Marketing Research - MKT611 Handouts

Marketing Research (MKT611)
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Table of Contents
Lesson No. 1 2 3 ! # 7 " , 10 11 12 13 1 1! 1# 17 1" 1, 20 21 22 23 2 2! 2# 27 2" 2, 30 31 32 33 3 3! 3# 37 3" Title / Topic Page No. 03 07 12 1! 1" 23 2" 31 3 37 1 " !3 !# !, #3 #" 73 77 "0 "3 "# ", ,2 ," 102 107 112 11 117 121 12, 133 13# 13, 1 1!#
Introduction to Marketing Research Selection of Marketing Research Supplier Defining marketing research problem and developing an approach
Searching secondary data and their citation Research Design and its classification Research Design and its classification $contd% &'plorator( Research Design) *ualitative marketing research &'plorator( Research Design) *ualitative marketing research+contd Descriptive -Surve(. Research Design Descriptive -Surve(. Research Design+ /ontd% Descriptive -Surve(. Research Design+ /ontd% /ausal Research Design) &'perimentation Measurement and Scaling Measurement and Scaling%%%contd Sampling procedures Sampling procedures+contd Designing a good research *uestionnaire Designing a good research *uestionnaire+contd% Data collection and field0ork Data 1nal(sis) Data preparation and data cleaning Data 1nal(sis) Data preparation and data cleaning+contd Descriptive and inferential statistics Descriptive and inferential statistics+contd Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis Data anal(sis /orrelation and Regression 2esting the Difference bet0een Means 2esting the Difference bet0een Means+%/ontd 1nal(sis of 3ariance
14531 and 6ost 7oc 1nal(sis

Regression 1nal(sis Report 8riting Copyright Virtual University of akistan
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3, 0 1 2 3
/omponents of Research Report /itation of references in report 6resentations of Reports Demand 9orecasting 4e0 6roduct Research 1dvertising Research ! International Marketing Research
1#0 1#3 170 173 177 1"2 1""
Copyright Virtual University of akistan
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LECTURE # 01
Introduction to Marketing Research Marketing starts 0ith marketing research and ends at marketing research% :efore 0e start our discussion about marketing research; let us see 0hat marketing is% Marketing Marketing includes all activities necessar( for the conception; pricing; promotion and distribution of goods; services and ideas to create e'changes that satisf( individual and organi<ational ob=ectives -needs.% 8h( are some companies more successful than others> It is mainl( because these companies correctl( ?hear@ the consumers 0ants and needs and produce a product service; price; distribute and promote it so that it satisfies those needs and 0ants% Marketing concept is the core of marketing and marketing managers must practice this concept b( developing marketing strategies using information from the customers% If (ou 0ant to describe marketing in one sentence it is ?customer satisfaction@ 2he marketing concept is a 0a( of thinking that holds the organi<ation can best achieve its goals -profit etc%. b( determining the needs and 0ants of target market -customers. and delivering the desired satisfactions more effectivel( and efficientl( than competitors do% 2he bottom line of marketing is that the focus of entire firm is on satisf(ing consumer needs and 0ants% :ut ho0 does a compan( kno0 0hat customerAs needs and 0ants are> 5bviousl( marketer must have appropriate information about customerAs needs and 0ants if the( are to trul( appl( the marketing concept% 7o0ever; having the right concept is one part of the battleB but developing and implementing marketing strategies that actuall( satisf( the consumerAs needs and 0ants is another% Cet us see 0hat marketing strateg( is% Marketing Strateg 1 marketing strateg( consists of selecting a marketing segment as a compan(As target market and designing a proper marketing mi' i%e% four 6s of the marketing program i%e% productD service; price; promotion and distribution s(stem to satisf( the needs and 0ants of the target market% Marketing managers needs some pertinent information to develop a good marketing strateg(% 2he needed information ma( include) 8hat is the market> 7o0 do 0e segment the market> 8hat are needs and 0ants of each segment> 7o0 do 0e measure the si<e of each segment> 8ho are our competitors> 8hat is the marketing strateg( of our competitors> 8hich segmentDs should 0e select for targeting> 8hich si<e; model and *ualit( of product should 0e produce that best suits our target market> 8hat is the best price> 8hich method shall 0e use to distribute our productD service> 8hat kind of advertisement; publicit( should 0e use> etc
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2hese *uestions among others must be ans0ered% 1s such; marketing managers need ob=ective; accurate and upEtoEdate information to develop 0orkable marketing strategies% &nvironments also influence the marketing strateg(% &nvironments include social; cultural; political; economic and technological conditions prevailing and marketing programs prepared b( the managers% 1s environments are constantl( changing; marketerAs need for upEtoEdate information is never ending% /ollection; anal(sis and use of such marketing information in decision making b( marketing managers is 0ithin the scope of marketing research% Marketing Research ! Definition 2he 1merican Marketing 1ssociation -1M1. has defined marketing research as the) ?9unction that links the customer; customer and public to the marketer through informationE information used to identif( and define marketing opportunities and problemsB generate; refine and evaluate marketing actionsB monitor marketing performanceB and improve understanding of marketing as a process@% 2his definition is a bit longer but spells out the basis function as 0ell as uses of marketing research% 9or the purpose of this course; 0e adopt a short definition of marketing research) ?Marketing Research is a s(stematic and ob=ective process of designing; gathering; anal(<ing and reporting information that ma( be used to solve specific marketing problems and assisting the management to improve their decision relating to marketing@% 2his definition is short and focuses on the steps involved in the process of marketing research and its assistance in decision making in the area of marketing management% Role of Marketing Research 2he ma=or role of marketing research is to provide information that facilitates marketing decisions% In the absence of relevant information; the marketing manager ma( be making decisions on the basis of his e'perience or guess0ork% 9or e'ample; 0hen launching a ne0 product; if the demand of that product is not kno0n; the compan( ma( be undertaking a riskB and in case of failure of the product; the investment and marketing efforts etc ma( sink% :ut if before launching; feasibilit( made on the basis of scientific research; the product ma( capture the market and 0ill be a success% Marketing Research provides substantial support in strateg( development b( providing the marketing managers an in depth understanding of situation and then assisting them in choosing appropriate strateg( alternatives% Situation "nal sis Fnderstanding the markets and the customersE0ho the( are; ho0 the( behave; 0h( and 0hat do the( bu( and ho0 the( are likel( to respond in futureEis the heart of marketing research% Fnderstanding of marketing environment and the specific characteristics of market are e*uall( essential 0hile developing a marketing strateg(% Marketing research helps in ac*uiring an in depth understanding of both environment and the markets% 2he follo0ing list indicates some representativeAs information that the marketing research provides on the situation assessment of ma=or consumer goods% Such information is effectivel( used in strateg( formulation% ". Market #n$ironment 1% &conomic trends 2% Social trends 3% 2echnolog( trends % Cegal re*uirements on *ualit(; labeling and safet(
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%. Market Characteristics 1% Market si<e; potential; gro0th 2% Cocation and spread of customers 3% Different segments and groups of customers % /ompetition) number; si<e and performance of competitors% /ompetitive products !% /hannel of distribution) 0holesale and retail coverage% C. Consumer %eha$ior 1% 8ho bu( our product> Demographic and ps(chographic characteristics 2% :rand preference 3% 8here do the( bu(> 5utlet t(pes % Motivation% 8h( do the( bu(> !% Influence of different groups) peers; famil( #% 8hen do the( bu(> 9re*uenc( of bu(ing 7% 7o0 do the( evaluate the product> "% Influence of advertising Marketing Mi& 2he ma=or aim of marketing strateg( is to determine the marketing mi'% Marketing research helps in evaluating different alternatives and ultimatel( including these in the marketing plan% 2hus marketing research provides an information base for the marketing manager to decide about the marketing mi' i%e% product; price; distribution and promotion% Marketing research ans0ers the follo0ing *uestions in this regard) ". Product 1% 8hat product attributes are important for customer> 2% 7o0 should the product be differentiated from competitor> 3% 7o0 should the packing be designed> % 7o0 important is 0arrant(; after sale service etc> %. Price 1% 8hat is the elasticit( of demand> 2% 7o0 should the product be priced> 3% 8hat is the pa(ing capacit( of the market> % 7o0 do 0e react to competitive price change> !% 7o0 important is price to the bu(er> C. Place 1% 8hat kinds of outlets should handle our product) 0holesaleAs; distributors; dealer; agents; retailers etc 2% 7o0 man( intermediaries should be there> 3% 8hat rate of commissionD discount is appropriate> % 7o0 can channel of distribution be motivated to push our product> !% 7o0 ph(sical distribution of products be managed> '. Promotion 1% 8hat is the optimum promotion mi'> 7o0 much of advertising; public relations; personal selling and sales promotion> 2% 8hat should be the promotional budget> 3% 8hat media are most effective for our product> % 7o0 do 0e measure the effectiveness of advertising etc>
