8ehablllLauon des sLrucLures

ur. Lmlllo 8AS1luAS-A81LACA

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emall : emlllo.basudas[unlv-nanLes-fr
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2013-2014
MasLer 2 Cenle Clvll opuon 12M
Crganlsauon du module
Lmplol du Lemps
13h30 - 14h43 cours
14h43 - 13h00 pause
13h00 - 16h13 cours
16h13 - 16h30 pause
16h30 - 17h43 cours
MaLerlel
resenLauons
llchlers excel
noLes de cours
LecLures -> Madoc
lnLervenanLs -> L. 8asudas-ArLeaga eL l. Schoefs

2
lnLroducuon
3
1emps (annees)
l
l
a
b
l
l
l
L
e

lnl

Lh

30-73 20-30
Acuons redulsanL la
duree de vle
8eparauon ou malnLenance
llablllLe/capaclLe de servlce d'ouvrages en envlronnemenLs agresslfs
ll y a des mecanlsmes de degradauon propres a chaque maLerlau :
8eLon arme
Acler
8ols
ConsLrucuons mlxLes

Acuons redulsanL la duree de vle des sLrucLures en 8A
4
ChargemenL
consLanL
ChargemenL
cycllque
Acuons d'orlglne
foncuonnel
PauLes
LemperaLures
> 100 C
Auaque par
des acldes eL
des bases
Acuons d'orlglne
envlronnemenLal
L'enLree des
chlorures
L'enLree du
CC
2

varlauon de
LemperaLure
resence des
organlsmes
varlauon de
l'humldlLe
Congelauon
eL degel
Selsmes
L'alcall-
reacuon
Lrreurs en la
concepuon eL en la
consLrucuon
Corroslon laugue
erLe
d'adherence
llssurauon
du beLon
lluage
deslnLegrauon
du beLon
lnLroducuon
3
1emps (annees)
l
l
a
b
l
l
l
L
e

lnl

Lh

30-73 20-30
Acuons redulsanL la
duree de vle
8eparauon ou malnLenance
llablllLe/capaclLe de servlce d'ouvrages en envlronnemenLs agresslfs
roblemes avec la malnLenance de sLrucLures vlellllssanLes :
ll n'y pas des modeles ables -
ueLermlner la performance pendanL la duree de vle eL
Cholslr des sLraLegles de malnLenance opumales
A presenL - reparauons correcuves onL lleu lorsque des slgnes de degradauon Lres lmporLanLs
apparalssalenL
Les frals de reparauon ne peuvenL pas s'anuclper
La ablllLe/capaclLe de servlce peuvenL Lre aecLees lorsque les reparauons n'onL pas eu
lleu aux momenLs les plus proplces

Crganlsauon du module
ConLenu

0. lnLroducuon

1. uegradauon de sLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon

2. MeLhodes sLandard de malnLenance

3. MeLhodes lnnovanLes d'opumlsauon

4. MeLhodes de loglclel experL

3. uegradauon des reseaux v8u



6
- Mecanlsmes de degradauon
- Modeles de degradauon eL
malnLenance
- lnceruLudes approches
ablllsLes
- 1echnlques de reparauon
- CoLs
- normes
1. uegradauon de sLrucLures en 8A
soumlses a la corroslon
eneLrauon des chlorures
CarbonaLauon
lnLroducuon
8
SLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon lndulLe par la peneLrauon des chlorures
lnLroducuon
9
Cuesuons of Lhe owners/operaLors:
Pow much chlorlde lngress wlll aecL sLrucLural lnLegrlLy?
Pow and when lnspecuon and repalr should be underLaken?
Pow Lo deLermlne a susLalnable malnLenance sLraLegy?
uuree de vle de sLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon par chlorures
LLapes de la duree de vle
10
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d c
Temps
t
ini

D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

1. Immunit la corrosion
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d
c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface corr. (A
a
)
2. Corrosion Active
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface Corr (A
a
)
d
3. Corrosion aprs une
fissuration du bton svre
uuree de vle de sLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon par chlorures
LLapes du cycle de vle
1. lmmunlLe a la corroslon
2. Corroslon acuve
3. Corroslon apres une ssurauon severe du beLon
11
lnuence sur la ablllLe
Sous les hypoLheses sulvanLes : (l) mllleu saLure eL
seml-lnnl, (ll) concenLrauon des chlorures a la
surface consLanLe eL (lll) ) !
"#
= 0 a $ = 0 , ll esL
posslble d'obLenlr une soluuon analyuque :

Avec :
!
%
= concenLrauon des chlorures a la surface
erf() = foncuon d'erreur
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
LnLree des chlorures - probleme de dluslon (Lol de llck)
Avec :
!
"#
= ConcenLrauon des chlorures llbres a l'lnLerleur du beLon
$ = Lemps
&
#
= CoemclenL de dluslon des chlorures eecuf
' = profondeur

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
12
Ce modele depend prlnclpalemenL de deux varlables
C
s
depend prlnclpalemenL des condluons d'exposluon de l'ouvrage : proxlmlLe a la mer ou
quanuLe des sel de deverglaage appllquee. Ln amblances marlnes, McCee (2000) a propose
des valeurs de !
%
en foncuon de la dlsLance de la mer ( en km :
avec !
%
exprlmee en kg de Cl
-
/m
3
de beLon ou kg/m
3
.
!
%
peuL s'exprlmer en Lrols Lypes d'unlLes equlvalenLes : [kg/m
3
], [ masse du clmenL] ou [
de masse du beLon]. An de falre l'equlvalence, ll fauL connaiLre la quanuLe du clmenL par m
3

du beLon eL la masse volumlque du beLon )
*
.
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
13
82 4.5. Stochastic model for environmental chloride concentration
where
max
and
min
are respectively the maximum and minimum values taken by during one
year, t is expressed in years and bc represents the oor function i.e., bxc = max {n Z | n x}.
The eect of global warming is integrated into the stochastic model of weather by substituting
equation 4.23 into equation 4.12.
4.5 Stochastic model for environmental chloride concentration
Chloride ions that ingress into the concrete can come from two sources: sea water or de-icing salts.
This section presents the stochastic models used to simulate the chloride concentration in both
environments.
4.5.1 Exposure to chlorides from sea water
In maritime environments, the environmental chloride concentration depends principally on the
closeness to the sea, d. Based on a eld study of 1158 bridges in Australia (McGee, 2000), the
mean of the surface chloride concentration,
C
env
, can be computed as:

C
env
(d) =

2.95 for d < 0.1

1.15 1.81 log(d) for 0.1 d < 2.84
0.35 for d > 2.84
(4.24)
where d is expressed in km and
C
env
in kg/m
3
. By taking equation 4.24 to dene the mean,
the stochastic process representing C
env
is generated with uncorrelated log-normal uctuations
(noise). It is essential to precise that for both exposures (sea and de-icing salts) the models of
surface chloride concentration represent environmental chloride concentrations and not notional
surface concentrations (which appears from empirical models based on the solution of Ficks law)
(Val & Trapper, 2008). Since there is no information available on the coecient of variation (COV)
for environmental chloride concentrations, the COV used herein is based on previous probabilistic
studies which consider notional surface concentrations (Vu & Stewart, 2000; Duracrete, 2000).
Figure 4.5a presents some realizations of C
env
where the processes were generated by considering
three mean values of
C
env
: 2.95, 1.15 and 0.35 kg/m
3
which correspond to d < 0.1, d = 1 and
d = 2.84 km, respectively (equation 4.24); a COV of 0.20 was used for all these cases.
4.5.2 Exposure to chlorides from de-icing salts
Based on experimental measurements, the probabilistic models of exposure to de-icing salts in the
literature usually assume that C
env
remains constant all the time (Vu & Stewart, 2000; Duracrete,
2000). However, since the kinematics of chloride ingress change as function of weather conditions,
a modied model for de-icing salts exposure is adopted. This model considers the increase of
C
env
during cold seasons. Thus, the proposed model assumes that during hot seasons the mean of
chloride concentration in the surface is zero; and during cold seasons, it grows linearly from zero
to a maximum, C
max
env
, that corresponds to the minimum temperature, returning to zero at the
beginning of hot seasons (Figure 4.5b):

C
env
(t) =

0 for t < t
1
C
max
env
(t t
1
)/(t
2
t
1
) for t
1
t < t
2
C
max
env
[1 (t t
2
)/(t
2
t
1
)] for t
2
t < t
3
(4.25)
C
s
( d )
Lxemple de changemenL d'unlLes :

Lxprlmer une concenLrauon de chlorures de 2 [kg/m
3
] en [ masse du clmenL] eL [ de masse du
beLon] sachanL que :
le beLon a une masse volumlque de 2300 kg/m
3
eL
ll a eLe fabrlque avec 330 kg de clmenL par m
3
de beLon.

