 0, then
displacementx =Xu sinwt =Xo sin2nj!
VI: loci tY 11 = XOW COSW! = 2n/,u cos2'{tjt
2
Jcct'leratiull: (/ = -w x = -w!XlJ sinwt = -4n
2
f2
xu
sin2njt
H x = Xu when time t = 0, then
dlsplacemenr x Xu wsw!= X" cos2nji
velocity 11 =-XoW sinwt=-2rrfx
u
sin2nf!
2
dcceleratiun a = -w x = -w
2
x
u
COsw! = -4nj2xo CDs2njt
D,spiacement r
oH A
I
T,;,
Displacement-time graph to give velocity forshm
- YULI []JJy be Jsked tu solvl'lllle or ll1ure oj [hest'cljLlJtions lofind displJce-
mellI, velocily, etc. The POilll is to calculate thl' angulJrlrequcnq;w.
A!sil, payJilellliun III lht: stJrl oflhe Illolion; lhisdCII'rmines whetherSillt: or
CilsilH: fUllCUUl1S Jre dppropridte.
simple pendulum: ideJlly, J poinll1lass on J inexlensible llexible
llirt'ad.
_.. Clamp
!
I
,/ Thread
Length I " li;S:
,' Bob"
/
- ..... ,. \ , /
'
,
.
"
I
'
0/
,
,",
The period T01 the oscillatiuns is related to the lengrh I of tbe pendulum by
the expression
T= 2rr:/(llg)
whert'f7 is theJccelerJtion ullrt't' [Jll. ThelengthI is measuredlwm thepuint
ofSliPPOrt to thL' cemre uf Il1JSS 01 thebob.The formulJ is truelorsmalluscil-
lations only: the angle () must bt' less thanJbout 5.
e.i. Maybeused for the delerminJtion of the acceleration ul free tall!}
TjP If y011 are asked to de,cribe il method for the determination 01,'1 by Iree
fall, du nut de,crilJe a method involving a simple pendulum_ A simpJe
pendulumis not 'free fJll'.
sinusoidal: J variJ!iun with timeofJ qUJntity, intheform 01 eithera sine wave
ura cosine WJve.
Tht' important point here is the general shape of the wave. Whether the
vanJlion is in thelorrn ofa sine wave uri1 cosine wave determines the plr"lse.
51 system: the intcmationJlIy agreed basis fur the meJsurement of physical
qUJl1lities ilnd lor the units 10 define thesizes ofthe qUJntities .
.Sl is the abbreviation fur Systeme [nternatiul1al d'Unires. The 51 systenl is
estJblished by reference to sevenbase quantitiesand theirassociated baseIIniis
ofmeasurement.
slide-wire potentiometer: see potentiometer, slide-wire.
smoothing: the process whereby a haH-wJvc ora full-wJve rectified vo!tilge is
made more COIIstJnl ill value (see rectificaIlOll).
The ourput01 a rectiner is direct, buritsvJluevariesbetweenzeroJnd
a iTIilximul11. This vultJge (lIN is Jpplied ru a smulltlJingcircuit.
,,,,j
0--
T
e
r
j lou,
1n pr,lClice, J sll1Jllll1et,ll sphere is sLlspended lrom J llxnipuint by,] pit:ce uf
f1nibk thread. The llletal IpelHiulLllll bub) i, givc>n a small dlsplJce-
A smoothing circuit
memand [he11 n:!eosni so thJt the bub oscillJtes in a vertical plJne. aoI
"
J
--r
.. ""-'-
...
;,:/
..--;
The capacitor of capacitance C charges up when 1/
IN
rises. When V
IN
falls, the
capacitor discharges through the load of rdistance R. The capacitor then
recharges when VIN rises and the process repeats itself.
1/11"
I
0= Time
,
\
\
, '
, ,
o
, '
Time
V
OUT

,
, ,
I , I
I ,
, I , ,
,
I , I
\ I I ,
, ' , '
\
, '
\
, '
o f J J J J ..
Time
Input and output voltages for asmoothing circuit
The amountof 'ripple' on the smoothed outputdepends on the product RC
(see capacitor discharge). The larger the value of RC, the longer it takes for the
capacitorto dischargeand thereJore thesmallerthe 'ripple'.
softiron: iron thilt CJn be easily mJgnetisedilnd demilgnetised.
.Soft iron increases themagneticfield strength by up to 1000timesabove that
which would be obtained ina vacuum.
.9,;;, Soft iron is used in electromagnets and transformers.
solid: one of the four stiltes of matter.
A solid is charilcterised by havinga fixed volumeandafixed shilpe.Thereilre
strong attfilctive fDfces (bonds) bl'lween the atoms and molecules of a solid,
holding them in fixed positions within thesolid. Themoleculesdovibrateabout
the fixed positiollS. the amplitude of vibration increilsing with temperature
rise. Henceasolid expandsonheating.A solid anda liquid haveapproximately
thesame density, suggesting thilt thesepar,ltion of moleculesis abollt thesame
in buth.The sepdratiol1 01 l11ulecules is auuut one-tenth 01 that in il Has.
sonometer: d hollow wuoden bux, ac'oss which mill' be stretched il string Of
Wile.
AS;A-Level Physics

Stretched
wire
i'
/ "n
Ho low wooden box t I
Weights
The purpose of the sonometer box IS to incrl'ase the loudness of the sound
producedbya vibratingstring, thusenablingeasierdetectwn of the Vibrations.
3.g. Used to investigatestatiol1ary waves 011 stril1gs, andin musicill instruments.
sound: a pressure Wilve which is detected by the ear.
Thefrcqucm:v orpitch ofaudiblesoundis generallyassumed to bein the range
20Hz to 15kHz, although this [-ange does vary with age, stdte of healthetc.
Soundabove the audible range is referred to as ultrasound. The loudness of a
sounddependson theamplitudeofthepressurewave. Loud soundswill have
a pressureamplitude of about 50Pa buta personwith goodhearingcandetect
waves with a pressure amplitude of 10-
5
Pa (iltmospheric pressure is about
10"Pal
sound waves: pressure waves which move through a medium and are caused
hI' vibrating objects.
Consideraloudspeilkerin air. When theloudspeakeris working, itsconemoves
backwards and forwards, expanding andcompressing the air immediately in
contactwithit. Whentheairis expanded,a low-pressure region- d raret'lction
- is producedandthismovesoutwards throughtheilir. Theconethenmoves
forwards, producing a high-pressure region - a compression - which also
movesoutwardsfrom the cone.Thesoundwaveconsistsofa seriesofcompres-
sicllls andrarefactionsthdlmove throughtheair. Particleswithinthemedium
vibrate, trilnsferring the pressmechauges through the medium. There is no
transferofthemediumitselI, onlya transferof waveenergy. Soundwavesare
longitudinal waves that must have a mediumfor the transfer 01 Wilve energy.
The speed ofsound in a mediumdepends on its density and its elasticity.
specific charge: the ratio of the charge on a pilrticle to its mass; its 51 unit is
couloll1b perkilogrJll1 (Ckg-I).
The measuremel1t 01 specific charge is onemeans by which particles can be
identified
Speol'ic charge 01 an electron is -1.76 x 1011 Ckg-I; specific ch<1rge ofa
proton is 9.58 x 10
7
Ckg-I.
specific heat capacity: d value that is numerically equal to tbe amount of
therlllal energyrcquil'cd to raise the" tel1lpnaturf'oilinit:llilSS 01 thesubstance
by onedegree.
Spccifichealcapilcity IS a property vfil substanceand, overa limited rilnge of

