WRITTEN REPORT CHAPTER 7: GEOLOGY and CHAPTER 8: DIASTROPISM

GROUP 5: Lusanta, Roland C. Malco, Cristy Gaile Maliwat, Shaira Mae B. Manalad, Rizzelle Allyona Mangana, Joan WHAT IS A ROCK? A rock is naturally formed mixture containing minerals, rock fragments, or volca nic glass bound together. Most rocks contain crystals of minerals that may or ma y not be well formed. Rocks are identified by their composition and texture. The texture of a rock describes the size, shape, and arrangement of the rock s com ponents. The rock-making process is a continuous cycle. Part of this cycle invol ves rock formed from magma inside Earth. ROCKS FROM SURFACE MATERIALS Recall that rock is a mixture of minerals. Some of these minerals could be in bi ts and pieces of other rocks. Such small bits and pieces are called clasts. The word clast is from the Greek klastos which means broken . TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION Mechanical weathering occurs when physical forces break rocks into smallest clas ts. For example, collisions between rocks cause mechanical weathering. Gravity, wind, flowing water, and moving ice can carry clasts to new locations. As clasts are transported they grind against each other and other hard objects in their e nvironment. This grinding can cause clasts to become rounded. COMPACTION Eventually, clasts can form sedimentary rocks. After clasts are formed, transpor tation and deposition can cause clasts to be buried low areas. As more material is deposited in an area, clasts become buried deeper. The pressure on the bottom layers continues to increase, due to the increasing weight of the material abov e these layers. This pressure causes clasts to be forced together reducing the p ore space and causing the clasts to stick together. The process by which clasts stick together by being pushed together is called compaction. In contrast to the formation of clasts, which occurs at Earth s surface, compaction occurs beneath E arth s surface. CEMENTATION Water moving between clasts carries dissolved minerals that can act as cement. C ommon minerals that cement clasts together include quartz, calcite, hematite, an d clay minerals. Under certain conditions these minerals slowly precipitate out of water and fill spaces between clasts. This process is called cementation. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous Rocks are form from magma, molten rock within the Earth or from lava. Contrary to popular misconceptions, magma does not come from the center of the E arth nor is the Earth s interior entirely molten. Instead magma exists in small po ckets, or magma chambers, a few kilometers in diameter usually 50 km or less bel ow the surface. During explosive eruptions particles collectively known as pyroclastic materials are discharged. Much of this material is quite small and is designated as ash, but much longer volcanic bombs are erupted. COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks form from three types of magma-granitic magma, basaltic magma, or andesitic magma. Igneous rocks are classified into three groups-granitic rocks, basaltic rocks, a

nd andesitic rocks. 1. Granitic rocks include rocks, such as granite, that contain the minerals quar tz, potassium feldspar, mica, and hornblende. Rocks in the granitic group have l ow densities and are abundant in continental crust. 2. Basaltic rocks contain the minerals plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivi ne. These rocks are denser than those in the granitic group and form much of the oceanic crust. 3. Andesitic rocks have compositions intermediate between granitic and basaltic rocks. CATEGORIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS a. Volcanic rocks which solidify from lava and are generally. Volcanic rocks con tain cavities known as vesicles because they cool on the surface where pressure is low and gas bubbles can expand as lava rises to the surface. b. Plutonic rocks- Plutonic rocks rarely contain vesicles, because they cool dee p in the crust where pressure is high and gas bubbles cannot expand easily. Masses if igneous rocks that have hardened within the Earth are called intrusion s. Different rocks form from granitic or basaltic magmas, depending on how quickly the magma cools. * Coarse-grained granite and fine-grained rhyolite both form from granitic magma s. * Coarse-grained gabbro and fine grained basalt both form from basaltic magmas. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary Rocks collectively known as weathering attack rocks at or near the s urface, dissolving some materials and disintegrating solid rock into fragments. In the older deeper layers a cementation process, aided by the pressure of the u pper layers changes the sediment into solid, rock called sedimentary rock. All materials carried by a river such as sand, gravel, rock chips and mud are kn own as sediments. As sediments finally drop to the bottom and new layers are dep osited over old ones, the lower layers begin to harden. Sand is defined by size, not by composition. Sand doesn t even have to be made fro m rock material; it can be made from shells. THREE IMPORTANT KINDS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS a. Limestone chief ingredient is calcite (CaCO3), the calcium of which probably once was part of the shells and skeletons of countless tiny water animals. b. Sandstone is formed by grains of the sand becoming cemented together over a l ong period of time. This rock is frequently reddish in color, due to the oxides of iron it contains. c. Shale is formed from deposits of clay and silt. The color of shale is usually gray it is sometimes black or dull red. Shale is brittle and easily broken into thin plates. METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic Rock - When igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to further u pheavals and renewed pressure and heat, they metamorphous or change into a diffe rent kind of rocks with different physical and chemical characteristics. These r ocks become what is known as metamorphic rocks. THE TWO MAIN TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS 1. Foliated rocks tend to split into layers. * Shale, a sedimentary rock can be changed to slate which is foliated metamorphi c rock. 2. Unfoliated rocks do not form layers. * Limestone another sedimentary rock can be changed to marble which is an unfoli ated metamorphic rock. ROCK CYCLE The rock cycle is a way to summarize the relationship among the 3 classification s of rocks. The cycle begins with molten rock from the Earth s interior invading t he crust and hardening to form igneous rocks. * The igneous rock in turn are eventually exposed at the surface by erosion and attacked by weathering. * The weathered rock fragments are carried by streams and rivers to a lake or th