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
14
Ce modele depend prlnclpalemenL de deux varlables
&
#
depend prlnclpalemenL de la composluon du beLon. ll s'exprlme prlnclpalemenL en [10
-12
m
2
/s] ou plus raremenL en [mm
2
/annee]. Les unlLes dolvenL Lre conslsLanLes avec celles de
la profondeur ' eL le Lemps $.
uupraL (2007), synLheuse des valeurs pour plusleurs Lypes de beLons obLenus par plusleurs
auLeurs :

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
13
Only a few in-site surveys have been undertaken for
structures exposed to marine breezes. The data reported
in Tables 2a and 2b relate to pontoon piles in Japan [10],
bridge piles in Scotland [11] and bridge girders in Oregon
[12]. The altitude of the specimens extracted for measure-
ments lay between 2 m and 35 m above high water level
and the distance from sea front did not exceed 250 m. Only
data related to faces directly exposed to the sea wind have
been retained. The authors did not draw conclusions about
the statistical distributions.
The mean strengths of concrete observed lie between
20 MPa and 40 MPa, with w/c ratios varying from 0.45
to 0.7, which correspond to those of ordinary concrete
structures.
A constant surface chloride content is a commonly
accepted assumption in the case of structures exposed to
de-icing salts and is also well supported by experience [6].
A lognormal distribution of the surface chloride content
is taken in the present paper. The mean and coecient of
variation are 3.5 kg/m
3
and 0.6, respectively.
In a coastal zone, air-borne chlorides carried by the
wind accumulate on the concrete surface. This has been
appraised by several authors [10,1315] and such a hypoth-
esis is recommended in the Hetek Manual published by the
Danish Road Directorate [16]. According to the latter, a
signicant increase occurs in the surface concentration
between 1 year and 100 years of exposure to a marine
atmosphere. For ordinary concrete (without blended mate-
rials) with w/c = 0.5 the expected values are C
1
= 1.1% and
C
100
= 7.5% by mass of cement.
Uji [10] suggests resorting to a constant diusion ux on
the concrete surface provided that the environment remains
nearly constant. If the surface concentration increases with
the square root of time, the chloride content can be
expressed as
Cx; t 2F
0

t
pD
a
r
exp
x
2
4D
a
t

x
2

p
D
a
t
r
erfc
x
2

D
a
t
p

5
where F
0
is the diusion ux on the concrete surface (kg/
m
2
s).
A mean value of F
0
equal to 7.5 10
11
kg/m
2
s and a
coecient of variation of 0.6 have been proposed by
Stewart [17] derived from data obtained by Uji [10] and
Ohta [13]. A higher mean value of 3.5 10
10
kg/m
2
s is
adopted here. Introducing this value in Eq. (5) (with
D
a
= 1.3 10
12
m
2
/s) gives a surface concentration of
about 12 kg/m
3
, as has been reported by Cramer [12] after
40 years exposure time under very severe conditions. A
lognormal distribution was chosen for the diusion ux
with a coecient of variation of 0.6.
Chloride contents obtained from Eqs. (4) and (5) are
shown in Fig. 1 using data for a bridge studied by Cramer.
Recent outcomes from the survey performed by Castro
on concrete specimens exposed to the natural marine envi-
ronment of Yucatan [14] show that the chloride surface
concentration (and hence the diusion ux) decreases as
the distance from the coastline increases. The mean values
of the maximum surface concentration obtained after one
year of exposure from a set of specimens made with ordin-
ary concrete (twenty for each distance to sea front) were
8.3 kg/m
3
at 50 m, 2.9 kg/m
3
at 100 m and 2 kg/m
3
at
780 m. An average decrease of 20% at 200 m and 50% at
500 m can be proposed.
A signicant variation of the diusion coecient over
time has not been raised by the authors previously quoted
for measurements made on existing structures. However, as
concrete matures, additional hydration of cement and
interaction between chlorides and hydration products
Table 1b
Apparent diusion coecient (10
12
m
2
/s) for structures exposed to de-
icing salts
Reference Range Mean Coecient of
variation
Distribution
[9] 0.030.65 0.15 0.7 Lognormal
[6] 0.67.5 2 0.75 Lognormal
[7] 18.2 4.3 0.28 Lognormal
[8] 0.161.64 0.85 0.51 Gamma
Table 2a
Surface concentration (kg/m
3
) for structures exposed to marine breeze
Reference Range Mean Coecient of
variation
[10] 0.081.69 0.44 0.83
[11] 0.434.1 1.52 0.63
[12] 1.6717 9.75 0.51
Table 2b
Apparent diusion coecient ( 10
12
m
2
/s) for structures exposed to
marine breeze
Reference Range Mean Coecient of
variation
[11] 1.16.81 4.75 0.38
[12] 0.411.71 0.98 0.57
Fig. 1. Comparison of chloride concentrations.
F. Duprat / Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 16051616 1607
ueLermlnauon des parameLres !
%
eL &
#

rols sur caroues (!
%
eL &
#
)
Lssals de mlgrauon (&
,
)

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
16
profondeur
C
o
n
c
e
n
L
r
a
u
o
n

Mesure
Modele
!
%

loncuon d'erreur

Avec :
ou la foncuon d'erreur complemenLalre

Calcul numerlque (developpemenL serle enuere) :
rogrammes : excel, maLlab, maLhcad, abaques

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
17
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
18
lnluauon de la corroslon
1eneur crluque en chlorures pour l'lnluauon de la corroslon !
$-
[kg/m
3
] (uupraL, 2007) :





occur and consequently the diusion coecient is expected
to decrease. This decrease is particularly noticeable for con-
crete containing blended materials like y ash or silica fume
[18,19]. Nevertheless for ordinary concrete without blended
materials, it can be stated that the diusion coecient
remains nearly constant [20].
It is not straightforward to state the mean value of the
diusion coecient because of the scatter on the experi-
mental data, which underlines the inuence of many fac-
tors: cement content in concrete mix, weight and volume
percentages of cement paste and aggregates, w/c ratio,
and degree of cement hydration. Based on relationships
obtained from least squares regression among these fac-
tors, simplied models for determining the diusion coe-
cient have been proposed by Bentz [21] and Papadakis [22].
For an ordinary concrete mix, the outcomes of these mod-
els are 4.8 10
12
m
2
/s and 4.3 10
12
m
2
/s, respectively.
Such values of D
a
are close to the mean values reported
by Enright (see Table 1b) and by Wood (see Table 2b)
and also close to the value 3.9 10
12
m
2
/s provided by
the Hetek Manual for the same concrete mix. Unfortu-
nately statistical data on parameters involved in these mod-
els are very limited. Hence their utilization in the present
probabilistic approach is not envisaged.
In this work it was found convenient to propose three
mean values of the diusion coecient depending on the
quality of concrete and in compliance with available data:
10
12
m
2
/s for good quality concrete, 4 10
12
m
2
/s for
ordinary quality concrete and 7 10
12
m
2
/s for poor qual-
ity concrete. A lognormal distribution was chosen with a
coecient of variation of 0.7.
2.3. Critical chloride concentration
The corrosion of reinforcements is initiated when the
chloride content exceeds a threshold value that depassi-
vates the steel embedded in the concrete provided that suf-
cient moisture and oxygen are present. In a recent study
bringing together numerous data from dierent authors,
Alonso et al. [23] pointed out that the critical concentration
may lie within a large range, namely 0.23% by weight of
cement, or approximately 0.510 kg/m
3
with few values
up to 3 kg/m
3
. This range agrees with the survey by Glass
(0.172.5%) also combining numerous data [24]. The inu-
ence of several factors such as concrete mix proportions,
cement type, C
3
A content of cement, materials incorpo-
rated, w/c ratio, relative humidity, and temperature is
one reason for the lack of agreement among the measured
values. Another reason is the denition of the threshold
itself (stated from corrosion potential, visual inspection,
corrosion or galvanic current, or anodic polarization)
[23]. It is recognized that poor quality of concrete, i.e.
low cement content and/or high w/c ratio in the concrete
mix, tends to bring down the critical concentration.
Although accurate statistical distributions cannot be
derived from experimental data, some propositions are
reported in Table 3.
The mean values fall on either side of the value of
1.9 kg/m
3
provided by the Hetek Manual for an ordinary
concrete mix without blended materials.
Because of the wide scatter of the observed values, and
also as a consequence of the lack of consistent statistical
data, the use of a uniform distribution for the critical chlo-
ride concentration seems relevant. The mean of the distri-
bution was chosen so as to reect three concrete qualities
as described in Table 4.
3. Corrosion rate
Once the protective oxide layer around the reinforce-
ment bars has been broken down the corrosion is initiated
and occurs at a rate depending on moisture and oxygen
availability in the neighborhood of the rebars. The corro-
sion current has been recognized to be a suitable and rele-
vant indicator of the corrosion rate because it relates
directly to the corrosion penetration depth in the steel. In
the case of uniform corrosion, a corrosion current of
1 lA/cm
2
leads theoretically to a penetration depth of
11.6 lm/year [27]. From experimental investigations,
Gonzalez indicates that values of 13 lA/cm
2
are frequent
in active corrosion and equivalent to a penetration depth of
1133 lm/year [28]. Based on a survey by Yokozeki et al.
[29], Vu proposed an empirical expression for a constant
annual corrosion rate as a function of the depth of the rein-
forcements, which is related to the oxygen availability, and
the w/c ratio, which is related to the moisture, and are more
convenient to use [30]
I
corr
1
3:781 w=c
1:64
d
6
where I
corr
is the corrosion current (lA/cm
2
) and d is the
depth of the reinforcement (cm).
Eq. (6) has been found to be in agreement with experi-
mental results. After an immersion of 6 years in sea water,
the average corrosion rate for ordinary concretes specimens
(Portland cement content = 400 kg/m
3
, w/c = 0.6) contain-
ing rebars with a cover of 25 cm is close to 87 lm/year, and
corresponds to a corrosion current of 7.5 lA/cm
2
(maxi-
Table 3
Statistical distribution of critical chloride concentration (kg/m
3
)
Reference Mean Coecient of
variation
Distribution
[25] 1.38 0.2 Normal
[26] 3.4 0.6 Lognormal
[17] 0.9 0.19 Uniform [0.61.2]
[7] 1.0 0.1 Lognormal
Table 4
Distribution parameters of critical chloride concentration (in kg/m
3
)
Concrete quality Field Mean Coecient of
variation
Good 1.52.5 2 0.14
Ordinary 1.02.0 1.5 0.19
Poor 0.51.5 1 0.29
1608 F. Duprat / Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 16051616
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
19
1eneur crluque selon la Ln 206 (Lurope)