Essential Word DictIOnary
leillperarure, value maybe assumed to be ClJll.'I,llll. The 51 unit is jouleper
kilogrilfll per kelvin (J kg-I K-
1
). For all object 01 111 and specific ht'at
Glp,lcity C, the alllount01 thermal t'llergy tlQ requirl'cllU [atst' tht' temperilture
by !':,Ii given LlY
!'.() = IIIctl!J
The )CHIle eljuJliunapplies for il decrease in 1I1lTJIlil1enngvanda temperilrure
faiL
specific latent heat: a value rhat is numerically ei]uilllll the thermal energy
transferred when unit mass ofa substanccchilllges stille, wirhout anychange
ollemperature.
Fur a change of state from solid to liquid. or Irom liquid to solid. the latent
heal is rderred to as latem heat01 fusion When the change is from liquid to
vapuur (gas) or lrom vapourtu liquid, latellt heat01 vaporisation is illvulved.
Specificlatentheatis a propertyofJ substance.The 51 unitis jouleperkilogram
(J kg-I). For an object of mass m alld specific latent heat L, the amount of
thermal energy 6.Q transferred duringa change of stateis given by
M)= mL
The thermJI energy involved in changes 01 stilte is referred to as 'latent', or
'hiddell', because no telllperalUre change is illvolved. Thermal energy is
supplied tu COllver! asolid to a liquid orto COllver! a liquid to a vapour (gas).
The thermJ[ energy is given out when the chJllges are in the opposite
directions.
-r;.? ReITIClllbn thJt nu temperature chJnge is involved in latentheal.
speed: uscalar qUilI1lity delined by the wurdequation
distance travelled
speed = -------
time taken
The 51 unit of speed is metre per second (m S-I). Since distance travelled can
only everincrease. speed is always a positive quantity. When equal distances
are travellcd in equJI times. the speed is constant and is said to be uniform.
When the speed varies, the average speed is calculated using the equation
d total distance travelled
average spee = totJI time taken
Speed CJn be lclJculated from thegradient uf a dish1llct'-rin1C'graph.
';'-:'P Whcn finding the gradiellt of dny graph, nse a lilrge tri,1l1gle so th.1t the
gradicnt has as smaIJ In uncertaintyas pussible.
speed of light: by ddinitiuu. thespeedol light is 2l)'!792458IIIS-I in avacuullJ.
All in a VJCUllm hil\'t' tllis speed.Tlte speed ill a mediullJ
CJIl be dl,tl'll1lined iltlIe rcji"Lldil'c IlId"xultllt' Inecliulll kuuwn. Sume buoks
refer tu tlte 'veluclt\,oflight'.This is not corrcctsillcr light lIas theSJlJle speed
in all direuiulls.
._, TJP Fur general calculatiulls. the value ),00 x 1U0mS_I is assumed,
AS/A-Level Physics
speed-time graph: a graph shuwing huw speed (y-axis) varies with time
(x-axis),
The area bet weell tIle line of the grJplt and tlIe x-axis represents the distance
I1luved ill the particular interval ul rime.
Speed
1m 5.' I
15
10
Area 8 Area C
20 40 50 60
10 30
Tlme/s
DisrJncetrJvelled is representedby area A +area B+area C. Onthe speed-time
grapll shown this is
distance =(x 15 x 10) + (15 x 30) + (Tx 15 x 20) = 675 In
Whenthespeed-timegraphis acurve,distance travelled mill' be estin1atedby
'cuuntingsquares'.
ne: Since speed is a scalarquantity, it cannothavea negJtive value_
spiral spring: il springformed by windinga wire in a spiral.

In general. one end uf the spring is fixed. The torque T required to wind tilt'
spring through angle eis given by
T= (f!
where C is a (OnstJlll.
;3.. ,-;; Cuntrul s[1rings in muving-cllil metersand cluck springs.
spontaneity: J term used to describe radiuactive decJy.
RadiuilClivt' decJy IS saiel [Q L1L' SpUlll.111l'UL!S L'eG1USe it is ullJffcLln! b\' cnvi-
!'{lnmeIltall,lctIJrsstich ,15 temperatureJnd pressulT. This does meal] thatfzair-
hje is J Cl)llstant LuI' any particubrlluclide.
spring constant (alsu called 'elastic CUllsl,lIl1): the cunstJnl 0) propurtiollalit:'
between force F ,llld e\tension 6..X [or a sample of m,lterial rhJt has [lot been
132 ;'.J
slI"etched tu such an extent that it has exceeded the elastic limit.
F = J.:tlx
where J.: is the spring cunstant (t'lastic constant). Spring constant is the !mce
per unit extension and IS measured in newton per metre (N tn-I).
":"'c" The spnng cOllStant is relevant to the extellSion uf springs and wires. (Set:
alsu 1I00kc's I,nt'.)
',-;j;;' Although named 'spring constant', the constant applies not only tu springs
but also to the extension of an object of anyshape where the elastic limit bas
not been exceeded.
5tability: the state of a body that is in equilibrium.
A body may be in stable equilibrium, wlslable equilibrium or neutral equilibrium.
stable equilibrium: a body is in stable equilibrium if it will return to its original
position after it has been displaced slightly.
2.E'. A small ball in a spherical bowl - when the ball is displaced, it will come
to rest in its original position in the bottom of the bowl.
itandard atmospheric pressure: defined as being 1.0 1325 x lOs Pa.
9-2. Relerence is made to standard atmospheric pressure when defining the
icc poinl dnd tlw steLlm point.
;tanding wave: see stationar.v wave.
itationary wave (also called 'standing wave'): a wave in which vibrational
energy is stored, rather than transmitted as in a progressive wave.
A stationary wave is the rtsult of two progressive waves, of the same frequency,
travelling in opposite directions along the same line. If the phase difIu'ence
between the two waves is correct, a stationary wave is formed.
Vibrations of particles
N A N A N A N A N
A stationary wave on a string
The diagram illustrates a stationary wave on a string. When the string WJS
plucked, waves travelled outwards lrom the point of plucking in both directions.
The waws were reflected at the ends of the string, causing the waves to overlap.
The resultant wave appears [jot to move. At certain points, the two waves meet
in Llllliphase. resulting in CIllllpkte dcstnlClive illlCiferellce - a 1I0de N. Where
the waves meet in phase, the arnplillide isa maximum - an lillt/Ilthic A is
formed lktween any two nodes. all the particles vibratt in ph,lse but have
different amplitudes, There is a phase diflerence of nrad between the vibrations
of a panicle tn one nonalluop and those of a particle in a neighbouring loop.
The distance l,etwcen two adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is one balf wavelengtb
of the stationary waVl', (Sec also stdliOllar1' wave il7 a pipe; rL'sollallcc.)
T'F' Remembn that the illlcltlodal distance is one half wavt!ength, nm one
\vaveleng\h. Always draw slationary waves sbowing the two extremes of
ampillude; if only one l':\lI"eml' is drawn, tbe diJgram will look Iikl' the rcpre-
sentation of a progrcssl\;e wave.
stationary wave in a pipe: a particular form of statiunary wave that is created
by blowing across the end of a pipe.
. A wave is starled at one end uf the pipe by blowing all' across it. The wave
travels down the pipe and is refkcted at the other end, thus producing two
waves travelling in opposite directions which may interfere to produce a
stationary wave.
]A
A A A
N
N
A
N
A
N
I
N
A
A
N
A
A
N N N N
I =
/ =3,1. 1= 5,1. / =7,1.
4 4 4 4
Stationary waves in a closed pipe
A closed pipe is closed at one end only. A node must be formed at the closed
end where the air cannot move and an antinode is formed at the open end.
The wavelength of the stationary wave in the pipe is A. Note that the stationary
wavt is represented by drawing displacements of the particles at right angles
to the axis of the pipe although the displacements are, in fact, along its axis.
Stationary waves are also formed in pipes open at both ends (open pipes).
IA
I
I'VI )1: IVI: t
iN
A
A
A
N
/\1 I()IA
N
A A N
N
A N
N
A A
/ = 3,{
/ = 1=,1.
2
1= 2'{
2
Stationary waves in an open pipe
1-\" lhe pipl' io "Pl'll ,11 b"til ends,Inalltilll1liL' n.iSbal l>"lil ends.Tile dislJl1Ce
bt'1Wt'l'll lW11 Illllle, or I"'" anlil10cles is one h.l]1
W,WL'iL'IIl'tli or till' W,lVt', III praClicc, lilc ,llifinudt' ,11 tilt' upen end "I' ,1 pipt,
UCCl1r., jusl llUI"ilk [lit' Pillt',
_.' 51,11]llll<1l) IVcllO III pipco Jrc tlie SlllIrCL: ui SUliliel ill IIl,ll1)' llll1sical
illstrllll1l'l1b, illCllIelilll' w""dwillCL L1I,lS" ,lilt] l>rg,lll,
stationarywave ona string: J p,lnicul'ar lurlJl oj .I'hiii(l1Ii7/l' Hm'i' pl'Ildliced by
pluckillg llr lil\willg a stretchcd siring,
Two p['ugressivt' ,,,,wes, [IHlving ill oPIJusitl' directiol1sJlungtill' strillg, ll1tl'l'fere
tu pl'udllcl' J otilliunJry Wt'Wt'.
--------------.
A=2i,f=.E