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!% 8hich advertising agenc( should be hired to handle our promotion campaign> Marketing Research Industr In the earl( da(s; business o0ners kne0 their customers; so there 0as little need for formal marketing research% Graduall( business gre0; customers 0ere separated from business managers and marketing research 0as needed to understand the customers of distant markets% 4o0 business management has reali<ed that; in order to survive effectivel(; marketing research is genuinel( needed to practice the marketing concepts% In response to the needs of marketing research b( the business and industr(; companies have created their Research and Development -RHD. departments% 1lso man( research companies called Research Suppliers have come into being% Research Suppliers 2here are scores of organi<ations; nationall( and internationall( 0hich are providing research services to business and industr( on pa(ment% Some research companies -research suppliers. perform all functions of research% Such companies are called full service research supplier% 5thers perform one or more tasks of marketing research% 2hese are called limited service research suppliers% 9or e'ample; some companies do onl( data collection or data anal(sis for the clients%
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LECTURE # 02
Selection of Marketing Research Supplier 2hese are the factors 0hich are considered b( the clients for the selection of a marketing research compan( to give them a marketing research pro=ect

Reputation 4umber of pro=ects completed /ompletion on schedule Iualit( of pro=ects completed 7as the firm done similar pro=ects> 6ersonnel $2echnicalEnon technical e'pertise /lient service) communicate 0ell
/ostEcompetitive bids
Remember cheaper bid is not al0a(s the best /ost H *ualit( be compared
Careers in Marketing Research

3ice 6resident Marketing Research Research Director 1ssistant Director Research Senior 6ro=ect Manager StatisticianD Data 6rocessing Specialist Senior 1nal(st Junior 1nal(st 9ield0ork Director 5perational Supervisor 9ield0orker &thics to0ards /lient &thics to0ards 6rofession &thics to0ards Respondent
#thics in Research
Successful Marketing Research Successful marketing research is decision oriented% Marketing research should be undertaken 0hen it is likel( to reduce uncertaint( of decisions% 2here is no use of doing marketing research if it does not provide an( input in a marketing decision% Marketing research is considered successful if it is relevant; timel(; efficient and accurate% ". Rele$ant Marketing research should be undertaken for solving some marketing problem% It should support some strategic or tactical marketing planning activities% In ne0 circumstances; ne0 research should be considered for decision% Marketing research should not be undertaken onl( to satisf( curiosit(% %. Timel Marketing decisions are usuall( fi'ed in time and must be taken according to a schedule and relevant information should be made available before time% If a product is to be launched in 4ovember; research on its formulation; name; advertising; price etc should be conducted in time
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i%e% before 4ovember so that it can be successfull( launched in 4ovember% 2here is no sense to conduct research after 4ovember% 2imeliness of marketing research is necessar(% C. #fficient 1s stated alread( each research is undertaken to reduce some risk in some decision% If it is unfortunatel( 0rong; it 0ill cost the compan( some mone( 0hich 0ill be in the form of investment 0ith regard to the decision e%g% development of a ne0 product; selection of a ne0 market; signing ne0 chancel of distribution etc% 1t the same time; each research has incurred some cost that (ou spent on field 0ork; data anal(sis; stationer(; report 0riting etc% 1 research is efficient if the cost of the research is less that its benefits% If the cost out0eighs the benefits; then there is no use of research% It is un0ise that (ou should spend three million rupees on research to reduce a risk 0hich is 0orth onl( t0o million rupees% '. "ccurate 4o research is better than the accurac( of its data% 2imeliness; relevance or efficienc( should not be compromised on accurac( of results% Methods and procedures of research should be such that the( reduce the biases and help ensure the accurac( of data and anal(sis% #thics in Research 2here are man( ethical behaviors that the researcher should displa( 0hile conducting researchB but there are three specific ethical responsibilities on the part of the researcher 0hich can be classified as ethics to0ards clients; to0ards respondents and to0ards profession% #thics to(ards Client &thics to0ards client demand that the research supplier should not share the results of the research 0ith an( other firms; particularl( the competitors of the client% 1s the client has funded this research; so the client has the sole right to take benefit of the results of the research% 1s such; the findings of the research should not be shared 0ith an(one else% #thics to(ards Respondents &thics to0ards respondents demand that the data provided b( the respondents -sub=ects. of the research should be kept confidential and should not be reported 0ith the name of the respondents% Right of anon(mit( of the respondents should be safeguarded% &thics to(ards Profession &thics to0ards profession re*uire that the researcher should be true professional% 2he researcher should follo0 the code of conduct of the research profession% 2he researcher is morall( obligated to provide unbiased research design; honest and ob=ective field0ork and appropriate and meticulous anal(sis regardless 0hether the clients kno0s about these standards or not and 0hatever the clientAs e'pectations are% 2he researcher should also perform all research activities completel( as agreed upon 0ith the client% 9or e'ample; if it 0as agreed upon that 1300 *uestionnaires 0ill be distributed to collect data; the *uestionnaires should not be less than 1300; other0ise it 0ill amount to cheating and dishonest(% Research Process Research process can be vie0ed as series of steps observed in research% 2hese steps are combined in some researches% 7o0ever follo0ing are ten steps in the process of research) 1% establish the need for marketing research 2% define research problem 3% establish research ob=ectives % formulate research design
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!% determine t(pes and sources of data #% determine sample si<e and select sample 7% design; data collection instruments "% collect data ,% anal(<e data 10% prepare and present research results Cet us understand that generall( the steps are follo0ed in the above se*uence; but it ma( not be follo0ed in the e'act order as given above% 2he researcher ma( move back and forth as heDshe discovers ne0 things in the process of research% Cet us discuss these steps in brief% ). #stablishing the Need for Marketing Research 2he research is al0a(s undertaken 0hen there is need for information to solve a specific marketing problem; that is; 0hen a marketing manager needs some information to facilitate a marketing decision% 2here is a management dilemma; a problem or an opportunit( 0hich needs to be assessed before establishing ob=ectives for that opportunit(% 9or e'ample decline in share of market is a problemB opening a fast food restaurant 0here there is alread( no one 0ithin a radius of three kilometers is an opportunit(% Marketing research could be conducted in both the situations as there is genuine need for information to make necessar( decisions% 1 good monitoring s(stem can establish the need for marketing research% Such a monitoring s(stem brings operating information to management% 1 good monitoring s(stem 0ill alert the marketing manager about the problems that can be tackled 0ith the help of marketing research% 2his s(stem 0ill inform the marketing managers about the changes that are occurring in the environment; the performance of the sales force; and competitive moves% If the information is readil( available; there is no need to do marketing research% Due to use of information technolog(; much of right information is readil( available through databases or 0ebsites to the decision maker% Cike0ise 0hen there is not enough time for marketing research due to competitive pressure or some other reason; this does not =ustif( undertaking marketing research% Similarl( if sufficient funds are not available; research cannot be undertaken or 0hen cost of doing marketing research out0eighs the benefits; it is *uite un0ise to do marketing research% Marketing research should be considered onl( on =ustifiable groundsB 0hen there is a genuine need% Marketing research should be avoided if) a. information needed is alread( available b. 0hen time is enem( -time is short to meet the deadline. c. 0hen funding is not available d. 0hen cost of doing research out0eighs the benefits 0hich 0ill accrue from the research 'efine the Problem Defining the marketing research problem is the single most important step of the marketing research process% It is ver( true to sa( ?a problem 0ell defined is half solved@% 2his is eas( to sa( than to do% /lient ma( not e'actl( kno0 the problem of researchB this is the researcher 0ho has to define it% Research should address the real problem other0ise the mone( spent on it 0ill go 0aste% 2he manager should discuss the situation heDshe is facing 0ith the researcher% :oth of them can have long and detailed discussion so the problem is clearl( identified; understood and defined% 2he researcher should translate the management problem into research problem% S(mptoms and problems should be differentiated% S(mptoms are like tips of the iceberg 0hereas problem ma( be deep do0n like iceberg itself% Definition of problem ma( involve onl( discussion 0ith the decision ,
