A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Elements of Poetry
Poetry
is a patterned form of verbal or written expression of ideas in concentrated, imaginative and rhythmical terms. Poetry often contains rhyme and a specific meter, but not necessarily.

Key terminology
Concrete: a concrete word refers to an object which can be heard, seen, felt, tasted, or smelled Abstract: a word or phrase that refers to an idea rather than a concrete object or thing Denotation: the literal or dictionary meaning of a word Connotation: all the emotions or feelings associated with a word magery: words or phrases which create a certain picture in the reader!s mind "one: the author!s attitude toward his audience and characters: serious, humorous, satiric, etc. #ood: the feeling a piece of literature evo$es in the reader: happy, sad, peaceful, etc. nversion: %. a reversal of the normal word order of a sentence& '. in verse, a re( verse in the metrical pattern )epetition: reiterating a word or phrase within a poem )efrain: the repetition of one or more phrases or lines at interval in a poem, usually at the end of a stan*a

Stanzas
+tan*a: a division of a poem based on thought or form Couplet: "wo lines of verse that rhyme ,eroic Couplet: iambic pentameter with end rhyme Closed Couplet: two lines that form a complete unit of thought

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Setting
"riplet: three(line stan*a -uatrain: four(line stan*a +penserian +tan*a: nine(line stan*a .first eight in iambic pentameter and the last in iambic hexameter/ which rhymes ababbcbcc )ime )oyal: seven(line stan*a, in iambic pentameter, which rhymes ababbcc 0ttava )ima: eight(line stan*a, in iambic pentameter, which rhymes abababcc "er*a )ima: consists of lin$ed groups of three rhymes in the following pattern: aba bcb cdc ded...

Sounds
1uphony: language which seems to the ear to be smooth, pleasant, and musical Cacophony: language which seems to the ear to be harsh, rough, and unmusical Alliteration: the repetition of the initial letter sound in two or more words in a line of verse Assonance: the similarity or repetition of a vowel sound in two or more words in a line of verse Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds within a line of verse. Conso( nance is similar to alliteration except consonance does not limit the repeated sound to the initial letter of a word& the repetition generally occurs at the ends of syllables.

Rhymes
)hyme: the similarity of sound existing between two words )hyme +cheme: a pattern in end rhyme& the first sound is represented with an 2a,2 the second sound with a 2b,2 etc.. 1nd )hyme: similar sounds which occur at the end of two or more lines of verse nternal )hyme: similar sounds which occur between two or more words in the same line of verse .usually at the middle and end of the line/ Perfect )hyme: repetition of two or more words with the same accented vowel sound and all succeeding sounds

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

dentical )hyme: repetition of two or more words with the same accented vowel sound, preceding consonant sound, and all succeeding sounds Approximate )hyme .+lant )hyme/: two words that have some sounds in common but not enough to ma$e them a perfect rhyme& often the words are spelled the same but pronounced differently Double )hyme occurs when the last two syllables of a word rhyme with another word. "riple )hyme occurs when the last three syllables of a word or line rhyme. Alternating )hyme is a rhyme scheme in which the last word in every other line rhymes.

Types of verses
)hymed 3erse: lines with end rhyme and regular meter 4lan$ 3erse: lines of iambic pentameter without end rhyme 5ree 3erse: lines with no rhyme or regular meter

Punctuation of lines
1nd(+topped 6ine: punctuation at the end of a line 1njambment .)un(on 6ine/: poetic 2sentence2 which flows over more than one line Caesura: punctuation or a phrasal pause in the middle of a line

Meter
#eter: "he pattern of stressed .accented/ and unstressed .unaccented/ syllables established in a line of poetry. "ypes of metrical feet: ambic 5oot .u 7/: two syllable foot((unstressed, stressed "rochaic 5oot .7 u/: two syllable foot((stressed, unstressed Anapestic 5oot .u u 7/: three syllable foot((two unstressed, and one