21
NAN
,--
1...1<-..., L)
1
NAN A N
!'
2 3c
-,( /"-- /'\....
),=:::1, f=2i
'-_/
NAN A NAN
'y 1 c-
/'--"'"
/..
/=:>
I

I_'\"--.J\, \,
NAN A NAN A N
,'l( )0,
In Ille diJgl'aJlI, / is the length or Iht, string, ..\, Ial1li ,<lre tht' wavc>kngth,
frequcncy and spe:L'll of the waves, Fur aslclliunclI'y wewe II) be
set Lip, therelllLlSt be J JlL'de al eJehend ofthestring. ThefreqLlcIlcv orvibratioIl
ul the Siring determines tlie number ur internod,ll loups tll'll fil eXclctly into
lilt length L1f the srl'lng, The speed eof thL' \V,wes L11l tlil' suillg is given by
l = V(T/IlI)
whnl'T I" tlie lellSlllil In Ihe stl'illg ,11Hi 1/1 is thl' 11I,11S pl'! L1llil kngrll ulIJle'
s[ r-irlg.
St,lliullcHY waves in strings arl' Ihe: sourCl' o! the: sll(Jm] pruduced by
,slringed Jllusical illo\rLIIIlI'Il\S. Tht'y call be illVt'\tig,Jll'd uSillg aS"JI"II/c'la.
steampoint: Illl' [l'lllpn,llU['l'ofsteJIll in tllt'rllJ<d eqllllilll'iuIll vvilh pllre welter
,l[ It,lll(!JI'<1 c1lllliJ"plll'ri( pressurl'.
lhddil1llillll, lhi" 1,'[ll1'l'rJlure: is llile hlilldle:<1 liL'gl'C'l'O Ce:llligr,ltlc- (lOWC).
I I is )'7 J -) J'.
Stokes' law: d law tll,ll pl'uvides ,111 e.\j')J'cSS[Oll lUI tht, VloCULIS (dl',lg) flllce F
13S
AS;A-Level Physics
uplw,illg till' S[IT,l[nlllle lIuVl ul iI Sidieic "I r.ldius 1 tlJJOlIgl1 cl fluid ViJlh
t'Oi'!Ii',iL'1I1 ,11 ['ISi'(1.'i/l' If
F = ()JTD/I'
WllClt' [' is Illl' oj lile ,['helL: l'd,llill' III the nuid.
TilL: IllrJll1ll,l is Iisni III til,' thl'ill')' or:\/illikdll'.',lil,11,'1' ,'.I'!'i'l'llJlL'JlI.
straight-linegraph,equationof:,11) elJlIdllllll Icpresc:ntillgd strdiglu-Jineglaph
of l'rJdiL'nl 171 ami,),/111('/""'1" c:
v=m.1 +C
Yi
I .1...-\---",
.',.- \
Intercept c ,,'- 'Gradient rn
j
o
o x
A straight-linegraph
In experimelllal physics, a srJph is freqllently drawn in order to
find the relationship betwe'en tw,o vJl'iables. For example, suppose that a
qUJntity Pv,lries wilh quantity Qaecurding to tll(:' expressiol1
P=01)"
and the: tJsk is to find theconstJnts(] and II. Taklllg lugJrithmsof Ihe equJtion
gives
IgP = Igo +IllgQ
Reclrranging theeqUJ I ion as
IgP = 1llgQ +Igo
and then comparing this with y I71X + C, il can be seen that 11 is the gradielll
uf the and 19a is the interccpt un they-Jxis.
strain(also, Illure correctly, cJlled 'tensill'strJin'):the chJngt'in lengthperun;r
Iensth of a salllple ofIllJf("riJI; it is USll,llly given lhe symbol f;.
Tensilt' str,lin iothe ratio uf two kngths Jnd therefore hJS no ullit. Thert' are
othn forms of sirain, duc t(l twisting or to volume changes, HUWl'VC'L III
AS/A-ic'vel physics we Jre usuallyonl)'CIlncerned with tensile straitl
ill iL'ngth), COIlSe:quelllly, we uftcn Illerely referto 'Sll'Jin', tllclt it I'
lL'mik [1.
Tensile sl['ain is O[ll' of Ihe tt'nlls lloed 10 define' the tIl,'dulfiS,
Rel1lt'l1llll'J' thJt (tel1sik) ,lr,li[l io J pwpenyofthe rllcllniallhat due') not
dC'j"'llcI (111 the Il>nglh of tlit' ',llllple. II is, IHlwevt'r, dependl'!11 Ull llleJppli<:'li
Sl rt',s,
strain energy: lilt' l'11erg)' slurl'd 111 ,1 ,Sclillpk 01 Ilhltnial dS ,I ITSLlJt elf ,1 s1rel"
kiJlg,lppltt'll tu lil,' S,llllple; Its Sl unit is thl'jULIIe (.J),
11' ,1 gl"lph III IU,l<l Fi,1 pl(ll\ni,lgcllllStt''.ll'ilsi'1I1 ,1\\, tilL: ,ueJ['t'!WI.'ell rht' gr,lph
Illll' ami tilex-,Ixio gives a lllt'cloure: ulSl l',11l1 energy, ....

AS/A-Level Physics
Essen tial Ward Dictionary
Ie
Load, F
Area
ov
6 ExtenSion, Lx
Force-extension graph for the calculation of strain energy
Foran elastic change, since the graph is astrJightline
strain energy=t F/:;.'(
But the spring constant k =FI!':>.x. Hence
strain energy=tk(/:;.y)2
StrClin energy is recovered if the ehJnge in the sJmple is ebstic. For plastic
ch,1nges, some of this energyis used to alter the structure ofthe material.
strain gauge: an clcnrical circuit component used to measure the striJil1 ill a
matenal.
The gauge consists of a thin metal fuil encapsulated in a thin plasticmaterial.
'Plastic' capsule---.t---

Mewlfo.1 8g])G
The gauge is firmly attached to the object to be strained. As the object is
strained, the length and cross-sectional area oj the strain gauge are changed,
thus altering its resislcmce. Tile lractlonal change in resistance oftlIe gauge is
proponiondl to the strain.
_', :'. The gauge is frequently pIcKed in a type of potcntlomcter circllit in order
to measure the' resistance' change.
streamline flow (al,o called 'j,lJJ1inar nOW'): the' smooth steady !Iuw of a fluid
without ,lily disllll'b,lIlces such dS eddies.
Streamlinesshllw the path ofthe movlllg !Iuid dnd, dt ,1ny poil1l, thedirecl!on
uf !lowut rhe fluid I' tht' t,mgt'iH lu thl'stre,lmline. [n gl'lll'rdl, streamlinetIuw
unly uceUI, will'1I the IlllJd sJ.lL'l'l1 i.'> luw. At lligher,>penis, /lirbulCJ7I pew [)CLlII'S.
S",k"s' lelll' dud I\JlsCl.lllic 5L"llidlic1il .:Ippty tu sl rIuw.
,
)I
' -------- -----.....
. -
) ------ ,
--..... .. , ' //-----
-.