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maker but some times it involves intervie0s 0ith other managers; emplo(ees; industr( e'perts; anal(sis of secondar( data and occasionall( focus groups% #stablish Research *b+ecti$es Research ob=ectives are information needed to solve the marketing problem% Research ob=ectives are related to and determined b( the problem definition% Research ob=ectives ma( be in the form of research *uestions% 2he( ma( also take the form of research h(potheses% 7ere is an e'ample of each) Research *b+ecti$e, determine the average level of satisfaction for our service% Research -uestion, is our service of average; belo0 average or above average for our customers% Research . pothesis, our customers are satisfied 0ith our service% 'etermining Research 'esign 8hat is research design> 1 research design is a frame0ork or blueprint to conduct a research pro=ect% It is like an architectAs plan to build a house% It provides detailed procedures for obtaining and anal(<ing the re*uired information% It details out 0hat is the nature and sources of data; the instrument of data collection; ho0 to test h(pothesis; if an(; scaling procedures; sampling process and plan of data anal(sis% 2here are three basis research designs; e'plorator( descriptive and causalD e'perimental% #&plorator design suits those research pro=ects 0here ver( little is kno0n% 4e0 opportunities can be evaluated% It ma( help define and refine the research problem or generate research *uestionsD h(potheses% 'escripti$e research design is used 0hen research phenomena is to be described% It describes marketing variables% It ans0ers 0hat; 0ho; 0h(; ho0; 0hen and 0here *uestion% 2hese t(pes of studies describe such things like consumer attitudes; intentions and behaviors; number of competitors; their strategies and demographic or ps(chographic characteristics of the consumers% Descriptive studies are *uite common in marketing research and are fre*uentl( undertaken internall( or e'ternall(% 2he( are the mainsta( of the marketing research as the( generall( allo0 the marketing managers to dra0 inferences about their target markets; customers; competitors and other areas of concern% Causal research design/ although used on limited scale in marketing research; allo0s the market researchers to isolate causes and effects% 8hat is the effect of various marketing variables sa( price; package; sales promotion methods; on other variables like sales% In other 0ords; causal designs allo0 us to determine causalit( or 0hich variable is causing another variable to change% 2he variable 0hich causes the change is called independent variable and the one is called dependent variable% If the advertisement increases the sales; the former variable is independent and the latter is dependent% /ausal design involves e'periments 0hich are laid do0n to measure the change in impendent and dependent variables% 2hese are other variables 0hich effect relationship bet0een independent and dependent variables; that is; either the( affect independent variable or the dependent variable% Such variables are intervening or moderating variables and should be controlled b( the researcher 0hich is rather difficult% 2he researcher has to determine 0hich design is most appropriate for hisDher research at hand% 2he design that 0ill meet the ob=ectives of the research and 0ill bring ma'imum efficienc( and accurac( of data should be selected b( the researcher% 'etermine T pes and Sources of 'ata :asicall( these are t0o t(pes of information available to researcher in marketing research secondar( data and primar( data% Secondar( data as the name implies; is that information 0hich
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has alread( been collected for some other purpose and no0 it is being used for a secondar( purpose% It is second hand information% :ooks; internet; /D R5Ms; Databases etc% are big sources of secondar( data for marketing research% Secondar( data are *uickl( collected and are relativel( ine'pensive% It has a data fit problem and sometimes lacks integrit( and authenticit(% 5n the other hand; primar( data are not readil( available% 6rimar( data are collected speciall( for the stud( at hand for the first time b( the researcherAs team for this pro=ect% It is collected b( *uestionnaires; intervie0; observation; electronicall( or telephonicall(% In marketing research; both t(pes of data are collected but use primar( data is perhaps more than secondar( data% 'etermine Sample Si0e and Select Simple Market researchers make use of samples 0hile doing research% Samples are selected from the population% 6opulation is the aggregate of all the units 0hich have the data for the research% Sample is a portion or subset of the population 0hich the researcher selects to 0ork 0ith% 2he researcher collects data from the samples and dra0 conclusions about the characteristics of population% 2herefore the sample should be representative% In sampling process; the researcher has to specif(% a. Sampling frame b. Si<e of the sampleB and c. Method of selecting that sample Sampling frame is an upEtoEdate list of all population elements from 0here the sample is to be selected si<e of the sample is to be decided b( the researcher on the basis of various factors including precision; confidence; time; budget re*uirement of the client etc% methods of selecting samples are man( primaril( these methods are probabilit( and non probabilit(% Sampling issues are discussed in details later in this book% 9or different research pro=ects; si<e of the sample and methods of sampling are different% 'esigning 'ata Collection Instruments Information is collected in marketing researchB therefore; the actual design of data collection instruments or tools is critical to the success of the pro=ect% &ven if the problem has been correctl( identified and defined and a good research design has been selected; asking the 0rong *uestions 0ill destro( the usefulness of the research efforts% 6rimar( data are collected basicall( b( t0o methods) b( asking *uestions or b( observing% Iuestions are asked through *uestionnaires 0hich are either mailed or administered personall( or b( face to face intervie0% 2he *uestionnaires ma( also be transmitted electronicall( -eEmail.% Development and preEtesting of *uestionnaires re*uires good communication and 0riting skills% Iuestionnaires are structured and unstructured% Structured *uestionnaires 0hich are also called close ended have list of *uestions that have pre specified ans0er choices% Fnstructured *uestions 0hich are also called open ended *uestion allo0 the respondents to ans0er in the 0a( heDshe likes%
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LECTURE # 03
Collect 'ata 2he process of data collection is critical since it involves a large proportion of the research budget and a large proportion of total error in the research result% Data collection re*uires a field force of some t(pe% 2his field staff operates in the field for personal intervie0ing -inEhome; mall intercept or computer assisted personal intervie0. or telephonic intervie0 or mailed *uestionnaire or electronic mail -eEmail or internet.% 6roper selection; training; supervision and evaluation of the field force are necessar( to minimi<e errors in data collection% 'ata "nal sis 1fter the data have been collected b( the field force; the data are to be anal(<ed% It has t0o stepsE
data preparation or processing and data anal sis.
'ata preparation includes editing; coding; transcription and verification% &ach *uestionnaire or form is inspected or edited and if necessar(; corrected% 4umbers or codes are assigned to represent each response to each *uestion in the data collection instrument e%g% male K 1; female K2 etc% 2he data from the *uestionnaire is input directl( into computer% In the second stage; data are anal 0ed b( the 0a( of tabulation; crossEtabulation and statistical tests% 2abulation refers to counting of number of responses or observations that fall in each categor( of responses% It allo0s the researcher to understand 0hat collected data means% &'amining t0o or more response categories at the same time is called cross tabulation% 9inall( a variet( of statistical tests including means; fre*uencies; correlations; trend anal(sis; test of significance etc are also used to anal(<e data% Data anal(sis leads to dra0 conclusions and ans0er the specific research *uestions% Prepare and Present the Research Report Cast step -Report. is most important phase of marketing research% Importance Research report properl( communicates the stud( results to client% &ntire pro=ect documented in a research report; details are here) 2ables; graphs to enhance clarit( and impact; 4eatl( produced anal(sis according to ob=ectives; S6SS or other in variabl( oral presentation before finali<ation; Ma=or findings; conclusions; Improvement; additional 0ork; report finali<ed; Research report should be clear; concise; complete Standard format; partsE25G language; Cevel of audience; T pes of Marketing Research 2here are t0o t(pes of marketing research% %asic research kno0ledge valuable; laser all scientists% "pplied research undertaken to solve a specific research problem mostl( applied% 5ther t(pes are action; co relational etc% 'efining Problem 6roblem definition is critical% It gives direction to subse*uent phases of marketing research% Standardi<ed research -s(ndicated. same process da( in and da( out -e%g% retail audit.% It is done b( marketing research supplier% Research ma( be customi<ed 0here a uni*ue marketing management problem is confronting the manager%