Page 36
EN 206-1:2000
Les adjuvants utiliss en quantits infrieures 2 g/kg ne sont autoriss que s'ils sont disperss dans une partie
de l'eau de gchage.
Si la quantit totale d'adjuvants liquides est suprieure 3 l/m
3
de bton, la teneur en eau de ces adjuvants doit
tre prise en compte dans le calcul du rapport eau/ciment.
Lorsque plusieurs adjuvants sont utiliss, leur compatibilit doit tre vrifie lors des essais initiaux.
NOTE Il convient que les btons de consistance ! S4, V4, C3, ou ! F4 soient fabriqus avec des adjuvants hauts rduc-
teurs d'eau ou des superplastifiants.
5.2.7 Teneur en chlorures
La teneur en chlorures d'un bton, exprime en pourcentage en masse dions chlorures rapporte la masse de
ciment, ne doit pas dpasser la valeur mentionne

dans le Tableau 10 pour la classe slectionne.
Le chlorure de calcium et les adjuvants base de chlorures ne doivent pas tre ajouts au bton contenant une
armature en acier, ou une armature de prcontrainte en acier, ou des pices mtalliques noyes.
Pour dterminer la teneur en chlorure du bton, la somme des contributions des constituants doit tre calcule
l'aide d'une des mthodes suivantes ou de leur combinaison :
calcul fond sur la teneur maximale en chlorure du constituant fixe dans la norme relative au constituant, ou
sur celle dclare par le producteur, pour chacun des constituants ;
calcul bas sur la teneur en chlorure des constituants, calcule mensuellement sur la base de la somme des
moyennes des 25 dernires dterminations de la teneur en chlorure, augmente de 1,64 fois l'cart-type
calcul pour chaque constituant.
NOTE Cette dernire mthode s'applique particulirement aux granulats marins et en l'absence de valeur maximale nor-
malise ou dclare.
Tableau 10 Teneur maximale en ions chlorure du bton
Utilisation du bton
Classe de
chlorures
a)
Teneur maximale en Cl
-
rapporte la masse
de ciment
b)
Ne contenant ni armatures en acier ni pices
mtalliques noyes ( l'exception des pices
de levage rsistant la corrosion).
Cl 1,0 1,0 %
Contenant des armatures en acier ou des pices
mtalliques noyes
Cl 0,20 0,20 %
Cl 0,40 0,40 %
Contenant des armatures de prcontrainte en acier Cl 0,10 0,10 %
Cl 0,20 0,20 %
a) Pour un usage spcifique du bton, la classe utiliser dpend des dispositions valides sur le lieu
dutilisation du bton.
b) Lorsque des additions de type II sont utilises et sont prises en compte pour le dosage en ciment,
la teneur en chlorures est exprime comme le pourcentage en masse des ions chlorures rapporte
la masse de ciment plus la masse totale des additions qui sont prises en compte.
Boutique AFNOR pour : GTM CONSTRUCTION le 4/5/2004 - 13:46
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
20
1eneur crluque selon la Ln 206 (lrance)





Page 37
EN 206-1:2000
NA.5.2.7 Teneur en chlorures
En application de la note a) du Tableau 10, il est dfini une nouvelle classe de chlorures, la classe Cl 0,65 corres-
pondant une teneur maximale en Cl

rapporte la masse de ciment de 0,65 %. Laptitude gnrale lemploi

en France est tablie pour un usage spcifique des btons de classe Cl 0,65 contenant des armatures ou des
pices mtalliques noyes et tant formuls exclusivement avec des ciments de type CEM III.
En consquence et sauf prescription particulire, les classes de chlorures pour des btons en France sont :
Cl 0,20 pour les btons contenant des armatures de prcontrainte en acier ;
Cl 0,40 pour les btons contenant des armatures en acier ou des pices mtalliques noyes ;
Cl 0,65 pour les btons contenant des armatures en acier ou des pices mtalliques noyes et formuls avec
des ciments de type CEM III ;
Cl 1,0 pour les btons ne contenant ni armature en acier, ni pices mtalliques noyes.
5.2.8 Temprature du bton
La temprature du bton frais ne doit pas tre infrieure 5 C au moment de la livraison. Dans le cas o une
exigence relative une autre temprature maximum ou minimum du bton frais est ncessaire, elles doivent tre
spcifies ainsi que les tolrances. Toute exigence de refroidissement ou de chauffage artificiel du bton doit tre
tablie d'un commun accord entre le producteur et l'utilisateur.
5.3 Exigences lies aux classes d'exposition
5.3.1 Gnralits
Pour que le bton rsiste aux agressions environnementales, les exigences sont souvent donnes en termes de
valeurs limites pour la composition du bton et de proprits dfinies du bton (voir 5.3.2) ; alternativement les
exigences peuvent rsulter de mthodes de conception performantielles (voir 5.3.3). Les exigences devront pren-
dre en compte la dure de vie prvue de la structure.
NA.5.3.1 Gnralits
NOTE Par rfrence la Note 1 de 5.3.2, il est rappel lattention du prescripteur, quen France, les dispositions
appliquer pour la rsistance au gel des btons durcis des ouvrages de gnie civil relevant des marchs publics de travaux
sont dfinies dans les Recommandations pour la durabilit des btons durcis soumis au gel.
5.3.2 Valeurs limites pour la composition du bton
En l'absence de norme europenne relative aux essais directs de performance du bton, en raison d'expriences
long terme diffrentes, les exigences sur la mthode de spcification en vue de rsister aux agressions de l'envi-
ronnement sont donnes dans la prsente norme en termes de proprits tablies du bton et de valeur limites
de composition.
NOTE 1 En raison du manque d'exprience sur l'efficacit de la classification des actions de l'environnement sur le bton
reflter les diffrences locales pour des classes nominales identiques, les valeurs spcifiques d'exigences pour les clas-
ses d'environnement applicables sont donnes par les dispositions valides sur le lieu d'utilisation du bton.
Les exigences relatives chaque classe d'exposition doivent tre spcifies en termes de :
type et classes de constituants permis ;
rapport maximal eau/ciment ;
dosage minimal en ciment ;
rsistance minimale la compression du bton (facultatif) ;
et, le cas chant :
teneur minimale en air dans le bton.
Boutique AFNOR pour : GTM CONSTRUCTION le 4/5/2004 - 13:46
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
21
Lxemple - uullsauon de la soluuon analyuque

Conslderons une sLrucLure en beLon arme avec un coemclenL de dluslon eecuf u
c
= 10
-12
m
2
/s
soumlse a un envlronnemenL avec une concenLrauon de chlorures a la surface de C
s
= 3 kg/m
3
.
uans ceL exemple nous conslderons unlquemenL la peneLrauon de chlorures en une dlmenslon.

