CONCRETE DAMS SECOND EDITION _ = Z a | Fr R.S. VARSHNEY BSc, BLE. (Hons.)(Civi), ME., PhD. Project coordinstor Central Water Authority Mauritius —a= @ OXFORD & IBH PUBLISHING CO. PVT. LTD. New Delhi Bombay CalcuttaCONTENTS Preface to the Second Editton Foreword to the First Edition Preface 10 the First Edition Reviewers! Views of the First Edition ts INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING POR CONCRETE DAMS Introduction, Selection of a dam site, Types of reservoirs and zones of storage, Types of dams, Selection of a suitable type of dam, Construction material, Outline of investigations (after US.B.R), Fixation of storage capacity of reservoirs, Reservoirs operation, Economic height of dam, Life of dam, Allocation of costs of multipurpose river valley projects Rock Mecuanics AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN ‘Dam foundation rock problems, Foundation investigation methods, Foundation: ‘Foundation design methods, Foundation treatment, Foundation analysis Design Floop AND SpILLway CAPACITY General, Estimating run off, Estimation of peak flood, Regional flood studies, Estimation of design flood, Sedimentation in reservoirs Exency DISsiPAtors Hydraulic jump (standing. wave) phenomenoe, Forms of hydraulic jump, Enersy cissipators Gravity Dams General, Dam parameters, Criteria for selection of dam site, Joints and keys, Cooling arrangements, Waterstops at joints, Closing gaps, Forces acting on dam, Types of loads, Elementary profile of a gravity dam, Examples of elementary profes, Step by step metbod of determination of profile of a dam, Stability analysis Trethods, Safety criteria, Gravity anolysis) Internal stress calculations, . Graphical dewerminadon of hear stress, fed’ gravity analysis, RS. Vershney's stress Soeicients for dam design, Eifect of foundation elasticity on steestes in the dam, Galleries, Behaviour of conerste gravity dams subjected to earthquakes, Thermal stresses, Helghiening of gravity dams ” n 110 43ai corer 6. HoLtow AND Conep GRaviTY DAMS 242 General Hollow gravity dam, Cored sravity dam, Hollow base dam, Uplift and sliding 7. BUITRESS AND MuLrinte Arcu Dans 2ss General, Types of buttiess dams, Selection of type of buttress dam, The most column ieee pemctee eson, Design principles, Batre doe eae Su NOt Design on the basis of unit colin’ thee Bene? shape of te i seni Kanakaws, Desisa of multiple arch dam, Provision of spillvays and outlet works, Behaviour of buttress di i ib a Heightening of buttress dams ee daim subjected to earthquakes, 8, ARCH Das ae History, Development of arch dams, Valleys suited for arch dam, Arch dam lay- gut, Types of arch dams, The appurtenant works, Design of an arch dain, Stability at abutments, Effect of foundation elasticity on the behaviour of an arch lam, Heighteniag of arch dams, Behaviour of atch dam in earthquake region 9. Passtnusset» Dams 419 General, Design methods, Prestressing operations, Economics of prestressed dams 10, Now Tapsos 1% Concnere Daws a General, Cupola dams without perimetral_joint, Cupola dams with peritetral joint, Logarithmic spiral arch dam layout, Typical layouts suiting typical valley shapes, Arch dams in wide valleys, Three-centeed arch dams, Conventional marvels 11. INSTRUMENTATION AND SiRati ANALYSIS 437 Necessity of instrumentation, Measurements and their purpose, Instruments, Planing of installation, Calculation of stress from strains in coverete 12. smuways 408 General, Factors alfesting design, Components of spillways, Types of spliways, Design principles of ogee or overflow spillway, Hydraulic de: sign of ogee spillway and bucket type energy dissipator, Side channel spillway, Chute spillway, Syphon spillway, Shaft spillway, Heightening of spillways 13. Gares an Vatves: 538 General, Control equipment, hydraulic gates, Control valves, Radial gates, Air vents, Weight estimates 14, Mass Concrste ron Daus 567 General, Materials, Properties of mass concrete, Control tests. for quality concrete Appendices SBI Subject Index 587 Author Index 5931, INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING FOR CONCRETE DAMS d lox 1, Intropverion Amongst man-made structures dams constitute # unique class in that the potentia! danser in case of failure is far more extensive and serious than with the failure of any other structure. In the past, large design safety factors were adopted due to lack of an exact knowledge of the materials of construction, foundation, forces and the resulting stress patterns. Also as the necessity for higher and higher dams arose, progressive development of the design procedures, construction equipment and methods was called for. This all necessitated detailed topographi- cal, geological and hydrological investigations. ‘The ultimate object of all investigations for storage reservoir schemes s to enable to locate, design and construct most economical structures which will impound water. It must be ‘appreciated that more the investigator understands the types of structures and the project layout for which end he is working, the more he will be able to do an intelligent and selective job. Dams are constructed for: (1) Flood coatrol, and (2) Conservation, water during monsoon and to use it when the river supplies are low. Conservation may be done for any one or more of the following purposes: (a) Terigation. (b) Generation of hydro-electric power. (6). Flood contro! (a) Navigation. (¢) Domestic and municipal purposes. (f) Industrial use (g) Recreation, (bh) Wild life conservation. (i). Storage for stream flood regulation. i) Reclamation of low lying lands, . to save the surplus 1.2 SeLection oF A Daw Sie The selection of a suitable site for a concrete dam depends on many factors, which arc briefly discussed below: 1, Topography and storage capacity For economic feasibility of a storage project itis necessary that the lengih of the barrier ‘or dam should be as small as possible and for a given height it should store good volume of2 CONCRETE DANS water. Hence the river valley at the dam site should be as nasrow as possible and shouk! open out upstream to provide a reservoir as shown in Fig. 1.1. ‘The largest five lakes ereated by the construction of concrete dams in the world are given herein: fable 1. Large lakes bebind concrete dans Dam Country Capacity bv 10° n> Fig 1, Owen Falls Uganda 204.8 71 Suitable dam site 2 Brats USSR. 16,3 3. Kariba Zimbabwe 160.4 | 4. Sadé-BLAlL Taypt 157.0 5 Akoronibo Ghana + 148.0 2. Foundation The site should preferably have good sound rock for foundation. For a concrete ot masonry dam, solid rock at the surface or within a reasonable depth below it, is essential, For arch dams strong abutments are essential, 3. Hydrology Itis an important factor. A good water availability with minimum fluctuations is a desirable featuce, 4. Sediment load An assurance that the dam world not silt up soon i load in the stream should be as little as possible, wrens 8 desirable factor. The sediment 5. Spillway site Tn the case of a masonry dam, it is not very essential that a good site for spillway be available, If t is there, it will be adventagcous, 6. Availability and character of materials for constriction tis necessary for economic feasibility that the bulk of the materials required for the dam be available in close vicinity of the site. For a concrete dat if natural material or good rock is available for coarse and fine aggregate, itis desirable. If limestone is available nearby it may be possible to replace portland cement pactially or wholly. 1. Diversion during construction Sometimes river diversion problems play an impostant role in the selection of dam site, This fector may affect the design of the dam and also the construction schedule, 8 Submergence ‘The value of the property and land submerged by the proposed dam should be low in comparison to the benefits expected from the dam. The height of Rihand dam in U.P. (Iadia) could not be raised as the Singrauli coal mines were under danger of being submerged.INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 9. Watertightness of reservoir The reservoir area should be watertight up to the proposed maximum reservoir level of the dam, The stored water should not be able to escape under the surroun cavernous rock or other continuous pervious strata, 10. Flood control aspect ‘The dam site should be above the area to be protected. 11. Irrigation command ‘The dam sits should be above the area to be irrigated. 12, Availability of suitable site for construction facilities The dam site should offer suitable place for location of coloniesete, It would be neces- sary to connect the dam site to the nearest rail head by a good road and also, ifeconomically feasitle, by a railway to transport construction machinery and kydromechanical equipment and subsequently for development, 13, Availability and character of construction material This essential that good quarry sites are available in the near vicinity of dam site so that construction material can be had at a reasonable cost. 14, Climate ‘ery cold and heavy rainfall will impede construction activities, 15, Availability of utility services Tris economical ifthe site has in the near vicinity an arcess road, electric line, water supply, etc. 16. Locality Healthy surroundings free of mosquitoes is preferable, 1.3. Types or Resexvoins AND Zones OF STORAGE L341 Types Reservoirs can be classified according to the purpose they serve. (@)_ Multipurpose reservoir. A reservoir which serves more than one purpose, viz i tation, flood control, power, etc. (8) Distribution reservoir. Distribution reservoir is sed primarily for storing water for domestic and industrial ase, (0) Flood control reservoir, Flood control reservoirs wt stout are those which store water during floods and release it gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes. “gauges tres Comm Se 1.3.2. Reservoir storage zones prenes ‘The various zones (Fig, 1.2) are: Fig. 12. Reservoir storage zones,4 CONCRENE DAMS (@) Live storage. The storage is usually maintained at normal or full reservoir level, the ‘maximum level to whica the water rises in the reservoir during normal operating conditions. This level corresponcs either to the crest level (in case of ungated spillway) or to the top of Seem ore meh the water in the reservoir is not allowed 9 go down is eee a (0) | Surcharge storage. The water in the reservoir between notmal reservoir elevation ‘nd flood level is called surcharge storage, Thisis required for evaluating flood aoe " (6) Dead storage. The water stored below the dead storage level and which is not used for any purpose under normal conditions, is known as dead storage. This storage ts wuss taken equal to sediment volume during the life span of the reservoir (usually taken as 100 years). (d) Bank and valley storage. The volume of water stored in the pervious formations of the iver banks and soil above it, is known as bank valley storage, (© Prism and wedge storage. The storage beneath a line parallel to the stream bed is called prism storage and that between this line and the actual profile, wedge storage. (f) Total capacity. ‘The reservoir capacity below the highest of the elevations represent ing the top of exclusive flood control capacity, the top of joint use capacity, or the top of active conservation capacity. (g) Active capacity, The reservoir capacity normally usable for storage and regulation of reservoir in flows to meet established reservoir operating requirements, Active capecity extends from the highest of the top of exclusive flood coatrol capacity, the top of joint use capacity, or the top of active conservation capacity, to the top of inactive capacity. It is the total capacity less the sum of the inactive and dead capacities. (h) Exclusive flood capacity. The reservoir capacity assigned to tne control capacity for the sole purpcse of regulating flood inflows to reduce flood damage downstream. () Joint use capacity. ‘The reservoir capacity assigned to flood control purposes ing certain periods of the year and to conservation purposes during other periods of the ur year. (), Aetive conservation capacity. The reservoir capacity assigned to regulate reservoir inflow for irrigation, power, municipal and industrial use, fish and wild life, navigation, recrea- tion, water quality end other purposes. It does not include exclusive flood control or joint uso capacity. (K) Inactive capacity, The reservoir capacity exclusive of and above the dead capacity from which the stored water is normally not available because of operating agreements or. paysical restrictions. 14 Tye oF Dams Dams can be classified according to their use, design and construction material, 1.4.1 Classification according to use 1, Diversion dams. They divert water in a channel—Weirs and barrages. belong to this: eategory (Exumple—Bhimgoda weir in U.P.).INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 5 dematgiage dams. They store water during monsoons to be used throughout the year as | per demand (Example—Bhakra dam in Punjab and H.P.), . aetention dams. They primacily retard food runoff and control food peaks (Example —Panchet Hill dam in Bihar). 1-4-2 Classification according to hydraulic design incalca OVO" dam. The dam which bas overlow section used for ‘S.called overflow dam (Example—Ichari dam in U.P.) “pone erfiow dem, The dam portion which does not allow food Waters to escape is called non-overow dam. Usually all dams haves combination of overflow and non-overflow ‘wstions, ddikki arch dam in Kerala is an example which dose net hee any overflow part 1.4.3 Classification according to construction material used This is the most common classification. There are usually two major categories, viz. @ masonry, and (ji) concrete datas, In recent advances cylindrical rubber dam for a 3.8 a sorage heights are also provided. escaping flood waters 4 Classification according to design 1+ Solid gravity dam, This type of dam is the most rigid and requires the least main- “TEECSo0%9 FOUNDATION ALAN OF CeuTEAL E.tnHEwT Fig. 1.3.Pidima hollow gravity dam, reece,€ CONCRETE DAMS femance, Itis adaptable to all localities, but height is governcd by the strength of the foune Gations. “This type of dam resists overtarniag moment of water Pressure by ils weight alone. The highest gravity dam in India js Bhakra dam ia Punjab and Ie 2. Hollow gravity coucretedam. Most hollow dams have been constructed of reinforced dame tof the buttress type. Turbines and apparatus have often beea placed within hollow dams, thereby effecting a saving in the cost of Recessary housing for sach appliances. The teen consul aSeen {40 contraction joints is lke on oblong U. Suck eee nak Pees constructed in India so far though there are many in caine countries, e.g, Bissina in Italy, Pidima in Greece, ete. (Fig. 1.3) 3. Cored gravity dam. It resembles hollow aravity dacs in priacipte, ere sone nenewe are providedalong contraction joints and not in the midile of the seston, Tease the section dowastream and a thin web in the centre (Fig, 1.4). fs SECTION AT BB . SECTION AT Aca ai) man Fig. 14, Lakhwar dam, U.P. (India)— proposedINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 7 Lakhwar dam on river Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh is proposed to be constructed as cored saeavity dam 4, Buttrese dams, If tho anges of hollow gravity or cored gravity are omitted on the downstream side, we get buttress type dams. These can be (a) Deck type with a reinforced ‘cement concrete slab spanning between adjacent butiresses, or (b) Multiple arch type with concrete arches supported on buttresses. These are shown in Figs 1.5 and 1.6 respectively, ‘(oop SecTioN-Aoc Fig. 1.5,Flat slab buttress dam—geaeral lay out features. <6, Multiple arch dam, 1buttress, 2—arch barrel, 3—erows, 4—haunch, S—battost Jng, 6 —extrados, 7—inicados, radius of ettradon, 9—eadius of inteados, 10—springing ‘of exteados, 11- springing of intrados, 12—battress spacing, 13—arch spacing.8 CONCRETE DAMS Sitch dams. ‘These dams are curved in plan and resist the water pressare partly by thet wciht with verca lements acting as cantilevers and partly by atch action wanna, tal ements acting as arches, spanning from abutment to abutment, and thee transferring a art of water thrust to the abutments (Fig. 1.7), Fig. 1.7, MIS atch dem—Iuly; maximum height—87 m; span—158 me Arch dans are mainly of two types () single curvature arch dams, curved oaly in pin, ae (ji) double curvature arch dams, curved in plan as weil asin elevation, JS Seurcrion oF 4 SurtawLe Tyee of Daw |. Safely considerations. The safety considerations with respec: to the foundation and site Ghararteristiss govera the type of dam. Au arch dam was riled out at Kishau gorge in Uttar Pradesh because the left abutment was considered to be weak to withstand the thrust of an arch cam, 2. Cost The cost of the structure as affected by the availability and price of construction aterias is an importaat faciorin the design. The concrete required for hollow gravity, buttress and arch dam is much less compared to that in gravity dam, But the cost of form work and reinforesment should also be taken into consideration while comparing the economies of a buttress dam with a solid gravity, 3. Site condttions—foundations. (}) Arch dams may be provided in a narrow valley Where strong abutments are available, (ii) Masonry aad concrete gravity dams can be built on good rocks only. If foundations are poor, heavy treatment is necessary before placing efam over them, Gi) Ou weak foundations, hollow buttress dim or cored gravity dam may be constructed with buttress spacings suited to good rock pockets, 4. Availability of suitable construction material. Availability of the type of construction materials, and their relative costs delivered at dam site determine the type of dam. If good ‘aggregate is not available, an earth or rock-fill dam may be desirable £:_ Livdraultc factors. Provision of a spillway, river diversion, outlet works, and layout of peastocks, etc. also govern the type of dam-J scvesnacmions ix eLasons | 1.6 Gomri@crion Matemiat Common materials used for dam construction are stone masonry, cement concrete and rubble concrete, (2) Stone masonry. Most of gravity dams in India prior to World War I were cons- teueted in masonry. The highest masonry dam in India (in the world also) is Nagarjunsager hig 114s, which wil be surpaned by anther higher dam Salam now under construe: tion in Tada (@) Cement concrete, In countries like Bnrope and America, majority of recent dams have been conitructed in cement concrete on account of scarcity of labour; accordingly con- crete construction technique has developed considerably there. A number of dams have been constricted during last 25 years in this country in concrete, eg. Bhakra, Rihand, Tohar, ete (©) Rubble concrete. This hiss boon used in Germany on the Oker and Ecker dams and in India for the construction of Koyna dam. The construction of dam in masonry or big size stones embedded in concrete has not been very poptlar in-advanced countries in Europe and U.S.A. due of high cost of manual labour reqnired for masonry and due to construction requirement of two differeat material (stone and conerete) in the latter. Masonry and concrete—disadvantages in the use of masonry (@) Masonry construction, teing dependent onthe work of large aumber of masons, ‘who havo to pack small stoze pieces in between bigger stones where mortar is placed, suffers from a possibility of improper execution and likely pores in the body of the dam, (@). Masonry is not expected to give a material having isotropic, homogeneous and uni- form behaviour. (©) Masonry is likely to be more permeable than concrete as the mortar can only be hhaad packed. (a). The strength of masonry was considered doubtful. (©) Masonry cannot be relied for surfaces having high velocity flow, such as the regions at the toe of the spillways and outlet sluices. These regious have to be provided with smooth surfaces to avoid cavitation and other undersirable effects and concrete has to be used as a lining over the spillway profile and sluice. (f) Masonry construction was considered to be slow process. ‘AaVantages of masoary over conerete ~ (a) Costly machinery, requited to be imported for use oa concrete dams, is not needed for masonry work. (®) The time required for the installation and erection of machinery is saved, (©) Masonry work does not need shuttering and hence hold up in the work is much Tess. employment to a large number of people, a very desirable feature for Indi (e) Masonry construction specially with lime-sutkhi mortar does aot need the daborate ‘cooling arrangements, which ere needed for concrete. (J) The cost of masonry construction inTndia is about 20 to 30% less than the cost of concrete. (g) The unit weight of masonry is also higher which can be advantageously used to10 CONCRETE DaMs Feduse'the quantity of masonry, @) _ et ow dams where lime-surthi mortar can be ‘sed, there is saving in the consump= of cement, Progress in masoary construction Prospects for new material Jisceme very likely that there are few improvements to. be made as regards shapes and Profiles, which now appear to be near perfection, Progress in te be expected, frst, as in the past eroin the designer's wil to tallor the design to the site and’ tre harmonious composition Of the structure, and secondly from the intcoduction of new materials, by using modern Puuerial in dams or combining conventional materials whics 4 had never been thought of, © Composite multiple arch dam The arches aro reversed and hence in tension. They are a eres of continuous circular fertoons, each made up of several thicknesses of strip stele ‘glass fibre shects. Such struc- tures are proposed to be constructed on large rivers subject to heavy foods (Fig. 1.8), Step eel or glass tbe festoons, 1 2. Overspill and gutter bridge, Fi 18, Composite multiple arch gam,INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING a (BY Inflatable dams “An infatable dam (H.O. Anwar, 1967) constructed of a flexible but inextensble. material Providesa simple yet relatively cheap means of raising or controlling the water level in a river or canal. The dam may be inflated with air or air and water and anchored to a concrete foundation, or it may be infated with water alone and either anchored to the foundation or laid directly on the beds. When laid directly on the bed an apron of the materials extended Gpstream from the dam so that, under the weight of water it provides an elfective seal against underflow, The dam caa be deflated when aot required and produces only a small cfost on flow characteristics at existing installations. A typical material for the dam when aed Tie an anchorage, consists of stwo-ply neoprene and nylon lamination couted vith hypalon The coating issilvery in appearance end protects materials from the elfet of the arate ‘ypical material for the dam without anchorngs is polystcs fabie costea Wad eee MON inflatable dams have been used under non- ‘overflow conditions and are knowa to operate satisfactorily (NM. Imbertson, 1960; M.E. Shepherd, F.A. Mckey and V.T. Hodgens, 1969; LJ. Connor and B.E. Grad, 1969). The definition sketch of an air inflated : dam is shown in Fig. 1.9, Fig. 1.9, Inflatable dan—defnition sketch 1.7Gurune oF Tevesrications (arren U.S.B.R.) The outiine given below provides a guide for the field engineer which should be consi- dered for the investigations of dams and reservoirs, I._ General data A. Location and vcinty map 1. Location of project. 2. Location of existing works affected by proposed development. 3. Existing location of highways, railways and other public utilities and proposed changes, 4. Location of proposed construction colonies, camp, access roads, airports, etc. 5. Stream gauging and sampling stations, mateorological and seismological observatories. B. Hydrologic data 1. Streamflow records, including daily discharges, monthly volumes and momentary peaks. . 2. Rainfall records of all stations in the catchment; if not availible then from the nefgh- booring catchment. 3 Streamflow and reservoir yield. |__ 4 Project water requirements, including allowances For ierigation and power cficiencies, ance losses, reuse of return flows, and stream releases for fish; and dead storage req) for power, recreation, fish and wild life, ete 5. Flood studies, including inflow, design floods and floods to be expected during periods feoastruction,12 CONCRETE DAMS 6. Sedimentation and quality studies including sediment measurements, analysis of dis- solved and suspended loads, 7. Data on ground water tables in the vicinity of the reservoir and dam site. 8. Water rights, including interstate pacts and international treaty effects, and contrac- Sil Soe With local districts, power companies and individual for subordination of rights, ete, C. Climatic data 1. Monthly temperatures and rainfall and storm intensities 2, Evaporation .ates. 3, Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures. 4, Wind directions and velocities. 5. Tee thickness, D. Geologie data 1. Geological report by qualified geologist. 2. Discussion on geologic formations like cavernous limestone or other soluble forma tions, exposed lava and gravel, glacial deposits of a permeable nature: 3, Presence of deleterious mineral and salt deposits. 4. Characteristics of basin and lands. 5. Geological cross sections where necessary. TL, Reservoir data A, Reservoir map 1. Topography. 2, Horizontal and vertical coatrols, preferably a triangulation survey system. 3. Coordinate system. 4, Culturable classification of reservoir lands, land ownership and status in connection with acquisition of rights-of-way easements, etc. B. Road and public utility surveys 1. Relocation and reconstruction of railways and roadways, 2, Relocation and reconstruction of public utilities. C. Miscellaneous data 1, Estimate of probable life of reservoir, i consideration of loss of eapacity due to sedimentation. 2, Land evaluation surveys, including tabulations of areas and estimated cost of acqui- sition of lands, rehabilitation charges. 3, Economic or physical limitations to maximum reservoir flow lino and reservoir lucy ‘uations,INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 13 MII, Data for dams A. Dam site map 1. Topography of dam site and dike areas. 2. Horizontal and vertical controls, preferably by a triangulation system, 3. Coordinate system grid. 4. Location of rock out-crops and apparent geological features, 5. Location of man made improvements in existing works at the 6. Location of drill holes, test pits and other foundation explorations B, Foundations exploration 1, Sufficient drill holes, auger holes, and/or test to determine character and depth of overburden for feasibility and specications designs. 2. Description and logs of exploration including ground elevation at the holes, location coordinates and sufficiently detailed remarks or a clear interpretation of records. 3. Samples. 4. Sufficient explorations to determine character of bed rock or impervious foundation strata for feasibility and specifications designs. C. Materials exploration 1, Location and description of character of proposed mate teuction of the dam, 2. Mapof quarry area, showing location of test holes made for feasibility and specifi cations designs. 3. Logs of explorations. 4, Representative samples of materials in borrow areas, 1 to be used in the cons- D. Stream data 1. Stage discharge curves for streams. 2. Cross sections of streams with water surface elevations. 3. Tailwater and backwater curves for stated high water marks. E. Local conditions controlling design of the dam 1, Requirements for roadways. 2. Requirement of fish conservation measures. 3, Requirement of permanent buildings. 4, Effect of local conditions as regards spillway and outlet gates. 5. Availability and provision of construction power. 6. Capacities and elevations of required outlets as determined by local conditions. ‘Once construction has been authorized, detailed investigations have to be carried out to ‘enable preparation of detailed desiga of the various components of the project. While the geologist would advise on the suitability of the foundation rock and quarry materials, the engineering properties of the foundation rock and materials of construction would be determined by the engineer. It is here that he would need the help of a laboratory ‘capable of performing tests on soil and rock (both in situ and laboratory). A short description of different types of investigations is given hereinafter.ST 4 ‘CONCRETE DAMS A, “Engineering surveys Surveys form a very important and vital operation of stomge reservoir scheme, The following surveys are generally required for a scheme, Preliminary location surveys ‘Some reconnaissance and field work is nece 'y for the selection and i eoessary for the selection and preliminary des tomate eee preps ares Genel) spain sare a meee These meals 640 t OF 1 em to 2560 m ae avaiable with ceaneee men orerit These would be needed to ‘Assess the catchment and reservoir arcas. For dam site, plane table Survey may be done on a convenient scale of 1/1030 or 1/500 with a aoatour lategvel of aknnns 2.3 m. 2. Control surveys ‘The purpose is to provide permanent and accessible beach marks to be used as reference Points for other surveys throughout the project. The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation surveys and vertical control by accurate levelling methods, The extent of control survey will be governed by the size and type of the project, 3. Rail road and highway surveys ‘The movement of construction materiale and equipment will need a nctwork of roads connected with a rail head. Surveys are necessary to locate the nearest lines and for locating Possible access, 4. Major feature surveys These are necessary to have exact information of the site of the proposed siructuces Sarveys of alternative sites are necessary to assess the relative merits of different proposals, The detsiled survey of reservoir area will provide necessary data for making the area Gapacity curves for use in reservoir flood routing studies during project planning as well as uring actual operationof the reservoir, after completion of the dam. ‘The coatout interval lepends on the beight of dam and the magnitude of reservoir. Usually a contour interval of 2.3 m for low dams and 50 10 m for high dams would be desirable. For the works arca in the vicinity of the proposed dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey with a contone interval of 1 m or 2m anda map on a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 may be prepared. Annual capacity survey of the reservoir is desirable to see the effect of sedimentation, Cross sections should be taken along fixed pillars every year. 5. Area capacity curves From the contoured map of the reservoir area, the water spread of the reservoir at any clovation is determined by messuring the area at that contour by a planimeter. The eens versus area submerged may then be plotted The capacity may be determined by taking contour arca at equal interval and totalling up by trapezoidal rule. According to the trapezoidal rule, the volume J” between two eomteiny at an interval b and having areas 4, and 4, is given by Vad + At Vea ayINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 15 The volume may also be calculated by use of Simpson's rule. According to Simpson's rule the volume between any odd number (say n) of contours is given by v=(5)[2a f Ay teset ded +4 gt dy tone + Andy + An) }. (1.2) where Ay, A,,..ate areas of odd contours, and Ay A, In case the number of contours are even (say m) the volume is given by van (F)[t at sect An) £2 Ate + Ama) Je (1.3) areas of even contours, ‘The capacity at different elevation plotted on the same graph as area curve as shown in Fig. 1.10. These curves are very useful in reservoir planning asexplained later. Fig, 1.10, Typicel area capacity curves for a reservoir. B, Geological investigations Geological investigations are required to determine: (2) The suizsbility of foundations, (6) ‘The water tightness of the reservoir basin, and (c) Location of sources of construction materials. Geological investigations fallin three stages. 1. Appraisal investigation ‘The basic data that should be obtained during the appraisal investigation, with refinement continuing uati! the construction is complete, are (i) dip, strike, thickness, composition and extent of faults and shears, (i!) depth of overburden, (iii) depth of weathering, (iv) joint orientation and continuity, (9) lithology throughout the foundation, and (vi) physical ‘pro- perties tests of the foundation rock. 2, Geological surveying and mepping Its the plotting of the geological features on a geological map. Information of engi- neering significance that may be obtained or inferred from topographic maps is as follows: Physiography'- Significant topographic features, physiosraphic history. General rock types—Crystalline or noncrystaline, massive or thin, bedded alternating hard and soft rocks, glacial terrain, Reck sirueiuro-—Dip and strike, folding, faults, joint, side arcas Soil types-—Glacial, alluvial or residual.16 CONCRETE DAMS Exploration Exploration of special features such as extreme irregularities, chemical alteration, frac- fute zones, water bearing horizons, perched water table, grouad water conditions and depth of bed rock concealed by thick overburden Jn practice three types of ground conditions t with governed by ‘ are met with governed by geological features and procesies: (@) Solid rock may exit atthe ground surface or clote to it mone enough to Teta agree: (8) Bed rock exists at a considerable depth on which thelond ef the Depending upon the location of bed rock, any or more of the following must metnode of exploration may be deployed. (a) Excavation of open pits or trenches. (0) Drifting or tunnelling into the sides of the valley. (c) Core drilling. Tae extent of exploration would depend on many factors which can be decided by the consulting geologist. (a) Excavation of open pits. The test pits are generally made of size 1.25m< 1.25 m for the investigation of overburden mantle. (5) Drifting or tunnelling. n order to have a complete idea of the foundation or abut- ment rock, inspection shafts and adits of sufficient size are driven into the rock for the geolo- ‘gist to enter the shaft and make an on the spot investigation. A size of 1.5m x 2mis generally desirable. (©) Core drilling. Core ériling is carried out by (2) Diamond dilliag, or (it) Calyx or shot core drilling. Generally itis possible to determine the configuration of the strata by three holes at 25 to 50 m apart in two directions at right angles to cach other. But for thorough studies, several holes are required. Diamond core drilting. Core drilling involves the cutting and recovery of cylindrical cores of subsurface material. Core drilling in bed rock is accomplished with rotary drills, These are obtainable in various sizes and models to meet different driling requirements related to ling location, to hole size and depth ead to purpose of the borings, Drilling is performed by rotating a tubular bit in a hole by means of a series of drill rods drivea set ur the bit may be Calyx-type or one with alloy-steel teeth, All coring bits are fastened to the bottom of a core barrel. The bits cat an annular hole around a central core and tho core bartel passes down over the core as the bit advances. This operation continues until the core barrel is filled, when the core barrel with the core is recovered from the hole and the cores in samples are arranged in boxes for logging. The drilling tools are thea returned to the hole and the drilling operations resumed. Water is circulated through the drill rods and core barrel to the bit and thence back up the hole for the purpose of removiug. sock cutting and keeping the bit cool. The diamond-set coring bits. These are tubular steel bits with diamonds set in the cutting face to serve as the rock extting medium. The diamonds may be either black diamonds (also use these days are set with bortz diamonds. Core drilling is generally imited to holes that produce cores ranging from 22 mm to about 150 mm in diameter. Sizes of diamond bits and of the corresponding core barrels for cutting diferent sizes of cores have been standardized by the Diamond Core Drilling Manufacturers Association and are given in Table 12. known as “carbons” and Carbonados™ or “borte"). Almost 95% of the diamonds bitINVESTIGATIONS. AND PLANNING cu Table 12) Standard Sizes for Dismond-Set Coring Bits as Established by Diamend Core Driting ‘Manufacurers Assotation she on ae ie Gina aa 5 Ree ea : waa : we as as ae ows a : reo naa ke am 4 ™ ts ane 308 ot we ome en a Bier Bvx veo twa : seo AN 161s ig oe io me mv ree 4 sone ts sm 4 ae saith IG Sitio sd Pa ot ome i oo 1s som me iH Drilling. Diamond drilling probably dates from work done by Swiss Engineer R. Lesehot at the Mount Cenis tunnel, Its aim in foundation exploration is to obtain maximum core recovery. Generally speaking, the more broken the ground-onditions, the more difficult will be the task of recovering good core samples. Some of the factors that control the length drilled by a diamond bit are size and pattern of diamonds on the bit, the wall conditions of the hole, rock harduess and abrasiveness, rock jointing, as well as the pressures applied and rotational speed of the bit. Tentative figures showing the life of diamond bits are extibited/in Table 1.3. From Table 1.3 itis evident that the presence of joints in the rock seriously decreases the life of the bit, whereas the use of soluble oil ia the water as the circulant improves life by as muchas 75 p.c, By use of water-oil solution penetration rate also increases by abour 40 p.c. To obtain 100 p.c. core recovery in which layers of drilled material would preserve their relative positions, Laboratories Nacional de Engenharia, Liston has developed a special sampling process. This involves the reinforcement with a steel rod of the mass to be sampled; the rod is encased in a narrow initial boring with a liquid that causes the whole of the core, when overirilled, to. adhere to the rod. ‘Though Expensive, this method can be used 106 CONCRETE DAMS Table 13 Life of Diamond Bits Rock pe Cirealant Leneth dried (rm) Quartite Water ime Quartite Oi-water solation " Tinted quartzite doe 2 Conglomerate Water ‘ Conglomerate -water solution ’ Chert water s Chest Cil-water solution 5 Jointed chert Water 2 Dolerite Water 7 Dolomite Water 1 Setist Water 2 Schist it-vater solution a Assitlto Water » Sand stove Water o Mad store Water ad Interpret thinly bedded rock, the direction of dip of which may he vital to the stability of the dam. lUlloyeset coring bits, These are similar to diamond set coring bits with the exception that a herd metal alloy, such as tungsten carbide, is the cutting agent instead of diamonds. The bit wear is excessive when used in hard rock “Alley-iteel toothed bits, ‘These are coring. bits provided with teeth—to act as the cutting instrument, ‘The teeth are commonly faced with a hard metal alloy. These are not satis- factory for drilling in hard rock ‘Galyx core drilling. The bit consists of a core barrel of soft steel with one or more slots cut in the botiom rim or of a short slotted tube of mild steel attached to th: bottom edge of igletubecore barrel. Stes! shot, whichis fedto the bottom edze of the barrel oy drill water, fs ithe cutting medium. Under the weight of the rotating barrel, the shot cuts an annular groove around the core without disturbing the wall of the bore hole. Rock cuttings are removed by Ciwwulating waterand ere caught in a sludge barrel on top of the core barrel. Cores as small as $0 man in diameter may be obtained by the Calyx drilling method but the greatest use, of this method is for drilling large diameter holes (xp to 150 ems) into which a person can be lowered to examine the rock in situ, Calyx drilling can be performed only in a vertically downward direction, as even distribution of the shot at the base of the slotted bit cannot be achieved in inclined borings. Drilling progress is slow, and drilling of large diameter holes is wxpeasive. Bore hole photography. Bore hole photography consiste of photographing the interior surface of bore holes and studying the photographs to obtain joformation regarding the mate~ rials through which tho borings penetrated.INVESTIGATIONS. AND PLANNING 9 Underground exploratory work must always be considered supplementary to and condi- tioned by previous considerations of tie local geological strucuure, Disastrous results can ‘occur when reliznce is placed on the results of test bore holes that have act been correlated with the local geology. Consider an example shown in Fig. 1.11 which shows how a fault tay be undetected by test drilling. This shows the necessity of a general reconnaissance of ‘the neighbourhood, and it is almost certain that either by observation of the outcrops along. | theriverbed or through some peculiar features of the local topography, the fault would be detected, \ qian mut motes cocates &, Rs srowe owe net S%, Pate ae SQLS me PERVIOHS Rae Figs 1-11. Typical eexmple illustrating how dil boles can mice a fault In most instances, the safety of the dam against sliding along a joint, fault or seas in the foundation can be determined by computing the shear-friction factor of safety. If there ae several joints, favlis or scams along which failure can occur, the potentially unstable rock ras: can be anilyzed by a method called. rigid block analysis. This method is explained in chapter oa “Gravity Dams". These methods of analysis may also. be applied to slope stati= Ez problems. The data required for these two methods of analysis are: (i) physical proper- ‘Ges, (ii) shearing aad sliding strengths of the discontiauities and the rock, (ii) dip and sitike cf the faults, shears, seams and joints, ((+) limits of potentially unstable rock mass, (y) uplift ressutes on the failure surfaces, and (vi) Toads to be applied to the rock mass. When a foundation is interspersed by mapy faults, shears joints, seams and zones of eferior rock, the Hite element method of analysis can be used fo determine the bearing ‘expacity and the amount of foundation treatment required to reduce or eliminate arcas of ‘ension in the foundation. In situ rock tests like shear, lat jack and plate bearing may be carried out to determine parameters. The laboratory tests can be following: sical properties tests. (1) compressive strength, (if elastic modulus, (if!) Poisson's a )) bulk specific gravity, (¥) porosity, (Mf) absorption, (vf) indirect tensile tests using split20 ‘CONCRETE DAMS ‘Shear tests (@) Direct shear, (ii) cal shear, and (iii) sliding friction, Other tests. (i) solubility, and (ii) petrographic analysis C. Geophysical methods They are a form of field investigation in which physical measurements normally are made at the ground surface by using special instruments to secure information regarding underground conditions. It isa blend of physics and geology because the physical measure~ ments are interpreted in terms of subsurface geological conditions. There are five major geophysical methods; seismic, electrical (resistivity and logging), magretic, grav 1. Seismic measurements The vibrations set up by the earthquakes, cithor real or artificial, do not travel at the same spoed in different media; the existence of a change of medium may be detected. Artif cial carthquskes ero produced by blasting with powerful explosives, like high strength gelatins and dyoamites. Two types of clastic carth waves are set up—longitudinal and transverse. Of these, the longitudinal waves travel faster and reach the point of obser~ vation first. Both types of waves travel through different kinds of rock with different velo- cities and they are refracted as they pass from one medium to another. This fact is the basis of geophysical seismic method of investigation. Records of observed vibrations are taken at different distances from the location of the explosion, andthe results are correlated with known facts about wave travel in different media. — A number of scismie wave receivers, termed geophones or pickups, are set in a line on the ground at measured distance apart (Fig. 1.12). At the shot point, a charge of a few kg ofa special explosive (usually nitramon) is exploded. Ia the figure scisinis waves are created atthe arrows, starting at a point 3 m from the geophone end moving out 3 m st a fimeto 30m, At3 m, the wave near the surface is the first to reach the geophone. From 6 to 12 'm, the wave travelling through the denser weathered rock reaches the geophone before the ‘waves travelling through the less dense top soil or the deeper bed rock. Beyond 12 m the waves travelling through the bed rock are the first to reach the geophone. Seismic waves sent into the ground by the explosion reach the geophones, are picked up by them, amplified ‘and transmitted to the recording device or oxcillograph. The scismic record or seismogram, thus produced, consists of several lines or traces one for each cophone. Tae shot iastant it recorded by « special mark on one trace, and the instant of arrival of the first wave (ie. the +X [jase Fig. 112, Seismic measurements.INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 2 wave energy) at each geophone can be determined from the seismogram. Some of the waves (Girect waves) travel close to the ground surface with » velocity V,; others cross the upper (aes plguely and are refracted, after which they travel along the top of the underlying material vith a velocity ¥y “To obtain the travel time curve (Fig. 1.13) the distance between the shot point and all grophoncs are plotted along x axis; the time between the shot instant and the time of arrival of first waves causing ‘breaks’ inthe traces are plotted along y axis Joining the points thus obtained produces two intersecting straight lines (Fig. 1.13). At all geophones to the lft of the point of intersection the direct waves arrive frst, whereas at the rest of the geophones the Fig. 1.13, Travel time carve. eteacted waves arrive ist. At the point of ‘intersection itl, both a direct and a wfasted select wave ltaneausy. Distance x of ths point of iteriecion can be simply ealed “The layer depth d in metre is determined as below: V, VetVs an a= where d = depth in m, vex datance ia m along the bottom of the line graph from zero to the intersection point of the line, Vx velocity of the seismic wave in the upper layer, and Ve wae velocity in the next lower layer. “Thor is a recent development in seismic equipment. Thisis a portable miniature direct seading fraction scimograph that uilzes a blow from a sledge hammer om sos plate 2 YING: source other than a dynamite explosion, The instrument has been designed Seetcally 10 obtain shallow subsurface information to depths of 15 mor lest. ‘The seismic seve velocities in diferent rock strata are summarised in Table 1.4, = Electrical methods ‘The various materials that constitute the earth's crust possess electrical properties of “case muintions, ihe tro most commonly used in geophysical work are conductivity and is Ee resistivity. “The diferences ia conductivity of different rock ‘ypes are yey largeCONCRETE DAMS: Table 1.4 Seis wave veloclties fn difcent sof Velocity ‘misc (cam be ripped) Top soil Ol ae 30 chy 50 = 1500 Boulders 550 Bs ean: Shale 00 ie Teen Sand stone 80 = is Greis 160 - on Limestone 900 ae 1200 Breccia 900) “ 139 Caliche 300 = 1709 Conglomerate 1000 a 1400 ‘late 140 = 1809 and some sulphide minerals, asa result of chemical changes occasioned possibly by ground water, have set up in different rock types small electrical carrenls. which clreulste in the adjoining ground. A good deal of experimental wrk has been done in investigating suck currents bat the method is aot generally upplicable because of its specialised nature’ The more usual methods of investigstion depend on passing a current through a section of the earth's orust between two (current) electiodss, placed at fixed distance apart and exploring the nature of the ground adjacent t0 or between them by means of two o: more (potential) electrodes inserted into the ground at spscially selected points. A general mode of operation is to measure the average resistivity of a volume of earth by gradually incieasing the distance between the (potential) clectrodes and plotting the results go obtained in the form of a curve relating resistivity and electrode spacing. Four electrodes are fixed in the ground in line spaced cquidistant (Fig. 1.14), The current electrodes consist of sharp pointed metal rods and the poteatil electrodes are porous pots containing a solution of copper sulphate, some of which seeps into the ground and maker % good lecircal contact. The circuit through tho pot is compleied by a copper bar which asses through the lid of the pot and into the solution, The resistivity in ohni-metnes (fh in metre) is given by the relation : Resistivity = 2e a a3) where ¥ = voltage in volts and T= current in ampere The electrode spacing ais progressively increased to pick up changes in resistivity with depth, Many techniques have bean developed which utilize earth currents. and. alternating magnetic fields, The currents may be natural currents (telluric currents) or may be inducedINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING nr gee PLS Ber neem ESE Pang On Fig. 1.14, Resistivity measurements, Commorly, distortions in natural of induced fields are studied by means of search coils or ere RY idaly employed technique is based on the measurement of natural magnetic fields ors sgand subaudio frequencies. This technique is the ‘AFMAG" (audio-frequency mage aeeagolia) techniques. With the aid of coil and carphones (or cletronic equipment) aaa ements. are made of the tits from the horizontal of the plane of polarization of oscil~ fating magaetic fields distorted by subsurface conducting bodies. ‘Magnetic methods ‘Magnetic methods of investigation are the oldest of all geophysical methods Marne anomalies of rock are almost entirdly dependent on theic magactic content ste nametite or lodestone and pyrrhotite, a sulphide of iron. The magnetic suscetibilty of secks very much more widey than their densi. Tgneous and metamorphic rocks are strontly Seertcuc whereas sedimentary rocks are’ magacically weak. The magnetic euscetibilty of seer geneally influenced not only by the magactic content but also by grain size light Fe citend contact-metamorphism, mechanical stresses, dsiategration and concentration aad ey SShsequent alternations during geologic time. Bquipments used are known as magncio~ er or “wagnetic variometers” and they may be of either the vertical or the horizontal type. Fr piace of a magnet, a rotating coll may be used to measure the vertical or horizontal magnetic Gace: the induced current is measured by suitable elcctrical devices. eae recent equipment wsed is called “Magnctic airborne Director” which consists “excctally of three magnetometer elements, two of which maintain the third inthe direction the earth's resultant magnetic field. “Fes principle of the aeromagnetic method isto revord continously the variations in. the of the total resultant earth's magnetic field from a constant height along a traverse Gravity. methods erations in subsurface rock densities can be convenicntly mapped by making use of eceuments 28 pendulum (1737-1740), gravimeter or torsion balance after Fotros).- First Sccaserereative pravity and third measures variations of gravity forees per unit horizontal24 ‘CONCRETE DAMS The basis for the operation of a gravi- meter is shown in Fig. 1.15. It depends up- on the extension of a balanced spring as the instrument is moved from one station to another. 5. Sonic methods These are si of the reflection seismograph, with the excep. tion that sound waves rather than seismic waves are employed. Sound waves are gene- rated in the water and some of them are reflected back as echoes from each interface between materials of differing densities, The time interval between the outgoing signal and the returning echo is a measure of the dis- tance to the reflecting surface. Fig. 1.15, Essentials of a gravimeter. ‘Equipment coasists principally of a trans- miter, a transmitting transducer that converts electrical pulses into sound pulses and directs them towards the bottom of the water body, a receiving transducer that receives the reflected sound waves and converts them into electrical sigoals and a recorder. Cores or cuttings from boring or lithologic and stratigraphic knowledge of the area are necessary for proper geologic interpretation of sonic records. 6. Remote sensing including aerial photography ‘Aerial photography and radar and thermal sensing from the air have arrived at an advanced state of sophistication, in part because of the efforts of the armed forces to find methods for location and interpretation of distant ground and submarine features of military concern. Fogineers and geologists have put the advancing technology to good use, and acrial photography and remote sensing are now considered as routinely essential to investigation of [great variety of geologic problems. Preparation of contoured topographic base maps from flack and white and colour aerial photographs by photogrammetric methods has long been accepted as the most economical and accurate method for mapping the configuration of ground terraces Taterpretation of subsurface features from aerial photographs or Imagery commonly is based on conspicuous to very subtle Variations in the appearance of the terrain from one loca- thon to avother depending on differences in vegetation, soils, soil colours, rock colours, and the like. ‘Aerial photography and remote sensing provide the geologist with powerful tools for reconnaissance investigation of the geology of an area of interest and enable himeefficieatly to plaa the program of ground investigation by standard geolopical study. Much time is saved by photographs and/or imagery which pinpoint rock exposures, reveal subsurface folded structures Math vague or inconclusive surface manifestations cn the ground, and locate lineaments along Tones of fracture. Intelligent interpretation of the origin and significance of land forms, dis-TAVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 25 tribution of veeetation, stream patterns, and distribution and origin of soils and overburden are expedited by photographs and images. 1. Side looking radar imagery (SLAR) ‘This technique employs transmitter which generates short bursts or pulses of radio~ frequency energy by means of a scanning directional antenna which confines the energy to narrow beam. ‘Energy reradiated back to the antenna from terrain features passes through a cathods ray tube. Returning signals sweeping across the face of the tube are recorded on a continuous strip of film drawn across the face of the tube and provide an image of the terrain. ‘The images develop only from returned radiation, and characteristicaly, in regions of considerable relief reveal “radar shadows” for terrain sloping away from the seasing device. To overcome this difficulty radar imagery requires multiple aerial traverses of the terrain in different directions. ‘The techaique hes a particular value in intecpreting the coniiguration of ground aed bed rock exposures in regions of very heavy forest cover, but does not lend itself readily to construction. of scale-true maps, because of the ifticulties of producing a controlled mosaic from images obtained by oblique sensing, 8. Thermal imagery Jnfrared radiation is Jong wave-length electromagnetic radiation outside of the visible range, All natural materials are capable of absorbing andfor radiating (emiting) infrared Tadiation, Transmission of infrared radiation through the atmosphere is limited by an absorp- fion spectrum which, in the wave length range 0-25 microns ({ micron ~ 0,001 mmm), typically Shows neatly complete absorption of certain bands of wave leagths and a high degree of trans- niscion of others, ‘The widest band of transmission contains wave lengths between 8 and 13 Inierons and itisthis band which is most commonly used in remote thermal scesing of the earth's surface, ‘Thermal imagery obtained from airborne investigations uilizes a seasitive radiometric system which responds to very slight differences in incoming thermal radiation An os:illting Scanning system sweeps the earth's surface under the aircraft aad translates differences in jncoming radiation to a moving film. The result is an image which maps the lateral diatribu- tion of earth features which have different temperatures and thermal emissivitics. A typical positive point of the film shows areas which are warmer than adjacent areas as white or light rey and colder areas in shades of grey or almost black, Standard procedure includes imagery just before dawn, and later, imagery after the sun has had an opportunity differentially to heat ‘materials of different temperatures and emissivities. The method is particularly sensitive to differences in temperatures of soil or alluvium caused by differences in the temperatures of contained bodies of ground water, and is useful in identifying subsurface features such as fault zones saturated with ground water. 9. Colour infrared photography ‘Ordinary colour ilm is sensitive only to wave lengths (colours) in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Special colour film with a high degree of sensitivity to wave Tensibs in the near infrared and used with selected filters produces highly unusual, contrasting colour patterns that help to delineate by marked colour differences geologic features that may8 CONCRETE DANS fot be apparent in conventional black and white or colour acrial photographs, Geophysical methods based on measurements of radioctivty are directed primarily toward discovery of economir deposits and have litte application to engineering studies, D. General sub-surface exploration ieee ccrhrraion ls cared out ofthe foundation material (overburden and. bed rock) le most feasible dam site (or sites) and of the sources. of materials of construction. ‘The ‘aploration should yield suck geological and soil engineering data which will be of help in weighing the practicability of different altemative sites (if such is the case), selecting the most suitable site and in preparing preliminary design and estimate so that the investigations may be carried to the final stage, Foundations for a dam structure fall under two classes (q) alluvium foundations consist- ing of sand gravel, silt and clay for earth or rock fill dams, (b) rock foundations for rigid dams. ‘The depth of exploratory investigation should ordinarily reach bed rock, oF else, through all soft, unstable and permeable strata of the overburden, For purposes of prelimi- nary estimaies, Angas ond Proctor suggest the depths of exploration of one-half the botiom width for earth GM dams aad tevees exceeding 30m in height. For concrete dams not exceeding this height a depth of twice the height from stream bed to crest is suggested. For large or unusual dams no such limits of depths can be recommended, General exploration is to be catried by geophysical methods, sounding and penetration tests, open excavations, exploratory boring (usually 6 cm dia,), and rock drilling, Geophys ‘al methods (para. 1.7 C) and subsurface soundings ate considered convenient means of éetermining depth and general topography of bed rock The following features require investigation: depth of weathering, location of feult zones any, extent of jointing of of bedding planes, existence of solution cavities large or small, the presence of intervals of soluble material which may produce future cavities and possibility of rock disintegration upon exposure to the air as do certain shales (this kas beating on the requirements for paving in rock cuts and on the use of excavated rock in the fill or as pitching or ballast) In jointed or fractured zones the presence and nature of material such as clay in the seams may beimportant especially at the time of reservoir filing, when hydrostatic pres- sures may develop to a significant extent. 