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Researcher should understand the uni*ue situation for customi<ed problem% /onduct discussion 0ith manager% 6roblem definition is in the form of statement of the general problem and identification of the specific components of marketing research problem% 'ifference bet(een Managers and Researchers :oth 0ork in different 0orlds% ManagerEline; decision making; make profit; 0ant ans0er to *uestions; emotional; political; 0ant the s(mptoms disappear; 6racticalEpragmatic% ResearcherEstaff; generate info; 0ant to ask *uestions; scholarl(; detached; unemotional; nonE political; 0ant to find the truth% 1s marketing mangers and marketing researchers have different orientations; the( develop differences% :oth should understand each other role% Discussions support each other% :oth should vie0 marketing research as partnership endeavor% 2he( can have meaningful discussions to classif( the things% 9or e'ample 0hether to investigate changes in the market place or select alternative marketing action or help gain some competitive advantage or sta( abreast of market trends% Marketing research problem differs from marketing management problem% Management Problem It is a decision making situation confronting the marketing manager emerging from problems -lo0 performance of the product. opportunities -ne0 trends. or s(mptoms -market share declining.% Research Problem Marketing research is defined as providing relevant; accurate; unbiased information that managers can use to solve their marketing management problem% Research problem is defined on the basis of management problem; it is critical that management problem be defined accuratel( and full(% #&ample of Relationship bet(een 'ecision and Research Problem 'ecision problems Research problems Develop packaging for a ne0 product &valuate effectiveness of alternative packaging designs Increase market penetration through the &valuate prospective locations opening of ne0 stores Increase store traffic Measure current image of the store 1llocate advertising budget geographicall( Determine current level of market penetration in respective areas Introduce ne0 product Design test market and do market testing to check the acceptance of the ne0 product Constructs and *perational 'efinitions 2o formulate the research problems; the market researcher has to specif( constructs and operational definitions and identif( relationship bet0een various constructs% 1 construct is a term for concept that is some0hat involved in the marketing management problem that 0ill be researched% &'amples of marketing constructs ma( be brand a0areness; recall; attitude to0ards brand; lifest(le; and brand lo(alt( etc% 1lthough general perception of these constructs ma( be shared b( the managers and researcher; (et market researcher translates the construct into an operational definition 0hich describes ho0 a construct 0ill be measured% It ultimatel( helps in formulating the *uestions that 0ill be asked to get information about the construct% &'amples follo0%
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Construct :rand a0areness Recall of ad Lno0ledge of product 1ttitude to0ards brand Satisfaction :rand lo(alt(
*perational definition 6ercentage of respondents having heard of the brand 4umber of people 0ho remember seeing an ad 8hat the( can tell about the product 4umber feel positive or negative about the brand 7o0 the( evaluate its performance 7o0 man( times the( bought the brand in the last si' months
Process of 'efining the Research Problem 2he task involved in the definition pf problems are e'plained belo0) 'iscussion (ith manager Inter$ie( (ith e&perts Secondar data anal sis Preliminar research
&nvironmental conte't of the
6roblem Definition Management decision problem
Marketing research problem
Research 1uestions
. potheses
Information needs
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LECTURE # 04
#&amples of Marketing Management and Marketing Research Problems #&ample I Marketing Management Problem 1lpha compan( has a long histor( of successful marketing of business planning products such as calendars; appointment books; diaries etc for business people% In the last fe0 (ears their sales has sho0n decline despite booming econom( and business e'pansion% Management believes this fall in sales can be attributed to the competitive strateg( particularl( '(< group% It ma( also be due to electronic scheduling books or soft0ares that are available no0% 2hus 1lpha must determine the causes of decline and suggest suitable marketing actins to counter the decline% Marketing Research Problem Research should be conducted to identif( 0hat competitorAs actions have adversel( affected 1lphaAs sales% It should also be determined if customers of the traditional da( planners are s0itching over to electronic da( planners and soft0are scheduling s(stems% Specific Research *b+ecti$es 1% 2race market share of the competitors of the traditional da( planners over the past five (ears% 2% Determine changes of the competitors marketing strateg( -i%e% 6s. for the same period% 3% &valuate the customerAs potential for the adoption of electronic scheduling books and integrated soft0are schedulers programs% #&ample II Marketing Research Problem Determine the 0eaknesses and strengths of Departmental Store 1 visaEvis other ma=or departmental stores 0ith respect to factors that influence the store patronage% Research -uestions 1% 8hat criteria do households use 0hen selecting departmental stores> 2% 7o0 do household evaluate Departmental Store 1 in terms of these criteria> 3% 8hich stores are chosen for shopping the specific product categories> % 8hat is the market share of Departmental Store 1 for specific product categories> !% 8hat is the demographic and ps(chographic profile of customer of Departmental Store 1% does it differ from competing stores> Secondar 'ata in Marketing Research 1s alread( defined secondar( data are those data 0hich have alread( been collected b( someone else -and not the researcher. for some other purpose in the past% 4o0 these data are being gathered b( the researcher second hand% Primar data is originated b( the researcher for the first time for the pro=ect at hand% It is time taking and e'pensive is a short comparison of secondar( and primar( data% Comparison of Secondar and Primar 'ata Secondar Purpose other pro=ect Process *uick and eas( Cost relativel( lo0 Time short
primar this pro=ect time taking high long 1!
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"d$antages and disad$antages of secondar data "d$antages &asil( accessible Relativel( ine'pensive Rapidl( obtained 'isad$antages Data fit problem Ma( be outdated Relevance is doubtful Ma( not be accurate
Sources of Secondar 'ata Secondar( data ma( be internal or e'ternal% Internal data are generated 0ithin the organi<ation for 0hich the research is being conducted% 2hese data ma( be read( to use or ma( re*uire further processing before it is used in the research% Some of the t(pical internal data include) a% Sales data -b( product; period; territor(. b% /ost data c% 1ccounting data d% Shipping data e% :udgets f% Sales calls data g% Record of advertising and promotion h% Manufacturing reports i% Iualit( check report =% Sales return reports k% /ustomer complaint reports l% R H D reports% #&ternal Sources of Secondar 'ata In addition to internal sources; secondar( data can be obtained from e'ternal sources 0hich are generated outside the organi<ation% Such data e'ist usuall( in published and online form% 9ederal; provincial; local governments publish such data regularl(% In addition; /hambers of /ommerce; trade and professional associations; marketing research firms and commercial publishers also publish such data for sale% Cet us see 0hat are different kinds of e'ternal secondar( data available in published and electronic form> Published Sources Such data are available from the libraries or such entities as trade associations; chambers of commerce or supplier s(ndicate of research firms% General business data are in the form of books; =ournals; periodicals; reports and maga<ines% Directories and guides regarding business and commerce are available in the libraries% Government sources include documents like census data; &conomic Surve( of 6akistan and Statistical Reports%
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'atabases 1 database is a collection of data and information describing of items and interest% 2heoreticall( 0e can have a nonEcomputeri<ed database but practicall( almost all databases are computeri<ed because of computerAs abilit( to sort; edit and anal(<e the information% /ompanies collect information about their customers and prepare internal databases for their marketing purposes% 5n the other hand; there are lots of e'ternal data bases supplied b( outside organi<ations% 2hese are available either free or on a nominal fee% Computeri0ed 'atabases
1 computeri<ed database is a collection of data record in a computer readable form% 2hese

databases are accessed online on a telecommunication net0ork% Internet databases can also be accessed and do0nloaded for storing the data else0here% Databases are offline too% Such databases are available on /DER5M disks% 5nline or offline; databases can be classified as bibliographic; numeric; fullEte't; director( and special purpose databases% Computeri0ed 'atabases 5nline and offline databases can further be classified as) :ibliographic databases) such databases contain citations to =ournal articles; ne0spapers; government documents; technical reports and marketing researches etc% 4umeric databases) 2hese databases contain numerical and statistical data% Industrial data are in the form numeric database% 9ullEte't databases) Such databases offer the complete te't of articles appearing in the selected publications including ne0spapers; =ournals etc% Director( databases) 2hese databases list information about individuals; organi<ations; government entities and service providers% SpecialE6urpose databases) Such databases provide information of special nature; for e'ample data on a speciali<ed industr(% S ndicated Sources of 'ata 1nother important source of e'ternal source of secondar( data is the s(ndicated service% 1s alread( e'plained; s(ndicated services are the marketing research companies that collect and provide information from a common pool of data to different clients 0ho subscribe to their services% 5bviousl( such information needs are shared b( man( companies 0ho are served b( the s(ndicates on pa(ment% Subscription of each client is nominal as compared to if the data 0ere collected e'clusivel( for this particular client% S(ndicated firms collect the same standardi<ed data% Such data are not collected for a particular client but dra0ing from a common pool; the data are fit to the individual needs of the client% S(ndicated services collect and provide data on households and consumers; ps(chographics; lifest(les; advertising evaluations; scanner services; retail audits; 0holesale audits; bu(ing po0er inde' etc% /ompanies use s(ndicated service data in segmentation; distribution and media planning%