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

stressed Dactylic 5oot .7 u u/: three syllable foot((one stressed, two unstressed +pondaic 5oot .7 7/: two syllable foot((both stressed .$ey: u 8 unstressed, 7 8 stressed/ 9inds of #etrical 6ines: a. monometer: one(foot line b. dimeter: two(foot line c. trimeter: three(foot line d. tetrameter: four(foot line e. pentameter: five( foot line f. hexameter: six(foot line g. heptameter: seven(foot line h. octometer: eight( foot line

Figures of Speech
5igure of +peech: an expression in which the words are used in a nonliteral sense to present a figure, picture, or image Allusion: a reference to some person, place or event that has literary, historical, or geographical significance Antithesis: opposing words or ideas written in grammatical parallels Apostrophe: addressing someone .dead/ or something .an idea/ not present, as though present Conceit: a far(fetched and ingenious comparison between two unli$e things ,yperbole .0verstatement/: an exaggeration for the sa$e of emphasis which is not to be ta$en literally

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

6itotes: an understatement conveyed by stating the opposite of what one means or by stating a fact in the negative #etaphor: an implied comparison between two usually unrelated things which suggests one thing is the other& a lin$ing verb is often used to connect the ideas #etonymy: the substitution of a word naming an object for another word closely associated with it 0nomatopoeia: the use of a word to represent or imitate natural sounds Paradox: a statement, often metaphorical, that seems to be self(contradictory but has valid meaning Personification: the giving of human characteristics to inanimate objects, ideas, or animals Pun: a play on words that are identical or similar but have diverse meanings +imile: a direct comparison between two usually unrelated things using 2li$e2 or 2as2 0xymoron: a type of paradox in which two lin$ed words contradict each other .e.g. 2jumbo shrimp/ +ymbol: a word or image that signifies something other than what is literally represented& it has both a literal and figurative meaning. +ynecdoche: a substitution in which a part is used to represent the whole :nderstatement: saying less than one means or saying what one means with less force than the occasion warrants

Kinds of poems
4allad: a narrative poem which tells a story, fre;uently in four(line stan*as 5ol$: a sung ballad of un$nown origin which is part of an oral tradition 6iterary: a ballad by a $nown author who imitates the fol$ ballad style 1legy: a poem that deals with the subject of death 5able: a short tale that teaches a moral lesson in which the characters are usually .but not always/ animals with human ;ualities and speech 6yric: any short, musical poem which expresses the poet!s clearly revealed thoughts and feelings 0de: a lyric poem written in an elevated tone about a serious topic

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Pastoral: a poem that ideali*es rural living and nature 5ixed 5orm: a traditional pattern that applies to a whole poem ,ai$u: a three(line <apanese poem, usually about nature& the first line has five sylla( bles, the second line has seven syllables, and the third line has five syllables 6imeric$: a five(line nonsense poem with anapestic meter +estina: A poem composed of six six(line stan*as, followed by a tercet .three( line stan*a/. "he end word used in each line of the first stan*a repeat in a rolling pattern in the following stan*as& these same words are used two(to(a(line in the tercet 1li*abethan .1nglish or +ha$espearean/ +onnet: structure: fourteen lines, iambic pentameter, three ;uatrains and one couplet rhyme scheme: abab cdcd eff gg :sually a ;uestion or theme is posed in the ;uatrains and answered or resolved in the couplet. talian .Petrarchan/ +onnet: structure: fourteen lines, iambic pentameter, octave and sestet rhyme scheme: abbaabba cdcdcd or abbaabba cdecde 0ften a ;uestion is raised in the octave and answered in the sestet. 3illanelle: a poem which consists of five tercets and a ;uatrain, all rhyming 2aba2 .with a variation in the ;uatrain/. "he first and third lines of the first tercet alternate as the first lines of the other stan*as& these lines are again repeated as the final two lines of the poem.

Elements of Nonfiction
Nonfiction Content
is a form of writing which is based on fact and reality& it is not created in the mind of the writer.