e sea and deposited in layers, which harden to form sedimentary rocks. * These sedimentary rocks may later be buried deeply enough that they are change d by hear and pressure into metamorphic rocks. The heating may actually melt part of the rock, creating a new generation of ign eous rocks and starting the cycle anew. The rock cycle is a continual process in which rocks change from one type to ano ther. MINERALS Minerals are substances, found in the lithosphere which has a uniform chemical c omposition and which was never living thing. Only those that do not originate from living things are considered to be mineral s. They are found in soil, in rocks and crystals. 10% of them make up the earth s crust. WHAT IS A MINERAL? A mineral is a naturally occurring element or compound that is inorganic, solid, and has a crystalline structure. Inorganic means that minerals are materials th at are not produced by living organisms. The compositions of minerals are indica ted by their chemical formulas. MINERAL FORMATION A mineral crystal grows as atoms are added to its surfaces, edges, or corners. T he types of atoms that are added depend on the atoms in the growing crystal s surr oundings growth also is controlled by how fast atoms can migrate to the crystal and by the temperature and pressure of the surroundings. Mineral crystals can form in different ways. One way is by precipitation from ho t water-rich fluids. Another way is by solidification from molten rock. A third way is by the evaporation of water rich in dissolved salts at low temperatures n ear Earth s surface. Minerals are compounds or group of closely related compounds and nearly all cont ain oxygen. MINERALS FROM HOT WATER Some minerals are produced from hot-water solutions containing dissolved mineral matter. As hot water cools, its atoms slow down and atoms of dissolved material s are able to form chemical bonds. Minerals often form around the edges of hot s prings, as shown. When hot water passes through cracks in cooler rock, minerals may form within the cracks. The cracks become lined and filled with mineral matt er. Sometimes, veins or halos of concentrated minerals like gold, silver, or cop per are produced in fractures. MINERALS FROM MAGMA Molten rock material found inside Earth is called magma. As magma cools, atoms s low down and begin to arrange into an orderly structure. When the temperature of magma drops well below the solidification temperature of mineral, crystals of t hat particular mineral may form and grow. PROPERTIES OF MINERALS 1. Solubility is a way of separating them. Minerals which are soluble in H2O are CH, SO4-2, NO3. Those relatively insoluble are silicates, quartz, and metal ore s. 2. Color the impurities are responsible for the differences in color of minerals . Garnet reddish pyrite yellowish, copper ores can also be identified with reliabi lity by their color. 3. Luster shiny appearance. Some dark and opaque minerals such as graphite have a metallic luster. Lighter colored minerals with transparent edges such as diamonds, have a nonmeta llic luster. 4. Density the mark, or streak that a mineral makes when it is rubbed across an unglazed porcelain plate. Galena, has a lead gray streak, malachite, a copper or e has a light green streak. 5. Shape Because every mineral has a definite crystal structure, it has a charac teristic shape.