Ln uullsanL la soluuon analyuque de la lol de llck :

C1) Calculer les prols en chlorures a 3 eL 20 ans pour des profondeurs varlanL enLre 0 eL 3 cm Lous
les cm
C2) Lsumer le Lems d'lnluauon de la corroslon pour une Leneur crluque en chlorures de C
Lh
= 2 kg/
m
3
pour deux profondeurs d'enrobage (3 eL 3 cm)
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
Modele uuracreLe (2000)

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
22


avec :
!
%.&
: concenLrauon de chlorures a la surface
&
/
: coemclenL de dluslon eecuve des lons chlorures
0
&
: vlellllssemenL
1
2
: Lype d'envlronnemenL
1
$
: meLhode de deLermlnauon de &
/

1
#
: Lemps de cure
$
3
: Lemps - mesure de &
/

steel/concrete interface generates concrete cracking,
which plays an important role in the steel corrosion
rate when excessive concrete cracking is reached.
Based on the previous considerations, the corrosion
process is divided into two stages namely corrosion
initiation and corrosion propagation. The follow-
ing sections describe firstly the physical phenomena
as well as present the adopted analytical models to
determine the time to corrosion initiation caused by
chloride ingress. Afterwards, it presents the Bayesi-
an formulation to identify the input random variables
from real measurements.
2.1 Simplified model for chloride diffusion
The second law of diffusion of Fick is generally
used to model chloride flow into concrete (Tuutti,
1982). Assuming that concrete is homogeneous, iso-
tropic, saturated and subjected to a constant concen-
tration of chlorides at the surface C
s
, the solution of
differential equations is expressed as the concentra-
tion of chloride ions C(x, t)

at depth x and time t, as
follows:
C(x,t) =C
s
1!erf
x
2 Dt
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
(1)
where D is the effective chloride diffusion coeffi-
cient and erf (!) is the error function. The Bayes the-
orem can be used to calculate the probability distri-
butions of the random variables in this problem
(Nam et al., 2007). In this case, the main purpose of
the Bayesian identification is to identify the ran-
domness of D and C
s
. Assuming that D and C
s
are
two independent random variables (eq. (3)), the
probability of assessment of a chloride concentration
at a point x and a given time t, p(C(x, t)), writes
(Nguyen, 2007):
p C(x,t)
( )
= p C(x,t) D,C
s
( )
p D,C
s
( )
D,C
s
!

(2)
with

p D,C
s
( )
= p D
( )
p C
s
( )
(3)
In eq. (2), the conditional probability p(C(x, t)| D,
C
s
) must already be known. This conditional proba-
bility relates the chloride content C(x, t) to the mate-
rial characteristics. In other words, it accounts for
transfer mechanisms, such as the modeled by eq. (1),
in a purely probabilistic form. This probability could
be computed based on the conditional probability ta-
ble (CPT) of the BN. The CPT can be determined
from:
1. a given model e.g., eq. (1) or
2. expert knowledge.
Once p(C(x, t)) is computed, a posteriori probabil-
ity distributions (distributions to be identified) can
be calculated from a set of measurements of C(x, t).
p(C(x, t)|o) represents the probability distribution of
C(x, t) given evidence o. In this case, chloride pro-
files are used as evidence, assuming that measure-
ments are perfects. Thus, for identifying the proba-
bility distribution of the effective chloride diffusion
coefficient, the application of the Bayes theorem
gives:
p D o
( )
= p D C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(4)
with
p D C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) D
( )
p D
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(5)
Similarly for the identification of the distribution
of the concentration of chlorides at the surface C
s
:
p C
s
o
( )
= p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(6)
with

p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) C
s
( )
p C
s
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(7)
The determination of conditional probabilities is
carried out herein by Bayesian learning and infer-
ence using the Netica software. Note that the error
of the model can be also updated by a BN as sug-
gested by (Deby et al., 2011).
2.2 Duracrete model
The closed-form solution of Fick's diffusion law can
be easily used to predict the time to corrosion initia-
tion. However, eq. (1) is valid only when RC struc-
tures are saturated and subjected to constant concen-
tration of chlorides on the exposed surfaces. These
conditions are rarely present for real structures be-
cause concrete is a heterogeneous material that is
frequently exposed to time-variant surface chloride
concentrations. Besides, this solution does not con-
sider chloride binding capacity, concrete aging and
other environmental factors as temperature and hu-
midity (Saetta et al, 1993; Bastidas-Arteaga et al,
2010, 2011).
The European Union project (Duracrete, 2000)
proposes an expression similar to eq. (1) which con-
siders the influence of material properties, environ-
ment, concrete aging and concrete curing on the
chloride diffusion coefficient:
C(x,t) =C
s,D
1!erf
x
2 k
e
k
t
k
c
D
o
t
o
t
( )
n
D
t
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
*
*
*
*
+
,
-
-
-
-
(8)
where C
s,D
is the chloride surface content computed
for this model, k
e
is a factor taking into account the
characteristics of the environment (k
e
= 0.924 for a
tidal zone and k
e
= 0.676 for an atmospheric zone), k
t

is a factor defined according to the method used to
determine the diffusion coefficient D
o
, k
c
is a factor
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
Modele uuracreLe (2000)


1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
23


steel/concrete interface generates concrete cracking,
which plays an important role in the steel corrosion
rate when excessive concrete cracking is reached.
Based on the previous considerations, the corrosion
process is divided into two stages namely corrosion
initiation and corrosion propagation. The follow-
ing sections describe firstly the physical phenomena
as well as present the adopted analytical models to
determine the time to corrosion initiation caused by
chloride ingress. Afterwards, it presents the Bayesi-
an formulation to identify the input random variables
from real measurements.
2.1 Simplified model for chloride diffusion
The second law of diffusion of Fick is generally
used to model chloride flow into concrete (Tuutti,
1982). Assuming that concrete is homogeneous, iso-
tropic, saturated and subjected to a constant concen-
tration of chlorides at the surface C
s
, the solution of
differential equations is expressed as the concentra-
tion of chloride ions C(x, t)

at depth x and time t, as
follows:
C(x,t) =C
s
1!erf
x
2 Dt
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
(1)
where D is the effective chloride diffusion coeffi-
cient and erf (!) is the error function. The Bayes the-
orem can be used to calculate the probability distri-
butions of the random variables in this problem
(Nam et al., 2007). In this case, the main purpose of
the Bayesian identification is to identify the ran-
domness of D and C
s
. Assuming that D and C
s
are
two independent random variables (eq. (3)), the
probability of assessment of a chloride concentration
at a point x and a given time t, p(C(x, t)), writes
(Nguyen, 2007):
p C(x,t)
( )
= p C(x,t) D,C
s
( )
p D,C
s
( )
D,C
s
!

(2)
with

p D,C
s
( )
= p D
( )
p C
s
( )
(3)
In eq. (2), the conditional probability p(C(x, t)| D,
C
s
) must already be known. This conditional proba-
bility relates the chloride content C(x, t) to the mate-
rial characteristics. In other words, it accounts for
transfer mechanisms, such as the modeled by eq. (1),
in a purely probabilistic form. This probability could
be computed based on the conditional probability ta-
ble (CPT) of the BN. The CPT can be determined
from:
1. a given model e.g., eq. (1) or
2. expert knowledge.
Once p(C(x, t)) is computed, a posteriori probabil-
ity distributions (distributions to be identified) can
be calculated from a set of measurements of C(x, t).
p(C(x, t)|o) represents the probability distribution of
C(x, t) given evidence o. In this case, chloride pro-
files are used as evidence, assuming that measure-
ments are perfects. Thus, for identifying the proba-
bility distribution of the effective chloride diffusion
coefficient, the application of the Bayes theorem
gives:
p D o
( )
= p D C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(4)
with
p D C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) D
( )
p D
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(5)
Similarly for the identification of the distribution
of the concentration of chlorides at the surface C
s
:
p C
s
o
( )
= p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(6)
with

p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) C
s
( )
p C
s
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(7)
The determination of conditional probabilities is
carried out herein by Bayesian learning and infer-
ence using the Netica software. Note that the error
of the model can be also updated by a BN as sug-
gested by (Deby et al., 2011).
2.2 Duracrete model
The closed-form solution of Fick's diffusion law can
be easily used to predict the time to corrosion initia-
tion. However, eq. (1) is valid only when RC struc-
tures are saturated and subjected to constant concen-
tration of chlorides on the exposed surfaces. These
conditions are rarely present for real structures be-
cause concrete is a heterogeneous material that is
frequently exposed to time-variant surface chloride
concentrations. Besides, this solution does not con-
sider chloride binding capacity, concrete aging and
other environmental factors as temperature and hu-
midity (Saetta et al, 1993; Bastidas-Arteaga et al,
2010, 2011).
The European Union project (Duracrete, 2000)
proposes an expression similar to eq. (1) which con-
siders the influence of material properties, environ-
ment, concrete aging and concrete curing on the
chloride diffusion coefficient:
C(x,t) =C
s,D
1!erf
x
2 k
e
k
t
k
c
D
o
t
o
t
( )
n
D
t
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
*
*
*
*
+
,
-
-
-
-
(8)
where C
s,D
is the chloride surface content computed
for this model, k
e
is a factor taking into account the
characteristics of the environment (k
e
= 0.924 for a
tidal zone and k
e
= 0.676 for an atmospheric zone), k
t

is a factor defined according to the method used to
determine the diffusion coefficient D
o
, k
c
is a factor
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
Modele uuracreLe (2000)