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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

"ruth is that which conforms to fact and reality. "ruth may be either objective or subjective depending upon the person!s point of view. 0bjective "ruth: "he author presents situations or the characters! thoughts, feelings, and actions in a detached, noncommittal manner. +ubjective "ruth: "he author incorporates personal experiences into his7her writing or projects into the narrative his personal disposition, judgements, values, and feel( ings. 4ias: 4ias occurs when an author prejudices the audience in favor of one side of an issue by not covering the topic fairly. 4ias should be avoided in nonfiction writing. "heme: "he idea, universal truth, or commentary on life of people emphasi*ed by a literary wor$.

Techni ue
1xposition: writing intended to ma$e clear or explain something which might oth( erwise be difficult to understand Point of 3iew: relative position or angle from which a thing is seen or a ;uestion is considered "one: the feeling conveyed by the author!s attitude toward his subject and by the particular way in which he writes about it 3oice: a term used in a discussion of style to identify the person or personality spea$ing in a literary wor$ Analogy: a comparison of two or more similar objects which suggests that if they are ali$e in certain respects, they will probably be ali$e in other ways as well =enerali*ation: a general principle or conclusion which is drawn from an examina( tion of details

Types
Autobiography: an account of a person!s life, written by him7herself 4iography: an account of a person!s life, written by someone else Diary: a personal daily account of an individual!s experiences and feelings 1ssay: a fairly short nonfiction selection in which the author expresses her7his thoughts and feelings on any subject she7he chooses to discuss

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

5ormal essay: a relatively impersonal essay in which the author writes as an author( ity and expounds on the subject in an orderly way nformal essay: the author assumes a tone of intimacy with his7her audience, tends to deal with everyday things rather than with public affairs or speciali*ed topics, and writes in a relaxed, self(revelatory, and often whimsical fashion ,istory: a recording of past events, persons, and places <ournal: a record of experiences, ideas, or reflections $ept regularly for private use <ournalism records and presents topics of current interest to the public through news media& journalists present facts and describe situations without attempting to influence them. >ews story: a factual recording of current events, persons and places that appears in a newspaper or maga*ine& answers the ;uestions 2?ho@ ?hat@ ?hen@ ?hy@ ?here@ ,ow@2 1ditorial: an article in a newspaper or maga*ine which gives the editor!s or author!s point of view #emoir: a day to day record, ta$en from a private diary or journal, of events in a person!s life, written for personal use and pleasure& tells of the people and events that the author has $nown or witnessed

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Elements of !anguage
E"pressions
#axim: a statement of general truth Aphorism: a pithy statement of a general opinion or truth 1pithet: a word or phrase used in place of a person!s name which is characteristic of that person 1pigram: a brief, witty poem or saying which often deals with its subject in a satiri( cal manner 1uphemism: the replacement of a blunt, often unpleasant, term with a more vague and roundabout expression ClichA: a word or phrase which is so overused that it is no longer effective in most writing situations 1pitaph: a short poem or verse written in memory of someone Platitude: a trite remar$

Types of !anguage
#alapropism: a play on words which results when two words become jumbled in the spea$er!s mind <ournalese: the terse, factual style characteristic of journalists Anachronism: an error in chronology .such as placing a person or event outside its historical era/ 4ombast: verbose and inflated diction that is disproportionate to the subject matter Didactic: writing intended to instruct and inform the reader .often with a moral message/
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Circumlocution: the use of an excessive number of words to express an idea

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Doublespea$: language that appears to be earnest and meaningful but in fact is a mixture of sense and nonsense

Style

is a writer!s characteristic manner of expression in prose or verse. +tyle is shaped by the writer!s diction, figures of speech, rhythmic patterns, and sentence structure.

