De Ocampo, Eljon R.

T3A - EnviEng Biogeochemical Cycles

Energy does not cycle thro gh an ecosystem, ! t chemicals do. The inorganic n trients cycle thro gh more than the organisms, ho"ever, they also enter into the atmosphere, the oceans, and even roc#s. $ince these chemicals cycle thro gh !oth the biological and the geological "orld, "e call the overall cycle as biogeochemical cycles. Each chemical has its o"n ni% e cycle, ! t all o& the cycles do have some things in common. Reservoirs are those parts o& the cycle "here the chemical is held in large % antities &or long periods o& time. 'n exchange pools, on the other hand, the chemical is held &or only a short time. The length o& time a chemical is held in an e(change pool or a reservoir is termed its residence time. The oceans are a reservoir &or "ater, "hile a clo d is an e(change pool. )ater may reside in an ocean &or tho sands o& years, ! t in a clo d &or a &e" days at !est. The !iotic comm nity incl des all living organisms. This comm nity may serve as an e(change pool *altho gh &or some chemicals li#e car!on, !o nd in a se% oia &or a tho sand years, it may seem more li#e a reservoir+, and also serve to move chemicals &rom one stage o& the cycle to another. The Water Cycle: 'n the water cycle, energy is s pplied !y the s n, "hich drives evaporation "hether it !e &rom ocean s r&aces or &rom treetops. The s n also provides the energy "hich drives the "eather systems "hich move the "ater vapor *clo ds+ &rom one place to another *other"ise, it "o ld only rain over the oceans+. ,recipitation occ rs "hen "ater condenses &rom a gaseo s state in the atmosphere and &alls to earth. Evaporation is the reverse process in "hich li% id "ater !ecomes gaseo s. Once "ater condenses, gravity ta#es over and the "ater is p lled to the gro nd. -ravity contin es to operate, either p lling the "ater ndergro nd *groundwater+ or across the s r&ace *runoff+. 'n either event, gravity contin es to p ll "ater lo"er and lo"er ntil it reaches the oceans *in most cases. the -reat $alt /a#e, Dead $ea, Caspian $ea, and other s ch depressions may also serve as the lo"est !asin into "hich "ater can !e dra"n+. 0ro1en "ater may !e trapped in cooler regions o& the Earth *the poles, glaciers on mo ntaintops, etc.+ as sno" or ice, and may remain as s ch &or very long periods o& time. /a#es, ponds, and "etlands &orm "here "ater is temporarily trapped. The oceans are salty !eca se any "eathering o& minerals that occ rs as the "ater r ns to the ocean "ill add to the mineral content o& the "ater, ! t "ater cannot leave the oceans e(cept !y evaporation, and evaporation leaves the minerals !ehind. Th s, rain&all and sno"&all are comprised o& relatively clean "ater, "ith the e(ception o& poll tants *s ch as acids+ pic#ed p as the "aster &alls thro gh the atmosphere. Organisms play an important role in the "ater cycle. As yo #no", most organisms contain a signi&icant amo nt o& "ater * p to 234 o& their !ody "eight+. This "ater is not held &or any length o& time and moves o t o& the organism rather % ic#ly in most cases. Animals and plants lose "ater thro gh evaporation &rom the !ody s r&aces, and thro gh evaporation &rom the gas e(change str ct res *s ch as l ngs+. 'n plants, "ater is dra"n in at the roots and moves to the gas e(change organs, the leaves, "here it evaporates % ic#ly. This special case is called transpiration !eca se it is responsi!le &or so m ch o& the "ater that enters the atmosphere. 'n !oth plants and animals, the !rea#do"n o& car!ohydrates *s gars+ to prod ce energy *respiration+ prod ces !oth car!on dio(ide and "ater as "aste prod cts. ,hotosynthesis reverses this reaction, and "ater and car!on dio(ide are com!ined to &orm
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car!ohydrates. :o" yo nderstand the relevance o& the term car!ohydrate. it re&ers to the com!ination o& car!on and "ater in the s gars "e call carbohydrates.