1. Exploration for construction material Alter the completion of general exploration of probable foundation sites, prelimi sary sesigns and estimates can be prepared if exploration is extended to the construction materials, which mainly consist of cement, natural aggregates, stone, etc. 2. Hydrological investigations Hydrological studies ars very important in the conception and design of storage resor- oir schemes. These studies relate to the total quantity of water available at a p reservoir site and the best methods of regulating. controlling and using it. Investigat necessary to collect the following data (@) Quantity, distribution, and intensity of rainfall and snowfall if any. (0) The maximum, mean, and minimum total run-off that can be expected from the catchment feeding the reservoir. For this, reeords of stream flows, lossos in capacityINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING. 7 due to sedimentation, evaporation, infiltration, etc. are studied. (© Maximam intensity of foods, their duration and probabilities of frequency of theit occurrence. (@) Quantities of water required for irrigation during different. stages of crop growth and movement of ground water, (© Climatological conditions such as maximum and mininium temperatures, humidity, eto, a a Teste of rainfall data. ‘The rainfall data is scrutinised to ascese the (#) Rainfall intensity duration relation, (fi) Rainféll area relation, (ii!) Rainfall deficiency periods, (jr) Rainfall frequency, and (») Probability of occurrence of rainfall. (W) Analysis of discharge (runoff) data. ‘The following studies are made: Stage hydrograph, A graph which shows stage (level) on one axis and time (hourly, daily, weekly or monthly) on the other axis. Discharge hydrograpl. This shows relation between the runo‘t and time, Mass curve. This curve shows the relation between the accumulated total flow from the beginning and the time, Sometimes evaporation losses are also accounted for. Duration curve, This curve is drawn to show the percentage of time during which mean deily discharges of various intensities have occurred in the river. This curve shows the period when discharges above or belowaa selected discharge are available. It also gives the availa- bility of a certain discharge for a certain percentage of the total time, In conjunction with ‘a mass curve, this gives an indication of the storage required to measure an average flow throughout the year Frequency curve. This curve gives the frequency with which the floods of various magni- tudes occurred in a certain period of years. Probability curve. This shows the probable frequency of occurrence of future events computed on theories of probability. This may be for floods, total volume of runoff or rainfall (o) Evaluation of rainfall—total runoff relationship. Since the estimate of benefits is based on the assumption of certain supplies, their accurate assessment is very essential. ‘Thus the main aim of hydrological studies is to obtsin as close an estimate as possible of runoff pattern at the proposed dam site. This estimate is based on the assumption that the runoff pattern for future would be the same as has been in tho past years. If direct records are available, evaluation is simple. Otherwise, use bas to be inade of empirical or statistical Jassfied as: (i) Runoff expressed as a perventage of rainfall, (ii) Run- off expressed as a residual of rainfall after deducting losses due to evaporation, transpiration and ground water acerection, and (ii) Runoff expressed as a function of mean annual tem- perature and rainfall: (@) Determination of peak flood and design flood hydrograph. The main function of the hydrological studies is to determine the hydrozraph for the worst flood which should be utilised for spillway design or for ascertaining the flood moderaiing capacity of the reservoir. These ‘methods fall in the following categories: (i) Empirical relations mostly correlated with the catchment area, (i) Statistical methods, (if) Unit bydrograph methods, and (iv) Flood frequency studies Usually for big reservoirs, a 1000 years flood is. taken for spillway design. The different methods have been briefly discussed in Chapter 3 of this book, For betterand detailed28 CONCRETE DAMS pebtnen oy urology the reader is advised to refer author's book “Engineering Ff cology” Published by M/s Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee, See 1.8 Fixamion op Stoxgs CaPacity oF RESERVOIRS The bert motod of nding the storage capacity of reservoirs is with the help of mass curve or the curve showing accumulated flow against time, Such a curve is shows oa Fig. 1.16, Ee Fig. 1.16. Mass inflow surve, ARY Point on the mass curve represents the totsl fow (in millon cube metre) from the begin- ‘Rig ofthe period up tothe given time, The slope of a tangent to the curve to this point inticates the rate of flow (in cumec). ‘The mass curve obviously rises continuously. If where is high rate of inflow, the carve rises steeply, and the dry periods are indicated as hollows on We DAS curve. Sinilerly a mass curve of demand may be plotted by accumulating the Feauired outflow. If a constant rate of discharge is required, the mass curve of demand would bbe. straight line rising from the origin, From a point on the inflow mass curve, a line parallel to the demand mass curve is drawa Sich that the vertical ordinate between this line and the inflow mass curve is maximum: ‘This shes the required storage capacity for the eservoir during the dry period (Fig. 1-17) Fig. 1.17, Determination of reservoir capacity,INVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 29 ind ane ecutves of inflow and demand are superposed over each other such that thar andaris coincide, The largest ordinate between the two gives the required storage capacity. A stepwise method would be to tabulate the inflow and outflow as below, from. which the ‘maximum outflow can then be determined, Yewr Previous inflow Total Onfow Balance balance demant Million m Milioam’ Mion ‘Millon million me Most storage reservoirs provide usable capacity in relation on the mean annual flow ‘between 0.25 and 3.0, the average being 1.37. The higher value is chosen for big. reservoirs which store water during monsoons. To utilize the water in most economical way a mass curve for a long period is drawn. To determine the storage necessary to maintain the average flow from the reservoir throughout this period itis necessary to measure the vertical intercept between the limits of the mass curve. For convenience the mass curve may be plotted as a cumulative difference from the ‘means, ‘Table 1.5 Mass curve derivation for a hypothetical river Inflow (Cumataive info Difference Curmelaive Mame Mamt from meas difference 7000 000 =20 1500 2500 +300 +10 2000 4500, +800 + 900 1500 ‘5000 +30 +1200 ‘700 no —300 + 70 900 7600 300 + 400 1100 370 100 + 300 1300 10000 +100 + 400 500 10600 60 — 200 1400 12000 +200 ° 00 12600 -00 ~ 600 1800 14400 +609 ° 1300 15700 +100 + 100 1200 16900 o + 100 1s 1100 18000 100 0 6 00 18809 400 = 400 7 1700 20300 +500 + 100 8 oo 21100 600 = 500Jn jhe Fie: 1.18 the “crltical period” isthe time between the highest and lowest fdopting the storage required to ensure continuity of the desired tow critcal b Butta ered FLY AVERAGE Cum MEAN DISCHARGE ae. YTV a | \ J 0a) “i009 OF. 6 ewer 00} % PEROD YEARS Fig. 1.18. Alternative miss curve, CUMULATIVE DEvIAnON OF Yeas 19° Reservoir Opreation After the reservoir capacity has been determined, pattern of demand is to be studicd for the optimum utilisation of the project purposes, 1. Single purpose consersation reservoir irons pacaenits: the demand patiera canbe predicted with fair amount of accuracy for diferent pars ofthe year and storage capacity accordingly fered 2. Single purpose flood control reservoir absorbing a part volume, when the flood is cising and in releasing the same volumes later on Bradually, when the flood is receding. Thus storage reservoir ediars flood stage and conse- uenty damage downstream. This would be clear ftom Fig. 119, Ane hutrotraph of the worst natural flood and the desired flood Desk are known, then by tri, the: storage required to moderate the natural fled wn be worked out. Hence the Ray Of Single Purpose ood control reservair depends on, the wore maximum flood hydropraph and thesate food carrying capacity of the rver downerINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 31 Fig. 1.19. Flood routiag—defnition sketch, 3. Flood control reservoir—retarding type The retarding reservoirs are provided with ungated outlets and spillvays. ‘The discharg- ing capacity of the outlets and spillway is equal to the safe flood carrying capacity of the river downstream, in the event of highest flood. Situations particularly favourable to retard- ing reservoirs are a single reservoir located just above the city to. be protected or reservoirs on Itibutaivs just above their confluence to protect the area below them. 4. Fleod control reservoir—detention basin A flood control reservoir having gated outlets is keown a5 detention basin. This provides Breater flexibility in reservoir operation 5. Multipurpose reservoir Such reservoirs are designed for two or more purposes, say ood control, irrigation, an hhydro-power generation. Thus reservoit operations have to meet the following general requirements. (@) Revervation of a certsin minimum storage at all times for flood contol, (8) Supply ofa steady discharge during summer n period. (c) Supply of a large steady dicharge during winter irrigation period, and (4) Obtaining maximum fitm power. This operation planning is carried out by making a aumaber of working tables, ie, by trying a large number of tentative schedules for a large number of past years depending upon the hydrological data and the frequency eyele of high floods in the basin. A schedule which ‘ives the largest total benefits for the various project purposes without encroaching upon the lower or upper limite of storage is adopted for estimating purposes and initial estimating, ‘These tables-can be later on modified based on actual experience 140" Ecoxomec Hetont or Daw ‘Theoretically, economic height of dam is the height of dam corresponding to which the cost of dam per million cubic metre of storage is the minimum. This height of dam is deter- mined by preparing approximate estimates of cost for several heights of dam ata given site,cross section of the dam site shows for a typical dam site, Aftcr thus determining the approximate cost per milion cubic metre of storage for three or four alternstive heights the cost per million cubic metre of storage is plotted against height, to assess the most economical height of dam. Fig, 1.20. Determination of economical height of dam ‘The highest five concrete dams of the world are ‘Name of dam Country Dre Helgi én metre Ingut USSR Arch 30t ‘Grande Dizence Switzeland Gravity 284 ‘Vaioat ray Arch 22 Mawvoiin ‘Switzetand Arch BT Sayansk USSR. Arch 236 The structural height of a dam is the “overall distance between the lowest point of the foundation surface to the top of the dam (The top of the dam excludes kerbs, parapet walls, camber for settlement, guard rails etc.)” (ICOLD defn). If a dam is not to be overtopped then provision must be made above normal reservoir level for the effects of ponding daring ‘the passage of the design flood, seiche effects in the reservoir; wind set up of the water in the scservoir, waves induced by wind and waves induced by earthquakes or their after effects such as land slides. Tris often sufficient to adopt the following free board allowance above flood level. ‘Height of dam ‘Minimum freeboard allowance ey ™ Less thaa 50 ot 5010 100 2 sreater than 109 2sINVESTIGATIONS AND PLANNING 1.11 Lira of Dane Jr dam i built faithfully, as per specifications. it will have a very long li Feehan urhes or bultres dams may have mor limited liver, srpociay cc ne oe stored is chemically active. Cores drilled from 50 year old Miena multiple arch dam (Australia) Fait Corresion of reinforcement although the cover to the steel was ogi ae Faurla-Montagne multiple arch dam in France, built with pneumatically applic ares con, double reinforcement (14cm thick at base and 8 em thick at crest) showed excelleat cond, tion even after 20 years of service, Ta the planning stage the life of « dam is usvally considered to be the term for repayment ofits cost, On the other hand alife of 100 years is taken when assessing the unit cost of lestrcty genorated.at site, The physical life of a dam can always be extended with a heigh- ‘ening of the structure to provide greater benefit. 1.12__Altocation or Costs or MULTIPURPOSE RIVER VALLEY PRoncrs Previously a project was constructed to serve only one purpose and the entire cost of the Project was assigned to the single purpose. But now many river valley projects have been fonstructed and are under construction in this country to serve two or more purposes, It tecomes, therefore, necessary to apportion the cost of the project to diferent purposes or utes for which the projectis constructed. Some part of joint cost can be easilyseparated cut to a.single purpose function dircedy such as cost of power house and its equipment to ‘power’ Purpose. This is knowns ‘separable cost. The difference of total cost of projects and such ‘veparable costs’ is ealled “joint cost". Various methods of cost allocation are: 1. Equal apportionment method The entire cost of the project is divided equally into different pucposes irrespective of the fact that some purposes like irigation and power can earn rovemuc, where flood contol, ec, fas indirect benefits, This is not a rational method 2. Benefit method Thore are two ways ofits application, viz. (g) The ficst allocates the total cost of the Project amongst the various functions in proportions to their estimated benefits, This method Fequites quantifying each benefit and does not follow the principle of determining separable specificcosts, and (6) The second. procedure allocates to cach fuaction its specite cost plus or share of the joint cost in direct proportion to the estimated net benelis accruing to that fone- ‘ton, 3. Alternative justifiable expenditure method This method aims at apportioning joint costs in proportion to the alternative justifiable ‘expenditures for each purpose served, which is defined as the lesser of the value of benefits 0d of alternate costs for each purpose. The minimum allocation under this method is the specific costs. Tn theory and practice, this method is believed to represent the more logical, adequate and dependable approach, This method was relied upon by T.V.A. in allocating coats of Norris, Wheeler and Wilson dams,M4 The w, (a) Gi iv) ©) (wi) (vit) CONCRETE DAMS following are the steps. ‘Tho benefits of each purpose are estimated. The alternative costs of single purpose projects to obtain the benefits are estimated. ‘The justfinle expenditure is determined. ‘The specific cost of each purpose is determined. ‘The specific cost of each purpose is deducted from the justifiable expenditure to determine the remaining alternative costs. Fes tol mato project all specific costs ate deducted to determine the joint cost, "The joint cost is distributed amongst purposes ia. direct proportion to the remaining alternative costs found in step (0). (vit) To determine the cost allocated to exch purpose specific and Uistributed corts for each purpose are added. 4, Separable costs remaining benefits method This is a new method, The joint cost is between separable cost anc the estimated benefit of cach function of jsteibuted in accordance with the difference alternative justifiable ost whichever is less. This method requires more careful estimates of projects costs than does the alternative justifiable expenditure method. However both methods are reasonable ‘and rational in theory, The U.S.Army recommend this method. Following are the steps of cost allocation. wo w oO) (w) o co) ‘The benefits of each purpose are estimated. The alternative costs of single purpose projects to obtain the same bensfits are estimated. ‘The justifiable expenditure is determined, “The separable cost of each purpose is estimated, ‘The separable cost of each purpose is deducted from the justifiable expenditure to ‘determine the remaining benefits. From the (otal cost of the project all separable costs are deducted to determine the joint costs. (vii) The joint cost distributed amongst purposes in direct proportion to the remaining tenefits Found in step (»). (iti) To determine the cost allocated to sach purpose separable and distributed costs for each purpose are added. 5, Use of facitites method The. ont costs divided in the rato ofthe storage. volume or water releases provided for each purpose, This is asimple but le accurate method. Tt distingsishing fexture Hes on fhe assumption that aunit of warer has the stme value for all purposes, The (i) ‘method hes the following steps “The use which is made by each purpose of joint project fueilities is estimated on Same basis which is comparable for the purposes concerned, using such measures of use as those of flow, reservoir capacity, encrey coatumption and thers as may be applicable. ‘The separable cost of each purpose is estimatedINVESTIGATIONS. AND PLANNING 35 (it) From the total cost of the projectalll separable costs are deducted to determine the joint cost. (iv) The joint cost is distributed amongst purposes rable measures of use estimated in step (i). (©) To detetmine the cost allocated to each parpose separable and distributed costs for each purpose are added, direct proportion to the compa- 6. Priority of use method This method assigns Specific cost entirely to the individual purpose served by such costs and assigns the remaining joint costs to project purposes in a descending order of priority. 7. Incremental method The method allocates the separable costs to their respective purposes and the total joint ost to one basic purpose which is considered the principal or basic function, For example, ina triple purpose project, electric power and navigation may be charged only their separable costs, while flood control would be charged not only with the separable cost but with the entire joint cost as well. This method is advantageously used where some of the functions are added to the project subsequent to original authorization, 8. Direct costs method This method is a variation of the incremental method. Instead of the separable costs being charged to the incidental functions, only the direct costs are aliowed to these functioxs.. The remaining joint costs are then charged to be primary functions. 9. Special costs methods This theory suggests the apportionment of the costs and the several uses in direct propor- tion to the special expenditures made for each use. The procedure appears irrelevant where the object of this allocation is to impute responsibility for joint costs. 10, Vendibility theory ‘Under competitive open market conditions, products jointly produced will generally be sold at prices totalling the joint cost of production plus a reasonable profit. Apportionment of costs will depend largely upon the demand for the products separately. This theory breaks down in case of multipurpose projects e.g. flood control is not a vendible commodity. SELECTED REFERENCES 1, A.S.C.E, Symposium, Paper 2412, “Multipurpose Reservoirs", Trans. 4.5.C.E., Vol. 115, 1950, pp. 780-508. 2, Govt. of India—Irrigation and Power Seminar Hyderabad 1960. 3. LC.0. LD. Proceedings Congresses 1 to 13, 4, Indian Standards, L.S.: 5477 (Pt, 1)-1969; 18: 5477 (Pt ID) 19695 18: 5477 (Pt 111)-1969; 18: ‘S477 (Pt IV)-1969; IS: 6065 (Pt 1)-1971; IS: 6926-1972. 5. Jhonson, W.K., “Use of System Analysis on Water Resources Planning”, Jnl. of Hyd. Dn. Proc. A.S.C.E., Vol. 98, No. Hy. 9, September 1972,36 10, CONCRETE DANS Lambe, T.W., “The Integrated Civil Engineering Project", Jn. of Seil Mech, and Fouudu tion Dn. Proc. 4.S.C.E., Vol. 98, No. SM 6, June 1972, Gichter F-B. “Influences on Selection of the Type of Dam" Jn, of Soll Mech, and Foundation, Proc. A.S.C.E. Vol.93, No, SM 3, March 1957, rents HH. The Engineering of Large Dams, Pact Y, John Wiley & Sons, 1916 bye Desion of Gravity Dam, & Water Resouress Publication, Denver, Colorado, Rursiney, RS. et a, Theory and Design of irrigation Structures, Vo. tt ath E4,, 1979, Mis Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee. Toaatith,G.. Varying Conditions Affecting Dam Desiga—Some Experiences", Dome Today, 1970, Japan Dam Association.2. ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 2.1 Dam FOUNDATION Rock PROBLEMS For centuries, the group of dam engineers has been designing on the basis of past succes- ses and more important, past failures. Tt would be seen that this was not an easy task, judging from the endless list of failures and the slow development of technical skils. Leaving aside overtopping by unexpected floods, the main cause of dam failure has always been failure of the foundation, The foundation is one of the natural data relative to any dam site and, as such, itis extremely dificult to grasp itin all ts complexity. It isa pity that there have had to be terrible sasters to prove that rock foundations are not always sirong enough, One had only to remember the deep concern discernible in the discussions at the 1961 LC.O.L.D. Congress in Rome after the foundation feilure at Malpasset dam in France and the general feeling at the 1964 Edinburg Congress just after Mount Toc sid into the Vajont reservoir in Italy. ‘The dam engineer's Worries have still not come to an end. Our greater skill allows us to build on more difficalt sites, but the problem remains that there can be no final and defi- nite answer to most of the problems connected with rock foundations. ‘The important thing is to make a correct assessment of the situation. To illustrate this, it would be pointless to develop scholarly behaviour pattemns for the rock matrix while over- looking the fact that thereis a potential failure mode by sliding of large volumes along existing seological surfaces of separation. Classification of foundation problems ‘Tho very great number of problems attached to the rock foundations of large dams can be split up and classified in various ways, eg. under the headings stability, deformation, per- eabilty, cic. Another might be based on degree of accuracy required eg. as preliminary ‘lesigo, final design, detail studies, etc. The following arbitrary classification based on the exploratory and remedial measures available will be used for the purposes of discussion: (@) Foundation investigation methods. © Fouadation design methods. (©) Foundation trestment methods. 2.2. Founparion Ixvesrigation Matiions ‘The mechanicel appraisal of a rock mass includes: —a qualitative estimate of the response to the loads applied by the dam; this includes an assessment of possible failure modes;38 ‘CONCRETE DANS —quamtitative measurement of parameters used in the numerical analysis of the behaviour of the dam and foundation, ‘This must be done in several different ways. (@) A study of geology and bydrogeology of the site: () Detailed description of the structure (gsometty of discontinuities, infling, ets.) and __ dstermisation of engineering identification indices; (©) Dicect measurement of mechanical parameters for use in the analysis; and (@) Monitoring the foundation after completion of the dam, 1. Geolegy and hydrogeology Rocks can be classified according to their mechanical properties, 1, Uniaxial compressive strengiiy (@ Weak—less than 350 kg/em* (0) Strong—350-1150 kgfem* (c) Very strong—greater than 1150 kglem* 2. Prefailure deformation (@) Elastic, 6) Viscous, 3. Failure characteristics (¢) Brittle, (b) Plastic. 4, Gross homogeneity (a) Massive, (b) Layered. 5. Continuity in formation (a) Solid—Joint spacing greater than say 2 m. (6) Blocky—joint spacing 1 to2m. (¢) Broken—fragmenied. The weathering can be classified as below (Engineering Geology U.K. 1970), (8) Fresh rock—No visible signs of weathering. (i) Slightly weathered—Penetrative weathering developed in open discontinuity but only slight Weathering of rock material, (i) Moderately weathered—Weathering extends throughout the rock mass, but the rock is not friable. (i») Highly weathered—Weathering extends throughout the rock mass but the rock mass is partly friable. (%) Completely weathered—Rock is wholly decomposed, and in friable condition but rock texture and structure aré preserved, (»), Soil—A soil material with the original texture, structure and mineralogy of the rock completely destroyed. ‘The site investigation begins with the conventional geological survey. The geologist some- times has to answer a very dificult question, whether a given fault at the site can become active or whether it can be reactivated by the impounded water? It is usually Impossible to give any definite answer except where it has been active within living memory, but this case is extremely rare, ‘There are hundreds of dams built on foundations sometimes with dozens of shear Faults that can be of large size in some casts. The'fact that none has ever been reactivated to any measurable extent is because the probability of a given fault moving in the short span of geological time represented by the life of the dam is infinitely small. The geolovist can often find faults whote throw has attained (ens and even hundreds of metres over millions of years, bat the engineer is only concerned with movements over a hundred years or 40 even if they are only a few centimetres, The time scale and magnitudes are not the same.ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 9 ‘We must content ourselves with overall geological and. geometric criteria to assess the Fisk connected with the presence of shear faults, such as: (2) Mes length where it intersects the ground surface; () The width of the fault zone; (©) The kind of infiling; (2) The total throw; (@) Its position with respect to the regional tectonics; and (J) The time of the fast movement, Studies have been done by Japanese Engincers (1967) and Varshney (1971) on the effect of fault location and orientation on dam behaviour, It has been found that so long the fault remains at heel and up (0 middle point with orientation towards beel, the situation i not disheartening. But when the fault is located on the dowastream half of the foundation and is inclined downstream, the problem becomes alatming, 2. In itu moasurements (@) Graphical presentation of the geological strucnure. The major structural features ‘must be drawn on maps with some means of indicating their orientation in space, for instance, by means of rectangles showing a perspective view of the unit square (Miller, 1963). Polat diagrams Pig. 2.1) by projection of a unit hemisphere are widely used. The “equal area pro- jection” (Fig. 2.10) is often preferced by structural geologists as it allows for easy plottiag of the distribution frequency in space. The “equal angle projection or stereozraphic projection’ (Fig. 2.18} does however have one special advantage, in that all circles onthe hemisphere remain Fig.2.1. Polar diagrams, (®) equal area projection (Schmid): (6) equal angle projection (Wall): 1 upper hemisphere; 2—etrcle onsprere; 3—projecton of eile (ditorted); 4—projection of ciel (czeula). circles on the projection and this permits very neat graphical sclutions if the engineer wishes to use polar diagrams directly in the stability calculations.40 ‘CONCRETE DAMS (®) Geophysics. “Ssismic refraction” is a weil-established method used by geophysicists to measure the thickness of weathered rock or soil cover. Tt as proved extremely useful as a westigation tool for the ropid comparison between several sites, Another development, from the oil industry, is seismic logging of boreholes. The’advan- fages of these metnods is that percussion drilling rather than diamond core drilling can be need, resulting in a considerable cost reduction, Recent investigation (Lakshman and Allard, 1971) have shown that there is « good correlation between the fracture density within the rock mass and the transverse velocity of the seisie signals. Finally, the revent advances in gravimetry have made it possible to use this geophysical method for the detection of void in rock foundations. 11 has beea successful since 1970, when high sensitivity gravimeters were built by Lacoste and Romberg and used for localizing buried uacries and karst channels, (6) “Pete Sismique". ‘The method called “Petite Sismique”” (Schneider, 1967) is based on an eatiscly different principle. Not one but soveral seismic parametets (particularly transverse velocity, wavelength and attenuation etc.) are measured and shown on a card (Fig. 2.2). The Petive Sismique gives the “identification” of the site and enables the diffe- ences or similarities with other sites to be detected. ae fe a eon Fig. 2.2 “Petite Sismique,” card for a site (Schneider, 1967), 1—time for transverse wave; 2—dstance between impact and _georhoae: 3-—asin (in dial units); “4—frequency; 5—Schmidt acclromerer readings; 6—half wavelength (transverse wave); T—median velocity; 8-—median attenuitionROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 4 ‘Quantitative correlations” have been established between Petite Sismique parameters and ‘ether engineering parameters. Figure 2.3 is an example considering that Petite Sismique surveys require only one engineer for a week or $0, it appears to be 8 cheap way of getting useful infor- mation ona given rock foundation, The only condition is that there should be enough rock ‘exposed, either in ovterops or in adits. (@) Rock quality designation (R.O.D.). Tre tock quality designation (R.QD.) (Deres, 1968) is an index of core recovery obtained by summing the lengths of pieces of core longer than 19 cm and dividing this length by the total length of cor It is an index of fracture frequency and has proved very useful on many sites for estimating the deptt of excavation required beforereaching sound rock. One ofits main advantages is its extremely low cost; the computation of R.Q.D. for hundreds of metres can be done in a few hours, either on site of from colour photographs of the core boxes. (©) Lugeon test. This well-known test, origi- nally proposed by Maurice Lugeon as a criterion for groutability, bas since taken on new meanings. ® 5000 10.090 5000 0100 Boo sea ato Bea) Fig. 2.3. Cortelation between static modules of deformation and frequency of transene ‘wavo signal obtzined by “Petite Sismigue” for ‘various rocks. A frequency of transverse. wave sigal (FL); 2aslatic modulus of deformation (Mp2) ‘transverse wave sismograa. Several authors have shown that the amount of ‘water under pressure absorbed by the rock is not an intrinsic parameter of its permeability ‘ut rather of its degree of fracturation. If the length of hole packed, is varied, a great deal of information can be deduced on the spacing and the opening of discontinuities, (U) Jacking tests. Jacking tests (plate bearing andjor flat jack) are usually employed to etermine the modulus of elasticity of the foundation rock in terms of the Boussinese equa- tions, which provide a relationship between this modulus and measured load and displacement, Jacking tests are usually performed in adits, but they cam also be rum at the surface if the load reaction is provided by deep anchors, Many jacking tests show that deformation is time+ dependent, meaning that itis important ‘to investigate the behaviour of the sock under sus- tained loading. (g) Residual stresses, Before applying a new load to a rock foundation, it may be impor. tant to know the magnitude of stresses of tectonic origin which may already exist within the rock mass. They ate not often measured for dam foundations but there are cases where high stresses can develop near the surface, e.g. at the toe of high cliffs ‘One method of measuring these residual stresses uses a flat jack, which has the great advantage of giving a direct stress measurement, although only to a iimited depth from the free surface. ‘An alternative method is to use strain gauges or photoelastic materials bonded into the borehole and stress relieved by “over-coring”, In this way, the stresses at depth within the rock mass can be measured, but the deformation modulus (which may moreover be anisotro- pic) must be measured separately.a CONCRETE DAMS: 3. Laboratory tests There are two reasons for studying samples in the laboratory, The first is that the behaviour of small pieces of rock material gives a clue to some of the broblems likely to arisen the full scale rock mass of the site. In fact, the rock material is fen a small scale model of the rock mass because ishas passed through the same tectoni and geological history, so that t2sts oa « small sample of intact rock can frequent givea Usefol_ “identification index which can assist in the engineering appraisal of the rock mass, The second reason for laboratory testing is that it may be necessary to measure the specific resistance to deformation ofthe discontinuities and the best place to do this fs in the labora tory, provided suitable samples can be obtained. The important laboratory tests are: (1) Compression; (2) Radial permeability; and (3) Shear strength of joins, Instrumentation Civil engineers have recently realized that providing instruments for monitoring the rock foundations of major dams is vital part of the design at least at important azmonitoring the dame itself, @) Geodetic measurements. Two different types of geodetic measurements are ia wide spread use. One consists of measuring movements in the X, Yand Z axes by triangulation, and the other of measuring movements along the Z axis only by precision levelling (6) Imerted penduluns. Pendulums sre usually of the inverted type for rock foundati They consist of wires with one end fixed at the bottom of a shaft and the top attached to ing-shaped floats to keep them vertical (Fig. 2.4). Taverted pendulums give very early warn ing of any deviation in the foundation from its normal behaviour. (©), Wires in boreholes. Tk would be possible to gain further information on the founda- tion by measuring the relative displacements along the pendulum wire, but in practice. special Fig 2.4 Inverted pendulum in rock foundation Te snntes steel wire; 2-targe diameter borehole; 3uachor one; 4 annul Sting Moats renting saleROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 43 Pires that are not nvcessarily placed verdcally are used for this. With this system, care must pe taken to prevent any chaages inthe wir's length from stress of temperntine relations Tovar wies have been in ase for many years for base measurement in geodetic trangemiog nd the same iden is used here, except that the wires are in adits or boreholes and not in the Coton to om (Fig. 2-5) was fist used about twenty years ago in mines, but is apn Fuion te dam foundations is recent and has beea rapid. Tt was used at Vouglans daw in France end it detected cracks appearing in the upstream wall of the foundation enetvation. (@ Clinomeiers. The clinometers used with dam foundations can be cither of the sta- tlonary type oF torpedoes lowered into boreholes. Fig. 2.5, Borehole “elongameter” (after Telemas), ‘1—stainlessstel wire (@No.);_2—wateright P-V.C. casing $0 mm, dia.; 3—aachor ting for wire No. 1; 4—boreholes 73 mi. dia.; S—measuring head; §--iibrating vinedevos, The frst is extremely accurate. Stationary vibrating wire clinometers, for example, have A seasivity of 1 to S%<10~* radians. Stationary clinometers are generally set up in acits, shafts and underground chambers. (©) Piezometers end drains. Drains ore usually provided in foundations for the purposes of corrective action but they are also excellent monitoring devices, because It is obvious that any increase, or drop in drain discharge is significant. But to interpret what is happening, & second term is needed in the flow net, the head or hydraulic potential. Designers now agree that putting a presture gauge on a drain does not make it a piezomter and that it Is essential to combine drain discharge measurements with indepeadent piezomettic measurements Together, they form what is called in French “ausculatation hydraulique” which is a most valuable means of detecting the slightest change within the foundation when water is present, because any deformation of the rock mass, however slight, brings with it a relatively large change in the width of cracks in the rock which in tun feads to a spectacular change in the hydraulic conductivity. “ The question of the reliability of piczometric measurements is worthy of mention at this point. The filters are generally cither too short, in which case only a local value is obtained for the potential, which is not very useful, or too long and yield a false “mean” value because“4 ‘CONCRETE DAMS different levels in the hole at different potentials are brought into communication, ‘To overs Fest dieuly. * sontimuous borehote piezometer (Fig. 2.6) has been developed ig France (Working Group, French Commitee on Large Dans, 1970). It ves a compioe ke of the potential over the whole length of the hole and prevents Seepage moving up and down the hole by means of @ rubber membrane. This isa major step towards having proper iezometric measuroments, Fig. 2.6. Continuous borehole piezometer, borhole with prsturised rabbor membrane (P4>F); 2—borchole during measuremen’ ot deoth Z (PoP); 3—nubker membrane; 4—measuring probe; 5--packéry “fine emo {es;7—water pressure inside probe; §—curve of pressure vs depth £9 —depth, 10—"iog” of seepage. pressure. 2.3, Founpamions Properties of rock 1. Crushing sirengeh Table 2.1 Compressive strength of recks Unconfined compressive strength of rocks Rock type Sera Took Sirenaih Keiem i Pa. pe Talen — iFa Sit stone 40-1200 24-120 Grey Wacks 00 0 Shale 380-1100 35-110 Sandstone 0-120 40-19 Limestore 00.2409 50-240 Botomite 500-150 50-159 Granite 900-2500 99-250 Basalt 2000-3500 700-50 DDolette (Dis base) 490-3200 249-320 0 2ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 45 2. Shearing strength Angle of internal angle of rock (after U.S.B.R.) Rock tangent ¢ Rock tangent § Toft 0.9 ‘Schist Biotite 0.5 ‘Limestone (reaf Breccia) 0.6 Limestone (medium grained) 0.5 Granite weathered (0.8). 3+ Modulus of elasticity of rock The modulus of elasticity of rock, like its compressive strength, will depend upon its soundness, composition and orjgia. Table 2.2 gives range of modulas, 2.2 Modules of elasticty of rock Rock te Malate of eusteny 10 Aatent MPa, "Limestone 227 3400-27000 Dolomite rs 7100-15100 Limexione (very bard) ” 0000 Satdtone 1020 1000-22000, ‘Quartz sandstone om 000122000 Sitetone ae 3400-14000 Geiss: Fine os 9000-130 coarse 13.3 1800-23000 Sehist: Micceous 1 2000 Botte ” 400 Granite 10 10000 uate 4 14000 Yer ateret 2 2000 Slightly ateree 10-20 10000-20000 ved 20-50 2000-50000 uartte! Micaceous 2 20000 Sound soe 5000-0000 Dolerte (Diatasey 0-100 20060 100600 Basalt (Sound) 0 sco Anceite 20-50 29000-0000 Amphitotie °0 ie46 CONCRETE DAMS > satiation ‘iste _E parallel to sratifeation E perpendielar fy spa ‘Sandstone (Rossens) 23 Senditone 141.6 Sandstone 147 ‘Granite 13 (Sshistonc) Sehist Chacd 19 Quareite hare 1 laminated) litle ce no steatiication) 4. Moditus of deformation The modulus of elasticity of rock is normally adequate, but due to existence of joints, faults and seams in the rock mass, the modulus of deformation of the rock mass may be inadequate, Dan Fock Modulus of elasticity Modulus of deformation Kalen keiemt 1. Katadj arch dam, ran Diorite 380,000 170,300 2. Nagawado arch dem, Japan Gra 309,000-750,000 30,000-100,000 For investigation purposes, the modulus of such “In. situ” can be assessed by inspection, ‘sided by a geological hammer. The resulting sound can give some indication of modulus of deformation, A ring like steel (Trequency 12,000 cycles) indicates a modulus around 70,000 M.Pa. (79% 10" ke/em*) ‘A’ solid ring (frequency 8,000 cycles) indicates a valve nearer 7,000 M.Pa, (710° ke/em®) A low pitched note — 700 M.Pa. (0.7% 10! kgjem") ‘A dull clink — 70 M.Pa. (0.0710! kgjem®) Scismic method of measuring the coefficient of elasticity or deformation involves different {techniques of pulse velocity measurements based on determining the propagation time of slestic longitudinal (compression) and transversal (shearing) waves. Thy also include super. sonic or seismo-scoustic methods. Using modern electronic short time measuring equipment 1 i ‘ (time sppgp- S€°) ~ these procedures find extonsive use both in laboratory and in the field. Ths seismic deformation of modulus is based on the assumption of a perfectly elastic jrotropio ‘medium—however itis quick and cheap. 5. Tectonic stresses The fact that rock may be in a state of high internal stress is often overlooked. It is common to assume a vertical stress. field due to the weight of overlying rock. The corres Ponding horizontal stress will vary with the rock and the rock formation; frequently one horizontal principal stress will equal or exceed the vertical stress, the other being mach lonerROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 47 iu yntal load on the layer so that the under horizontal tectonic stoss. As a result the strata down en 01 ance to their equilibrium, 6 Permeability ac Completion ofa dam, water under pressure from the reservoie may move through iis foundation, either aroun grains ofthe material as in sands and gravely er theugh ance throngs a Joints, seams and bedding plancs as in sedimentary formations or it may. be lect Creag natural underground channels. Inthe fst case, excess flow ean. lead to giving’ nad ty in the rock mass; he project is aban- reg Sat of stress in the rock mass will afect its permeatility. The compressive load * foundation by the building of the dam will tend to close cracks and decrees voir will tend to open cracks upstream from the dam an} Hehien the formation of the downstream face, Ifa small reservoir is to be subjorted te rapid changes in water level, the reversals of stress on the foundations may mate necessary @ more comprehensive programme of grouting than would otherwise be necessary, 2.4 Founparion Desten Mertiops The Problems involved can be split up into three categories for convenience, vist 1, Strength and safety against failure, 2. Deformation characteristics and their elfecs on the structure. 3. The effect of seepage through the fissures, 1. Rock foundation faiture Gace the geological structure has been sulficiently elucidated, the work of dosigning the foundation is done in two steps: 1. By defining the possible modes of failure from what is known of the geology and applied loads. 2. By esteuating the equilibrium conditions for stability using numerical values of the significant parameters. CO) Lirica! models. Thesimple models are two-dimensional and are less concsened ag, Presenting any particular foundation that a typical discontinuous system, ec parallel beds 0: blocks. Tyets are much more complex models representing the actual conditions’ at a given site They ty to achicve geometrical and mechanical similitude with the tect Foundation, ena the strength and applied load parameters. fn this way, they provide the menor ‘making the thrcc-dimeasional study of the site.4B ‘CONCRETE DANS (2) | Mathematical models, finite clement method. The faite element method provides a ‘pattematial Fer the gon of # model mado up of individual blocks, although the matheme: ical properties of the latter are very different from the mechanical i it physi Rolsvoen nical properties of theit physical Le), Tireecdlmensiona analysis of tints equiibrium conditions of large blocks. In the case Marae is fecloey exhibits extensive discontinuities such as mujer faults, clay-flled joints o overall equilibrium (Londe 1973), This type of mechanism has been found bebind many noted failures both of natural slopes and foundations, euch as at Malpassct dam, Wheeler Lock, the Mount Toe slope and Many others. At a general rule the sound, Intact rock plays no part in the shear process, which is associated solely with movement on existing planes of weakness, except in extreme cases wherethe rock is very soft like shale. This type of ‘mode?’ is much simpler than the one in which each individual rock block is represented; large blocks can be considered and the equilibrium conditions computed by examining the forces applied on a limited number of specific surfaces. Considering three plancs formed by the discontinuities, there are now only six variable ie. three values for the residual friction angles and three for the forces applied by water Pressure, The problem can be solved graphically, evea though it involves six parameters Chon, 1968; Lonce e¢ al. 1969 and 1970). This approach has some limitetions, The conditions of limit equilibrium are assessed without takiog the deformations of the foundation into account, and yet they may be too high for the dam, in which case the analysis result would be over-optimistic. On the other hhand, the fact that residual strength only is considered leaves a safety margin that may be over pessimistic. It must be concluded that as with more elaborate metheds, it would pr. bbably be mistaken to aim for too high a degree of accuracy in the calculation and all the ‘more so to try and define a factor of safety (Londe, 1970). ‘The main advantage of the limit equilitrium method is that it is so simple that the cengincer can ‘play’ with all the parameters affecting equilibrium end so identify those thee havea large ‘weight’. With this method, the relative weight of each parameter appears clearly on simplecharts determined in & few micute's computer time or drawn by hand esing only basic geometrical constructions. In fact, i a stereographic projection (equal angle net ‘equal area) is used, the charts consist of only straight lines and circles, (a) Factor of safety for rock foundationt. With all the methods mentioned above, the concept of the factor of safety has been questioned. This is one of the most scvious. aspects of the design and analysis of foundations. It mast be decided whether it isin fact desnable to use the factor of safety concept and, if s0, how to derive it, Another approach that could be, and has in fact been, considered is probabilistic analy- sis of variables leading to a concept of eafety in terms of a given probability of failure, How. ever the calculation is far too complex, because of the considerable aumber of parameters involved, for it to have any practical applications Tits considered essential to have c measure of the margin of safety of a foundation, then one solution might be to givecach important parameter a distinct value, The procedure would be:ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION PEsION 1, Agree on a definition of the 49 tor of safety Fi forcach parameter py (ef, a ratio Pac where subscript L indicates the value at fsilure), 2. Take a oumeticel value for all the parameters p, to oaleulate pe and thence Fe A ale seis showu in Fig. 2.7 where equliteium ts governed ty two paranetes only. Three problems arise in connection With this procedure, The first concerns how the {actors of safety are to be defined, asthe concept is entirely arbitrary, “The eet question is what values are to be given to all the varie ables except py. Should it be the average of all measured values, the most unfavourable alue or the value with te highest probabi- lity? Lastly, we must deci¢e what the margin ‘of safety really means if itis measured in this Way using, sey, 5 or 10 different values, ‘These considerations lead to a slightly Sifferent approach that might look like a compromise ai first sight but whose reliabi- 4ityin engineering terms is probably. better, Instead of calculating only one value of the factor of safety F, we could take each para- meter in turn and look at the influences its variations have on F In other words, we could givethe valucs of the partial derivatives @Fléps. ‘These acc not really factors of safety but rather factors of assessment and, as such, have much greater possibilities. They show up clearly which variables have the greatest o Fig. 2.7. Factor of sfety concept in simple ‘ase vith two parameters. i—vale of paramerr Fy; 2--seale of patameter yi I—reiationship (Py, 2) for a factor ot safe FEL; A-relationship (Py. B)) for P45; 5— Retangle showing possiblevarations of P, end Py cffect on equilibrium. ‘They point to those aspectsof the problem which need special attention (@&; variable ps in Fig, 2.7) aud those that ae of litte consequence in the specific design, 2. Deformation of rock foundations (a) Determination of elastic parameters, ‘equivalent contivum are the Young's modulus an: The characteristic parameters defining the 1d Poisson's ratio, but as the basic behaviour Patterns of the continuum aad tne actual rock foundation are different, these two parameters ‘ean only give approximate solutions. (©) Effet of rock deformetions on the dam. in vwo vays A dam on a deformed foundation is affected (0, by the absolute magnitude of the deformations; and ()_ by the relative displacements between adjoining areas, ‘The first is usually less harmful than the second, even for such statistically indeterminate structures a arch dams, ‘maximum stress levels within large dams. ‘Hundreds of arch dams have Trial Load Method which requires an assumption to concrete and foundation moduli respectively, It has been found that if this ratio reat ‘more or less constant for all parts of the foundat IE the ratio changes by a factor, say, of five, the been designed with the help of the be made as to ratio F./F, between the ns, it does not have much effect on the0 CONCRETE DAMS cniical strosses may alter only 20 per cent, some positively while others negatively, and conse- Trace ree 80 need for any great accuracy in measuring the foundation modulus Eat ii deta ge mbes aad scale effect tay not be such a serious problem as is usually imegioct in determining the rock deformation characteristics when it is homogeneous, ‘The oxen meds tieat nPertantfor small and very rigid dams but in this case the stresses involv. ate not critical, (©) recoverable deformations. Ietecoverable deformations occur on first loading and to the corresponding modulus is lower than for subsequent loadings. This is reminiscent of sraio hardening in metals but there isa fundamental difference, because it occurs as soon as the frst load is applied to rock and does not depend on a certain stress level being reached. This point is important with dams because the low modulus on first loading can, in some cases, be oritical for the dam, and yet itis very difficult to predict irrecoverable deformations from small scale jacking test. Furthermore, such deformations will obviously not be the same everywhere, a fact which aggravates the elastic heterogeneity. % (a) _Eifect of rock deformations on monitoring instranents. If a fixed reference point is ‘eeded in any part of the monitoring system, e.g. for the geodetic system or the anchor points of inverted pendulums, it should be at some distance from the dam, and the higher the load applied to the foundation by the structures, the greater this distance would have to be. The {thrust from large modern dams aad the weight of the stored water are in millions of Newtons, ‘and theenginzer needs some idea as to the area affected by these enormous forces. Mladyeno- Vitch (1976) has shown that the foundations of large damscan be affected to great distances and. depths far beyond the limits ususlly imagined. Itappears, for example, that the bottom end of an inverted pendulum should be placed at a depth of about 100 m if itis to sive a correct ‘abyolute measurement of the displacement of the base of a 100 metre high dam (Fig. 2.8). oO; f + @ al 2 ® ! Fig. 2.8, Example of effect of inverted pendulum nchoiage depth on measured relative foundation dspheement ‘—muliplearch éam cross section; 2~ rock foundation (clasie eantinuous); 3— inverted pendalura; sanchor point at depth 45 S—horizontal displacement V;/6—depth; 7—aetwal curve V (3), V* measured displacement,ROOK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DEstGN 51 Ifa shallower shaft is used and the fixed end is assumed to be stationary, the foundation will Setanace gt than it really is because the readings obtained will contain only part of the deformation, Seadics done by Varshney (1971) by finite element method show that dam load changes the stress pattern inthe foundations up to a depth of more than dam height tet ‘mostly within ‘semicircle described by dam base as diameter. (©) Actual deformations in the rock mass. It's now known that the compressive stress Pattern from a surface load does not develop ina discontinuous system in the same way as in the corresponding continuous medium (Fig. 2.9), Several eminent scientists have tried {0 tackle this dificult point but their work has not so far produced any convenient tool that fhe designer can use because of the extremely complex input data Varshney (1971) has investigated 250 cases to determine stresses in anisotropic foundations due to. dam lon anisotropies studied were: (a) foundation rock homogeneous but of varying elasticity, (4) layered foundation, (e) faulted foundation, and (d) jointed foundation. ‘The results show that ‘reat care isto be taken in designing dam and treatment of foundations ® Fig 29, Stress silferent bedding ansies under iev and Eclkhan 1971), ‘1 continuum; 2—discontiowcus system (ais angle between bedding planes and tox)82 CONCRETE DAMS. 3. Mechanical effects of seepage Seepage water influences the stability of structure and its foundation aad is usually import and sometimes evn the dominant factor inthe design ‘ater percolating through eracks in the rock has cer raulic head a ci sithuds ccopereneoaia eft! ook Basa ccviain hydraulic ead at all points The ‘tuedraulic conductivity” of a rock mass Is governed almost exclusively by the Beological discontinuities where “permeability” is much greater than that of the pares ‘with Fock material even though they represeat a much smaller volume of voids, Therefore the Structural anisotropy of the rock gives rise to anisotropic conductivity and it also provides preferential directions along which the hydraulic forces will act. These forces are detrimental for stability in many cases because they may reach values that are of the same order of mag- nitude as the other forees, such as the dead weight of the sock or the dam thrust and they may be directed towards the free surface. The only tool available to the engineer is to foresee every possible type Of behaviour and try to analyse it, The flow in fissures whether laminar or {urbulent, is relatively unimportant as far as secpage forces arc concerned, These water induced forces within the rock masy are ot static forces like deal weight but change in magnitude and direction with the deformation of the rock foundation, 2.5 FouxpaTion Trearment Mos of the stractures built prior to the 20th century were without geologic examination of any kigds and’ many of the dams and power houses had, at best, few cursory examinations by one. br'ntBré consulting geologists. The early 20th century witnessed a number of dam failures, The failure of Austin dam, Texas, U S.A. (1900); Austin dem, Pa, USA. (1911), St. Francis dam, Los Angeles, US.A. (1926): and Molare dam, Italy (1958) helped to focus the attention of dam builders on the importance of foundation competency wo the safety of the dam, After 1933, no large dam has been undertaken without geologic assessment ofthe dam site. With the necessity for building high dams on lets favouriblo sites, foundation treatment techniques registered an aecelerated developmentduring the 1930s, Notable among. them is the techniqne of drilling and pressure grouting which helped reduce seepags and improve the load carrying properties of the rock. ‘The drilling and grouting technique received special impetus during the construction of Hoover dam, U.S.A. The work at Hoover dam involved frst a desian based largely on experience and precedence. A programme of treatment was drawa up based on a vompichin- ive study of SO of the highest masonry dams in stevie then, and the ircetment involving injection of 16,000 tonnes of cement at pressures ranging from 3S to 70 kg/om® was carries out. At Dokan dam, U-K., where one of the world's largest grouting operations was under, taken between 1955 and 1957, the grout curtain wat up to 200m deep and. percussion machines were used for the first 100 m ofeach hole, fellowed ky rotary machines to complete the holes to full depth, 1. Grouting Presoure grouting is the process of injecting suitable cementitious slurries or similar ‘materials into inaccessible places, such as the underlying formation of foundation of dams,ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 533 Powerhous:s and. other structures for the purpose of sealing seams, cracks and fissures of filling voids. While the principal use of this process is to All opentogs in a structural mass it impervious to percolating water, it is also used to improve the strength and Properties of the material into which itis injected. In the construction of concrete s l purpose of foundation grouting is to establish an effective underground harrir acainst tow of water, thereby prevecting leakage and reducing the hydrostatic uplift Presents nnder the structure. A second purpose is to fil the voids in the near surface rock lunder the structure and thus vecurea more uniform and monolithic foundation. A choice of grouting provedure would depend upon the adaptability of the method sut- able for a specific job. This necessitates an understanding of the basic requirements and features of the job and nature of the grouting indicated. Those may be classified as f-"ows: ‘Si Feat ‘Aspect of gronting technique involved No. 41, Zoneto which grout i to beapplien Method of Uniting hole 2. Natuce of interstions ‘Type of grout mic and zomsistency >. Grout pressure Rate of grout Injection 3. Location of zone of grouting Groat pressure ‘4. Disposition of point of grouting in respect System of groating (ie. single or circulating ‘of cone to which you has to be applied lins system) 5. Type of treatment to be given to the founda- Method of grouting on materiat ‘The implications of exch of these features are briefly described herein. (@) Zone to which grout is to be applied. Some tock formations are suitable for percussion 46 metres ey d= 0,30 5 + 1.5 for h < 46 metres @.2) where h = height of dam above general foundations in metres b= width of weak zone in metres. d= depth of excavation of weak zone below surface of adjoining sound rock ia metres. In clay gouge seams d should not be less than 0.1 i.ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN. 3 For small und medium dams, the concrete plug depth is taken to the deepest foundation tovel (ex. Ichar! Dam, U.P., India), Ishil, Iida and Shibata (1967) have, on the basis of photo-slastic and model studies, recommended a plug depth equal to 20 to 307% of the dam Iicight. R.S. Varshney (1971) has analytically determined that the plageing of faultstoa depth of about 2075 of the dam height is conducive to normalisation of the stress distribution in the foundations having faults. It is not always necessary to do this over the whole arca of the job or fault. The concret- ing of a rectangular pattern of adits and shafts in a plane of large Yertival joiat was done at Monteynard arch dam site in France, The more extensive backfilling of soveral faults in the granite abutment of Nagawado dam required 20,000 m* of concrete (Fajii 1970). The infiling and crushed weathered rock debris was jeited| out at a very high pressure (10 MPa) in preference to using explosives that might haye damaged the foundation. () Contact grouting. Contact grouting is a scalivg operation intended to bring about as nearly a8 posible a fully bounded contact tetweea any concrete structure and the adjacent rock. Shrinkage of the concrete as it sets or the defiection of the loaded structure may produce seepage paths along the contact. Conlact grouting is advisable where such conditions are critical, This type of treatment is uscd most frequently in the abstment areas of conorete dams and in the crows areas of concrete lined tunnels in rock, () Joint grouting. Joint grouting consists in grouting construction joints between adjacent units of a concrete structure in order to join them together into a single unit. (vi) Curtain grouting, ‘The objective of curtain or “high pressure” grouting is to create ‘deep curtain at the head of the dem which will prevent leakage from the reeervoir and development of uplift pressures on the dam dus to hydrostatic bead. Generally only one line of grout holes parallel tothe axis of the dam ie sufficient. In excep- tional cases, where very high pressures are employed, another set of holes may be drilled after the first ones have been grouted at comparatively lower pressures. The cut-off curtain for a dam over 60 metre bigh, or for one constructed on inferior rock will usually consist of ‘multiple line arrangement of grouted holes as shown in Fig. 2.14. Curtain grout holes may be either vertical or inclined, Holes inclined to intercept the pal joints in the rock, however, will be the most effective in curtsin grouting. The ‘amount and the direction of inclination of the holes, therefore, will ‘be influenced by the orientation of the most prominent fracture system in the foundation rock. The spacing along the axis of the dam is determined on the ‘split spacing” method. A primary series of holes ic drilled 4.5to 7.5 m apart, depending upon the nature of the rock tested with water and ‘routed. A second series, comprising an equal number of intsrmediate holes, is then drilled, tested and grouted. This is then repested for a third series which thus reduces the spacing to quarter of that of the fist series, ‘The result of a pressure test of any hole is considered an indication of the relative tightness of the foundation between two adjacent holes previously grouted. The process is continued until satisfactory tightness is obtained. ‘The required depth of the deepest holes naturally depends upon the nature of the rock in the foundation. The only accurate assessment of depth can be made by water testing of holes drilled up to varying depths to determine the extent of leakage. U.S.B.R. has suggested the following criteria, Pr da0.33h +e 2.3) where d = depth of hole in metres38 CONCRETE DAMS ORIGINAL GROUND SUAFACE, Mg ommnnee ries enor ree Fig. 2.14. Grouting and drainage detail. ‘A = height of dam in metres ¢ = constant, varies from 7.5 to 25. An often applied thumb rule is that the deepest grouting should extend up to a depth below rock surface equal to one-half of the hydrostatic head above rock surface. 