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LECTURE # 05
Research 'esign Research design is a plan or blueprint for conducting the marketing research pro=ect% It specifies the details of the methods and procedures necessar( for collecting and anal(<ing data for the pro=ect% It is a set of advance decisions that make up the master plan for collection and anal(sis of the data% 2o develop a research design is important as it saves the time and mone( of the researcher% 8hen 0e make advance thinking and make necessar( decisions as to ho0 to collect information and anal(<e it; this result into efficienc( and econom(% Research design serves the researcher as a blueprint serves a builder% It is =ust like an architectural plan% Classification of Research 'esign Research design ma( be broadl( classified into e'plorator( or conclusive% #&plorator Research 'esign 2he primar( ob=ective of e'plorator( research design is to provide insight and comprehension of the problem situation that confronts the researcher% In this design 0e obtain background information; define terms to clarif( the problems and h(potheses and establish research ob=ectives% It is unstructured and informal research% It is unstructured in the sense that it does not have a formali<ed set of ob=ectives; sample plan or *uestionnaire% It is usuall( conducted at the outset of a research pro=ect and aims to kno0 much about the problem% It needs additional information or desires ne0 or more recent information about the problem% It ma( generate possible h(potheses to test% Conclusi$e Research 'esign &'plorator( research is generall( follo0ed b( the conclusive research% /onclusive research is t(picall( more formal than e'plorator( research% It is based on large representative samples and data gathered are *uantitativel( anal(<ed% 7ere are the differences bet0een e'plorator( and conclusive research% 'ifferences bet(een #&plorator and Conclusi$e Research #&plorator Conclusi$e *b+ecti$e 2o bring insight and understanding 2o generate test and specific h(pothesis Characteristics 1nal(sis of primar( data are *ualitative 1nal(sis of data is *uantitative 9le'ible; unstructured and informal process 9ormal and structured process Information obtained are loosel( defined Information clearl( defined Conclusions *utcome Sample small and non representative 2entative 9ollo0ed b( conclusive or further e'plorator( research Representative and large sample 9inalEconclusion 9indings used as input in decision making
Purposes of #&plorator Research 2he purposes of e'plorator( research ma( be put to use in a number of situations 0hich are as follo0) ). 2ain %ackground Information 8hen the researcher does not have enough understanding of the situation and ver( little is kno0n about the problem; e'plorator( research ma( be undertaken% Much needed background information
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is collected through e'plorator( research% 9or e'ample in a marketing problem; insight can be gained in brands; sales territories of the firm and so on% 3. Precision and Clarit in the Problem &'plorator( research is helpful in defining the research more clearl(% 4. 'e$elop . potheses 7(potheses are tentative statements 0hich are to be tested (et% 2he( describe speculative relationships bet0een t0o or more variables% In e'plorator( research 0e find out the variables before 0e h(pothesi<e the relationship% 5. #stablish Research Priorities &'plorator( research helps in determining the priorities of topics to research% 9or e'ample on the basis of customer complaints; the products ma( be identified 0hich need more attention of the management% 6. 'efine Terms &'plorator( research 0ill clarif( the concepts and as such can help in defining terms; for e'ample; Mstore imageA Mcustomer satisfactionA etc% It also reveals ho0 to measure these concepts% Methods of conducting e&plorator research 1 variet( of methods can be used to conduct e'plorator( research% 2hese include revie0 of literature and other secondar( data; focus group; depth intervie0; e'perience surve( and pro=ective techni*ues% Cet us e'amine these methods in detail% ). Secondar 'ata "nal sis Search and anal(sis of secondar( data is often the core of e'plorator( research% 1s 0e kno0; secondar( data is in the form of published and electronic material; so the researcher should consult libraries and bro0se internet% 2he researcher ma( also use online and offline data bases for hisDher research% 3. 7ocus 2roup It is an increasingl( popular method of gathering data for e'plorator( research% 9ocus group is an intervie0 conducted b( a trained moderator through spontaneous; unstructured discussions 0ith a small group of respondents% 1lthough the focus group techni*ues encourage openness; (et it is ?focused@% 8e 0ill discuss focus group method in detail later in this section% 4. #&pert or #&perience Sur$e It refers to gathering information from the e'pert and kno0ledgeable persons 0ith regard to the topic of research% It is an unstructured personal intervie0 aiming to kno0 the problems and difficulties relating to the research problem; forecasting demand etc% &'perts or e'perienced people in this surve( ma( be chosen on the basis of =udgment and convenience of the research% 2he( donAt have to be a representative sample% 5. 'epth Inter$ie( Depth intervie0 is an intervie0 0ith a single person i%e% one to one% It is conducted b( a highl( skilled intervie0er and it uncovers the attitudes; benefits; motivation and feelings of the respondents about the topic% 2here is free e'change of information bet0een the researcher and the respondent; unlike focus group; 0here the effort is made to keep the discussion focused% It is more e'pensive than focus group because such an intervie0 is conducted 0ith singular person instead of a group% It ma( be emplo(ed in special problem situations; such as) a% 6robing of the respondents b% Fnderstanding of complicated behavior c% 6roduct consumption e'pense d% Information about sensitive; embarrassing or confidential topic -personal finance; loose dentures.
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e% Intervie0 0ith professional people f% Intervie0 0ith competitors in e'ceptional circumstances 6. Pro+ecti$e Techni1ues :orro0ed from the field of clinical ps(cholog(; pro=ective techni*ues are indirect focus of *uestioning that seeks to e'plore the hidden motives for bu(ing goods and services% 2hese techni*ues encourage the respondents to pro=ect themselves and share his underl(ing beliefs; attitudes or feeling about the issue of research% In pro=ective techni*ues; respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others rather than describe their o0n behavior% In doing so; respondents indirectl( pro=ect their o0n needs; motives; attitudes and values% Respondents are given ambiguous situations to interpret and b( interpreting the situation; the( pro=ect themselves% 6ro=ective techni*ues are classified as 0ord association; sentence completion; construction and e'pressive techni*ues% Cet us see 0hat these techni*ues are% a8 9ord "ssociation In this techni*ue; a respondent is presented a list of 0ords% 7eDshe is asked the first 0ord that comes to hisDher mind anal(<e brand names% 2his is used to parking 0hich store name; econom( -store.; strength -cement. taste -tea; =uice.; location -/hinese restaurant.; and fresh -baker(. b8 Sentence Completion Incomplete sentence are given and respondents are asked to complete) 1 person 0ho shops at 6ace is NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN Someone 0ho drinks packaged =uice is NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN 6earl continental hotel is most liked b( NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN 8hen I think of shopping in a store; I think of NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN 2ea is good to drink 0hen NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN Stor( completion is a variation of sentence completion% 6art of the stor( is given to the respondent and he completes the rest of it% In doing so heDshe pro=ects his perceptions about the environments and other things% c8 Construction Techni1ue In this techni*ue; the respondent is re*uired to construct a response in the form of a dialogue; description or stor(% In picture response; the respondent is given a picture and asked to describe it% It has its roots in 2hematic 1pperception 2est -212. 0here series of pictures 0ere given to the respondents and the( 0ere asked to construct a stor(% Sometimes cartoon characters are sho0n in a specific situation related to the problem and the respondents are asked as to 0hat a character is sa(ing in response to the otherAs comment% It is also called balloon test% See for e'ample% #&pressi$e Techni1ues In e'pressive techni*ues; the respondent is presented 0ith some visual or verbal situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people in the situation% Role pla(ing and thirdE person techni*ues are usuall( used in this categor(% In role pla(ing; the respondents are asked to pla( the role and assume the behavior of someone else% 1s such the( pro=ect their o0n feelings in this role% In third person techni*ue; the *uestion about a third person like friend; neighbor etc is asked and 0hen the respondent is describing the behavior of that person; heDshe is pro=ecting himselfDherself% 7ocus 2roup Inter$ie( 1s 0e kno0 a focus group intervie0 is a discussion led b( a trained person called moderator% 2he focus group brings insight b( talking to the representative of the target market% It also brings une'pected findings 0hich emanate from free flo0ing ideas of the group% 2his is one 0a( that the marketer gets in touch 0ith the target market% *b+ecti$es of 7ocus 2roup