6. Hardness minerals differ in hardness, and a scale has been divised for the pu rpose. The softest minerals have a hardness of I, while the hardest is on the sc ale of 10. MINERAL FORMATION A mineral crystal grows as atoms are added to its surfaces, edges, or corners. T he types of atoms that are added depend on the atoms in the growing crystal s surr oundings. Growth also is controlled by how fast atoms can migrate to the crystal and by the temperature and pressure of the surroundings. MINERAL CRYSTALS CAN FORN IN DIFFERENT WAYS 1. One way is by precipitation from hot water-rich fluids. 2. Another way is by solidification from molten rock. 3. A third way is by the evaporation of water rich in dissolved salts at low tem peratures near Earth s surface. Silicate Minerals other metal atoms can attach to the oxygen atoms. Most silicat e minerals contain silicon, oxygen, and one or more other elements. MINERAL USES Humans have relied on minerals for their everyday needs, for example, humans hav e always needed salt. Think of the exploration and conflicts that took place ove r gold. Europeans spent vast sums of money and risked many lives to search for g old. For centuries, humans have relied on minerals for their everyday needs, for example, humans have always needed salt. Civilizations have advanced themselves through the use of their mineral wealth. Think of the exploration and conflicts that took place over gold. Europeans spen t vast sums of money and risked many lives to search for gold. People use minera ls either directly as objects of wealth, or as raw materials to make things. Tho se regions fortunate enough to have large quantities of hematite, iron ore, adva nced rapidly. Think of all of the things made from iron and steel. Without iron there would be no machinery as we know today for manufacturing goods. Not all mi nerals need to provide metals to be valuable. Nonmetallic minerals are valuable as well. For example, quartz is used to make glass and glass fibers. Glass fiber is used to make fiber optical cables. Most sands and gravels are largely quartz . When mixed with cement (calcite), quartz is used to make concrete. Think of al l the things that are made of concrete. WEATHERING The rocks and other materials that make up Earth s surface are constantly changing chemical, physical, and biological processes are continually acting on these ma terials. These processes cause physical changes and chemical changes to occur. A physical change occurs when size or shape of an object changes. A chemical chan ge occurs when the chemical compounds that make up a material change. Processes at Earth s surface cause both chemical and physical changes to occur in the rocks. Rocks formed beneath Earth s surface are broken apart when exposed to conditions on Earth s surface. MECHANICAL WEATHERING Mechanical weathering occurs when rocks are broken into smaller pieces without c hanging their chemical composition. Physical forces exerted on rocks cause mecha nical weathering to occur. These forces can be cause by collisions when rocks fa ll from a cliff or roll down a slope. Other processes, including frost wedging a nd biological activity cab exert forces that break rocks into smaller pieces. FROST WEDGING Rocks on Earth s surface can be broken apart by frost wedging. Frost wedging occur s when water collects in the cracks in a rock and then freezes. When the water f reezes, it expands and pushes the crack apart. When the water melts and then fre ezes again, the crack is pushed farther apart. After a number of freeze-thaw cyc les, the crack can become large enough to break the rock. CHEMICAL WEATHERING Chemical weathering is the breakup of rocks caused by chemical reactions that fo rm new minerals and other materials. Chemical weathering is cause mainly by chem ical reactions of rocks with water, oxygen, and naturally occurring acids. The p rocess of chemical weathering produces chemical compounds that are released into the environment. Some of these compounds are nutrients that plants need to grow

. When iron-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded, they often produce reddish sed iment. Iron oxidation also can give some soils a reddish color.

CHAPTER 8: DIATROPHISM Diastrophism Since the beginning of time, various forces have been active in molding, tearing down, and rebuilding the surface of the earth running water, moving ice, winds, ocean currents wave action and gravity have been shifting around the surface ma terials. Such crustal adjustment is called Diastrrophism, which implies widespread earth movement. Land Divisions of the Earth a. The elevation and depression have divided the earth into continents and ocean basins. These two major divisions are called first-order features of the earth. b. The continents are subdivided into plains, plateus and mountains which in tur n called second-order features. c. The smaller features which develop on the plains, plateus and mountains are c alled the third-order features. They include river, valleys, gullies, talus slop e, moraines. Plains Plain is a region of horizontal rock structure in a low relief. The rocks which make up a plain are nearly horizontal or flat and the valleys in this region are shallow. Kinds of P lains 1. Coastal Sediments KINDS CHARACTERISTICS may Plains OF deposited be PLAINS LOCATIONon a continental shelf, bordering a continent, it may Eastern be lifted Atlantic out of the sea, in the course of time. Gulf 2. Are Lake Lacustrine generally Coast of fertile Agassiz the United because States large sediments are deposited after glaciation Lake Manitoba in Canada Lake 3. Has Lower 4. Large Mississippi 5. Plains Flood Delta Glacial alluvial Ontario Mississippi amount areas Plains (till) river in sediments deposits of formed New river Plains York from carried loose are deposited by unconsolidated runningnear water the scraping mouth of mineral the river material which 6. Ice result Loess sheet sheets in Plains across horizontal which New York melted structure carrying and Newrock Jersey fragments, soil, and rock powder which eve ntually Tennessee, 7. If Peneplanes an elevated formed Arkansas, broad, land surface and thick China sheets is wornof down fine nearly wind-blown to base glacial level the or flour agents of eros Eastern New Jersey ion Plateaus A plateaus also has horizontal structure, but it has high relief and high eleva tion. The Colorado Plateaus is a simple uplift of land originally covered by water, s uch plateau has been exposed to erosion for longer time, and later divide into h alls and ridges. Lava Plateau is formed by outpouing of fluid lava which built up thick layers o f igneous rock. Mountains Mountain is defined as regions of disturbed rock structure which shows a bent an d folded structure. The rock layers are horizontal. Others were squeezed, folded , broken, infected and displaced as the earth s crust adjusted to the stresses. Types of Mountain Formations 1. The anticline formed an upward fold, 2. A syncline is a downwarped Layers of rock of one side of a fault may either lift upward or slip downward. I f the movement is considerable, mountains will form. A normal fault where the fault lines vertical is shown in the picture on the lef t. Vertical fault lines are rare, however, and fault lines are usually at an ang le from the vertical, the earth on one side being above the fault line.