streamlines: set' slinlllllilic //,'1-1'
strength: sec breakin:],\[1','.1'.1'
stress (also, mure(urren]y, sUt'ss'):the tensile lorceper unitarea
[0 a s.:lmple of material; Jl IS usually given the symbol (J.
The fOl'ce is nurm,l] to the Me,l. The SI unit of stress is neWlOn per metre
squared (Nm-
2
) or pdsml (Pa). There are otherforms of stress: shear stress,
which produces twisting, and volume stress, which produces changes in
volume. Hllwe'ver, these are not usually studied in ASIA-level physics.
Consequently,weuftcn merely reter to 'stress', assumingthatit is tensilestress.
03.;';. Tensile stress lS one of the terms \lsed to define the YOUI1:J modillus
strong nuclear force: the force Within the nucleus that binds the nucleol1s
together.
This Jorce must be .:Ittraclivc at short range (i.e. distances of the orderof the
radiusofa nuclcllS) tu bllld LOgl'lher prutonsIII tlle nucleus. l-!llINever, llmllst
becume repulsive at L'ven shmter I'ange, Iltherwise nucleons would be pulled
togetherintoanincreasinglysmallervolume,Theforce is transmitted through
the exchange ofmesons. (See also Ivc,7k l1uclcar{1'rcc.)
superposition: thecumbiningoftwosimilarwave's when they meet.:lt.:l point.
TheprincipleOf,\'71perpI1sitill l7 is usedtodetermine the resultJntdisplacementJt
the point.
systematic errors: see iinLerwimy.
i3S
AS;A-Level Physics
In general, three l(Jrlco all Oil lhc (Jbjcu: ilS wcighl W ,1Cling duwnwards, Ibe
upthrusl {/ t'qu,lll0 t11(O of fluid dioplalcd acting upwards ,me! tbe drag
fo!"Cl' 0 abo ,Klmg UI'W,lrc!s:
Accc'ltTJting lurce F = \f - D - U
:'.: <
temperature: a hlse qU'lrllLly in tbe Sl SI'Sll'lll; its unit is the kelvin (1\:).
It is ,1 measurc of the dcgree 01 hotness ul an objcct. Thermal energy moves of
its OWIl accord from objects at a bigher temperature to (Jbjccts ,11 a lower
temptTalure. (See also teinpercllUiT sedlc.)
It is importallt 10 realise that lel1lpnaturc does not mcasure the all1uunt
uf thtTl11all'Ilergy in all ubjecl (see spcl;i(il!dll'lllhe,ll). Il docs indicate in which
dircctiull thcnn,l! ellergy will now lIn\lided.
temperature scale: a Ilumerical sc,lk lJll wh'lch tht' lkgree of hutncss (Jf ,1 body
is e:\presoed.
Origillally, temperalurc ocales wert' est,lblisllt'lJ ill, all arbitrary way alld invulvcd
,1 pruperty of a substancc that changeo with tell1pnaturc (elllpLrLcd! sea!e,I' of
lel71pt'l"dWrc) , It is now realiscd lhat lcmperature is not ail arbitrary quantity
and is defined within thernwdj'llalllics (the Ilzerl1lodVIlLlIIILc scale oflemperature).
tensile forces: two forces acting in opposite directiuns C111 an object so as to tend
to increase ilS length along the direction of lhe forces.
ObleC!
Force, F Force, F
/
c
TIre flJrces do Ilol cauol' dny lr,lllSlaliulhll ur rotali(Jnal Illotion I)) the ubjec1.
(Sec abo Young modulus,)
TIre' fmceo that cauot' the c:\tellSil)l1 o! a sprillg.
'- I\Clllelllbn th,ll two lorces are invulvl'd, allh(Jugh we Illay Oil I)' show one
of tlleJll I)Il ,1 c1i,lgram. An e:\alllple is a 'pl'ing ollol'l'llded Irolll J fi:\ed poinl,
supporting ,1 lo,HI. Till' IO,lc! is, oll\'illUslr lJIIl' (Jj thl' twu forces. TIll' Dlhel' Imce
io SLi pplieci hI' II it' .s U prj( Ji"l.
tera-: pl"di!c uSl'd Willi ,1 Lilli! 10 Lkllll1t' Iii,' 11\L;lliple \II x 10
1
.2; ilo s)'llll1(ll 10 T.
Iinalllt'trc=])( j()l.2 1ll = ITIII
terminal velocity: 111l' ellllsl,1111 \l'lllt'il;.' ,lchicVlli III' ,Ill lll'Jecl whcll il is !clilillg
limier gr,wit), lhruugh a viocuus fluid.

Direction
of motion

Forces acting on an object falling through a fluid
As the speed of the object increases, the drag force" D increases and thus the
accelerating forcc F decreases. Eventu,llly, as t11e speed increases, tilt' acceler-
ating force will become zero and the object will fall at comlant velocity - the
terminal velocity. Terminal velocity depellds on the sbape and Illass OJ lbe
object and on the viscosity of tll<:' nuid
:-:;: Remember that, as the accekr,uing force is clt'creasing, the vel()city is stilJ
increasing, but the rate of increase is L1l'COllling smallcr. A comillon mistake is
to think that, as the accelerating force dccreases, the velocity lit-creases,
lesla, T: Llle 51 unil of magnetic flux demity, th'll is, the 'srrength' 01 a magnetic
lield.
The tesla is defined by rderence to the equatiDn for the IIl,Wr eHeel, nCllnely
F = ElL sin(1
11 ,1 condllcwr currying J of I amp is placed at right allglt:s [() a llIlilorm
lllagnetic Iield Df flux dellsity I tesla, then lbe lorce per unil length all lbe
conductor is I newton per llletre. The lcsla is some limes rclerred to as weber
per melre squared (Wbm-
1
): IT = 1 Wbm-
1
. The base unilS uf the tesla die
kgs-
2
A-
1
.
thermal capacity (also called 'hcat capacity'): a valuc numerically eqllallD r)lI.::
quantity of heat required to raise the temperalure of the whole: objeC1. by une degree.
III the Sl oystem, tllerm,ll capacity is llle,lsulTd in joulc' per kelvin (.1 j(-I). Fur
an object of Iherm,ll C havillg a change Mi, the
'In tllnlllal (ht"ll) energy t>i) is given by
M)=CM
Thrrm'll (he,ll) CJp,Kitv io [I'eqllently used when an llh.Jet'l b ll1adc up uJ ,1 number
u[ diflcrelll JIlJlt'riab "u th,lL there is IlU sillgle v,lluc uf spl'n!ic" liedl c"llp,idtl' The
Illdoo uf the ubjt'ct is nul reljuired Fur ,1 sillgle substanle u[ lll,lSS iii allli specific
Iw,ll C,lp,lc'ily l, the therlllal cap,lCitv C 'lf the subslallL"t' is giveu b)'
I.' = me

Iii
140
__

thermal fission reactor: a powerpl,lIlt usinglhe enngy ITleased when heavy
e!cIllelll, such ,lS ,1I"l' liiuIled'llY mean,llilicutrllns.
T1Jl' I1UcleM n>actiull IlI,l)' be SUllllllMi,l,d a, l<lliows:
+ :,Il X + Y + (2 l'r j Ileutruns) +y-r,w phutuns + energv
whne \ ami YMe Iiuclt:i having ,1pproxllll,ltely eLJUallilasses,
Pressur
vessel
I I I '
I
trol rod - :
/ """
h r-
CO,) gas To heal
----=------... exchanger
I
-
f',,1odera
Fuel rod