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1mong others; there are four main ob=ectives of focus group intervie0% 2hese are) a% 2o generate ideas% 4e0 product; service; use of the product or improvement b% 2o understand consumer vocabular( and sta( upEtoEdate about the 0ords and phrases the consumer use about the product and its use% It helps in problem definition% c% 2o reveal consumer needs; attitudes; perceptions and motives on the product and its use% 2his 0ill subse*uentl( help to create ob=ectives for the research% d% 2o understand findings from *uantitative studies% 9ocus group becomes an instrument for the researcher to comprehend and interpret the findings of the surve(% *perational Characteristics of the 7ocus 2roup Si<e of focus group "E12 /omposition of group preEscreenedEhomogeneous provide incentive for participation Moderator trained; having good interpersonal and observational skills Duration 1E3hours 6h(sical arrangements informal Drela'ed Cocation focus group facilit(; hotel Recording 1udioEvideo -ualification of a 2ood 7ocus 2roup Moderator 1% 1 friendl( leader 3ie0ed not dictatorialD threatening; like to talk; elicit honest response firm but kind 2% kno0ledgeable but not all kno0ing 7as some kno0ledge but not e'pert% 7e needs to kno0% 4ot to be *uestioned% 3% Iuick Cearner 1bsorb client briefing% Fnderstands and leads the group discussion % Good listener e'cellent memor( !% 1 facilitator not performer 6romote discussion not dominate 4ot e'tra humor #% &ncouraging 2o unresponsive members 7% 9le'ible /hange the *uestions after planning; if needed "% 6ermissive 6ermissive (et alert and focused ,% Involved 6ersonall( involved in discussion; stimulating 10% Sensitive 2o guide at intellectual and emotional level Conducting a 7ocus 2roup Determine the ob=ectives of the research 6ro=ect and define the problem 8hat are ob=ectives of focus group> Develop screening *uestions Recruit the focus group members Develop moderatorAs outline
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/onduct focus group -1udioEvideo. Revie0 tapes and anal(<e data Summari<e the findings
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LECTURE # 06
*nline 7ocus 2roup 1part from traditional focus group; it can be conducted online% Si<e of the focus group is usuall( four to si' and it can be conducted an(0here in the 0orld% It continues for about an hour or so% Group d(namics are limited% It is ine'pensive as compared to traditional focus group but the data gathered through conventional focus group are more valuable than online focus group% "d$antages of 7ocus 2roup Several advantages) 1% S(nergism NNNNNNNNNNN several people put together to produce info 2% Sno0balling NNNNNNNNNNN a personAs comment triggers chain reaction 3% Securit( NNNNNNNNNNN Group securit(% 9eels free to e'press % Spontaneit( NNNNNNNNNNN spontaneous; not planned accurate !% Speed NNNNNNNNNNN man( people ideas #% /lient observes the groupNNNNNN one 0a( glass group 7% 9le'ibilit( NNNNNNNNNNN change 0ith the situation 'isad$antages of 7ocus 2roup 1% Mis=udgment NNNNNNNNNNN sub=ective interpretation; so trained moderator 2% /ost NNNNNNNNNNN per participant is high 3% Sample NNNNNNNNNNN not representative % Moderation NNNNNNNNNNN difficult !% Domination of some members NNNN control of the moderator is needed "pplication of 7ocus 2roup in Marketing Research 9ocus group can be used in almost an( situation re*uiring some preliminar( understanding and insight% 9ocus group can be used in marketing research to address issues like) 1% developing cop( for advertisement 2% obtaining an impression about price of the product 3% ne0 product concept testing % understanding consumer perceptions; preference and purchase behavior !% finding ne0 ideas about old products #% generating h(potheses for research 'o:s and 'on:t about 7ocus 2roup 1% :e sure to get the right people in the group 2% 1void =udging participants on ph(sical appearance 3% 8ith focus group fe0 is better than man( % 4ever do focus group 0ithout planning !% 4ever lose sight of the ob=ectives of the research for 0hich focus group is being conducted #% 7ire a trained and *ualified moderator 7% /ompute the report and submit it *uickl(% 'escripti$e Research 'esign Ma=or purpose of descriptive research is to describe the marketing functions or characteristics% It provides ans0ers to *uestions such as 0ho; 0hat; ho0; 0hen; 0here as the( are related to the research problem% Descriptive research is t(picall( conducted to ans0er the follo0ing basic *uestions to formulate effective marketing strategies%
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1% Describe the characteristics of relevant groups such as consumers; market areas; sales person etc% 2% 6ercentage of units in a population sho0ing certain behavior% 9or e'ample percentage of heav( users of a brand% 3% 6roduct characteristics as perceived b( the marketDcustomers% % Degree of association of different marketing variables% 9or e'ample association of income and bu(ing *uantit(% Such association does not mean cause and effect relationship% !% 2o make predication about the occurrence of marketing phenomena% 9or e'ample 0hat 0ill be the sales of :ata stores in 5kara during December 2007> Classification of 'escripti$e Research Descriptive research can further be classified into t0o) crossEsectional and longitudinal% 2hese are described belo0% Cross!Sectional Studies /rossEsectional studies measure the data from a sample at one point in time% Sample is like a crossE section of population% If (ou have to measure the population at different times; ever( time a ne0 sample should be taken% /rossEsectional studies are *uite prevalent in marketing research% 1s the data from the sample are collected onl( once; the( are also called snapshot studies% Fsuall( the crossEsectional studies use a large sample that is 0h( these are called surve(s research 0ith 0hich people are most familiar% Longitudinal Research Congitudinal research is a t(pe of research design 0hich involves a fi'ed sample measured repeatedl( on the same variables% In crossEsectional design; sample changes ever( time but in longitudinal research sample remains the same over time% In crossEsectional stud( there is onl( one picture or snapshot but in longitudinal stud( there are series of pictures 0hich provides a vie0 of the changes that have taken place over time% 2erm ?panel@ is used to describe a longitudinal design% 1 panel contains a sample of respondents 0ho have agreed to provide information at specified intervals over an e'tended period of time% 6anel ma( be group of customers; e'perts; household or stores% 6anel members are compensated for their participation b( gifts; coupons; or cash% 2here are t0o t(pes of panels) 1% 2raditional panel 2% 5mnibus panel Traditional Panel 2he traditional panel is a fi'ed sample 0here the some variables are measured repeatedl(% *mnibus panel 2he omnibus is a fi'ed sample 0hich is measured repeatedl(; but the variables measured are different% 2raditional panelAs studies can be used to anal(<e ho0 members s0itched from one brand to the other from one time period to the ne't% 1nother use of longitudinal stud( is that of market tracking studies% 2hrough such studies changes over time can be measured% 1 marketer can track ho0 hisDher brand is doing as compared to other brand b( having representative data on brand market share% Methods ;sed in 'escripti$e 'esign 2here are basicall( t0o method emplo(ed in descriptive research) surve( and observation Sur$e method is based on *uestioning of respondents% Iuestions ma( be asked verball(; in 0ritten form or through computer% Iuestions ma( be asked about a0areness; interactions; attitude; motivation; demographics or lifest(le of the respondents%
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Iuestions in surve( ma( be structured or unstructured% Structured *uestions; 0hich are usuall( asked in a surve( research; are standardi<ed and as such are direct% Fnstructured *uestion are open and do not have a prearranged ans0er choices% "d$antages of Sur$e s /omparativel( a surve( method allo0s collection of significant amount of data in an economical and efficient manner% Surve( methods t(picall( allo0 larger sample% 2here are at least four advantages of surve( methods) 1% Standardi<ation 2% &ase of administration 3% 2o find out unseen % Suitable for tabulation and statistical anal(sis ). Standardi0ation Surve( methods ensure that all respondents are asked the same *uestions% Same order of *uestions and same choices of ans0ers are given to each respondent% 2he se*uence of the *uestions is same% In nutshell 0e can sa( that it is a standard *uestionnaire 0hich is being administered to all respondents% 3. #ase of "dministration 8hether personal intervie0; telephonic intervie0; computer assisted intervie0 or mailed *uestionnaire; surve( methods are eas( to administer% Mailed *uestionnaires are perhaps the simplest method% 2here are no tap recording; taking notes or anal(<ing pro=ective or ph(siological data% 7ind *ut <;nseen= Much of the unseen data can be found out through direct *uestions% 9or e'ample 0e can find out b( asking the respondents ho0 man( stores he visited before making the final purchase% Similarl( 0e ask about income si<e of the famil( or occupation 0hich 0as other0ise unobservable b( the researcher% 1ll unobservable information can be obtained through direct *uestioning% Suitable for Tabulation and Statistical "nal sis Surve( methods are designed in a 0a( that tables can easil( be prepared and statistical packages like S6SS can easil( used% In contrast to *ualitative research 0here samples are small; it proves much frustrating 0hen sub=ected to statistical anal(sis% :ut long crossEsectional surve(s perfectl( suit these statistical procedures% Classification of Sur$e Method Surve( methods can be classified on the basis of mode used to administer the *uestionnaire% 2hese are) 6ersonal intervie0 2elephonic intervie0 Mailed *uestionnaire Personal Inter$ie( In personal intervie0s; respondents are intervie0ed faceEtoEface% 2he surve(or or intervie0er reads the *uestions to the respondent and records the ans0ers in 0riting; audiotape or videotape form% It has been a primar( method of surve( for man( (ears but its use is declining due to advances in technolog( and rising cost% 4evertheless the personal intervie0s are still used due to their follo0ing advantages% a% 7eedback, 4on verbal cues give feedback to intervie0er as 0hether the respondent is understanding the *uestion or not% 2he clarification ma( be provided b( the intervie0er or *uestion ma( be ad=usted accordingl(% 2!