#iction: the author!s choice of words based on their correctness, clearness, or

effec( tiveness Archaism: words which are old(fashioned an no longer sound natural when used Collo;uialism: an expression which is usually accepted in informal writing or spea$ing but not in a formal situation <argon .technical diction/: the speciali*ed language used by a specific group +lang: language used by a particular group of people among themselves, or lan( guage used in fiction and special writing situation to lend color and feeling "rite: expressions which lac$ depth or originality, are overwor$ed, or are not worth mentioning in the first place 5ormal Diction: word choice appropriate for formal writing li$e analytical essays, speeches, and business letters nformal Diction: word choice appropriate for personal letters or casual conversa( tions between ac;uaintances

Synta": the study of the way in which se;uences of words are ordered into phrases,
clauses, and sentences

Sentence Structure
6oose +entence: a sentence which expresses the main thought near the beginning and adds explanatory material as needed 4alanced +entence: a sentence constructed to emphasi*e a similarity or contrast be( tween two or more of its parts

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Department of English GPGJC

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Periodic +entence: a sentence which postpones the crucial or most surprising idea until the end Cumulative +entence: a sentence which places the general idea in the main clause and gives it greater precision with modifying words, phrases, or clauses placed be( fore, after, or in the middle of the main clause Parallel +entence: a sentence in which similar words or ideas are phrased in a simi( lar structure to emphasi*e the connection between them

Elements of fiction
Fiction: any literary narrative which is created in the authorBs mind Plot
Unity of Action: "he plot has unity if it is a single, complete, and ordered action in w which none of the parts is unnecessary. "he parts are so closely connected that without one of the parts the wor$ would be disjointed. Plot is a system of actions in a purposeful se;uence represented in a wor$. ?ristlet defines plot as that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end. Exposition: bac$ground information on the characters, setting, and situation, usu( ally found at the beginning of a story Rising Action: begins when the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is set in motion and ends with the climax Climax: the turning point or the moments of highest intensity in the wor$ when ei( ther the protagonist or antagonist must succeed Falling Action (Dnouement): the action which wor$s out the decision made in the climax((the story unravels Resolution: the portion of the play or story where the problem is solved, providing closure Suspense: an anxious uncertainty about what is going to happen to characters with whom the reader has established bonds of sympathy
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Surprise occurs when the events that occur in a literary wor$ violate the expecta( tions we have formed. "he interplay between suspense and surprise is a prime source of the power of plot. Intrigue: a scheme set up my a character which depends for its success on the igno( rance of the person.s/ against whom it is directed Flas !ac": the writer interrupts the chronological se;uence of a story to related an incident which occurred prior to the beginning of the story Fores a#o$ing is a writerBs use of hints or clues to indicate events that will occur later in the story. "he use of this techni;ue both creates suspense and prepares the reader for what is to come.

Point of vie$
Point of %ie$ is the outloo$ from which the events in a wor$ are told.

The methods of narration are &&&

'mniscient (arrator: "he third person narrator is all($nowing and relates the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of all the characters. )imite# 'mniscient (arrator: "he third person narrator relates the thoughts and feelings of only one character. First Person (arrator: A character, often the protagonist, narrates the story in the first person. '!*ecti+e (arrator (#etac e# o!ser+er): "he third person narrator sees and re( cords the information from a neutral or unemotional viewpoint.

Setting
Setting: the time and place in which the action of a literary wor$ occurs )ocal Color: the use of details which are characteristic of a certain region or sec( tion of the country

Theme
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

, eme is a statement about life or universal truth which a particular wor$ is trying to get across to the reader. n stories written for children the theme is often spelled out clearly at the end of a story when the author writes 2... and so, the moral of the story is ...2 n more complex literature, the theme may not be so moralistic in tone, or at least not so clearly spelled out. -otifis a term for an often(repeated character, incident, idea, or image in literature which is used to convey themes. Am!iguityis the deliberate use of a word or expression to convey two or more di( verse attitudes or feelings.