Carbon Cycle Once yo nderstand the "ater cycle, the carbon cycle is relatively simple. 0rom a !iological perspective, the #ey events here are the complementary reactions o& respiration and photosynthesis. Respiration ta#es car!ohydrates and o(ygen and com!ines them to prod ce car!on dio(ide, "ater, and energy. ,hotosynthesis ta#es car!on dio(ide and "ater and prod ces car!ohydrates and o(ygen. The o tp ts o& respiration are the inp ts o& photosynthesis, and the o tp ts o& photosynthesis are the inp ts o& respiration. The reactions are also complementary in the "ay they deal "ith energy. ,hotosynthesis ta#es energy &rom the s n and stores it in the car!on-car!on !onds o& car!ohydrates. respiration releases that energy. Both plants and animals carry on respiration , ! t only plants *and other prod cers+ can carry on photosynthesis. On land and in the "ater, plants ta#e p car!on dio(ide and convert it into car!ohydrates thro gh photosynthesis. This car!on in the plants no" has 3 possi!le &ates. 't can !e li!erated to the atmosphere !y the plant thro gh respiration. it can !e eaten !y an animal, or it can !e present in the plant "hen the plant dies. Animals o!tain all their car!on in their &ood, and, th s, all car!on in !iological systems ltimately comes &rom plants *a totrophs+. 'n the animal, the car!on also has the same 3 possi!le &ates. Car!on &rom plants or animals that is released to the atmosphere thro gh respiration "ill either !e ta#en p !y a plant in photosynthesis or dissolved in the oceans. )hen an animal or a plant dies, ; things can happen to the car!on in it. 't can !oth !e respired !y decomposers *and released to the atmosphere+, or it can !e ! ried intact and ltimately &orm coal, oil, or nat ral gas *&ossil & els+. The &ossil & els can !e mined and ! rned in the & t re. releasing car!on dio(ide to the atmosphere. Other"ise, the car!on in limestone or other sediments can only !e released to the atmosphere "hen they are s ! d cted and !ro ght to volcanoes, or "hen they are p shed to the s r&ace and slo"ly "eathered a"ay. < mans have a great impact on the car!on cycle !eca se "hen "e ! rn &ossil & els "e release e(cess car!on dio(ide into the atmosphere. This means that more car!on dio(ide goes into the oceans, and more is present in the atmosphere. The latter condition ca ses glo!al "arming, !eca se the car!on dio(ide in the atmosphere allo"s more energy to reach the Earth &rom the s n than it allo"s escaping &rom the Earth into space. The Oxygen Cycle: '& yo loo# !ac# at the car!on cycle, yo "ill see that "e have also descri!ed the oxygen cycle, since these atoms o&ten are com!ined. O(ygen is present in the car!on dio(ide, in the car!ohydrates, in "ater, and as a molec le o& t"o o(ygen atoms. O(ygen is released to the atmosphere !y a totrophs d ring photosynthesis and ta#en p !y !oth a totrophs and heterotrophs d ring respiration. 'n &act, all o& the o(ygen in the atmosphere is biogenic. that is, it "as released &rom "ater thro gh photosynthesis !y a totrophs. 't too# a!o t ; !illion years &or a totrophs *mostly cyanobacteria+ to raise the o(ygen content o& the atmosphere to the ;=4 that it is today. this opened the door &or comple( organisms s ch as m lticell lar animals, "hich need a lot o& o(ygen.

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The Nitrogen Cycle:

The nitrogen cycle is one o& the most di&&ic lt o& the cycles to learn, simply !eca se there are so many important &orms o& nitrogen, and !eca se organisms are responsi!le &or each o& the inter conversions. Remem!er that nitrogen is critically important in &orming the amino portions o& the amino acids "hich in t rn &orm the proteins o& yo r !ody. ,roteins ma#e p s#in and m scle, among other important str ct ral portions o& yo r !ody, and all en1ymes are proteins. $ince en1ymes carry o t almost all o& the chemical reactions in yo r !ody, it>s easy to see ho" important nitrogen is. The chie& reservoir o& nitrogen is the atmosphere, "hich is a!o t ?94 nitrogen. :itrogen gas in the atmosphere is composed o& t"o nitrogen atoms !o nd to each other. 't is a pretty non-reactive gas. it ta#es a lot o& energy to get nitrogen gas to !rea# p and com!ine "ith other things, s ch as car!on or o(ygen. Nitrogen gas *:;+ can !e ta#en &rom the atmosphere *&i(ed+ in t"o !asic "ays. 0irst, lightning provides eno gh energy to @! rn@ the nitrogen and &i( it in the &orm o& nitrate NO!", "hich is nitrogen "ith three o(ygen attached. This process is d plicated in &ertili1er &actories to prod ce nitrogen &ertili1ers. Biology =3= st dents "ill also recall the e(periments o& #tanley $iller, "ho sed electrical discharges to sho" ho" nitrogen in the Earth>s early atmosphere might have com!ined to &orm amino acids. The other &orm o& nitrogen &i(ation is !y nitrogen &i(ing !acteria, "ho se special en1ymes instead o& the e(treme amo nt o& energy &o nd in lightning to &i( nitrogen. These nitrogen%fixing bacteria come in three &orms5 some are free%living in the soil. some &orm sym!iotic, m t alistic associations "ith the roots o& !ean plants and other leg mes *rhi&obia bacteria+. and the third &orm o& nitrogen-&i(ing !acteria are the photosynthetic cyanobacteria *!l e-green algae+ "hich are &o nd most commonly in "ater. All o& these &i(

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nitrogen, either in the &orm o& nitrate or in the &orm o& ammonia *:< 3+ *nitrogen "ith 3 or A hydrogen attached, depending on the p<+. Bost plants can ta#e p nitrate and convert it to amino acids. 'nimals ac(uire almost all of their amino acids when they eat plants *or other animals+. )hen plants or animals die *or release "aste+ the nitrogen is ret rned to the soil. The s al &orm o& nitrogen ret rned to the soil in animal "astes or in the o tp t o& the decomposers, is ammonia. Ammonia is rather toxic, ! t, &ort nately there are nitrite bacteria in the soil and in the "ater "hich ta#e p ammonia and convert it to nitrite *:O ;+, "hich is nitrogen "ith t"o o(ygen. :itrite is also some"hat to(ic, ! t another type o& !acteria, nitrate bacteria, ta#es nitrite and converts it to nitrate, "hich can be ta)en up by plants to continue the cycle* We now have a cycle set up in the soil or water", but what returns nitrogen to the air+ ,t turns out that there are denitri&ying !acteria "hich ta#e the nitrate and com!ine the nitrogen !ac# into nitrogen gas. The nitrogen cycle has some important practical considerations, as anyone "ho has ever set p a salt"ater &ish tan# has &o nd o t. 't ta#es several "ee#s to set p s ch a tan#, !eca se yo m st have s &&icient n m!ers o& nitrite and nitrate !acteria present to deto(i&y the ammonia prod ced !y the &ish and decomposers in the tan#. Other"ise, the ammonia levels in the tan# "ill ! ild p and #ill the &ish. This is s ally not a pro!lem in &resh"ater tan#s &or t"o reasons. One, the p< in a &resh"ater tan# is at a di&&erent level than in a salt"ater tan#. At the p< o& a &resh"ater tan#, ammonia is not as to(ic. $econd, there are more m lticell lar plant &orms that can gro" in &resh"ater, and these plants remove the ammonia &rom the "ater very e&&iciently. 't is hard to get eno gh plants gro"ing in a salt"ater tan# to deto(i&y the "ater in the same "ay. The -hosphorous Cycle The phosphorous cycle is the simplest o& the cycles that "e "ill e(amine *' li#e to save the simplest &or the last sometimes. it>s li#e a cool-do"n period a&ter a long r n+. 0or o r p rposes, phosphoro s has only one &orm, phosphate -O.", "hich is a phosphoro s atom "ith A o(ygen atoms. This heavy molec le never ma#es its "ay into the atmosphere. it is al"ays part o& an organism, dissolved in "ater, or in the &orm o& roc#. )hen roc# "ith phosphate is e(posed to "ater *especially "ater "ith a little acid in it+, the roc# is "eathered o t and goes into sol tion. A totrophs ta#e this phosphoro s p and se it in a variety o& "ays. 't is an important constit ent o& cell mem!ranes, D:A, R:A, and, o& co rse 'T-, "hich, a&ter all, stands &or adenosine triphosphate. <eterotrophs *animals+ o!tain their phosphoro s &rom the plants they eat, altho gh one type o& heterotroph, the & ngi, e(cel at ta#ing p phosphoro s and may &orm m t alistic sym!iotic relationships "ith plant roots. These relationships are called mycorrhizae. the plant gets phosphate &rom the & ng s and gives the & ng s s gars in ret rn. Animals, !y the "ay, may also se phosphoro s as a component o& !ones, teeth and shells. )hen animals or