2. Grout pressures Grout pressures would fundamentally depend upon the nature of interstices in the rock, However, some rules have been specified by engineers. (@ Kortes dam rules 1, One quarter kg/em* for each vertical metre of concrete superimposed above the hole being grouted. 2. One half kg/cm* for each linear metre of rock as measured between the packer setting and the nearest point of rock concrete contact, 3. 3.5 kg/em* added because of blanket grouting.ROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN 59 ‘4+ Pressure increased approximately 12 per cent foreach series of intermediate holes srouted. (5) Justin, Creager and Hind’s recommendations —The equations and plot (converted 1a metic units by author) from Creager, Justin and Hinds (Fig 2-15) coa bo used ad cath eax for determining maximum safe grouting pressures, tobe supplemented in practice by judgement and observations during the grouting operations. The rule of thumb curve om Fig. 2.15 represents permissible pressure for rock exclusive of weight of overburden being considered. For sound stratified rock: egg : : i Pete . ‘a r ‘APYROUIMATE PRESSURE Im ny PEM ayem AT GIVEN OEPTH Fig 2.15. Rough guide for grouting prossu (afte Justin, Creager and Hinds), 70.2384 0.3064 (te + ME) @.4 For sound stratified rock that has been grouted above the zone presently to be grouted. 702344 0.3068 (7543.42) a3) For massive rock h vR) p= 0.23 h+ 0.306 (f-+3. 4 (2.6) where p= presnure in kg/om, ‘= depth in metre in rock to the zone to be grouted. (©. CF Grundy (1933) pa 44d en where P= grout pressure in 10-# kg/em* (k Pa) = depth in metres (0. Zorabs (1961) He has recommended the following as maximum values for sedimentary rocks:6 ‘CONCRETE DANS () for solid rocks with steeply inclined fissures p= 30d + 208 2.38) (ii). for solid rocks with horizontal fissures pa Ud+ 05d ey (©) ‘Rule of Thumb? 0.25 kg/em? per metre depth. But this should be used with caution, Precautions and grouting materials Cement groutiag cax be done cither through drlid holes or formed holes or embedded pipes, After a hole is drilled, a nipple mads ofa short length of black ates! pipe with one feed thiended aad the other Mared is forced in with the thronded end projesting out... The nipple is then caulked alroand with cement mortar, leadwocl, cotton-weste or oskum to prevent any leakge of grout from around the pipe. When hich pressures are-used, it ie necessary to fimly anchor the pipe to prevent any blow-cut dus to the back pressure of the grout. This is done by plecing a sufisieatly long nipple in a concrete cut-off carried deep enough into the reek to provide ample grip. Where thore is overburden, the nipple should extend down the rork zone. A mechanical expander device ean be used at the top of the hole in place of the grout nipple, It is more expensive but enables grouting to be started immediately after illing. When grouting is Be embedded’ in the con: ‘The “outer-end- of the pipe should be thredded and eevurely capped except whea grouting operations are in progress, The inside end of the pipe should be plugged with arag or wood to prevent clogging of the pipe during concreting, Before grouting is taken up the pluge should be removed if possible, Prior to the commescemeat of the grouting operation a jet of water through a 18 mm hose should be directed into the erout hole to bring to the surface all loose material and drill cuttings. This should be followed by thorough washing with air and water. A hose two-way manifold is then connected tothe hole so that either air or water can be used, First ‘water and then compressed air is forced into the hole so that as soon as air is introduced it ‘causes a boiling oF churning action and breaks up any loose or weathered material and pens- ‘trates any seam connectedto other holes, Airand water are used altersately until only clear ‘water comes out ofthe same Role or through any adjacent holes. When a number of shallow holes are'Tocated in an aren interspersed with weak seams it is convenient to wash a sat of holes at a time. The water supply pipe is connected to one ‘hole and the airlines are connected to the holes on each side of the water connection through a four-way valve from a common mazifold. By manually operating the four-way valve and reversing the flow of air at frequent intervals, the water in the seams is kept in a turbulent state which is very effective in dislodging clay and decomposed rock. ‘The groat holes are then pressarectosted with water to obtsin an idea of the tightness of the hole which is necessary in deciding upon the consistency of cement grout to be used and to locate any seams or other openings in the rock through which grout can leak to the surface and which are to be plugged. To preasure-test a hole, water is pumped in under pressure equal to the maximum pressureROCK MECHANICS ASD DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN oh proposed to be used ia grouting andthe rate of loss of water in litres per minut a ge aa aL of nei om nie Misnimum pressure for atleast (om migutes. ‘The grout puuap sei cau de used Tor panning water. Lut, for extensive grouting work, itis preferable to have a separate pumping plant. ‘The loss of water is determined either by means of a water mcter titted newt the Mule OF Uy measuring the water in the feed tank. A pressure gauge fitied on the supply line indivates the pressures developed the rate of loos of water observed during the water test in low, a tight hole is indicated “grouting will have to be started with a ¢ For very tignt holes, a walersemeat of 20: | may be used to begin with, Depending upon the grout acceptance rate oF the , the minis tuickened, For average type of holes, it is umal to start with a proportion of 1 part cersent to 10 water. Tn open lsies and those lending to iarge veids, waler-couneni ratios where itBe VO is may_be used sepat “Eeiylanuide ard chronve lignin, 1 backed up by cement grout. X thick grout may prematurely seal the fssutes leaving the hne soams unioueied wieteas ‘a thin mix chinks leaving a void atter the excess water is crained olf. ‘The optimuss out imix, therefore, is oxe thal contains the minivium axoumt of Water necessary 10 curry the Comet into all the rock voids, fisures, faults sud seains. During grouting, as tae hole approacacs relusal at the maximum pressure, itis a good practice to replace toe thick yrout by a thin mix and grout to refusal. The raie of pumping should, as fai as possiole, be Kepe the satne, Under no condition should the pressure or rate of pumping be increased suddenly at either may produce a water hammer ellect which may proteote choxiag of tue 5/80. |The grouting of-any-hole is not cossiderea compete uniii the nole faiis :o sate grout at the rate of less than 27 litres (1 {¢) of grout mixture in 20 minutes if pressures of 3.5 kgea* ortesrsre-usedintSrainules for piessutes beave>n 5.5 aad 7 kyJoia®; iw Wr minute: for pressures between Taid [4 keen! and in 3 minutes for pessuies avove 14 kylew'. Some authorities specify grouting to refusal at the maainum yetinissible pressure. Aller the growing of & hole or any stage of a hole is compieied, the prossiue is misiatained by mesnsof scop-voce or other suitable devies until the grout has set to tne extens teat it willbe retsiaed in the hove 4. Drainage Drainage in generally essential in fissured rock of low petmenbitcy less than five Luyeon units. Drainage holes are drilled downitrears fromthe grout curtain to intercept seepage through the curtsin-and-thus to-relieve uplift preasufés. These Soles also ofisct the dif of grouting finally fissured rock and Keap ihe hydraulic pote nce the toa Towlevel. These holes “| (Fig. 2.14). ‘The system of drain holes for Tehari Dani, Tndia, ta the dam portio Fig. 2.11 andthe bucket portion ia Fig. 2.16. Drain holes should sivays be drilled after all grouting operationsin the particular vicinity have been completed, otherwise he drains be choked. The drain ho\ are usually NX holes (75 mm dia.) set in from the upstream face at 5a CONCRETE DAMS. SPELT WE LVYPY “YoROS yoyong UL SVIOY IEG “YEE Big = 008 penn gamete = === decst-= coe -F7 t= = use aeeapooes oat 8 Ome amKOCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESION 63 fer cent of the maximuca reservoir depth. They should extend into. the for lac 01070 po cent ofthe depth of curtain grout hole ‘Thee ols enh ‘spaced 1.5 to 4.5 metre apart depending on foundation -Permeabilities and anticipated quantity _ ee ule, however, the lower permeability of the foundation reck, the clotey~ should be the spacing of the holes. Drain holes ordinarily are drilled vertically. However, where they are 6 be drilled near the gfout curtain, as is the case in grouting and drainage sallery, the drain holes should be inclined dowastream or away from the grout curtain How. ever, in case of arch dams, some engineers prefer to make drains inclined upstream, pth 5. Foundation surface and sliding stability Surface rock is ueually weathered and destressed. It is necessary to remove overburden and shattered rock mass before laying concrete for any structure, Blesting should be done ‘carefully so as not to shatter the rock mass. Tt is better to excavate ast half metre of rock by barring and wedging. Inthe case where the geology exhibits extensive discontinuities such as major faults, clay filled joints or bedding planes, strength is governed solely by the resistance against shearing along these discontinuities, and the internal behaviour of the solid blocks between them have no effect on overall equilibrium. However, ial designs, allowance shoula $= made the design of dam for the sliding factor of safety including uplift. The dip of the foun. tion strata should preferably be gently upstream so that the resultant thrust from the structure, ‘ll be normal to the bedding planes, Alternatively the dip might best be at right angles to ¢ Tine of the valley, especially so in the case of rocks with cleavage planes. There should be + much resistance to sliding below the surface of the foundations asat the surface. The excavation should be done in steps or a ‘toe hold’ may be provided (Figs. 2.11 and 2.16), This would ensure that the weight of sufficient bed rock downstream from the dam is available to resis the sliding forces. In the case of soft, uncemented shales or slates having weak, nearly horizontal bedding planes, the toe hold may not be considered strong enough to provide suffi ient assurance against sliding. In such cases a deep heel treach, below the upstream side of the dam, excavated by line drilling and broaching, is provided to be filled with reinforced con- Grete securely anchored to the dam. A heel trench provided for Tchari dam is showa in ig. 2.11, The present day means of substituting forward inclined rock anchors to compensate for the lack of horizontal resistance is mainly useful with medium height dams. Such anchors have been used in some French dams. A special design not universally applicable is the use of an upstream drag plate. This solution was adopted for the Orava dam in Czechoslovakia which was founded on flysch with an advanced grout curtain. ‘The new Rauschenbach dam in the German Fragebirge is founded on gneiss and possesses a drag plate apron as shown in Fig. 2.17. ‘The plate reinforces the six highest blocks, plate width is 13.4 m, thickness ig 5 m and concrete reinforcement is heavy. It i tied into the dam horizontally by means of pre- stressed reinforcement teasioned from its own upstream gallery within the plate. This in tura is tied into the base rock by prestcessing through 80 vertical rock anchors fastened 15 m down. A very deep cut-off trench was provided to decrease the hydraulic gradient and a care. fully designed filter was provided under the tail race apron (Fig. 2.18) of Penzance dam UK.; ‘the dam is founded mostly on sound granite, but in the middle of valley, a zone of decom. posed granite about 30 m long existed.‘CONCRETE DAMS sepa pS oeagpcare *) | BR. 2) \ suum ser oF SLIDING STBLITY OF DAMS Fig 2.17. Gravity dam with drag plate apron, NORWAL PROFLE ‘OF DAM ‘Syasoil RELIEF Valves, é SPECIAL seat ae an CUT-OFF TRENCH Fig. 2.18 Penzance dam UK. “Shoicrete or gunite” applied to the rock immediately after excavation and pinned back to the rock will provide effective protection against weathering. Thisis the basis of the new Austrian tunnelling method, Some engineers prefer “rigid buttresses and struts” and their Performance is emengble to calculation, But these buttresses do not give any support to the rock between them, ‘The idea of using sieel reinforcement for rock to overcome its complete lack of tensile ‘eng sometimes iow shear sitength arising from the discontinuities within the mass is a logical development, The reinforcement can either be “passive” as in ordinary reinforced concreteROCK MECHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESION 65 Soares ta peas concrele Further solution is to grout in posive sted, and ee lyse than prestressed bar, the process has been found effective The mechanical anisotropy and non-homogeneity affects not only the strength and. defor- mation of the rock mass, but also the stress distribution in it. The orientation of the joint system, morphological anisotropy, system of bedding planes, etc, affect the design stresses in dam and the rock continuum, The loads applied by @ structure affect large volumes of rock. Uncertainty about rock behaviour and loading can lead to over dimensioning in ‘construction if recognised, and to danger if itis not recognised. It is, therefore, advisable {to conduct in-situ fests on as large Volumes of rock as are practicable. Studies to evaluate the effect of the nature of foundation on structure stresses and the extra stresses caused by the construction of structure are, therefore, very necessary for en economical design of dams ‘and power houses and planning economic aad effective foundation treatment. 2.6 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS Methods available for stability analysis are: (@) Two dimensional methods 1. Rigid section method, and 2, Finite element method. ® Three dimensional methods 1, Rigid block method, 2. Pastition method, and 3. Finite clement method. Eachof these analyses, produces a shearing force and a normal force. The normal force can be used to determine the shearing resistance, Factor of safety isthe ratio of shearing resistance and shearing fores. 1. Rigid sestion method The section is assumed to have no deformation and a statical solution can be made, E = External forces (fromdam, ete.) W = Weight (dead load weight of mass) Seepage forces (hydrostatic) V = Shear force NV = Normal force The resultant of all loads (Fig. 2.19) on the section of the mass under investigation are resolved into a shearing force V, parallel to the potential sliding plane and anormal force N. The value of NV is used to determine shearing resistance, ie. (enhesion x area) plus N x tan ¢. 2. Two dimensional finite element method This method allows deformations to occur and permits more accurate placement of loads. The analysis gives the resulting stress distribution in the section. This determination allowsCONCRETE DAMS POTENTIAL SLICING Plane’ E -EXTERNAL FORCES trom gam ete) W=WEIGHT (dead load weight oF mess) S=SEEPAGE FORCES (hyarostonies) VeSHEAR FORCE NENORMAU FORCE Fig. 2.19, Two dimensional stability analysis—rigif section method. the variation in normal load to be considered in defarmation of the resisting and sheari forces along the potential sliding plane. 3. Rigid block method The following assumptions are made (Fig. 2.20): (2) Allforces may be combined into one resultant force, (ii) No deformation within the block mass can take place, (ii) Sliding on a single plane can occur only if the shear force on the plane is. directed toward on exposed (open of free) face. () Sliding on two planes can occur only in the direction of the intersection of the two planes and toward on exposed face. () No transverse shear forces are developed i.e. there is no shear on the planes normal to the sliding direction. The stepwise analysis is as below: (The planes forming the block are defined. () The intersections of the planes form the edges of the block. Gi The ateas of the faces ofthe block and the volume ofthe Block are computed. (0) The hydrostatic forces, if applicable, are computed normal to the faces (*) The resultant of all forces is computed. (?) The possibility for sliding on one oF two planes is checked, (Wil) The factor of safety against sliding is computed for all cases where ing is possible, Test is applied to each possible reining plane to see whether the roek mass could side on ic case of a single sliding plane is resolved into one of sliding on two planes, the resultant is divided into a shear force along the intersection line and a resultant force notmal to the intesseetion tine, Forees normal to the two planes are then computed such that they are inequlibnas with the resultant normal force. As a result of Sth assumption, these normal loads are the maxi Thum Jat can occur and the resulting shear resistance developed as'a maximum, Figure 221 Shows.a section through the potential sliding mass sormal to the intersection, ne of the twoROCK MICHANICS AND DAM FOUNDATION DESIGN a through- ‘ut the year; and it is also permissible to store water in the food reserve to a limited extent, after flood danger subsides. The function of a spillway is to act as a safety measureto pro- tect the dam froin being overtopped. The selection of the size of a great imaginary flood to be used in designing the protec- tion works for the safety of a dam is a problem which cannot be solved on @ purely maths. matical or statistical basis, It involves elements of judgement and of imagination. This is true for the reason that in storing enormous volumes of flood above the cities and towas of ‘2 populous valley, itis justifiable and right to provide a degree of safety in excess of the demands of probability. The capacity of a spillway is generally fxed 9 correspond to the peak inflow rate of the “design” flood omitting altogether the food absorption effect of the Feservoir, This seems extremely conservative but Arthur E, Morgan, former Chairman of TVA, advised the DVC to “providesuch 4 Targe spillway capacity at cach dam that the only criticiam left for future engineers to make should be that itis unnecessarily large”. 3.1.1 CW.G:'s criteria for design flood ‘The criteria for design flood of major and medium dams as recommended by Central Water Commission India, are given hereia. 1. Inthe design of spillvays for major and medium dams with storages more than 6000 hectare metres (50,000 acft) the probable maximum flood, which is the maximum flood for which there is a reasonable chance of occurting at the site, should be used. The method of estimation of the probable maximum flood is the one using the unit hydrograph principle and the probable maximum storm, The probable maximum storm is an estimate of the physical upper limit to storm rainfall over a basin. It is obtained from storm studies of all the Storms that bave ovcurred in the region and maximising them for the mechanical efficiency of the storm in changing water-vapour and droplets in the atmosphere into rain and moisture content of the rain producing air mass involved in the storms, 'L. The distribution of storm intensities for small durations is obtained on the basis of recorded data of self-recording rain gauge stations in tie concerned catchment or region. The range of moximisation of unit hydrograph peas should be taken between 0 and 50 per cent based on the discretion or judgement of the hydrologist, If the unit hydrograph is derived from very heavy floods of considerable Volumes, the increase need be of a small order. Bat if itis derived from low floods, the increase has 10 be substantial,DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY rn 2. _The rate of infiltration loss should be estimated from the volume of flood runoff and ‘he corresponding storm rainfall that caused that flood etc. and minimum infitration cue hhas to be adopted. 4. In the case of maximum probable flood a high degree of refinement in estimating infiltration indices is hardly justified because maximum precipitation amounts are lerge com- pared to the inflation lesses and are also subject to the ertors in the assumptions made in their estimation. A common practice is to arbitrarily adopt a minimum infiltration loss sate of about 1 mm per hour for the first 12 hours and 0.75 mm per hour for the second 12 hours and 0.5mm perhour thereafter, ‘The rates adopted for a particular project would be infu, enced by the nature of soil type and cover within the catchment area, 5. The probability method when applied to derive design floods for long recurrence Intervals several times larger than the length of data has many limitations. In certain cases, however, lke that of very large catchment where unit hydrograph method is not applicable, 4nd where suficient long term discharge data. is available, the frequency method may be the only course possible. In such cases the design flood to be adopted for maior structures shouid have @ frequency of not less than once ia 1000 years, Where annual flood values of adequate length are available, they are to be analysed by the Gumbel’s method ot regional frequency technique is tobe adopted a8 a tentative approach and the resuls verified and checked by hydrological approaches. 6. Sometimes when the flood data is inadequate, frequency analysis of recorded storms 's made and the storm of a particular frequency applied to the unit hydrograph to derive the flood; this flood usually has a return period greater than that of the storm. 7. While planning, there may be some projects where there is hardly aay discharge data ‘vallable, In such circumstance for preliminary studies the peak flood may be estimated by smpirical formulae, ‘The empirical formula commonly used ia Ceatral and Northern Indi isthe Dicken’s formala, “In South India, Rywe's formula is usually adopted. In Maharsshiea, Inglis formula is generally used, & Since the probablity method and the empirical approach have ther limitations and Cemkgiec only the design peak discharge and not the complete design flood hydroprenh, se Comission is of the view that these methods should be ui ®y rational method (unit bydrograph method) before the project designs are finan Toe runofT and peak foods a good knowledge of basic hydrological parameters tit Precipitation its collection and analysis is necessary, Tt is presumed that ihe nese has fone basic information on such aspects. For deiailed study, the reader is advised ween author's beok “Engineering Hydrology” published by Messrs Nem Chand & Brothers, Roorkee, Indi 3.2, Estimating RuNore Runoff is estimated by various methods. These can be classified under the follow ‘headings: . 1. Empirical formulae and tables 2, Infiltration method. 3. Rational method.™ CONCRETE DAs 4. Unit hydrograph method, 5. Synthetic unit graph method. 3.2.1 Empitical formulae and tables 1. Binnie's percentoge Alexander was probably among the first who studied the relation of runoff to rainfall with a view to express the former as a percentage of the latter. Rainfall tn mn Rano (2) Rainfall nr 500 15 300 35 «00 2 1000 8 700 25 1100 « 100 Fa ‘These percentages were developed on the data of two rivers in Madhya Pradesh. Borlow's tables T.G. Barlow carried out studies of catchments mostly under 130 sq km in Uttar Pradesh and gave the following values of K (in percentage) for various types of catchments. Table 3.1, Barloy's percentage renof ecelficents class Description of carchment Percentage ranoy A Flat, cultivated and Black cotton soils 10 B ‘Flat, partly cultivated varlous soils 1s c ‘Average 20 D ills and plains with litte cultivation 38 B ory hilly and stesp, with hardly any culivation 4s ‘Thete percentages are for the average type of monsoon and are to be modified by the application of the following coeficients according to the nature of the season. Table 3.2. Barlow's runoff cotictents for eierent nature of season Class of catchments Nature of season yo er iaicad a8 DE 1. Light rei, no heavy downpour 0.7% 080 080 0.80 0.90 2. Average or varying rainfall, no continuous downpour 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.0 1.90 3. Continuous downpoue 1.800 1.50 1.60 4,701.80DISIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY n Barlow divided special tropical rainfall into following four classes: (@) Negligible fails. All falls under 12 mma day unless continuous for several days: also falls 12 to 24 mm a day not followed or preceded by any rain. (©) Ligit falls, A falls up to 25 mm a day followed by similar or heavier falls. Steady pours of 25 to 40 mm a day, whea there is no rain of similar or greater amount efore or after that. (©) Medium falls. Falls from 25 to 40 mm a day when preceded or followed by any but light falls. @ Heavy falls, (j) All falls over 75 mm aday or continuous falls at 50 mm a day. ii) All falls of an intensity of 50 mm or more per hour. He gave the runoff percentages as shown in Table 3.3. Table 3.3. Barlow's runoff percentages Nature of ranfali 1, Neglipibi falls 2. Light falls Medium falls 4. Heavy flle 3, Strange's tables WL, Strange evolved some ratios between rainfall and runoif, based on the data of Maharashtra. He accounted for the topographical conditions of the catchment as good, average and bad and the surface condition viz. dry, damp aad wet prior to the rain, ‘Table 3,4, Dally runoff uovording to Strange Runoff percentage an yield whon the oripinal sage of sround ie Daly raungatt Dey Dap t«w”*~« a in mm Percentage Vield in Percentage Yeldin Percentage Yield in 65 - - - - ‘ os 12,0 - - 6 0.75 2 1s 23.00 3 os u 2.8 8 as 7.0 228 16 6.00 a 0.47 2.0 0 5.00 2 11,00 4 17.00 75.00 2 15.00 a 2,75 3 41.25 100.00 » 30.00 0 0,00 ” 70.00 Note; For yood or tad catchment, ald oF deduct up t0 25% of yield™ CONCRETE DAMS 4, Inglis and De Souza's formula Asa result of studies made by them for catchment in Western Ghats and Plains of Maharashtra. C.C, Inglis and De Souza gave the following relations: For Ghat Area: R= 0.85 — 30.5 B.D where R and P are runoff and precipitation respectively in ems. For Plains: ra Pee 6.2 5. Laves’s formula > . 0.3 Re ane @» > where 5 = a catchment factor F = monsoon duration factor Lacey's values for F/S for Barlow's classification of catchments are given below: Table3.§ Lacey's fastor (FS) as of catchment * Monsoon cass es Ne. Aw c D> % Very short 2.0 083 0,500.38 0.14 2 ‘Standard length $0 1.67 100 0.58 0.28 Very long 6.0 250 1,50 0.88 Ome 6, Khosla's formula Khosta has proposed formula wherein only temperature has béen accounted for, as tem- perature is the most important factor, To evaluate monthly runoff “‘Rq” in mm the following rolation in monthly precipitation *P,.” (mm) and montbly losses “Zp'" may be used: Ra = Py = Lm (3.4) and Ln ~ 5 Tm 3.5) where Tm> 4.5°C. For Ty< 4.5°C the losses may be assumed as below : Tr 45-1 7 =e -18e In 2 1B 2512.5 10mDEHION FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY ® 3.2.2 Infiltration method Infiltration is a movement of water ftom the surface of ground into the soil. Ina Storm infiltration normally begins at a high rate and decreases to a minimum as rain continues. Atany instant, “the infiltration capacity” of a soil is the maximum rate at which water will ‘enter the soil in & given condition, The rate at which water actually enters the soil during a storm is known as “infiltration rate’ and is equal to the infiltration caoacity or the rainfl rate whichever is less. The limiting value of infiltration capacity is controlled by the soil per- ‘meability and caa be determined experimentally by subjecting an experimental plot to rainfall rates in excess of infitration capacity and by measuring surface runoff (Fig. 3.1). The other ‘method is by use of infltrometer of which there are many different types. 021 L_ RAN FALLS LD, 1 wun oF | Z YYyyy | e ; ae SOL reer I CURVE | Crees §7e30n wD TIME IN Hours RAINTALL ARO INFILTRATION cm/HOUR Fig, 3.1. Inliration capacity and runoft e Infileration index: Tafitration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of raiafall in excess of that rate will be equal to the direct runofl. Estimates of runoff volume from large areas, having heterogeneous infiltration and rainfall characteristics are impracticable. In practice therefore many so-called “infiltration indices” have been devised by hydrologists advocating the infiltration approach. The use of such indices does not constitute a rational application of the infiltration theory and the results derived by theit use must always be considered empi- tical. Nevertheless the use of the infiltration indices is considered to be superior to the use of runoff coeficients ia the estimation of runoff from rainfall. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal 10 the direct runoff. The most common of these irdices are: (i) ¢ index, (i) average or W index, and (ii) the W min-index. (@) The $ index—The ¢ index is the simplest and is based on the assumption that fora specified storm with given initial conditions, the rate of basin recharge remains constant throughout the storm period. Thus if a time intensity graph of rainfall is drawa, the ¢ inde16 CONCRETE DAMS is the average rainfall intensity above which the volume of rainfall equals the volume of observed runoff (Fig. 3.2). BASIN RECHARGE RAINFALL RATE IN em/HOUR uM ————> Fig. 3.2. Schematic diagram illustrating the moaning of + index. Provided rainfall intensity is continuously in excess of basin recharge, thea Basin recharge $= Duration of rainfall Sa (8) W index—This index is defined as the average rate of infiltration during the time rainfall intensity exczeds the infiltration capacity. WT camftour Bn Where f; = duration of rainfall in hours. o Essentially the IV index is equivatent to g-index minus the average rate of retention by depression storage. (©) W min-index—With very vet conditions, when the infiltration capacity is essentially misinum, § and W are almost identical. The iniltration index can be used to estimats the runoff coefficient (K) from the relation @8) 3.2.3 Rational method In this method the ranoff is correlated with the rainfall. Attempts have been made to estimate the maximum flood discharges by having a series of formulae to correlate the many variable factors. The most noteworthy of them is by Richards. His theory of flood esti- mation rests oa the principle that the average intensity of rainfall is an inverse function of both the catchment and duration of storm and that its duration is equal to the period ofDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 7 Concentration of flood. The rainfall is assumed uniform and constant over the catchment. The slope of the catchment is assumed uniform. All these conditions are dificult to be met with and this method cannot be used for large tasins. In this method the basic formula is @ = cape where Q = flood flow in cumec GB.) C = runoff factor, i.e. ratio between runoff and rainfall 1 = rainfall in ems per hour A = drainage area contributing to runoff in hectares Jn this method the drainage arca is divided into a aumber of sub-areas aad with known time of conceatration of different sub- areas, runoff contribution from cach area ‘is caleulated. For example the drainage basin in Fig. 3.3 is divided into a number of sub-areas 1, 2, 3 and 4 such that time required for water falling on the ground: 1, from any point on line AA, the flow reaches the point P in one hour. 2. from any point oa the division line BB, the flow takes 2 hours to reach P. 3. from any point on CC, the flow takes 3 hours to reach P. ‘4, from any point on the extreme line DD, the flow reaches P in 4 hours. This type of zoning of area is called “zone principle” or ‘time contour analysis” ‘These times of the flood reaching a certain point Pare called “time of concen- tration”, The choice of ‘C’ is the most intangible aspect in the use of “Rational method”, This coefficient has to account for the various climatic conditions and physiographic cheracteristics ‘of the water shed. Considerable judgement is therefore required in estimating the value of C. Values of C are as under: 'sockmones (3) 000 neeranes CATCHMCNY ane Fig. 3.3, Rational method —detinitom sketch, Tape of surface Roof coefficient © Pitched roof surfaces 0.85.0.95 Flat rof surfaces 0.70.30 Sheet asphalt paving 0,850.90 Concrete paving 0,650.80 Asphalt macatom paviog 0.45-0,70 Gravel paving and bare sof 0.150,30 Sparse tost 0.10.25 Denes or wooded turf 0,050.15,8 CONCRETE DAMS 3.2.4 Unit bydrograph method 1. Hydrograph tis graphical relation between flow or discharge against time. As the volume of flow is siven by discharge multiplied by time, the area under the hydrograph gives the volume of flow during that period. The accuracy of a flood bydrograph analysis depends on accurate evaluation of the following factors: 1. Rainfall (a) Intensity, duration and sequence. (0) Distribution over the drainage area during successive time intervals 2. Infiltration (a) Initial loss, or toss before any appreciable run- off begins. (b) Minimum averege infiltration capacity. 3. The rate of accumulation of runoff at the site, Hydrographs have three types of flow viz. (@) Surface runoff, or the water flowing in the drainage channels wherein itis accumu- lated after flowing over land surface. (&) Subsurface storm flow, i.c. infiltrated wo'er in the top layers of soil which reaches the drainage channels, within a short time. (© Ground water flow or the water contribated as underground flow from the ground water reservoir fed by infiltration from previous rainfall and also some by the storm in question. Tn the beginning of flood hydrograph, there is contribution of the ground water to the runoff, As the stream level goes up and runoff increases duc to rainfall in the area, there is contribution from the stream to the sround water. Hence the contribution of ground water to surface flow may be represeated ty the dotted line in Fig. 3.4. Because it is impracticable 1200 osseRvED FL000 © ood | rena £ 3 cool = 600 o 8 400] z Base Flow, (No 8AnE FLOM 200 (assume) \ fay, actuaL \i a tune “8 HouRs Fig. 34. Flood hydrograpt and base flow.DESIGN FLOOD AND SPLLLWAY capacity 0 to determine the actual shape of this curve and also because in any major flood rise, the toe ae rater contribution is a small percentage of the tonal flow, itis sufficient to assume this Hine as straight (shown chain dotted AB in Fig, ‘The surface runoff is above this line Beyond the point B, the point of sharpest curvature om tie receding branch of the flood ydrograph, the hydrogreph follows what is known as the “gccad vate depletion curve”. Mifanat fod perensial Himalayan rivers, there is a continuous discharge dus to the icone; Which may be treated as base flow. 2, Zhe unit bydrograph A uni bydtograph is a hydrosraph representing one centimetre of sunoff from rainfall of on the lleaation and specie aerial distribution. ‘The theory of unit hydrograph 1s, based on the following principles : (2) For all unit storms (storms of unit uration regardless of thet iteasty), the period of surface runoff (the base of the hycrograph) is approximately the sume (©) If the total period of surface is divided into an} the total runoff. In other words, within close approxi Bat Aycrograph are proportional 1o the volume. of surface runoff resulting fog rainfall of unit duration, irrespective of the amount of such rainfall, (0 The observed hyéroscaph of runoff due to 2 given period of raifall from a particular asi selects the combined physical characteristics of basin including inflaton surface detention and storage. ‘These fundamental principles of the unit bydrograph though donot Figorously give approseh eg he ce aultetently accurate for practical purposes and represent the most rsicned Feet uration selected for aunit hyérograph should not exceed the period fal is essumed to be approximately uniform in intensity. in Tor coneenoes Of Me drainage aren understudy. Tis reckoned in terms ef 6, 120124 hours for convenienes, jaiing decided upon the unit period, hydrographs of nit perind storms are selected ont oy ie aetual hydrographs. The unit hydrograph ordinaion ieevae ease are worked out by dividing the ordinates of the sucfice low hydrograph by: the cnn of one cm runofl. These Renna Plated and those whieh have comparatively high pe the soleeeeg t2set-_ The floal hydrograph is obtained by drawing ¢ smoc curve enveloping the selected hydrographs, ey ate tite: general methods ordinarily available forthe development of «unit hydro graph. ‘Ina detailed studs, any of the three. procedures can be emplovea, according to the data available. These are: (©) Analvs of sinfalrunoft records for isolated unt period storms to obtain unit hydrograph dircetiy ©) Analysis of rinfalt-runof records of major storms and separation of the effets of unit.period storms, [© Computation of synthetic hydrogsaphs cither from direst ansloy with basins of80 ‘CONCRETE DAMS similar characteristics or from an indirect analogy with al i i large number of other basins through the application of empirical relationship. Having obtained the “infiltration index” and the “unit hydrogeaph” from the available roinfall-unoff data of the valley itis possible to compute the flood hydtograph for a given rainfall excess. This is done simply by multiplying the actual runoff (units of one em) with 3. Computation of design flood hydregraph 1. For small and medium size basins. The unit hydrograph method of design flood hydrogeaph for drainage basins lest than a few thousand sq kms in size (ue. when a single unit hydrograph could be applied to the entire basin) iavolves the following ste Derivation of design storm. The most common method of estimating probable maximum storm (PMS) for project basin is the one involving the transposition of selected major storms to basin and theit maximisation. ‘The three main stops of the transposition and maximisation method are (Selection and analysis of past major storms on record considered transposable to the project basin. (i) Adjustment of these transposable storms for maximum moisture that could occur cover the project basin, (ii) Envelopment of the transposed adjusted storms, (D Selection of major storms. The meteorologically homogeneous region of which the project basin is a part, is determined and then the records of rainfall stations within the region areexamined to select the dates of occurrence of historically major storms. Storm trans position means the application of a storm from one area to another area within the sime meteorologically homogeneous fegion. The purpose of storm transposition is to increase the storm experience of a basin by considering not oaly storms which have occurred dis geneous region. ‘Afier baving selected storms, their depth area duration analysis is-done. A depth area curve expresses graphically the relation between a progressively decreasing average depths of rainfall over a progressively increasing area from the centre or ‘‘eye"” of the storm outward to its edges. Such curves are shown in Fig. 3.5. (®). Maximisation of storm. The storms s0 selected, are maximised to the extent of physically possible increases ia the meteorological factors which produced the storm. These factors can be divided into two types: (a) the “mechanical efficiency” of the storm in changing water vapour and droplets in the atmosphere into rain, and (b) the moisture content of the rain producing air mass involved in the storm. At present it has been the practice to. maxi- mise storms for moisture content and not for the mechanical efliciency of the storm because the latter cannot unfortunately, be evaluated at present. The following adjustments are made, Moisture adjusiment: ‘The moistureadjustment of an observed storm is made to deter- mine the rainfall which would result if the, moisture chargo available to this storm was the ‘maximum that would be available to the storm in its transposed position over the project basin, asiuming that the mechanical efficiency remained unchanged. ‘The adjusted stormDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 81 i 1 ar ye am | _| LL DEAS pL! . : pS Pers ssoct yf POF a fel ETL i | 10mm ARCA mn Oicubate GF sa MnO METRES Fig. 3.5. Depth area duration curves, ‘sinfall is assumed to bear the same ratio to the observed storm rainfall as the maximum ‘moisture charge over the basin to the moisture charge of the observed storm. (ui) Envelopment of transposed storms, Unit hydrographs for the total drainage area are derived fiom discharge records or by synthesis, 2. For larger size basins. In the case of drainage basins larger than 5000 sq km and in certain smaller basins also where different parts of the basin have widely different runoff characteristics, itis usually necessary to divide the total drainage area into sub-areas a.d derive separate unit hydrographs, A flood bydrograph is thea determined for each sub-area and the sub-area flood hydrographs are routed dowa the stream chinnel to. the project ste tsing stream ow outing methods. Should reservoirs exist in the drainage area above the Project site i will algo be neceasery to route the flood through such reservoirs The most direct method of dei bydrograph resulting from an isolated unit storm that produces reasonably unifora inr Pana fates within its durction. The base flow is separated and the resting hydro- graph of direct ranof is ploted. The volume of rutofT under the hydtosach of ircct runoft is evaluated and is expressed as depth in contimettes over the. tasn Total volume of runoff ( pam = ere (in depth) to obtain unit hydrograph. ‘The method will be clear from the following example. Design example 3.1—The following six hourly flood data (Table 3.6) is available for a river at a site where catchment arca is 6530 sq km. Analyse the given dats. for the following: (i) Flood iydrograph, and (ii) Unit hydrogeaph, Solution 1. Plot the actual flood bydrograpn from the data given in the problem (Fig. 3.6). 2._ The base flow is taken equal to that given by the line AB, joining the bottom points of the flood hydrograph. 3. Mt would be clear from the figure that there are two distinct peaks 4500 and 7020 + The ordinates of direct ranoff are divided ty volumea CONCRETE DAMS Flood date of design example 3.1 Hours Dischrge ts cuee Hours Discharge ix cumce 6 220 96 70 R 100 02 3875 ® 2300 108 230) 4 4000 14 1939 % 4500 120 16m % #210 16 130 a 3570 12 1100 « 2900 138 1000 s 2100 16 910 @ 1500 150 cy “ 1250 136 30 a 1610 182 400 * 2180 163 +0 4 616s, 1m 50 0 ™0 10 0 ‘cumec in the hydrograph. The highest peak is taken for purpose of drawing unit hydrograph, 4. The flood hydrograph of peak 7930 camec is isolated as shown in Fig. 3.6 by oxtend ing the rising and recessing legs to meet the base flow line AB. The peaks at every six hour interval and the base flood being known, ths magnitude of surface runoff (aver base 100d) is calculated in Table 3.7, ‘The isolated hydrographs plotted ia Fig. 3.7 which has a base period of 90 hours, The discharge rate at every six hour interval being known, the total runoff is calculated as below: 1 (04330 , 330+2090 209045940 $940-1-7700 Runoff = 5 (SE, O20, 2000 1 S940 $940 1.7700 770046490 220041540, 2 re = 4x33, 319 = 8330. 86400 m? Gince | cumee di‘CONCRETE DAMS alle 3,7, eolation of lod peak Period Tual pect use flood Derived flood hydrograph peak (cunee) (cxme:) ordinate umes) fron Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.6 o w w ww Go 6 540 210 30 2 2310 20 200 8 16s ns 340 a 0 20 710 » or 240 60 % 3875 25 3630 2 430 250 2200 “ 1195 255 150 ey 1360 20 1100 o 109% 265 #2 6 886 20 as n ns 25 coo n sm 280 28 s 422 2% m 0 a 300 “ (©) Plotting the unit hydrograph, ‘The total runoff caused by a storm is known, thedepth of runoff (in em) can be evaluated by dividing the total runoff by the catchment area, which in this case is 6530 sq km. 8330 86400 Hence depth of runoff = Zor metre ‘Thus it Js clear that this isolated hydrograph is caused by an effective rainfal of 11 em spread evenly oa the catchment area of 6530 sq km. Hence ordinates of unit hydrograph are shown in Table 3.8. ‘The unit hydrograph is plotted in Fig. 3.7, (C) Calculation of effective rainfall of design storm. Commonly the initial loss and infilira~ ‘The rainfail amounts for time intervals equal to the unit duration of the design unitDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY as 22100 ewes revonoghand Mo" ¢ 2 z & z 3 o 6 ———> irs Fig 3.7, Isolated hydiograph acd derivation of unit hydeograph Table 38. Detivation of ordinates of unit hy dozra Irs ‘ ra ar = 190 a 2 18 ae 8 8 ™ ” cy 0 © %”ai CONCRETE DAMS initial loss must be subiracted first aud thereafter a uniform rate of loss i ereal ni equal to the minimum infiltration index be assumed. The computations are illustrated in Table 3.9. ‘Table 2.9, Computation of effective rafal Initia loss = 1.2 em; Miimam infiltration index = 0.15 emybe Ffctive rainfell, (or rane Tine Design storm Design rainfall Revised poter-—Iivial [oss Infiltration fall ex- is) ‘alrfal! ——imerement(ems) ie! sequence (ems) loss ess) Mere ena) fons) (ems) ment (col 4541 (ems) 6 1s 1s 12 12 o o n os 10 Ls ° 0.9 oe 1B 30 5 30 ° og 21 m as 5 42 ° 09 33 30 37 2 8.0 ° 09 1 6 » 2 36.5 ° og 15.6 a2 a % 55 ° 09 46 8 2 1 21 ° 09 12 “Tosltration less during 6 hours 0.15x6=0.9. (@ Time sequence of design rainfall Ia computing probable maximum floods, the Sequence of effective rainfall increments to be adopied is usually the one which gives the mast ‘ritical conditions of runoff. Such a sequence is called a “critical sequence” and can be approximately determined by arranging the effective rainfall ina more or less symmettical manner, with the greatest increment in the middle. For an exact determination of critical sequence the procedure is as follows: ‘The increments of effective rainfall are arranged opposite the ordinates of the design unit hydrograph in such a way that the largest effective rainfall increment is opposite the largest unit hydrograph ordinates; the second largest increment is oppositethe second largest ordinate, and soon. This arrangment is reversed to obtain the critical sequence, ‘The procedure is illustrated in Table 3.10. (€) Application of effective ramfell 10 unit hydrograph, The effective rainfall increments ‘and their sequence having becn cetermined, they are applied to the design unit hydrograph to obtain dicect runoff hydrograph. This may be done as illustrated in Table 3.11DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 37 Cia Time Eifective rainfall ‘hr ai a a rainfall he mit fective syecve ranfait on) increments hvdrotraph raivail Increments arranged (ons) ordnates (ens) in crits cotence ‘ens (Cit reversed) Cems) 1 2 3 ‘4 3 ‘ 15.6 30 = = 2 7a 190 42 0.6 18 46 540 46 24 rn 33 700 18.6 33 30 24 590 mM mM 36 12 330 33 15.6 a 06 200 24 46 “ 00 180 oO 12 “ 100 o 73 “« 56 2 0 78 R % 2 * 4 (A) Selection of unit hyérograph for design flood computations. Ta a common procedure of constructing a normal unit hydrograph, unit hydrograph of different unit durations derived from several isolated unit storms are first reduced to the desired un duration (which is about one-fourth the lag ume—time from contre of mass of offevtive rainfall to peak of hydrographs) by S-hydrograph method. If the unit duration of a derived unit hydrograph is very nearly that desired, for instance, if tis five hours and a six hour unit duration is desired, no reduction is necessary. All the unit hydrographs developed for the project basin are then plotted on the same scale, uually with their pesks on the same ordinate. The normal u /hydrograph is then sketched conforming to the general shape of the unit hydrographs, passing through the average peak ordinate and having a volume of one cm. In doing so extra weight may be given to those unit hydrographs which have been derived from mote eliable basic data, more uniform storm patterns and from higher floods. In analternative method, the derived unit hydrographs are converted into dimensionless graphs which are then averaged arithmetically or by assigning weights. The unit hydrograph ‘Of the desired unit duration can then be computed back from the average dimensionless graph,coNcRETE DAMS zw Sc vO et zm 00 wm zit ys (00 801 ere rset rer 00 zor ove F951 6 Rov ° 96 ore 9m tse + 0 dust ort tL uote Sus ore) Oe Ter ze ors 00 = gun FILE ®t Oorie oe ore SSE See so oeris O'R OOOO nr) oF OTR — 09 OE OOD obs OOK OKI — OTHE. «OTHE on ae Ove OO — Outer «OND © OUEEy we ote over Or _O'«ZI OR oD oe ok Oa Ore ORE OG OFST 9st Oss OF — ovr ones ook — 065 = OSE ee ~ of om restr = OM eS 1" or 6 s “ ’ 5 , t z 1 wore . . cg 7 (oounsy ung MOET MOSH MosrsE More mog’e MOTE ungrg RE Gru ” saad eet carey w pone sey £09) pun or nef oxeps0 oxtoas re foun yous fo tae seit opey out mfncs “thm ang Jo cwiowotou jpfutes sayfa 09 amp eum Gouna aig aoa aney-g ‘udesdoupay poy was9p Jo woyeandew “IT E1REL,DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 9 The normal unit hydrograph thus developed should be tested by reproducing observed hydrographs of major floods by applying the effective rainfalls of correaponding storms, In selecting a unit hydrograph (or hydrographs) for use in computing the probrble maximum flood, extra considerations are required to obtain the most eritical concentration of runoff. Experience has shown that the peak ordinates of unit hydrographs derived from major flood hydrographs having very large volumes are generally higher than those derived from minor floods: This is mainly due to two reasons. Firstly during major floods with the rise of stage, the channel conveyance is increased due to increase in velocities. The other reason is the concentration of heavy storms nearthe main stream channels or lower portion of the basin. Since the data for the determination of unit hydrographs are usually limited to relatively minor flood occurrences it is necessary to increase the peak ordinate of the normal unit hydrozraph to represent higher concentration of runoff. An increase of 25 to 50 per cent is generally considered adequate, the magnitude of increase being higher if the unit hydrographs are derived from smaller floods. The increase in the peak discharges necessitates a general modification of the normal unit hydrozraph which is arbitrarily carried out in a suitable manner. (8) Derivation of unit graph from S-hydrograph. The S-hyérograph is essentially a hydrograph produced by a continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for an indefinite Period. It can be showa that the ordinates of the S-hydrograph ultimately approach the fate of effective rainfall at a time of equilibrium. To obtain the unit hydropraph of any other duration, two S-hydrographs are spaced with their initial points separated by a period equal to the desired unit duration of ‘," hours. The difference between their ordinates, divided by 1 x to (I = rainfall intensity) is then the desired unit hydrograph. For details author's book “Engineering Hydrology” may be referred to. (1) Dimensionless unit hydrograph. In order to compare unit hydrograph from basins of diferent sizes and shapes of those resulting from different storm patterns, they are reduced to dimensionless form, To construct such a dimensionless unit hydrograph from a unit hydrograph first reduce its time scale (in hours) by dividing by a factor equal to “lag plus semi-duration”” and then multiply by 109. Then reduce the instantaneous discharges of unit tydrograph Gn cumes) by multiplying them by a factor equal to “lag plus semi-duration” Gwvided by a total direct runoff of the graph in cumec days. Such a double adjustment of Seales largely climinates the effects of basin size, area pattern and duration of effeeive rainfall, A sample computation of a dimensionless hydrograph is given in Table 3.12. 3.2.5 Synthetic unit bydrograph Unit hydrograph can be derived if records are available, When streamflow records are not available, a synthetic unit hydrograph may be developed for ungauged areas, based on known physical characteristics of the basin. The synthetic unit hydrographs are com- Puted either from direct analogy with basins of similar characteristics or ftom an indirect analogy with a large number of otber basins through the application of empirical relationships, ‘The methods used are: (a) Bernard method, (b) Clark method, (©) McCarthy method, and (@ Snyder method.90 and the t CONCRETE DANS TUES 12, Computation of dnceiniss ut hydomaph from unt hydmograph—after CWC. tate (i) Duration of enectve rainfall = 9 hours, Ud Lae om Sentold of efecive rant to centroid of unt hadrograph) = 14,4 br (ii) Lag + semi-ducation = 18.8 hours, A) Volume of ronof from 1em aver catchment ares of 44205q km = S18 cumee day (9 (Lag + semi-duration) + volume = 0.0363 Time in Ondnats of wir Abaca of diner Ontinaes of ‘owt Iytrorrgh sonless raph stoneasotess (cameo) cot, 1528, sph (Cok 8 210.086 t 2 3 4 5 ° 15.36 6 26 192 ’ ® ara n 2s on a5 30 9.9 8 1090 95.34 21 as 110.70 24 368 127.66 2 210 13.0 x0 1a 199.50 B i 173.53 36 ne 191.0 » 102 207.48 2 " 20 % ™ 290.36 8 a 285.32 ced “6 287.23 ‘s a 319.24 “ a 351.05 ” B 382.98 7% 7 14.89 “4 2 46.80 %0 ° ar Snyder's method is more common and is discussed herein {To sketch a unit hydrograph, it is accessaty to know the time of the peak, the peak Now ‘rise. The elements must be determined for every articular oF regional Ince,DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWaY CAPACITY 91 Won of the drainage basin. Snyder proposed the following empirical formula: fp = Deleal (3.10) in which 1, is the basia lag in hours; 1. is the length of the main stream from the outlet to the divide in kms; end Z,g is the distance from the outlet to a point on the stream nearest to the centroid of the basin. The location of the centre of area may be determined by cutting the basin outline from card board and marking the point of intersection of plumb lines drawn with the map suspended from different corners. The coefficient C, varies from 1.0 to 2.2 with lower values associated with basins of steeper slopes. For the standard duration of effective rainfall tg, Sayder proposed nats @.u) For the rains of this duration, he found that synthetic unit hydrogranh peak Q, may be otic oa te equation 9, = 24 gui in which 4 is the drainage arca in square kms; C, is a coefficient ranging from 4.0 to 5.0, Q, is in cumec, For the time base T (in days) of the synthetic unit bydrograph, Sayder adopted the expression by ra343y @.13) ‘These four equations are sufficient to construct a synthetic unit hydrograph for a storm of duration f,.. For any other duration f, the basin lag is defined as mage tee G14) and this new lag ¢’, is used in equations (3.12) and (3.13). Time to peak from beginning of Le rising timb = 4 1, ‘The values of Snyder's cocflicients Cy and C, have been found to vary considerably depending upon the topography, geology and climate. Although Snyder indicated that the coefficient C, is alfected by basin slope S, Linsley, Kohler and Pauthus gave an exprestion for the az time containing the slope as Lele b a(F4) G1) where n= 0.38 and C; = 1.2 for mountaneous region, 0.72 for foot hill areas and 0.35 for valley areas. Taylor and Schwarz found from an analysis of 20 basins in the north and middle Atlantic States that a= ois (3.16)2 CONCREIE DAMS Design example 3.?, Snyder's method has been applicd for ist i ust hygrograph fora smal asin of the Ramgnoga dam cachaent 106 enon or aie in Uttar Pradesh, Tad pe Solution, First we have to determine the values of C, and Cy. Fot finding out 1 the cveficents C, and, the whole etshment ares hs Seen somone The wok tone for the highest known floods with rainfall duration of 24 hours was obtained for the whole caichment. The peak of the design unit hydrograph for Ramganga catchment was found as 782 cumec, time to the peak was 22 hours and time base was 4 days, ‘Thus for the whole Ramganga catchment we have L = 157.5 km (measured from the index map). Leg = 17.25 VY, = 24 hours Time to the peak from the beginning of rising limb = 33 hours. or — gach y Gubstinuting the valve off, from equation 3.11), 15.7 hours, 2. (3-10) we got NO Lg asr.sscr7.asp2 o C, = 0.926 = 0.9 say Aso Qy~= 782 cumes A }100 sq km (catchment area) 4 3100 = GF or FPG = 182 or Cy = 5.28 = 5.0 (say) The values of C, and C, have been obtained for whole Remzanga catchment as = 0.9 and C= 5.0. Now, we want to construct the synthetic unit hydrograph of 8 hours duration for the sub- catchment of Ramganga basin at Kalagarh, For this sub-catchment the values Ly Lew and A ate given as followsDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 93 fy = Ci(LaLaa)”* = 0.9 (32X24.96)** = 6,66 hours te, =© 6 = 1.2 hows nats 1.2 how v= +ige = 6.66 + S12) (7, = 8 hours) = 8.36 hours =. 4 > 323.5 _ = 5.0 x PAP = 194 cumee From equation (3.13). Yan TH3 4 IEE, = 8.36) 8 36+ 5 194 Ge = 33575 = 0.6 cumec/sq km. = width of unit hydrograph at ordinates exceeding 75% =22t Gn @ = 5.58 hours Wg = wieth of unit hydrograph at ordinates exceeding 50% 5.6 on = 9,95 hours. G18) To skeich the synthetic unit hydrograph for Kalagarh sub-catehment, we know peak of uunit graph 194 cumec, time of peak 12.36 hours, time base 97 hours, Wy, 5.58 hours and Way, 9-95 hours. The eight hours duration synthetic unit hydrograph is shown in Fig. 3.8 such that rainfall excess is one em,” ‘CONCRETE DAMS ye —isyurheric ni ¢RaPH FoR ¥ [kane Sotehesma ure 3 Nromponar Br puvot es sso fn naan. z Mer SSO nee Ws g 4 5 : 8 5 = € 5 eae e072 ee 8 TOR HOURS | ————>- Fig. 3.8, Synthetic unit hydrograph, 3.3. ESTIMATION OF PEAK FLOOD The above studies help to estimate runoff from the total or each individual rainfall. This helps in ascertaining the quantity of water available for utilisation directly or through storage. However, itis also very helpful to determine the maximum rate of expected runoff. This is useful in designing escape works. The various methods of estimating the peak flood are : 1. Physical indications of past floods, 2, Empirical fornvulae, 3. Flood frequency studies, Rerional floods studies, and + Unit hydrographs (3.2.4). 3.3.1 Estimating floods from physical indications of past floods (a) By enquiries trom local people about the marks that the highest floods in the memory of the people living round about may have left on the bathing ghats, bridge's piers, etc. (b) By observing clovations of ceposited bush, logs, alluvial water and scars from the floating logs, ete The foods can, be existed () fom te head over the rest ofa wel, i ievas there: i from the Kutter’s or Manning's formulae, after finding areas and assuming roughness The factors affecting possible flood peaks arc numerous and the empirical formulae try toaccount for all the variables by one composite coefficient, Consequently, such formulae ‘have limited applicability for the regions where the formulae were developed. However, theyDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPAcIFY 98 Seren me Waal prstiminary idea of the maximum probable flood peak. The important for- mulae are given below: 1. Dicken's formula O= cau where ~ flood peak in cumec A= catchment area in sq km @.19) C= coefficient which according to Dicken varies from 1.67 to 10.5, but actual observed values are up to 35. 2. Ryre's formula Q= cans ‘The value of Cis the coasts, 10.0 for limi 8 within 80 km of coasts, 8.3 for area between 80 and 2400 km from ted area near the hills, Actual observed values are up to 40. 3. Inglis formula (for fan shaped catchment) aa oe vane G2) 4. Myer's formuta O= 1S Va 3.21) 5. Ali Nawas Jong Bahadur (Hyderabad) formula Q = €(0.386 A) oman t0e 4 (3.22) in which C varies from 48 to 60. 