Character
C aracter: a person .sometimes a group of people, an animal, or a physical force/ invented by an author who has impact on the outcome of the story. Character moti( vation must be consistent& the character must be convincing and lifeli$e. Protagonist: the hero, chief character, or force in the wor$ which the reader wants to succeed Antagonist: a force or character opposing the protagonist who tries to stop the pro( tagonist from reaching his7her7its desired goal. Foil: a character who serves by contrast to emphasi*e the ;ualities of another char( acter

Conflict
Conflict: "he relationship between the protagonist and the antagonist. "he conflict can be threefold: %/ conflict between individuals, '/ between character and circum( stances intervening between him and a goal she7he has set for her7himself, and C/ conflict of opposing tendencies within a single individualBs mind. "here are five basic types of conflict:
Person +s& Person: 0ne character in the story has a problem with one or more of the other characters. Person +s& Society: A character has a conflict or problem with some element of society((the school, the law, the accepted way of doing things, and so on. Person +s& Self: A character has trouble deciding what to do in a particular situation. Person +s& (ature:A character has a problem with some natural happening: a snowstorm, an Department of English GPGJC Swat,

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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

avalanche, the bitter cold, or any of the other elements common to nature. Person +s& Fate: A character has to battle what seems to be an uncontrollable problem. ?henever the problem seems to be a strange or unbelievable coincidence, fate can be con( sidered the cause of the conflict.

Types of Fiction
Prose is often used as an inclusive term for all discourse, spo$en or written, which is not patterned into the lines and rhythms either of metric verse or of free verse. S ort Story: a short piece of prose fiction .generally %(DE pages/ which is unified around a single effect& each element of the story((character, plot, theme, setting, tone, imagery, etc.((contributes to that effect (o+ella ((o+elette): a prose fiction story of medium length .generally DE(%'D pages/ (o+el: an extended piece of prose fiction .generally %'DF pages/ which usually has many characters and develops complex plot C apter: a major division of a novel Allegory: a story in which people, things, and actions represent an idea or generali( *ation about life& allegories often have a strong moral or lesson Para!le: a short, descriptive story which illustrates a particular belief or moral

Techni ue
,one is the authorBs attitude toward his7her subject matter. "he tone might be sol( emn, formal, playful, or serious& it is created through word choices and sentence structure. -oo# is a feeling a piece of literature evo$es in the reader: happy, sad, peaceful, etc.. Atmosp ere is created by the tone pervading the literary wor$, atmosphere shapes the readerBs expectations about the plot .whether the events will be happy, sad, dis( astrous, etc./. Stream of Consciousness: a style of writing in which the thoughts and feelings of the writer are recorded as they occur
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

%erisimilitu#e: an illusion of reality created in a fictional wor$

Elements of #rama
#rama
%. a form of literature consisting of plays '. a serious play which focuses on the main character!s relationship to society rather than on some tragic flaw in his personality Act: An act is a major division of the action of a play. 1arlier plays were fre;uently divided into five acts. #odern plays are commonly divided into three acts. +cene: a division within an act, occurring when there is a change of time or setting.

Elements
"hree :nities: unity of action, unity of place, and unity of time Plot: the system of action organi*ed in terms of the play!s beginning, middle, and end. Dialogue: a conversation between two or more characters in a play& the playwright!s principal means of expression Dialogue serves many functions:
%. t imparts information. '. t reveals character. C. t directs attention to important plot elements. G. t highlights conflict and complications. D. t prepares for future happenings. H. t builds suspense. I. t reveals themes and ideas of the play. J. t establishes the tone((comic, serious, farcical, or tragic Rozi Khan KPK Department of English GPGJC Swat,

A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

0bstacles: something((physical, emotional, or mental((which is difficult to over( come

Style
Atmosphere: the mood pervading a literary wor$ which sets up the reader!s expec( tations as to the course of events, whether happy or disastrous #ood: the feeling a piece of literature evo$es in the reader((happy, sad peaceful, etc. +tream(of(Consciousness: a style of writing in which the thoughts and feelings of the writer are recorded as they occur 4lan$ 3erse: unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter Ka line of five iambic feet .u 7/L