.
CO2gas From heat
BiologiC
--- exchanger
shield
I
A schematic diagram of one type of nuclear reactor
The uranium is contained in hull'lw fuel rods, surrounded by a graphite
IllodcratL1T. Tile moderatorslows down the last-Illovingneutronsso that they
maycontinue the chail! reactiol1. The chain reaction is controlled by meansof
contrul rods milde of boron steel. These allsorLJ neutrons ilnd thus determine
howmanv neutrollSareavaililble to cnI1linuethechain reaction, Insertingthe
controlrods imu the reactorcoreslowsd,)wn the rateofre,lCtion. Much ofthe
energyuf the fissiull reactiun is seen ,1S kineticenergyofthe fission IragllleIlts
X and Y. When these fragments ,lre slowed duwn, Ihe reactor Ilt'ats up. This
thCJ'llldl energy is rl'll1llved bl' mean, uf a ClIlll,lIlt (e.g, high-pressure cZlrblln
dillxide). Plimping Ihe gas llHllugh a 11e,11 exchangerdllows the jlmductilln oj
high-pressure stealll lbat can be usni III drive lllrbines tm' the gellcrati,Jll of
eleClriL- power in dynamos. Thc rt'aC!llr is sited in ,1 pressure vessel III ensure
Cll'il,linllll'ni III the higlliy r,ldll'lclClive liss!'1I1 fraglllellls 'lnd also tll al'l as ,)
blll]ogical shield ,1g,lill,1 l'adiali'lil.
thermionic effect I,llsil c'llled '1 iJnllli'1I1il' em;,siun'):thegil'ing-llfl Ill' electruns
lrom r1w surlac,: Ilf a lllltilletai.
AS/A-Level Physics
In general, the llIt'1allJas to be healed tll al It'aSI dull-red so thaI the electrons
gain snHicit'll1 cnngvtu escapl' lrom its SUrl,lCC'. tmissillll 01 electronscauses
pllsnll,\:, ch,ll'gt' [,,[11111,1 111' lin llil' l'lcl.1l. Fill' thnllli'1I1i,' l'lnissilln III cOllliJlllt',
tlie llll'talmustllt' pari uj dll eiL'cli'IL,ll Llrluil.
1\ lil,lllll'llI pl'llv,dcs till'c\enrlllis Illr [he upcratiull Ill' u,ci!-
!usl'ullL'S, leic'vlSI'JIlS and X-r,ll' 1LI1'es, The JiI,lJ1lent acts as tlw c,lthllc!e ill Lhe
tube
thermionic emission: sec rizer/nill/lic 'Beel
thermistor: a resisllJl' whuse !'L',llsldlil'e varies greatly with temperature,
A nl'gative temperatureCI)efficient (nil') thermistorshows a rapiddecrease III
resislanceas its temperaturerises, Cunversely, a positive temperaturecoefficient
(ptc) thermistor shows a I-apid rise in resist,ll1ce as its temperature rises,
Typically, fOI' an ntcthermiSlllr
resistance at OC =4000
resistance at o,OC = ] 200
The variation ot resistdllce with tcn1perature is not linear but is freCjuently
e.\l'o/lL'11lidl, varying as culT wbert' I' is J constantand T is the thermodynamic
temperatulT.
Thermistors arc usni in POI,'lIlla! divider circuits I'or the monitming and
control 01 temperalllles.
thermistor thermometer: Lhermometer using the change in resistance with
temperature change of ,1 Ilzallli.\111!,.
Tberrnislllr thernlllrneters Me ,wailahle to cover tbe temperature range from
clhou\ -50C IU +0,00c.Tllt'Y arenot direcl readingl)llt dohavetheadvantage
that the\' are ren1lltt reading and, since the output is ekctrical. the output
data can be stored easily, (See also liquid-In-ghlss tllernwlllctcr; Ilzamocouplc
tlzermometer, )
thermocouple thermometer: thermumeterbased on the principle ofthe ther-
mocouple ,
When thejunctions01 two dissimilarmetalsare atdifferent temperatures, all.
e!eclro7llc'live force (emf) is generated between thejunetions.
I
fv1elaIB)
/I Me"'A MeidlA ,/
MelJI B
COld Hoi
Thermocouple arrangements
HOI