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plants die *or "hen animals de&ecate+, the phosphate may !e ret rned to the soil or "ater !y the decomposers. There, it can !e ta#en p !y another plant and sed again. This cycle "ill occ r over and over ntil at least the phosphoro s is lost at the !ottom o& the deepest parts o& the ocean, "here it !ecomes part o& the sedimentary roc#s &orming there. Cltimately, this phosphoro s "ill !e released i& the roc# is !ro ght to the s r&ace and "eathered. T"o types o& animals play a ni% e role in the phosphoro s cycle. < mans o&ten mine roc# rich in phosphoro s. 0or instance, in 0lorida, "hich "as once sea &loor, there are extensive phosphate mines. The phosphate is then sed as &ertili1er. This mining o& phosphate and se o& the phosphate as &ertili1er greatly accelerates the phosphoro s cycle and may ca se local overa! ndance o& phosphoro s, partic larly in coastal regions, at the mo ths o& rivers, and anyplace "here there is a lot o& se"age released into the "ater *the phosphate placed on crops &inds its "ay into o r stomachs and &rom there to o r toilets+. /ocal a! ndance o& phosphate can ca se overgro"th o& algae in the "ater. the algae can se p all the o(ygen in the "ater and #ill other a% atic li&e. This is called eutrophication. The other animals that play a ni% e role in the phosphoro s cycle are marine !irds. These !irds ta#e phosphoro s containing &ish o t o& the ocean and ret rn to land, "here they de&ecate. Their guano contains high levels o& phosphoro s and in this "ay marine !irds ret rn phosphoro s &rom the ocean to the land. The g ano is o&ten mined and may &orm the !asis o& the economy in some areas.

A tecology D $ynecology
Both plant and animal ecology may !e approached as the st dy o& the interrelations o& an individ al organism "ith its environment *autecology+, or as the st dy o& gro ps o& organisms *synecology+. 'n many "ays, autecology is the classical st dy o& ecology, "hich is e(perimental and ind ctive. Beca se a tecology is s ally concerned "ith the relationship o& an organism to one or more varia!les li#e h midity, light, salinity or n trient levels, it is easily % anti&ied and lends itsel& to e(perimental design !oth in the la!oratory and in the &ield. A tecology has, there&ore, !orro"ed e(perimental techni% es &rom physics, chemistry and physiology. #ynecology is philosophical and ded ctive in nat re. 't is largely descriptive and not easily % anti&ied. $ome o& the important concepts developed !y synecology are those concerned "ith n trient cycles, energy ! dgets and ecosystem developments. $ynecology has strong ties "ith geology, meteorology and c lt ral anthropology. $ynecology may !e s !divided according to environmental types, e.g., terrestrial or a% atic ecology. Terrestrial ecology may!e & rther s !divided into &orest, grassland, desert and arctic ecology. 't concerns "ith s ch aspects o& terrestrial ecosystems as microclimate, soil chemistry, soil &a na, hydrologic cycles, Eco genetics and prod ctivity. Terrestrial ecosystems are more in&l enced !y organism and arc s !ject to m ch "ider environmental &l ct ations than a% atic ecosystems. Beca se the physical environment is so important in controlling the a% atic ecosystem, considera!le attention is paid to the chemical and physical characteristics o& the ecosystem, s ch as the c rrent and the chemical composition o& the "ater. By convention, a% atic ecology *#no"n as limnology+ is limited to stream ecology and la#e ecology. $tream ecology concerns li&e in&lo"ing

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"aters, "hile la#e ecology deals "ith li&e in relatively still "ater. Barine ecology, on the other hand, concerns li&e in open seas and est aries

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