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
24


steel/concrete interface generates concrete cracking,
which plays an important role in the steel corrosion
rate when excessive concrete cracking is reached.
Based on the previous considerations, the corrosion
process is divided into two stages namely corrosion
initiation and corrosion propagation. The follow-
ing sections describe firstly the physical phenomena
as well as present the adopted analytical models to
determine the time to corrosion initiation caused by
chloride ingress. Afterwards, it presents the Bayesi-
an formulation to identify the input random variables
from real measurements.
2.1 Simplified model for chloride diffusion
The second law of diffusion of Fick is generally
used to model chloride flow into concrete (Tuutti,
1982). Assuming that concrete is homogeneous, iso-
tropic, saturated and subjected to a constant concen-
tration of chlorides at the surface C
s
, the solution of
differential equations is expressed as the concentra-
tion of chloride ions C(x, t)

at depth x and time t, as
follows:
C(x,t) =C
s
1!erf
x
2 Dt
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
(1)
where D is the effective chloride diffusion coeffi-
cient and erf (!) is the error function. The Bayes the-
orem can be used to calculate the probability distri-
butions of the random variables in this problem
(Nam et al., 2007). In this case, the main purpose of
the Bayesian identification is to identify the ran-
domness of D and C
s
. Assuming that D and C
s
are
two independent random variables (eq. (3)), the
probability of assessment of a chloride concentration
at a point x and a given time t, p(C(x, t)), writes
(Nguyen, 2007):
p C(x,t)
( )
= p C(x,t) D,C
s
( )
p D,C
s
( )
D,C
s
!

(2)
with

p D,C
s
( )
= p D
( )
p C
s
( )
(3)
In eq. (2), the conditional probability p(C(x, t)| D,
C
s
) must already be known. This conditional proba-
bility relates the chloride content C(x, t) to the mate-
rial characteristics. In other words, it accounts for
transfer mechanisms, such as the modeled by eq. (1),
in a purely probabilistic form. This probability could
be computed based on the conditional probability ta-
ble (CPT) of the BN. The CPT can be determined
from:
1. a given model e.g., eq. (1) or
2. expert knowledge.
Once p(C(x, t)) is computed, a posteriori probabil-
ity distributions (distributions to be identified) can
be calculated from a set of measurements of C(x, t).
p(C(x, t)|o) represents the probability distribution of
C(x, t) given evidence o. In this case, chloride pro-
files are used as evidence, assuming that measure-
ments are perfects. Thus, for identifying the proba-
bility distribution of the effective chloride diffusion
coefficient, the application of the Bayes theorem
gives:
p D o
( )
= p D C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(4)
with
p D C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) D
( )
p D
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(5)
Similarly for the identification of the distribution
of the concentration of chlorides at the surface C
s
:
p C
s
o
( )
= p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(6)
with

p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) C
s
( )
p C
s
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(7)
The determination of conditional probabilities is
carried out herein by Bayesian learning and infer-
ence using the Netica software. Note that the error
of the model can be also updated by a BN as sug-
gested by (Deby et al., 2011).
2.2 Duracrete model
The closed-form solution of Fick's diffusion law can
be easily used to predict the time to corrosion initia-
tion. However, eq. (1) is valid only when RC struc-
tures are saturated and subjected to constant concen-
tration of chlorides on the exposed surfaces. These
conditions are rarely present for real structures be-
cause concrete is a heterogeneous material that is
frequently exposed to time-variant surface chloride
concentrations. Besides, this solution does not con-
sider chloride binding capacity, concrete aging and
other environmental factors as temperature and hu-
midity (Saetta et al, 1993; Bastidas-Arteaga et al,
2010, 2011).
The European Union project (Duracrete, 2000)
proposes an expression similar to eq. (1) which con-
siders the influence of material properties, environ-
ment, concrete aging and concrete curing on the
chloride diffusion coefficient:
C(x,t) =C
s,D
1!erf
x
2 k
e
k
t
k
c
D
o
t
o
t
( )
n
D
t
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
*
*
*
*
+
,
-
-
-
-
(8)
where C
s,D
is the chloride surface content computed
for this model, k
e
is a factor taking into account the
characteristics of the environment (k
e
= 0.924 for a
tidal zone and k
e
= 0.676 for an atmospheric zone), k
t

is a factor defined according to the method used to
determine the diffusion coefficient D
o
, k
c
is a factor
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
Modele uuracreLe (2000)

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
23


steel/concrete interface generates concrete cracking,
which plays an important role in the steel corrosion
rate when excessive concrete cracking is reached.
Based on the previous considerations, the corrosion
process is divided into two stages namely corrosion
initiation and corrosion propagation. The follow-
ing sections describe firstly the physical phenomena
as well as present the adopted analytical models to
determine the time to corrosion initiation caused by
chloride ingress. Afterwards, it presents the Bayesi-
an formulation to identify the input random variables
from real measurements.
2.1 Simplified model for chloride diffusion
The second law of diffusion of Fick is generally
used to model chloride flow into concrete (Tuutti,
1982). Assuming that concrete is homogeneous, iso-
tropic, saturated and subjected to a constant concen-
tration of chlorides at the surface C
s
, the solution of
differential equations is expressed as the concentra-
tion of chloride ions C(x, t)

at depth x and time t, as
follows:
C(x,t) =C
s
1!erf
x
2 Dt
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
(1)
where D is the effective chloride diffusion coeffi-
cient and erf (!) is the error function. The Bayes the-
orem can be used to calculate the probability distri-
butions of the random variables in this problem
(Nam et al., 2007). In this case, the main purpose of
the Bayesian identification is to identify the ran-
domness of D and C
s
. Assuming that D and C
s
are
two independent random variables (eq. (3)), the
probability of assessment of a chloride concentration
at a point x and a given time t, p(C(x, t)), writes
(Nguyen, 2007):
p C(x,t)
( )
= p C(x,t) D,C
s
( )
p D,C
s
( )
D,C
s
!

(2)
with

p D,C
s
( )
= p D
( )
p C
s
( )
(3)
In eq. (2), the conditional probability p(C(x, t)| D,
C
s
) must already be known. This conditional proba-
bility relates the chloride content C(x, t) to the mate-
rial characteristics. In other words, it accounts for
transfer mechanisms, such as the modeled by eq. (1),
in a purely probabilistic form. This probability could
be computed based on the conditional probability ta-
ble (CPT) of the BN. The CPT can be determined
from:
1. a given model e.g., eq. (1) or
2. expert knowledge.
Once p(C(x, t)) is computed, a posteriori probabil-
ity distributions (distributions to be identified) can
be calculated from a set of measurements of C(x, t).
p(C(x, t)|o) represents the probability distribution of
C(x, t) given evidence o. In this case, chloride pro-
files are used as evidence, assuming that measure-
ments are perfects. Thus, for identifying the proba-
bility distribution of the effective chloride diffusion
coefficient, the application of the Bayes theorem
gives:
p D o
( )
= p D C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(4)
with
p D C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) D
( )
p D
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(5)
Similarly for the identification of the distribution
of the concentration of chlorides at the surface C
s
:
p C
s
o
( )
= p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(6)
with

p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) C
s
( )
p C
s
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(7)
The determination of conditional probabilities is
carried out herein by Bayesian learning and infer-
ence using the Netica software. Note that the error
of the model can be also updated by a BN as sug-
gested by (Deby et al., 2011).
2.2 Duracrete model
The closed-form solution of Fick's diffusion law can
be easily used to predict the time to corrosion initia-
tion. However, eq. (1) is valid only when RC struc-
tures are saturated and subjected to constant concen-
tration of chlorides on the exposed surfaces. These
conditions are rarely present for real structures be-
cause concrete is a heterogeneous material that is
frequently exposed to time-variant surface chloride
concentrations. Besides, this solution does not con-
sider chloride binding capacity, concrete aging and
other environmental factors as temperature and hu-
midity (Saetta et al, 1993; Bastidas-Arteaga et al,
2010, 2011).
The European Union project (Duracrete, 2000)
proposes an expression similar to eq. (1) which con-
siders the influence of material properties, environ-
ment, concrete aging and concrete curing on the
chloride diffusion coefficient:
C(x,t) =C
s,D
1!erf
x
2 k
e
k
t
k
c
D
o
t
o
t
( )
n
D
t
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
*
*
*
*
+
,
-
-
-
-
(8)
where C
s,D
is the chloride surface content computed
for this model, k
e
is a factor taking into account the
characteristics of the environment (k
e
= 0.924 for a
tidal zone and k
e
= 0.676 for an atmospheric zone), k
t

is a factor defined according to the method used to
determine the diffusion coefficient D
o
, k
c
is a factor
Lssal de mlgrauon
eneLrauon des lons chlorure :
Modele uuracreLe (2000)