.. .... ':: Essential Word Dictionary
........ -...
Tilt' l"l<l J\lllUlml III ,1 v, ill f'ld, L1l' lhc inSlrLlllll'lll ll,ccllur1llL',lSllring Ihc cm[,
TLl' In:lgnilu(k' ulllIt' Cl1ll' i,dt'pcntit'lJ[ "II III,' Il'lllpl'r"ltirt: difiL-rence Ilt'IWCCI]
lIll'.ilIndillll" Tlll'rJllIIl'llllpk l]wrllllllJIt'lci.' l',1Il Ill' dl"lglIl'c1 '"I ,1 very wilk
r,llIgc IIi III':,'I',<!LTllll'ill ,d It'illl'l'rdILlI'l' (111' II.) d["ILII 17iJO"C) is jl""ildc, Such
Illl'rll1l!ll1Cll'r, ,Jrl' rllhll,1 Jild Ilclve ,1 Silldil Lllerlll,,1 l,lp,ICil)'. TLcy JIT n'IlII)ll'
Il',lllill.C: JIIlI 11it'lr IIlilpUl l,lll LIC ,llilL't!l',l,ilv, IS('(' also /i'I/li,i-ill-_'llilss
!lit' 1/1/1 )/1/('/,' r; I/il'lI!Il.lil' I' I11L'l'In,)/I!l' Ie' r, J
thermodynamic scale of temperature I,l!'" c,llit'd ',lbsolule "cok 01
It'lllpcr,lllJrC' C1111i 'Kl'!vln "cokoj Il'l1Ipt'r.1IUI'C'): ,1 IClllpcr,lIUre scole bast'd on
rjw lIiCUIl'licalcllkil'ncy uJ a perleLllvIcvnsibk hC,ll engine,
II is atlIelll'CtiGll ""Ilt' th.1l is illlIH'ri,'lllhccau,e il docs notdepend on Ihc way
th,ll'l physjl'll propl'rlY 01 a SubSI,lllLt:' change, Willl 1t'IllPl'rOIme,The theory
,d i'l'iit'uly ITvtTsihle hl"ll t'ugincs is lill[ dcall willJ al AS/A-kvel. bUl il is
illlpul'lalll 1(1 realise lhell thcreclucs exist ,In 'lhsulull''C,lle oflelll[Jcraturt',Thl'
symbul fur thnilludynalllic tt'lllperalllre (Kelvin ll'lllperaturc) is T alld, sincl'
tlw SC,lle WelS lkveluped hy Lurd Kelvin, tlll' unit is thekelvin (symbolK),The
It'llll'eralurt' at which allY object has mlnil'lUIll energyis zerol,elvin (OK).The
kelvlil j,thc Ir,lcti'"1 11273,16 of the dilJcrt'llce bl'lwet'n Ihe ahsolute znilof
tl'mpcrCilurt' ,'IlJ Iht' InrlcJ!l>iJ1f uf Weller. Sillcc 11lL' lelnpnalnre of Iht' triple
(winl ld W,ller is lUll ]-( ,lbove the Irl'l'I.ing PUilli or waIn al sland,lrd
,1lIllOSphl'lie pressurt', till' CebiustCllll't'I',lIUl'l' I is rcl'lled Iu Kel\'intelllperCilurt'
Tby tll,: expressillil
IluC = TIK - 273,15
Note Ih,lI rell'lellce 10 till' nip!l' }Hlilll 01 Welln in the ddiniliou uf tht'
kl'lvin a 11lH11nicul value tu tlll' 111l'rJll(ldyu,lInicscale uflel1lperalure.
A single rekrt'nct' relllpnature (apart fWIll Ibe zero of tht' scole) is uSt'd al1d
till' 'C,lle ducs n(ll rely Oil a change in ,1 I'lopnry of a real substance witL
It'Illl'eraluIT, F,)!' many calculatiolls ,11 !\S/A-kvt'l where two ur Ihree
sigllificalll figure is reLjuired, l11e l'(.luvnsiull UOC = Til( - 273 is satis-
IClctury Ho\,vt'ver, yuu lllusl be awarc of till' l'ull conversiou,
threshold frequency: [lie Ininillluill frCLjul'IlC\' or ratii,Hioll
IIICidl'Ili Ull a 'llrlal'l' lUI' thl'1'!l,'lcL'i(([{'([ 10 ukl' pIJl't',
Till' IIHt',!IOid fll'ljUClll'y lkpl.'lllt:, Ull lilt' 11,llllle of Illc IllalnicIi and Oil irs
'url,ll't' CUllllilioll. Till' 11'",-( IIiI/,IIc'1I l'II(('/I' ,j' is I'l'I'lll'd 1u tht' rlHes!Iold
II'l'ljUl'ill'l'I;, hy tJw t'\I'I'CSsiull
1/) 11/"
Iv!:nl' I! !, I Ill' !'1,Ull'!' [,'lIsldlll,
time: ,1 [',1,1,' </lIdlliltl' ill rill'SI ,1.I'Sle'lIl; Its unil I'[Ill' Sl't'Olld Is),
()Ile ,eC'Jlld ii, Ihl' lillle' !,lkcll 1,11- l) 111 2 IJ31 770 periuds or tile rM!!,lliul)
l'III'LIl',! liUllllg ,] trcilNllUIl i.JCIWl'l'll tVVl) I"'l'/.l III t!It' Sl.lll' uI ,1
c,lcsiliIIJ- 1J.:; ,1IU111.
AS;A-Level Physics
time constant: t1,,' liillt' lah'll lur till' pUlCllli,ll dilkrt'llce anus,a (,ljladlcl!'.
lhrullgh a lu faU ttl Cl Ir,lClIull \Il' (11,111 earlier value'
TIIIlt' ,'''II,I,ll1t Illay ,11", Ill' ddilll'ii 'Ill ILTIIIS O( lilt' (1Idr::;l' "11 11ll' C,l\)dCill'[ !II"
till' currl'lll ill 11ll' I'nl,l"!. Till' fllrlll uf 11lt' di,I,'lldr,!C 'I, t'X r"
lI1
('11Llal
dllli rill' tillll' llel'dnl Iur lJ1l' Iractioll,ll c!lallgt' 11(' dill'S Ilul lkpl'ild (Ill lhl'
illili,ll va!Ul'. TilIll' cUml,IJ11 IS gIVen tlll' SlllI[Jul rami h,l.' Illl' lillil ,,! tilllt IS!,
lor capocilul discharge, lht' pUll'llticll differcnct' l'vdries Ivilli timt' I
dcc()ldillg tu
1/== V (-1/1\(-"
u
ami, by ddiliitioll, WhClll = r then ].'/1"1 = ]It' = c',il lollows th,ll
r/NC= I
and
limt' LDllSlal1l r = RC
Notc Illal lime COllst,JlII al"u clppllcs III lilt' 1I1 ,1 c,lpclci\Or tlHUlIgil ,1
re,i,lur.
Timt' CUllSlanl is impurtilnl when dctermining the amounl ,117l17rJlhing
III a direcl vullagc or current.
:-,: Tile equa!llJn r = RC is elll impurt,llli equ,lliull and lllUSl L)t karo.ed,
HowneJ', it should nut be used as the definitionl)1' limc elll"lanl.
torque: tile tllnjut: ,,1 d COliI'lL i,tlw dkct lIr 1ill' clIUplc,
I'lll IW(' t'ljIlal butlIppllsile paralic! flll'ces, t'clch 0: Il1agniludcF. I,vah lilles
of action LlY 0 dislanct' d, tht' magnitudc uJ Ihl' tLiming dleLlurthe
cuuple (the wrqut' 01 the coupk) is givcll by
turqtle ofcuuple = Fd
is a vee/or '1llLll1lily il11d its SI unit is newton metre (Nm),
'r::" Do llLl! conl'use the unil of torque with Ihal ul eungy (thejouk). BUlb
are tht' product of a lurcc and a distance, bUI in the l'elSl' uf lurLjue the lorel'
ami cii<;l,lllCC ,He al right ilngles, while 1mencrgy thc fmct' ,lIld distaIlce lllllVt:c1
are alongtilt' sanle line,
total internal reflection: 1IIIai reflection of a wa\'(' incidenl Oil il boullLiary
Ilelwcl'11 two [llt'di,l,
11 lIccurs whell tile W,1\'t' incident ffUl!l the more dellse Int'ljjuJn ,111J the
ongk1I1 incidence of l'Y,lVt is grl'C1llT I!l,lll ib ,'rilie'ul<111.'l/l',
Il is Iill' 11c!,i, 01 uur ullderstanding 1I1' I'ljh'(lillypnSIII,\ ,Hid "'plil,plnl's
toughness: ,1 l11l',ISlll'e III 111L' ,lnliiunt 01 IVU/'k Wlli,'ll III 11 ,I ill' dllllL', UI' lit Iht,
,11l1LlU11i uj elll:,rgy slUfl'tllll ,1 Ill,llnial, Ilel,)IT Il
T(luglllless should 1101 be llJilfused with strellglll,CI,l,S i, ,1 sln'll:;illdlcl'i,ll.
i,e, il has ,1 higll hl-e,lkillg ,lIT'S, bur il i, Iwl IOllg!l LWCOIIS(' il dlll's 11111 ,11'Y)II'
rJlllCh energy l"'fme lailurt', (Sec also I
l
rlllll'l1l'ss.)
trajectory motion: llle fll(Jlilill III ,lll "ll,jt'el which h,lS hllih Jut!
verlICcillll"liull, ill
r
144
--"1
AS/A-Level Physics
The l'nult,ll11 ur positiun of Ihe ITlJ)! be found by IreJting the
l](1ri.,,"II1.ll ill\llilill ,1Ild lilt' venic,111ll0IiIJl'1 using the eLI/wlzOIlS
<'/ II/,JI/,'II. Cl'lllTJIJy. the objcct ILlS J uililorm velocity in one direction (hori-
lUIH,lIlyI Jlld ,Kcc!er-cltt'd ill(1110n i[1 [ht' vertlc,l) direction. Assuming 111,ll Jir
rcsiSl,lI1Cl' is the 1ll,1;;i[11\11ll horiwnul r.:mge is obt,'illed when the
u['jCl'l [S 11I'Oll'Cll'd JI an Jngk oj to tile horizoill,l!.
Whcll s!Ilving problem,invulvllIg InOli(Jll. it i,llOUJI te> sl'jlarJII'
tlH.' vntil',lily upward nl\llioll from thl:' dowl1ward motioll, remembering that
Ihl' ubleCltaf:es as lung tu faIJ as it does 10 rise.
transformer: a device by which the voltJgl' ul an alternating supply may be
changect
It cOllSists nllwocoils of iI1su\atect wire, a primaryJndasecondJry, wound on
a SLJf! ium cort'.
Laminated
soft-ICon
cOle
Pl
\
,
[
/1
V
S
V
1_-
Primary coil,
Secondary COil,
N
p
turns
N
s
turns
A simple transformer
An alternatingvoltage VI' is applied to the primarycoil of N[' turns.Achanging
magnetic field in thecore causes an induced emf V
s
in thesecondarycoil ofN
s
turns. The core is laminated to reduce energy losses due to currents heing
inducedin the core. lllhetrallsformer is ide,ll (i.e. lhereare i10l11agneticflux
losses and no cilergy is lost in thecore orthe coils), then
\"1 V[' = Nsl NI'
Also, "illce ,lll ideal transformeris 100%, efficient
poweriil primary coil = puwerill "ecol1dMy cuil
If lhl' l'l[rrl'llts ill the sl'COnd,Hy ,lilct in thl' primary coils arc Is and 1[',
H"pl'ctively
V,l, = \"p1r
,wd
\\/1 =N,IN =1['1/, 1 ,
"
Tile fn'quellc\" rl'ill,li[I.' ullcI1Jil!'ni.
Alr211siurIHer Ill,1\' l'e u.su! ill Clliliu[ll'ti(l[l with c1 rl'ClI./i"a.
T.:'- Alr,ll1sJurfiler (lpn'2les oill\' Illl ,111 allcrnatillg suppl\".
transverse wave: ,1 lY,lVe in which the dispL1Cl'I11ellts of theparticlesin the wave
areat right clllgleS lU the direction oftrJJlskr01 the energy 01 tbe wave.
All displacements
I!l a pl'ane normal
l:J of
energyiransrer
\\I.. , O"ectlon of

:
.
energy tJanster
1 !
11:
I "
1
I,
Direction of displacements in a transverse wave
Surface WJter waves Jnd llght waves (in this case thcre are no vibrating
particles but, instemi. oscillating dectricand magneticfields).
"'-'F When stating Wh,'l is llleant by a transverse WJve, be very GJrcluJ to
specify 'dircction of transfer 01 energy of tbe wave', nOl merely 'direction of
the wave'.
triple point: thesingletemperatureat which the solid, liquid anct vapourstates
of a substance exist together.
For water, the pressure Jt the triple point is 610.5Pa and the temperature is
0.01Kabovethe freezing pointofwateratstandardatmosphericpressure.That
is, at 273.16K.Thetriple pointof Waler is used whendefining vvllJt is meant
by [he magnitude of the kelVin. (See also thc7"!1wdylli1l71ic swIt' ofternpcrntllrc.)
turbulent flow: the type offlow that occurs when the speed ofa fluid is suW-
ciently high forslrC,1171!illc flo1v notto uccur; it is chJracteriscd by irregularpaths
and eddies.
:: "

)
Dr.:rg furc(:'s in LLirbuleill flu\-\' ,1re grealtT th.:rn In SUT,llllline ["lu\-\' becJmekim'lll"
energy IlIUSI bl' pru\'idnl lU lhe lIuid [0 lTI'Jle the eddies.
4S
two-source interference: lhe paltern prucillcecj whelJ Wilves Ir<IllllW(J sources
Illl't:I,
Suitable,1!'I'M,llUS to dl'llIUllslr,llt' usi11g lighl is Sl10l'Vll
ill till" ['elmv,
II .
-..11
lL ----:---- [11'1'1 A
PCJrallel

monochrornatlc
---"01 mill
laser light ----.