3.3.3 Flood frequency studies upon a This procedure is, iver UMtelate ifthe observed data covers a short period which does hot coves ati stages of river. Unusual streams and floods which actually sometimes occur went gence. Probability of millions of years when checked by this method and would, therclore, sever be Predicted. These can be foreseen with proper meteorolosical and hydrological studies ‘The method consists of the following steps: 1. Plotting of existing flood recordsin the form of a frequency. probability curve 2. Extrapolation of the curve, if long frequency floods are to be predicted to intervals of time greater than the length of records 3. Determination of “Coefficient of Variation” which measures its depatture from the mean and is a quantitative measure of the flood characteristics of a stream. If, p= probable percentage of future years in which a flood equal to or greater than a discharge Q will occur,96 CONCRETE DAMS n= thenumber of years during the Period of record that a flood Q ws atacaale Jood 2 was equaled or Y= total number of years of records, I = future flood frequency in years = 18, “Then according to law of probability p= 100 ny 6.23) Methods of determining food frequencies The various methods of finding floods of different frequencies can be classified io tvo main types, viz. (i) empirical, and (i) statistical. 1. Empirical methods (2) Fuller's formula (1914), O max where 7 = number of years in which maximum flood is considered Q = maximum flood in cumec having recurrence interval T years A = area of drainage basin tn sq km C = constant varying from 0,026 to 2.77, CAU-840.8 ter) (148.06 4-048 @.24) is not available, the following food VN a2 ©) Creazer's methods. In case sufficient data frequency formula as given by Creager may be used. ino. o=cars[a =1.3%4 fox 0.044-04 (1 - Bs no. where = discharge in cumec for a period of T years A= area in sq km (C= aconstant = 1405 for areas most favourable to large floods. (© Percentage increase method. Central Water Commission India has proposed a rela- tion for obtaining percentage increase (P) to the maximum known flood in a record period of 1 years, to evaluate 100 years flood. For North and Central Indian rivers P=50-0.4N 3.26) For South Indian rivers P= 500.45 6.27 (DRS. Varshney's (1974) correlation General 100 years flood — 2 times 10 years flood, 1000 years food = 1.5 times 100 years flood.DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 97 For catchment below/500 sq km 10 years flood = 2 mean flood, 100 years flood ~ 4 mean food. 1000 years flood = 6 mean flood, For ca'chment above 1000 sq km, 10 years food = 2 mean food. 100 years lood = 3 meen flood. 1000 years flood = 4.5 mean flood. 2. Statistical methods ‘There are a number of statistical methods, the most important is Gumbel's method which is discussed herein, Gumbel's method. According to the extreme value distribution, the cumulat ive probability ‘approaches the expression. P= exp (—e~) (3.28) Where ys the reduced variate and is given by r pom tn(m rtner—iy ) = — tnt f exp (-5)} r = 2: 3 3 ( 1og2.3 tog m= 7) = 2.3 (log 2. 3-4 log log an) 2.3 log 2.3 — 2.3 log log t = —0.834032—2.3 loge 2, G29 ‘The maximum probable flood discharge Qn = 0 (1+kC) B.30) where @ ~ mean flood in cumes C, = coeflicient of variation — r (@ = standard deviation) ean 1 = number of observation record Q = observed flood in cumec = froqueney factor = O82) (3.32) Jn = expected mean of reduced extremes to be found from Table 3.13,Table 3.13, T = return period in years ~ (a4) CONCRETE DAMS expected standard deviation of reduced extremes also to be found out from 8.33) ‘m = otder or number of events when arranged in descending order of magnitude, ‘Table 3.13. Gumbe’s table for expected means and standard devition of reduced extremes S.No, . a 1 10 0.4052 019897 2 15 o.si78 1.0206 a » 0.5236 1.0628 4 2» 0.3309 1.0915 ‘ » 0.5382 12 5 8 0.8403 1.1285 7 «0 o.sa36 1.1413 8 4s 0.5463 Lasis ° 0 0.5455 1.1607 10 5s 0.5308 1.1681 n © 0.5511 Lamar 2 “6 0.5536 1.1803 3 0 0.5548 11st 14 s o.ssi9 1.1898 1 wo 0.5589 1.1938 16 85 0.3578 1.1973 "7 %0 0.5539 1.2007 18 9s 0.5993 1.2038 ° 100 0.5600 1.2065 20 00 0.5672 1.2359 a 300 osm 1.2588 2 1000 0.545 1.2683 To illustrate the procedure, the flood frequency curve for Yamuna at Tajewala has been evaluated and is given in example below. Design example 3 3. ‘Yamuna at Tajewala. of ood frequency study and find out 1000 year return period flood. The following revord of maximum flood peaks is available for river Plot the flood frequency curve of river Yamuna by Gumbel's methodPABICN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY Table 3.14. Yamuna river discharge dain S.No, Year Flood peak in cumee 1 1974 2 1928 3 1926 4 12 5 198 6 1929 7 1930 ‘i S931 9 1932 10 1933 n 1934 FA 1935 B 1936 e ten 10,100 ts 1938 3A. 16 1939 ae ” 140 i“ is 1941 ante » 190 — 2 1983, 4250 2 isa 2,860 . 198 2.750 2 196 ae 2 isa 15970 a 15m 3,850 6 ok ren a tse 3,540 a 1951 om s 1982 oe » 1953 oe a 19s ae s 1955 saad 2 ieee 12,750 3h 1957 oe s 1958 aise 2 ies 5.100 3” 1960 5CONCRETE DAMS Table 3,15, Calculation Cor frequencies of maximum probable Hood by Gumbel’ method for river Yamuna at ‘Tajewala @ (eumec) Q-Qfeunec) (Q-OF10" cumeet 15970 =10820 108.6 14,200 = 8050 me 13200 ~ 7690 38.5 12,730 ~ 7200 su 10.260 ano 2a 10,100 = 4550 20.7 9.000 = 3490 19 8780 — 3280 10.4 8300 ~ 31390 16 730 — 1980 43 730 — 1390 25 6430 = 900 a8 5350 + 200 0.04 3.100 + 430 0.2 4.540 90 08 4,360 1190 14 4.230 1,300 7 4220 1,330 18 4.190 41360 19 » 3.830 1700 29 a sino 1340 34 2 33540 2.010 40 2 3.370 2180 48 2% 3.340 2210 a 2 2.860 21500 a 26 2,130 2800 a 2640 2.910 a 2,560 2.990 2 2.520 3030 » 2,500 3050 1 2470 3.080 2 2.410 3.140 3 2.380 3170 3 2310 3240 10.5 3 2.270 3.280 ai 36 2,160 3390 fet 37 1220 4330 ne 204,650 933.14 108 comeDESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 101 ‘Steps for Table 3.15 (calculation of standard deviation and coefficient of variation). (a) The annual flood peaks are arranged in their descending ordet of magnitude, i.e, the highest flood of 15,970 cumec is ranked as number 1, the next ‘highest 14,200 cumec number 2, and 50 on, (b) All these values ars summed up and their mean taken by dividing the total by the numberof years of record. For instance, the total sum of all flood magnitude inthis case ia 204,850 cummec which gives average value 204,850 + 37 = 3,550 cumec, This is Q. Values Q, ie. diference of average flood peak and particular flood peak is evaluated, and charted in the table, The square of these values of (@—Q) are calculated and summed up, ‘hich in this case works out t0 533. 14x10" cumec*, The standard deviation is given by o= /2Q-OF _ [ERTEXIO 3, 2222 535 14x TO" — 3.85. 10" ‘The coefcent of variation is even by = 7 3.8510" Sscur — 0-694 im this case, Steps for Table 3.16 (determination of reduced variates for different floods), [a) The annual maximam flood peaks are arranged in descending order of their magnitude, This is given inColumn 1 of the table, According to their magnitude in the descending order, the rank namber (Col. 2 of the table) is assigned, e.g. the flood of 15,970 cumec is the highest recorded peak and hence ite rank is | and 1220 cumee is the lowest recorded peak, hence its rankis 37, (b) The return period T is calculated by the relation No. of years of record +1 =n +1 ‘ank of the flood ™ This is tabulated in Column 3. Column 4 is evaluation of 1/7—1 and Column 5 gives the values of log 7/7—1. (©) A further log value of log T/T — | gives the factor Xz shown in table, From this Value of Xr the reduced variate = — 0.834032 — 2.302585 Xp for Gumbel’s iacthod is cal culated. For river Yamuna for 37 (n = 37) years of record, the value of expected mean of rednced extremes from Gumbes in Table 3.13 is 0.5418 and standard deviation of reduced extrome is 1.1339 (also from Gumbel’s Table 3.13). The average flood is 3330 cumee and coefficient of variation C, is 0.694, The flood frequencies ate Worked out in Table 3.16. ‘The calculation steps for Table 3.16 are self explanatory. The probability of occurrence ‘of any flood is 100 divided by the value of return period in years, i.e. a flood of reture period 1 year has 100 percent probability of occurrence, while 2 1000 year flocd has 0.1% probability.102 ‘CONCRETE DAMS ‘Table 3.16, Catealaon for Sequenc-s of maximum probable Aoed by Gunbel’s metind the river Vamuna at Tajevals Rank Anrstal mare. Return dog log ‘Reduced variate fischaree im —_ period i ee in cumec TH+ Dim rh . 7 et s 4 5 6 7 1590 36.0 foro 00H 1.9388 3a 1420 ‘9.00 Noss os. aous 1.20 we Loss 0.0388 Lat aan 230 9.50 Mur 0.08 =1 3182 ass w20 10 Liss ost 1 ang 1358 1010 63 oon 1.1661 Last 9,000 sa o.0875— —1.0580 er 10 as 1261 0.168 0.9880 14810 0 an Las OI 0.986 Lanes 750 3 ras 0.5 0.8778 Lisn 10 aus Yao 0.1486 0.8280 ora 6450 an 14608 0.1687 0.7833 0-9636 5350 2.90 Vs 0k 0.097 0.8692 53100 2a 1s 0.300; 0.08 0.750 430 28 Ness omits 9.6505, owe to 0 6 1m 0.0.64 ost oo 2M 18065 0.25 —.5901 0.5248 to 8M 190090. 0.548 0.6 i 2.0 2.0000 0.3010 0.5014 0.3666 se 180 aun 0280.4 022 smo 22Ns Ou 0.4568 o2re yo 2300 0TH _—0.463, oss sms 2583 0.4ns 0.3930 0-079 sao 3k Lm 040 0.3618 oe ae 2931 0.468 0.3818 0.00 2G 31m 0.5018 0.2995 oss ao 3490 ost 0.2039 an ec re hms osm 0.26 a0 42s 0629 0.2025 as S707 0.sns 0.17 20 MLB Sam OR 0.378 a0 1 6262 0.198 0.087 ao LIS 16651 0.8846 0.0532 po 9.ami osm 0.0132 : am Wal out 40.086 = 0.9137 ao 106 17667 1a 01.058 fe Moms outer 1.2612 1.03 1.5357DESIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 103 mean Reta period r Prebaily sears Fem tor lee 1 2 3 4 s 10,000 9.91 3,700 31,300=35,000 "001 5000 8.538 3,700 +29,000-32,700 0.02 2.600 762 3.700425,900—29,600 0.05 4,000 6.919 3,700 23,200~21,200, oa 00 6am 4700-21 20024900 02 200 5.318 37004 '8,050~21,750 os 100 005 3700-+15,650=19,359 10 0 3.902 3700413,100—16.800 20 0 29m 3.7004 10,100~13,800 50 0 2281 3,70047,650=11,350 100 s 1.501 3,%0+3,100=8,500 20.0 2 oan 5700-41 225-4525 50.0 Las ~0.875 370-1,6102,090 500 5 poo. sure Note: ) = $580 (1 + 0.654 Ts) 694 0.5418 55500, 694 sss0( 1 Sat ) + ( On) 5550 (10,332) + 3400 ne flood frequency curve for Yamuna al Tajewala is shown in Fig. 3.9. The 1000 year return period flood is 27,200 cumer, 3.4 RROIONAL FLoop Stupiss Fos Indian river, enveloping curves from observed floods have been plotied by Kanwar Sain and are reproduced ia Fig. 3.10 3,5. Estimation oF Desicn Fron There are two methods: (@ The statistical analysis of past floods, () [he estimation of probable maximum precipitation om a particular catchment under sheworst meteorological conditions, followed by an estimation of the raroft that woud Test from such a storm, using unitgraph. The determination of the probate maximum precipitation (P.M.P.) requires a comprekesive study as below:104 @ Ge conarmons 40,0005 + 2 serene iis TM 2 é 4 . | CO Tt S001 iT CTT Fig. 3.9, Flood frequency curve for river Yamuna at Tajewala by Gumbel's method. 2e eo bs aig Bs wo oi » are oS msmance WOU TPES PW WIS WE RTI BO TT HCE DRAINAGE AREA IN THOUSAND £0. KILOMETRES Fig. 3.10. Kanwar Sain and Karpov's regional curves. Analyse precipitation data and synoptic situations of major storms on record in the region surrounding the basin under study, to determine characteristic combinsticns ‘of meteorological conditions that result in various rainfall patterns and depth-area- duration curves. On the basis of an analysis of air-mass properties and synoptic situations prevailing uring the record storms, estimate the amount ofincrease in rainfall quantities that would have resulted if conditions during the actual storm had been as critical ag thote considered posible of occurrence in the regionDESIGN FLOOD AND SFILLWAY CAPACITY 105 (il) Estimate the modifications in meteorological conditions that would have beoa requitedfor each ofthe record storms to have occurred over the drainage basin under study, considering topographical features and locations of the respective acca involved. () Taking into account of the above and the adjustments necessary to transpose the respective storms to the basins under study, select the values that would roprosent critical rainfall depth-orea-duration relation for the particular drainage area during the various seasons of the year. “The end product of such a compressive study is the histogram of average catchizent rain- {all intensity for the storm period. It may however be mentioned here that the probable maximum precipitation method is too conservative and has resulted in the progressive increase in estimated design floods and cost of the dam. For this reason there is now a tendency to compare such estimates with values derived by statistical analysis—with a leaning to the adoption as the design flood of 1000 year frequency of occurrence, 3.6 Sepmm=vTaTioN 1x REseRvoIRS Sedimentation in reservoirs is a difficult problem for which an economical solution has not yet been discovered, except by providing a “dead storage” to accommodate the deposits during the life of a dam. Disintegration, erosion, transportation and sedimentation are the different stages leading to silting of reservoirs. Mechanism of sedimentation In many respects deposits in a reservoir resemble those ia a delta, made by a stream shore it discharges into a lake or sea. These deposit: are: (!) bottom set beds, consisting of the fine sediments brought in by the stream: (if) the fore set beds formed of the coarse: sendy sediments, (li) top set beds consisting of coarser particles, and (iv) density current deposit (Fig. 3.1. [Wit T EE ahem. Sut: FS « Fig, 3.11. Various types of deposits in a reservoir. As a general rule, progressively smaller sizes of material will be deposited beyond the delta front, resulting in a gradual downward slope of the reservoir bed. If the stream carries aan appreciable wash load, however, much of this material may not settle out as the cross- sectional area of the stream increases. Furthermore, the suspension may not mix completely the clear water of the reservoir because ofits difference in specific gravity. Instead a gravity underflow (more commonly but less appropriately known as adensity current) may106 ‘CONCRETE DAMS ‘ult which will move through the eatite Leugth of the reservoir. Unless this portion of the jon isalitcharged at the dam, it will collect av a submerged pool forming an alsiost level es in the deepest part of the reservoir, where it will gradually compact. ‘The sedimentation is a product of erosion in the catchment area of the reservoir, and hence, lesser the rate of erosion the smaller is thesediment load entering the reservoir. Factors affecting sedimentation (®_ Extent of catchment area and the friable nature of its different zones. (if) Amount of sediment load in the rivers. Git) Type of rainfall and snow fall in each zone. (iv) Monthly and annual temperature ia each zone. (*) Moathly and annual runoff from catchment or sub-catchment. (91). Slope of each zone of catchment. (vi) Vegetation in each zone of catchment. (viii) Geological formations of each zone and estimate relative weathering and erosion with due regard to climate conditions. (ix) Presence of upstream reservoir and extent of trapping of sediment therein, (x) Amount of sediment flushed out through siuices, (si) Degree of consolidation to accumulated sediment depending upon the extent of exposure to air, sun and wind. (xii) Volume of water in the reservoir and its proportion to the mean annual flow in the river i, capacity inflow ratio. (xiit) Operation schedule of the reservoir. The capacity inflow ratio and the sediment content in the inflow have « complete range of inter play and the rest of the factors are all modifiers. Effect of sedimentation on reservoir function (_ Loss of storage and services, (it) Deposition at outlet gates. (iii) Aggradation above reservoirs (ie) Degradation below reservoirs. Sediment transport The sediment load consists of two categories, viz. bed load and suspended load. The ‘bed load is the material in the bottom layers of flov. The bed load moventent of articles takes place by rolling, sliding and bopping i.e. saltation depending upon the velocity of flow. With further increase in velocity, smaller siz: particles in saltation are thrown in suspension by the upward componeat of the turbulent velocity of flow, Table 3.18 gives data on estimation of bed load of streams based on U.S.B.R experience. ‘A knowledge of the sediment characteristics, grain size distribution and density is necessary to provide for sedimentation capscity in reservoirs. The density of deposit changes with time aand needs careful determination as this governs the useful life of reservoir. C R. Miller's equations, which are refinement of E, W. Lane and V.A. Koelzer’s equations may be used to determine sediment density.DISIGN FLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY. 107 ‘Table 3.18. Percentage of hed load fa streams Percentage bed Toad in ‘Suspended load concentration Bed material Suspended material ferns of total sus pended load 1, Low (4000 ppm. or ies) Sand, About same as bed Up 10.50, ‘Bravel 01 rock small anouat of 3 and 2 Medium (1000-9500 ppm) Sand, “About same as bed 10-20 bravel or rook 25 pic. sand oles 310 3. High ‘sind, About same as bed 10.20 sravdl or rock 25 p.c. sand of less 24 y= Wy 40.675; Wy Wr +0.938k; Wy = Wy +1093 Weg = W412 Wy = Wy + L4BBky Woy = Wy + 1.588 (3.34) where W, = initial unit weight considered at the end of 1 year. W, =unit weight after ¢ years of compection. k=constant, the values of which are as below: Reservoir operation Sand Silt Clay 1. Reservoir always submerged or nearly submerged ° 1.3 256 2, Moderate reservoir draw-down 0 43.2 17.3 3, Considerable reservoir draw.down ° 16.0 96.3 4. Reservoir normally empty 0 0 0 Sedimeatation rate ‘The actual rate of sedimentation of a reservoir depends on many other factors like trap ficiency, etc, which is defined as the ratio of sediment retained in the reservoir to the sedi- ment brought by the stream. Trap efficiency for reservoirs is evaluated by G. M. Brune as belos Capacity/inflow range «0.001 0.002 0.004 = 0.01- 0,03 0,2 (both in same units) 0,005 = 0.007. 0.012002, 5 Per cent sediment trapped 0. 20 40 0 80 100 ‘Various researchers have given reservoir sedimentation rate based on the data collected. ‘Their recommendations are: 1, ALN, Khosla: 0,036 million m? per 100 sq km.108 ‘CONCRETE DAMS 2. DV, Joglekar: Aanval sediment rate in million cum per 00 sq. km. ys 0.597 4-088 6.35) 3. RS. Varshney: a, For mountain rivers (catchment area up to 150 sq km) y=0.395 Area. (3.36) b. For plain rivers (catchment area up to 150 sa km) y= 0.392 4-008 3.37) For north Inian rivers (catchment above 5,000 sq kim) ya 154 Ao 3.38) 44. South Indian rivers (catchment up to 150 sq km) y=0.46 a (3.39) €. South Indian rivers (catchment above 150 sqkm) y= 0.277 Aa @.40) Useful life of reservoir The dead storage provided in reservoir capacity is allowed for sedimentation. Actually all the sediment load does not get in dead storage. It encroaches upon live storage also. The encroachment and its distribution depends upon many factors such as reservoir, operation, valley characteristics, capacity inflow ratio, sediment content in the inflow, ete. The useful life of a reservoir is taken tll its capacity is reduced to about 20% of the designed capacity. ‘The dead storage capacity is usually provided for 100 years life of a reservoir. Seuecten REFERENCES 1, CB. & P,, New Delhi, “Manual on River Behaviour, Control and Training”, Revised Ed. by Dr. D.Y, Joglekar, Pub. No. 60, September 1971 2, CBA. & P, “Sediment Control in Rivers and Canals" by Dr. HL. Uppal, Pab, No. 69, 1967; “Manual on Capacity Survey of Reservoirs” by B.N. Murthy, Pub. No. $9, 1950. & GRESO,, "Storage and the Unit Hydrogreph" Trans, A'S. CE, Vo. 110, 1948, Creager, W.P., Justia, I.D. and Hinds Julian, “Engineering for Dams”, Vol. 1, Pvt. Ltd, Publishers, New Delhi, 1969, ee Spon e eae 5. Davis O.Y. and Sorenson, K.E., Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, 3cd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969, 6. Dhir, RD. Ahuja, PR. and Krishnaswamy, K., “Estimation of Design Flood”, Central Beard of Irrigation and Power India, Publication No. 65 Symposium on Spillway Capacity of Dams 1958. 7. Golze, A.R., Handbook of Dam Engineering, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, London ete., 1977. 8, Graf, W.H, Hydraulics of Sediment Tronsport, McGraw, Hill Book Co., New York, 1971. 9. Jarvis, C.S, “Flood Flow Characteristics”, Trans. 4.5.C.E,, Vol. 89, 1926. 10, Khushlani, K.B,, Irrigation (Practice and Design) Vol. Il, Allies. Book Stall, Pune,DESIGN TLOOD AND SPILLWAY CAPACITY 109 i. ne B. 16. 1. 18. 19, 20. 2, 22. 23 24, 25, Kinawy, LJ. ot al., “Effect of Sedimentation in High Aswan Dam Reservoir”, 11th ICOLD Congress, Madrid, 1973, Q.40, R-S4. Linsley, RK. Jr; Kobler, M.A. and Paulhus, 3. €o., Ine., New York, 1949, Linsley, R.K., Kohler, M.A. and Paulhus, 1.L. Book Co. Ine., New York, 1958, Quimpo, R.G., “Link between Stochastic and Parametric Hydrology”, Ja. of Hyd. Din, Proc. A.S. C.E., Vol. 99, No. Hy. 3, March 1973. Robinson, L., “Floods Predicted from Rainfall Frequencies", Jn. of Hyid. Dn. Proc. A.S.C.E Vol, 98, No. Hy. 10, October 1972. Sharma, K.R., Irrigation Engineering, Vol, Tand Tl. Sherman, L.K., “Stream flow from Rainfall by the Unit Graph Method”, Engineering News Record, Vol. 108, pp. 501~$05, 1932. US.C.0.L.D Committee on “Failures and Accidents to Large Dams—Other than in Con- ncetion with the Foundations” Report “Criteria and Practice Utilized ia Determining the Required Capacity of Spillways", New York, 1970. US.B.R., “Unit Graph Procedures", by B.S, Barnes, Denver Colorado, Revised August 1965. US.B.R., Design of Small Dams, 2nd Ed.,1973,, Oxford & IB Publishing Co., New Delhi. Varshney, RS. ct al., Theory and Design of Irrigation Structures, Vol. 1 4th Ed. M/s Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee, 1979 Varshney, R.S., Engineering Hydrology, 2nd Ed. 1979, M/s Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee. Varshney, RS, “Regional Sedimentation Curves for India", Indian Jnl. of Power and River Valley Development, September 1970, pp. 357-379. Ven Te Chow, “Handbook of Applied Hydrology", A Compendium of Water Resources Technology, McGraw, Hill Co., Inc, New York, 1964 Witzig, B.J,, “Sedimentation in Reservoirs”, Trans. 4.8.C.E., Vol. 109, 1944, H., Applid Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book I, Hydrology for Engineers, McGraw-Hill4, ENERGY DISSIPATORS 4,1 HYDRAULIC Jump (STANDING WAYB) PHENOMENON Hydraulic jump may be defined as a phenomenon which is a distinct rise or jump of water accompanied by a great deal of turbulence. This piicnomenon may occur wien a shallow stream of water moving with a high velocity strikes a stream of water moving with alow ‘locity. This phenomenon is constantly illustrated in the aurf of the se-shore. ‘When a fast moving wall of water has to be slowed down to prevent scour damage below ‘a work, the hydraulic jamp can be used with great advantage to destroy the kinetic energy. The treatment of the hydraulic jump is given in almost all textbooks on hydraulics. However the momentum formula has been explained herein to understand the method of locating and plotting the profile of a hydraulic jump. Momentum formula ‘The depth of water at any section of channel where the hydraulic jump has formed can be determined by applying the “Principle of Momentum”. Referring to Fig. 4.1, let abfe represent a mass of water moving through a standing wave. Ina short interval of time supposed to move to the position edhg. ‘The moving mass of water loses much momentum in passing from the position abje to the position edhe. According to Newion's Second Law of Motion, the rate of loss of momentum must be equal to the unbalanced force acting on the moving mass to retard its motion. YSTEL Hyper critica HyDRauLic DISCHARGE 4 ~~ BEO Fig. 4.1. Hydraullejump—defaition skstob-ENERGY DSSIPATORS Tn Against the face ab, the static pressure of the water is acting towards the right, Opposed 4 this force are the static pressure acting against the face ‘gh’ and the surface friction along the bottom. The latter is small and may be neglected. Other assumptions made in the analysis are: (The ‘jump’ is assumed to take place instantaneously; (i) There is streamline flow immediately before and after the wave: iif) Friction is neglected; ° iv) Parallel side constraints, and (”) Horizontal ted, In reference to Fig. 4.1 let g be the discharge in cumes per unit width of the stream; 4, be the depth of stream entering the standing waves V, be the velocity of the incoming stream; P, be the total pressure over the vertical section of unit width on the upstream; d, be the depth of stream leaving the standing wave; V, be the velocity of the same stream: P, be the total prossure over the vertical section of the unit width on the downstream. Thon, from the equation of continuity g= Vids = Ved, Mass persecond =" q (where w is unit weight of water) Change of momentum pe setond=" (7,14) ¢ Difference of pressure = $ (d,!—d,*) “Change of pressure = Change of momentum s da—d, = Gls) H-V) xo By substituting gld for V, we get or dy (dy + Gay ‘By substituting g/d for V and simplifying 4, [28,8 aE EF (14+ VIFER) 2) Alternatively Tee eGan CONCRETE DAMS =$4 VIF (4.3) where F, and F, are incoming and outgoing flow Froude numbers given by vy, ¥, 5 Tas °° gy tesectively ‘The applications of the equations to a standing wave on a slopiag glacis involves not only the assumptions (a) to (d) above but also. neglects the component of gravity parsilel to the bed. In this case we have to add to the change of momentum the gravity component W' sin 0 where His the weight of the liquid body abed (Fig. 4.2). Nevertheless provided that the slope of the glacis is not too pronounced, neglect of the gravity component is justified on the srounds that the error so introduced is practically cancelled by the errors involved in the other assumptions. The simple equations derived for the case of the standing wave on a horizontal bed can, within the limits of accuracy requited by the practical engineer, be applied to the case of sloping glacis. Fig. 4.2. Hydeaulc Jump on sloping apron definition shech, Less of Energy in the Standing Wave: Let Hy, be the loss of energy (Fig. 4.1). Let Ej, = eneray of flow before jump formation Ey, = energy of flow after jump formation Then (4.4) Substituting the value of g*/2g as given in equation (4.1) we get fd ED gn (4.3) 4.2. Forws oF THR Hyprauuic Jue The bydraulicjump may occur in at least four different distinct forms on a horizontal apron, as shown in Fig. 4.3. All of these forms are encountered in practice. The internalENEKGY DISSPATORS These forms can be correlated with the vaiue of Froude number as showa in Fig, 4.3. When the Froude number is unity, the water flows at critical depth. The jump sanaot forum for values of the Froude number between 1.0 and 1.7, there is only a slight ifference in the conjugate depths d, and dy (Fig. 4.30), A slight rufle on the water surface is the only appareat feature that differentiates this flow from the flow at critical depth, As the Froude number approaches 1.7, a seri of small rollers develop on the surface as indicated in Fig. 4.3(6) and the action remains ‘uch the same but with further intensifica- tion up to a value of about 2.5. In this Tange there is no particular stiling basin Problem involved; the water surface is quite smooth, the velocity throughout the crost- section is fairly uniform and the eaergy loss is less than 20 per cent (equation 4.5). For energy dissipation, in case of structures where incoming fow Froude number is in this range, a simple stilling basin without ‘much baille piers ec,, is good enough. Figure 4.5 (c) indicates the type of jump that may be encountered at values of the Froude number from 2.5 to 4.5. This type has @ pulsating action and is usually seen in barrages and weirs. The entering jet oevillates from bottom to surface and has no regular period, Turbulence occurs near the 413 sharacteristies of the jump and the energy absorption in the Jump vary with eueh form, Tis. = 3 3 Fin. 4.3. Various forms of hydraulic amp. henge at ou instant and entirely on the surface the next. Rach oscillation produces a {aise ave of ieregular period which in prototype structures has been obeennes to travel for wpe are Seusing damage to earth banks and riprap. ‘The design of etling bs Tange of Froude number requires attention, ‘When the value of Froude number is be 1s for this Use of wave suppressors may be useful, tween 4.5 and 9.0, (Fig. 4.31), 2 well-stabilized fomp is formed. In this range the dowastceam extremity of the surface eller nad we point a ich the high velocity jet tends to leave the floor occur in practically the seme scract Plane, "The jump is well Balanced acd the action at its best.. The energy absorption in the jump for Froude numbers from 4.5 to 9. medium head structures are built, where stil bales be necessary ranges ftom 54 to 70 per cent. ling basing with energy dissipators like sills and In this range ‘As the Froude aumber increases above 9, the form of the jump gradually changes to that shownin Fig. 4.3), Fiislarge, dj i comparatively small andthe difference in conecte derthe44 CONCRETE DAMS ie large, The bigh velocity jet no longer carries through for the full length of the jump, ie. ‘the downstream extremity of the surface roller now becomes the determining factor in judging the lensth of the jamp. Slugs of water rolling dovmn the front face of the jump intermittently fall into the ish velocity jet, generating additional waves downstream and a rough surface can prevail. “The energy dissipation for these jumps ishigh and may reach 85 per cent, Bucket type energy dissipators are normally used for this high range of Froude number. Free overfall ‘The simplest arraagement of spillway is the free overfall: When the discharge intensity ‘exceeds 80 cumnec/metre or the height of fall exceeds 100 m, then the problem of controlling Scour must reecive attention, The falling nappe can dislodge floor slabs. Tt can cause eddy Curtents ia the air ia the valley. Spray will be carried upwards to descend as heavy rain on the abutments and may cause erosion and slides, This will need protection. Concrete pro- iective walls should be anchored with rock bolts or tensioned cables of sufficient length to teach sound rock, At Karibe dam ia Zimbabwe (Fig. 10.1), a 50 m deep hole developed Detween 1962 and 1966. At Morrow Point dam, U.S.A., the concrete lining is 11.5 m thick anchored into bed rock. “The depth of scour can be estimated from Veronese formula: d, = 1.9 Hr?#.qo 46 where, d, = maximum depth of scour below tail water level in metres. “Fir = head from reservoir level to the tail water level in metres. q 4.3. ENmRey Dissieators ischarge intensity cumec/m ‘The design of downstream protection works or encray dissipators below hydranlic structures occupies a vital place in the design and construction of dams, weirs and barrages, ‘The problem of designing energy dissipators is one essentially of reducing the high vel flow te avelocty low enough to prevent erosion of natural river bed. There are several methods of dissipating the exergy of the shooting flow of water. They can be classified as below : (0) Hydraulic Sump Type Stilling Basins: @ Horizontal apron type. (ii) Sloping apron type. (®) Jet Diffasion and Free Jet Stiling Bi (@) Jetdiffusion basins. (i) Interacting jet dissipators. (it), Free jet stilling basin. (io) Hump stifling basins. (©) Impact stilling basins. (©). Bucket Type Energy Dissipators: (@ Solid rotier bucket. (ii) Slotted roller bucket. (iii) Skijump bucket (‘rajectory or shooting, oF Hip).ENERGY nIssPATORS Ms Factors affecting the design Factors affecting the design of encigy dissipators are: (Nature of foundations. (2) Magaitade of floods and their recurrence. (ii) Velosity of Bow. (0) Orientation of fow. (®) Depth discharge relationship of the water course at the site of structure, The lest factor ia the most important. A thorough knowledge of its Implications oa the design of energy dissipator is a prerequisite for the most eficient and at the same time, the cheapest type of structure. The height of the tail water for ouch discharge may or may not correspond to the height of perfect jump. The jump height curve may be related to depth discharge curve in four different ways. 1. Jump height curve always above the tail water rating curve (Fig. 4.4) Fin 4.4, The d,curveover til vater cure. Fit. 4.5. ‘The dy curve below tail water carve, ‘This means that the depth of flow in the river in the particular section is insufficient for alldischarges for the formetion of a jump at the toe of the structure, The jump will try to ‘smcep across the apron at a high velocity and attack the bed downstream, ‘The eneray dissipation for this case be achieved in aay of the following ways: (2) Lowering the floor level downstream of the dam 40 as to make the tail water depth in the stilling basin equal to che jump height for all discharges. This may lead to three cases: (Horizontal floor but depressed below the river bed level. (@) A depressed floor but rising towards the downstream end. (id) A depressed floor bat sloping away from the toe of the dam. (b) Stilling basin with bates or sills at river bed level. (©) Suiling basin with a tow subsidiary dam downstream. (2) Bucket type of structure: If under the conditions of low tail water depth, there is a bed of sclid rock which can withstand impact of water, skijamp bucket type energy dissipetor may be adopted, 2. Junp height curve abvays below the tall water rating curve (Fig. 4,5) ‘With higher depth of tail water the tendeacy of the high velocity flow is to dive under the16 CONCRETE Dams Fig. 4.6. The dy curve abowe tal water curve at Fig. 4.7. The dy curve below tail water curve at low discharges and belowat high discharges. ow discharges and above at high discharges. tail water and travel a long distance along the bottom forming only a very imperfect jump. ‘The energy dissipation can be done by providing either: (@) a sloping apron, or (b) a roller bucket: type of energy dissipator. 3. Jump height curve above the tail water rating curve at low discharges and below at higher discharges (Fig. 4.6) A horizontal apron in the river level in this case provides an insufficient depth at low discharges and extra depth for high discharges to form suitable hydraulic jump. The solution, therefore, lies in creaiing artificially onough water depth to make the jump form on the apron at low discharges. ‘The following may be attempted. (@) tilling basin with a low secondary dam. (b) Stiling basin with bafle piers or some form of dentated silt 4 Juma hehe curve blow the iil water curve ai low discharges and above at high diechangoe (Fig. 4.7) The main condition to be met in this case is the provision of sufficient depth of tail water for the formation of the jump at high flows. Construction of secondary dam or a sloping aprox will serve the purpose. 4.4 Desion Cartenia of Dirreaesr ENERoy Disstrators 4.4.1 Hydraulic jump type stilling basin with horizontal apron In this case the requisite depth for formation of hydsantic jump can be obtained on anBNERGY DISsIPATORS 7 Seago or at the ground level. Hydraulic jump type stilling basins are useful for spillways Tas teak bed rock conditions, weirs and barrages on sand of loose gravel, This type of stile Jing basin can be classified into two categories (> Sting basins in which the value ofthe Froude numberof the incoming flow i ‘han 4.5. | This case is generally encountered on weirs and barreess in haa (©) Stiling basins in which the Froude number of the incoming flow is greater than 4,5, This case isa general feature for medium and high dams, (@) Stilling basin designs for low Froude numbers ‘The most suitable designs- for low range of incoming flow Froude numbers are those of: @ RS. Varshaey, Gi) USBR, (G2) Indian Standards Stilling Basin T, ang @) SAB, These-are discussed below: (RS. versiney’s Design of ‘Stilling Basin On the basis of extensive model tests, R.S. Varshney (1965), has evolved a stilling basin design, which is exhibited in Figs, 4.¢ and 4.9. This design has teen found to work extremely well, A typical example of design of stilling basin on the basis of Figs. 4.8 and 4.9 is gi F———+ ** (rRovoe ween) 0 herein, FE4-8, Siling basa for Froude aumber below 4,5, Medraulic design of siting bass for ow Froude mutnber Design Example 4.1 Find out sting basin parameters for the following low data for undersiuice bays of a barrage across an alluvial viver in Uttar Pradech 1. Disckarge intensity 28 cumee per m 2. Head loss H, 0.8 m 3. Prejump depth d, 2.68 m 4. Conjugate aepth , Ol tu 5. Tail water depth dy 7.32 m118 ‘CONCRETE DAMS (pledleDaodal” aye the Fig. 4.9, Stlling basin design for Froude aumber below 4.5. Solution Critical depth Velocity of infow Vy — P85 m 10.43 m/sec Hence Froude number = —K- —_10.43 Ved Vo81x2.66 (@) Length of Cistera Minimum Jength =6 (4 —d,)=6 (6.1—2.68)=6%3.42=20.5 m Desirable length is given by Fig. 4.8. For Froude number of 2.03 dy. fe E=11.5X2.68=30.8 mENERGY DissiPaTons Provide average value 525.7 say 25 m (0) Chute Blocks The height of chute blocks, for Froude mumber of 2.03 from Fig. 4.8 = 0.88 m. ©, Floor Blocks (Position: The postion of floor blocks can be read ftom either of two inset sketches in Fig. 48. From Laid, and L/d, ration, for dy = 25,0, 3.55 by q 2 La=0.90 x7.32=6.6 m From L and Ly relation, for L=26 m, L>=5 m Provide floor blocks at a distance of 6.5 metres from toe of glacis, @) Height: The height of floor blocks can be determined from either of the two sketches of Figs. 48. and 4.9. From Gana * setation, for & GZ equat to 0,833, 48 Foo. 0.90 et ha 0.19%7,32=1.4 m Fem bes aon te 4.3) = Las, 2 Adopt mean value of 1.35 m, CP oagcitt: The width of floor blocks can be found from the bettom sketch in Fi. 48. For a Froude number of 2.03, Walks =0.85, ie. width of floor block = 0,851.35 = (a) Fad Sit ‘The height and shape of end sill 2.03, Hy 03 hg 03X43 1.3 sis 215m, are found from Fiz. 49. For a Frowle number of Alt Tt oy Tse tk ta Fig. 49 od H.-0.324.3=1.97 m For ‘The height of end si may be taken 3717 8 27 say 1.25 m aiven in top tkeich of Fig. 4.9. The shape of the end sil120 ‘CONCRETE DAMS Recap of Stilling Basin Parameters Length of cistern 26m Height of chute blocks 0.88 m Wicthand spacing of chute blocks 0.66 m Position of floor blocks from toe of glacis 6.5 m Height of floor blocks 135m Width and spacing of floor blocks 115 m Height of dentated end sill 1.25 m () US.BR. Sulling Basin 1 ‘The stilling basin dimensions are given in Fig. 4.10. ‘The desired tail water depth for this stilling basin is 1.1d,. The length of the stilling basin (J. in Fig. 4.10) in terms of d, may be taken from the following table: Froud: Number Ud, scam witaees / fy 22 © seca stn 9 oe Ly eas oe ae 25+ 0m 10 04 Sos + s tos: ter 2 a4 Lek LENGTH OF WAVE suPPRESSOR Fig. 4-11, Wave suppressor dimensions after R.S. Varshney.ENERGY DISSPATORS ia However, the wave action propagated by the oscillating flow at such low values of Froude number cannot be entirely damped. Auniliary wave dampers or wave suppressors (US.BR, type or that siven by S.N. Gupta and R.S. Varshney) must sometimes be employed to provide smooth surface flow downstream. The position, length and details of SN. Gupta and RS. Varshnes’s wave suppressor are given in Fig. 4.11, which is self explanatory. When U.SBR. type wave suppressor is usod, the standard U.S. BR. stilling basin (Type TV, Fig. 4.12) may be used, (ii) Indian Standards Stilling Basin I Definition sketch for basin Tis given in Fig. 4.13 and dimension sketch in Fig. 4.14. The length of the basin for different values of Froude number is given below: A 2 3 4 45 Laldy 3.15 43 4.15 5.0 ‘Fig, 4,12. Proportions for Froude numbers Fig, 4,13. Definition sketch, for basin 1.8. 2.5 t 4,3 basin [V USBR. (ASCE Bug, Monograph No. 25). Fly 4.14 Dimension sketch for basia 15. () The 8.A.F. Stilling Basin This basin (Fig. 4.15) (S.A.F. denotes “Saint Anthony Falls") was developed at the St Anthony Falls Hydraulic Leboratry, University of Minnesota. The design rules are as belo a, The stilling basin can be designed for Froude numbers between F,=1.7 and 17.0 and the length of stilling basin is equal to 4.5 dy,12 CONCRETE DAMS Bea eee Toul) wes Fig. 4.15, SAB, siling basi, b. Height of chute blocks and floor blocks is dj (the pre-jump depth) and the width and spacing are approximately 0.75 dy. c. The distance from the upstream end of the stilling basin to the floor blocks is Z/3. d. No floor block is recommended to be placed closer to the side wall than 3d,/8, The floor blocks are placed staggered with chate blocks. ec. The height of the end sill is 7 per cent of d, (post-jump depth). f. The depth of tail water above the stilling basin floor is given by ; Bt y= (110-35) 4 for F = 1.7 005.5 4.7 = 0.85 dh for Fy= 5.5 t0 1 (4.8) ‘ Fe y= (1.00~ Fi) dy tor R= 11 017 «@s g. The height of the side wall above the maximum tail water depth is given by Z—dJ @)_ Stilling basin design for Froule number above 4.5 ‘Under conditions of F, > 4.5 8 good hydraulic jump will form. The following types of stilling basins can serve the purpose. OSA, stilling basin The S.A.F, stilling basin discussed earlier can be used with advantage,ENERGY. DISSIPATORS 123 (ii) U.S.BR. stilling basins (Type If and Type TH) ‘When the incoming velocities do not exceed 15 m/sec, the U.SBR. Basin Type It, as shown in Fig. 4.16, may be used. This basin relies on dissipation of energy by the impact blocks and also on the turbulence of the jump pheaomenon for its effectivensss, The desirable dimensions of the length of the floor, height of the baffle blocks and sill as reeommen- ded by U.S.BR. are given below: Froude Number (F,) 3 6 8 10 2 4 16 Lid, 2300 25 26 27 2.8 28 28 Ballle Block Height (/,) A 3 6 8 10 2 4 16 huld, 1S LT 20 2300 27 3033 End Sill Height (A,) 6 8 10 2 “4 16 13S 1.6 L718 19 co Fig.4.16 Recommended proporiious—U.5.B.R. basin If, The structure floor should be designed for the extra load due to thedynamic force created ‘eainst the upstream face of the bafile blocks. The force in tonne is given by the relation Force = 2.wd (4, + by) (4.10) where w = unit weight of water in t/m?. the atea of the upstream face of the block in m*. +h, = the head due to velocity of approach in m. The stilling basin walls may be fled, ie. the stilling basin may be trapezcidal in plan. ‘The side flare is usually given tan-11/3F,: such flarings ace given for stilling basins at the exit of sluices of earth dams. Where incoming velocities exceed 15 m/sec, the U.S.B.R. Basin Type ITT (Fig. 4.17) may bo adopted. The water depth in the basin should be about 5 per cent greater than the com- pated conjugate depth.124 CONCRETE DAMS Dewrareo siut cwure eLocks Fig. 4.17. Recommended proportions —US.R R. basin II, (ii) Indian Standard stilling basin IT (1.S.) ‘The dimension sketch for basin II (1968) is given in Fig. 4.18, However, when the flow velocity at the location of the basin blocks exceeds 15 m/sec, no basin blocks are recommended and in that case the floor of the basia should be kept at a depth equal to d, below the tail water level. The recommended lengths for basin II are es below: A 5 6 8 10 12 Udy 2.9 3.2 37 3.9 40 4.4.2, Hydraulic jump type stilling basin with sloping apron ‘When the tail water is too deep as compered to the sequent depth dj, the jet if left at the natural ground level would continue to go as a strong current near the bed forming « wens Fig. 4.18 Dimension sketeh for busin IX—18.ENERGY DISIPATORS 128 drowned jump which is harmful to the river bed, In such a case, a hydraulic jump type stilling basin with apron may be preferred asit would allow an efficent jump to be formed at suitable level on the sloping apron. Indian Standerd Basin Il is recommended for the case where tail water curve is higher than d, curve at all discharges. Indian Standard Basin TV, is suitable for the case where the tail weter depth at maximum discharge exceeds d, considerably but is equal to or slightly greater than dy at lower discharges. ‘The definition sketch for both Basins III and IV is shown in Fig. 4.19, Basin I In the design the following procedure may be adopted: (@ Assume a certain level at which the front of the jump will form for the maximam tail water depth and discharge, (®) Determine d, from the known upstream total energy line by applying Bernoulli's theorem and calculate F,. (©) Assume a certain slope and determine the conjugate depth d,’ and length of the jump for the above Froude number from Figs, 4.2) and 4.21 respectively. ‘The length of the apron should be kept equal to 60 per cent of the jump height. so tna Tg Vi « z Fig 4.19, Dinesion sketch fr base I and Fig, 4.20. Ratio o conse depth oto 4 Iv-1s. (basin TH) 1.125 CONCRETE DANS (@ Test whether the available tail water depth at the end of the apron matches the conjugate depth d/. If not, change the slope of the level of the upstream end of the apron of both. Several trials may be required before the slope and the locetion of the apron are compatible with the bydraulie requirement. (© The apron designed for maximum discharge may then be tested at lower discharge say 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4, Ifthe tail water depth is sufficient or in excess of the conj gate depth for the intermediate discharges, the design is acceptable. If not, a fatter slope at lower apron level should be tried or Basin IV may be adopted. (/) The basin should be supplemented by a solid or dentated end sill of height equal to 0.05 to 0.2 d, with an upstreem slope of 2 : 1 to 3:1, “TT TT) 1 | L Fig. 4.21. Length of jump in terms of conjugste Fig, 4.22, Values of & for diferent 9, cacptht (Lasin MH). diy @opth conjugate to d, for sloping apron or partly sloping) may be determined from the relation dy 1 _ FBR cose 8 if fess [(Haeamt!)8 oy ‘The value of K can be determined fom Fig. 4.22. However d, may also be deter- ‘mined from Eig. 4.20 and 4.23, Basin IV Jn the design of Basin IV, the following procedure may be adopted : (@) Determine the discharge at which the tail water depth is most deficient. (b) For the above discharge determin: the level and length of the apron (as for Basins Tand 1D. (© Assume a certain level at which the front of the jump will form for the maximum tail water depth and discharge. (Determine d,, from the known upstream energy line and calculate F, and find dy (equation 4.2), (©) Determine a suitable slope (by trial and error) so that the available tail water depth matches the required conjugate depth d’, determined from Fig. 4.23.NERGY DISSIPATORS 127 (1) Determine the Jeagth of the jump for the above slope from Fig. 4.21, If the sum of the lengths of the inclined portions and horizontal portion is equal to about 60 er cent of the jump length, the design is acceptable. If not, fresh trials may be done by changing the level of the upstream end of the jump formation (s) The basin should ‘be supplemented by a solid or dentated end sill of height 0.05 to 0.2 dy and upstream slope of 2: 1 to3 : 1. Evaluation of prejump veloclty and depth of flow The theoretical value of velocity at the bucket invert or at the start of hydraulic jump can be calculated by the following relation: Ve = VTgQH-0.5Tay (4.12) where Vr = velocity (theoretical) in m/sec. H = difference of u.s, reservoir elevation and bucket invert in m. Hy = bead over the spillway crest in m. £ = avccleration due to gravity in mace’ 9.81 mjseo*, However, because of surface friction ete., the actual velocity V4, is slightly less than Vr. Figure 4.24 gives the ratio of actual to theoretical velocity at entrance to stilling basin for different values of Hand Hg, This chart makes it possible to determine V, and d, with a fair 3. pee : 1 2, . i We FAL FROM HeSEIVOR LEVEL TO 5TH as Fig. 4.24. Actual velocity at toe of spilimay.128 CONCRETE DAMS degree of accuracy for chutes having slopes 0.8 : 1 or steeper. This chart has been converted info metric units by the author from U.S.B.R. chart, For example, for a 12 m head of water over crest and for H = 125 m, actual velocity is 90 per cent of the theoretical velocity, Knowing V4, d, can be calculated easily by relation d, = g/(V4). Use of the Fig. 4.24 is illustrated in design example 12.1, 4.4.3. Jot diffasion and free jet stilling basin Outof the different jet dissipators, the best known in India are the “Interacting Jet Dis- sipators” evolved at the Hydraulic Laboratory of the Engineering Research Laboratories Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, This device does not depend upon the formation of a standing wave and therefore behaves well for all tail water levels. This device has been used for Manair end Koilsagar dams spillways. The details and general dimensions. of interacting Jet dissipators for Koilsager dam spillway are shown in Fig. 4.25. ‘The design consists of « Ne AY s ‘ wines yp 8 a ~ MU Fig. 4.25, Koilsagar spillway (India) interacting jet dissipatorENERGY DISSIPATORS 129 series of bays on the bucket at the toe of the spillway, the downsiream end of each bay having 4 horizontal floor and the upstream end on the sloping spillway or curved bucket. Into each Of these bays is fitted a splitter the downstream end of which is an are of a circle and the up- Stream end a point. Thus the sheet of water flowing on the glacis in a width equal to the wicth ofa bay is divided by the above arrangement into two streams and each of there impinges aguinst the other at the lowest horizontal portion of the bay, such impact being head long. As both the watcr streams, on account of symmetry, have identical depth: and velocities, the dissipation of energy would be the maximum. 4.4.4 Bucket type energy dissipators Bucket type energy dissipators have been used with success in India and abroad. They ‘are useful in any tail water condition, but need better rock strata, ‘The bucket design ie. solid roller bucket, slotted roller bucket, or skijump bucket changes with the tail water level and the conditions of the bed rock. Bucket type enerey dissipators allow the use of relatively short structure with marked economy over the sloping apron ot the conventional hydraulic Jump type stilling basin. (2) Solid roller bucket This type of bucket, shown in Fig. 4.26, performs well when deeply submerged. It cone sists of « circular bucket type apron with a concave profile of considerable radius and a lip which deflects the high velocity Now away from the stream bed. The dissipation of sur- plus energy ia the water is accomplished by the diffusion of the water jet ina large mass of water and by overcoming the boundary resistaace of the scooped bed and material, The sheet of water is deflected upward by the bucket lip forming two elliptical rollers, an anticlockwise “D Rea Fig. 4.26, Roller backet definition sketok,130 CONCRETE DAM roller or high boil in the water surface in the bucket and a clockwise ground roller below the bucket. As a result of this action considerable energy dissipation occurs before the jet reaches the channel bottom. The constant motion of the loose material agsinst the bucket lip and the fact that unsymmetrical spillway operation can cause eddies to sweep the piled up material into the bucket make this bucket unéesirable in some installations, Trapped material can cause abrasion damage in the bucket itself. The different parameters of the bucket can be decided as below: (a) Bucket Radius: ‘The bucket radius may = + be taken as the lowest of the following sug A001 tom (RS, Varshney’s curve ‘The radius of the bucket can be read from the curve exhibited in Fig 4.27. (@) The following relation bas been found to give a satisfactory value for the radius of the bucket, LS, (1975-15: 7363). x-0, fmm ay Fall from the crest of the spillway to bucket invert ia m. ee AEINEEN DesieH Poot : i i where 11° ‘Hg = Head over the crest in m. (it) Ven Te Chow's Formula R= 0.305. 10° 4.14) V+ 6.4 He + 4.88 “3.6 Hy + 19.5 (ant4s) V = Velocity at the toe of spillway in m/sec, (iv) B.S. Varshney’s where p imensionless formula: [rm 008 ma, 1.96 ats () RS. Varshney and M.L. Bajaj’s formula Fy = 13.0 R19.50 4.19) (6) Bucket lip: In cese of toler buckets, a 45° bucket exit angle is most effective, (6) Invert: Positioning of the bucket invert needs a major decision and is mainly governed by the tail water levels, rock strata and cost of excavation and concreting. The desirable teil water depths range from 1.3 to 1.4 times the conjugate depth d,, (@) Fressures on the solid roller bucket: No notable analytical stady appears to have bbeea done for determination of pressure inside & roller bucket. However, some contributionENERGY DISSIPATORS 131 mich provides firt hand information to the desiguer of roller bucket for prediction of ney (1968), According to him the pressures on the thud role bucket are in the neighbourhood of hydrostatic head measured a5 the diferenee ig Pel water clevation and the elevation of the poiat in bucket under reference. Theee eas be determined with the help of design chart (Fig, 4.28) given by R.S. Varsbney PACTUAL ORESUREN CF wre io. Beet AAS a ee er ee re HE CCF TERS OF ape Fle. 4.28. Premures on roller bucket after R.S, Varshney, Rave 0 ater Tor this range of tail water conditions. Te is found that wien tel woes corresPoncs to dz only, the roller is not stable and when tail water exceeds 13 dy the roller Action is very much suppressed and submerged, galt 4.31 hes teen proposed ta include the effect of Froude No. also in the pressure OF to 1 per ater, hs curve might give some minor variations ia preseurea ot the order 9f5 1010 percent. The characteristics of bucket dissipators are shown in Fig. 4.32, @ Slotted or dentated bucket High position of the river bed downstream of roller bucket and unsymmetrical gate ratgalOn reduces to agreatentent the usefulness of the sold sence bucket. The dentated roller bucket reduces substantially the high boll and violeet ‘ground roller. ‘Bed material is aecither deposited nor carried away fiom the backet lip. Debris thee might pet into the furket is immediately washed out. This type of bucke: can alt0. be tried ter mg where tail weter depth is less than dj curve, Various designs are available for slotted roller bucket. The US.B.R. design (Fig. 4.33) rmcken, MoPted for solid slotted bucket design. Fig. 4.34 shows performance er wie slotted buckets,12 CONCRETE DAMS. 2 1202 | fe ba ee Wg =P4 051 2751 1 é hops? tol | SS bang snares rn a sik te) a ig. 4.29(4, 04 6): Bifec of Froude number and tail water depth on pressure distribution bbucket—after RS. Vanshney and LK. Prasad,ENERGY DisapaToRS 133 lovrve for Tweldg T Fler bucket pressure 30) Definition sketen ‘ Eee a 32 Ors Ge 4 Ble Fit-4:30. Press vacation in roller bucket wis Tig. 4.31, Pressute Aistribution ia roller bucket | Froude number, |) Skijump bucker net ype of energy dissipator is suitable where the stream bed is Composed of firm rock and the tail water depth Bo ng Pouettowses ‘are to be sited. below the sli-jump bucket, then the invert should be Src higher than powerhouse top (Fig, 4.36), Tneeton vee happens that the tail water 2th lower than, but the bucket invert is lover than talwane gene In such cases the SiSiS| liver isdesided so as to. provide a concrete cover of 1-3 to) ae oven the bed rocks. Toe Pate sk-jump ur fp, as it is quite often calle, is provided sash hey bucket Tip is always Sher than maximum tail water level. (0) Bucket radius: All tho relations given forthe solid roller bucket are applicable in is case also. 10) Fiance and exit slopes: Far entrance slope the steepest spillway slope that should Ses lb 4 verteal to L horizontal, The enit angle iv an inporcns tay: in determining134 CONCRETE DAMS or 02 03 02 05 08 07 08 03 10 Fis. 4.32. Characteristics of bucket (pe energy dsspators (After MePherson and Kat). the length of the trajectory, “Theoretcally, | if fiction, sir retardation, ee arenoplested, the following formula can beused to evaluate the horizontal component of tho jet trjoo- tory S087 an + fumes (4.17) ‘ig 4.53 Angostara type slotted bucketENERGY DISSIPATORS 135 “pout Groune sureace =a ROLLER Seu ‘A. SOLID TYPB BUCKET B, ANGOSTURA TYPE SLOTTED BUCKET Fi. 4.34, Performance of solid and slotted buckets, Fig, 4.36 Monteynard dam, France where = maximum horizontal throw of the jet. a= height of lip above tail water level (sign (sign —), V4 ~ initial velocity, \ depth of lip below tail water level © exit angle, ‘The jet trajectory height is given by the relation yo hint Gas,136 CONCRETE DAMS A judicious selection of exit angle is aecessary. An exit angle of 30 to 35° will make a 00d choive. The following formula by R.S. Varchney may be used to evaluate bucket exit angle @ in degrees Fy= = 9,0001 8/1 + 7.8 (4.19) (This relation was developed for cases F<7.8. However, it can be used for F.>7.8 also after neglecting minus siga.). In cases when maximum tail water elevation is below the bucket lp, the shepe ofthe lip may bertiat for ease in construction, The shape of the lip in case of ski.jump buckets where the tail water is slightly above the bucket lip, nezds careful attention in design. In such cases high sub-atmospheric pressures oecur at the dowastream of lip. These sub-atmospheric pres. sures can be controlled by making acraiion arrangements below the lip. Another simpler and effective way of subduing these negative pressures is to provide a curved or a sloping lp (eg ‘Rinand dam, India) as showa ia Fig. 4.37 (After SIN. Gupta and R'S. Varshney). Toucnes’. RUgKEY——Tauower. "ouenes intr _ Ske GOFLAT UIP (By CURVED LP Ke1SLOPING UP Fin, 4.37. Bucket lip shapes after. N Gupta and & S, Varshney, Dynamic pressure on spillway and bucket Dynamic force on the spillway and bucket is eerted by the force of filing water. There is a continuous change of velocity from section to section which results, according to Newtons Second Jaw of motion, in a dynamis force on the structure. This force can be evaluated. after nenketing fiction on srillway suefaco.and approsch velocity. The resulting foree is given ty the relation SF = 2 9 (Y,—h,) 4.20) where ris the mass density of water, is the discharge and (VV Tin the ssme way, forees in x and y directions can be written ac Ex = 00 Var Vis) (4.21) Fy = pO Vy—Py) (4.22) ‘here suffacs x or y denote the corresponding components in x or y direction The resultant of F and F, foree is the net dynamic force on the spillway face. An illustrative example on this is given in design etample 12.2 1m India, the so-called ski-jamp buckets have their lip levels submerged below the tail alet level The shooting. jet of water flows past the bucket, meets the standing depik of water over the lip, pushes it buck and shoots up in the air as skijump. ‘The phenerenes is of skijump type but the standing depth of water over the bucket lip exerts a beck, mrecren 3o te shooting waterjet thereby eausing some chonge in the flow lines. In'a simple sy, the net effect is ia two ways, viz, is the change in velocity,RNPRGY DISSIPATORS 17 () The owing water trajectory is compressed by the tail water over the bucket ip thereby increasing the vertical height of the jet (ii) The water depth over the busket lip has an effect of increasing the exit angle or the total sweep angle B of the bucket by a small magnitude ', thereby making the total sweep angle as f,—(6-+6') for the purpose of pressure variation, Ofaall the analytical approaches the analysis given by Lenau and Cassidy seems to be ‘most rational, “His work has been extended by R.S. Varshacy aud R.K. Prasad for ski-jump buckets for submerged lip conditions. The pressure coefficient C, suggested by Lenau and Cassidy was calculated for all the studies by R.S. Varshuey and R.K. Prasad, Since the values of S/d (ratio of distance measured from tangeat point to the depth cof water flowing just upstream of the bucket) was much more in magnitude than those taken by Lenau and Cassidy, the writers’ curve has been extrapolated by the author and is shows in Fig. 4.38. Separate curves were drawn for different tail water conditions, different radi and Froude numbers. A typical such curve is shown ia Fig. 4.39 Y W213 1015 1617 8 79°20 # ‘a PSESSRSNSN Na Saas sep Ss WAIN ANN Ts ts aa a Fak. 4.35 Lenau and Cassidy's pressure function for greater range of Sid. The value of # plotted against Ty/d (7, evaluated both with respect to the invert and the lip) is exhibited in Fig. 4.40. The variation for 6 was small and of the order of 2.$4° for 2 sweep angle of the bucket equal {0 $1.35" and lip submergence of 0.8 d,, ‘The main factor effecting the value of 6’ was only the submergence factor 1y/d, The pressure on ski-jump bucket in submerged condition for any Froude No, and for the usual range of bucket radii can be obtained by the use of Fig. 4.38 and Fig, 4.40. Their use is ilustrated by an example given below: Let R= 20m, h= 120m, 8 =81.35. 