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
26


steel/concrete interface generates concrete cracking,
which plays an important role in the steel corrosion
rate when excessive concrete cracking is reached.
Based on the previous considerations, the corrosion
process is divided into two stages namely corrosion
initiation and corrosion propagation. The follow-
ing sections describe firstly the physical phenomena
as well as present the adopted analytical models to
determine the time to corrosion initiation caused by
chloride ingress. Afterwards, it presents the Bayesi-
an formulation to identify the input random variables
from real measurements.
2.1 Simplified model for chloride diffusion
The second law of diffusion of Fick is generally
used to model chloride flow into concrete (Tuutti,
1982). Assuming that concrete is homogeneous, iso-
tropic, saturated and subjected to a constant concen-
tration of chlorides at the surface C
s
, the solution of
differential equations is expressed as the concentra-
tion of chloride ions C(x, t)

at depth x and time t, as
follows:
C(x,t) =C
s
1!erf
x
2 Dt
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
-
-
(1)
where D is the effective chloride diffusion coeffi-
cient and erf (!) is the error function. The Bayes the-
orem can be used to calculate the probability distri-
butions of the random variables in this problem
(Nam et al., 2007). In this case, the main purpose of
the Bayesian identification is to identify the ran-
domness of D and C
s
. Assuming that D and C
s
are
two independent random variables (eq. (3)), the
probability of assessment of a chloride concentration
at a point x and a given time t, p(C(x, t)), writes
(Nguyen, 2007):
p C(x,t)
( )
= p C(x,t) D,C
s
( )
p D,C
s
( )
D,C
s
!

(2)
with

p D,C
s
( )
= p D
( )
p C
s
( )
(3)
In eq. (2), the conditional probability p(C(x, t)| D,
C
s
) must already be known. This conditional proba-
bility relates the chloride content C(x, t) to the mate-
rial characteristics. In other words, it accounts for
transfer mechanisms, such as the modeled by eq. (1),
in a purely probabilistic form. This probability could
be computed based on the conditional probability ta-
ble (CPT) of the BN. The CPT can be determined
from:
1. a given model e.g., eq. (1) or
2. expert knowledge.
Once p(C(x, t)) is computed, a posteriori probabil-
ity distributions (distributions to be identified) can
be calculated from a set of measurements of C(x, t).
p(C(x, t)|o) represents the probability distribution of
C(x, t) given evidence o. In this case, chloride pro-
files are used as evidence, assuming that measure-
ments are perfects. Thus, for identifying the proba-
bility distribution of the effective chloride diffusion
coefficient, the application of the Bayes theorem
gives:
p D o
( )
= p D C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(4)
with
p D C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) D
( )
p D
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(5)
Similarly for the identification of the distribution
of the concentration of chlorides at the surface C
s
:
p C
s
o
( )
= p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
p C(x,t) o
( )

(6)
with

p C
s
C(x,t)
( )
=
p C(x,t) C
s
( )
p C
s
( )
p C(x,t)
( )

(7)
The determination of conditional probabilities is
carried out herein by Bayesian learning and infer-
ence using the Netica software. Note that the error
of the model can be also updated by a BN as sug-
gested by (Deby et al., 2011).
2.2 Duracrete model
The closed-form solution of Fick's diffusion law can
be easily used to predict the time to corrosion initia-
tion. However, eq. (1) is valid only when RC struc-
tures are saturated and subjected to constant concen-
tration of chlorides on the exposed surfaces. These
conditions are rarely present for real structures be-
cause concrete is a heterogeneous material that is
frequently exposed to time-variant surface chloride
concentrations. Besides, this solution does not con-
sider chloride binding capacity, concrete aging and
other environmental factors as temperature and hu-
midity (Saetta et al, 1993; Bastidas-Arteaga et al,
2010, 2011).
The European Union project (Duracrete, 2000)
proposes an expression similar to eq. (1) which con-
siders the influence of material properties, environ-
ment, concrete aging and concrete curing on the
chloride diffusion coefficient:
C(x,t) =C
s,D
1!erf
x
2 k
e
k
t
k
c
D
o
t
o
t
( )
n
D
t
"
#
$
$
$
$
%
&
'
'
'
'
(
)
*
*
*
*
+
,
-
-
-
-
(8)
where C
s,D
is the chloride surface content computed
for this model, k
e
is a factor taking into account the
characteristics of the environment (k
e
= 0.924 for a
tidal zone and k
e
= 0.676 for an atmospheric zone), k
t

is a factor defined according to the method used to
determine the diffusion coefficient D
o
, k
c
is a factor
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1he soluuon ls valld only when 8C sLrucLures are saLuraLed and sub[ecLed Lo
consLanL concenLrauon of chlorldes on Lhe exposed surfaces.

27
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1hls soluuon does noL conslder chlorlde blndlng capaclLy

28
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1hls soluuon does noL conslder Lhe eecL of concreLe aglng, LemperaLure
and humldlLy (Saeua eL al., 1993).
29
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1hls soluuon does noL conslder Lhe eecL of concreLe aglng, LemperaLure
and humldlLy (Saeua eL al., 1993).
30
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1hls soluuon does noL conslder Lhe eecL of concreLe aglng, LemperaLure
and humldlLy (Saeua eL al., 1993).
31
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
roblems wlLh Lhe analyucal soluuon
1hls soluuon does noL conslder Lwo dlmenslonal chlorlde lngress.
32
1. uegradauon de sLrucLures en 8A
soumlses a la corroslon
eneLrauon des chlorures
CarbonaLauon
lnLroducuon
34
SLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon lndulLe par la carbonaLauon
onLs 1unnels 8umenLs
CarbonaLauon du beLon arme
33
Mecanlsme chlmlque : Le gaz carbonlque de l'alr (CC
2
) reaglL avec le chaux
aerlenne du beLon (Ca(CP)
2
) pour former les carbonaLes de calclum :
Ceue reacuon -> consommauon de bases alcallnes dlmlnuanL le pP du beLon
(13 -> 9).
La carbonaLauon esL Lres senslble a la Leneur en eau du beLon :

maxlmale pour une humldlLe relauve (P8) comprlse enLre 60 eL 80.
sl P8> 80 : clneuque dlmlnue rapldemenL pour auelndre des valeurs
exLrmemenL falbles lorsque le beLon esL saLure. A savolr, la dluslon du CC
2

dans l'eau esL dlx mllle fols plus falble que dans l'alr.
sl P8 60 : quanuLe d'eau presenLe dans les pores esL lnsumsanLe pour
dlssoudre le dloxyde de carbone.
1.8 Alcali re action Carbonatation
1.8.1 Alcali re action
(ou re action alcali granulats)
Il sagit dun phe nome` ne chimique qui a ge ne re un type de
de sordre observe pour la premie` re fois aux E

