2.

optical properties

(1) introduction luminescence laser optical fiber

(2) light and electromagnetic spectrum

visible light electromagnetic radiation with wavelength 400 to 750 nm ultraviolet 10 400 nm infrared 750 106 nm light is in form of waves and consist of particles called photons E = h = hc/ E : energy : wavelength : frequency c : speed of light 3 108 m/s h : planks constant 6.62 10-34 J s ex. a photon in ZnS drops from an impurity at 1.38 eV below its conduction band to valence band, what is the wavelength ? (ZnS band gap = 3.54 eV)
3.54 1.38 = 2.16 eV 1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J = hc/E = (3 108)(6.62 10-34) / (2.16)(1.6 10-19 2) = 5.747 10-7 m = 574.7 nm

(3) refraction of light

when photons are transmitted through a transparent material, they lose some energy and speed and the direction changes index of refraction c n= v c : velocity of light in vacuum v : velocity of light in a medium the values range from about 1.4 to 2.6

the refractive indices of materials are a function of wavelength and frequency

Snells law of light refraction if light passes through one media to another sin

= n sin

n: refractive index of first media n: refractive index of second media : angle of incidence : angle of refraction if light passes from media of high refractive index to a media of low refractive index, = 90o at = c critical angle of incidence total internal reflection if angle > c

ex. What is the critical angle for light to be totally reflected when entering the air from soda-lime-silica glass (n = 1.51)?
= = n sin 1 sin c sin c = 1/ 1.51 = 0.662 c = 41.5o
n sin 1.51 sin 90o

(4) absorption, transmission, reflection of light for a particular wavelength (reflected fraction) + (absorbed fraction) + (transmitted fraction) = 1 (a) metals metals strongly reflect and/or absorb light amount of energy absorbed depends on electronic structure incident beam easily elevates electrons to higher levels Au absorbs shorter wavelength (blue & green) and reflects longer wavelengths (yellow and red) Ag and Al reflect all parts of visible light (b) silicate glasses amount reflection of light from a glass surface mainly depends on refractive index n and angle of incidence n1 2 fraction of light reflected R = n+1 R is called reflectivity (i = 900) 6 n : refractive index

ex. calculate the reflectivity of incident light from the polished flat surface of silicate glass (n = 1.46)
n 1 2 1.46 1 2 R = = = (0.46/2.46)2 = 0.035 n+1 1.46 + 1 3.5% light is reflected

absorption of light by glass plate the light intensity decreases as light path increases I = e t Io I : fraction of light exiting Io : fraction of light entering : linear absorption coefficient t : thickness ex. incident light strikes a polished glass plate 0.50 cm thick (n = 1.50), what fraction of light is absorbed by the glass as the light pass between the surface of glass ( = 0.03 cm-1)
I = e t = e (0.03)(0.5) = 0.985 Io 1 0.985 = 0.015 1.5% absorbed
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 amount transmitted depends upon amount of light reflected from upper and lower surface and light absorbed

fraction on incident light reaching lower surface = (1 - R)(I0e-t) fraction of incident light reflected from lower surface = R(1 - R)(I0e-t) fraction of light transmitted I = [(1 - R)(I0e-t) ] - [R(1 - R)(I0e-t) ] = (1 - R)2(I0e-t) 90% incident light is transmitted by silica glass if > 300 nm

(c) plastics many plastics have excellent transparency if crystalline regions having high refractive index are larger than wavelength of light, the light will be scattered

(d) semiconductors in pure semiconductors, photons may cause electrons to jump across energy band gap the energy of photons should be greater than Eg impure semiconductors (n-type or p-type) absorb photons of lower energy

 semiconductors are opaque to high- and intermediate-energy light photons and transparent to low-energy, very long wavelength photons ex. calculate the minimum wavelength for photons to be absorbed by intrinsic Si at room temperature (Eg =1.10 eV)
hc (6.62 10-34)(3 108) = = = 1.13 10-6 m -19 Eg (1.10 eV)(1.6 10 ) minimum wavelength is 1130 m