9 = 150cumec/m, Z = 16 m, and Ty measured above Bucket tip — 15 m Theoretical velocity V;= V2 eH = VIO RIKTH=V.INTG) VIR9 RIX = 46.9 m/sec.138 CONCRETE DAMS a o9| 0@}—~ sno) lusts aa] fan] le eaiste wi] f, | [he Tw [78 [0 & [> a(R pe tae [ree os 3 Rs bento Tiga [PETE 05] ae see SF] gee [PREP a 7 09] ‘Als Above mart level Y nal t Detintien sketen o 805 eo 85 se ig 4.39, Eifect of tail vater of pressute alstripution along skijump bucket Actual velocity Vact=0.91%46.9~42,4 m/see (0.91 coef. is obtained from US.B.R. curves Fig. 4.24) dm gf¥ = 150/82,4— 3.54 m T,{d = 15)3.54 = 4,24 Using Fig. 4.40 paar By = B+ 8 = 81.354 11 ‘Thus f. will become p for using Fig. 4.38, once taking 9 = 82.45%, 9 Rid 82.45%0, 20 Iwo 7 3.457 838 82.457ENERGY DISSIPATORS 139 y 1? Bin aegrees 2 6 ea Twid (WRT, INVERT) Tee vinnie TO] yn ‘—- Bons Trwinea J > oS —— HPL INVERTL Es DEFINITION SKETCH E ° 2 eee ao w/a (WE LPI Fig. 4.40, Fiflect of tall water depth, Froule aumber and bucket racls on “8” (Hypothetical) —sti From Fig. 4.28 the curve which cuts the x-axis at p R/d = Sid = 8.35 will be selected and ased to determine SF at various values of Sd wherever the pressure is intended to be determined. ; I bressute i to be determined at any point which supposing) makes an angle of 30° with the line joining the ceatre of bucket to the tangent pain, then, 30520 10.47 m Sld= 10.47/3.34 = 2.6 Fiom tte curve mentioned above S= BR: RGj[2d = 1.0 253-54 6 BSS 0354 Pressure Pr = CpXH = 0.354% 112 = 39.6 m of water, ‘The maximum pressure inside the bucket has been found to be independent of bucket angle and tail water conditions so long there exists a shooting flow ia the bucket. ‘This finde ing that the maximum pressure is independent of the bucket angle corroborates the work dons by Ballofet, Lenau and Cassidy.uw concasre onus Pressures on flip buckets can be found by D.B. Gummensky’s formula (1954) a hum (2 41) a 29 ‘hq = design head at any point on the bucket in m of water. i = adh of oeranaia 1s hydronic ead over he pont unde vetetence where locity of flow ia m/sec, ‘This formula gives maximum pressure at invert Ballofet presented an analytical approach for computation of pressures on the bucket assuming that the velocity distribution in the bucket would be that of an irrotational vortex flow. Tio Chun and Yun-Sheag Yu computed pressure distribution and free surface profiles for flow past ski-jump bucket by an iterative solution of anon linear integral equation deve- oped on the basis of theory of potential flow. The computations done on an electronic computer, give pressure distribution in the entire bucket profile. Charles W. Lenau and John Cassidy developed an analytical means of predicting the free surface proiiles and floor pressures for any given combination of geometric and flow parameters Their approach consists of a numerical method which uses conformal mapping of the actual plane in which flow is taking place into a complex potential plane to obtain free surface co-ordinates and floor pressures in the complex potential plane which are then reconverted into the original flow field by the same transformation. Solutions of the resulting equations have been done by iterative method using finite difference net-work in the complex potential plane, Some performance characteristics of ski jump bucket Heavy scour can occur downstream, if the bed is not properly protected. At Mayfield dam. US.A. slides from the valley walls were attributed to the destructive combination of heavy rains, high winds and spray from ip bucket spillway (design discharge 8600cumec). At Kariba dam Zimbabwe a 50m scour hole developed in4 years. At Akasombo dam Ghana, a 30m 'éeep hole occurred in 2 days, when the ski jump bucket spillway discharged only 21m above the river bed. ‘The spray that results from aeratio the country side and may Contra dam, Switzerland. of the jet or from its impact ean cause damage to ‘dversely affect nearby electrical installations, as happened at SeLEcTED REFERENCES 1, Ahmad Mushtaq, “Mechanism of Erosion below Hydraulic Works”, Proc. [.A.H.R. and A.S.C-E., University of Minnesota, Minnegpols, Minn, 2. Altinbilek, H.D. and Basmaci, Y., “Localised Scour at the Downstream of Outlet Structures” 1th ICOLD Congress Madrid, 1973 Q. 41, R. 7, M1. 3. ASCE. Task Force, “Energy Dissiputors for Spiliways and Outlet Works", Jin. of Ip Dn, Proc, AS.C.E., Vol. 90, No. Hy. 1, 1964—discussion by A. Filowi, Vol. 95, Hy. 5, September 1964. 4, Ballofet, A., “Pressures on Spillway Flip Bucket", Jnl, A.S.C.E. Hy Dn. September 1961.ENERGY DISSIPATORS 141 10. 12, 13 14, 1s, Bhisdell, F.W., “The S.A.F, Stilling Basia”, U.S, Dept, of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Lab., Minneapolis Min., December 1943, Bhisdell, F.W. “Development and Hydraulic Design, St. Anthony Falls Stlling Basin”, Trans. AS.CE., Vol. 113, 1948. Bowers, C.E. and Tsai, F-Y., “Fluctuating Pressures in Spillway Basins”, Jn, of Hyd. Dre AS C.E, Paper No. 6915, Vol.95, No. Hy. 6, November 1963, Bradley, JIN. and Peterks, A.J, “The Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins”, Ja. of Hyd. Dn. Papers 1401 t0 1406 Proc. A:S.C.E., Vol. 38, No. Hy. 5, October 1987. Catakli,0., Oral, K, and Taadogam, A R., “A Study of Scouts at the End of Stlling Basins and Use of Horizontal Beams as Energy Dissipators”, Lith ICOLD Congress Madrid, 1973, Q.41, R.2.11, C.BM &P., “The Standing Wave or Hydraulle Jump”, Second Ed, Revised and Enlarged, 1950, CBI & P, “Symposium on Energy Dissipators", Pub. No. 70, August, 1961 and “Water Resources Rescarch in India", Publication No. 78 (revised), Qetober 1979, Gumensky, D.B. “Design of Side Walls ia Chutes and Spillways", Trans. A.S.C. Vol. 119, 1954, pp. 358-372. Hartung, F. and Hausler, E., “Sours, Sting Basins and Down Stream Protection Under Free Overfall Jets at Dams", 11th ICOLD Congress Madrid, 1973, Q. 41, R. 3.11, pp. 39-56, Hunter Rouse, Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, 1950, Indian Standards 4997 1968 Criteria for Design of Hydraulic Jump Type Stling Basins with Horizontal and Sloping Apron, Indian Standard 7365-1974, Criteria for Hydraulics Design of Bucket Type Energy Dissipators. Jabara, M.A. and Legas, J, "Selection of Spillways, Plunge Pools and Siilling Basins for Earth and Conerete Dams”, 11th ICOLD Congress Madrid, 1973, Q. 41, R. 17, 11. Lenau, C.W. and Cossidy, JJ. “Flow through Spillway Flip Bucket", Jn’ Hyd. Da. A.S.CE, Vol. 95, No. Hy. 2, Paper No. 6178, March 1969, MePherson, M.B. and Karr, MHL, “A Study of Bucket Type Energy Dissipator Charac- teristics”, Jal. of the Hyd. Dn. A.S.CE., June 1957 Subramamya, K- and Awasthy, S.C., “Spatial Flow over side Weis", Jn, of Hd. Dn Pre. A:S.CE.. Vol. 90, No. Hy. 1, January 1972, pp. 1-10 with discussions in November, December 1972, Tio-Chun Chen and Yun Sheng Yu, “Pressure Distribution on Spillway Flip Buckets", Unl.of the Hyd. Dn. A.S.C E, March 1965. U.S.BR., Engineering Monograph No, 25, “Hydraulic Design of Siilling Basins and Energy Dissipatots” by A.J. Paterka, Denver Colorodo, July 1963. Varshney, RS.et al. Theory and Design of Irrigation Structures, Vol, 1, 4th Fd. 1979, Mis. Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee. Varshrey, RS,, “Pressures in Bucket Type of Eneray Dissipato No. 1 of 1975, pp. 69-70, Varshney, RS., “Limit of Roller Action of Bucket Type Energy Dissipators”, La Houille Blanche, No. 8 of 1973, pp. 689-690. Varshney, RS. and Bajaj, M.L., “Ski, Jump Buckets on Indian Dams", Jnl. Ierégation and Power, Vol, 27, No. 4, October 1970, pp. 383-394, ', La Houille Blanche,142 ‘CONCRETE Dams Varshney, RS. and Dass, R.K., “Roller Action in Bucket Type Energy Dissipator", Jnl. Irrigation and Power, Vol. 31, No. 1, January 1974, pp. 33-42. Varshney, R.S.,“Effect of Bucket Parameters on Pressures and Energy Dissipation Charac- teristics”, Jnl, Vishwakarma, Vol, VIM, No. 12, April 1968, pp. 5-13. Varshney, RS., “Bucket Type Energy Dissipators for High Coefficient Weirs", Symp, sign and Construction of Weirs and Spillways”, College of Engg. Osmania Univer. ty Hyderabad, August 1963, Varshney, R.S., Bajaj, M.L. and Raghvendra Rao, P.V., “An Analysis of Indian Ski Jump Buckets” University of Roorkee Research Journal, Vol. XU, Nos. 1 and 2, 1970. Varshney, R.S., “Pressure Veriation in Miked Bucket Type of Energy Dissipators”, Jnl. Inrigation and Power, Vol, 32, No.4, October 1975, pp. 433-442. Xeres, A.C., “Arch Dams: Portuguese Experience with Overflow Arch Dams", Paper No. 990, A.5.C.E. Symposium on Arch Dams, 1957, pp. 1-27.GRAYITY DAMS 1 GeNeRat Until the mid-nineteenth century the masonry dams were built without: ay regatd of jan principles. The oldest masonry dams, (Fig. 5.1) are those ‘built in Spain in the rprand seventeenth centuries. Alicante (1500) followed by Puentes (1721) and iar (1850); all these dams had profiles of trapezotdal form. ™ se) \rs-ra 4 e | 10| pore | els) sf flows, RAR. gkos-toss. some» i ee sae eaiiitian Penio0 4 | (moe acits gowwers 1186 cexoent ves 8 co FV nintncs | P\enwatenns Eurex eet 2 ‘seis146 ‘CONCRETE DAMS The Furens dam (Fig. 5.2) built between 1861 and 18660n Loire river, 9 km upstream from St. Etienne in France, may be considered as the first prototype of modern dams, In 1855, the researches of Sazilly and Delocre led to the establishment of a rational profile of equal resistance. The theory was based on: (a) the stability of the profile against over- turning about the downstream edge; (b) stability against sliding along the base or along any Joint plane; and (c) the trapezium law, for the determination of the working stress. The condition of no tension was included in the Chartrain dam (1888-1891) and the triangular "Rap profile inthe dam of TeilecArgeny (loos. weatuas {| ye 1908). A series of dam failures, drew the a attention of engineers to the phenomenon of = uplift. A few of the dams which failed. were . \ eee Bouzey (18841995) Pecrogaue, (1881-1927), a \e Engineers, proceeding along theoretical PS ines about 1900, examined the conditions of the propagation of a fissure witich begins to ‘open at the upstream face; the hydrostatic oa Pressure, ete., and proposed one or other of esi the following criteria of stability ig 3-2. Furens dam, France. (1) The elastic strain at the end of a fissure in a horizontal jolat should remain positive whatever be the depth of tho fissure (Pelletreau criterion), 2) The elastic strain in « fissure, supposed open from the upstream face, should increase in such a way thet the fissure has no tendency to be propagated to the downstream face (Hoffmann’s criterion), ()_ The clastic steaia on a horizonal joint should remain greater than the hydrostatic pressure, so that the joint may be closed (Maurice Levy's criterion), ‘The magnitude of the uplift to be assamed has varied with the various authors from full hydrostatic pressure acting across the whole of the base or horizontal joint or acting according to a law of linear distribution varying feom fall hydrostatic pressure at the upstream face to ero at the downstream face. The controversies on the uplift criterion to be adopted point to the eravity of the problem and they prove, above all, the necessity for altering the curve of upward pressure and for ensuring the impermeability ofthe foundations and for providing an effective drainage system. Ta the case of new dams, the condition of Maurice Levy imposes sections which are costly and uneconomical and, in general, itis sufficient to full the ‘condition only” pastally calculating the section in such & way that the elastic strain remains everywhere greater than 4 certain fraction of the hydrostatic pressure, Impermeability is ensured by adopting masonry having a higher cement content in a chosen thickness (say 2 to 3 m) of the upstream face of the dam, by a cutoff wall in the foundations, by a curtain of cemént injection and by means of a drainage sysiem composed of closely spaced drains in a gallery. ) = Gleno (1923) and Molare (1935). \ f om oes 8 ' i t 4.2. Daw PARAMETERS 1. Baim base tine or axis ‘For purpose of layout, the line of the upstream face of dam or the line of the crown of‘ORAVETY DAMS as scour sterion reseuts aces freer ese 3 a 5 \ 3 a a & r 8 a z 88 ia S & % xf 43 g a 28 3 ag fs 3 i ne = ia Fa 2 ° a g 5 P i : } the dam, if the upstream face is sloping, is takea es a reference line, This line is called the ‘dam axis’ of the “base line of dam’, The axis may be straight, slightly curved upstream, of ‘a combination of end curves and central straight line to take the best advantage of topogra~ thie conditions. ‘A typical layout plan of @ concrete dam, Rihand in UP., India, is shown ia Fig, 5.3,146 CONCRETE DAMS, ¢ Men 2. Structural height ee The siructural height of a concrete or masonry ii dam is defined as the difference in elevations j between the top of dam and lowest por, lion in the excavated foundation area exclusive of eae ee such features as narrow fault zones,” Dams wp to &, wo mpiett ate considered low dams; from 30 4, = to 10) mas medium dams; and over 100m as high dams, XGrand Disence dam in Sviterland (Fig. $.4) sof is the world’s highest concrete gravity damm 284 m) Te by ra dam it i hic isthe second highest constec gravity dam’ in the woe Fe. 5.3) oe “Grout tetee Fig. 5.4. Grand Dixence dam (Switzedland), The fest phase profile i shown by a Davie line, *eemecrmaam ea Fig. 5,5. Bhakra dam, Punjab, tadis.GRAVITY DAMS [AL Hydraulic height ‘The hydraulic height is the difference in elevation between the lowest potat in original stream bed at the axis of the dam and the highest controlled water surface, bet. Length of the dam “The length of the dam is the length measured along the axis of the dam at the top of dam, i.e. from left abutment to right abutment contact. "These parameters are marked in Fig. 5.6. Fig, 5.6. Dam parameter (a) River bed Tevet, 2) Normal top water level. (3) Fou indation, (8) Apex of the Pastel triangle (3) Base, (6) ase width, (7) Crest, (8) U.S. fase, (9) DS. fe, (30, US. dope, (1t) Coto teach, (12) Vertical drain, (13) Inspection staf {t8) tonperen aller, (05) Adit, (16) Coatrection joist, (17) Grout not, and (18) Dowastream slope. CAS. onstan vox Sereno oF Dav Ste ‘A site for gravity dam is expected to satisfy the following requirements; (@, Annarrow gorge at dam site, opening upstream: Gif Sound rock able to resist static and dynamic forces; (it) Stable valley and abutment slopes: (i) Foundations having uniform value of elastic constants preferable; (‘The foundations and reservoir walls watertight, resistant fo erosion, and other dete mental effects of wetting, drying, freezing and thawing; (i) Good location for spillways and powerhouse; (vit). Availability of good construction material nearby; and (orp Proximity of construction facilities, ike electric supply, read and rail communications etc,48 CONCRETE DAMS 5.4 Jours ano Kers sab divided into a number of blocks to relieve the thermal stress the body of the dam. ‘Most concrete dems ‘and subsequent cracking Transverse joints For dams transverse joints normal to dam axis are given. These joints are 12-18 m centres ‘part, usual spacing being 15 m. These joints are thus man-made cracks (Fig. 5.7) which allow the contraction of the concrete on the two sides to relieve thermal stresses The edges uu ONT ee CORTE HOR aR TYPICAL LAYOUT ~SPILLAY & IDOE: te UeeonermacTion JONTS! Som TRAe nom sone TYMEAL LAYOUT Im FENSTOCK BLOCK: Fig 5.7. Typical location of contraction joints, Of the transverse or contraction joint at the face are chamferred to give a pleasing appearance ‘and to avoid spalling. Such chamfers are 4x4 om on non-overflow blocks and 2x2emon the downstream face of overflow blocks. 2. Longitudinal joinis As height of the dam increases, base thickness approaches limiting dimension beyond which condition, favourable to vertical cracking parallel to axis, is created. To prevent uncontrolled cracks, longitudinal joints are provided. They serve the same purpose in one block of the dam as the transverse joints in the dam #8 a whole. Spacings of these joints vary fiom 8 m (usually at the downstream face of dam) to 30 m (at the upstream face—Fig. 5.8). ‘Where the longitudinal joint approaches the downstream face of the dam, the joint is turned normal to the fice to avoid featheredging of concrete. A gap is often provided at the inclined portion of the joint which is later dry packed. Extension of longitudinal joints in the ‘upsteeam face is undesirable and these should be terminated at a minimum distance of 4-5 m from the face. These joints are staggered in adjacent blocks,GRAVITY DAMS. 143 Ha Ge Fig.5.8, Longitudinal joints and cooling zones—Fontana das, U.5.A. Such joints have beca provided in our country in Bhakra dam only. ‘A typical plan of grouting system for transverse joints is shown in Fig. 5.9 and tho routing system for the longitudinal joints is shown ia the elevation exhibited in Fig. 5.10. ‘The grout is injected into the longitudinal system through the eupply header and enters each section of the joint through the piping system. Outlets are spaced at intervals along the forizontal keys. The excess water and thin grout are drained from the vent groove at the top of the lift EXPLANATION eeu t i ig 3.9. Couling pipes actangoment at contraction joint. Bletaion showing header ond rier pipe layout (limensions in mm).150 CONCRETR DAMS Top oF 1500 tts © woty seaeer ‘© retum ine | His 5.10. ‘Typical eleration of loogittnalarouting system (mesons In ny If some essential header should become plugged accideatally during construction, and the header could not be uilized, the system is designed so that an altemate header eovid te used: Tic plan of the longitudinal headers is shown in Fig. S.11. Normally the gront would bs injected into the supply header; ifthe supply header could aot be used, the jpiets could be grouted through the 40 mm return header, Dee an ic Fig. 5.11. Typical plan of grout headers for Fig, 5.12, Typical plaa of grout groovee and vent ‘oogitudinal contraction joints. lines for Longitudinal contraction joints. The vent system of the longitudinal joints is shown in Fig. 5.12. This system is arranged to that cach group 15 m by 15m section has a veat return. Riser pipes terve ns stand pies to hold hydrostatic pressure on the grout in the joint, similar to the function of the visere oa ‘the vents ia. the transverse system.GRAVITY DAMS 3. Construction joints ‘Concrete is placed in the dam in lifls which are generally 1.5 m high. To develop proper bond between the lifts, the lift surface is freed of all laitance, , stains, defective con- crete and all foreign material and the surface is roughened. Such joint between the old and fresh concrete is Known as construction joint. | pee Fig 5.12. Shear Keys typical details ote sro atic ee eu aay Rite pone Ta Pt SURFACE CONNECTION ETA he ovis experton rs z EXPLANATION werent, TP “THeRMOCOUPLE WE. be 40.5% PiPe HEAD ein 738 Abernccssak protons dacs ot sorsinatt canes asd ae Beat hr ‘orSsieet® Pee Sa ie i i Nisley i Wiest mt ne Mh st Fig. 5.18. Cocling pipe layout, Glen Canyon dam, USA.152, ‘coNcaETE DAMS A. Keys Provision of shear keys (Fig. 5.13) in joints enables transfer of stress from one block to the otbér through shear. These days such keys are given only in longitudinal joins, 5,$/ Coouino Annaxomievrs cnc Caner dams, cooling is mostly done by precooling the aggregais and placing the concrete in forms at sufficiently tow temperatures. The placement temperature is fined in euch & manner 2s to resultin aise above the stable temperature less than what could cause crackit 1 in the concrete. This cooling may be done either only by precooling aggregates ete. (as done at Rihand dam) or by also embedding thin walled tubing in concrete and passing, water through these (as was done at Bhakra dam, India and Fontana dam, U.SA.—Fig. 5.8), Layouts of cooling pipes for Glen Canyon and Monticello dams, U. Figs. 5.14 and 5.15. respectively, are shown in DOWNSTREAM ELEVATION Fig. 5.15. Cooling pipes nyout, Monticello dam, Calif, U.S.A.GRAVITY DAMS 153, WS.6 Warerstors ar Jonts ‘The waterstops are provided. in transverse. joints for stopping the flow of water joint and flow of grout outsideit. In longitadinal joints the only function of water stops or waterseals is to retain the grout. Usually copper (20 gauge) water stops are used. Recently monel (an alloy of nickel and copper) water stops have been used. Stainless steel stops are also being used. Sometimes rubber (more populat now) and polyvinyl chloride water stops are also used. Some details of water stops are shown in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17 BRONTE MecHINE scat COUNTER Sum sranpano_werag 1118 H1002) eas ns Fig 5.16, Some typical details of water stops. “The usual practice is 1o provide two water stops of copper or mone! with an asphalt seal in-between. The longitudinal joints are provided with Z-type while the transverse joints are provided with U- or M-type water stops or seals. Construction joints are sometimes ‘provided with A or Z-type seal to preveat scepage along the joint when some opening is locat- fed close to the face, The distance of tho first sal from the upstream face in ungrouted contraction joints is about 0.6-0.9 metre. ‘The pipes inside the asphalt well are installed for melting asphalt by pasting steam and adding more asphalt at a later poriod. Another meial seal is placed downstream of asphalt teal, The purpose of the seal isto limit the travel of asphalt along the joint in-between the {wo seals and to make the seal effective. Further, downstream open drains (called formed drains) about 15 t0 20 cm diameter at 3m centre to centreare provided parallel to dam axis,134 ‘SECTIOWAL PLAN COMTRALTION sone roars METAL WATER STOP: SLACENENT O° Tal Zp comrancrion sow Fig. 5.17. Some typical layouts of water stops. 5.7 CLosina Gaps Closing gaps are provided in-between blocks for adverse conditions due to temperature $Mects, foundation requirements, unusual size of structure’ and in stage construction” Thee Ae chied twist slots, shear slots or temperature control slots depending upoa the purpose for hich they ate provided. These are usually 1.5 metres or 40 in width or diameter’ Twat Hots at Grand Coulee dam were 1.81 metres wide and extended from the foundation to the ‘op of dam. “During construction these were closed at the upetteam and downstream ergyonaviry DAMS ass and were fled with sand, Latet_when the dam was bie 2 oad and fall deflec- and were fred, the sand was pumped, out and gap was SIO Ut concrete. ce ot in dams comprise of open verial joint ocatel 2o°e the fault zones where smoveents ny be exyeced. These gaps are not DICK Hed ‘with concrete crate rarore controaots are back filed inthe coldest soso ‘hea the adjacent blocks are at minimum volumes. 6 5% Fortes Acrixa on Dam A gravity dam derives its stability from the forae of BY of the mate Sed ‘nttes the mame. The gravity, dam bes sutton, y!8ht = an ees etorning moment caused by the water impouneed he snd the ovege tn the founations ty cantilever action amd Renee ‘good foundations are pre- requisite for the gravity dam LA. Forces causing stability: (@) Weight of the dam. @) The thrust of the tail water. 2. Forces causing instability: (@) Reservoir water pressure. (6) Uplift. {6 Foroes due 10 waves inthe reservoir (@) Tee pressure, fe) Temperature siresses. (f) Barth and silt pressure {g) Seismic forces. {0 Wind pressure. 5 -Clasifation of loading for desien reat Tyads: They are Tho%e wader the combines action of which the dam shal! pave edaquate stability, and the factor of safety and permet fe stresses in the dam shall Peoxeceded. ‘These loads are : () Water presen Corresponding to full reservoirlove (i Miaghr of dam and structure abore its and (i) Unit a rel loads: ‘These are the londs which in combination with normal loads encroach upon “ihe factor of safety and increase the allowable sresint ‘although remaining lower than the Higher emergency stress mits. Suck Toads re: () ‘ligher water pressure during floods: (1) Mae pressure; (i) silt prosrace; (7) Earthauake Fores: ‘and (») Toe thrust, A pres Combinavons: Designs sould be based on the 0 ‘adverse combination of “probable load conditions, but should inclnde ‘only those loads having resonsble probability ‘Prepmirayeoes. occurrence. U.SBR. (Design SUPPCHT No. 2, Chapter 2) specifies oer aurea! and ‘Extreme’ toad combinations 8 Po0%, aay it oad Combination; Normal design ressrvsis Cees ‘with appropriate dead toed ee and ait GF applicable), and normal ups IF Temperature loads are applicable, iminionom usual temperatures are £0 De ti nial Load Combination: Maximum reveryoir Gv with appropriate dead load, aii Grapplcable), normal uplift, minimum emperor f applicable and tail water. (apr eiaad Combination: Normal design reervoir AVAL ‘with appropriate dead load si ena ice Gf applicable), uplift normal, minimum erperalire f applicable, tail water and186 ‘CONCRETE DAMS maximum credible earthquake. Other Studies @ Maximum design reservoir elevation with appeopriate dead loads, silt, minimum femperature occurring at that time if applicable, tail water and uplift with drains inoperative. @) Any of the above loading combinations for foundation stability. (i) Any other loading combination considered desirable by the designer. “Reservoir Empty ©. Enply reservoir (without earthquake) should be computed for reinforcement design, grouting studies, or other purposes, \_@ Construction stage-reservoir empty, earthquake considered but no wind load. “The Indiaa standard erteria (18: 6512-1972) lay sites on the most alvene lord combi- nation A. B, C, D, E, F or G given below using the safety factors prescribed: (@ Load combination A (Construction conditios)—Dam completed but no water in reservoir and no tail water. (6) Load combination ® (Normal operating condition)—Full reservoir elevation, normal dry weather tailwater, normal uplift; ice and sil (if applicable), (c) Load combination © (Flood discharge. condition) —Reservoit at maximam flood Fog rations all gates open, tailwater at flood elevation, normal uplift and sit (it appl cable), (4) Load combination D—Combination A with earthquake. (©) Load combination E—Combination B with earthquake, ) Lead combination F—Combination C, but with extreme uplift drains inoperative) (2) Lead combination G—Combination E, but with extreme uplift (rains inoperative, 5.9. Types oF Loans 59.1_Dead loud Zhe dead load to be considered comprise the weight of the concrete or masonry or both plus the weight of such appurtenances as piers, gatos and bridges. The unit weight of com, orete/masonry may be taken as 2.3-2.4 t/m* or as per actual test data, The cross-section of the dam may be divided into several triangles and rectangles and the Rights Wh, Wy Ha ete, of each of these may be conveniently computed along with thir nes ‘of action. The total weight WW of the dam acts atthe oentre of gravity of the section, The dam can also be loaded as astrut between the valley wall, duc either 10 tectonic fucsses or to swelling of the rock mass after saturation. Secondary stress may also be Eedtecd from deformability of the foundation (tit) and both deformability and. steepness of the abutment (twist). (Fig. 5.18), Other factors that may cause local stressing and cracking are alkali-aggregate reactions ‘and attack by ageressive water.ORAVITY DAMS 17 STRUTTING EFFECT yey OR DAM WAIL=y Sb rig 3:18 Medifeation of drt of regional cmpresion In Wein of 5.9.2 Reservoir and tailwater loads “hough dhe weight of water varies slightly with tempesatats the variation is usually ignored, In.case of low overfiow dams, the dynamic ‘effect. of velocity of approach may be significant and should be considered. 5.9.3 Water pressure on dam 8 9 yatee pressure on dams.can be calculated by the law of hydroralics, ‘wherein the pressure ‘avany depth "is piven by wh’ (sqm) aeting normal tO the surface. Where the dam has viouieg upsrcam face, the water preamre. can be resalved into its horizontal and vertical aoprvdacns; the vertical comporent being given by the weinht of WalrE prism on the upstream compo tet verdeally downwards through the centre of gravity of the water ares supporied ‘on the dam face. rain io Fig, 5-19 the total horizontal pressure. (H) on & section of the dam Pet wait Re158 ‘CONCRETE DAMS Tength of dam is given by wh'/2 (in t), where w is unit weight of water = 1t/m* and A is height in m. The vertical weight 7, can be evaluated by the area of the trapezium and multiplied by 1, the unit weight of water. ‘The total horizontal pressure acts ata distance h/3 from the base of dam, hence the moment about base, in t.m.—(oh?/6), The weight of the water Rowing over the top of the spillway isnot considered in the analysis since the water usually approaches spouting velocity and exerts litle pressure on the spillway rest. The centrifugal force exerted by the flowing water on the curved surfaces of the dam, eg. bucket etc. may be taken into consideration where significant. If gates or other control features ate used on the crest they sre treated as part of the dam so far as application of water Pressure is concerned. \ Tn spillway sections, when the gates are closed, the water pressure can be worked out in the same manner as for non-overflow section except for the vertical load of watet on the dam itself, During overflow, the top portion of the pressure triangle gets truncated (Fig. 5.20) anda trapezium of pressure acts. If there is come negative pressure downstream of rest, it has {to be added to this pressure a APRORIMATE pis Pig. 3.20, Water pressure on #9 The pressure dic to tailwater is obiained by the same manner as for the upstream reservoir water, TailWater pressure adjusted for any retrogression should be taken at full value for ‘non-overflow sections and at a reduced value for overflow sections depending on the type oflonAviTY DAMS. 159 | ceerey dissipation arrangement adopted and anticipated water profile downstream, The fll | value of corresponding tailwater is however used in the case of uplift. | am arth and silt pressures pee se siein tented as saturated cohesionless silt having full uplift and whose value of internal friction i not materially changed on account of submergence, cae The weight and pressure of submerged silt is to be taken in addition to the water weight ard pressure, The weight ats Vertically on the slope and pressure horizontally exactly in the fame way as the corresponding forces due to water. | Sas Yortvontal silt and water pressure” is assumed 0 be equivalent to that of uid’ weigh- jag 1 36 Ja? and the horizontal pressure due to si Toad is taken a3(0.36 h/2), where, hy the height to which the silt would be deposited. The combined horizontal presture due to eMail would therefore be 1.36 (Ii'f2). For calculating the vertical pressure, the Geasity of the water and silt may be taken as 1.925 ym xpeimantal and aaalytical procedures have both showa that an earthquake accelrs up wo about 0.3 g is only about half as effective inst o sil masses, asi sin water. This is deere is internal shear Fesistance ofthe soil, Since he unit weight of water is nearly balf that Gf silt, the increase in silt pressure Jue to earthquake is ignored, (© 595. uplift pressures pr Uplift forces occur as internal pressures in pores, cracks and seams within. the body of the damiat the contact of dam and foundations and-within the foundations, It is revogniaed | tharthere are two constituent elements in uplift pressure; the area factor or the percentage of aon which uphit acts and theintensity factor or the ratid which the actual intensity of upkit fressure bears tothe intensity gradient extending from heid water to tilwater at various points. Titective drainage downstream, whether natural or artifcial limits the uplift at the te of the dam to tailwater pressure Formed drains in the body of the dam drainage holes drilled ubsequeat to grouting in the foundation end maintained properly, are effective in giving = partial reli 10 the uplift pressure intemiics wader and in the body of the dam. In any Par Gbservation of the behaviour of the dam will indicate the uplift pressures actualy acting sas structure and when the uplift pressures are seen to approach or exceed design pressures, prompt remedial measures should necessarily be taken to lower the uplift pressures to values Pojow the design pressures. Theoretical uplift pressure reduction caused ty drainage is shown ja Fig, 5.21, However, for practical purposes the following criteria are adopted. Criteria: The following design criteria are recommended for calulating uplift frees: Gi “Opie pressure distribution ia the body of the dam is assumed to have an intensity which atthe ling of the formed drains exceed the tailvater pressure by one-third the differen- Jal betncen reservoir level andtallwater head. The presture gradient js taken varying linearly te heads corresponding to reservoir lvel and tailwater level. The uplift is assumed to act (ver 100 per cent of the area (Fig. $.22). Incase of highly jointed and broken foundation, Rowever, the pressure distribution may be required to be based on electrical analogy oF other inthods of aralysis taking into consideration the foundation condition after the treatment proposed. The uplift shall be assumed to act over 100 per cent of the a oth). Fér the extreme loading conditions F and G (1S code 6512-1972), when drains are160 ConcRETE DAMS inoperative, the uplift is taken as varying linearly from the appropriate reservoir water Pressure at the upstream face to the appropriate tailwater pressure at the downstream face, If the reservoir pressure at the section under consileration exceeds the vertical normal stress (computed without uplift) at the upstream face, a horizontal crack is assumed to. exist and to fess Fig. 5.21. Theoretical uplift pressure reduction caused by drainage. ene A amar eras noses Fig 5.22, UplitterieriaGRAVITY DAMS 161 extend from the upstream face toward the downstream face of the dam to the point where the Vertical normal stress (computed on the basis of linear pressure distribution without uplift) ‘is equal to the reservoir pressure st that elevation. The uplif is assumed to be the reservoir pressure from the upstream face to the end of the erack and from there to vary linearly to the tailwater pressure at the downstream face.) The uplift is assumed to act over 100 per cent of the area (Fig, 5.23), fi (©) No redaction in uplif is assumed at the downstream toc of spillways on account of the reduced water surface elevation (relative to tailwater elevation) that may be expected immediately downstream of the structure. (0 Wis assumed that uplift pressures are not affected by earthquakes, besause of their transitory nature. neseavein vever SF] (Sh UeSTae an Face je CHS FTESSTSEA TOURISME ee Sete SES cege 4 UPLIFT Pmessune pIAGRAM BeTORE cor Fig $.2% Pressure diagram ‘The sone beyond oracked width B up to dowasiceum face ‘comitituter area under compression 59.6 Seismic forces Seismic forces envisage the consideration of loads on the structure during an earthquake, ‘The physical action of the earthquake is to cause tremors in the structures, which collapse when the shaking is severe. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the basis ‘of damage caused by it. The effect of an earthquake is to impart a momentary acceleration to ‘earth crust in the direction in which the wave is travelling at that instant. The intensity scales, in terms of a fraction of g, acceleration due to gravity, are based on the acceleration of vibra- tory motion. The rating according to modified Mercalli scale is given in Table 5.162 ‘concrete 94 1. Varthquake Intensity Seales Modified Mereali Earthquake Intensity Seale (Abridged) lass of ‘ects Ground carihquake 1 [Not felt except by a very few under apecilly favourable circumstances. u Feit only bya few persons at rest, spesilly 09 upper floors of buildings and deliately suspended objects nay swing. un Fat quite noticeably intoors, specially on. wpper floors of buildings but 0.008 « monty people do. aotvecognizeit as an earthavake: standing motor ars ‘may rock lightly; and vibraton tay be fle like the passing of a track, w Daring the day, felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few: at night some ole awakened; dishes, winfows, doots disturbed; walls make creaking sound, sensation like heavy. truck siiking the buikling; and standing motor ears y Fett by nearly everyone; many awakened; some dishes, windows, broken; few fostanoes of eraskel plaster; urstable objects overturned: Aisturbanas of tees, poles, and other tall object otced sometimes; and perduium clocks may sto “ Flt by all, many’ frightened and rue outdoor; some heavy furitare 0.05 g moved: a few instances of fullon plaster or damged chimneys anc slight damage. wu Everybody runs outdoors, damage nestizible in buiings of good design Ole and construction: sight to moderate in well built ordinary structures: some ‘himneys broken} noticed by persons driving. motor cars. vat Damage stight in spesialy designed structures; considerable in ordinary ‘but substantial bulldings wim partial collapse; very heavy tn poorly allt Steucturen; panel walls thrown out of framed structure, falling of chisaney, faowory stacks, columns, monuments walls; heavy ferniire overturned, sand and mud ejected in small amounts; changes in well water; and dia turbe persons driving motor cars. * Damage considerable in specially designed structures: well designed framed O58 Hrvetures thrown out of plumb; very heavy in substantial buildings with partial collapse; buildings shifted off foundations, ground cracked con- spiewously; and underground pipesbroken, x Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry ad framed te structures with foundations destzoyed;, ground bauly stacked; rails boats landslides considerible from river banks and stoep slopes: chited sand ‘nd mad and_ water splashed over tanks xt Foy, ifary. masonry structures remain standing: brides destroved:beoad fissares in grours, underground pipe lies completely out of service; earth slumps and landblides in soft ground; and rails ben greatly. xt ‘Tovat damage; waves seen on ground surfaces line of sight and level dite Sa. {orted; and objects throwa upward into the air, Such intensity maps are available for the whole country. Such @ map for India is shown in Fig. §.24. The earthquake wave may travel at any inclination theough the foundation; itis usual to consider a vertical and horizontal aeceloration acting separately. Unless otherORAVITY DANS 163 wise stated, horizontal seismic coefficient for static design in different zones. shall be taken as follows: Zone No. Horizontal seismic coefficient 1 0.01 1 0.02 ri 0.04 Vv 0.05 v 0.08 ‘Theoretical calculations indicate that the distribution of hydrodynamic pressure dus to ancarthquake on the upstream face of dam is nearly parabolic. The following formula of ULSBR. (given by C.N. Zangat) may be used to evaluats pressure intensity due to,earthquh~ (assuming an elliptical-cum-parabolic distribution of pressures). p= Cx wih cy where p, = Pressure intensity in tim ‘2 = Horizontalseismic coefficient, «.g.0.1 in earthquake acceleration intensity of O. 1g. S yy a¢| er TE Mh avitian tech ‘Thubeneswes| nw 76 (UO a we 3 Fig. 5.24 Scismic zones in Tadis.164 CONCRETE DAMS w= Unit weight of water = 1 1/m?, ‘= Maximum depth of reservoir in m. 6.3) RS f| r $ V/ f Wits or meet oF ce om He vRTEALCeuatt> * & pe } oe 8 a rseasune COUNT (AD WYORODYHANIC PRESSURE ON THE FACE OF A AM we 3 ay messin cotmenur x * iB oF Fig. $.25. Constant in Zanga’s formula for bydrodyamie pressure. where 2 — Depth in m from top of reservoir to the point under consideration.| Gaauity DANS 165 Depends on upstream slope and is approximately equal to 0.73 (0/90"); the more correct value can be seen from Fig. $.25. 5 = Angle in degrees that the upstream slope of the dam makes with the horizontal, The totalfpressure P, on the portion of the dam up to depth = from top is given by: P= 0.726pez 6.3) The moment M, about the plane, up to which pressure is taken, is given by | M, = 0.3pect 6.4) A horizontal acceleration towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in water |) pressure as the foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the ‘movement owing to its inertia. Thus the force is taken acting in the opposite direction of the earthquake acceleration. ‘When the upstream face is partly vertical and partly sloping, two cases arise: (i) when the vertical portion is more than half the depth, the entire face is taken vertical; and (ii) when | the vertical portion is ese than half the depth, the slope of the face is given by the line joining the heel to the water surface level at the upstream face. Effect of vertical earthquake acceleration ‘On account of earthquake the gravity acceleration is increased or decreased according to the direction of earthquake tremor thereby affecting the weight of both masonry and water | inthe same proportion, [The increase in gravity acceleration in downwatd direction therefore uses incregse in weight of both the dam andthe water and they have to be multiplied by /(i'544) while decrease in gravity acceleration which results due to_upward movement causes decrease of weight which bave then to be multiplied by (1—,) (2,=vertical earthquake acceleration coefficient). Consequently stresses may be computed directly from stresses for normal conditions. However, the effect on horizontal water and silt pressure may be neglected for small and medium dams (C.W.C. criterion), Thus the net effect of the vertical earthquake ‘acceleration may be summarised as below. 1. On sloping faces of the dam the weight of the water above the slope should be modified by the appropriate acceleration factor: 2. The unit weight of the concrete should also be modified by this acceleration factor. 3. For high and important dams, the components of water pressure normal to the upstream face of the dam is modified by the given acceleration factor, i.e. taken as Tha, or 1a, times the normal pressure, _-ffect of earthquake on spiltways The fact that the water flowing over the spillway crest is not restrained may probably seduce the earthquake force below the crest as well. Creager and Justin have given force and ‘moments for such eases in terms of percentage of force and moment om nton-overflow sections. 18H, and h represent the head of water abovs the spillway crest and the total depth of water respectively, the percentages of forve and moments due to carthquake may be taken as given in Table 52. e166 ‘CONCKETE DAMS ‘Table 5.2. Recommended reduced values of prvesoren and moments, Ratio Bt Percentage of force Percomage of moment 0.0 00 2.0 80 33.0 26.0 no 30 90.0 80.0 100.0 100.0 Resonance ‘The consideration of seismic loads on gravity dams has two aspects—effect of vibration of the body of the'dam and the effect on water pressure. As far as the effects on the dam ‘are concerned the problem centres around finding suitable acceleration for design. Secondly, it has got to be assured that the natural period of vibration of the dam does not coincide with the period of earthquake. The period of vibration of gravity dams is calculated by Westergaard formula, i T= oe 69 where = height of dam in im. b= base width of dam in m, 1 = potiod of vibration in secs, ‘The period of vibration of gravity dams is very low while the least petiod of vibration of fan earthquake is one second. \_59.7 Ware pressure Wind Set-up Wind blowing continuously or In repeated regular gusts from one direction, creates shear Aisplacement of water towards one end of a reserwoir (extreme values Lake Geneva 2.1 Lake Erie 2.5 m., Lake Okeechobee Florida 2,1 m usual values ate about one-tenth of these), Zaidor Zee Project Formula VF cos « = Rios (5.6) where S = wind setup (m). V — velocity of wind (m/sec). F = fetch (km). d = average depth of reservoir (1 isle of wind with fetch. = a constant—about 62000. s“oRAVITY DAMS 167 ‘The above value may be multiplied by the following factors, to allow for higher wind yelocities 10 m above the reservoir surface. ‘Fetch (km) 1 2 4 8 12 Wind ratio Over water/over land 1.1 sete age tage at ’eind loving over the reservoit afea causes 2 dragon the surface. The effect of the ag isto pull the top surface along the direction of wind and thus ripples and waves are formed. she following formulae given by D.A. Molitor-Sievenson (1935) may be used to evaluate the height of waves hy 0.032. FoF + 0.763-0.271 FU for F< 32 km. 7) and hy = 0.032 of VF. for F > 32 km, 6.8) where ty ~ height of waves in metre. V = wind velocity in km per bosr. F = fetch or the straight length of expanse in km. ‘the maximum pressure intensity due to wave (ia fm) is piven by the formule pe 24 Wie 9) ‘and occurs 0.125, above the still water level ‘The total pressure (in 1) is given by the relation Py = 2.0. hit 6.19) tai thie moment (in tm} can be found with respect to. the centroid of the pressure diagram (Fig, 5.26) which is 0.375hy above reservoir level. OBSTRUCTED CREST APPROX PRESSURE LINE UNOBSIRUCTED CHEST Fig 5.26, Wind pressure and wave diagram Stevenson formula is applicable for wind speeds of about 100 km/hour, It is conser: sive for low wind specds but would under esimate waves for high wind speeds, For wave168 ‘coNcRETE heights 0.3 to 2 m, the wind velocity io m/s cam be. approximately determined DD. Gaillard’s (1935) formula Vm NS HZ hy cc Free board for wave action may be taken spproximately equal to 0.15 hy + V2/29, Modern studies reer to the “significant wave height" (2,) which is the mean’ beight thehighest third of the waves ina train. “The following formula may be used to deve relationships. K.Y. Taylor (1973) ‘ronsn = 0.624 iyi yy (mean of highest 10) = 1.29 4, frost = 1.78 10 1.87 hy ‘hzcan be determined as below: US. Ammy (T-M. No, 132-1962) shi V = 0.0026 (g)¥3)p47 4h, height of significant wave in metres. Ss ©) 5.9.8 Wind pressure Jn designing & dam section, wind pressure is generally: not-considered, However, Considered, it may be taken as 100 to 150 kgjm* for the area exposed to the wind preisure, 5.9.9 Force due to temperature variation The forces due to variation in temperature are of secondary importance in gravity dams since these only cause secondary stresses, © 5.9.10 Tee thrust At high altitudes, the reservoir gets covered with a sheet of ice depending upon the locae lity, Duco sudden increase in temperature of atmosphere, the tempetatute of the ice heat also increases and thrust is caused by the expanding tendency’ of ice Sheet. As the coefficient of thermal expansion of ie in five times that of concreis, the dam. fuce esits the cupantion ofiee andthe water trees a estas on ee hon cen kg/m? of contact surface is considered adequate on this account. Desiga charts to evaluate ice ‘thrusts are also available, is force is not important for Indian Projects, except for reservoirs at very igh eleva | 9SH0 Bumumrany PROFILE OF A Graviry Daw / Uwe consider only hydrostatic force, the elementary profile will be triangular in section” ~ it: 5.21, having zero width at the water level, where waterpressure is 2et0, and « macinap base width *', where the maximum water pressure acts. Thus the section of the slementasy Brofile js similar to the shape of hydrostatic pressure distribution diagram, ‘The ‘same profile will provide the maximum possible stabilising force against overturning, without causiag jenaion at the base, If any olbeetrianguiar profile, other than sight spled onc is provided, ils weight will act closer to the upstream face, which will cause tension at the toe, ke oaGRAVITY Dams * 169 Fig. 5.27, Gravity dam—elementary profi triangular profile the resultant, in case of empty reservoir condition—the gravity load only acts at a distance of b/3 from the heel, is. at the extreme upstream midcle third point, (© Minimum base width required for elementary profile under different design conditions 1. Dom safe against overturning (no uplift) ‘Taking moments about toe. (Fig. 3.27) Moment of W about toe= “*! ‘Moment of #1 atout toe =~ For safoty = 1 tm), ie. b > 0.4564. | 2% Dam safe against overturning (uplift considered—triangular distribution) From Fig, 5.27, we have for stability emih® vi want 3 6 eon sil 23. Dam safe against overturning. (uplift considered—full uplift of intensity “wh on full base wich) =a) 3 0-595, ie. b > 0.595 Werth sli? wat oa ee >o170 concent or m2 Lomig > 0-18, 10,0 2 0.148 Dam: safe against sliding (uplift not considered) From safety considerations i gyay > 0982 Le b> 0.9804, ‘No tension in the dam (xplift not considered) Stresses due to gravity loads only wo ()-F( 14" Stresses due to™Z™ (moment due to water thrust) wt wht _ wh 6 = BO me Hence by combining the two values wh = eh For no tension woh > or m> | > 0.665 We 2W ayGRAVITY DAMS m (<1. Vertical compressive stress at each level should exceed the water pressure at that point, for allowing wphft (Mauric Lety's criterion) This means (from condition 6) Ale— Se] > me we» "maf sitsla ISS OE ols telah coy criterion 6 os. Dam safe for no tension with triangular uplift considered Considering Fig. 5.27 and criterion 6, the effect of uplift is to reduce compressive stress at heel dueto gravity load. The new compressive stress will now be (we—W) h. For no tension condition. (vem) b>“ or m> Jims > 0.845, ie. the same ctiterion as given by Lewy. 5.11 EXAMPLES oN ELEENTAPY PROFILES om sa frove that the maximum shear stress intensity in an elementary proiile is twice the Maximum shear stress at toc = op tan go In elementary profile, for no tension at heel, i.e. zero stress G0 = ME (ree case 6 ia section 5.10) hie Ta oe Ayo =F 1 fo = 5 m= St Avera ons = "Ah ‘A. Maximum shear stress = 2 average shear stress. example 5.2 x ‘Determine the safe height of a dam having elementary profile for the maximum compress~ ive stress of 140 1/m* (uplift intensity factor = 2/3). ‘Solution uo = sea case 6 in section 5.10).m2 CONCRETE [Now from condition 8 in section 5.10 (w,—k.w) his alo equal to “* or is equal to (& is uplift intensity factor). Maximum compressive stress may be taken as equal to cup $0244 = con (I+ mt). Ta this case (ee — kwh (1 + mt) = given stress ‘p” Pp Rae . = 0. — kwh Limiting height of the dam = mae 2 or, (14 5 hesera=e To thiscase w, = 2.4t/m,W = 1t/m* k = 0.67; p = 140 t/m* 140 _ 140 G A= aa 508~ 278 fe ‘Sree nr Srer Meruop oF DrtikuisaTion ce Proms oF 4 Dam (CReAcaR, Justi ye ‘np Hips" Merion) Gravity dam has definite successive design zones, which limit the verticality of upstream face and slope of the downstream face. These zones are discusted below: Zone A: ‘The top section of the dam has its upstream and downstream faces. verti “The sldth is xed by rondway or otber practical requirements. The height above the is fixed by the desired free-board or pressure considerations. The limiting height of this is the lowsst plane which the resultant cats at the downstream middle third, or at which the allowable sliding coefficient is exceeded. eB: The upstream Tace is kept vertical, while the downstream face is inclised to keep the resultant at or within the downstream middle third for the ‘reservoir full” condition The limiting height for this zone is the lowest plane which the resultant for the tres ‘empty’ conditions cuis the upstream middle third, a "Zone C: The upstream and dowaitream faces are inclined so as to keep the at of within either middle thied limit for both ‘reservoir full! and ‘reservoir empty’ con: ‘The limiting height for thie zone isthe plane at which the downstream toe reaches its maxi permissible value _ Zone D: The dowostream face inclination is incteased to limit the downstream strose to the permissible maximumvalue, The upstream face inclination may be increased keep the resultant for the ‘reservoir empty” condition inside or at the upstream middle“onaviTy DAMS ia ‘The limiting height for this zone is the plane at which the upstream heel stress reaches its ‘maximum permissible value. Fig, $28. Profle showing limiting design zones—after Creager, Justin, and Hinds one E: The upstream and downstream face inclinati nd downstream stress limitations, The shape of the dam obtained by such method is as shown. in Fig, 5.28. However, for fn construction, such 2 profile is not adopted, sare governed by the upstream {13 Tor Wiprit ax Free Boar The top width of a gravity dam is generally fixed by the provision of roadway and side all, The economical top width of a dam is about 14% of the height of dam. The usual ths provided vary from 6 to 12 metres. The free board in the dam should be ample to avoid overtopping of the dam during gximum flood coupled with waves. Usually a free-board of 1.5hy [iw is the height or wave ulated by the equation (5.1) or (5.8)} is given, The economical free-board is approximately analyses. are: (1) Gravity method; (2) Pigeaud’s method; load method;(4) Slab analogy method; (5) Lattice analogy method; (6) Finite method; and (7) Experimental methods. | Qut of these th: gravity analysis is based on the assumption of linear variation of normal sn horizontal planes which in reality is 101 Pigcaud’s method, made obligatory Fiance by the istue of a Ministerial circular in October 1923, uses the application of the | boty of elasticity to the theoretical triangular profile, ‘The stresses are tinear functions of174 CONCRETE coordinates and are of same form as given by gravity analysis. Other methods 3 to 7 ia non-linear distribution of vertical normal stress. ‘A brief application of different methods is reviewed below. 1. The gravity method of stability The stability calculations are based on the consideration of the dam composed of a of vertical cantilever elements; a unit element of the dam being contained between two v planes a unit distance apart at the base line or axis, and normal to it. The unit element considered independent ofits neighbours. The dam transfers the loads to the foundations cantilever action. Most of the gravity dams are designed by this method which will be di in more details in section 5.16. 2, Pigeand’s method The crest of the profile (Fis. 5.29) is taken as the origin of coordinates, of which OX} horizontal and OY is vertical, Fig 5.29. Vigeaud's method —defintion sketch From theoretical derivations (not given here), the elastic stresses are of the form ofe) where pV Pp and a — tan! 5, we pet on = at + HY 6 oy = aye + yy 6 tay = ex + dy (5 ‘The values of these coefficients are derived as follows: wan. (mn) won (2 min-+ ni) ‘ee (mt ny® (at ny “Dae 8), wea (on 3 = 28) be ata (tap ee =welm=n), w(2—3an— mp = mee tha :“GRAVITY DAMS, 5 Me 0828) _w (m= n— tn aka eae om cam i Apion facets vertical ), we have 8 = Osa = — Ey Me 6.20) ay (5.22) = (5.23) Tn the case of the reservoir empty, we have w = 0 and values of co-efficients, become amb; ea Me 5, =0;b, = was d the stresses are given by ee omni Boe | Trial load twist methods of analysis Fs viii A gravity dam is considered to be made up of & series of vertical cantilever from abutment to abutment, If the gorge is narrow, each cantilever from the centrs ‘the dam towards the abutments will be shorier than the preceding one. Consequently ‘cantilever will be deflected Jess by the water load than the preceding one and more than succeeding one. If the transverse contraction joints in the dam are keyed, the movements cantilever will be restrained by the adjacent ones. The longer cantilever will tend to ‘the adjacent shorter cantilever forward. and the shorter cantilever will tend to hold it This interaction between adjacent cantilever elements causes torsional moments, or which materially aifect the manner in which the water load is distributed between the elements in the dam. This changes the stress distribution from that found by the gravity analysis. Ifthe gorge is wide and. flat, the cantilevers in the central portion the dam are of about the same length, the effects of twist are usually negligible. How. wist effects may be important in the abutment regions where the length of the cantilevers176 concnere ‘changes rapidly. This twist action tends to twist the cantilever from their seats on the slo canyon walls, thus tending to develop cracks in the dam in these regions. ‘A gravity dam is assumed to be divided into a number of vertical and horizontal These clements are assumed to make up the cantilever structure and the twisted sti each of which occupies the entire volume of the dam. The cantilever structure abut the foundation and transfer thereto the dead load and a portion of the total external loads sravity action only. Thesecantilevers carry external load downward to the foundation by and shear along horizontal planes without being restrained by the twisted structure el The cantilever is. subjected to two types of deformation; bending caused by flexure and sion caused by shear in each cantilever clement. The twisted structure consists of vertical twisted elements with the same structural perties as the cantilever in the cantilever structure; and of horizontal elements which, subjected to shear only, The vertical twisted elements resist no bending and shear, but only twisting moments. produced by the shear due to loads on the horizontal elements ofthe twisted structure, A major part of the deflection of the horizontal twisted structure elements is caused by the angular rotations of the cantilevers. The horizontal elements'sre segmental ind are incapable of resisting bending moments if the joins are not grouted. The canti and twisted structure are shown in Fig. 3.30. In order to make a twist analysis it is necessary ¢0 load the cantilever and twist structun, by trial, deflections adjusted at conjugate points and stresses calculated. Foundation constants Rotation and deformations of the foundation surface for unit moments and forces are ky = 2 function of Poisson's ratiovand/a (b—foundation length and a—foundation width. at = Rotation normal to foundation surface due to unit shear force per unit element ‘y= deformation in plane of foundation surface due to ky ofa E, shear force per nit element 4 deformation in plane of foundation surface duc to unit twisting: moment per wait (dn computing deformations for a particular element, the width a’ is made equal to 7, the daa thickness with unit width, making 7/b' — a/b or b' ~ (b/a) T). 'US.BR. has given curves to determine k, to k, for different v and b/a, The values of foundation constants for v = 0.2 and different b/a are given below:DANS in Canitevee Element Woriunta) Eleman ME CANTILEVER STRUCTURE DEFLECTION OF HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION OF HORIZONTAL ‘svsTEM ELEMENT DUE TO TWIST OF ELEMENT DUE TO SHEAR VERTICAL ELEMENTS DETRUSION ‘run TwisteD STRUCTURE. syste Horizontal element incapable of resisting hendiog, moment or torsional shear. Fig, $.30. Cantilever and twisted structure systemt—joints ungroute. ‘Table $.3, Values of foundations constunte: Poiston's ratio y oe 0.2 bi 02 05 10 15 20 30, 50 19,0 18.0 20.0 25 3.6 4:3 4.65 485 5,05 5.22 596 5 Sat By § | oat 0. 102 1.22 1.90 160 190 231 ass a7 Ee ‘ — = say sot 5.90 6.0 6.45 665 6. Be Bi ep Sees ttn Nk oR SOREN ck 8 at pc ee 4 " | ‘The final equations for the foundation movements of a unit horizontal element at either Abutment are given below. The algcbraic signs are as used for the left abutment, and the Asterisk (+ )indicates that signs are to be reversed for movements at the right abutment, “Oe = Max + Vay (5.24) y= Vit Many (5.25)concrete #6089 Y 4-8" sink Yeos y 3 © cost y 6 ‘Mz ~ bending moment in plane parallel to xy plane ¥ = horizontal thrust of water load = anzle detween canyor wall at eauilever Sase and the vertical, degrees In case of symmetrical dam Use B/a for a” and 7’ Use b/2a for 3° ‘The Real equations for movements of unit vertical element at either abutersnt of the are shown below: 0.