tats-Unis, dans les

anne es 1940, et apparu en France vers 1970. Cette pathologie sera
de veloppe e a` loccasion dune publication a` venir. Nous nous bor-
nerons ici a` en exposer les grandes lignes.
Certains agre gats siliceux contenant des constituants mal cris-
tallise s se trouvent e tre attaque s par les alcalis solubles du
ciment (telle la chaux : Ca(OH)
2
) et ce, avec formation dun sel
expansif (silicate alcalin hydrate ) pouvant entraner le caillage,
le fa enc age, la fissuration, le gonflement, et la formation de cra-
te` res (et parfois, a` terme, la de sagre gation du be ton et, donc, la
ruine comple` te de louvrage concerne ).
Le phe nome` ne peut apparatre sur un ouvrage plusieurs anne es
apre` s sa re alisation.
Les ouvrages principalement concerne s sont, a priori, ceux qui
se trouvent expose s aux intempe ries, ou a` lhumidite , tels que :
ponts ;
routes ;
dallages exte rieurs ;
fac ades et pignons.
Dans lhexagone, certains ponts et ouvrages dart ont du e tre
totalement de truits et reconstruits.
En conclusion, on retiendra que le de veloppement du phe no-
me` ne impose que soit re alise un ensemble de plusieurs
conditions :
pre sence dagre gats siliceux, dits re actifs ;
teneur en alcali du ciment e leve ;
compacite insuffisante du be ton ;
milieu humide.
Dans le cas ou` existerait un doute sur la possibilite de de velop-
pement de ce type de re action, il sera ne cessaire de quantifier les
parame` tres pre ce dents.
1.8.2 Carbonatation
On doit, tout dabord, rappeler que les armatures du be ton sont
prote ge es de la corrosion par la cre ation dune pellicule superfi-
cielle enrobant les aciers. Celle-ci tient a` la pre sence de la chaux
libre du be ton maintenant le milieu basique lequel soppose a`
loxydation du me tal.
Le processus de carbonatation est susceptible de modifier la
nature du be ton denrobage, donc la protection des aciers et pre -
sente, a` ce titre, une importance capitale.
&
Le me canisme chimique de carbonatation est le suivant :
Le gaz carbonique de lair (CO
2
) re agit avec le chaux libre du
be ton (Ca(OH)
2
).
Ca OH CO CO Ca H O
( )
+ +
2
2 3 2
Le milieu e tant initialement basique, le pH, de lordre de 12, dimi-
nue pour atteindre une valeur de 8 a` 9. Le phe nome` ne est, bien
entendu, progressif. Laction se faisant a` partir des couches superfi-
cielles gagne ensuite linte rieur du mate riau.
De ce fait, la pellicule prote geant les aciers (passivation) est pro-
gressivement de truite, permettant ainsi leur corrosion. Ceux-ci
soxydent, et tendent a` faire e clater le be ton denrobage en raison
du foisonnement de la rouille.
&
On retiendra que la profondeur carbonate e :
augmente avec le temps ;
de cro t avec le dosage ;
atteint un optimum pour une humidite relative de 60 % ;
est, e videmment, dautant plus importante que le be ton est
poreux.
Le phe nome` ne de carbonatation est a` lorigine des de sordres
tre` s re pandus dits fers apparents ou pousse es de fer .
1.9 Fausse prise
Avec lemploi de certains ciments (ciments fins et/ou contenant
du gypse), ou par temps froid, le chantier peut e tre confronte au
phe nome` ne de fausse prise. Cest un phe nome` ne tre` s rapide qui a
lieu, en ge ne ral, dans le malaxeur.
Le processus peut e tre stoppe par un malaxage pousse , mais
sans ajout deau.
Il est conseille de laisser reposer le be ton ou, mieux, de changer
de ciment.
Mais, si le be ton a e te mis en uvre avant le de clenchement du
phe nome` ne, il doit e tre de moli, car sa re sistance finale sera tre` s
faible.
2. Quelques cas particuliers
Il peut arriver, parfois, que les techniciens restent perplexes
quant aux causes des sinistres quils constatent. Cest en poursui-
vant lenque te, gra ce aussi a` des sondages et des interrogations
sur les circonstances dans lesquelles ont e te re alise es e tudes et tra-
vaux, et aussi avec un peu de chance, quil est parfois possible de
finir par trouver lorigine des de sordres.
&
Nous donnerons quelques exemples de ce type.
Exemples
Dans un immeuble dhabitation re cemment termine , une
tre` s le ge` re trace rougea tre apparut en partie haute du reve tement
mural dune des chambres dun appartement, de sordre qui, tout
dabord, ne retint gue` re lattention. Mais, sa surface augmentant jus-
qua` devenir une ve ritable aure ole dune quinzaine de centime` tres de
diame` tre, le phe nome` ne finit par intriguer les techniciens concerne s
qui se perdaient en conjectures les plus diverses, allant jusqua` sup-
poser la pre sence de parasites minant le be ton, alors que dautres,
plus re alistes, e voquaient la possibilite de corrosion des armatures.
Mais, dune part, il sagissait dun mur de refend peu expose a`
lhumidite et, dautre part, la couleur de la tache tirait pluto t sur le
carmin que sur lorange .
Il fut de cide de sonder le mur a` la pointerolle. A
`
la surprise ge ne rale,
jaillit du mur un liquide rouge rapidement identifie , ce tait du vin rouge.
Il fut suppose que, lors de la construction, de limmeuble, un ouvrier
avait mis sa chopine au frais dans le coffrage et lavait oublie e la` !
Le sinistre concerne un immeuble dune dizaine de niveaux
sur 2 sous-sols, alors en construction, et dont la structure e tait re a-
lise e en be ton arme (figure 12).
Larchitecte ayant souhaite la plus grande transparence dans la hau-
teur du rez-de-chausse e, louvrage reposait a` ce niveau sur un nom-
bre tre` s limite de poteaux de fort diame` tre.
Lossature e tait a` peine termine e quest apparue dans la hauteur du
RDC, sur lun des poteaux, une fissure, dabord relativement fine,
mais qui ne tarda pas a` prendre une allure inquie tante. Un e clat de
be ton se tant de tache , on vit appara tre, noye e dans le be ton, une
pie` ce de bois prise, dans un premier temps, pour une cale darmatu-
res (ou un e le ment de coffrage) qui, mal fixe , se tait de tache lors de
la mise en place du be ton par vibration. Mais, la fissure devenant de
PATHOLOGIES DU BE

TON ARME

Toute reproduction sans autorisation du Centre franc ais dexploitation du droit de copie
est strictement interdite. Editions T.I. C 6 200 8
C
e

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Ce document a t dlivr pour le compte de 7200031372 - universite de nantes bibliotheque universitaire // 193.52.109.14
Ce document a t dlivr pour le compte de 7200031372 - universite de nantes bibliotheque universitaire // 193.52.109.14 tiwekacontentpdf_c6200
CarbonaLauon :
uluslon de CC
2
- Lol de llck [uuracreLe, 1998, SLewarL eL al, 2002]
Avec :
'
#
($) = fronL de carbonaLauon (cm)
$ = Lemps (annees)
1
%4$2
= facLeur LenanL compLe la concenLrauon de CC
2
propres au slLe d'exposluon
!
!56
= concenLrauon en masse de CC
2
dans l'envlronnemenL (10
-3
kg/m
3
)
$
3
= Lemps de reference (1 an)
0
7
= facLeur de vlellllssemenL assocle a des cycles de sechage-moulllage :
0
7
= 0 sous-abrl exLerleur eL 0
7
= 0,12 sans abrl exLerleur
a = facLeur dependanL des caracLerlsuques du beLon
&
!56
= coemclenL de dluslon du CC
2
dans le beLon (cm
2
/s)


Avec:
&
8
= coemclenL de dluslon de CC
2
dans le beLon apres 1 an (cm
2
/s)
0
(
= facLeur de vlellllssemenL pour le coemclenL de dluslon du CC
2

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
36
x
c
(t) =
2k
site
D
CO
2
a
C
CO
2
t
t
o
t
!
"
#
$
%
&
n
m
D= D
1
t
( )
!n
d
lacLeur LenanL compLe la concenLrauon de CC
2
propres au slLe d'exposluon :


1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
37
x
c
(t) =
2k
site
D
CO
2
a
C
CO
2
t
t
o
t
!
"
#
$
%
&
n
m
Type
dexposition

Moyenne

COV
Rurale 1.03 0.04
Suburbaine 1.07 0.06
Urbaine 1.14 0.08
CoemclenL de dluslon du CC
2
dans le beLon

Le coemclenL de dluslon eL le facLeur de vlellllssemenL dependanL
prlnclpalemenL de :
- les parameLres de formulauon du beLon
- la poroslLe eL la reslsLance a la compresslon du beLon eL
- les condluons d'exposluon (humldlLe, LemperaLure, ...).

u'apres oon eL al., (2007) :

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
38
x
c
(t) =
2k
site
D
CO
2
a
C
CO
2
t
t
o
t
!
"
#
$
%
&
n
m
D
CO
2
= D
1
t
( )
!n
d

w/c

D
1
!10
-4
cm
2
s
-1


n
d

0.45 0.65 0.218
0.50 1.24 0.235
0.55 2.22 0.240
ConcenLrauon en masse de CC
2
dans l'envlronnemenL
valeur consLanLe xe a 360 ppm ou 6.810
-4
kg/m
3
(avec le facLeur de
converslon 1 ppm = 0.001910
-3
kg/m
3
)
valeurs plus lmporLanLes en Lunnels, parklngs ou espaces connes
ChangemenL cllmauque :

1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
39
x
c
(t) =
2k
site
D
CO
2
a
C
CO
2
t
t
o
t
!
"
#
$
%
&
n
m
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
low
mid
high
C
O
2

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
Year
A1FI
550 ppm
A1B
Year 2000 CO
2
level
lacLeur dependanL des caracLerlsuques du beLon

Avec :
!
2
= Leneur en clmenL du beLon (kg/m
3
)
!
,
5 = Leneur en oxyde de calclum (chaux vlve) du clmenL (=0.63)

P
= degre d'hydraLauon
M
CaC
= masse molalre du CaC (36 g/mol)
M
CC2
= masse molalre du CC
2
(44 g/mol).