Conventions
Dramatic #onologue: a single character!s speech which indirectly reveals his thoughts to the audience but not to other characters nternal #onologue: a techni;ue which reproduces the rhythm of consciousness just as it occurs in a character!s mind +olilo;uy: a speech delivered by a character when she7he is alone on stage Aside: a stage device in the character expresses his7her thoughts or intentions in a short speech which, by convention, is inaudible to the other characters on stage Dramatic rony occurs when the audience sees a character!s mista$es or misunder( standings which the character herself7himself is unable to see Comic )elief: the introduction of comic characters, speeches, or scenes into a seri( ous or tragic wor$ to reduce tension +toc$ Character: character types that recur repeatedly in a particular literary genre and are recogni*able as conventions +toc$ +ituation: often(used incidents or se;uences of actions Caricature: a picture or imitation of a person!s features or mannerisms which is ex( aggerated to be comic or absurd
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

Pathos: a scene designed to evo$e the feelings of tenderness, pity, or sympathetic sorrow from the audience "ragic ,ero: a character who experiences an inner struggle because of some char( acter flaw& the struggle ends in the hero!s defeat 4athos: ?hile striving to be passionate as in pathos, the writer overshoots the mar$ and drops into the trivial or ridiculous

Types of drama
Comedy is literature which present life situations in a light, humorous, or satiric manner. n comedy, human errors or problems appear funny. 5arce is a type of comedy designed to produce a 2belly laugh2& to accomplish this, the writer uses exaggerated characters, places them in improbable situations, and ma$es wide use of verbal humor and physical horseplay. #elodrama: an exaggerated, sensational form of drama which is intended to appeal to the audience!s emotions .e.g. soap operas/ Parody: a literary form which is intended to moc$ a particular literary wor$ or its style )omance: a form of literature which presents life as we would li$e it to be rather than as it actually is& generally romance deals with adventure, love, and excitement +atire:a literary tone and techni;ue used to ridicule human vice or wea$ness +lapstic$: a form of low comedy which ma$es its appeal through the use of violent and exaggerated physical actions "ragedy: a literary wor$ in which the hero is destroyed by some e flaw within his character and by forces which she7he cannot control "ragicomedy: a type of drama which mingled the standard subject matter of both tragedy and comedy& occasionally these plays had double plots((one serious and the comic

Medieval drama
#iracle .#ystery/ Plays depicted either stories from +cripture .0ld and >ew "es(
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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

tament/ or the life of a saint. nitially brief dramati*ations were used as part of li( turgical services, but later these developed into complete plays. n the %Gth century cycles of plays depicting crucial 4iblical events were performed on 2pageant wag( ons2. #orality Plays were dramati*ed allegories of the Christian ;uest for salvation. "he protagonist represented man$ind or 2everyman2& the other characters included per( sonifications of virtue and death, as well as angels and demons who battled for a person!s soul. nterludes were short stage entertainments, including secular farces and witty dia( logues with a religious or political point.

%ree& drama
Dionysus: god of wine, ecstasy and fertility Dionysian 5estival: "ragedies were originally written and performed for Dionysus!s festival, which celebrated the coming of spring. ,ubris: character flaw of pride Peripety: reversal of fortune Anagnorisis: a discovery that often leads to reversal of fortune Catharsis: a purging of emotion that occurs at the end of a tragedy as the audience feels pity and fear for the tragic hero& supposed to inspire the audience to lead better lives Chorus: "he Chorus, which sings odes in =ree$ plays, serves as a narrator to com( ment on the action from the perspective of the common person. 0riginally, the Cho( rus consisted of twelve men& +ophocles expanded it to fifteen, including the chora( gos .the chorus leader who interacts directly with other actors/. +trophe and Antistrophe: verses that correspond with the chorus! movement as it moves first in one direction and then in the other

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A SHORT HANDBOOK OF LITERARY TERMS

1mmeleia: the slow, stately dance of the chorus Parts of the =ree$ Play: Prologue: introduces the action of the play Parados: song that introduces the chorus 1pisodion: a passage of dialogue between the characters and the choragos +tasimon: song by the chorus which alternated with the episodion 1xodus: departure of the chorus and end of the play

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Department of English GPGJC Swat,