= Mia + Voy (s M8 (6 A= Ve + Mea, ‘. where a sin? Y48" sin Y cost y G3 a sinh (6 S—¥ sinty +e! sing cosy ©: yersiny 6 Ay=deflection normal axis of dam Mzy = twisting moment in horizontal xy plane Mz ~ bending moment in plane paralle to y> plane Normal deflections of each cantilever due to initial loads and those due to unit nora ‘are calculated by the equation ES Staller t aon Je + Maa, (24H 4+ wer) (s Where Ye= shear in cantilever due to horizontal component of water load by cantilever, Subscript 4 indicates abutment value, Leaude hs concrete weight is assigned to the cantilevers entirely. ta the beginning, loads farthauake ‘concrete inertia both horizontal and vertical, vertical eit load, superstru toad, horizontal ice load, and static and hydrodynamic: vertical saatilevers. Prior to starting adjustmeuts the properties of cx determined for unit loads (as discussed in the chapter on arch dams). Rotations saat sptations of vertical twisted elements due io unit (angular ewsting couple siven as beiow (fer left side of dam179 My BGP Met aMey® (639) ‘modulus of elasticity of concrete in shear J =a factor — Bho™ longer side of he yatal cross-section of clement (In this case the elementis the block between two ung-outed “ontraction joints). € = shorter side of horizontal cross-section of elements, » Be = 1,00; 1.50; 1.75; 00; 2.50; 3,00; 4.00; 6.00 ; 8.00 ; 10,00; « 6 = 0.141; 0.196; 0.214; 0.225; 0.249; 0.263; 0.281; 0.299; 0.313; 0.333, ‘Unit deflections of horizontal elements of twisted structare are given by the equation oy [GPs tater (5.37) vhere k Constant which depends upon the ratio of the actual shear distribution to a shoar 3 sistributed uniformly K==3. and = 1.25 usually. ¥r = shear in horizontal element of twisted structure dus to horizontal component of ‘water load carried by the twisted structure, k= 1.28 and G = 57", the general equation ceduces'to the following for a uait Ty triangular toad BY = year UL — 31 8) + Bey (6.38) here L'is the length of the loaded portion measured from the abutment and xis the distance from the abutment to the point where deflection is desired. “For a uniform load yo Fey lx — 39 4+ Vay (5.39) where V, = shear at abutment. P ur load ordinate, 1 L = length of half clement. A = cross sectional area, For a.unit concentrated load ays 3B + vay (5.40) Trial loads After the computation of unit load deflections and rotations of honzontal and_ vertical dlemants, atrial division of the horizontal water thrust between the cantilever and twisted180 concert D structure is made. Generally the cantilevers carry greater pro oition of load at middle twisted structure at abutment, ‘The shear force due to trial normal loads on a horizontal element, at the location of aay vertical element, is equal to the area under the load diagram from the dividiag plane to vertical element under consideration. A twisting couple is produced in the vertical el 48 a result of shear force in the horizontal element at that point, numerically equal to sf in horizontal element (since widths of the vertical element is unity), By summing up the pective products of these couple loads rotations of vertical twisted elements due to unitt loads, the angular rotations in the vertical element are obtained. ‘The deflections of the twisted structures due to the angular rotations of vertical elemes are obtained by integrating the angular rotations slong the horizontal elements from the abi ‘ment to the dividing plane of the dam. ‘The other part is shear detrusion due to trial loads the horizontal element which is computed by summing up the respective products of the lo and the unit deflections of horizontal elements due to shear, The sum of these two ist total deflection of the twisted structure, The abutment moyorent of the particular verti clement of the cantilever structure may also be added. The total cantilever deflestion is product of trial load and unit deflection plus d due to initial load plus movement at the base of the cantilever due to shear at the ab of the conjugate horizontal clement, Stresses After agreement of the deflections at conjugate points, the total shears and ‘moments a various points in the cantilever may be computed, Stresses are ihen calculated and add algebraically to stresses due to concrete weight, : 2 Joints grouted Grouting reduces the deflections of the structure for a given loading, since both horiz tal and vertical elements of the dam are subject to bending and twisting and vertical planes, If the dam acts as a monolith, the deflections of the cantilevers, horizo beams and twisted structure due to trial divisions of water load among. the three systems m be brought into agreement in all parts of the dam. The longitudinal slope of cantilever equal the transverse slopes of horizontal element and vice vers ‘The adjustment is more complicated than for joints ungrouted, because three struct are used instead of two. The structural action of the elements may be assumed as follows: (1) The cantilever elements resist sheers in horizontal planes and bending in planes, (U) The horizontal beam elements resist shears in vertical planes and beading in horizon tal planes. (Ud) The twisted structure resist twisting moments and shears in horizontal and ver planes, Equation 5.35 is used for computing cantilever deflection due to initial loads and due uuait normal loads. ‘The angular rotations of cantilevers in horizontal planes are given by tl equation 0 = BHF + Mt 6. ‘The general. equations for rotation and deflection at any point in a horizontal teat elemeanGRAVY pans 181 in cts of bn, shar ad abutnent movement es flows Mar om [ME a teatro ety ay [Mate 3 [Ye pacsestaneetvartteae ey 4. Stab analogy method ‘The analysis is besed upon an analogy between an Airy's surface, which defines the steessea in a two-dimensional clastic structure and the deflections of an unloaded slab bent by forces and couples applied uround its edges. The slab has the same shape as n cantilever section | Including a large block of the foundation. The edges of the slab are bent into a form which oresponds to the stresses atthe surface of the structure. The analysis is mado by dividing the natogous slab into horizontal and yertical beams which are brought into slope and Seflection agreement by trial toads. The curvatures in the slab are thea proportional to the shears in the structure and consequently the moments inthe horizontal and vertical beams are Proportional to tho strsscs ia the vertical and horizontal ditections respectively, Lattice analogy method A section of the siructure to be analysed is considered as though it were a slice or plate | of 4 unit thickness in vccordance with the generalized theory of plove staas, iis plate is timolated ia size and shape by a lattice nctwork composed of interconaeced elemental sate frames, cach diagonally connected at the comers, The essential conce solution isa systematic relaxation of ‘restraints at the joints. After the adjustment of the lattice to remove restraint has been completed, the stains. are deduced from relative displace, ‘ents between successive joints and from these the stresses may be computed, 6. Finite clement method The finite element method initiated by Clough (1954) and others is a very powerlul tool feanalyse chostructurs! behaviour of high gravity dams. By this method the structure sat it foundations may be divided into elementary, contiguous trangles, and. the clastic ropes ties of each may be analysed and linear simultancous equations formulated for each meal Point. The solution ofthese equations is made possible only by the use of thedisital eomputer For a given idealized structure, the analysis of stresses and detections dus to a given ‘gvtem of loads is purely a mathematical problem. Two conditions must be satisted ithe Aualyis, viz.) the forces developed in the members must. be in equiliorinm ie _equatiors of equilibrium should be satisfied, and (i) the deformations of the members mie becompatible, i.e. consistent with each other and with the boundary conditions, Le. equations ofcompatibility in the theo.y of elasticity are to be satisfied. Further, the fordes ant elles Hons in each member must be related in accordance with the sttes-steaia sclutionship ance ‘td forthe material, ‘The analysis can be attempted, either (i) considering the forces acting ia the members of ‘the structure as unknown quantities, the correct force system being that which soa tions of compalible deformations. This approach, widely used for all types of inden ‘structures, is more useful for structures that are not highly redundant, or (il) consis the displacement as unknown; the correct one being that for which the equations of192 CONCRETE DANE ‘equilibrium a¢e satisfied, This approach is the basis of many relaxation type analysis. Various steps in the finite element analysis of an clastic continuum are given below: Structural ideatisation Much variety is possible in the shape of elements and the number of intereon nodes. These cin range from a straight har type ek ment for a trass frame aad pi nodles or the usual simplest triangle interconnected at the cu?ners for two-dimensional problems like gravity and earth dams, through plats clements with rotational degrees of freedom to complex threedimensional clements with many nodes and with linear and rotational degrees offreedom as for arch dams. Th soine cases rectangular elements and elements with curved. sides have been sucsessfully used, which are discussed later ia this section. The two possible considerations (of equilibrium or compatibility) lead to the so-called ‘stiffoess' (nodal displacemeats unknown). or ‘flexibility’ (nodal foxces unknows) formulation of the structural problem involved, In general. it has been found that for highly complex structures of aibitrary form the displacement method provides the simpler formulation and computer programming task. (i) Structural element Let us consider, for example, a triangular element 123 of & continuum (Fig. 5.31). For simplicity, we assume a case of two-dimensional elastic problem. This assumption is correct in the case of gravity and earth dams, The nodes have been numbered anticlockwise. If we «do not consider rotation but ouly linear strain, the displacements of a node have two compo- ents, walong axis of x and y slong axis of y. “Hence the displacement (column matria) for noite 1 is given by 6.4)‘Gnaviry Dam 183 ro ay fy % Bra] fal” (6.45) a . 5 pet ciliary, the forces defined by these displacements acting on all the thtee nodes can be in the matrix from as below: 4 %, ) yy ie Y Ute} my |= (5.46) Kh 4. n ; Lm [Fle = Chk (8d (5.47) IX, and ¥; represent resultant extersal loads in x and y directions at node ( ‘and which. the internal loads, we can write 3 x = [2 Jes am _ The stiffaess matrix | kJ, in equation 5.48 will always be square and of the form (for a lement), Kata dha CRh=| ky Kash Ru Aap Kaw _fy ete, are submatrices whichare again square and of the size (m>m), where m is umber of the foree components (or degrees of freedom) at the nodes: in ‘consideration m being 2, each submatrix is (252) size, (5.49) the the plane case184 concRETE (H) Displacement furctions—deformations and strains rie essential step isthe assumption of a displacement pattern throughout the Which is uniquely determined in terms of the nodal displacements, “When the i adopt contpagameats and stresses at each node can be found. To find element stillness ‘adopt conforming displacement functions as below: ant ath tat aD fone 6. = Bat Base + Bani + POL te. 6: For a triangular clement, we assume two linear polynomials =a + 8 + ayy and Way ba + aay © Hence we may write for deformation matrix Pom On 0 7 7 yy O10 my 0 yy | a 10 m0 » 0 % lab = | (6 10 5 0 y * | 10 % 0 » 0 * Dit ios ap Sonlys seed =(41te) 6. or {eJ=[ay*[a} 6. If [4] is the deformation matrix at any point (x, y) in the element u 10x O0yoO dj= = 2 ($4: Aa bel eageqroeg jC 1ox0y0 - Ay* [8] (5. [orere, Jeane =IN1 0) 6. where the components of [ V ] in general, functions of position and (x, ¥) are ex of the point in the clement where displacement [ d] is desired. From equation (5.56) by simple differentiation, we have strain matrix as follows: oT ales OO1rcdO0 ta=| 8 fal aye, =| coo001 | fay Yer Ala, + yn 200110 =(B1L5} 63%Dams 185 is known as strain transformation matrix. Our next problem is 10 find | B }, We can solve for a, ty) ay ay % and ay in terms of displacement ty My ts Yyy Vp and », and obtain finally Puen oy o 1 asf 040404 | fay (5.60) A be by = X44 — ty G0) 6.614) sa (5.61 iit) the other coefficients obtained by a cyclic permutation of subscripts ia the order 1, 2,3 ‘where A= area of the triangle. Te may be soen that in thes case the [ B] matrix is independent of the position of the withia the element and hence the strains are constant throughout the element. ) Stress __ Again in the particular case of plane stress, three components of stress, viz. ox ay and seorresponding to the strain e, ¢, and yy are given by (E and v being elastic constants), ve Reg cor e [o]=] a vd o =([DP}[e] (5,62) 0 Oe ve i te 1 v0 [2] » 10 (5.63) lv a “Combining equations (5.39) and (5.32) we have fol =CD1(B1(3] =1S) 8}, (3.64) 1}, is known as elements stress transformation mattix. To make the nodal forces statically equivalent to. the actual boundary stresses and distri- buted loads, the simplest procedure is to impose an arbitrary (virtual) nodal displacement and to equate the external and internal work done by the various forees and stresses. during that displacement. These forces though ficitious are equivalent statically to the resultant of the stresses along the edges of the element. By the virtual work principle, wa get relation for stiffness matrix [&] (ele = [BF [D] [2]. — 4 6.63) “here (\ is the area andi the thickness of the element.186 ‘concert (9) Structural respense of complete assembly continuity of displacements is assumed throughout the structure by assigning unique displacement f at the Various interconnected nodes f, equatioas of equilibrium ean be weites fat each such nodal point. IFA, represents the external forces applied at a node, then Ry = BA Bhd B+ Eide) which can be put in matrix form Rap q wel % | =. wl a ] 3,69) For all nodes from 1 to m, the elements of [x] are given by ky = Ekin (5.69) Such a system of simultancous equations permits the unknown displacements to be determined in terms of known forces, Boundary or support conditions whieh prescribe certain conditions of displacements are readily inserted into the system. Once a particular com: ponent ky is evaluated it can immediately be added to other similar ones in the overall astembly., The solution obtained preserves continaity not only at the nodes but also throughs ‘out the structure as the displacements vary linearly between the nodes. As the stresses throughout each element are assumed constant, the only error arises through the discontinuity of stresses. along cloments interfaces, but as overall static balance is preserved this erro doercases rapidly with size of element used. ‘Similarly the overall stress matrix [S], can be generated. With this the generalised stress matrix [o]j: generalised force matrix [F], and generalised displacement matria [Bl, are relatad as below: Io = (518 (3.6) (Rl, = 4, Pe 6.8) (91) Evaluation of stresses The deformations at each node can be found by solving cithor simultaneous equatioss given by equation (5.59) or by mattix inversion Ble lz? Tle 6.) The stresses are, by the basic assumptions, constant within the element, Tt is usual to assign these to the centroid of the element. But the defect in this process is that the streses ‘ate obtained at locations which are zig-zag_and do not follow any particular set or array as is usually adopted for nodes. An alternative is to obtain stress values at the nodes, ‘otal, values from all the elements mecting at a particular node and then taking direct average, the arithmetic mean of stresses. Thus average stresses are obtained at all the nodes. tis seen that nodal point stresses, obtained as above by averaging the element stress of all elements connected to the nodal point, produce good results for interior nodal points; however, this approach fails when applied to boundary nodal points. Therefore a “weighted average” method is used to determine nodal point stresses. (vit), Loads ar the nodal points (@) Dead weight, The gravity forces in the dam can most logically be distributed equallyInY DAMS 187 nodes of the element by making the virtual work performed during any displacement ern equal to the work which would be done if appropriate concentrated forces were applied tthe nodes, (0) Water loads. The water pressure acting on the free surface is replaced by statically valent concentrated loads acting at the nodal points, Itis reasonable to assume that initially a hydrostatic pressure distribution exists within € crigial river bed. Thus the differences between the pore. pressuce state after and before ie construction can bs applied as loading to the whole assembly of dam and foundation. All water forces on a concrete (or rock) structure are applied as uplift or hydrostatic The downward water load on foundations upsiream of the gravity dam is not sidered. The rock mass was hydrostatically submerged initially and neglecting, the small ge Forces away from the dam base, remains similarly submerged after the filling of the vit. The eifective siresses inside the rock mass are therefore assumed to emai unalfect- Due to difference of head created by the dam, there are, however, hydrostatic-excess or poe pressures under the dam base which are taken into account as uplift. A typical grid of elements for finite clement studies done by the author on gravity dams shown in Fig. 5.32, The results obtained may be seen in Figs. 5.51, 5.52 and 5.53, Fig. 5.32, Finite element grid pattern. Choice of elements In the problems of solid mechanies analysis many clements have been developed (and d these are applicable to other situations). As with all properly designed elements a Heonvergent solution of any desired accuracy ean be achieved using successively finer subd ns, the choite between these is strictly a matter of economy. In Fig. 5.33, a list of well Oven clements for dealing with plane (two dimensional, plone stress/strain or extaymmettie), slimensionat and shell problems are shown188 ‘CONCRETE inesr twiengle Turner et ol 19577 (ay OOF Porobolic trienge (Veubeke 1551) (b —_ A c ae 0 950) (a7 Porobolic oparsmenic 2x2 Se ey integietion avecrifatere! Urons, Tienkiewiea ef af 1965) D Incompotable’ quadtilat eral (Witson ond Taylor 1971), © SOF (84 DOF internal) Figo Lineor tetonedron Gottagner eat 1961), 1 0a +o) ee Parabolic tetre e a rot ea os aS tb) oor toon AT (1968-971) a Reducea infegfation isopatamettic quadrilateral ® Fig c Fig. 5.31 Blomentsaftee LCO. L.D—1978 (a) Two dimensional elements (DOF —degsve of feedom, (b) Three dimensional elements. (©) Shell elements There are however two related problems where some development is vitally ‘These concem the inability of standard elemenis (due to their polynomial shape function to deal adequately with singularities and infinite field variation (Fig. 5.34), ‘The treatment of singularities (particularly cracks) is of great importance in the fracture mechanics and there three somewhat different approaches have been introduced: In the first, special elements embracing the singularity are developed and used in tiom with standard clements.‘avity Dams 189 Jn the second approach a degeneration of standard isoparametric elements is used to hieve a singularity representation, One such degeneration consisting of moving the mid Ke node to the quarter portion gives a stress singularity of a type ivr and is useful. filike the first process this device does not call for special element and is therefore reasonably tuple to implement. The last procedure used requires the introduction of a shape function extending over the foteregion nd introduces. therefore a parameter linking all elements, Figure 5.35 1llvs- ites then the possible categories of singularity solution Disploces ° =] E ee Sine te DE ‘ pig es © Ge rf 5.34 Some special problems in. analysis Fig. $.35 Some methods of treating sinzularives a) Special “crack” element {b). Standard elements with “cayenerate” ‘node displacement fo) Stndacd) coments with an additional fanction tepresen'ing singularity in whol domain. = after LCO.LD, 1978 ta the context of singularities occurring near re-entrant corners of dams the second procs: re can be easily implemented. ‘Alldams together with their foundations are clearly three-dimensional objects—and in gple at east, three dimensional analysis should always be used. As the cost of three- cronal analysis is likely to be, typically, in. the range of S-15 times that of « two-dimen- ‘proximation (and often ‘much larger) the designer has to.consider whether errors juced by such an assumption are acceptable and on the safe side. (a), Gravity, buttress and carth dams. Tn two-dimensional analysis a typic.: mesh for Ne accuracy uses some $00 mesb points (or 1000 DOF) with the triangular elements. ‘lar accuracy are used for the three dimensional analysis some cortesponding to 20 x SCO <3 = 30000 Hfold increase of mesh points would be needed, s, The corresponding figures for the isoparametric parabolic elements would be 100 mesh ‘of 200 DOF in two dimensions and say 6 < 300 < 3 = $400 DOF for three dimensions. {In the gravity dam it is often assumed that vertical joints are not grouted and hence for dams under gravity loading the ‘assumption appears reasonable. However ‘the water ‘act on a keyed and grouted structure. Here a three-dimensional action will occur in ‘bat very long dams. eas‘CONCRETE Te would appear that the 3D action seriously affects the stresses in the crosssection fl and inéced generally reduces their magnitude. In the opinion of O.C, Zisnkiewice (19 is mot necessary or desirable as shrinkage or thermal effects may cause a separation of. joints (this reducing to zero. normal stresses) and the shear action of keys should a allowed for. Thus for concrete gravity dams two dimensional assumptions are’ approp ‘bat it must be realised that the behaviour of the real structure will reflect the three ditneaso action and this must be coasifered when comparison of observed with calculated. teh is made, ‘An interesting problem of similar successive approximation arises in buttress dams. it ic customary (and usually reasonably accurate) to use a two-dimensional, plane st approximation to obtain stresses in the elevation plane. Once these ate obtained ad perpendicular to the buttress head is used to study the stress distribution in the plane of t buttress. (2) Arch dans—shell or solid, Whea we are concerned with arch dams whether of ‘or multiple kind, two dimensionality assumptions of the kind discussed earlier are no tenable; however if the section is reasonably thin, there isa temptation to use shell type roximations which reduce the solid to a “surface” structure incorporating all ot sp assumptions of the Kirchhoff type (plane sections remaining plane and normality of th sections to the middle plane being preserved). Studies of the Arch Dam Committee of the Inst. of Civ. Eng, (1968) show that even fo quite thick arch dams the general cistributions of stresses and deflections obtained by a assumptions (even with neglect of shear deformations in shell analysis) gives very close to those of full thtee-dimensional analysis (except at points of thret-dimensional singuls such as ars liable to occur at the foundation junction), Asthe foundation is usually modelted by some three-dimensional elements (unless Vo type assumptions are included) and as frequently some fairly solid sections of a dam need af three dimensional ceprescntation, shell type analysis programs need to have a transition {ton solid to shell type clemeats incorporated. This diffculty can be overcome by sophistic oftware but as per LC.O.L.D. Commitize “Analysis and Desiga of Dams" (1978) for ddam “shells the usc of full theec-dimensional analysis has to be recommended as gen practice. <7, Experimental methods (0) Three-dimensional models... These are constructed. of clastic materials to proportia ate size and loading of the prototype so that deformation, structural action, and stress conde tions of the latter can be predicted by measurement of displacement of the model. (ii) Photoclastic models. Stresses in photoelastic: models are determined by. meansof the visible optical effects which are produced by passing polarized light through the while itis under load. The model material must be elastic, transparent isotropic, and f from initial or residual stresses. Bakelite celluloid, gelatin and glass are. sucoessfully Studies employing photoclastic models are. usually limited. to conditions of plane or strain, snd may be suid tohavetheir most important application in the determination segions of stress concentrations. Effects of stress in a photoclastic model. are made visite by ‘means of aa optical instrument known as the photoelastic polariscope,191 ¢ oFerfurning IFihe resultant of all the forces acting on a dam passes_outside the base, the dam would _fietiurn uniess it can resist tensile stresses.» Since the dam is usually designed on no tension Besis it follows that the resultant should pass through the middle third. IT other safety Siteda like maximum compressive stresses and sliding are also fulfilled, then usually a facto safety between 1.5 and 2.5 is avcilable against overturning, Factor of safety agninne ‘grerturaing muy be defined as the ratio of the stabilizing moments to the overtuming moments about the toe of the dam. Because of their oscillatory nature earthquake forces are not sonsidered as contcibuting tw the overturning tendency. Safety against stiding Ja order that the dam may nov slide on any plane, the total Forees tending to slide the dam Slould not exceed a certain ratio of the normal force on the plane, Expressing mathematially BIEN SJ, wheie/ is the coeficient of friction, The safe value of f is usually tukea up 100.75. ‘Ia certin cases this value, under abnormal loading conditions, becomes more than 0.75, When becom:s more than 0.75, the shear fiction factor may be calculated, LW SA SRF ALU ESA “ 7) J= coclicient of internal friction of the material usually taken equal to 0,7:0.75 (U.SB.R. recommends the value as0.8). WW = total vertical force equal to SUV — U). ‘S= shearing strength which varies from 140 t/m* for poor cocks to 500 t/m* for g00d rocks. a in sq.m. As per U.S.D.R. recommendation the value of shear friction factor should not be allowed to.g0 below $ under normal loading, and in abnormal loading conditions it may be encroached | gpto 4. However, uneconomical sections of the dam result with this criterion when dam | Heitht exceeds 150m. eis tecommended that for dams higher than 150 m these trevor te taken as 4 for normal loading and 3 for extreme loading conditions. 18S. (6512-1972) recommend the following shear friction factors: ‘Table $4. Factor of salty agains sliding and shee fiction fac Loating condtion A per 13.8, ‘Shear friction factor 7 ARE ae DE 3. fe stresses * The stresses in the dam should be within the specified fins%s for the body of the dam aid192 CONCRETE in the foundations. If the stresses at the toe and heel are excessive they cam be brought wi permissible limits with the prevision of filets. The height of these fillets above the heel toe are given by the following relations For heel hy = 6H —0.658H* — 1.07 a where H = height of dam in 100 metre, ‘hy = beight of filet in metre. Fer toe hy = 6.5H— 1.1 0.9 (5.79) Usually sloping fillets with two horizontal to one versical at downstream and one horizon tal to two vertical on the upstream are provided. Tensile stresses should not be higher than an $Kslem*forhigh concrete dams under te most Bdverse loading conditonr with conventional gravity analysis. The omcting, due to tension, reduces the joints ares or distribution of stresses and heace increases the compresive ‘Stresses at the toe. Failure would ultimately take ‘Place whea the toc is crushed, The occurrence of tension at the heel zone, under elastic analysis, is discussed in clause 5.22, The maximum permissible compressive stress in a damn depends on the crushing st ob cosets, wilh willy hater 190 nth 300 tapes factor ofsatety of 4 i0'5 i pe sidered adeq le for deterinining the stresses. U.S.0-R recommends a safety factor of Smpresilve stress Thould exceed 110 kg/cm? for usval loading conditions. Ta case of unusis ‘loading conditions, USS.B.R. (1976) recommends lowering of safety Factor t5°2 and allowable- comp stress to 160 kg/m’. In extreme loading con ofeven 1.0, - reget onder OE to exceed the allowable tenile stress, the minimum allowable compressive stress computed without internal hydrostatic pressure should be determined {com the follow ing expression, which takes into account the tensile strength of the concrete at lift surfaces cw = pewh 4 (5.74) where, ow = minimum alloyable compressive stress at the upstream face, /m*, P = 4 reduction factor to account for drains; 1.0 if drains are not present and 0.4 if drains are used, w= unit weight of water, t/m®, ‘h = depth below reservoir surface, m, Fi = lensile strength of concrete at lit surfaces (t/m*), and safety factor; 3.0 for “usual” and 2. 0for “unusual” loading combinations 18.8. do not permit temuile strestes at the upstream face of the dam even under eavihqueke loading by the usval gravity analysis, Small values of tension on the downstream fuog may be permitted since itis very improbable that a fully constructed dam is kept empty, 4 Theteds at present a irend to varying the cement content in the concrete—and hence ite strength, to suit in particular the zones of the dam. The strength of conercte for Dworshak dam (218 m height) was specified as below for different elevations.193 Concrete strength EL (m) Kefem? MPa. 274-305 210 20.6 305335 155 15.2 335-381 105 10.3 381-492 85 83 ‘The zoning idea (lean mass or plum oF displacer concrete in the hearting) has been used iaki dam, Japan (80 m high—1933), Chayanon dam (96 m high) France 1926, Sarrans (112m) France— 1933, Chambon dam (88 m) France 1936. “The calculated and measured stresses at some concrete gravity dams are given in Table 5.5. ‘Table $5 Calelated nd measured stresss'et some typtea! conerete gravity dams ia USA, (Heh COLD Congress Eiinbwrgh, Vel. Il, 99-47). ‘Stctural Vertical comp. sress fom) Average concrewe jepht(m), Dead Toad Dead plus Measured ——srongrh ot 1 year ve load Aafem 89 96 4 WA 15 168 80.8 16.0 as 26 168 316 at 20.6 27 146.3 2.7 20 183.5 403 ‘maximum principal stress under normal loading is unlikely to exceed the Bgure of ‘The kglom! given as a design criteria by some authorities. Gravity ANALYSIS ‘The dam is considered to be made up of a number of vertical caatilevers which act ly of each other. The following assumptions are made for the gravity analysis: (i). The material in the foundetion and in the body of dam is isotropic and homogeneous; (i) The stresses in the foundation and the body of the dam are within elastic limits; (ii) No movements are caused in the foundations due to transference of the loa (i) The foundation and the dam bebave as one unit, the joint being a perfect one; ) No loads are transferred to the abutments by beam action; (i) The stability analysis of the dam is based on considering a slice of the dam one metre thlck at the base line and contained between the two vertical planes normal to the base line; and (it) Small openings are supposed to have a local effect only and according to St. Venant’s principle, the openings would not alfect the general distribution of stress,194 CONCKETE DAMS] Ee : Pett pemeies ‘Note: The horizontal force H aets.at a dlstance h3 from base, Fig 5.36. Forces and moments—sign conventions—yrevity eonlsis 2, Stresses at the spsiream and dowastream end “The directions of axes, notaions of Forces ee,, are exhibited in Fig. 5.26. te = vertical normal stress on horizontal planes, gh horizontal normal stress on vertical planes. sup = shear stess. ‘The origin of coordinates is always taken at ‘the downstream end of the horizomal plane. ‘The distribution of o, is assumed linear on borizontal planes and can be written as. a, =a + by G.75) By equating vertical loads and moments about the centre of gravity of the horizontal section (Fig. 5.37) we have Veta tin r= wanti(ene on 7 Ea Solving we get WOM soa beat SEea ra 5.19)GRAVITY DAMS 195 D.S.FACE al o lg $.37, Variation of vertical aormal Fig 5.38, Inclined sireses on the downstream fase ‘stesso (rand =). where W = total vertical load in t, ‘M = total moment in t.m about centre of gravity, and T = width of section in m: If the resultant of forces acts at a distance fro 1m the centre of the area, then strets intensities at the toe and heel are given by the relation m4 W446 on m= ge ( 145) Kowing the values of vertical stress at upstream and the downstceam end, the values of Gn tones (hincpal sress) at ends cane found. Consider the trlangle forthe dows: Sreant fice showing the principal plane AB and %,q (Principal stress on the downstream), uisthe combined normal stress due to tal water and earthquake (if any; proper sign to be Pe for earthquake ste) Le pe = Wh 4 Pe. Rosolving forces vertically in Fig, 5.38, G4 AB COS $y = Gu BC—pa ACsin Pa (BO) AC on = ou (2G) see dura (4p) 8 fect fra stan? du (6.78) ‘Resolving horizontally (Fig. 5.38) ips AB sin ga = yee BC + per AC 08 ba (apa) tan $e (5.7) or ty Now consider the tangle AAC in Fig. 5.39. i Resolving horizontally we have Gy). AB = pa-AC 008 $y + 4-BC or Syd = eee tan" fy + pa (tant $a) 6.9) ‘Similarly we cas obtain expression for upstream ead as Below: aye = Con SE Pe tO by oan AN Sd196 CONCRETE DAMS 2 ¢ WES Fig. 5.38. Shear and normal streses at downstream face of da. tyes =—(Cru—Pu) tan gy (6:82) ‘ Ou = Oey tan® $y + Pu (1—tan* fu) (5.83) we hy ‘Internal stress distribution (@)_ Vertical normal stress (ss) on horizontal planes. Equation (5.75) gives the value of ce for any value of y from downstream end. Alterna- tively knowing upstream czy and downstream oes from equation (5-77), stfess at any location ‘can be found by joining ca, and 0:4 by a straight line, (8) Shear stress on horizontal or vertical plane ‘The equations of equilibrium for a plane field are (5.84) (6.89) where we = unit force per unit volume in the vertical direction, ie, the unit weight of conerete. ‘k= unit force per unit volume in horizontal direction (correct sign to be placed for direction), ie. ai (« being horizontal earthquake coeficient). ‘From equation (5.85), we have eee hy ty “a (ince 0, = a + by) —_ i (5.86)Gnaviry Dams also 2 — tam 64; integrating equation (5.86), we got when ‘Fey = constant + ab byt at y= Ot (from equation 5,79) r Total shear ~ [ s., dy = — HF or or and beangs — yea rendoeo = (Bad ~ Pa) (a0 ft OT HART? + b= = 3a + Zh oTt = = a, + T+ oT? = tay aH Solving simultaneous equations (5.90) and (5.91), we get =F (FF + com + Pon) eee.) Poems gaan Ga 2, tu = Sint — B3F soe Beet) 5) Horizontal normal stress on vertical planes From cone (6.84), we have b, ea 0 oy + eae Integrating we get equation of the form where [eqatwrartae | “4, = constant of integration = Got — Pa) tant a + Pa 3 38 (Bt coe to ) 197 a) (5.88) (9.89) (90) (8.91) (5.92) (5.93) (3.94)198 b, has been determinaied earlier, # is known, also a, — siya Hes Da [2 cm rdenss] or 2 tan $a Goa — ni) + tan Hu (ou — v' =f tan de (oui pa) tan dy {2 ous —( w Eh a is necettary to evaluate 7 uy alr F aw _W oT) _ aM , 1aMer pT ee) Dat Te ria WwW" 6 Me on) ae r 2 ang 90) ‘CONCRETE DAMS (8.98) (5.99) (5.100) (5.101) To find the derivations of a, b, and c, we will needsthe derivations of H,W, Mf ete, ‘which are found out as below: Consiler the dam prism as shown in Fig. 5.40. ‘The lever arm for the vertical forces (Fig. 5.41) Vig, 5:50, Fqulloriom of dar prism. rGRAVITY DAM: («+ Fan a + ang.) =$ tangs — nay ‘Taking moments about O (Fig. 5.41) ae ep —% 4 Fie. S.A1. Lever arm evuluution definition aketsh. = ide 4 omy + Ea can gu — tango + Flos tan $s — pi tn de = 0 at w or AH A nS Fi an Oe peta ain't & tin gr vw 99 Resolving horizontally, we have = de | de (Pa pa) kT de 0 or (on) | kT Resolving vertically, we get Ys (pu tan Yu + pa tan i) 5 Te = 0 we or BE pata he + re tia gy} wo ‘Substituting these derivatives in (5.101), we get 3 Be et tan gs 3xm) WM aw 4 ) oH shan te (FEE he a cl ‘Thus all the terms in h, are known and b, is thus fully determined. Again (5.102) (5.103) (8.104)i CONCRETE DAMS . an dtr ncan == {e (Ft ton + drow) OH ty 2 2 6 Be” Fe an Sen Pe BA a ede tion bot 1 ou a7 _ uae ao pa fe (Bent toon JF — SY nl ion =p (= given by equation (5,103) oT taf. + tan gu sean gu (4 ar 6.107) 4 et is known from equation (5.105) ae aoe from equation (5.102) Hence ew, + tan 4. (ft — Fe) sean te (2h oe + (5.108) ‘The relation for ,/2z ean now be written down and consequently the value of NowGRAVITY. DAMS 201 (6) Bn tee) 1 (29H_amer 2 (FEF + Fe t Ban) PEE a9 pe 20(6H @ y- + 20m + 2emu )} 1 (sn , Bee +n(Ge+S) oe the terms are known, ac,/@z is obtained and hence d, is known. Thus dy, bs, c, and d, having been determined o, is evaluated, ‘ Since =m by tat +d") Equations for principal stresses ona ee |(25%)+ oy He is a a ia 4] Alternate sign gives ¢7, which is perpendicular to ey. “The values of em su ty and Gy oF (6.110) 14 may be cheoked at the upstream face where y = T. Direction of principal stresses ‘The direction of first principal stress, gp, is given as below: éo,= ttn (=) pao em) A tan 24p, = (+), then 0< dp, < + 45° 1 tan 2g, =(—), then — 45° < ¢p,< 0 } (Measured from vertical, clockwise positive) 3.7 INTERNAL STRESS CALCULATIONS Design Example 5.3* Determine vertical normal stress (a.), shear stress (x,,) and horizontal normal stress (o,) distributions corresponding values of principal stresses and dit tion of principal stresses on the plane at elevation 630.0 for the dam showa in Fig. 5.42, ‘This example has been adopted from author's book Ao Pover Stmctwres published by Messrs Nem ‘Chand and Bros., Roorkee 247667.m2 CONCRETE DAMS, alpen oF on i rn asa” Ty 4 — ion 00s) Te —4reoq. Fig. 5.42. Design problem (al linear dimensions ia mm), The loading conditions are as below: Top of dam = 802.0 m USS. reservoir level 97.0 Deepest foundation level = 630.0 m Sediment water elevation, = 681.0m Horizontal earthquake acceleration = 0.15 g Vertical earthquake acceleration = 0.075 g Drains (a8 marked in figure) working Shear stress = 320 mt Solution ‘The detailed calculations of forces and moments are given in Table 5.6. ‘Table $7. Conditon—F.R.L. ait toad, earthquake, normal uplift calculation of ay and 990 inti w # toad Compr. Texson o 0 1. Asundercondt.t 407.88 244,92 423.902.2491 430862 —14413.62 2. Vertical Eq, 28 16.228 14.308 + 23s 3. Morizootal Eq, on dam ~ 62.64 aes = = =s000 4. Hydrodynamic : bressire = 28.90 28.90 - = = 205.0 To OBE SLD a 661.35 287 a“pmo Kewe stl ow ret ose. wet wee see ret OF 998 07805 ose earn ye or oocsr=r x 4) oss = zee mse - sem = oust em xcorxt Hos 0) — octe= ores ogee = EM OO - Ses = ce rexeet or nora (@ oe ae OF ay oNtE | — SorHBL ceteT — se cua OF zxOpIXsIXt Dav eae Jose (1) sued pening (D) Funder) ee 6. a Sa ’ s ’ € z 1 oa ayer a a anmung auto spay 21803 2809 tomo! soevo, poe fo poof Jo anes jewosuony weno, wommoE)—emeinys —_wodiong Sree ig $8099 ———_—_—— ye rom vo= nj fo oauoy ae Dormers — pay sores Imoqe mowoyy — ao? po fo apmypnbeny : (007059 °7°% sr0ge venzes i ‘woptnd aopsaso-vow Jp mieuE Kyngms “9's «am Pre‘CONCRETE DAMS Re wall HR -ie = ooo'ss s8'se on IExLa'ss wor'ss azz"o1 o7s"oF se'z0R+ —S seat neo oro — aro ost = serve svat sto'oxese van @® on 670 ast — wo ose is rote one $100 165 ano 0 wi soo zo = 960 Ons" = oses on tet sto"oxs5s WNT @) sro @oo — aro 859 - sores oret DT 0) os faye = SeLt (oor - sen ose HDa ©) sor a'r = ses corer = seo ort sL0°oxoe1¥ saa @) ore ore eer - comet - on oct storoxou0e omy Garona (6 Of"991 ssrore zine os= YNW ore wT - woe'tz a sore Oct TOIXISKI'SXE mM HES (©) 16 6 Oe — wu or - wore west ost xos"or xt aH ©) zt 1 og a “ 8 5 £ z 120s navety DAMS pre, ost ese eater sunt agurusponnsst (9) = = corer 4a © Ce i Waa (@) OF EOI ~~ ono'ha'goLr68 orl9~ Pound ws BE aw 0) Ta © sven ya ne su 2308 we, oe saya ones (2) aoe cost il Oe = OOLF = — — —(OOSEEE EES OER ‘st0+008z HO © oo - wo um = — ooresc 0098 o- sroxortr aoea_ (@) tore ec a sroxoune aay suvp wo Oa rmLH @) spmey pomoryior (1) we ae 8 559 eee, oe warm ose «sot tre (OSHS sus Ocer~ —OL ESE XLO"SSxE OMS) ) >) aunt= uy seal orst mS see > OLN KEEIXE SE GOGO) ¥ on 6c 8 + as & 2 )‘CONCRETE DAMS, aro mo 309 eorecette Ist we . 26 ae ee) SO axe ae sonnet S-0E9¢ 04980" I= sug Ur e910 S100 A xe0070— Mac0x ap-ov'or = UAwomny wen = GE DATMet THEO are HA uo} 248m (5) ¥ © z zGRAVITY DANS oh Gey = 438.42 — 336,47 = 101.95 4/m* = 102 ym (say) (i) Shear friction factor Gea = $31.67 ~ 243.218 = 288.452 mt = 288.45 c/a SALW tan 6 spr SA Wood 20 192.7 + 3664.35 x 0.75) 1,878, 63 (85264 + 25,000) HR78.62 10264 2,878.62 73-7 Stl) “Shear stress distrtoution FR +SL+EQ. Data om = 102 t/m? comp. M = ~ 469,882 tom ug = 288.45 fm? HW =~ 21,878.62 t W = 33,664,351 tan dy = 010; dy = 0.9 T= 172.70 m; pa = 202.60 mt; py = 0.00 t= a + byt eyt 41 tyre — (ora — a) ta fy = 288.45 ~ 0) x 0.9— 260.00 Ym Tye = — (Gu — pa) tan by = — (102 — 202.6) x 0.10 = 100.6 x 0.10 = + 10,06 ym* BF (38 + cet Dene X (— 21878.62) ~~ (tri) 22 GHEE 10.0542 5 260 } ~ (pox) 90 +-10.064 sap =-1.73 «= GEE ; = oa PREP + 10,065. 260}208 CONCRETE DAMS a (= 254 + 10.06 + 260) = 1.61 x10 ste = 260-1. 78y + 1.61 x 10-8. y¢ Check for sex Putting y = 172.7 m ow = 260 — 1.73 172.7 4 1.61 x 10-9 x (172.7)! = 10.06, which tallies with value of sry wh ty = 2601.73 + 0.00161) calculated earlier (Gi) Horizontal normal stress distribution = + by te + dy ao pg = Og tant $y 288.7 x 0.81 = 234.0 ym? 8, = Oya = 234.0 t/m? Q G2 + hy tangs +k 1H $4 8020 tan = Beet tb tam ga tk by tan $y = — 1.73 x 0.90 = — 1.557 a) —0.15 x 2.4 = — 0,36 2) fou 12M, 2W 2p amet aa te (Ge + eB) RM _4W 4p) 6 ean f(t — + *) r s Pend 9 04 12% (—4,69,842) _ 2 x 33,664,252 x 202 Te eet 0.10( “72. 79" “C28 7 12x (40,842) _ 4x 33,664.35 $0.90 (2 t tee ca ~ ape +0) 6 (—21,878. 62) ce Ba = 2.40 + 0.10(— 1,095 + 2.25 — 2.36) +0.9(= 1.095 — 4 52) 4 4.4 = 1.6305 Patan dee 9.9 1.6205 —1.40785 eee niet k & = 1.46745 — 1.557 — 0.36 b, = — 0.44955 @)GRAVITY DAM Now = 4 (3 + 26, tan 4) Now Sa (oy ny + eT = (0— 202.6) — 0.36 x 172.70 = = 02.6 — 62.172 =~ 264.772 re ae yO aad = Bessie Set = — (ora pa) Z tam $y tan Fo £ tang, = oittan g, = constant Bm w+ 0.36 +2 cant (See foot note) = 140.36 +0 = 1.36 12aM_ 24 is le Be Bla F nan d= ps tan 40) +E rand +004) Fe = 1.6305 + 4.02 10- (21,879 + 86.35 (202.6 x0.1-0) ++ 16,832 (—0.1 + 0.9) + (~4,69,842) ($24/172.739 x(0.1 + 0.9) = 1.6305 + 4.02 10-* (21879 + 1770 + 13,466)—2.189 = 1.6308—2.673-2.189 = 3.2195 10 (4.5795) ‘ Boe Rs = 1.36)— = Be 010 (—3.2195—1 36): = 0.46 oor note a é ef demon’ {i (s-4)+ [EGE vhe=sit® met it em = 0 when 2b at bate. 209210 conewETH bans trian ons TEN h = 0.916305 — 1.46745 x 8 OH HOT 2 te 2 a ss e thet Re 4 tow 4 aT Te tne 6 oy (12(-2b879) =~ (area) (261.773 + Fest) 2 2 4 ~ 7700.46) (Gypyy)*t0.6x1.0~ 8, 4 HI AGTAS + pe X60 1.3 Fig. 5.43. Normal uplift diagram (all lincar dimensions fa mam, = $5.3432 10-*—0.05115—0.552 10-8 4 6.745 10-4 0.033995 + 0.03487 = —0.00137 ad (B+ 25 un gs) = 4 (0.00137 + 2% 1.61 x 10-8 0.90) = 0.000622Onaviry DAMS ay EE ec a tt ; +n +8) a= ~arracrpd 2<(-264.77)-1.0 0.12 + 520+ 6) (E2879), 4 x ort aero + 1.46745) 1943 10-* (—529,60—221 88) + 3.249 10°F 1.931 59.6 «10-4 + 6.4714 10-8 sit x10 We get 2, = 234 ~ 0.44955y + 0.000622» + 0.000051 1y* fo ema ee Fg 54, Water and silt pressure distribution, Check for ay Putting = y= 172.70m yu = 234 — 77.6 + 18.53 + 26.20 = 201.13 Um? a} sya (C4 Po) 4208 fo Do = (02 = 202.6) x pg + 292.60 =14202.6=201.6 4/0" Gs The = (=) i212 Hence, retation for 2, is alright, ‘ ay = 134 — 0.44955y + 0.000622)" + 0,000005119%, (CONCRETE DANS Calculations of shear stress, normal horizoatal stress, principal stresses ete. are exhibited in Tables 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10. ‘Typical principal stresses fora dam are shown in Fig. $.45. ‘Table 5.8. Calculations of shear stressat different points on horizontal L-} Earthquake Location section Distance nm 4 at omathrtept ‘from orlein 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4 700.0 0 0 260.00 2» 290.0 18 14s 209.55 7.5 280.0 19.0 8.94 139.06 RL. 630.00 2.01.73 14.0 0.00161 14.30 181.30 115.77 280.0 201.8 21.90 80.10 139.70 360.0 241. 31.40 49.90 149.70 260.0 299.0 36.10 37.10 156.70 360.0 a0 39.50 28:50 mm 20.0 238.0 48.00 10.00 5.18 GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS ‘The shear stress can also be determined graphically, shear H/. ‘Take AG—p,— oy. Draw AJ normal to cular to AB, Hence GS= (py — ex) tan dy which is sy¢. Join £7 cutting the line BM representing the middle point of AC. Produce BM to a point K such that MK on the parabola and knowing three points, viz, /, Kand Calculate ow, ons, Pus Pas and average upstream face. Draw GJ perpendi- =e Draw Al= GJ. Similarly obtain CF average shear in N (Fig. 5.46). B is 1MN. The point K is F, 4 parabola can be drawa, When Ps— on is negative, the point Gis taken on an extension of CA. The shear stress parabola is then wholly above the line AC (Fig, 5.47) an; It may also occur (though not very often) that the uy average shear tq may fall below the line joining / and meet Flin. Take & point Kon BM such that MK then convex towards the line ABC. id the shear stress is nowhere zero. ipper end of the line representing the F. Th such a case BM is extended to MN (Fig. 5.48). The parabola is‘GRAVITY DAMS. 23 ‘Table 59, Calealation of horizoutal normal stress of diferent points ‘on sesseal planes of noe-overflow portion ‘Condilon=F.RLFEQ. Fear OHO Tocaion of Disance rom Values of vis section originee> constants by tat ‘ees 1 2 3 7 5s 6 7 3 ° ° er ee ee » 213 000.55 BxIOE 4+ 0.138 221.208 3.50 5380 34S A310. + 2.107 216.057 a2. BO 5.82 MORI + 4.180 201.0 RL 620.00 Tg2.50 13.58.10! 8.46 1580x108 ++ 8.06 198.42 19.) qesdixies — —€2.40 19.5410 1249 2720x108 413.67 197.200 19.0 67.30 224x108 19.98 3B50K10% 417.09 107.790 156.70 70.40. 24.5x10 15.23. 40x10 119.00 198.410 12.70 17160 29.8x100 18,53. i40x10" 726.20 201-190 ines a5 CUY784 “caectn F Wonmat. FULL SESERVOM OPERATION Tig. 545. nesenvow ws €. Or ORAL FULL AESERVEIR OFERATION ‘Typical principal stresses ditebution curves—Friant dart, USA normal full resewox,24 ‘CONCRETE DAMS. ‘Table $10, Calculation of principal strees at different Condition = levation Dist. from ef hors origin es ° Cy 4%, et0y — rmey zonal =p y section 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 5 ° 10 0 2864323400 S445 12,45 261.22 27.22 740.90 200.00 30 256,20 221.308 34.99 477.41 238,71 «17.50 306.20 209.55, 74,50 208.30 206,057 2.24 416.36 107.1812 125 139.98 94.20 186.80 201.300 14.50 388.10 194.08 7.28 52.85 1.30 30.00 116.70 162.50 198.420 35.92 360.92 -1796 322.70 9.10 139.70 137.70 197.20 =39.50 334.90 “2.75 85.10 49,90 149.70 126.85 197,720 —70.87 324.57 35.4 1256.00 37.10 156.73 119.30 198.49 —79.13 317.13 39.57 1566.00 28.59 172.70 102,00 201.13 —99.13 303.13 151.57 =45.57 2077.00 10.06 scan sins Fig. $46, Graphical determisation of shear steese—ys and 44 of oppostie sign D)5.19. somsinn Gravy Avatvns RS, Sandhu (1959) of Bhakra Dam Design Directorate developed a quicker solution of ‘Thesshort cuts proposed while saving considerable time of the designer, do ‘not much impair the sccuracy of the results, The analysis is based on the stresses by the taking points at distance AT, where k ity analysis. considering equilibrium of forces. 1, 0.2 ete. (k = y/T) and finding the stresses byGRAVITY DAMS 215 ins 0a horizontal sections of rom-ovefiow section FRL+ EQ or orn, vi on, on Ie tan 24 ¢ = F319) == 09115) 1 2 13 14 1s 16 ” 8 19 G60 1.0). These findings are in perfect agreement ‘with those of Zicakiowicz, viz., that harder foundations induce tension and softer foundations compression at the heel. 3. Tho maximum stress isnot at the toe, but usually at one-eighth of base width ‘upstream of it, The maximum stresses are higher than toe stresses. by about 36% in case of very rigid rocks (Ec/Ex=0.1) to about 10% in case of very soft rocks (Kc/Ee = 10. increase in case of Ec/Ex 1.0 and 2,5; being 54%, 37.5% and 26.5% respectively, This shows that as the Ec/Ex ratio increases, i.e., the rocks become softer, the maximum value and toe stress approach nearer. 4. As we go up from the base, the effect of foundation elasticity decreases and at 0.31 from the base, all the curves are practically the same. 5. Though the compressive stresses increase at the toe with yielding foundations, they are always loss than those obtained by classical gravity analysis. 16-607 SAEs m4 a Fon Plz. 5.51, Variation of normal vertical sirest on horizons planes.GRAVITY DAMS 23 6 It is seen that the compressive stresses on the downstream end of planes at 10% and 20% height of dam above dam base are higher than toe stresses, Variation of a, (Fig. 5.52) 1, There are larger differences in the values of o, from those of classical theory at lower levels, up to 20% H from base, 2. Atthe upstream vertical plane o, is tensile at the heel which increases with the hardness of the foundation rock. 3, Interestingly, the above trends given in (2) reverse at vertical planes away from the upstream face. On these planes harder foundations induce greater compressive stress, sims acess eons renrjef 90g $0 Wel cont, SHeB TOE ig. 5.32 Variation of normal horizontal sizes on verttal planes, © Variation of sy (Fig. 5.53) 1, Forthe upper part of the dam the distributions of shearing stresses on horizontal sections agree with the distribution corresponding to a linear normal vertical stress. In upper ‘portions the shear stress degenerates into a straight line. 2. Forhorizontal sectionsnear to or at the dam base, the distribution departs from ‘that indicated by classical theory with maximum values at downstream ends.ns . CConcheTE DA 3. Harder foundations induce greater values of shear stresses at the heel and up to quarter point of the horizontal plane. 4. Beyond three quarter point from heel, the stress magnitudes reverse and for downstream quarter of the base, softer foundations induce greater shear stresses. cejeme 04 vemy a keless oe Hae Ee/ens +0. veuat assumprion Fig. $53. Variation of shear stress 5.22 Tawston my rH Hes Recton or Concrete Dans Gravity analysis does not take into account the rock structure below the dam and the non-linearity of vertical noimal stress. High tensile stresses occur at the heel region with elastic analysis, like finite element analysis (clause 5.21). Such tensile steesses are maaimum in case of joints in the base foundation (R.S. Varshney 1971, 1972, 1978). The tension zone can be eliminated after assuming a limited amount of cracking (0.C. Zienkiewice 1968, R.S. Varshney 1978). For this analysis a number of cracks in different depths and orientation should be studied s0 as to make-dam heel zone “tension free". The occurrence of such tensions in elastic analysis isa characteristic phenomenon of stresses at singularities. The LO.O.L.D. Committee on the “Design and Analysis of Coacrete Dams” opines (lanuary, 1978).Gravity DAMS. ns “When linear elastic assumptions are used inthe analysis of structures it is almost always found that tensions develop and it is customary to impose a limit oa acceptable tensions. This was reasonably satisfactory as long as simple assumptions of behaviour of complex structures wore used such as those implicit in say beam-arch analysis of arch dams or a cantilever type analysis of gravity dams using linear stress distributions. Unfortunately a consequence of more precise unalysis is the fact that large (theoretically infinite) stresses ‘occur near singular Such singularities can be caused by real structural features. such as sharp re-entrant corners near the foundation but may equally well be induced by local cracks undetected in the construction or caused by thermal actions in places where “‘smooth’” stress flow occurs, Tn view of such large concentrations which are largely analysis dependant (as a finite mesh of finite elements will only give there an approximation which becomes betier—ie. yields progressively larger stress as the mesh is refined) is the specification of maximum tensile stress tenable? ‘The answer to this question is by no means simple. In a’compressive singularity zone a mall amount of plastic yield will, a6 is well known, limit the maximum stress values and a redistribution of stresses will oceur. Such a redistribution does not occur to any appreciable extent in & tensile zone of a brittle material and fracture may occur. In machine components afracture study is largely based on the use of energy concepts introduced by Griffiths and elaborated in terms of stress intensity factors (J.F. Knott—1973). The critical value of such 4 stress intensity factor calculated for a particular singularity determines whether a crack will propagate, In principle it appears that similar criteria should be introduced into the design of ‘massive concrets structures such as dams and that a detailed study of each possible singularity be made, In practice such an approach would be excessively complicated and would go against the common sense of a good designer who knows that ina well designed massive siructure the crack should be able only to propagate for a limited distanee unt! all tensions disappear anu that the “cracked” structure should be safe with respect to cracking or other failure. Uniess such an arrest of « crack becomes a possibility the structures not absolutely safe and should not be permitted.” tis therefore clear that the use of a maximum permissible tension stress criterion is not valid. However in actual numerical analysis when optimisation of a shape of a dam is con- cerned it may be desirable 1o use such a specified maximum tension (say 15-20 kg/em*, the latter figure adopied at Ttaipu dam on river Parana on Brazil and Paraguay border) for ‘comparison purposes between alternative designs. ‘The problem of tension at the heel of concrete dams was discussed in the 13th Internt- tional Congress of Large Dams held at New Delhi, Oct. 29-Nov. 2, 1979 (Question No. 48). The appearance of tension was considered a limitation of elastic analysis. Ta case of a solid or hollow gravity dam, a slightly wider base width, than that estimated ‘on the basis of conveational analysis, may be provided. G.N. Tandon and R.S. Varshney (1979) suggest that it would provably be advantageous if the rock wider the heel were of comparatively low modulus, compared to that at the tor, Unfortunately there is rarely any ‘choice in this regard, but the condition can be somewhat met by making the rock at toe harder by more consolidation grouting etc. Another suggestion made by P. Londe, President 1.C.0.L.D. (1979-83) is to provide a concrete apron upstream of heel, of leagth equal to about one tenth of dam height and provide additional grout curtsin at the upstream edge of the apron.236 CONCRETE DAMS 5.23. Gavtenies General Galleries are provided in a dam for different purposes, viz., grouting and drainage, operation of gates and control equipment, housing: hoisting. pumping and other equipment for measurement of structural behaviour of the dam etc. In addition there can be other types of openings like sluices, conduits etc. which run full of water, Thus we can divide galleties, ie., a formed opening in a dam as: (i) hydraulic like sluices, outlets, penstocks etc., and (il) galleries which can be fetmed as contro and inspection passages, Galleries can be further sub-divided according to their aligninent, viz. © Parallel to the axis of dam In this category, we can include: (@) Foundation and drainage gallery: ‘This gallery generally extends. all along the length ‘of the dam near the rock surface, conforming in elevation to the trausverse profile of the canyon; in plan itis near to the axis of dam. It is from this gallery the holes for the main grout curtain are drilled and grouted and also from which foundation drain holes are drilled. Its size is approximately 1.5 > 2.2 10 1.8 = 2.4m, (®) Drainage gallery: A supplementary drainage gallery is sometimes. located further downstream, about2/3rd of the base’ width from the upstream face, for the purpose of drilling ‘and drsining the downstream portion of the foundation. This gallery usually extends only through the deepest portion of the dam. {e) Gate gallery: Location and size depends on the need and size of the equipment to be housed, It usually connects hoisting chambers just aver the control gates. Examples may be sluice operating gallery, penstock operating gallery, etc. () Inspection galleries: Sometimes some galleries are provided for inspection purposes. (i) Normal 10 dam axis In this group we can include adits, which are approaches to the differeat galleries. These adits also sometimes locate measuring boards of the different equipmeats, pumps etc. (in recessed chambers). (ii), Vertical and inetned shafes These include: (a) shafts for housing elevators, plumb bob, etc,, and (b) inclinsd shaft to connect two galleries or one gallery at two elevations, Figure 5.54 shows galleries systems for the Kolkewadi dam (Koyna II) in Maharashtca (india). ‘These openings change the normal stress pattern in the body of the dam and stress concentrations occur around corners etc. Itis therefore extremely essential that such stresses should be known so as fo find out tension. and compression zone and provide remedial measures for them. ‘Stress concentration around circular gallery ‘The stress concentration around a circular gallery in dam mass can be found by assumingGRAVITY Dams 207 the dam mass as infinite. The stress concentrations due to a stress acting on a circular gallery are as shown in Fig, $.55, A uniform stress p cteates an opposite stress of equal magnitude: on plane ed at cand 4, while a stress of same type and three times of magnitude on planeab, at @ and b, In Fig. $.55, 2 is compressive stress which creates tensile stress of magnitude p at ¢ and d and compressive stress of magnitude 3p at aand b. The tensile siress changes sign at about 1.7+ from the centre of ‘the gallery. The total tension may be approximated by 0.25p.r where the extre compressive force ereated in the concrete on plane ab over and above the value p is p.r. If 50% over stress is allowed in concrete near the hole, the area of excess stress to be takes care of by reinforcement is reduced to 0.3p-r. PENSTOCK atock SECTION Fig, 5.54, Kolcewadi dam, Maharashtes, Tndia—typicaletois section and gallery system.228 CONCRETE DAMS Design Example 5.4 Design reinforcement for a circular gallery of diameter 2 m. ‘The gallery is subjected to uniaxial compressive stress p of magnitude 20 kg/cm’. Solution 28 PD | eaten Ae 9.25 900 mals v2 * Spminy PO mdi obe hoy l..d Nat Sak sot glee need = $2100 co Provide 32 mm ‘bars @ 40cm e/e in the plane of sallery and 300 mim spaced along the axis of gallery. , ‘The maximum compressive stress will be 3 x 20 = 60 kg/em*. Rich concrete can withstand this compressive T T stress. However, the reinforcement provided for tension will be given all around the gallery take care of excess compression, ie Note: For detailed discussion and design of openings the reader is advised to refer to author's Hydro Power Structures, M/s Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee. 5.24. Bewaviouk of ConcRITE GRAVITY DAMS SuBrECTED ‘To EaRTHQUAKiS During earthquakes, dams are subjected to dynamic forces which depend on the properties OF the ground motion excitation as well as properties of dam structure itself. fodian Standard Code (18-1893) also recommends the desirabilty of carrying out the final designs ‘of important structures like dams by dynamic analysis, The equations of motion of the sys. tem for free vibration considering bending, shear and rotary inertia deformations can be written as Guy 6.116) where y, ¥», y= total, bending and shear deflections x = distance measured along the height 1 = time variable E = modulus of elasticity = mass density @ = modulus of rigidity 4 = cross-sectional area 1 = moment of inerti = shape factor Since the cross tection of the dam is non-uniform along the height, an explicit solutionGaaviry Dans 29 of equations (5.115) and (5.116) is not practicable. Numerical technique is used to arrive at the solution [A.R. Chandrasekaran (1969), SS. Saini and Jai Krishna (1974)) 8S. Saini and V.H. Kulkarni (1974) have given simplified equations and curves for the dynamic analysis of gravity dams, which are discussed herein. 1. Fundamental natural period of vibration HH TaGge (uy where T= fundamental natural period of vibration Cr= non-dimensional period cocificient ‘= height of dam Vz = longitudinal wave propagation velocity rq = radius of gyration at the base of dam Figure 5.56 gives the variation of the period coefficient with the height and slope of the dam, Knowing value of period coefficient from Fig 5.56 the undamped natural period in gyro Funoaneutal eIGHt oF Am m ETRES Fig 5.56, Variation of petiod coeticient with height and slope of dams the fundamental mode (A system is said to be vibrating in a fundamental mode when all its ‘masses attain maximum values of displacements. simultancously and also they pass through equilibrium positions simultaneously) can be obtained from equation (9.117) or approxi- mately from equation (3.118) 71.64 H go > 100m 6.118) e 2. Dynamic moments and shears M xy = ny Mo (5.119), Vn =B Ms 5.120) Myo Con Wit Ss 6.12)230 CONCRETE DANS: We Co we (ayy where M,.) = moment at any section x from the base Vig = shear at any section x from the base My — base moment Vs = base shear a = non-dimensional coefficient giving the distribution of moment slong the height ‘of dam; has unit value at base. ® = non-dimensional coefficient giving the distribution of shear along the helght of dam; has unit value at the base Cry = non-dimensional base moment Cy = non-dimensional base shear W = total weight of the dam H— bight of dam ‘Sq = speciral acceleration in the fundamental mode = acceleration due to gravity ‘The variation of base moments and base shear (average) on the basis of Koyna (India 1967) and El Centro (1940) earthquakes is shown in Fig. 5.57. On an approximate basis the ba ‘moment and base shear can be taken as My 003 Wan (5.123) Eom, ons 5 gion Von OF Oam in neta Fig. 5.57. Base moment ard hase theat—coeficient for electro: earthquake and average curves.GRAVITY DAMS. 231 Ve = 0.6 W 6.129, & The distribution of moments and shears along the height of dam is. given by the non- dimensional coefficients «and 3. Average distribution curves for moments and shears are shown in Fig. 5.58 which can be directly used for design purposes. 