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(5) luminescence luminescence the process by which substance absorbs energy and spontaneously emits visible or near-visible radiation electrons are excited by input energy and drop to lower energy level fluorescence emissions occur within 10-8 seconds after excitation. phosphorescence emissions occur longer than10-8 seconds after excitation produced by material called phosphors emission spectra can be controlled by adding activators

1 electron-hole pairs are created 2 electrons can be thermally excited from one trap to another or into conduction band 3 electrons can drop to upper activator levels and 11 then to lower acceptor levels, emitting visible light

(a) photoluminescence ultraviolet radiation from a mercury arc is converted into visible light by using halophosphate phosphor in fluorescent lights, calcium halophosphate (Ca10F2P6O24) with 20% F- replaced by Clis used Sb3+ produce blue emission and Mn2+ provide orange-red emission band

(b) cathodoluminescence produced by energized cathode that generates a beam of high energy bombarding electrons ex. electron microscope, CRO, TV screen

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 in TV screen, the signal is rapidly scanned over the screen deposited with blue, green and red emitting phosphors to produce images commonly used phosphors for the colors: blue ZnS with Ag+ acceptor and Cl- donor green (Zn, Cd)S with Cu+ acceptor and Al3+ donor red Y2O2S with 3% Eu (c) intensity of luminescence I t ln = I0 I0 : initial intensity : relaxation time constant I : fraction of luminescence after time t ex. color TV phosphor has a relaxation time of 3.9 10-3 s, how long will it take for the intensity of this phosphor material to decrease to 10% of its original intensity?
I t ln = I0 1 t ln = 10 3.9 10-3
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t = 9.0 10-3 s

(6) stimulated emission of radiation and lasers conventional light photons with similar wavelength, independent, random, incoherent and out of phase LASER : Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. laser photons that are in phase, coherent, parallel, directional and monochromatic active photons in laser stimulate many others of same frequency

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(a) ruby laser single crystal of Al2O3 contains 0.05% Cr3+ ions in substitutional lattice spaces, these ions drop to lower energy levels causing photon emission at specific wave lengths Cr3+ ions are excited by xenon flash light partial transmitting mirror at front end allows beam to pass through

electrons are pumped to E2 and E3 energy levels, the return to E1 level emitting photons that stimulate more electrons to jump from E2 to E1

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 large number of photons are hence produced that are in phase

a wavelength of 694.3 nm laser beam pulsed type laser

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(b) neodymium-YAG (Nd: YAG) lasers made by combining 1 part per hundred of Nd in YAG (yttrium-aluminum-garnet) crystal near infrared wavelength (10.6 m) with continuous power used in drilling, scribing and cutting (c) carbon dioxide lasers most powerful lasers few milliwats continuous power to large pulses of 10000 J operates by electron collision exciting nitrogen molecules that transfer energy to CO2 molecules used in cutting, welding and heat treatment

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(d) semiconductor lasers the smallest lasers produced consists of pn junction of semiconducting compound population inversion is achieved by strong forward bias of heavily doped pn junction great number of electron-hole pairs are generated that recombine to emit photons used in compact disks

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(7) optical fibers hair thin ( 1.25 m) optical fibers made of SiO2 are used for optical-fiber communication central core glass has higher refractive index than outer clad

(a) light loss in optical fibers 10 I -loss (dB/km) = log l (km) Io l : length I, I0 : initial and final intensities impurities (Fe2+ ) should be very low for low light loss (attenuation) ex. an optical fiber has a 0.2 dB/km light attenuation (a) what is the fraction of light remaining after pass through 1 km? (b) what is the fraction of light remaining after 40 km transmission?
(a) -0.2 = (10/1)log(I/Io) log(I/Io) = -0.02 I/Io = 19 0.95 (b) -0.2 = (10/40)log(I/Io) log(I/Io) = -0.80 I/Io = 0.16

single mode one acceptable guided ray path multiple mode has a graded refractive index many wave modes pass simultaneously.