Double
silt
Screen
Two-source interference of light
Thestits ensure that the mOlloc!lrom,ltic light emerging[rum them is cu111:'1'enl.
f\., a result ul,1if(rd({l<il7 nllighl 011 tileslits, thewaVl', [rom thetwoslits uverlap
ilnd a series ulll:,:111 and Lbrk bands is u[Jscrved OIl the SCITell. Along the ,IXIS
ur sYllllllelry uJ LJll' J)1jlilJ'iltuS. thl' waveS !rom the two slits havt' znc) poth
.iifF'rmcc ,]I)U thus COIlSII'Illril'C intt'l/ermcL' OCCllrs, givilJg ri.,e \0 a brig!n Iringe.
Oneitherside ufthislineofsylllmetl'y, lhere will be a p,lth difference between
the' W,lVt'S wilen they meet Ull the Ifthis path difference is all integer
number 01 wavelengths, constructive inlcrlerence occurs and il bright fringe
wiiI be seen. Foril pathdifferenceequal tu an odd numberof 11aH wavelengths,
into/aerlee occurs and il dark fringe will resull.
Interference pattern
1//Blight
Dark
-------+ ) Bright
Parallel - n DDaark
U- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ilglll -n
--+',1
. I'
1\
U
DlJulJle
sill
Celltral maximum ILJflgl1tl
Dark
"'-.""
j o;"gllt
I
I (, Dan
"I Bi:qht
Screen -+- J
111!e"Slll' of 11\]/11
un '':;CIl,::'ell
Interference fringes
"'I
AS;A-Level Physics
11 llll" di.,lc111Le [) belwI'l'l) lilt' duuble silt dlJcI SUl'e11 IS very
th,lIl tile olthc Lilt' will Llt' l'lj1I,1 11 v Sp,1<
"'!,clrdlioil .I, the' lrlllgc 11' (Ii lhe Iri'llge., i., by
II' = iJ)!s
TWo-soUI'lV i,lll:'I'!cll:IHY !,III\'ilks,1 L(III\L'llll'lll nll',llis 11\' Willchthl'w,J\'ek,
olli,.;lll Illilv lw I01111d. Fur a typical 01 w,l\'t'kllgtlJ (,.WIIII"
S I, alll'lll 111l11l ,llld D alJUul :; ill, ,l:IVIlJg Jringes uj wldI!1 ,ll1UUt 2. !lllll Nllle
rll,lt IIll:' widlh is Ihl' disl,ll1(t' 1'('I\\T('11 puilus u!l IwigJ]-
1111L!I'illg bright [ringL's or neighbuurilJ:': LiMk trlngl:'s TWl1-suurcl:' illInlerellce
lllil)' ,1Is\1 be demunslrilled using tWD micruwaveSOllrcn ortwu!uuc!spe.:tkcrs,
[11 ('ach case, lhe twO sources,He connected til thesameapprl
1
pri,lle slIpply.A
ll1iC!'<lW:IV\> Lit'tectur ur, in lhL' case lif soulld, llie carlir a mic1I1plw[l(.'. lllaY [ll:'
used tli detl'll thc Illlcl'lerl:'IICI:' pattern.
TWO-SLlIII'Ct' il1lcrference nlay be C!cllwuslr,llcd u)ing,1 I'/pplc ldill.: ur' with
mierl'l,1'{/I'CS, .1['1111<101' /i9/z
t
.
". For micfllw,lVesilnd suulldthe[urllluia II' = AD!s is usually nul ,1pprujll'ialC'
Lwcause tlie dist,lnce between the SLllllTes ,1Ild thl:' detectur is !lUl very lllllCh
greatt'r tlian tlie wavelength. f\IWilyS 11\)le ccuefully the dimensio!ls 01 tilt'
appilralW, used. The diagraIll canlleverL,c dr,lWI1 \Il ,cilk, whIch kdds Illilny
,ludellts lLJ think thilt tIle duubk ,[it dimensiuns ll1c
1
lly times lll.tir aClue,1
va!Lles.
""'