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b% Rapport, Due to personal presence of the intervie0er; a rapport can be developed 0ith the intervie0ee% 2hus the respondent starts relating to the intervie0ers and ans0ers the intervie0ers *uestions more openl(% Respondents are more truthful 0hen the( are faceEtoEface% c% -ualit control, 9or intervie0s most of the times researcher selects the respondents based on certain distinguishing characteristics that are relevant to research% 6ersonal intervie0ers must ensure that respondents are selected correctl( before the intervie0 takes place% 2his helps maintain *ualit( of the research% d% "daptabilit , 6ersonal intervie0ers can easil( adapt to the needs of different respondents% 7eD she can help an elderl( respondent understand ho0 to respond to ?some 0hat agree@ or ?strongl( agree@% Similarl( he can give e'amples to the respondents on other issues% 7e can ad=ust the direction% If the intervie0er does not understand the ans0er; heD she can ask probing *uestions to get clarification of or depth in the ans0er% Personal inter$ie(s have three main disadvantages% 2he( are e'pensive; take more time and lend themselves to intervie0erAs bias% 2he intervie0er ma( ask some leading *uestions or can give hint to a specific ans0er 0hich is not desirable in research% Categories of Personal Inter$ie( 6ersonal intervie0ing ma( be categori<ed into three t(pes) a% InEhome personal intervie0s b% Mall intercept personal intervie0s c% /omputerEassisted personal intervie0s a.In!home personal inter$ie(s take place in the home or office of the respondent according to the convenience of the intervie0er% Intervie0er fi'es an appointment of date; time and place of the intervie0 prior to going for intervie0% b.Mall intercept personal inter$ie( In mallEintercept intervie0 respondents are shoppers at the shopping malls and the( are intercepted 0hile shopping in the store or outside the store% Sometimes the( are intercepted and brought to an office facilit( built b( the research firms on the shopping mall for this purpose% Mall intercepts take place in high traffic shopping areas% Mall intercept has ac*uired a ma=or role as a surve( method due to its ease of implementation% It is less e'pensive than depth intervie0 in home or in office% 2his has a ver( lo0 cost per intervie0ee method% :ut representativeness of mall intercept sample is al0a(s an issue% In shopping malls intervie0s; some shoppers refuse to give intervie0% 1nother disadvantage of mall intercept is that the environment of shopping malls is not as comfortable as office or home% 2herefore big *uestionnaires need to see meaningful information c.Telephonic inter$ie(, 8here ph(sical contact of the respondent is not possible or is e'pensive; telephonic intervie0ing is attractive option% 2here are a number of advantages as 0ell as disadvantages of telephonic intervie0ing% "d$antages of telephonic inter$ie( include speed and cost% 2elephone is relativel( ine'pensive to collect data% 1nother advantage of telephone surve( is that it is *uick to collect data through telephoning; -1 good intervie0 per hour 0ith the help of telephone.% 2elephone intervie0s have some shortcomings too% 9irst; (ou cannot demonstrate or sho0 an(thing to the respondent on the phone% 2herefore 0here this is important to sho0 an advertisement; package etc% telephone intervie0 is not a good alternative% Second disadvantage is that telephone intervie0 does not permit observation of bod( language; facial e'pression or e(e contact 0ith the respondents and the intervie0er is deprived of the benefit of observational =udgment 0hich other0ise is available in faceEtoEface intervie0% 2hird disadvantage of telephonic intervie0 is that the information obtained through this method is more limited in *uantit( as the people do not like to ans0er man( *uestions on the phone and hang up *uickl(% 2elephonic
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intervie0 is a poor choice of conducting a surve( 0ith man( openEended *uestions% It also has a great potential for fake intervie0ees% 1n additional problem in countries like 6akistan is that most of the 0omen respondents hesitate to be intervie0ed on the phone% Computer "ssisted Inter$ie(ing /omputer can assist the intervie0ers both in personal intervie0 and telephone intervie0% /omputer 1ssisted 6ersonal Intervie0 -/16I. and /omputer 1ssisted 2elephone Intervie0 -/12I. are being used in marketing research in advanced countries but these are in the development stage in developing countries% Internet is also being used in marketing research% &Email intervie0s surve( are not uncommon no0% &Email addresses are obtained and *uestions are eEmailed on these addresses% Respondents t(pe the ans0ers to either closeEended *uestions at the designated places and click on ?repl(@ to send them back% Mailed -uestionnaire 1nother t(pe of data collection is the mail intervie0 0hich is usuall( through mailed *uestionnaires or mail panels% In a t(pical mailed intervie0; *uestionnaires are sent to the respondents b( mail% 2he *uestionnaire is accompanied b( a return envelope and a cover letter% 6rior to that; respondents had been identified through appropriate sampling method and a mailing list developed% 2he cover letter appeals the respondent in an effective manner to return the *uestionnaire in the accompanied return envelope 0ith postage stamps affi'ed b( the researcher% 2he mail surve(s have some advantages and disadvantages% 1dvantages include ver( lo0 cost per respondents and convenience of the respondents to fill out the *uestionnaire on their convenience% Main disadvantage of the mailed *uestionnaire is ver( lo0 response rate% 6eople are more 0illing to participate in surve( for a 0orth( reason or incentive% Mail Panel 1 variation of mailed intervie0 is the mail panel% 1 mail panel consists of a large sample of household 0ho have agreed to participate in mailed *uestionnaires and product tests or telephone surve(s periodicall(% 2he( either volunteer to do so or are provided some incentive% Data from panels is updated periodicall(% 6anel is prescreened to ensure that panel members represent target market or consumer of interest%
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LECTURE # 07
Mailed -uestionnaire 1nother t(pe of data collection is the mail intervie0 0hich is usuall( through mailed *uestionnaires or mail panels% In a t(pical mailed intervie0; *uestionnaires are sent to the respondents b( mail% 2he *uestionnaire is accompanied b( a return envelope and a cover letter% 6rior to that; respondents had been identified through appropriate sampling method and a mailing list developed% 2he cover letter appeals the respondent in an effective manner to return the *uestionnaire in the accompanied return envelope 0ith postage stamps affi'ed b( the researcher% 2he mail surve(s have some advantages and disadvantages% 1dvantages include ver( lo0 cost per respondents and convenience of the respondents to fill out the *uestionnaire on their convenience% Main disadvantage of the mailed *uestionnaire is ver( lo0 response rate% 6eople are more 0illing to participate in surve( for a 0orth( reason or incentive% Mail Panel 1 variation of mailed intervie0 is the mail panel% 1 mail panel consists of a large sample of household 0ho have agreed to participate in mailed *uestionnaires and product tests or telephone surve(s periodicall(% 2he( either volunteer to do so or are provided some incentive% Data from panels is updated periodicall(% 6anel is prescreened to ensure that panel members represent target market or consumer of interest% Comparison of Sur$e Methods 2he above mentioned surve( methods are evaluated on different factors in the follo0ing table% 7actor 3olume of data Speed Response rate 7le&ibilit of data collection "ccurac of data *btaining sensiti$e information Possibilit of inter$ie( bias Time consumed #&pense Sample control " Comparison of 'ifferent Sur$e Methods Personal Mall Telephone Mail sur$e inter$ie( intercept inter$ie( more more Cess less moderate high high ver( good lo0 high high high high moderateDhigh high high ver( good lo0 high moderate moderate moderate 7igh moderate moderate Good 7igh moderate moderate moderate moderate lo0 lo0 lo0 ver( good high nil moderate lo0 lo0 Mail panels less lo0 moderate lo0 ver( good moderateDhigh nil moderate lo0Dmoderate moderateDhigh
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*bser$ation Methods 1nother method of data collection in descriptive research is observation 0hich records the behavior pattern of people; ob=ects or events in a s(stematic manner% 5bservation is limited to provide information of the current behavior% 2here is no *uestion or communication of observer 0ith the people being observed% 5bservation can be structured and unstructured; disguised and undisguised or natural vs% contrived% Structured $s. ;nstructured In structured observation; the researchers determine in advance 0hat behaviors are to be observed and recorded% 2he researcher prepares a checklist of these behaviors and ignores all others% Structured observation is useful on conclusive research% In unstructured observation; the researcher observes all the episodes under stud( and records 0hatever heDshe finds interesting and relevant% 4o details of 0hat 0ill be observed are set in advance% 5bserverAs bias in unstructured observation is potentiall( high and this t(pe of observation is more suitable for e'plorator( research% Participant $s. Non Participant *bser$ation 6articipant observation is a method in 0hich the observer or researcher participates in the process being observed% 9or e'ample heDshe can be customer; a 0orker; or a trainee% In non participant observation the observer is =ust an observer% ;ndisguised and 'isguised *bser$ation 8hen the sub=ects are informed that the( are being observed for some purpose such an observation is kno0n as undisguised observation% 8hen the sub=ects are una0are that the( are being observed; this observation is called disguised observation% Sometimes the observer disguises the observation process b( using one 0a( mirrors or hidden cameras% Natural $ersus Contri$ed *bser$ation :ehavior can be observed in natural or artificial setting% If the observation takes place in natural environment; it is kno0n as natural observation; for e'ample; a researcher observing the behavior of respondents 0hile eating at McDonald% It is called contrived observation 0hen the respondent is brought in an artificial setting and observed% 2ests done b( var(ing shelf space; product flavors and displa( locations fall under contrived observation% *ther Methods of *bser$ation 2he methods of observation based on mode of administration are classified as belo0% ). .uman *bser$ation In this method; observer is the researcher himselfD herself or a person hired for this purpose% 2he observer merel( record 0hat heDshe observes% 3. Mechanical *bser$ation In this observation; a mechanical rather than the human e(e observes the phenomenon% Such mechanical devices include people meter; audiometer; onEsiteEcameras; turnstiles -to count the people entering or leaving a building. and scanners etc% Scanners are good devices to collect information about the consumer purchases b( product categor(; price; *ualit(; brand and store t(pe% 4. Trace "nal sis 2,