(b) fabricated through modified chemical vapor deposition ( MCVD) process vapor of SiCl4, GeCl4, and fluorinated hydrocarbons are passed through rotating pure silica tube with pure oxygen oxyhydrogen torch allows contents to react to form doped silica glass composition of vapors is adjusted to vary refractive index

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 silica tube is then heated and the tube collapses uniformly into a solid role called preform the fiber is then drawn and polymer is coated for protection

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(c) modern optical-fiber communication

systems modern systems use single mode fiber with an InGaAsP double heterojunction laser diode transmitter and InGaAs/InP PIN photodiode is usually used for the detector

erbium-doped optical-fiber amplifier (EDFA) is a length of optical fiber doped with rare earth element Er it boosts all signal passing through it

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(8) superconducting materials electrical resistvity of a normal metal (e.g. Cu) decreases as temperature decreasing and reaches a low residual value at 0 K electrical resistvity of Hg drops to zero at 4.2 K

(a) superconductivity the resistivity of a metal drops suddenly to a immeasurable value upon cooling to critical temperature Tc for a material to be superconducting, its critical temperature Tc, magnetic field B and current density J must not be exceeded

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(b) magnetic properties of superconductors if a critical magnetic field Hc is applied to a superconductor below Tc, superconductor returns to normal state.

T 2 Hc = H0 1- Tc Hc = critical magnetic field at temperature T H0 = critical field at 0 K sufficiently high (critical) current density Jc will also destroy superconductivity. ex. calculate approximate value of critical field necessary to cause the superconductivity of pure Nb disappear at 6 K
T Hc = H0 1- Tc
2

6 2 = 0.196 [1 () ] = 0.112 T 9.15 24

(i) type I superconductor Pb, Sn below Tc and Hc, applied magnetic field will be expelled from specimen except for a very thin penetration layer (~ 10-5 cm) at the surface Meissner effect

(ii) type II superconductors NiTi, Ni3Sb magnetic flux is excluded from material up to a lower critical field Hc1 from Hc1 to Hc2, field starts to penetrate and after upper critical field Hc2, the behavior is normal

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(c) current flow and magnetic fields in superconductors type I superconductors are poor carriers of electrical current as current flows only in surface layer in type II superconductor, between Hc1 and Hc2 the current can be carried inside the superconductor by filament the field penetrates the superconductor in the form of flux bundles (fluxoids) with increasing magnetic field strength, more fluxoids enter the superconductor and form a periodic array

at Hc2 the vortex structure collapses and material returns to normal conducting state 26

(d) high current high field superconductors type II superconductors have small current carrying capacity below Tc as fluxoids are weakly tied to crystal lattice mobility of fluxoids are impeded by dislocations, grain boundaries and fine precipitates heat treatment of Nb-45 wt% Ti alloy is used to precipitate a hexagonal phase in BCC matrix to help pin down fluxoids. Nb-Ti filaments are embedded in copper matrix to improve forming ex. Nb-46.5 wt% Ti Cu composite Cu : NbTi vol. ratio of 1.5 7250 filaments of 6-m diameters Jc = 2990 A/mm2 at 5 K Jc = 1256 A/mm2 at 8 K applications for NbTi and Nb3Sn : nuclear magnetic imaging system, magnetic 27 levitation of vehicles (high-speed train)

(e) high critical temperature superconducting oxides YBa2Cu3Oy has Tc of 90 K and has defective perovskite structure, y = 9 for ideal structure, however, y = 6.65 ~ 6.90 for this material at y = 6.90, Tc = 90 K and material is normal at y = 6.65 oxygen vacancies play an important role in the superconducting behavior

to have high Tc, oxygen atoms on (001) planes are ordered so that vacancies are in a direction. superconductivity is confined to CuO2 planes, oxygen vacancies provide electron29 coupling between CuO2 planes.

oxygen content vs. unit cell parameters

oxygen content vs. unit cell parameters

HR-TEM for YBa2Cu3Oy

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