If the angle of the fault line is not too extreme, thrust-fault mountains. This type of mountains is known, as fault-black mountains whch is form when a block of the Earth s crust between two fault lines is tilted an pushed upward. Volcanoes A volcano appears when extreme heat and pressure deep in the earth forces the la va to escape upward through the earth s crust. Classification of Volcanoes A. Active is defined as one which ha erupted within historic times such that acc ounts of this eruption were documented by man. B. Inactive/ Dormant if the volcano has not erupted within historic times and i ts form is beginning to be changed by the agents of weathering and erosion. C. Volcanic Eruptions it is the process wherein volcanic materials (lava, pyroc lasts, and volcanic gases) are emitted or ejected at the earth s surface from a cr ater or central vent or from a fissure. Methods of Prognostication 1. Geophysical Methods a. Seismographs are sensitive instruments that record earthquakes, placed ne ar volcanoes. They can detect ground motion caused by the movement of magma with in the volcano. b. Temperature measurements regular temperature measurements are conducted t o detect variations in the thermal character offumaroles hot springs and crater lakes. c. Magnetic surveys Rocks lose their magnetic properties when heated. A decr ease in the magnetic intensity of rocks suggest impending eruption 2. Geodetic Method a. EDM or electronic distance meter is high precision device that can measu re distance to the nearest millimeter. b. Tiltmeters are devices used to detect direction of ground deformation. 3. Geochemical Methods Geochemical analysis of volcanic waters, gases and rocks is also a tool for prog nostication. The changes maybe a deviaton from the normal pH of H2O, condensates or leachates; increase in the molecular/ionic concentration of silica, chloride , sulfate, sodium, hydrogen sulfide. Philippine V olcanoes 1. Mayonup to around Reaches Geology Feature 2,462 m above sea level and covers an area of 250 sq. Km. I ts circumference has a composite cone. is 62.8 It consists km. of deposits formed basically by four major typ es Taal 2. World of vocanic s lowestactivity volcanoes covering an area of 23 sq. Km. surrounded by fresh body o fhas H2Oaabout tuft cone, 2 meters consist aboveof sea moderately level andconsoidated 127 sq. Km.ash area beds with varying amount s of coarser fragments composed of at least 35 cones, coalesced by several erupt Located at the south central part of Sorsogon Province. It has a surface are of 3.Bulusan ions. 400asq. Is composite Km. Andvolcano towers and about is1,559 madfem. upAbove of lava seaflows level. and domes. It is flanked by Located 4.Canlaon tertiary inand thequarternary north central andesitic position cones. of Negros. It has a maximum elevation of 2 435 m andof Consists a multitude basal diameter of craters of30 km. and parasitic cones aligned linearly with an ol deracraters Is 5.HibokHibok composite in volcano the central located portion. at the north-western end of Camiguin Island. At p resent Has a Pelsean the Volcano type of haseruption manifested considered certain to activity. be one of the most dangerous. Earthquakes An earthquake is the sudden movement or vibration of the ground that occurs when rocks slip along enormous cracks in earth s crust. When the compression stresses exceed the mechanical strength of the rocks a rupt ure occurs which give rise to seismic waves. Classifications of Earthquakes A. Natural Earthquakes a. Tectonic earthquakes are those which originate generally with in 15 to 40 kil ometers below the earth s surface. Most of the earthquake that occur are tectonic in origin. b. Plutonic earthquake- are those that originate deep in the bowels of the earth c. Volcanic earthquakes- are triggered by fracturing of rocks by rising magma/la va or by upward flow of the magma itself.

B. Artificial earthquake- are on the other hand caused by man such as detonation of explosives, filling of certain lake- reservoirs, injection of water into dee p wells or the exploitation of oil and gas deposits. Epicenter is a point on the earth s surface situated nearest to where the earthqua ke exactly originated. Charles F. Richter, an American seismologist, devised or scale for expressing th e total energy released by an earthquake following the suggestion of H.O wood. I n 1935, Richter proposed a magnitude scale which is an open-ended scale of 1 to 9. This scale is the now famous and internationally used Richter Scale. Tsunamis They are giant sea waves generated by under the sea earthquake and volcanic erup tions. They can only occur when the earthquake is shallow-seated and strong enou gh to displace parts of the sealed and disturb the mass of water over it.