3. Top dynamic displacement Maximum dynamic displacement occurs at the top of the dam and is usually of interest in order to know the maximum deformations of the dam during earthquake Zr = CS: (5.125) where Zr = top displacement Cz = displacement coefficient spectral displacement in the fundamental mode Fig. 5.58. Variation of « and 8 with dam height. The variation of the displacement coefficient with respect to height and slopes of dams due to transverse component of Koyna earthquakes has been shown in Fig. 5.59. On an approximate basis, the top dynamic displacement can be taken as Zz = 3.054 for H> 100 m (5.126) For dams of height less than 100 m the top displacement coefficient can be taken as varying linearly with a value of 2.0 fora dam of 30 m height to 3.0 for a 100m high dam, Knowing the fundamental natural period of vibration, the spectral response can be obtained using the response spectral of the carthquakesand thus the response of the dam can be obtained. If actual response spectra of the design earthquake is not available the average spectra, as specified by 1IS-1893, ean be used, These are reprodiiced in Fig. 5.60 and multiply ing factor F is as follows:232 ‘CONCRETE DAME Zone Fralue 1 On 1 0.2 1 0,3 Vv 04 v 0.7 TOP DSPACOMENT cotrricieNT ce 4—+ sth He “4p see Heol or cas IN we tHe HEIGITOF OAM iN METRES, FOR MOVNA. TaansVtRSE COMPONENT ‘nuemase come Fis. 5.59. Top displacement cofiient for Koyna trantverss component and avaeage Curves, AveraCE CELERON IW em ct ManveA, Peed 1m sono Fig. 5.60, Averute acceleration apecte 1.8.8. 1893-1979, Depending upoa the soll foundation system the cosficient given earlier and factor F given above shall be multiplied by factor B*. The value of $* for various cates ate given in Table 5.13.GRAVITY DAMS 233 “Table $.13. Values of §* for diferent soil foundation sytem (Section 3,4.2 of 18-1893—1970) St. Type of soll manly Bearing pile resting ites con Isotaied RLC.C, footings Well founie No. “cansttuting the on soil type 1 or raft ined or olated without te beams or fowsdation foundation RCC. footings unreinforced strip ci with ie bee ‘omditon 1 2 3 ‘ 5 6 1 type ten or tera Lo 10 10 10 2 Type li Medion ‘ole Lo Lo 12 12 3 Typelt-son nh Lo 12 Ls Ls Having decided tbe properties of the design earthquake, ve design force for the dam can te obtained foom equations and curves piven en Design Example 55 Hicight of dam — 100m; U.S. slope 0.151 D,S. slope = 0.75: 1; Base width = 85m Top width = 10%; Density of dam material = 2.4 t)m* Longitudinal wave propagation velocity = 3050 m/sec. E, = 2.3108 tim? Solution ‘The response has been obtained due to transverse component of Koyna earth damping has been taken as 10% of critical damping in the fundamental mode. From Fig. 5.56, for a dam height of 100 m and total slope of 0.85: 1, the period costi- cient = 1.65. Hence, fundamental natural period of vibration sake and Base moment coeflicient = 0.3 Base shear coefficient = 0.6 Base mameot = ay ~ 0.3.01 38 «0.05 Base ahear = Ys = 0.69 $2 = 0.11W Displacement coefficient = 3.0 ‘Top placement ~ 3.0% 0.4—~ 1.2 em24 CONCRETE DAMS, “The problem of Seismicity and Aseismis Design of Dams” was discussed at great length uring the 13th Iasernational Congress on Large Dams held: at New Delhi 29th Octoberta 2aq November 1979. Though various design procedures were proposed for aseismic. derige at dams, it was however felt that it is theoretically quite impossible to convert a long tin ground motion into an equivalent short time motion, of to a seismic fastor for satie equ Talent design, Nevertheless by systematic examination and testing of substitute impute should be possible to convert seismicity as defined by the seismologist into a factor wtich can be used for design which is well within the accuracy of the basic data, 5.25 Ture\at Sreesses srlcrmal stresses ina gravity dam can be evaluated if concrete placement temperature and Tal stabletemperature inthe concrete mass are Anows. (The faal stable temperature Sheegtitluated by any one of the three methods, vie, (I) definite integral method, (1) Schemidt method, and (iii) Carlson method, 1. Stresses due to base restraint Basic to the design of any crack-control system is the formula for stress in any point in 4 dam due to temperature change, LA AER ty i tty) (3.07) where /— stress in concrete, ka/emt, resulting from thermal expansion & = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, usually 8'to 10.10-* per °C Fe= modulus of elasticity of conctete usually between 210! and 3%10*kg/em* for 28 day concrete restraint factor, being unity at base and nearly zero at dam mid-height placing temperature of the mix, °C fr = temperature rise of concrete after placing due to heat of hydration of cement, ty-= final stable temperature of concrete, °C {a the design of high gravity dam, itis desirable to keep f below 15 kg/cm 2. Stresses due to thermal gradient alone wihout base restraint f-stol els oe vf 7.4208] (5.128) where = thermal coefficient usually 8 to 10. 10-* per °C E = clastic modulus half thickness of slab in em Poisson's ratio 8 = temperature fone f= stress in kglomt ¥ = distance from centre of slab For detail discussion on this topic, the reader is advised to refer to Concrete Technology ‘y the author, published by Mis Oxford & TBH Publishing Co., New Delhi ny )‘oRAYITY DAMS 26, Hooirrenisa or Gravity Daw ‘Today larg: number of dams requite heightening due to insufficiency of the knowledge of future demand of water supply, irrigation, power generation and flood control at the time of initial design; insufficiency of hydraulic data at the time of design; silting of reservoir, inadequate or defective construction and insufficient section, Other factors like: (i) finawtial (ii) legal limitations; (if) uncertain water rights, and (i) international boundaries, etc. have limited the construction of existing dams to a certain eight though the demands ‘were anticipated and water was also available. By now almost all types of dams, concrete or masonry, earth or rockfil, arch, butiress or gravity have been heightened. Different methods, design procedures. and construction techniques have been employed to get the desired height. Le” Problems The theoretical problems involved are: (i). basically a renewal of construction with all the difficulties inherent in the cold joint. (@) that the load scheme for the whole dam is never equal to the one corresponding to ‘a single equivalent dam. (Gi) that the super imposed section is built upon a structure, which is under stress unlike the new construction, The stress distribution resulting from this new load condition might not be most critical, but this creates a condition of uncertainty. (ie) dus to the variation of elastic propsrties of the old concrete from the new one, the behaviour of concrete, during the process of construction passes from plastic to clastic condition and changes the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete, and (®) to determine if the weight of the added section is beneficial or harmful on the stresses of the upstream face, With any of the basic problems given above it is possible to choose a suitable solution for the heightening of the dams. However the choice will depend upon the existing conditions with respect to geology, construction, economy, local conditions, safety etc. 2. Methods The process of heightening of a dam can be classified into four groups. (Differentiated structures: An this the new and old ssctions are kept separately with- ‘out treating the joints between the.two. The independence of old and new sections is ‘maintained and they work together but without actual integration. (ii) Synmonolithic structures? Yn this type of construction the joint between the old and new masonty is treated as a cold joint during the pouring of second concrete, The residual stresses are reduced, controlled or eliminated by proper reservoir operation of planning of block concrete. IF it is not possible to completely eliminate the stresses, the joints are located inthe least disturbing zone. (ili) Post-monolithie structures: Wlere the Integration of the old and new sections it ed by proper treatment and grouting of the joint at a suitable time under favourable conditions of loading ‘These first three main classifications can each be further classified into two functions, viz.236 ‘CONCRETE DANS (a) metamorphism, and (b) idiomorphism, By metamorphic structures it is understood that though the two parts are made of two ‘ifferent construction materials and on two different principles of design and planning, they will withstand the new loading conditions as one structure, By idiomorphic structures, itis ‘underitood chat the two parts are made of the same type of construction materials but differ 20 type of construction depending on the maia classification of differential, synmonolithic and post-monolithic structures. (W) Other sypes of raised structures: Raising by other methods may be accomplished by: ©) prestressing techniques, (i) direct heightening, (ii) adding flash boards or stop loes to. the spillway erest, and (Wy) adding crest gates, preferably automatic in operation, The heightening schemes of gravity dam are shown in Figs, 5.61 and 5.62, > eee Fig. $61. Heightoniog schemes of gravity dams: 3. Soints In a synmonolithic construction the joints in gravity dams are provided with keys, The teeth of the Keys are kept along the direction of principal stresses under full load condition, All sold joint treatment is given and also metallic interlocks are introduced. Greater emphasis '& required on drainage of the penetrating water so as to prevent the development cf any meGRAVITY DAMS, 237 FUTURE STRESSING nen sPnuway SECTION Future REC GALLERY ay ‘smacway Section ‘ie pare sst wiock won FACING assum sete sllak SRE | beete of sre | thes RAISING OF STEEN GRAS DAM(SA) ssa CROSS OWNS AEM SC preg CROSS SECTION OF KHADAKWASLA DAM RAISING BY EARTH BACKING ae aE | ner oxtomonstecOm) 9) spans sy [ees tiesot te eat ami Nino cx "tt" 2960 Be A LSECTION OF KHADAKWASLA DAM Fig. $.62. Raising of dams.ma CONCRETE DAMS a EMbeento parcasr raussovne vere Sete EEF esas ele Tha evs Wo) TYPICAL SECTION OF AFFRIC oAM RAISING UNCOMPLETED PORTION rey me «) OIScoNTiMUTIES ON THE DOWNSTREAM Fact oF ‘ARCH DAMS sath Bs SECTION Aca SASS Sabre ih 29.046 Loxcerse Et: SECTION THOUGH UNCOWPLETED PORTA = Tyeieat seen0N swowne « RAISING OF AFFRIC DAM Weary HOLLOW SCREEN secrign gw ma sont ovee eas Fie. $.63. Joints in arch ané gravity dams,‘ORAVITY Dams 29 internal hydrostatic pressure along the joint. The leakage may be from the transverw joints or from the dam body itself, The leakage from the transverse joints is generally drained through semi-circular precast concrete pipes along the joints and finally through a collecting passage, preferably a gallery along the longitudinal joint. This longitudinal gallery is also Utilised to collect water from the precast concrete drains arrang*4 at suitable intervals. along the downstream face of the old dim. In addition suitable water stops are inserted in the upper portion of the transverse joints and welded to the upper ends of the existing seals. Ta some of the dams whete the leakage is of more setious nature, special hollow scteens are usually provided on the upstream face of the dam with a metallic cover on the top. Joints in the post-monotithic construction are of two types. In the first case the concrete is placed in the form of a backing slab resting at certain points on the sloping face of the old dam but remaining separate from it by a siot fo stop any chance of rigid bonding between the two masses, The slot helps in phasing and stops transfer of heat. After completion of shrinkage and construction, this slab is bonded to the old dam by means of filling the slot. The space of the slot can be filled with concrete or prepaki concrete or shoterete. In the second case of joints in post-monolithic construction, columnar construction is adopted as ddone in the case of Grande Dinence dam (Fig. 5.4), These column type blocks can be erecied on the stepped downstream face of thedam, The vertical faces of the steps may also have saw-toothed faces, The columnar blocks are Kept separated by suitable key gaps, tll the block attains final stable temperature and is ultimately grouted. Tt has the advantage of better cooling from almost all the side faces of the columnar blocks. Fig. 5.63 exhibits some such joints. SELECTED REFERENCES 1, Bharat Singh and Varshney, R.S., “E(fect of Faults im the Foundation on Dam Bebaviou dnt. Irrigation and Power, October 1974, pp. 451-467. 2. Bourgia, A., The Desiga of Dams, Sit Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd., London, 1933. 3. Clough, R.W. and Wilson, E L., “Stress Analysis of a Gravity Dam by the Finite Element Method", Paper No. 29, Symp. Use of Computers in Civil Engineering, Lisbon, Vol. I, 1962. Republished in R7LEM, Bulletin No. 9, (1963). 4. Creager, W.P., Justin, HD., and Hinds, J., “Engineering for Dams", Vol. Ul, Concrete Dams, Wiley Eastern Pvt, Ltd., New Delhi, 1968. GV. and Sorenson, K-E., Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co,, 3rd Ed, 1969. 6. Tadian Standard L 1893—1973,, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Desiga of Structures Gré. Rev). 7. Indian Standard: 6512— 1972. Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity Dams, 8. Indian Standard, 6805—1977. Code of Practice for Construction of Masonry in Dams, 9. Jai Krishna and Chandrasekeran, Flements of Earthquoke Engineering, Sarita Prakshan, Meerut, Ist Ed., 1976 10, Kharkov, AA, “Application of Probability Method of Least Square in Designing Dam along with Foundation on Computer DTSM", Trans, Union Res. Inst. Hydro. Tech, 741, (1968). USSR. 11, McCalla, TR... Introduction to Numerical Methods and Fortran Programming, John Wiley & Sons Tac., 1967.21. 2. 2 2 25 26 27 29. 30. 31 32. 33, M4 35. CONCRETE DAMS MoHanry Douglas, “A Lattice Analogy for the Solution of Sicess Problems, Institution of Civil Engineers, Paper 5350, Vol. 21, December 1943, pp. 59-82. Murti, NG.K., “Khadakwasla, ‘The Oldest Masonry Dam in India’, 9h ICOLD Istanbul (Turkey), September 1967, R-53, pp. 895-915. Naylor, D.J., Stagg, K.G. and Zienkiewicz, 0.C., “Criteria and Assumptions for Numerical Analysis of Dams”, Proceedings of an International Symp. helt at Swansea, U.K. September 8-11, 975. Rao, K.La, “Strengthening of Masoary Dams”, Jk Irrig. & Power, Vol, 1 No: 1, January 1953, pp. 49-67. Rao, KiL., and Dhawan 8.K,, “Stage Construction of Dams India: Its Economies and Difficulties", 61 1COLD, New York, Paper No. R-S2, pp. 657-670, 1988. Roberts, C-M., "The Heightening of a Gravity Dam", Paper No. R-12, Sth ICOLD Paris, May-June 1955, pp. 163-178, Sandhi, R.S., “Simplified Procedure for Stress Analysis of Gravity Dams", Jn. of the Power Da. Proc. A.S.C.Eq Vol. 83, No, PO 3, June 1951. Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J.N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill & Co., New York. ULS.BR. Design Sundatd No, 2 Conerote Dams Ch. 2, Gravity Dams, Deaver Colorado, September 1965, USER, Design of Small Dams, Denver Colorado, Second Edition 1973. USB, “Design of Gravity Dams", A Water Resources Technical Publics Colorado, 1976. USB, “Design Crite sgroph No, 19,1971 Varstney, RS, “Stresses in Anisotrepis Foundations below Gravity Dam”, Doctoral Thesis, University of Roorkee, 1972. Varshaey, RS, "Conerets Dams”, Writeup distributed to W.R.D-T.C. Trainees, University of Roorkes, India, 1968-1972, Varshaey, RS, “Contact Stresses in Gravity Dams”, Indian Concrete Journal, November 1974, pp. 235-363. Varabney, RS, “Stresses in Layered Half Plane below Gravity Dams Mech, and Min, Se. Vol. 12, 1975, pp. 159-166. Varshuey, R.S., “Prestressed Rock Anchors”, Jnl, Cement and Concrete, Jnl.. March 1968, pp. 267-276. Varsbney, RS. et al, Theory of Design of Irrigation Structures, Vol. 11, 4th Ed, 1979, Mis Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee. Varshney, RS., “Rock Anchors for Dams”, Jnl. Cement and Concrete, April pp. 42-48. Varshney, RS., “Deformations of Gravity Dams", The Indian and Eastern Engineer, November 1970, pp. 631-653. Varshney, R.S., and Rabeem, M.A., “Concrete Dam Disasters and Remedies”, Indian Jnl. of Power and Rirer Valley Development, July 1971, pp. 248-256. Varshney, RS., “Effect of Foundation Elasticity. on Stresses in Gravity Dams”, Jnl. Cement ond Concrete, October-December 1971, pp. 238-254 Varsiney, 8.8. "Rock Foundation Characteristics and Dam Design”, Int, Jnl. of Rock Mech. and Min. Se. September 1972. Varshney, RS. “Eifect of Jointed Foundation Rocks on Stresses in Dam and Rock ions, Denver for Coneréte Gravity and Arch Dams", Engineering Mono- Int. Jal. of Rock I June 1968,ORAVITY DAMS 2a 37, 38 39. 41. Mass", Univ. of Roorkee, 125th Year Jubilee Celebrations Proc. of the Symp.on Modern Trends in Civil Engs., November 1-13, 1972 Varshney, R-S., “Dams on Rocks of Varying Elasticity Min. Sc., Vol. 11, 1974, pp. 1-12. Zangar, C.N.. “Hydrodynamic Pressures on Dams due to Horizontal Earthquake Effects” U-S-BAR, Special Assignments Section Report No. 21, October 18, 1950 and also USER, Engineering Monograph No. 11. Henkiowicz, O.C,, The Finite Element Method in Enginvering Science, MeGraw-ttill, London, 1971 Finkiewicz, O.C., and Gerstner, R.W., “Foundation Elasticity Eifecte in Gravity Dams", Proc. Inst. Civil Engg, Vol. 19, une 1961, pp. 109-215, Paper 6475, Zienkiewicz, O.C, and Gerstner, R.W., “Stress Analysis and Special Problems of Prestressed Dams", Paper No. 2514, Jn. of Power Da, Proc. A.S.C.E., Vol. 87 No. PO, January 1961, pp. 7-43, Fienkiewicz, O.C. et el,, Committe ICOLD on “Analysis and Design of Dams", Bulletin ‘No. 30. Finite Element Methods in Analysis and Design of Dams, January 1978. Int, Jal. of Rock. Mech, and6. HOLLOW AND CORED GRAVITY DAMS. 6.1 GrneRat, ‘The conventional gravity dam depends for its stability primarily upon the weight concrete contained in its body. ‘The dam section is proportioned to provide as factor of safety against the overturning forces of water pressure, uplift, sit loa: forwer. Ttalso provides sufficient shear friction resistance at» the plane of contact Foundation to provide a satisfactory factor of safety agtinst sliding or shea Depending upon the oriterion selected, the volume of conerete required to couste Trios of uplift would fall somewhere between one quarter and one-thicd of the (9H Of the section, This suggests the removal of that part of the concrete which By its fe} Creates a substantial part of the uplift within a gravity dam. The partial eliminatt pressures by the ereation of internal cavities within a gravity dam is therefore the vant factor in the development of the hollow gravity dam. TA second factor is the manner in which water, concrete and other loads are through the structure to the foundation. Depending upon assumed allowable st twowthitds and three-quarters of the volume ofa gravity dam is required as & cou to overcome overturning and shear friction forces and that only between one-quartt third. of ths concrete is required to transmit the loads, at acceptable stresses structure to the foundations. Te is mentioned in Chapter 7 that the replacement of the resisting mom counterweight concrete with that of the weight of water on an inclined upstream in increased safety factors and improved stress patterns. ‘Application of these principles produced first hollow gravity dam and cored (U section) and different other types of buttress dams. 6.2. Houtow Gravity Dam Introduction “The hollow gravity type carries the evolutionary process (which resulted is buttress type) one step further. Figure 6.1 shows. typical structure of this Italian engineers. The 7.0m wide internal cavity creates two buttresses, ‘cach havings thickness of 4.65 m. To increase lateral stability these buttresses arc ined sections at both the upstream and downstream faces. Table 6.1 presents a ft dams of this type with some of their pertinent data, The main dam of the power project under construction on river Parana, forming the bowadary Paraguay is a 180 m high concrete hollow gravity type.AND CORED GRAVITY DAMS ee sreamcnense), i 6.1, Typical buttress gravity type dam, eas of Dizence dam, a hollow gravity structure, are exhibited in Fi 6.2, rraeiusted Zeya dam, 112 m high and 714 m long is exhibited in Fig.6.3, Zeya in US.S.R., a left tributary of river Amur, ‘tavity dam is designed in exactly the same way as gravity dam, or Ofsafety against overturning should not be less than 2.0. The resistance to the cxPressed by the same formulae as in case of gravity dam, Iw applying the hollow gravity dam, it must be kept in mind that SF, represents the Safety for the area of contact between the dam and the foundatiene Should be required in the buttresses, the relationship between vertical loading and Te oe tity Yary throughout the base. Tn this case the shear fiieiog uld be analysed separately for each columa bounded by the Joints, ie abezoidal law can be applied without any appreciable error in the In cases involving significant differences between of the conerete and foundation materials, more exact method of analysis, ‘element method, may be used.244 ‘Table 6.1, Salient features of sot smc hollow geavity dams-—after C. Marcello Name and period ‘Stream (basin) Max. Crest Volume ‘of construction ‘eight (m) engih (mi) of dam 108 on) “Ttaly: Lago di Trona Ritto et 4939-42) Gerola (Adda) 58.40 182,00 84.10 Lago dell'Inferno Inferno cosa) (Adda) 41.20 151.00 39.00 Bau Mugeerit Fiuemendoss 948-49) 0 235.00 13.8 Poplia (1949-1950) $0.00 137.10 34.0 ‘Ancipa (1949-1952) (Simeto) 11-50 253.00 318.00 Sabbione (1949-1953) Rio del Sabbione (Cicino) 63.60 Pantano 4*Avio Coleasca (1949-1956) (Oxlioy 63.00 Ponte Vittorio, Strona (4954-1955) (Ticino) 38.50 Boazzn (1954-1955) Chiese (Oslio) 37.10 Bissina (1955-1957) ‘Ghiee (Oxlio) 87.10 Venerocolo. ‘Outtlow (1956-1958) from lake (Oxlioy 31.40 Catemala (1958-1961) Liseia 69.00 Greece: Pidima Ladnon 56.00 Brazit: ‘Cachocira do Rio Jugula Franca 43.00 Cachociea da Rio Juguia Fumaca 4.0AND CORED GRAVITY DAMS 24, bl LEZ ZEEE246 concrete! The shearing and the horizontal normal stresses may be determined from ari integration. Referring to Fig. 6.4, the vertical and horizontal shearing, stress intensities at eee sone =e Fig, 6.4. Determination of shearing stresses—hollow gravity 6 A, the contre of the elementary slice having a thickness A/#t may be determined by the total vertical normal loads between poiats a and 0 and N+ AN between poiats ‘Therefore, S=N+W-W+ AN) where S = total shear across section ac W = weight of concrete, elementary section a.bsc.d. Therefore, a = = Taoremental area DA Because horizontal and vertical shearing stress intensities are equal, horize stresses may be arithmetically integrated on two horizontal planes separated by increment of height Ak. Taking the total horizontal shear between a and bs total horizontal shear between cand das S,, the horizontal normal stess | jee Tneremental area AA Tn computing the values of cy, the average value ty. is determined in lying midway between planes aband ed. The sume process would then horizontal plane B located Ah below plane A. Having known ey, c¢ 40d ty intensities o, and cy may be determined by the formulae = ft) | Geet ot = i rer = 5h re) 4a!AND CORED GRAVITY DAMS 247 dams of medium height say up to 80m, the value of Ah may be chosen between 1.0 m luse of the massiveness of the structure it may be assumed that the entire horizontal tion AA, Fig. 6.4) will act integrally in resiating overturning and shearing forces, ‘Thi introduces an additional stabilizing water load (Fig. 6.5). This additional load Fequal to w.b.h, (where hy <= mean head of a water column having a thickness 1), furning moment, on plane Aa, from water pressure would result from head hy jure is ussumed from full upstream head at the heel to downstream tail water head Wifference between upstream and downstream and then varying linearly to tail water 6.6). hollow gravity dam, Fig. 6.6. Uplift assumption —hollow gravity dam. the cored gravity dam (Section 6.3) nas a distinct advantage over the slab jand the multiple arch dam (Chapter 7). Unless the deck or upstream. ber acts integrally with the remainder of the structure, part of the weight transferred to the foundation. When this occurs, the stabilising loads d and an additional overturning force, represented by a horizontal load, may be introduced. Typical principal siress diagrams fora “Are shown in Figs. 6.7 and 6,8, Daw '® gravity dam is free to act independently, there is no reason why the blocks should not be made larger and thus provide more positive relief IS m high Albigna dam constructed in 1959 for the city of Zurich, Switzer- tration of @ feature which has been incorporated in several dams in and 6,10). Each block section resembles an I. In 65 drainage bore ion between the hollow spaces of the joints and from the galleriescon “Peo 2700 paw = 19819 61 enneya: SuonSauI pu Sassen asana “99 tyAND CORED GRAVITY DAMS 249. sumiems oan PLAN AND UPEIREAM ELEVATION OF THE DAY 22 ase eae Fig. 6.9. Albigaa dam, Switzerland. re bas been measured monthly. i (less than 1 ke/em'). Only cight omveattered irregularly, over the middle parts of the dam foundation, fe level; uplift pressures from 1 to 5 kglem’; they seemingly have siihe rock, Studies done by A.S. Chawla and Nathi Mal (1979) ‘presiures along the joint between the two monoliths (in case of upstream face of Tsimost linearly from the full uplift pressure at the eetead of cavity. The uplift along the centre line of the monolithsFig. 6.11. Cored gravity dam,AND CORED GRAVITY DAMS SEALE OF METAR cnmerry tot Ans 24. SECTION THRU GRAVITY DAM ‘Tietar dam (Spain)—typical sections. 251282 concnere Atop linearly to about lets than one third of the dliferential head at point opposite wo! head of cavity. Figure 6.11 shows the outlines of a cored ‘Bravity dam having a height of nearly 182.5m and a base width of 173.5 m. The buttress heads ‘are placed: Mat are and are spaced 20 m contre to contre ut the creat Buttress thicknesses vary feom at the top to 13.0 m at the foundation. The maximum Principal stress of 49.2 ke/om* at the downstream face at the foundation. ‘The highest cored gravity dam in the world is being planned for execution The 192 m high Lakhwar dam on river Yamuna, designed by the author, Fig. 1.4 UP, is 6.4. Hottow Base Daw The cored gravity dam bl locks if placed on steep flanks, stresses at corners and ‘at different. points of the web structu: gravity steucture, Austrian engineers left in the bottom ire, thus. adversely are, therefore, more in| 6.5 Ururr ann Supine ‘A major advantage claimed for hollow gravity acting on the dam are minimal, For this to be fact, oF tailwater pressure, around the buttress footing. and cored gravity dams is that tual there must be releases to At Gleno dam, Italy, this was Ine eof ye I] I [.\ewenor evce Aff LbL i 1 | Neme 3 TETTEET Ponce Fig. 6.14 8ably weaker than anticipated To Lave changed toa gravity tual problems and much greater cost. Tt was. therefore ed to provide the additional resistance against sliding by means of Post-tensioned restres- cables fixed to the foot of each buttress. Fora tetoy of safety of 1.5 in shear along Pmudstone it was calculated that 2 SeLectep REFERENCES “Certain Problems Pertaining toa Hollow Gravi indations”, C-15, TV.pp. 765-781, 71h ICOLD, Rome, 1961, Mal, “Uplift Pressures on Hollow Gravity Dams”, Jal. of the Diva. AS.C.E., Vol. 108, No. Hy. 3, March 1979, 4.R.. Cranch, H.W, Rocha, J.G., Gallico, A. Hydropower Project”, Jnl. 40-47 and November 1977, pp. 44-52. aod Beller, “River Development Schemes”, Pacis, September, 1956. t W.P., Justin, J.D. and Hinds, J., “Engineeting for Danis + Vol. 1. Concrete Wiley Eastern Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1968, CV. and Sorensen, K.E., Handboo! of Applied Hydraulice, McGraw-Hill. Book 3rd Ed., 1969, N.S. “Construction, of the Zeya Hydro Development” USSR, Jnl, Hydro- Construction, December 1973, pp. 1121-1125, snceeting Practice in the Construction of the Zeya R. dnl. Hydrotechnical Consteuction, Deceiaber 1973, pp. 1126-1129, ae initia, M.L, “First Siage Coffer dams at the Zeya Hydretecnas Plant” Jnl, Hpdrotcehnical Construction, December 1973, pp. iad raoe PTZ M-S. and Plosk, AE, “Grouting and Drainage of the Foundation of the = Dam at the Zeya Hydroelectric Station” USSR nl Hydrotechnical Con- November 1976, pp. 1075-1079. wski ind Goryanskii, A.G., ofthe Zeya Hydro Developme 14, pp. 404-408, WI, Vagner, V.N., Grigorev, Yu A., Sokolov, V.V. and Kokurin, S.A, “Main “Bf Zev Hydropower Scheme” USSR. Int Hydrotechnicat Construction, pp. 1118-1123, H., The Engineering of Large Dams, John Wiley and Sons, London, New p Ist. Ed. 1976, Part 1. And Agarwal, C.K., “The Wotld’s Highest Hollow Gravity Dam", paper A8th Research Session of C.B.L. & P., 1980, ty Dam on Compressible “Engineering Geologic Conditions during the USS.R., Jnl. Hydrotechnical Construction, ‘iCONCRETE Zienkiewicz, O.C,, et al., “Comparison of Analytical and Experimental Results in Design of a Hollow Gravity Dam" 9h ICOLD Congress, Instanbul, 1967, Coma, V, pp. 533-353. Zingg, W., “Albigna Gravity Dam”, Bureau des Amenagement Hydroelectriquesdela Vl de Zurich,BUTTRESS AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS AL sravity dam gave rise to buttress dam and the dam with counterforts. The latter is fecent origin, having been built by the Aztecs in South America and more recently ‘48 represented by the Meer Alam Dam in Hyderabad built in 1800 for the supply of the city of Hyderabad, This dam is possibly the carliest example of a muliiple arch ‘comprises 21 semi circular arches of spans varying from 21.3 mat the ends to 45 m Centre with a maximum height of 12.2 m (Fig. 7.1), The buttress dams were innovated Fig. 7.1. Meer Alam dam, A.P., India. ible features of gravity dams; these being: (i) the existence of lower a body of the dam and a consequent less beneficial utilization of concrete; Fuplift forces on the base of the dam and other sections which. necessitate lam. mass for stability.256 ‘CONCRETE ‘A reduction of the volume of concrete in gravity dam has been attempted from time) time by providing hollow gravity dams (Chapter 6), The behaviour of the dam block horizontal sections becomes one of an O- or T-section against the rectangular section ia dams, Astep further from hollow gravity dams are the buttress dams; a modifica T-section to 8 T-section. However, due to reduction of the concrete mass, it becomes nec to stabilise the dam against sliding by sloping the upstream face and thus obtaining the load of water above the structure as a stabilising force. ‘The buttresses are thin walls of triangular profile with a sloping upstream face and fre spaced at equal intervals along the length of the dam. The upstream face which oa ‘utes the water tightness may be in the form of a simple thin slab (Deck slab type dams), thickened buttress heads (Massive head buttress dams), plates or rches of vat reinforced concrete (Multiple arch buttress dam). A system of cross bracing between b of reinforced concrete beams provides lateral stiffness and resistance to buckling of ‘the: terforts. ‘The upstieam watertight face is continuous at the foundation and consists ‘8 cutoff wall carried down to sound rock along with a blanket grout curtain. For dams up to 150 m high it should be possible to dimension a buttress type of ‘tat the first principal stress does not exceed 70 kg/em*, ie. a stress comparable with thi a thin arch dam. 7,2. Types or Burrress Dams Depending on the arrangement of the T-section of the dam, we have different typ buttress dams, These various types, with their sub-classifications, are discussed as fo ‘A. Massive bead buttress dam Here the deck comprises of an extension of the buttress itself and for stability t section behaves as one monolith. The dam is thus made of a series of butts massive heads placed side by side, each being an independent structural unit. The ¢9 tion of this type was first proposed by F.A. Noetzli for Don Martin dam ia The massive head buttress dams can be further sub-classified as below: Round head buttress dam ‘This is the most popular; notable example being Don Martin dam Mexico, U4 dam Australia, Elmali dam Turkey, etc. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 show round head The shape of the round head should be such that the water pressure is transmitt in pure compression. Two copper seals with an asphalt scal in-between are the contact of two adjacent massive heads. Vertical drains are formed in the seepage and reduce uplift. In 1948 E. Reinus showed that the pore pressure within an undrained butt could act laterally and induce considerable horizontal tensile stress at the face: head. To minimize this, the water stop should be located well downstream, Drains can also be provided within the head as at the 83m high Giovertto d (Fig. 7.16). a“ Diamond head buttress dam Notable examples of this type are Haweswater dam, England; ErrochyAND MULTIPLE ARCH Dass ‘sree foes yom west ioe SORTA OF sone SECTIONAL fevaTion258, fer a8 on someascn UmGLE WALL Birt SECTION oo dll D3. ELEVATION = OVS: ELEVATION ELEVATION Fig. 7.3, Flat slab or Ambutson type—diamond head and round head types. Tievarion have becn constructed in various countries, the notable amongst them Gum, Sweden; Scais dam, Italy ete. ‘The massive T head type structute is also catlog Qbs A sap is left in the concrete slab-spanning two buttresses which is later Alled Me Sonerete has shrunk on either side, Such a construction was ‘made for the. few Sloy dam in Scotland (Fig. 7.7). couwcares ‘comey reste ep COR) are Fig. 7.4. Mushroon: head buttress dam—diamond head buttress dam. The advantages and disadvantages of massive head buttress dams are given b Advantages (The construction is simple and similar to that of massive gravity da (i) The water pressure is usually compressive because it acts radially head and perpendicularly in case of diamond type, Both the Hf tension ia the upvtream part of the dam are absent, (il) There is.no aveessity of reinforcing the deck.AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS sAie8 S106 ora Sa VS. Tee head buttress Fig. 7.6, ‘Typical features—tee head am—defisition sketch, buttress dam, aa] “than other types and hence shear resistance is better. * i independent of others, minor relative settlement is tolerable, ‘are much less compared to gravity dam,260 ‘conceeTE: B, Deck slab or Amburson type buttress dams Here the deck structure is a reinforced concrete slab spanning across the bu (Fig. 7.3). This type is also called the Amburson type after the person who suggested it the first time for a dam built at Theresa, N.Y. in 1903 but the design is adaptableto| dams aswell. The layout problems involve fixation of suitable buttress spacing shape of the buttress head for providing support to the slabs. ‘The typical feature of this type of dam is its articulation or flexibility. It is allow for free expansion of slab in directions parallel to base line of the dam and slope. Longitudinal movement can be arranged by coating the slab support by bit mastic. The movement along haunch has to be restricted so that the stabilization oad is not lost, Hence keys are provided between the slab and the support. Deck slab buttress dam. ‘material is placed in recessed keys to avoid lifting effect on buttresses by’ rise in (Fig. 7.8). Horizontal expansion joints may be given in the deck if necessary. ‘The inclination of the deck is kept between 35 and 45° with the horizontal, Slopes ieryenitieendcacy' to silding-ead ton dat. sloye-causes« ser biel ‘The different types of deck slab buttress dams are shown in Fig. 7.9. ‘Simple or Amburson deck slab buttress dam (Fig.7.9 4). In this type stee! is. placed at the downstream face, and hence there is no rusting, This type of dam is useful for wide valleys and the influence ofAND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 261 less marked. As the loads have to be transferred to the centration in corbels is likely to occur, continuous deck slab buttress (Fig. 7.9b) ‘deck slab is cast monolithically with the buttresses. There is a Provision of expansion Meonvenient places. Reinforcement is provided both on the upstecam aed downstream eurraras, (8) Comtmous ocx san (puto) [Ey (9) cantiitves peew bias Fig. 7.9. Various types of deck slab buttress dams. |, foundation buttress cam ‘of the deck is laid monolithic with the buttress with Proper j ‘the centre (Fig. 7.94). Because of cantilever action, ‘Atis also subjected to high stresses due to tem, Such a type is suitable for low dams. buttress dams is at both steel has to be provided perature, shrinkage and pare walls of the buttress are Gor interconnected by horizontal mnstruction (Fig. 7.10), Meer Ala m dam in India, is the earliesttintin ARE OF 33. X Bie Bea EEEATON RT oy Double wail buttress multipio arch type sift) and single Fig. 710. wall buttress multipte arch type (END. 7.1), ‘The highest multiple ach seconded example Of multiple afch dam (Fig- (Figs. 7.11 and 7.12). ‘world is Daniel Johnson dam (210 m high) in Canada ‘Ciosely following the Meer Alam dam, an Australian Engines’ J.D. Berry snultiplearch damin 1891 with theconstruction of 18.3 m high Belubula dam Australia ‘A remarkable multiple arch dam is Faux-La-Montagns 6¢ cupleted in 1951 in Frage ‘of 14 arches of maximum height 19 m, and 140 the base. The buttresses, are spaced at farches are of cement mortar pneumatically applied over areree veo are braced with straight beams and arched beam io Altri ‘bays to oth exibilty. Provision ismado for expansion of the os ‘walkway and pays that arc braced with the arched beams- ‘This dam is reported to be conditio “The multiple-arch dam is sui its economic character from the fact that its volume Ws eeompollow gravity dam. As far as foundation conditions, #5 concerned the # seen js capable of adopting itself not only to very good rock, but also to rock ‘only 80 mm thick at the crostAND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 263 BUTTRESS sons ‘outers’ KEAN CORCEETE tacHries ce how cueran — Z.12. Horizontal wcion through central arch (top) and section through erown of central arch (bottom) of Daniet Johnson dam (Canada) shown ia Fig. 7.11 y, medicere quality, by widening base of buttress or deepening the founda- advantage of this type compared with the flat slab buttress dam stems from the fact the arches forming the upstream deck are subjected mainly to compressive stress to bending or shear stress, they do mot have to be particularly thick or heavily However since the stability conditions particularly that regarding sliding on the require that weight be added, this is secured from the water itself, by stecpening face slope as much as lin I—so that the iultiple arch becomes self sealing e further the water rises, the more firmly it applies the structure to its foundation,264 CONCRETE 18.3m Fig. 7.14, Nebuer dam, Tunisia Henco this type of dam is scarcely vulnerable to an accidental rise in water the massive gravity dam. icture due to the thrust at the arch springings which are balanced, Hi © | with proper care, the effect is small and no failures have been recorded to this cause, main layout considerations are slope of upstream face, central angle for arch and bi \spacings, Ly ehtltPle atch decks are made monolthis with the buttresses and the low stresses i bby temperature variation are taken care of in the design. ‘There are two main types of multiple arch buttress dams. Simple multiple arch buttress dams q In this type the arches spanning the buttress are of constant radius type, thereby gi a rigeag roadway on the top. The Nebuer dam in Tunisia is an example of this (Fig. 7.14),MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 265 sich butiress dam upstream face of the buttress dam consists of semicupolas of ovoidal form sonerete, A further modification of this is conoidal dam (Fig. 7.15). Daniel fin Canada (Figs. 7.11 and 7.12) belongs to this category. These ate discussed discussion of the layouts for multiple arch dams iven after design example es and disadvantages of multiple arch dams, as compared to gravity dams, Fig. 7.13. Conoidal multiple arch saving in construction cost of the order of 15 t0 40 per cent. better adopted to temperature change, reis less likelihood of vertical cracks being formed and even if they are formed to close as the load comes on. geare suitable for all types of foundations. as’ the spacings of buttresses and ut of arches can be suitably modified to get the best advantage of foundation tof alternate filling and emptying of reservoir, variation in the pressures greater frequent reversal of moments in multiple’ arch dams than in gravity thereby reduces the life of multiple arch dams. tion in multiple arch dams due to loading is likely to create horizontal cracks ‘ear the foundations. These cracks, however, are seldom dangerous. tisk in unequal settlement of foundations. iges and disadvantages of buttress dams as compared to the conventional given hercin. quantity is less. “consumption is less,266 ‘cone (©) Due to thin section, the problem of temperature control is minimised, (d) ‘There is rapid initial thermal equilibrium, (e). Theres less uplift force. (/) With suitable modifications, buttress dams can be used on permeable foundat (@) The spacings of buttresses may be varied to utilise zones of good foundations, (#) ‘The inspection and maintenance of dam is easier. 4 (@) The excavation may be done only in the arcas of buttresses and decks. foundations of the counterforts are independent of each other, () The buttress dam, by suitable articulation, can be adopted to foundation differential settlements may be anticipated. (k). The powerhouse and switchyard etc. can be located between the buttresses, (0) The structure is self sealing and is not sensitive to accidental rises in water the designed full supply level. Disadvantages (a) The dam needs complicated form work, thus increasing unit rate of concrete. (®) The concrete mix has to be designed for higher strength, thus req ‘cement and offsetting the advantage of less cement consumption because erete quantity, (c) The complicated work slows down the pace of construction. (d) Reinforcement is used and therefore smaller size of aggregates are req used increasing the cost of construction. (e) Volume changes are more significant bccause of thin members. (A) The number of joints in the dam increases, needing attention to additi problems. (g) They have low lateral stability and in seismic areas struts are to be p (A). Except in case of massive heads, buttress dams do not permit easy means openings for sluices and penstocks. (@). Overflow arrangements entail complications of layout, (/) The bearing stresses on the foundations are higher and hence better spread footings become necessary. D. Other types of buttress dam Columnar buttress dam This resembles. flat slab type. The, deck slab is supported on a fi columns instead of tuttresses. Such dams require very strong and stable foundations and coi requires. more skill and moncy, ‘Truss busiress dam Here the deck slab is supported on reinforced concrete trustes, It is ‘columnar type and suffers from similar defects 7.3. Seurction oF Tyrn or Burress Daw The selection of different types of buttress dams will mainly depend:ESTERS NAIM 207 conditions. For good uniform foundations it would be difficult to say as to what fe the best type of construction, The decision will necessarily be based on economy will be governed by the avé ty of construction materials: aggregate, cement and 4 labour and available facilities. The requirements of the project spillway, irrigation conduits, etc., would also affect the choice, Shand buttress constructions are suited to locations where the rock is jointed or faulted ‘unequal settlements may occur specially during seismic disturbances. However in areas the buttresses will need strutting. The slab type is also. usable on permeable for impounding water to. reasonable heads; a bottom slab is provided under the fuliple arch dams can only be made on foundations which do not allow for unequal ive head buttiess dams have been built ona variety of foundations, the quality and ‘of foundations rock governing the slopes of the buttresses and its area at the tion level. s preferable to provide some inspection shaft in massive head buttress dams }eontrol on the foundation rock. Vertical drains are formed in the head to arrest ‘and reduce uplift. Often a big shaft is provided for inspection at the centre. dam in Tl) (Fig. 7.16) bas an egg shaped shaft (3 > 6 m) which besides serving saved concrete. Such shafts also assist in the dissipation of the heat of hydration. Tocation of joints is most important and should be decided with relation to the shape pottress, the thermal sizesses due to hydration of cement, ambient temperature changes Mie, as well as the directions and magnitudes of principal stresses resulting from water Shon weight. Since joints will affect the monolithic behaviour of the buttress, many prefer 10 omit joints and rely upon reinforcement to prevent cracking. The pattern i of reinforcement can be evaluated by finite clement studies or photoelastic tests, Aihere is a hollow dam formed by a” surface of span ‘b' supported on counterforts of i the mean thickness ofthe dam Gan be taken as 52? which is called the soef- ‘of hollowness or surcharge. Hao ee (Fig. 7.17) can be designed just as gravity. dam for the pressure of @ id of density sw. uplit pressure need noi be considered as that would be released just after the deck, br between counterforts should be avoided, since it could, unless provided with adequate ead to the building up of uplift pressure. Hence it would be proper to design terfots to the condition of ne tension. mand n are the downstream and upstream slopes of the counterfort (Fig. 7.18) then ‘at any depth {rom top are given below: mart ea ee an = 92 (1 + 8) — Swen 0-2)A ee FIG; 7.16, Glovewto dam, tay, rg. 7.17, Couetortdam—deteiton shetch after Meters, Fie 7:18." Upaicans and downstream sopes—debniton shech, Downstream so o1a (1 + mm) To have no tension on the upstream ng 0 and ence wom (m+ 1) (+n?) — sy (1 —~ mn)? = 0 Eliminating sw from (7.4), we have lim OW = 2 mh Thus 10 tension profile i defined by equations (7, For no tension profile of the buttress itis metessary for us to choose m (the dowas slope), m(the upstream slope), and s (he sur i tesa) siven a table to determine the values of these Parameters, which will lead Profile of a buttress dam, 9) and (7.6), Malterre hay 10 the no tensigg.AND MUL PLE ARCH DAMS 269) Table 7.1. Yatue of * fo Profle of No Teaslon™—after Mattere 0.685 0.680 0.435 0.447 0.372 0.M0 0.322 0.278, 0.288 0.245, 0.237 0.187 0.208 0.156 The table shows that for a coefficient foading and safety criteria. for buttress. dam: ign procedure involves the following three steps find tpstream slope for the type of buttress dam selected: (b) Preliminary csign of lity: and (c) Design of deck and details. in case of buttress. dams is that 1s are the same as for gravity dams, * (a) Determination of the economical Malaysia (Fig. 6.14) rests on detween quartzite (¢ residual for mudstone — by means of post tensioned: restressible cable fector of safety of 1.5 m shear, 200 nos cables ead Buttress spacing and slopes | ANE most economical spacing of buttress is one: in which the: minimem thickness of ‘sully etifzed. The spacing is governed to a vecy large extent on the Upstream hat. the buitress spacing be changed for nearly horizontal bands of 18). Additional resistance has. been fixed to the foot of each buttress, h stressed to 2701 were provided. also necessary th The usual ranges are: Minimums thickness of top fe of buttress in metre peat tk a 0.30 09-0. .80-1.5 11.0-18.0FHB7.19. Fores acting on a buttress anit eWation shows that for a fxed height #? anda siven value of «* depends on cot For fted values of €, shear tition factor and hy sarical lines lke those showa ia Fig. 7.20 ar tha cpr atding to each wnste.~Coscrote quantities (hows doncpe And. diferent. buttress spacings ann Plotted to (hown dotted). A master curve is then davon through the jut at the aper of the master carve (Fig. 7.20), it) The sum of the. upstream and ownstream slopes (horizontal + vertical) between 0.80 and 1.25.. The usual downstreee slope is 99 to 75°, = _Height of buttress Slenderness ratio = He eds OF buttey = 1210.15, and Massiveness factor — Fate sy 5AND MULTIPLE ARCIL DAMS 2m Mower curve MERELY" soster cutee M E g 3 { ‘ \| 2 AR NY 5 NLT Whe 2 ; STEERS i WS ad 138 ‘Fig. 7.20. Concrete quantities in cutie metre per mete—multiple areh dam (177, hy and buttress dam (below), ut For a fixed or & cantilever siab type the distribution of pressure is compli fan Galy be ascertained by photoelastic methods For simply supported slab if ‘between the slab and the corbel before loading takes place on the whole plane filing of the reservoir the loud deflects the slab causing it to release the area on the lafihe corbel. The load distribution curve is then more akin to a triangle than e(Fig, /.23). Tethe plane of contact before loading forms an angle equal to the “slab under loaded conditions given by the formulaveacrion > MEASURED 10m oF CORBA FACE sweceness OF AUTRES we neree Fig. 7.21, General dtmersion fr buntest corbel and tat sab deck—U.SBAR tteion there is possibl (Fig. 7.220). ‘If per chance this angle at. thet djstibution ‘wil be triangular but with apes ay tuerefore bo designed foe the: ext posh, the triangular distribution of loud gives parabolic fig. 7.24 For facility of onstruction trapezoidal section shown if otic curve is adopted. igure 7.25 shows a corbel with reinforesti The amount of corbe! pth should be sufilent to cater for ‘entire sheat Toad c hemeasic examination of cobel: forms Bea that there is some street te reentrant anges atthe fb (EIB. 1 20 “The reduction oF st sire gurved fillets so as to make the corbsl assume the shape shown. ia Fi 7.5.3. Reinforcement ‘rhe horizontal reinforcement in, buttress chinger han 1.5m it is usually Rept @ 3%2m, PRINCIPAL StAESS isosraries Fig. 7.24, Corbet shape, Fig, 1.25. Typical corbel ‘reinforcement, Ease neaw Fig. 7.26, Best shape of fier Where the secondary principal stress tensile, it is essential to provide both the i ant horizontal reinforcement, tensile stress is low, the joints may be left Provided sufficient quantity of diagonal steel is placed parallel to the deck under the ‘in the buttress area to distribute concentrated stress. 7.8 BurTaess DesiGy ay UNIT CoLuMn Tarony ‘The design loads on the buttress face are transferred by the deck structure and are composed of the direct water load and the weight components of the deck and fcctions. | These forces are obtained from the analysis of deck and corbel. The foal IS checked for such additional loads as earthquake, wave action, dee pressure, GPourtenant structures, etc. The deck weight may be treated in cither of tho two depending on the conditions assumed at the junction of the buttress and the deck, fri it , however, does not In Fig. 7.27, W is the weight of the deck resolved into W,— normal to the face, and I. — parallel to it; Bis the recaltant water force. Py i the resultant force buttress acting at an angle ¢, with the horizontal,AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 25 Monolithic construction will result in a somewhat shorter weight of the buttress than the less joint, In flat slab deck, frictionless joint has to be cousidercd. Design of usit column "The design of buttress consists of directing the dock forces through the buttress to the ion, H. Schorer evolved a buttress of uniform strength (Trans A.S.C.E. 1932), which theoretically be under uniform compression on the limit of the capacity of the concrete ‘points. In practice this method can be used for determining preliminary dimensions of SENTBE OF GRAVITY OF Oren. ccement CENTER OF Gaaviry. OF oncK eLemenT Mi FONT OF APPLICATION Gr o¢ew Laas, Fig. 7.27, Frictiontess joint (top) and monolithic or no ioint (bottom) —resultant forces.216 ‘the buttress, its thickness and length, ‘The design of the buttress is. determined by ofa suitable number of y evaluat ‘anit columns’. Five will 7.6.2 Equation of the catenary J.2t the sectional area of theunit column be 4, and Consider an clement of length Parallel to P, (Fig. 7.29), Then THEORETICAL, our une’ Fik. 7.28, Coloma design of test Resolving horizontally and vertically we have Lincs, == Arcos 4, AS — Hy is small and As cos'g, = ay[AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS on Ax=CA$ CHfilve(fe= permissible compressive stress in unit column and w, — unit weight of Tig. 7.30 the two loads P, and P, acting on the upper and lower section of the arch are necessarily the closing sides of the string polygon. The foree polygon is shown 4.30 B. ‘equation of the column can be determined by equating the inclination of any Je force in the funicular force polygon w= 2 @.10 ae car * a inten i ea a Ghote eae ‘the force polygon, tan $= ACOA nd =A se BC's the total weight of the column between the points of application of Fy and will be givea by so=weamef be ean . ‘the width, the thickness and ds the elementary length of the column. ‘the vertical component of P, and OA is the horizontal component, equal to Ba cos fy respectively Pecan te (7.12) (7.12) represents one of the fundamental relations of the problem. The other the conditon that there should be constant unit compressive stress at all points ‘so that, Pesos. 08 nas isting both sides of equation. (7.12) and noting that ds = de sec $ and ‘for be from equation (7.13), we get278 concRETE Ay Pecos dy _ Py cos dy ect dw, = ‘And hence the ultimate differential equation obtained is 4. (42). 49)" (28)+(2)'+1=0 . This is differentiat ‘avation of the second order to which the following general so applies ¥=CIn cos * £5 4 ¢, Whete C= fijwe and Cy and C, are two arbitrary Constants and are determined by the inclination of the upstream face. 0. To determine C, and Cy, y = 0 when x ~ 0 or 7 Gece yy, ~ tan T+ also ae ~ 80 =~ tan EH, Hence #-24G At x=0G=Cq, Substitute from equation (7.170, in equation 7.16), i (8)- CIncos 4. = c, Substituting for C, in equation (7.183), we hare y=Cln cos EG _ Cy 508 hs +G since = FG 4. we get a ‘guation for catenary of uniform strength. of the unit column can be obiained eithor by calculation from °F sraphically from diagrams provided by U.SBR: 176.3 Thickness of unit columa For cach unit column the value ofthe inital thickness“ in moire, is obtained by relation ta Polfe Where P, = resultant of deck loads. The value of ty determined by this method, is the net section and may be by minimum thickness requiccments Zhe theoretical thickiess “at any point is determined at below : From eqvation (713) for a column of unit widit (=1) 1m P0008 dy see hk equations, @.‘AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 2 o tn L = In cos by + In sees 2a) Now from equation (7.19) In sec 6 = In $20 Hy —“F (1.22) 1 = ye-Pe (vis negative downward) 7.23) Adjusiment rhe dengn of buttress onthe basis of unit column theory resuls warped. surface as the Mreame width ore not straight but catenary- Tn ores 16 avoid this the uniform width ff mane Thtened as shown, tng. 7-31. Another dificulty Wy Sateitet columns is that re entest is lengtbened considerably, it ead to some of te columns on the dows- Le ree discontinuous, 1c, not rosting on the ground. To ouarour this difculty “Rickness lines ace first drawn and then columns are realigned to follow principal Mines as shown in Fig. 7-32 and frictionless joints are assumed to divide the columns. slings 26 Mvided into suitable number of columns, The appermest column is assigned reat th along, the face of bullres than the other Ouray so as to obtain greater erg the line of principal sves:. For simplicity itis betet o graphical analysis Hrnicalar polygon (Fig. 7.33). On tho apstream face she resultant R due to slab and oye Gin the buttress face is found. Where it cross he ficst uniform thick Dittrece in that portion i calculated and added vectorally to m,n Mijent which indicaies the direction of the princina) se ‘and the process is nthe there is deviation of the funicular polygon from the Sete of gravity of the ding columa, 1 indicates the existence of second principal sires Desion Ox Tae Basis oF Uni Couns THHORY example 7.4 tons high St deck type buttress dam has buttress space of 15 mand upstream ioe of 48°. Assuming fz = 450.mt and w= 2.4 tim, determine shape of buttress mavciged concrete thickness. Minimum thickness of anit ojo 2m, Assume water trad up tothe top ofthe dam and frictionless joi’ of desk and buttress. MThounit columns for design should be taken at 10 mt vertical spacing. However, here The tGolumn bas been considered for ilusration of cesian ‘method starting at depth 20 m thetop. ‘at 20 metres depts Waiter pressure =Ww.h = 1x 20—~208/m* ‘Assume slab thickness= d metre Weight of siab per metre run ~ 2.4d tonneBUTTRESS AND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS This acts vertically downwards Hence weight of slab in the direction pressure — 2.4d cos 45° = 1. 