Brief History of Environmental Diplomacy Economic growth was at the forefront of international discussions before, but rising changes

in the global situation of the environment that may lead to wide scale resource depletion and endanger the worlds population warranted the urgent management of the incessant issue of environmental degradation. According to Sascha Mller Kraener during the Environmental Diplomacy conference in Washington D.C. in 1998 environmental diplomacy was first talked about after the end of Cold War, when everyone dreamed about shedding the peace dividend and addressing global change questions like the economic development of the South, population growth, the spread of democracy and human rights, and last but not the least, the looming environmental crisis (AICGS, 1999). The UNs first major conference that dealt with environmental crisis is the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, also known as the Stockholm Conference, in 1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics, more so for it led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme which is the voice of the environment within the UN system (unep.org). The second global environmental conference was the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 which resulted in the creation of the Agenda 21 and the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). It is during this conference that environment and development policy were put at the top of the international agenda. But according to Mller Kraener, the spirit of Rio did not prevail. The framework of sustainable development during the Rio conference was overshadowed by another global trend which was the rising economies of the South particularly in the regions of Latin America and Asia and the economic crisis in Western Europe. This phenomenon was called globalization. In the words of Mller Kraener globalization has removed the global environmental crisis from the agenda of the worlds political leadership (AICGS, 1999). And although there was an increase in international environmental policies, the environmental crisis persisted and even worsened.

Key Instruments of Environmental Diplomacy The two major global conferences that propelled environmental crisis as a top agenda in the international political arena are which were previously discussed, the Stockholm conference of 1972, which created the UNEP, and the Earth summit in Rio in 1992 which resulted in Agenda 21 and the CSD. These can be considered as key instruments of environmental diplomacy. But aside from these, there has been a surge of conventions and efforts to address the new global environmental crisis once the issue has been laid out in the international political platform. These include the 1985 Vienna Convention on Protecting the Ozone Layer; the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer; the 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes; the establishment in 1991 of the Global Environment Facility; the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity; the 1994 UN Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States; the 1994 UN Convention to Combat Desertification; the 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change and just recently the Rio + 20 in 2012. The Stockholm conference of 1972 was the first attempt at a global effort to address the environmental crisis and so the Stockholm Declaration adopted basic and broad environmental policy goals and objectives rather than detailed and definite positions. The principal purpose of the Stockholm Conference was to serve as a practical means to encourage, and to provide guidelines to protect and improve the human environment and to remedy and prevent its impairment (General Assembly resolution 2581 (XXVI)). And after the Stockholm conference, global awareness on the issue increased (Handl, legal.un.org, 2013). The United Nations Environment Programme was established in 1972 as a result of the Stockhom Conference. It acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to promote the wise use and sustainable development of the environment (unep.org, 2013). Its work encompasses the assessment of global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends, development of international and national environmental instruments and strengthening of institutions for the wise management of the environment (unep.org, 2013). In the 70s studies showed that the chemicals we produced could harm the ozone layer, which protects the earth from excessive ultraviolet radiation that may cause mutations in human,

plant and animal cells. Scientists found out that chloroflourocarbon gases (CFCs), could stay in the stratosphere for decades to centuries, and by releasing chlorine, break down the ozone layer (Weiss, legal.un.org, 2013). In 1981, UNEP drafted a global framework convention on stratospheric ozone protection and so in 1985 the Vienna Convention was held. It is a framework agreement in which States agree to cooperate in relevant research and scientific assessments of the ozone problem, to exchange information, and to adopt appropriate measures to prevent activities that harm the ozone layer (Weiss, legal.un.org, 2013). The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer was created to reduce the production and consumption of substances that could be detrimental to the ozone layer. It enables the Parties to the Protocol to agree to accelerate the reductions required on the substances mentioned in the Protocol (UNEP Ozone Secretariat, 2011). 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, also known as the Basel Convention, is a response to the discovery of deposits of toxic wastes in Africa and other parts of the developing world during the 1980s. The Global Environment Facility which was established in 1991 unites 183 countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address environmental issues and promote sustainable development efforts. The GEF provides grants for projects and programs dedicated to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer and persistent organic pollutants (GEF, 2013). The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is a two week event that led to the adoption of Agenda 21, a wide ranging blueprint for action to achieve sustainable development worldwide. It is a comprehensive programme of global action in all areas of sustainable development. The Earth Summit also resulted in two other conventions the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (un.org, 1997). The environmental crisis is affecting all of us, but more so the Small Islands of Developing country and so in 1994 the UN Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States was held.

International consensus was reached regarding the creation of a legally - binding convention on climate change. In 1990, at the Second World Climate Conference in Geneva, it became apparent that there is a North/South divide because of conflicting interests and issues, but despite this in 1992 during the Earth Summit various States became a party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. The long-term objective of the Convention and its related legal instruments is to achieve [] the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system (article 2). Climate change is defined by the Convention as change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (article 1 (2)) (de Chazournes, legal.un.org, 2013). The Earths natural resources are the fuel for our economic and social development, but constant consumption without leaving room for regeneration and recuperation of the environment posed a threat to all species on Earth. In response to this UNEP decided that there should be an international instrument to address this issue, thus the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity was made (Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.). Along with the two conventions and Agenda 21, the Commission on Sustainable Development was also made as a result of the Earth Summit. It was established by the UN General Assembly in 1992 to ensure the continuous and effective follow up of the Earth Summit. It framework of action is highly participatory by engaging with a wide set of official stakeholders and partners (UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, n.d.). The 1994 UN Convention to Combat Desertification is the sole legally-binding international treaty linking environment and development to sustainable land management. The convention specifically addresses the problems in the dry lands, where there are a lot of vulnerable people and ecosystems. The convention aims to better the living conditions of the people in these dry lands, improve their soil productivity and to prevent drought (UNCCD, 2012).

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change is an international agreement related to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, which binds its parties to following international emission targets, and provided creative mechanisms to help these countries achieve the emission targets (UNFCC, 2014). And lastly the very recent Rio + 20 or the UN Conference on Sustainable Development which took place in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil last 2012 was the biggest UN Conference ever and a major step forward in achieving sustainable development. World leaders along with the private sector, NGOs and other groups discussed how to reduce poverty, advance social equity and ensure environmental protection (un.org, 2013). Sources: American Institute for Contemporary German Studies. (1999). Environmental Diplomacy: Conference Report. AICGS. NW, Washington D.C. UNEP. (n.d.) ABOUT UNEP: The voice of the Environment. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.unep.org/About/ Handl, G. (2013). Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html Weiss, E.B. (2013). Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/vcpol/vcpol.html UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (2011). The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php GEF.ORG (2013). What is the GEF. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.thegef.org/gef/whatisgef UN (1997). Earth Summit. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/envirp3.html de Chazournes, L.B. (2013). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ccc/ccc.html Convention on Biological Diversity. (n.d.). History of the Convention. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.cbd.int/history/

UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform (n.d.). Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/csd.html UNCCD. (2012). About the Convention. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.unccd.int/en/about-the-convention/Pages/About-the-Convention.aspx UN. (2013). UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/climatechange/pages/gateway/the-negotiations/the-unclimate-change-convention-and-the-kyoto-protocol UN. (2013). Rio + 20. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from: http://www.un.org/en/sustainablefuture/about.shtml