,l
....
I
1
Essential Word DIctionary AS/A-Level Physics
" ... -. ,-- '':'"
ultimate tensile stress (abo called 'breakingstress'): the IllaximumSUess that
can be applied to il sLlfllple ofmateriili befure it breilks,
For many materials, 'necking' of the sample occurs once the ultimate tensile
stress has been re'lChed, Thesample develops an excessively large decrease in
cross-sectional area atthe 'neck', resulting ina fracture in this region,
ultrasound: simil'lr to sound in that it consists ofpressure waves that move
through a medium,
The trequency rangeofthesewaves is ,1bove the<:\udible mnge (i,e, above about
20kHz),
UltrJsound bas many uses, including medical di,lgnOStS, The frequencies
used are ofthl' orderofMHz, Ultrasound poses less 01 a he<:\1th risk than X-r<:\y
diagnosis,
Jltraviolet radiation (UV): elcclromagnelic WilVCS wahwavelengthsin the range
ofabout 400nm to I nm, lying between visible lighl <:\nd X-IilYS in the eleclro-
llla:1'1etlc spectrum,
UltraviL11l't light is caused by the de-excit<:\tion ofelectrons in higher energy
levels ,lnd IS produced in mercury lamps Jnd in the Sun, UV radiation h,IS
sufficientenergy tll bre<:\k atomicbondsand onCJuseskincancersanddamage
10 eyes, Most of the UV radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone in the
upper<ltlllosphere, UV is detected principally by its efkels on photographic
plates andj7uurescc/he,
UV radiatio!l will kill bacterid ilnd can therefore be useci to sterilise
t'Lluipl1lc!l1.
uncertainty: thc r,1l1ge of v<:\ILles on both sides ord I1H:'<:\surel11l'l1t in which the
ilctual v,II,1(:' nl Ille 1lle,lsurcmenl is expected to lie.
i\ 111t.,lsUrelllent quoted ,IS 36.4 '"' 1),3 em implies that thf l110stlikely v,llue is
'(".j Cill with an ullcertainty uf ,",0.3cm, That is, thl:' <:\CLU,11 value is likely to
lil' between 36,J em ,md 36.7 cm, The uncerl,1illly in a measurement is
relerred to ,1S the CII,'I', However, it is mo['e unrect to refer to ,Ill
1Ill':ert,l;[11\' whl'rether\' IS dOUbt in the re,lding. Whena numberofindividuals
all ['Ike' theS<:\Illt' rne,lsurCllll'llt, thlTl'will be a spreJdofvaluesabout a me<:\n,
T11l' uncertainly is referred III ,1S bl'illS rJl1dOl11 and is sumctimesc,llled J random
,'IT,ll'. R,'l1dOlll enurs01' uncniailllinare scen as a scalIer (If re<:\dings ahouT a
1l11:',1n and can 11(' redUl'L'cl by J\,'[,I:-;'ll',':, H ,In insLrunwnt h<:\s a :CI'O ,'IT,'l'; all
IllL'JSUITIllCillS Will be tlll) high (or wuIt)\\,) by a l'CrLain dl110unl. This nruris
c,llled d svsrCllldlie OI,lr, Sys'lem,1Iic Cl'n)rs CiJmlllt lw elillllIlJted by Jveraging
bUll-ail be reduced bycOITL'C1 lab()[,llory practice, (Seealsll Lleellnlll'; preCision,)
undamped oscillations: oscilla[illllS III which theamplitude:aud the lill,11 Ellergy
rem,litl curtStJnt with time.
In practicl:', such oscill.llions do !lut occur becJuse energy is Jlvvays 10', JS il
result o[ air resistance and dissipative forces within the oscillJtillg ubject.
]-[owevn,in someCilses (such as a simple pendulum), tbe JmplitLllle decreases
sluwly witb t!l111:' JmttlKre i,s a guod appruximiltioll to undillllped oscillatiuns,
(SCC aIso simple lzarmol17c I1lOli[1/1, CJ1crgy 'If.)
unified atomic mass constant: a unit 01 milSS equaltoone-twe][th01 the mass
of,1 carbon-12 (12C) ,1\0111,
Thesymbol lill' the Llllil'ied atomicmass constant is 11, where
I1/ = 1.660 540 x 1 kg
Theenergyequivalence(6. = (
2
6171) of 11/ is \.492 419x 1Q-IOJ PI' 931,494MeV
Note that. in some literature, the symbul u, ratilt'!' than u, is useci to denote
the unilicd atomic I1Ul"" lInil. (See also bilUting e1lC?:qy, lluclcnr: milSS defect,)
... In order[() avoid thl' Lise 01 'powerslJf ten', the massesof nucleiareof teo
expressed in terms 01 11, when calculating energy equivalence, do
not for-set t(l Cllnverr lllass ill II 111 mass in kg,
unified atomic mass unit: a unit of milSS, the size of which is equJI lU ,me-
twelfth ulthe mass 0/ ,1 earbun-12 ('2C) atom,
The symbol lor the unIfied ,ltonlie mass cunst,lnt is u, and the lllagnitude Df
the,1[lJl1llC lllilSS unit u is equill 10 the ullified atomic mass constdJ1lll, where
1 /I =1,660 540 x I kg
universal constant of gravitation (also cJlled 'grilvitiltionJI constalll'): the
constdnt in the equation representing Newton's law of grilvitation; its symbol
is e,
II relates the mutual loree F between two point lllaSSl'S tv! <:\nd m and their
I
F =CMI1IIr
2
The cunst,lIlt G has t1ll" vallie b.67 x N111
2
kg-
2
,
universal gas law equation: \el' I,L,I :lilS ILl II'.
universe. age of: the ,1!," "ltheII [lIVH,e can be cillculattcl lIsing Hubble's Id\\'
The HlILIlJle constanl. H", has the' unit killS-I Mpe
l
, Since Ihe kilometre ano
thel1lL',';,I[lMSL'C Jrc],(1111 lInllo o[ dist\ltlCe, the unitoj' the Hubble C,ln
DL' nprt'ssed as S-I, The rcci
f
1\'(]calo!the HuhhleC<Jl]stJIH Lhere/orc ll'pre,ent,
--;- ".-";:-;--.
. =: ..>
,
Essential Worrl [Jirtic,nnry
yieid point: [lit' plY,ilion on d ,ll \i'llich pldsrL' d(.:!;:Jn!llrfillJl
,:,J;..i the ul' .J[utli:, vvilhin LllC SPCCilill.:ll LH..'gin t(1 Inuve r.:llldulllly.
Young modulus: ILc lUllst,lllllll propllrtioIlalily \',,'IWtTll 1!:'11Sii<: SIr,'S) alllI ll'il,ik
:,i,,'11i lor I, s'iil1rlc ul llJ,Jleri,ll; it is defined bj' the word cqucltiol1
(t!:'llsilel stress (j
y, 1I111'! JH.ldlllllS E = ,
, Itellsile) Slr.:t1ll G
"j;"llin il,;l', 1Hl ullit, Ullli uJ ",c r;illl!l:;U'" E the SJlllt.-' L1S
I.d I.C. N nl ..: 1)1' flLl.
[",'i' 1",':1\ ,()iJds, ll:t' Y<IUii,L; IIlUQlIlu, l:, c1 l<lrSl' 1l1lJIILl('r (SllTI,':: x JOIII\!;
S!c1SS, (, x J 1)"'['0), ,\r(',ls uf Cl'llss-:,eniuu ilrt' olr<:ull1 111111
2
, Do be c,1i'C'llIl with
pUlvns oi tt'll \'Vht'11 d()ing c.:tlculillidns involving (onvel'sioll ()[ 111m
2
llJ m
C
,
Young's two-slit experiment: s<:e illl,T/cr,'IIt'..
zero ,1 systC'JDcHic errur tl1,lllllay occm 111 any inSllUl1lt'nl vl'itiJ a scak til at
Cll!lSiSLe: l llly gives a I'l'"dillg otber th,1I1 Zl'W when the qlic1l1lit)' being l1It'asured
is zern,
A zero error CillJl1Ul l>l' t'lilllill,\led by ,lVerclgi11g re;Jl'illnl reildiugs, (SCt' ab()
II lI(crlLlillly.)

45/A-Level Physics
Appendix A
Summary of quantities, symbols and units
list Si', l'S [ill' SI'IllLJl,h ,'lld Lillil', ill qlldIllllle, Ih,ll ,He Iikl'1v I" hl' Illt'l :11
all AS/;\2 i'll\,SICS Slwc'I!I(,llilll1, Tlw I,i:,! l',lTHIU! i'l' I"tallv l'OllljJI<'lll:IlSII'C'
IlllT!:, 111,1)' Ill' ,<Jllll' <!,I,l:lllti,'S ,hal <ii,' Illll ,Ippl'dr III r,Htil'I.',lr Sjw(illl,llillll,
d
111 S-2 \'(,:'ctnr
.. 'i
J II S - v(,:'llur
A eq (1 r
II 111 () I scald r
,\", l'u, {/ [11 scaku
Ii fiJd, SL,lldJ lJ
(I fJd, n Vt'l[Ul
(.',' rll{ I 5--
1
s('L1ILl1"
(.'..1 r;H! S'I seLl It1 r
(lrl'J /1 Ill' sCllla r
"",v, Ig" d]'() C() II SI ,UI 1 I11(1J-
1
scal,' r
,"'"
bindiug enngy Eo J scal,H
1)O!tZlllilllll (llilSt,J11l I, J i\- scabr
ciipacilJJ1Ct' C F SG,Iill'
Celsius tClIlpnalUI't: () DC

(IlLl rUl' ,j 0 C \c.l1J r
1 s-I
y COIl:,I,1!Jl s(\lla r
"
denslty P
kg Dl-
1
,cal,l]'
displacelllliit \, X IT1 ve([or
disli1l1lt: d, .\ I1l scalar
Cit'l'! ric cu Ilenl i, J A I't'cl,lr
eiL'LHic field silellgdl E
N C- 1 V 111,1 v(:'Clur
ell-eli Ie: p<Jll'illi,ll V SC,d,l r
l'lnlril J)(lll'lli;"lI dillerl'lll'!:' \' 'v' '..,I..:lilll r
<.'i,'(U'l'llllltlvl'lune Ie " al,ll
111... il!! l, kS .... C,:llll r
" ..... ;-
l'il'IlIl'II!ary L'i"llse
,
"';i,5Il
l' t It..' ) E, I" :I' r
\Td()!"
!"ru'
; \!
-
Hz, s-: ',(,J I,ll
Ill' lIl'! III
iii
N k,:;-.' it}":
gr,' VI I"I.i< II Icli (')!lSI"ll! Sc,ilM
"
.

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m

Avogadro constant: thenumberofatomsin0.012kg01 carbon-12; its symbol

to the external pressure, In the process of boiling, bonds between molecules

e.g. Centripetal acceleration plays a part in geostationary orbits and inthe

Circuit symbol for adiode

electricalenergywhen ICofchargeis transferredaroundthecompletecircuit.

hl'= lifo +(+I1IV

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