Apres 400 [ours le degre d'hydraLauon peuL se calculer comme (de Larrard,
1999) :
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
40
x
c
(t) =
2k
site
D
CO
2
a
C
CO
2
t
t
o
t
!
"
#
$
%
&
n
m
a = 0.75C
e
C
a
O!
H
M
CO
2
M
C
a
O
!
H
!1"e
"3.38w/c
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
41
Lxemple - uullsauon du modele de carbonaLauon

Conslderons une sLrucLure en beLon arme avec un rapporL eau-clmenL = 0.33, une Leneur en
clmenL de 330 kg/m
3
, soumlse a un envlronnemenL avec une concenLrauon de CC
2
a la surface de =
6.810
-4
kg/m
3
. Cn suppose que la sLrucLure esL placee dans une zone urbalne eL en pleln alr sous
abrl. uans ceL exemple nous conslderons unlquemenL la carbonaLauon en une dlmenslon.

Ln uullsanL le modele uuracreLe :

C1) Calculer l'evoluuon du coemclenL de dluslon de CC
2
a 1, 3, 10, 20, 30 eL 100 ans

C2) Calculer l'evoluuon du fronL de carbonaLauon a 1, 3, 10, 20, 30 eL 100 ans

C3) Lsumer le Lems d'lnluauon de la corroslon pour une profondeur d'enrobage de 2 cm
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
42
C1
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

d
e

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
o
n

d
e

C
O
2


(
1
0
-
4

c
m
2
/
s
)

Temps (annes)
Dco2(t)
D_1
1- lmmunlLe a la corroslon
43
C2
C3) le Lemps d'lnluauon de la corroslon esL 133.3 ans

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20 40 60 80 100
F
r
o
n
t

d
e

c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
a
t
i
o
n


(
c
m
)

Temps (annes)
Dco2(t)
D_1
Corroslon acuve
uuree de vle de sLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon par chlorures
LLapes de la duree de vle
43
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d c
Temps
t
ini

D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

1. Immunit la corrosion
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d
c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface corr. (A
a
)
2. Corrosion Active
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface Corr (A
a
)
d
3. Corrosion aprs une
fissuration du bton svre
2 - Corroslon acuve
Corroslon process
46
2 - Corroslon acuve
47
Avec :
d
0
-> mm
l
corr
-> A/cm
2
L -> annees
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 20 40 60 80 100
F
r
o
n
t

d
e

c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
a
t
i
o
n


(
c
m
)

Temps (annes)
Dco2(t)
D_1
2 - Corroslon acuve
48
1aux de corroslon uuracreLe (2000)

Lxemple - uullsauon de la soluuon analyuque

Conslderons une sLrucLure en beLon arme depasslvee apres 13 ans. Le dlameLre lnlual des aclers
esL de 16 mm.

C1) ueLermlner la reducuon de la secuon longlLudlnale des aclers [usqu'a 30 ans en supposanL que
la corroslon esL unlforme eL en conslderanL Lrols Laux de corroslon 4
#/99
= 0.3, 2 eL 3 A/cm
2
.

C2) Lsumer la perLe de capaclLe en exlon de la pouLre due a la corroslon en supposanL que le
momenL reslsLanL en exlon se calcule avec l'expresslon sulvanLe :



Avec:
A
s
= Surface d'acler
f
y
= 420 Ma
f
c
= 30 Mpa
d = 43 cm
b = 23 cm

2 - Corroslon acuve
49
d
M
r
= A
s
f
y

d 0.59
A
s
f
y
f
c
b

b
2 - Corroslon acuve
30
C1)
!
#
$
%
&
'!
'#
'$
'%
'&
! '! #! (! $! )!
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(

*
$
$
+

,($-. *#//0(.+
!*)
#
)
2 - Corroslon acuve
31
C2)
!
#!
$!
%!
&!
'!!
'#!
'$!
'%!
'&!
#!!
! '! #! (! $! )!
!
"
#
$
%
&

(
$
)
*
)
&
+
%
&

,
-
.
/
#
0

1$#2) ,+%%3$)0
!*)
#
)
M
r
= A
s
f
y

d 0.59
A
s
f
y
f
c
b

2 - Corroslon acuve
32
lacLeurs domlnanL le Laux de corroslon :
humldlLe relauve
reslsuvlLe elecLrlque du beLon
dlsponlblllLe d'oxygene
Modellsauon du Laux de corroslon

8echerche ! le Laux de corroslon lorsque le beLon esL ssure
2 - Corroslon acuve
33
Modele uuracreLe (2000)
avec :
4
#/99.63
: Laux de corroslon de reference mesure a 20C
:($) : LemperaLure au Lemps $ (en C)
;
#
: facLeur dependanL de la valeur de :($) :
;
#
= 0.023 sl :($) 20C ou ;
#
= 0.073 sl :($) > 20C

i
corr
(t) = i
corr,20
[1 + K
c
(T(t) 20)]
volume des produlLs de corroslon
2 - Corroslon acuve
34
llssurauon du beLon

lacLeurs lnuenanL la ssurauon du beLon :
Laux de corroslon
reslsLance a la Lracuon du beLon

LLapes de la ssurauon :
lnluauon de la ssurauon
propagauon de la ssurauon
2 - Corroslon acuve
33
Modeles de ssurauon du beLon

1emps d'lnluauon de la ssurauon ($
#9
en [ours) (Ll Maaddawy and Soudkl, 2007)



avec :
(
3
: dlameLre lnluale de la barre (mm)
<
3
: epalsseur de la zone poreuse auLour de la barre (mm)
= : coemclenL de polsson du beLon
#
$
: enrobage (mm)
4
#/99
: Laux de corroslon (A/cm
2
)
"
#$
: reslsLance a la Lracuon du beLon (Ma)

>
2"
: module d'elasuclLe eecuf du beLon (Ma)

avec ?
#9
: coemclenL du uage du beLon
eL

f
ct
= 0.94
p
f
0
c
t
cr
=

7117.5(d
0
+ 2
0
)(1 + + )
i
corr
E
ef

2c
t
f
ct
d
0
+
2
0
E
ef
(d
0
+ 2
0
)(1 + + )

=
(d
0
+ 2
0
)
2
2c
t
(c
t
+ d
0
+ 2
0
)
E
ef
=
4500
p
f
0
c
1 +
cr
2 - Corroslon acuve
36
Modeles de ssurauon du beLon

1emps de propagauon de la ssurauon ($
@9
en annees) (Mullard and SLewarL, 2011)


avec :
A
B47
: Lallle llmlLe de la ssure pour le calcul de $
%29
(mm)
4
#/99
: Laux de corroslon (A/cm
2
)
C
#@
: parameLre de ssurauon de l'enrobage (0.1 C
#@
1)


1
#9
: facLeur de connemenL ( 1
#9
= 1 pour une barre dans le mllleu de l'elemenL)
1
D
: facLeur de echelle enLre essals naLurels eL acceleres de corroslon (0.23 1
D
1)



4
2'@
: Laux de corroslon accelere (A/cm
2
)


k
R
= 0.95

exp

0.3i
exp
i
corr

i
exp
2500i
corr
+ 0.3

cp
=
c
t
d
0
f
ct
t
pr
= k
R
w
lim
0.05
k
cr
0.0008e
1.7
cp

0.0114
i
corr

Corroslon apres une ssurauon

severe
uuree de vle de sLrucLures en 8A soumlses a la corroslon par chlorures
LLapes de la duree de vle
38
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d c
Temps
t
ini

D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

1. Immunit la corrosion
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

d
c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface corr. (A
a
)
2. Corrosion Active
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Distance
C
s

C
th

c
D
th
(t)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

d
u

b

t
o
n

Surface Corr (A
a
)
d
3. Corrosion aprs une
fissuration du bton svre
3 - Corroslon apres une ssurauon du beLon severe
39
lnLeracuon enLre la ssurauon du beLon eL la corroslon
Modele de Laux de corroslon adopLe [Llang eL al., 2003]
CoemclenL de dluslon de l'oxygene dependanL du Lemps

ues eLudes experlmenLales monLrenL qu'll y a une augmenLauon du Laux de
corroslon apres une ssurauon severe [Schlessl and 8aupach, 1997]
3 - Corroslon apres une ssurauon du beLon severe
1aux de corroslon dependanL du Lems conslderanL les eeLs d'une ssurauon
severe
60