7d tonne/m. Hence total load per metre of slab (20 + 1.7 d) Bending moment = w:%/8, where / = span = 15 m QOH 1.7.) x 225 Moment of inertia of the section (per unit width of deck) — ¢%/12 mt yad2m “ M|I=fly . Te 49 <2 a5 7 Mell A922 _ 5g (204 1.74) 2 750 ae 2a 15.3d—189 =0 : a 3.c? my 3.25 Hence intensity of losding = 20-+ 3.25 x 1.7 = 25.53 t/m* Load coming on unit column, Py = 25.53 = 15 = 382.95, say 383 Considering the width of usit column as one metre the required thickness of bul the beginaing of unit column — 383/450 = 0.85 m. But since minimum thickness of 2 to be provided, the same has been adopted, C, constant ia unlt column theory = f./w, ~ 450/2.4— 187 yyy 8 te co ccd Hee f= 8ee Hy HE Also = C(g — $y), when J is measured in radians CyRp (4 — ba), when ¢ is measured in degrees 18%, To O- 4) ~ 3.2704 — Hy) (x isin metres) Ae Kerk ‘The profite and thickness of unit column can be completely designed with the ins (1), (#) and (Wi). The calculations are tabulated in Table 7.2. It is usually seen that the thickness of buticcss as determined on the basis of unit & theory Is much less, Tt would be better to increase the thickness to conform to pre slenderness and massiveness factors or struts between buttresses may be provided, Alt tively the value of *%' has to be increased and new values of 4” obtained qu 7.8 Basic SHAPE or BUTTRESS—Artm Noauyuxt Kumakawa (10TH ICOLD-1970) The design of gravity dams has two clements j.e. the upstream and downstream fu the dam, The buttress dams have in addition one more element, the thickness of£0 gig = SERING Jo HoeSPEL O76 01-7 = OR ONTO ay eis £0 S°E =~ amigo Sopedy 208 Souausey4 $0.04 gr = AR 2 see oz 6 6°09 8 cos 2 ae ; ws 5 oes *: a : ie: Se mo as a eaga 5 yg ele ers ot Ohta 20M) wanes yuan £4 sSNA JO WIE “TL oGELAND MULTIPLE ARCH DAMS 283 Thus buttress dams have one more degree of fresdom which can be made more to requirement of elficient and safe design. Kumakawa has suggesied a basic shape of buttress, in any horizontal section of which yertical component of stress and a constant factor of safety against shear are , and a limitation of the vertical component of stress so as to ensure a necessary ‘of safety against lateral buckling of the buttress. The basic shape of butiress has a ie curve at the upstream edge. The width and thickness increase in almost direct m to the height. The horizontal sections may be proportioned in accordance with needs. of upstream Shape A = cross-sectional area at any horizontal section of the buttress 7 = tangential component of load N = normal component of load w = unit weight of water We= unit weight of concrete J = ordinate of upstream edge of the buttress Y= ordinate of point of application of N ¥ = ordinate of centre of gravity ZL = centre to centre distance of buttress = N/A N=N,and T= Ty atx = x, m= TN Tawl2(e— +t, (7.24) N = wl/2(x*—x4) + (7.25) B()-BiM(E)-1B( en} om Ng! = No — wi2m.L xp 7.24 and 7.25 repreveat the valves of and W torr > x, whew the (otal boed i and 7, above x, ate givea, If Mj’ =O at 4, andy = 0 in formals (7.26), y ‘Make the normal stress uniform in any hori i ake the iform in any horizontal section of the buttress, the Of gravity should coincide with that of the point of application of the 1.27) and (7.28) represent the shape of uj J int the shape of upstream edge and the locus of centre ‘horizontal section, provided Nj’ and 7! = 0, (Ty! = Ty—wl/2 x4"), there: fs at one's choice. The component loads and’ se “a ial area areb$— y¥ —te yd Fig. 7.34. Basic shape of buttress, wh wh gg _wixt 3 tage Naa @, Ifthe required sectional area 4 is replaced by an equivalent rectangle bt, and ify = 0: ¥ s0atre », 80 that the crest load is also zero, it follows, after assuming m oF name JOINT IN FLAT SLAB BUTTRESS 02m SECTION THROUGH LAGES OAM SPuLWar ‘actuate e000 cnearag ours eon saat fe SOPMATONS DEVELOPMENT OF BUTT"Es: ‘TOOTH FORMATION race ton smtoare coven, PARTIAL HOR. SECTION (OF BUTTRESS Fig. 7.47. Joints in butieess dams,CONCRETE Saectep Rererences Bourgin, “Design of Dams”, Sir Isaae Pitman & Sons Lid, London, 1953, + Creager, W.P,, Justin, ID. and Hinds, J, “Engineering for Dams”, Vol. I, Ci Dans, Wiley Eastern Pvt, Ltd., New Delhi, 1968. + Davis, CV. and Sorenson, K.B., “Handbook of Applied Hydraulics”, 314. Ed, 198), McGraw-Hill, New York. } French National Committee on Large Dams, Lith ICOLD Congress Madrid, 1973, Report RS. 12,1V, - Kumakawa, N,, “Consideration of the Basie Shape of Buttress for Buttress Dams”, 10th ICOLD Congress Montreal, 1970, Vol. TV, Q. 39 R. 1 pp. 1-34, Mado, J.M., Kinstler, FL. and Mather, RP, “Foundstion Studies for Meadowbank Buttress Dam", 9th COLD Congress Istanbul, 1967, Q.32, R. 9, Vol. I, Pp. 123-14}, + Reinus, E, “Design and Construction of Butiress Dam", 10th ICOLD Congress, Monireal_ 1970, |. Reinus, B, “Effest of Hydrostatic Uplift on Stresses in Concrete and on the Stability of Dams", 3rd ICOLD Congress Stockholm, 1948, Q. 8,R. 57. + Rydzewski, LR, “The Design of Buttress -Dams of Triangular Profile and Constant Web Thickness", Proc. LCE. Yol, 16, July 1960, pp. 271-282, Schorer, H., “The Buttress Dam of Uniform Strength”, Paper 1803, Proc, ASCE, 1930, . US.BR., “Design of Small Dams", Revised Reprint 1974, Mis Oxford SLBA, Pubs Co, New Delhi, 1976, . Varshney, RS., “Buttress Dams”, Write up distributed to WR.D.T. C, Trainees, 1968- 1972, University of Roorkee. . Varshney, RS, et al,, “Theory and Design of Irrigation Structures”, Vol, UL, 4th Ed. 1979, ‘M/s Nem Chand & Bros , Roorkee. Zienkiewiez, 0.C. and Cheung, Y.K., “Buttress Dams on Complex Rock Foundations", Water Power, May 1964, Zienkiewiee, 0.C, and Cheung, Y.K., “Stresses in Buttress Dams”, Water Power, February ‘and May, 1965,first arch dam seoms to have been built ia Tranin the middle of 13th century; it was my dam 26m high, curved rather polygonal in plan. The first known arch dams Ho be the Spanish dams of Elche and Almaaza, built in the 16th century and the Ttalian Of Pontallo (1612) which was heightened several times, In France the forerunner of arch dam was built by Zola in 1840 onthe Iafernet; it was 36 m high. In America lustralia, numerous arch dams were built towards the end of 19th century; among these ‘Bear Valley (1884), the Rio Grande and Barossa dams, The Shoshone dam (1910) t of 100 m above foundations was the first of the really high arch dams, ‘only in 1930-1940, that in Francea retura to arch dam construction was made with Je Sautet (125 m), Castillon (95 m) and Mareges (90 m).. h the first multiple arch dam was constructed in India (Meer Alam 1800 a.0.) LI), the frst arch dam in Tedia, known as Tddikki dam, has recently been constructed ala state (Fig. 8.1) OPMENT OF ARCH DAMS h dam, unlikethe straight gravity dam, distributes the major part of the forces jonit, by arch action, to the abutments in the rock forming walls of the gorge in which is The material, of which the dam is consiructed, tcansmiis the forces under imum conditions and very considerable economy (Fig. 8.2) in the quantity of material spared with the gravity dams, is effected, made by M/s Coyne et Bellier Paris for arch dams are exhibited in Fig. 83. re shows that large economy can be achieved by proper design of an arch dam which inthe maximum possible manner the stress bearing capacity of concrete. An example in the 38 m high Gage dam in France which has about 18 p.c, volume of the gravity dam. The dam was made in just one summer season, concrete having orted from Patisee dam, then under construction, arch dam is designed as a series of horizontal arch rings, each supposed independent Abouring rings and each submitted to a constant radial hydrostatic pressure. It is p locate the arch dam in a narrow gorge-with sound rock. The arches are not Ho an increase in water lovel as is the gravity dam, and the utilization of the crest of | aS an overflow is often possible and useful. dre Coyne designed the first cupola dam in France, Mareges dam (1925-29), of chord Wm and maximum upstream overhang. of 7m (Fig. 84). The tnrgest monoliths sd on concrete props with a dry joint between the prop and the foundation,+ Cros seston of gravity and ar dams—Tignes dam in France and dams in USA,° i 705 10 m0 OF MULTE ARCH Ba ote, a8e Pape hey eae COMPARISON OF THE CONCRETE VOLUMES FOR A MULTIPLE ARCH DAM, A SINGLE ARCH DAM AND A GRAVITY DAM Fig. 8.3 ‘meters placed across these joints failed to show any lifting when the dam camo under Around 1930 many novel types of arch dams were suggeited. “ Mesnager (1927) proposed es of thin arch dams, of progressively less height in a downstream direction and to fil latervening spaces with water so that the thin arches would be under approsimetely306 CONCRETE 8.5), F.A. Noetzli (1931) suggested that the arches might be in as a spring leaf, an idea by A. E. Komendant (1956). Mareges dara Fig. 8.5. Laminated dam Franco—max. ‘A. Proposed by Mesa ‘ection, 1B. Proposed by Noctzi. OThe arch dam is not suitable for very wide sites,as it is uneconomical and arch doubiful: in this case we are driven to consider a hybrid solution by adoption a mized! of dam, either the arched gravity dam of reduced section, or an arched dam carried to ‘but with a thickened section at the centre where the slope would be the order of 0.5 and further thickened at the abutments,| These thickened arches are calculated by taking ‘account, not only the effect of the arches themselves, but also their value as semi section, ie, the calculations are carried on with horizontal sections as arches and ve sections as cantilevers of gravity dams. Examples of such constructions are L’ Aigle (95 St. Etienne Cantales (70 m): Bort (120 m); Chastang (85 m) all in France; and Hoover im) in USA. ‘An arch dam is designed, as first approximation, by taking horizontal sections circular sections which transfer the hydrostatic pressure to the abutments or in some in to gravity sections which in turn distribute the load on to the prepared rock surface un which owing to their greater moment of inertia assure the fixity of the arches. | © Contrary to gravity dam, an arch dam is exposed to variation of temperature which different on the upstream and downstream faces and the whole mass is effected on account its slenderness. Although an arch dam presents difficulties in calculation. it has theoretical and practical advantages because, though uplift may become active in he ‘and vertical fissures, that in a horizontal fissure is not important since it only tends to ‘the cantilever action and may be neglected in the calculations on the basis of i arches. Vertical fissures are similarly unimportant since their effect isto reduce the arch to pitt which acts more usefully in compressions; the plastic deformations, moreover, tend] ‘equalize the stresses in the reduced section. Therefore, there is not much necessity of| Srainage system at in gravity dam. ‘The horizontal arches are assumed to transfer the reactions to the rock abutments. cone of 30° sena-angle at the apex. If the area of rock involved contains this cone, an is non-yielding it is impossible for an arch dam to fail since the resistance of sound rock ‘rushing is always greater than that of concrete. ©) Thearch dam can, unlike the gravity dam, neither slide nor overturn. If it is overtDANS 307 fnfood, the effect is a slight increase in stresses, The compressive forces which act in limensions tend to increase the impermeability: in other words, the arch dam is self The plastic deformations limit the stresses, and finally, the arches are too thick ft of buckling and the resistance to buckling of the curved plate (which in effect the fs) is still greater than that of the individual arches. Thersfore, the arch dam, ‘af is shape, can be designed to provide any factor of safety based on the quality of crial of construction and its resistance to crushing and not on its weight, as in case of Jgavity dam,”) Tt is, therefore, much more economical jn the use of material. ing inthe faces of an arch dam may result from Excessive tensile stress duc to dam geometry. Secondary tension resulting from high compressive forces in thin members. Secondary tensile stresses at the arch haunches and parallel to the abutments. tical abutment. mn of the cement or climaticconditions, in thickness towards the abutments or the introduction of fillets between concrete ‘To counter the vertical tension in catitievers due to water load, by dead weight, ire shaped to give both upstream and downstream cvethangs, This has the effect of g the base thickness and rotational stiffness There isa present-day tendeucy to porate a horizontal joint at the base of & large arch dam. This would terminate at @ ey end would be scaled neat the upstream edge by one or more metal seals (Fig. 8.6). 8.6. Day joint at base of arch dam, Fig. 8,7. Simpl perimetral join. provision of a pad or pulvino under the dam (Fig. 8.7) will spread the load from amon to poor foundation. Often the joint between the dam and the pulvino is $0 that freedom to rotate is restricted. On the other hand, a “hinge” has sometimes built into the pulving in an endeavour to reduce base fixing moments to 2er0 (Fig. 8-8). The idea of a dry joint is not new. This was reported in 1930 on Ashland Greek dam ‘At38 m high Matiija dam U.S.A. (Fig. 8.9) the design attempted to eliminate hig action from the arch section. A horizontal shear planc joint 10,6 m above foundation the lower gravity section from the upper arch portion. the pulvino can be built When convenient, the concreting of the dam can be planned h operation, ot delayed by.isolated foundation difficulties. At Zlalibar dam, ‘uch a pad was provided (Fig. 8.10) to permit construction of an arch dam on a ‘the rock had a poor compression modulus, “Vauieys Surtep ror Arch Daw Narrow gorges provide the most natural solution for an. arch dam construction; theSoren, goers ‘Si Se ‘Bmore SS 2 Fig £.8. Desai of pita! jomt, {mn Pew omcme noe tn aise * ‘aseestos seer Fig. $9. Maile dim, U.8.4. cONCETE FOgTINE Fig 8.10. Zulitar dams —Yusosavia,Dass 309 ly recommended ratio of crest length to dam height being five or less. But the use of models and other sophisticated analytical methods have enabled engincers to plan ns for even wide valleys. The different types of valleys are shown in Fig. 8. 11. et, the design of an arch dam is affected not only by the crest length. to height ratio bby the shape of the canyon and length of the peripheral contact Sarkaria has a canyon-shape factor which would better indicate the suitability or otherwise of the fr an arch dam. The canyon shape factor is given as below (Fig. 8.11): csp, — Pt Hse oh + se0 44) 1) The usual values of C.S.F. are 210 5, lower the value of C.S.P. thinner is the section, | Axcu Daw Lavour he primary objective in making a layout for arch dam at a particular site is to obtain ch which will it the topographic and geologic conditions most advantageously, provide installation of adequate facilitics for reservoir operation, and distribute the load with economical use of materials within allowable stress limitations. The load distri- and the arch and cantilever stresses resulting from such distribution, depend largely shape of the canyon, length and height of dam, type of dam, thickness and shape of ‘cantilever sections, and the loading conditions. first step in making a layout is to. determine the shape of the crown cantilever, and uniform or variable thickness arches will be used. The axis of the dam and the line ‘are then drawn in plan on transparent paper and shifted in position or oriented to ‘the optimum location. A comparison of alternate trial axis curvatures is advisable pelection of the central angle of the top arch. The crown cantilever Profile of centres tream and downstream radii and the plan showing tho arches at elevations con- hhave the required shape and the required abutment stability. Profiles along the downstream edge of the baso are advantageous for locating the arch abutments and tion for minimum excavation, "A symmetrical or nearly symmetrical profile is desirable from the standpoint of stress a. A region of stress concentration is likely to exist in an arch dam having @ mmettical profile, a condition tending towards an uneconomical section compared with ‘symmetrical dam, Symmetry may be achieved by excavating deeper in appropriate ‘constructing an artificial abutment or by reorienting the dam. Sometimes a deepet ‘the foundation is filled with concrete, as a gravity section and in the remaining smptrical portion an arch dam is laid, e.g. Pieve di Cadore dam, Italy (Fig. 8.12), The central angle of the top arch should be between the limits 100 and 135°, ble tensile stresses will develop in arches of insufficient curvature, such a condition to occur in the lower elevations of a dam in a V-shape gorge, he length-height ratios and canyon shape factors may be used as a basis for an of the proposed designs with existing designs. Such comparison should be made3 anction with the relative effects of other controlling factors such as central angle, shape ‘and type of layout. Arches and cantilevers should be proportioned. for good stress distribution, with ‘emphasis on the design of the system of elements that carry the greater portion of In U-shaped canyons, the lower arches have approximately the same chord length as rthe top. In such cases, itse of a variable thickness arch will give a relatively ‘tress distribution, Some undercutting on the upstream face may be- desirable to fate arcas of tensile stress at the bases of cantilevers jexcessive tensile stresses, arches should have as much curvature as possible. This complished. by using variable thickness arches witha variation in location of centres areater curvature in the lower arches. In dams for wide canyons in. which there is a tendeney for cantilever stresses to be arch stresses, itis desirable to obtain the maximum possible advantage from dead suing a crown section having both faces curved with undercutting at the base of the face and overhang at the top. of the downstream face, Vatiable thickness arch will Uniform thickness arches may be used in most cases in.the upper part of the dam thinner and longer arches are more flexible and do not carry much of the load as lower portion of the dam. Variable thickness arches will have more uniform stress distribution than arches with arches also furnish adequate thickness for cantilevers with bases near the mid- of the dam... The angle of intersection of the intradosand the abuiment should not be on-symmetrical sites where abuiment thickness is desirable, short radius fillets ded,to uniform thickness arches onthe downstream face. Fillet cadii preferably sof constant length at, each side of the dam, but the length of radii used at one side equal to that used at the other side. The fillet contres at each side of the dam fon smooth curves in plan to avoid irregularly warped surfaces, The locus of Htangency between the intrados of the arches and the fillets at each side of the dam, ce of begianing of fillets, also requires a smooth curve. Fillet radii should have th to-ensure that the resultant of arch forces are directed safely into the abutment curvatures at the downstream face of both the arch and cantilever elements are fas to produce excessive stresses parallel with the face of thedam. For this ‘angle of intersection between fillet and abutment should be greater than 45°. As fillets should be laid such that the traces of beginning of fillets will intersect the fs abutment and intersect approximately the three-fourths points of the arches in "greatest arch abutment stresses, that ie-at about one-half to three-fourths of the dam above the base. = of Ancue Das D definition includes all curved dams, as arch dams, where the base thickness is less tho height, H.H. Thomas categorises arch dams as follows,32 conenens ‘Thin arch = — thickness less than 0,2 Medium arch =— thickness 0.2100.34 Thick arch — thickness greater than 0.3 Arch gravity — thickness greater than 0.5.4 ‘The arch dams can be grouped into the following seven types: from design and Ia point of view: (1) Constant radius dam, (2) Variable radius dam, (3) Constant angle (4) Multiple arch dam, (5) Cupola or double curvature or shell atch dam, (6) Arch dam, and (Fy Mised types. Consians radius arch dam ~_/- Anarch dam is called a constant radius dam, when the upstream face of the dam ‘& part of the cylindrical surface of the constant radius. (In some cases the radius of | ‘stream face or the arch axis may be kept constant, which are rather rare cases.) The line Centres is a straight vertical line; hence this type of dam is also sometimes known as| ‘Constant Centre Arch Dam’. Such dams are more suitable for U-shaped valleys (Fig. 8.1 ‘Some of the examples of this type of dam are Tignes dam (180.6 m), France ; Castelo-de- dam (115 m), Portugal, etc. (Fig. 8.13). Such dams are triangular in cross sections increased thickness at the crest. In case of narrow valleys, the central angles of such a dam go on reducing from top to base (Fig. 8.14). » Variable radius arch dam 7 Iwthistype of dam the radii of the extrados and inteados: surfaces ‘vary from top to bottom, usually maximum atthe top and minimum at the base. ‘The centres ofthe diferent radii of extrados oF intrados fall on a smooth curve. Such dams are also known as ‘Vs Centre Arch Dams’. The upstream face of the dam varies from vertical to overhanging. toth at crown and abutments. The central angle of different arches is not constant, but taualy ranges from 80 0 150°, A typical variable radius arch dam is shown in Fig. 8.15. Such ‘dams sutable for narrow V ot U-V shape valleys or is useful to meet foundation requirements as at Bioge dam, Constant angle arch dam ‘The most economical arch section occurs when central angle of the arch is near-about 139° (see Section 8.7). The constant radius arch dam can be made to have central angle for all arches in the neighbourhood of 133*1f the valley is U-shaped. But such a damin a V-shaped. valley gives very low angle at the bottom. Jorgensen in U.S.A., therefore, proposed constint angle arch dam, where the central angle of horizontal arch units have the same magnitude of central angle from top to bottom (Fig. 8.16). Such type of arch dam is economical, using about 70% conerste as compared fo constant radius arch dam. A few examples of ths type of dam are Ross dam (165 m), U.S.A. and Kamishiba dam (110 m), Japan, etc. ‘gy YBouble curvature or cupola or shell arch dams A ving corvatures in plan and section or dams with double curvature give economical construction. These are also hell or cupota dams, The highest arch dans in the world, eg. Ingurskaya dam, USSR. (301 m) (Fig. Yajont dam (261.6 1).Dams sr nienne cogner, snes oe room —4 } Joor/s = aE 7 Bons A 100 caancent, LA CHAUOANNE, VENDA _WOvA, Fig, 8.13, Constant radius arch dams Yeuda Nova (Portugal); Kukvan (Taiwan); ret all in France,Fla. #14. Constant radius arch dam—peneial yout, a4 PLAN SECTION ON Fite 8.15. Variable radius arch tom,‘DAMS aus a b\w (6 chown secrion ca vaLLeY co Puan Fig 8,16 Constant angle arch dam, 8.18) Italy: Mauvoisin dam (237 m), Switzerland belong to this eategory. These dams ‘most economical: the second highest arch dam in the world, i.e. Vajont is only 22 m thick base, Some more examples of such dams are illustrated in Fig 8.19 and 8.20, Fig. 8.17, Inguri project—U.S.S.R, h gravity dams Thick arch dams are called arch gravity dams. ‘There i Gams. The Hoover daa iw U:S.A, belongs to this type, Tt top width 13.7 m and base thickness 201 m, tah shige ti 223m bh 380m Tone aut_ofarch dams and the designer's ingenuity @ very large role. An example may be cited of the Rosclend dam in France (Fig. 8,19), wer part of the dam is a standard arch with the usual abutments on the banks. Above316 Fig 8.18 Vajont dam, 1aly—tayout aad section _#osevene Fit £19. Doubie curvature arch dams—Kyle (Zimbabwe): Vouglans and Roselend (Franc), this arch there is an arch without any abutment but sloping crosswise along’ long of the Toudeatts Bnging arch effects drawdown the trust ofthe water nan the dead the foundations as if the abutments were someronrt cit—— ey \é WRG Si RERiH SSSSSS ee. joint arrangement ia Beauregard dam, Italy—beight 132 m, crest length 408 m.38 con Dorward. Vajont (261.6 m) (Fig. 8.18); Lumici (136m) and Beauregard: (Fig. 8.21) in Italy are examples incorporating periineteal Joint, $6 THe Appuntexant Works 8.7 DEston oF AN ARcH Dam ZThe various forces actiog om arch dams are same as for gravity dams, Ho " felative importance of the forces is different in arch dams. Since arch dams are thin, forces are lees important. The intemal stressa caused by ice pressure, temperature thin, and fixed or encastre along the line of the supporting rock surface. Actually the of design invoives the theory of elasticity in thee dimensions and that it can only be: ‘by approximate methods which are referred below,a5 319) ian engincers, among whom were Guidi and Ippolito, were perhaps the first to take wnt the encastrement in conformity with the usual formulac of the theory of the of materials, ‘ory shows that in general, the maximum stress is double that given by the elementary ‘ofthe cylinder. It is, therefore, justified in accepting a factor of safety equal to one, fof that adopted when using the cylinder formula, far the theory has dealt with independent arches and to satisfy this. assumed condition ie in the case of Matilija dam in California, a sliding joint between the upper ‘and the base was ensured by coating the surfaces in contact with graphite and an ‘compound. Fig 8.23. Veugians dam. France0 ComcRaTE Date Stucky, = Swiss engineer, considers this theory of i Mogical 5 ry of independent arches asi associates the horizontal and verticalelements of the arch and thelr eforatens ted enttaans to the forces acting. The method, referred to as the cant sharing of the load between the arches and the cantilevers. Fig 8.28 Chat Abbas Kabir dam. Iran, The active arch method. Ueveloped by French engineers, consisted in outlining arbitrarily, inthe real arch, an urch not subjected t tenyion This method enables us to proceed a8 far as possible without actually using the trial load niethod, elaborated by US.BR,, which aims atestimating the distribution of loads and stresses while taking into account the relations between horizontal aid verti.) clements; this metho, however, is very laborious. The method of plunging or inclined atches takes in a rational manner the effects of the weight of the structure, which 18 imperative in the case of thick arches. The main methous vl design of arch dams are considered herein, Fecliminary methods of AC Thin cylinder theory \ 2 Thick cylinder theory. {37 Independent arches method —elastic theory AC Active arch methou! AC Cain's method. 4 US.B.R. criteria for preliminary design. 1}. “Tnstitution of Engineers London criteria for preliminary design. 3. °RS. Varshney's equations and charts for preliminary design. Elaborate methods: 9. Inclined arches method. 10. Totke method. Frat load analysis—U.8.B.R: 11, (i) Crown cantilever method: (ii) Radial defection method. (i) Amplified trial load analysis. (i) Miadyenoviteh’s linear equations More elaborate methods : 12. Finite element 13. Shell analysis method. 14. Threo dimensional ‘elastic solution.Sr Tate gine ay Z | swcight of concrete and fo a be oe directly to the foundation, The horizontal water E mon eien ‘arch ix also assumed to be cylindrical, te tt ig od In thiseainder theory the horizonta section of the arch damn aca wo ‘cylinder sing at the corresponding elevation, Teg assumed that the pressure on the ring is equal to the full hydrostatic pressure at the elevation, ‘The stress distribution across thickness is assumed to be uniform Figure §.25 shows the section of the arch as part of the cylinder of inner radius %, outer randmean r= The central angle is 24 and thickness is f ‘The horizontal radial hydrostatic pressure paw (vm!) ‘Where w= unit weight of water in t/m’, and depth of water in metre over the plane under consideration. The total downstream component of the horizontal force acting along the axis. of the ring. Pa = intensity of pressure < projected area = woh Bre sing ~ Zw resin g. 1s ateach abutment, its component Pi 2R sing. For equilibrium, we have nd = 20 hrs sing 82)7 GEOMET 2) GEOMETRY OF AncnES CO) LUENCE OF CENTRAL ky INFLUENCE OF DIRFEPENT ANGLE ON VOLUME CaninaL ANGLES Fig. 8.26. Choice of central ansle. Consider Fig. 8.26, the volume of unit height of arch, Verelated in Table’®. of 1.$:m may be provided. Table 8.1. tions for constant radius arch dam Chlindee Theory)CONCRETE DAMS 324 5 we ots 07 Ott oor tz or wee | wee cL suse 6 twee o sory RIS we ow ore ew or sores oreo eR cr oso rts or sre 6's soe eS o ws ore sh ose ore o 09't6 st Or Ise tok or urvorsv'9 ut Suet 6s om seer eee ne ou cwtor we. or remy er seo ok wee ° s os'0vt ° 005 ° o 95°08 Ove w or 6 @ 4 ° 5 + © z (en oD) (w) ~ © 4. (abn) www aie ns ed uno yo wy , as ua a 4 1 (Goon, ope UD wep yous sus yeeypuGD 30) supuKNEOD 7H AGEL° be ‘Substituting in (8.6) and (8.7), we haveCONCRETE DAMS 326 nouns est 5 we wo er rs 1969 or oor oso soos wee sveot oF ss so wo eo oreo re 0 torts ot oss sete 0 DO «ol oot se a) wo owt wr oF sus i 60 oo wor west oor ws 60 we ot on wot (Ot or 960 wou ove see ov wut we two wo ot oz ‘i ‘ ssa 0 ° © 90061 ore 1 o . 8 ‘ 9 5 , ¢ : eo © @ wo oy mm @ cumeg Wha a « “ ’ faa (oon PUES PRD) ap (UN oF yuASHOD Dy MORTIMNMED “CR QUE oor eseeeeeeesTh Table 8.4, the value of 6 is given as.a function of the height for different. val ‘permissible stress in ke/cm?, Figure 8.29 interprets the same results as those given in Table 8.4.0. Ul The limiting value of 9 i 0.50 and corresponds geometrically to the case ofa pierced by a hole, Fort — 0.50, we have p 5 ~ 3p Where © =p, which reduces 10 & = 10. i ‘sed in kg/cm* and 4 in metre. Table 84, Value of co-llicients of thicknets glen 4 =30 kent o=40 kelem?328 (CONCRETE DAMS Fig. 8.29, Cylinder formula—initsg Nights as a funeton of the , coeticient of thickness b= 1 oa A, /andepentent erches elastic theory LY “The following ace also considered in the design: (i) Rib shortening, (i) Temperature changes, (ii) Shrinkage, and Gr) Abutment yielding. "The snds of the arch dam are fixed and therefore when water pressure acts radially on the arch, rib shortening effect takes place causing additional stresses. Similar is the effect of temperature variation, shrinkage and yielding of abutment rocks. The elastic theory can take i ble Toad along the arch. Fig. 830. The elastic arch—defnition stetch. ‘The following relations may be used for elastic arches (Fig. 8.30). Mm Nyt Mit (Mn — Me) <4 Hy es) om f Maga [ “ET ea) 62) ana { MEE Mids _ where Af — beading moment at any point on the arch. Mand My ~ fixed end bendiog moments. MM, = BM. on a stcaight horizontal freely supported beam HH — Horizontal thrust at the abutmentsMds _ El 0 a Ma Mp — Vex + Hy ¥ = verted thrust of opposite nature the (wo abutments and is positive t poe and hence equation (8.27) simplifies to Af = Peo equations (29 ‘and (8.25) become yids 2 “TL=0 wer ea | nh er. migra) ey these equations, the value of Me, H and V ings ‘This can be ggcounted for along with the other loads by adding on (8.19) je 84: Find the reactions at the crown of a concrete arch 20) eet | the Ca for a rise of temperature of 25°C, coefficient of yls 0.060009 and modulus of elasticity =2 on at thse point, The angle of abutment from the the rotation of the crown, @x and éy denote the hor ister:330 ‘As rotation of crown Is zero [e+ [% rao 29 Now axa | ade | Beas + [Bi tae | Pewee nf Mew [ stv f co Tiscoss ‘Temperature rise Since displacement in x direction is zero Me He 1 [igre [Bre tf cersrsong—0 om The integrals have to be evaluated @ | ~ danf dears. (iy | drcoss—f recess as (in 8) tina (ay | yism [1 —cos br db mr (sin 6) («= sine) r 5g (oy [steered (Ge 2 sin 4 BPA) = {ty xd J 20.785 sing = sin 45° =0.707 sin 22 = sin 90° = 1,000 Substituting the velues of integrals in equation (8.28) we get Me He aa _ Mera He race sine) =0 or Meat Hée (a — sin 2) = 0 or M, x. 0.785-+ 30H, (0.785 — 0.707) = 0 or M+ 2.981, (8.30)Ms o— ein 4 Be rt (Ga—2aine meena Hor? = Aine + S82 ‘Mz 30 (0.078) + He x 900 B.c0.165 —2 0.70144) 4 Cor Eta == Dany 4a, 20.707 x 9 X10 x2 x eee Mg + 6.15He + 90.6=0 ‘From equations (8,30) and (8.31) we set 28.6 tonnes and M.=83.2 t.m. aaa 8 Stresses at extrados: = 28.6 , 85.2x2 at R = — 14.3 4 128 = 113.7 tnt Stress at intrados = = 142.30 ymt = — 14.3 — 128. Similarly stresses at abatment can be found. 4. Active arch theory . “The ejlinder formula gives approximately a constant working stress in cash arch The theory of elasicy diferentes between sirecses at the extrados and st the Talos, (AIG. which are almost symmetrical about thote given by the cylinder fe Jlaasimag enoressonP Tz) (-*) We see that 0, <¢ Which means that « part of the section in compression is reli rupture of the part in tension fer, sy, 4 and o, are stresses at the extrados of crown and springing, thea we ayn So In onder that there maybe no tension anywhere in the atch, iti sufficient 10 have > 0 and from relations for stresses derived on the basis of theory of elastiity (Ref: 1) te ° ( cos — *CREG z = cocentricity of thrust H from centre 4 = thickness of arch peri = half central angle of arch C, =a coefficient of beading and function of the ‘geometrical cee!) a (bets) once of ating oF 6334 ‘CONCRETE DAMS Fig 8.53, Relation between zit and Fig 8.24 Activearch, Bractive arc theory. Ir, $ are the radius, thickness and central angle of Dimensions of the active arch: ‘rectangle of dimensions h and /, we have the following the actual arch, which is inseribed relations eae (8.40) heft —0os b+ see en gad Liteon dit Ben eon) (8.42) and C8 +68 (cos s ~ 3) + (cy cos #)=0 4) ‘The two implicit relations (8.42) and (8.43), in § and , dofine the active arch (Fig. 8.35) Fig, 8,35. Dimessions of active arch—detintion sketch. ‘The following relations give the values of radius and thickness T "~yindy 4) 2h sin d, 008 $4 — 1 (1 — cos $3) £08 fs me Tsin 4 (+ &05 4)Th hvenee Binrae ise — Te sc tet Fig. 8.37. Values of m and mas functions of 8 and patter Bourg. William Cain's method (Trans. ASCE 85-1922) ‘The following assumptions are made ) The ends are fined. 7 ibjected to normal loads. no allowance being made for | oe the rch ring is sul “of loads between arch and cantilever elements. distribution Effect of shrinkage, plastic flow of concrete, Poimon’s ratio ath ie of cg mms mo a pints peatFig'8.38. Chrular ach ied ar ths end a sect to a uniform moma rll pommag Cttia Formulae for thin arches with fixed ends with shear taken into consideration ‘Thrust at crown Por 2b. 3in 45k? went De ‘Moment at crown Motor tne (1284) Thrust at abutments He= per (pit —~H) 008 bo ‘Moment at abutmentsCain formula factors for thrust sen_—arches with fixed ends, Fig. 8.39. af croCEVA i a i f abutwent—arches with ‘fixed ends, ANOLE 2 oe sesame Fig. 8.40. Cain formula factors for a f iee ari cewreas Anais ag in praees Fig. 8.42, Cain formula factors for moment at crown—arches with fixed ends. ABUTMENTS FACTO RS 2 3is included C, is replaced by C,, the value of which is given by a (1-008 4.) G fo) (eosin 4 ee 2)-— Figure 8.44 shows values of C. for different values of 4. and ratio t weg! NIG i Ca25.0-1.12= 23.88. 0 2 = 0.094 ors for H, and Hy are H, = 097 < 375 = 364 H, = 098 » 378 =3 Ind M,> Fora 2g angle of 110° and sr value of 01.094 the factors for M, and My HAY and 8.40 are 0.0055 and 0.0105 respectively f M, = 0.0055 x 8970 = 49.21.m (‘My = 0.0105 x 8970 = 94.5 tm at abutment: The factor from Fig. 8.43 is obtained as 0.03 . V_ = 375 x 003 = 1251preliminary design ‘Tayout of arch dams may be done as suggested by U-S.B.R. This has { in the following paragraphs: (All original equations in fps units have been ‘metric units by the author.) (/) Knowing the structural height # (in metre), LE, (straight line distance in metre at crest elzvation between al d to sound rock) and L, (straightline distance in metre at 0.15 H above base, assumed excavated to sound rock) crown cantilever can be described asUSP = 0.67 Ty (/) Crown cantilever projection—at 0.4517 pr us 0.9575 DSP =033 Tx (8.66) (8.67) 6.68) 6.69) 6.70) F DSP =0.0 The eonerete volume in cubic metre is given by vanih where V = estimated volume of dam in cu m. Vy = 0.000177 HL, {ae oper V,= 0.0108 HL,(H 411 by) 8.71) The upper end limits of the above equations are i 30< HH < 370 on 30 < L,< 1825 4.5<1,<310 been developed by U.S.B.R. after pooling the dats for profile.ELEVATION EGUATION TO WATER FACE Ny = 8200-00080Necessity of further study Except the empirical “general information abo. ‘elations of U.S.B.R. (that 100 for U.S. dams), the above data gives ut the width and height of dam. ‘The information cannot serve the Of preliminary estimatin ‘purpose 1 of dam profile for different canyon shapes of dams. Studies made by the author provide this answer. * Design of arch dae profile—R.S, Varshney's studies The following are necessary to decide the arch dam profile: (i) The type of dim: (i) The central angle and the consequent radii at different elevations; (iif) Top thickness of arch; (0) The arch dam thickness at different clevations; and (v) Upstteam profile of the dam. @ Type of dam: The present trend of the arch dam designers is to have double curvae ture arch dams which, besides being more economical, are sound in design, better in behaviout, mote flexible and, therefore, have greater factor of safety upainst the forces acting upon them, The so-called arch gravity dams are sort of misnomer for the true arch dams and the other types, viz. constant radius and constant having their own limitations for certain valleys. The double-curvature arch dams are being constructed everywhere these days and therefore need be considered for any dam site (i) The central angle and radii at different elevations: (A is seen that in most of the cases the ceatral angle varies from 90 to 130° with the adit varying from 0.707 to 0.552 times the arch span. This practice follows (rom the eriterion of 133° 34° central angle found on the basis of thin cylinder formula. (WW) Top thickness of arch: The following tecommendations for designing the top thickness of arch dams are available: US.B.R. formulae T.=0.012(H 41) (8.75) T, = 0.03 Ravi (8.76) Townsend's formula T, = 0.01 (2 Raw + H) a) h n=3 (8.78)} Upsream profile of the dans: The data of double curvatore atch dame ny Iwere collected and analysed to find some mean values of the horizontal di from the axis of the dam at different heights. The data were. by dividing the actual distance by the total height of the dam, ness of dam and distance of upstream face from axis of dam are shown ‘curvatore arch dams without perimetral joint. 6: Example of Komarnica dam in Yugoslavia is taken to ‘The height of the dam is 195 m and canyonure arch, arch gravity, constaat radius arch and constant angle arch eight ‘and different valley shapes can be found from the following formulae ey and R.K. Parashar (1972). Relation 265 x 10-8 3.20 x 10 He V = 2.20 x 10-3 HO V = 1.16 x 10- Ht‘studies, ‘the banks and in the downstream direction, Kay Fig. $.48. Isostatics in an arch dam—inclined arch method. ae V ‘assumed that no arches near the crest act as pure arches, the cumulative effect of of the section tends to force the thrust progressively dowawards, Tn the structure inclined arches following the isostatic curves of the first species, loaded at by the hydrostatic. pressure, carrying their own weight and transmitting ® an inelined reaction to the two flanks; from the contiguous aches, ‘normal compression, But the arches do not lie in one plane and h draw them a priori. ‘suggested that they may be replaced by plane arches obtained by cutti which pivot ® horizontal hinge located at a distance normal reservoir level. These arch rings are more aaFig. 8.49) baplanatory sketch —Totke's method $ Replace the beading moment M by the second derivation of the radial the flexural rigidity ce the thrust 4 io terms of the radial displacements, considering: the “strains jn the cylinder under a uniform thrust, The above substitutions lead tial equation, relatiog the radial displacement with a ae ‘at any particular clevation, through the geometrical dimensions ph’ differential equation should be satisfied at every elevation. é ‘shear force Vand bending moment Mare zero at the top ' ring the entire height of the dam are determined by solvingas shown in Fig. 8.50, J i @ function of the degree of deformability of the foundation and the width ¢rown cantilever section with the foundation hy, then UaChy (896) | where © varies between 0.30 and 0.45, An the later modification of the Tolke's method the approximations arising due to the: Semaertons of cicunferntia! stains inthe horizoalalacctios of the anon part of @ Re reunoarion @-—£.rs 1c rouoarionto obtain such results is eeulaitle. ‘The analysis asst analysis sich dam js divided between horizontal and vertical bmp cae va ts result in all directions at points of intersection of these elements. dam to be studied ts. divided into a al_and vertical per Grtically and horizontally (at the axis) respectively. The sum of these arch the (otal volume of the dam, which is also the case with the cantilever Svely few representative arches and cantilevers. re_studied to. complete the a reasonable length of time (Fig. 8.51). If the dam is approximately:Fig. 8,52. Arch and cantilever elements of « coostant radius symmetrical arch dam, essentially a three dimensional elastic body in which the 60 din terms of the three mutually perpendicular linear displaces In trial load analysis a system of o (52). The axes are: (i) Radi along the tangent to the arch centre line OX — x; and (/Se ce Voge aye on. ane_ whichis considered 10 oundation_suppo thenst | ‘The idealised model of the¥4 pobreston mae of dion wet eres raise wont ‘nt tring ment — fe mien igen of aon ure eto ot tm steed, et gti eet San ea G's Rolatch rorna! ie unt “(ice er Unt element 1's deformations ae OF tion ‘Surtace dues unt bends moment ent wioment Fig. £,55. Deformation of foundation surface. con the i and Cerruti formulae for d Dr. Fredrik Vogt obtained ea) Ponme roncesso oxen JON ous) POSITIVE MOVEMENTS Mote: Positive forces, moments and moverscnts have same direction with respoet tonight abvament except (*) which ate opposite for example, at right abutment, positive HTacts towards the abutment. Fig. 8.56, Abuiment at left side of dam. ‘When the unit vertical or horizontal clement is one of a contiguous series in a dam, fain equations of compatibility or continuity that must be satisfied definitely exclude the of the terms of movements given in Table 8.7. Some other may be eliminated in the practical analysis of stress and deflection in a dam.358 CONCRETE A! ‘able 8.7, Movenunts of vertical elements dus fo unit forces and moments at shutmeat of eloment lft side of dam after USB.R. siti __" pannel iad [ema a Set a loweetcoa) onaes a Ta ee amt br ied a Movements of horizental elements due to unl forces and moments sf abutment of ‘dement-ieft de of 2% ater U.S.BR. ___ ie bl eesar mee] | =a" cos (8.107) cost} + (7') sin* Y cos (2.108) 608 9 (8.109) aay” (8.110) (2), ("and (y") are at right angles to the directions of the corresponding foundation Geformations not designed by the circles and } is the angle between vertical plane and the plane of foundation surface,Movers epee ea apesta Sree Risers Mt os ‘wrersa ha hamene Fie. 8.57. Movements of unit elements, ‘To-evaluste »’, 0°, ‘y’ and y" from U.S.B.R. curves ratio b/a is used; for 8" and 8 the nto and for (7) the ratioFig. 8.58. Contact of arch and cantilever with abutment. the factor “tan y. to determine, respectively, concentrated tangential and the arches. In the adjustments abutment movements of the arches are added. to deflections of corresponding cantilevers, since cantilever foundations move of element: Before the load distribution can be determined in an arch dam ‘analysis, information regarding the properties of the vertical and horizontal ired and the effects of these properties on their load carrying ability must be tain this information each element to be studied is analysed independently. © The unit vertical or cantilever element is composed of ace. ee ( WomzonraL Choss: Stcrion ‘owe tow OF EQU ALENT CANTER ‘tow 5 cm verso et eon deste tr otras teagan ost de ‘ay hoes armen afm an Ireoture lortontay re overone to forthe Rent eye ot it Wye mont ea soe * pou Tope teh lepton antes othe tabs beens ry onthe ray pot horizontally from | ‘rerane one for he elevator Soi te eeeoton nowt onove ‘Sram nent vay ond contnaate tanaord rO180°0 7670 1026°0 SO'LYT 9E'SET Gy $98 L56r'0 18180. 91360 | eHG 0 MS"ST TEST OL Os's41 00°0LT91960 8OI80'T —rstIZO'O 8€096°0 —Os9st0°0 8860 BLI68°0eeSHIO'O LHC08'0 BROT O00! SLB" T — SLI6I0'0 Ose901'0 ORIOL oreesE —Kezego'o 61'S 986RzI'0 SEISE'T r00C'T ede T S0E00°T 69h17"T LICEO'E ELE “z Wat LL8L10°0 TPOETO’O THZ10 0 ££0600°0 TR6S10'O 529880'0 6$£690°0 $09581°0 Te9°S v0l's OPP ior Of9'L IL eT LSI= mom: st of this weight about the centre of gravity of the section at the elevation ting the moment of each elementary block above the elevation about an arbitrary ‘up these by Simpson's rule, finding the distance of the centroid of the whole ‘the centre of gravity of the section at the elevation, and finally taking moment of ‘assumed concentrated at its centroid above the centre of gravity of the section “Asthe vertical upstream water loud acts on a surface whose width is greater than unity, the ratio Ro/ Revs At any elevation, a pressure diagram for Vertical water load on upstream, ‘assumed in which abscissae are the upstream projection of the water load and ordinates r ‘of the water pressure and Ry/Ryvi» The area and moment of this diagram line are determined with sufficient accuracy by the method of average ordinates, nt of the vertical water loads about ceatre of gravity of the section at the eleva~ fined as in case of moment Jue to For tail water effect similar Basie? Ras ° To facilitate the distribution of applied loads between the herizontal 3 of unit 1 ‘On the cantilever clements these unit systems of unit loads are uscd. in shape peak at each arch elevations; then diminish linearly to zero at arch a oe ‘péak elevation (Fig, 8.60). Unit triangular ads are downstream TACEs OF t00°16¢91 00°60901 0"09%9 00202 oo'cst OC °Q= 2 aymmbypanry = Lt OF9 VoD: O's 6 wore SHEL — wets 10612.0810 i) 0.22194 ” ii) 12.87 19-4 (iy 1.15 x10- 10. 12510-9 (i) 8.0 x10-8 (i) 60,06 x 10-8 Sum of to (2) (Multiplication of M ond: %) (Multiplication of ¥ and x) vt ( Multiplication of Af and corresponding s lower «) ( doe higher one) (Muliplication of Ma and corresponding AA) (Multipeation of Vey and corresponding i) {Movi of MAN2U diy and ss) (tiation of MA in aad 5) (mtotaon of Vand = lower ox) {iat40.130411 +0,107200 $0,061 +0,035058 -+0.018087 0 7.0 8.2 144.98 10.3 N.B, Only illustrative calculations of As due to Pry, ate shown. . ‘j=distance from centre of the vertical line and corresponding value of iu “i do36,90 29.02 483.90 655.08 821.4eh rypteat ua reist om Fig, 8.60. ‘Typical unit cantilever toads. plus the integral of the detrusion of the centre line, ; from the base to the section, jal deflection of cantilever clement is then the sum of the ‘contribution from the ‘bending moments and shears rents result from shear detrusions produced by tangential Torees plus the tangential movement of the foundation. Tangential bending nis are negligibic. tions in cantilever clements oduced by (uiating moments ia horizontal plane n of any horizontal ‘ular movement of the foundation in a hori- plus the integral of the different clements about the centre line from {to the section under consideration, 8.9 shows an example of the e¥al uation of shears and moments on the cantilever ‘unit load system, water and earthquake (calculated on the basis of Westergaard ‘complete calculations have been written for one load and for one elevation only. deformations due to unit tangential loads at different arch 8.11. TAO due to Pe are illustrated forthe above case for Pry aad— 1.976587 (i) multiplication of Ay ponding lower“(p%] spun 9[SuP sywnbs 7H) woNesyodE | Fowoys samme proj HEIETEMHD jeaIBNS Ho. “19"S “BL ‘Smuaiare avo isims(2) yo um Fon eva7 am tower wan Ses ones Teunporet) ‘SWB4 tHe O07 TwiovE (9) em oror annFig. 8.62. Coordinates and crowa forces for left part of the arch. rotations and displacements thus found at the crown of both sides for the whole arch, The equations then established will give the unknown m thrust at the crown expressed in the following form: B= E [Dg ByC.— 82) ~ Da BCs ~ CB) — DAB BBD) 1 By = LD (BiG — BCs) + Pula ~ C1) Hom FI-PBG, ~ B:P)+ DBC — A‘movement ata point due to loads between 2! the point tadial deflections at a point due to louds between the point tangential deflection at a point due to loads her \ abutment. ’ ferms are given in Table 8.13. Moment, thrust and shear at | ‘from the following formula M = M+ Hey + Vix — H = H, cos $ — V, sing + Ih, ¥ = H,sin ¢ — V, cos $~ Vi M = M,+ Hoy — Vix—Mr H= H, cos $ + Vy sing + He V = H, sing — V, cos — Vr equations the deformation of any arch element at any the following equation: OV —Dy+ Mea Vers Hs: CV — Dy (Oat Vary) oH sin Gu‘Anctt DaMs Table 8.13 CONSTANTS FOR SOLUTION OF CROWN FORCES oy IGKT Bout Ler? Tame Bout ze). fe 3 ge/er f @ lire | sings e 7a ofa] 48 § ar 5 ‘autass % eke s cy = z : e 3 = els 2 sis ~|4 4|2 bo s 4 ae +2 3] ate e i a) aoa = ={g Tce lL ate l= | cls 4 {212 |" 4 3} sere ‘ Sh tasks z LEFT spacer te m5uy INOWID Hos AVINNAOE vrs mens, 376SECTION #=4 i ARCH ANO CANTILEVER CLEMERYS (imiriaL POSITION OLE TO WEIGHT) enone eae rion 15 APPLICATION OF RESRVOIN cone Fig, 8.63, Diagrammatic illustration of the tris! load adjustment—application of teeervole load including any temperature load on the arch and any radial component of vertical water load oc horizontal tarthquake on the cantilever on that asum of arch and cantilever loads must equal the total external jagreement of the radial deflections of arch and cantilevers has been ae ral factors which have been ignored. These include t ;TRACE OF Ancs rwmovcn CEWreE OF enown Fig, 8.64. Radial and tangentiat Fig. 8.65. Twist adjustment loads adjustment and 6. asmed acing Wl shown in figare). -result of the rotations in the arches and cantilevers produced by the radial and adjustments, it is necessary to introduce twist loads which are capable of bri ons of arches and cantilevers into agreement. These twist loads consist of I planes, acting on the arches and equal but opposite loads acting 'sratio enters indirectly in the analysis wherever the modulus ‘that is, in contributions of shearing stresses to radial d) Stresses When the adjustments are completed, the displacement and rotations for ‘ analysed are computed. From trial loads, stresses in the dam may be Fig. 8.66 shows typical load distribution and radial deflections for cantilever a @) Stresses at the downstream face (Fig. 8.67) @ Vertical cantilever stress on a horizontal plane I WM. w= a (Th) i | (i) Horizontal arch stress on a vertical radial plane A M T 424, Ty 2 a Horizontal cantilever shear stress acting in a tangential di ; io ngential direction a: ‘of temperature variation effect, in the values of ‘explained in the discussions on Trial Load Analysis. tk methods are given here. A Bourgin's (1953) relation: t ‘variations in temperature. We ha Ina circular arch, supported in any manner, the clastic state resulting fi ‘of temperature which is a function only of the polar radius ¢ is the sum of: the elastic state, corresponding to a uniform variation in value (Zmay be taken equal to final stable temperature of concrete). t = thickness of arch -= radius of the centre line of arch temperature2 - fs values are shown by the = Oy — 8; ee sae GE) + FS c acted dependent on ¢ (half central angle) and E/G. These = elastic centre stance of arch line (r) from elastic centre. ‘5 relations (1937); Formulae for temperature thrusts, m and abutment sections of a constant-thickness Sof abutment deformation, are as follows: rsinganalysis ides a means for obtaining agreement of ; oe Read eraeapiranypmierpene | h cantilever clements. The accuracy of this analysis is limited only by the $$ of the basic assumptions, the number of horizontal and vertical elements choce, gnitude of error permitted in the slope and deflection adjustments. Cantilever analysis is a very effective tool for reconnaissance studies; radi deflection analysis is useful for feasibility study. A complete trial load analysis is requimd 8.7.3. Mladyenoviteh's lincar equations Ta the case of dams with long flexibies arches and short cantilivers, the number of adjuge ‘ments and reavjustments is very much greater in trial load analysis, since the convergence of the deflectior.s of cantileverand arch systems after readjustment is slow. To avoid repeated trials V. Miac, -novitch of M/s Coyne and Bellier Paris gave an algebraic method while sil making use of 4 U.S.B.R.'s indispensable tables of deflections per unit loads, The methad Sets out a method of calculating loads by the solution of a system of linear ‘simultaneous equations which permits the direct determination, to the required degree of accuracy, ofthe deflections of all points of intersection of arches and assemble overall stiffness matrix for the Pasir" ‘To get the damped natural frequencies or the system or the dynamic matrix, is Formed by the pre-multiplication of the inverse of the ‘matrix, 3. Critically damped response is determined for each node, 8.7.5 Experimental Methods 19. Model studies When the arch dam exhibits aon-symmetry, heterogenous foundations, fines and other irregularities such as joints, spillway openings, interior Y oP ‘mathematical methods either become too cumbersome to be practicable or r Tt is because of these reasons, model studies have come to be used as @ po analysis of structure, It is possible to work out solutions for complicated even in the cases where calculations cannot provide sufficient help. i inary model preferably of ‘of the actual model. The sctual working model is laid on the ‘modulus and its construction follows quite closely acturing model analysis in general it is useful to distinguish between two extreme the mode! is in all regards a scale replica of the prototype, and = 1 the model becomes physical representation of mathematical abstractions of of the first category is the one used by is perm 2 1c one used by the designer who is permitted to the results of a mode! study and who bas not available to him a pernig dof solution. In the second case the model inb« . etits all the accomptions concerning ur ofthe prototype which would normally be made in a theoretical analysit sof the second category often serve to fest the results obtained from a new analytical od of solution. re considered: (a) scale, (b) model materials, manufacture, (d) method of loading, and (e) method of obtaining stresses ete, from Je Mortar Models: The modelhas the same physical properties as the DROW: matious are extended right up to the failure of the structure. 5 ‘a modulus of clasticily of up to 3 10° kg/em* reasonably high loads have to be io obtuin measurable strains. Since for a given liquid density the stresses increase iedimensions, it is not surprising that models of concrete mortar tend to be larger ‘made of other materials. Reservoir loading is produced by a series of jacks acting essure-pads. ‘ fast the concrete mode! is not easily altered in shape and it is got vet) convenient from it for a final check on its Cae properties. Acoustic methods can, of to test the ‘uniformity a do not lend them! effects of gravity forces, vertical loads oe cables, in the - janget of disturbing the stress patterd: - This material is a mixture ‘of Paris and dicalite (Kieselzuhs)mptiod by. Deere ot histec cn werical abaie, wil aa epicyelic 4 Maixing under tow pressure show accentuated shrinkage of the models ate all cast upside down to avoid cracking of the i fare righted by a very simple device which enables a model ptumned over with its mould withis a few minutes and in complete electric skip and ‘The pumps, whieh uid as soon as the” r ‘models are fixed 10 reinforced metal bases. Fonte reinforced concrete platforms. The mercury the model by a wooden block ofJhave developed an apparatus which Joading cyclo. automatically controls iw are performed, the number of cycles eng toned in cre eae for «now model). : measuring instrament used bay many invariable Wheatst invariable -atstone's bridges, each of ted to a gauge on the model, A numerial voltmeter bridges wach of these the value of its unbalanced voltage, eee eo ‘biidge is connected 10 a dircet current source, at the same rate as that of the ‘of the voltmeter. This implies: Uifferential measurements, that i» to say, the model is amined by several times running, alternatively loaded and unloaded; W stabilised fording voltage with a low value of 25-V. The 48 bridges are read in ‘ab period of 2.5 minutes the model bas more than 48 gauges, cach bridge serves several ganges through & fier which can give a gain of 300 oF y employed so as to limit the fluctuation ‘cle current. Tho reading unit readings is of the order of eontinuous ampli hich ix most usuall the harmonies of the 50 cy the fluctuation of the ‘and Poisson's ratio is wbout 0.35, most. Plastic. models: Elasticity is about 130,000 ke/em*® , tions are; (a) creep under 104d, igh cost of material, and (2 | Ieper und noise and to Us to 2,6/microstrain an: the after which the model still under toad is slowly, Slices can then be cut from the model and the stresses lie incidence measurements in a polasiscope. Ttis very important to avoid the presence of stresses caused by. “expansion during the “stress freezing” cycle. For this reason the valley. has to from thesame material, It is possible to lower the elastic modulus of the ique advantage of the p Without Violating the above condition, The uni 0 “that it gives stresses at internal points of the model and if required within the fo With a small model it is possible to simulate the effect of ‘gravity forces im a; | k 88 Srastutry at Anurwexts ‘The main load on the foundations is the horizontal one from the arch rin The arch thrust acts in line parallel to thetangent to the arch at the abu be enough rock mass in line with it to provide necessary sh shows unsafe and safe abutment conditions, In (a) the force arch thrust. The angle 0 is the angle of internal friction 0 “which producae Fig. 8.75. Safe abutment conditions necessary that the valley be symmetrical or nearly so. for the arch where a gravity dam in « deep pit and an arch dam in the upper the dam design problem, One such example is Pieve Di adore: have shown courage in constructing arch dams on poor fo ‘Santa Giustina dam were treated with extensive grouting bank. Adoption of a perimetral joint (Fig- 8.8) is an oo:eaves steron —sonzona ste» 1, Grout curtain. . SS Cae ow forces. 2. W—Weight. 4 awh dam. 3. QuThrust of dam. Zone made watertigh’ by dam thrust, 4. Uy Up) Up Water Fig, 8.76. Typical arrangement of grout and! drainage curtains in rock “abutments (alter P. Londe). -- _ Whoa the line of thrust would meet the abutment at an unfavo i ‘to provide a forked abutment, which may be prestressed into mas At Hegset dam, Norway—a very economical arch 52m high was m ‘construction of an exposed thrust block—with a curved wing wall built ‘gated spillway. ‘8.9 EFFECT oF FOUNDATION ELASTICITY ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF AN ARCH te “Effect ‘on crown cantilever behaviour On the basis of studies carried out atthe National Laboratory of pee in an arch dam varies asa function 2, ‘of dam concrete £, to elasticity of foundation rock F,). values below unity (a rigid foundation) which seldom occurs in pFor very thin arch dams where the base thickness of the crown cantilever is less than times the dam height, the arch section is yminant Pera tied by the arches (ine to the fenibiieg) aman A neney al the hydrostatic So for ont purpose these are not very important as they are designed as arches resting #axic abutments and no problems resulting from the combined effect, fecha eae wise, The effect of } was studied for the other three of dat ‘taking examples of ‘tual sites and the proposed sections. ee — - Forthe moderately thick and thin arch dams two Japanese dams—Kamishiiba and Naramata—with 7/47 ratios of 0.2 and 0.125, respectively were taken (7 =thickness at the fscof the crown cantilever and H = height of dam). The proposed arch dam site and section of Kishau in Uttar Pradesh, India, was taken as ‘te ctample of a thick dam; the salient features of dam and valley are given in Table 8.19. Table 8.19. Features of dams used for staly Kish «Ace a lower slenderness. ratio (7/r), where r is the radius of the ¢ Bic caste vcen once in the bottom portion, | that of a thin arch dam,BAL otminceon, - teow oF tae oe IMO FE SSE Fig. 8.79. Effect of B/E on radial displacement of crown cantilever, ‘The vero value of the arch load at the bottom is only due to the method of analysis ef. In the crown cantilever method, because no arch clement intersects the crown tilever at the base, the arch action is nil at the bottom. ‘However, it is seen that even if it is assumed that the load shared by the arch action is up p 30 to 40% of the total hydrostatic load, there is practically no change in the load distribution ‘above 20% of the dam height from the base. From the study of the variation of load distribution at different elevations with different lues of itis seen that loads on upper arch elements increase as A increases for type A and pe # dams, ‘Atthe mid-height of the dam there is a point of contraflexure and the loads on lower ‘elements decrease. This behaviour can be explained by noting the rapid change of ty between the upper and lower arch clements which have different slenderness, Top ‘re sleader and wide, with a relatively large crowa deflection under a unit load, and sause the arches are slender, the abutment deformability increases the crown deflection by Il percentage, Sinve the radial displacement of the crown cantilever increases steadily at the top, the thes nlso carry gradually increasing loads with an increase in i. More slender and longer arches become more flexible with increase in 1, whereas less ‘and shorter arches at the bottom show less flexibility with this increase, However, ype C dam, this contraflerure does not occur, because the type shows litte difference at various elevations because of gradual variation is slenderness, W) This observed that the inctease or decrease of load on the cantilever, due to sn “icin fom 2 to 4or from 4 to 8 is nary the same in al the thre types of damit 1M Value of 2 therefore seems to be critical between 2 and 4.fu = — 0.006 (1/6) w HC, t= — 0.06(r]t) w HC, and C, for different values of Xand XK" are show that:With finite element method it has become possible to have a much nate of tho stresses induced by a given set of loads, by applying is procedures in the treatment of earthquake effects, Inprinciple, a dynamic response analysis may be looked upon merely ie satie Stress analysis procedure, requiring only the inclusion in the: nal dynamic forces resulting from the motion of the structure, ntelationship expressed by equation includes the inertia forces a Vector, and the damping forces resulting from the velocity t dependent stiffness forces which characterize a staticF z ‘Den! sur la Surface” Revue de 1’ Industrie Min October, 1975, pp; 46-385. . * I. Gandig, “Arch Santa oe Soe el Arc nf Pawar Da. Pros ASCE. Vol 62, No. FO Sy Se Minden toh 2 ‘des Fondations de December 1966, Editions Science et Industrie, Paris. , ‘ualeul des Barrages—Voutes par Resolution Intereur d'un Massif dus aux CI rale-Special Number 15 July ‘Maller, L., “Safety of Rock ‘Abutments on Concrete Dams”, 74h ICOLD: 1961, Q. 25, R-9- = NO, “Vibration Analysis”, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Ine New tage, K.G. and Zienkiewicz, O.C., “Criteria and A Proc, of an Int. Symp. held at Swansea, UK. Se G. and Lauletts, E., “Evaluation Criteria for Factors of Safet-Mi Resuli”, Symp-0on Conorete Dam Models October 14-19, 1963, National Labor ‘of Civil Engineering Lisbon, Portugal. ; Fob Louis, G. "Arch Dams, Economy of Concrets Dams”, Paper Nov 1286-Jn. of te “Power Da. Proc of the ASC.E., Vol. 83, No. PO 3, June 1957, ‘Rad, RM., “The Use of Prestressing Techniques in the Construction of Dams—Raisls ‘and Strengthening of Existing Dams by Post Stressing’”, Indian Concrete Journal, Vol 35 “August, 1964. “Roberts, CM, Chitty, L., Crook, D.E., “The Application of ‘Modem Methods of Amis! to Acch Dams” 0th ICOLD Congress Montreal, 1970 Q. 39, R. 10) Yok. IV. . Rocha, M. and Serafim, J.L., “Modem Techniques ‘of Concrete Dams for Wile’ 7th ICOLD Congress, Roms 1961, Q. 26. 111 si, JR. and. Humphries, R.W.,““An Approach to Analysis of ‘Arch, Dass # Fide Valleys", Jn. of Power Dn. Proc. A.S.C.E. Vol. 99, No. 1, May 1973- Rydaewski, JR. (E4,), “Theory of Arch Dams”, Pergamon Oxford, 1969 ype Scsmic Studies of Arch Dams", Ja. of Struct DO" » Vol. 91, No. ST 2 April 1965. y “Simonds A. Warren, “Arch Dam: Theory, Methods and Details dl Sy Bapes No, 991 Ja. of he Power Do. Proc. AS.CE, Vol. 82, No. PO 3 4un€ ‘Thomas, H.H., “The Engineering of Large Dams”, Part 1, John Wiley & Sons |