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2his is the observation of some traces of the event that has passed% Data collection is on the basis of ph(sical evidence or traces of the past behavior% 2his is like observing the trash of sub=ect being studies% It is also kno0n as unobtrusive method% 4otice the follo0ing e'amples a% &rosion of tile in a building b% 2he maga<ines that 0ere donated to charit( sho0s the popularit( of maga<ines c% 8ear and tear of pages in a =ournal sho0s its readership d% 1ge and condition of the car in the parking lot to determine the affluence of the customers e% 4umber of empties of /oke or 6epsi to determine the consumption of /oke or 6epsi 5. Content "nal sis It is the observation as 0ell as anal(sis of various content of communication 0hich is manifest% In marketing research conte't; applications of content anal(sis involve observation and anal(sis of message of advertisement; radio and television programs; ne0spaper article and the like% In international marketing content anal(sis has successfull( been used in stud(ing foreign cultures and crossEculture ads% 6. Retail and 9holesale "udit In this method of observation; the researcher checks ph(sical record or performs inventor( anal(sis% 8e have discussed this method in detail in the section of s(ndicated services "d$antages and Limitation of *bser$ation 5bservation can be used to supplement and complement other research techni*ues to check on the result obtained b( others% Ideall( the sub=ect of observational research should not be a0are that the( are being observed% :ecause of this; the respondents 0ould react in a natural manner% 2his provides the researcher insight into actual not reported behavior% 2he sub=ects of the research are not asked about something; the( are observed% 2hus there is no chance for recall error% Data obtained through observation is upEtoEdate and correct; if interpreted correctl(% In some cases; observation ma( be the onl( choice to obtained correct information% 9or e'ample; children 0ho cannot e'press their opinion about a ne0 to( can be observed 0hile pla(ing or not pla(ing 0ith the ne0 to(% 5bservation methods can successfull( be emplo(ed to collect marketing intelligence in retail marketing and emplo(eeAs behavior b( 0a( of ?m(ster( shoppers@ are actuall( trained observers but pose as customer in the competitorAs store% 5bservation has limitations too% Due to small sample and sub=ective interpretation; result are usuall( considered tentative% 1 big limitation of observation as a method of research is that beliefs and internal conditions of the sub=ects cannot be observed% /ertainl( 0ith observation; (ou cannot tell 0hat is going beneath the surface behavior% 5bservation methods are successful 0hen such feelings are unimportant for the research% 1nother problem 0ith the observation is that sometimes it is time consuming and e'pensive% 1lso it has potential for observerAs bias% It is therefore suggested that observation should not used alone rather in combination 0ith other surve( methods% It is estimated that not more than onl( one percent marketing research pro=ect rel( solel( on observational methods as a means of obtaining primar( data%
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LECTURE # 08
Casual Research /ausalit( 0hen the occurrence of O increases the probabilit( of the occurrence of P% Conditions for Causalit :efore making causal inferences; or assuming causalit(; three conditions must be satisfied% 2hese are) 1% concomitant variation 2% time order of occurrence of variables 3% elimination of other possible causal factors /oncomitant variation is the e'tent to 0hich causes O and an effect P; occur together or var( together in the 0a( predicted b( the h(pothesis under consideration% Time *rder of *ccurrence of >ariables 2he time of occurrence condition states that the causing event must occur either before or simultaneousl( 0ith the effectB it cannot occur after0ards% :( definition an effect can not be produced b( an event that occurs after the effect has taken place% "bsence of *ther Possible Causal 7actor 2he absence of other possible causal factors means that the factor or variable being investigated should be the onl( possible causal e'planation% 'efinitions and Concepts 8e define basic concepts and illustrate those using e'amples% Independent >ariables Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated i%e% the levels of these variables are changed b( the researcher and 0hose effects are measured and compared% 2hese variables also kno0n as treatments ma( include price levels; package design and advertising themes% Test ;nits 2est units are individuals; organi<ations or other entities 0hose response to the independent variables or treatments is being e'amined% 2est units ma( include consumers; stores or geographic areas% 'ependent >ariables Dependent variables are the variables that measure the effect of the independent variables on the test units% 2hese variables ma( include sales; profits and market shares% #&traneous $ariables &'traneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the response of the test units% 2hese variables can confound the dependent variable measures in a 0a( that 0eakens or invalidates the results of the e'periment% &'traneous variables include store si<e; store location and competitive effort% #&periment 1n e'periment is formed 0hen the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and measures their effect on one or more dependent variables; 0hile controlling for the effect of e'traneous variables% #&perimental 'esign 1n e'perimental design is a set of procedures specif(ing)
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1% 2% 3% %
the test unit and ho0 these units are to be divided into homogenous subsamples 0hat independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated 0hat dependent variables are to be measured ho0 the e'traneous variables are to be controlled
'efinition of S mbols 2o facilitate our discussion of e'traneous variables and specific e'perimental designs; define a set of s(mbols that are no0 commonl( used in marketing research% OK the e'posure of a group to an independent variable; treatment or event the effects of 0hich are to determined% 5K the process of observation or measurement of the dependent variable on the test units or group of units RK the random assignment of test units or groups to separate treatment In addition the follo0ing conventions are adopted Movement from left to right indicates movement through time 7ori<ontal alignment of s(mbols implies that all those s(mbols refer to one specific group; treatment or control% 3ertical alignment of s(mbols implies that all those s(mbols refer to activities or event that occur simultaneousl( 9or e'ample; the s(mbols arrangement X O1 O2 Means that a given group of test units 0as e'posed to the treatment variable -O. and the response 0as measured at t0o different points in time; O1 and O2 >alidit in #&perimentation 8hen conducting an e'periment; a researcher has t0o goals; 1% Dra0 valid conclusions about the effects of independent variables on the stud( group 2% Make valid generali<ations to a larger population of interest% Internal validit( the second e'ternal validit( the first goal concerns Internal >alidit Internal validit( refers to 0hether the manipulation of the independent variables or treatments actuall( caused the observed effects on the dependent variables% /ontrol of e'traneous variables is a necessar( condition for establishing internal validit(% #&ternal >alidit &'ternal validit( refers to 0hether the cause and effect relationships found in the e'periment can be generali<ed% It is desirable to have an e'perimental design that has both internal and e'ternal validit( but in applied marketing research often 0e have to trade one t(pe of validit( for another% Threats to Internal >alidit 9ollo0ing are threats to internal validit( in the form of e'traneous variables% .istor 7istor( refers to specific events that are e'ternal to the e'periment but occur at the time as the e'periment% 2hese events ma( affect the dependent variable% 8hat if general economic conditions declined during the e'periment and the local area 0as particularl( hard hit b( la(offs and plant closing% 2he longer the time interval bet0een observations; the greater the possibilit( that histor( 0ill confound an e'periment of this t(pe Maturation
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Maturation refers to change in the test units themselves; occur 0ith the passage of time; involving people% Maturation takes place as people become older; more e'perienced; tried; bored or uninterested% Stores change over time in terms of ph(sical la(out; dQcor; traffic and composition% Testing #ffects 2esting effects are caused b( the process of e'perimentation% 2he main testing effect -M2. occurs 0hen a prior observation affects a latter observation% Instrumentation Instrumentation -I. refers to changes in the measuring instruments are modified during the course% Instrumentation effects are likel( 0hen intervie0ers make pre and postEtreatment measurements% 2he effectiveness of intervie0ers can be different at different times% Statistical Regression Statistical regression -SR. effects occur 0hen test units 0ith e'treme scores move closer to the average score during the course of the e'periment% 6eople 0ith e'treme attitude have more room for change; so variation is more likel(% Selection %ias Selection bias -S:. refers to the improper assignment of test units to treatment conditions% If test units selfEselect their o0n groups or are assigned to groups on the basis of the researcherAs =udgment; selection bias is possible% 9or e'ample; consider a merchandising e'periment in 0hich t0o different merchandising displa(s -old and ne0. are assigned to different department stores% 2he stores in the t0o groups ma( not be e*uivalent to begin 0ith% 2he( ma( var( 0ith respect to a ke( characteristic; such as store si<e% Store si<e is likel( to affect sales regardless of 0hich merchandising displa( 0as assigned to s store% Mortalit Mortalit( -M5. refers to the loss of test units 0hile the e'periment is in progress% 2his happens for man( reasons; such as test units refusing to continue in the e'periment% Mortalit( confounds results because it is difficult to determine if the lost test units 0ould respond in the same manner to treatment as those that remain% Controlling #&traneous >ariables &'traneous variables confound the results; the( are also called confounding variables% 2here are four 0a(s of controlling e'traneous variables) randomi<ation; matching; statistical control and design control% Randomi0ation Randomi<ation refers to the random assignment of test units to e'perimental groups b( using random numbers% 2reatment conditions are also randoml( assigned to e'perimental groups% Randomi<ation ma( not be effective 0hen the sample si<e is small% Matching Matching involves comparing test units on a set of ke( background variables before assigning them to the treatment conditions% Statistical Control Statistical control involves measuring the e'traneous variables and ad=usting for their effects through statistical anal(sis -14/531.% 'esign Control Design control involves the use of e'periments designed to control specific e'traneous variables%
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LECTURE # 09
#&perimental 'esigns 3arious e'perimental designs are described belo0% *ne!Shot Case Stud 1lso kno0n as the after onl( design; the oneEshot case stud( ma( be s(mbolicall( represented as X O1 Static 2roup 'esign X O1 O2 2he treatment effect -2&. 0ould be measured as 2&KO1-O2% Pretest!Posttest Control 2roup 'esign In the pretestEposttest control group design; test units are randoml( assigned to either the e'perimental or the control group; and a pretreatment measure is taken on each group% 2his design is s(mboli<ed as) R O1 X O2 R O3 O4 2he treatment effect -TE. is measured as 2& K -O2-O1%. E -O4-O3%. 2his design controls for most e'traneous variables% Selection bias is eliminated b( randomi<ation% Posttest!*nl Control 2roup 'esign Randomi0ed %lock 'esign 1 randomi<ed block design is useful 0hen there is onl( one ma=or e'ternal variable; such as sales; store si<e; or income of the respondent that might influence the dependent variable% Latin S1uare 'esign 1 Catin s*uare design allo0s the researcher to statisticall( control t0o nonEinteracting e'ternal variables as 0ell as to manipulate the independent variable% 1n e'ample of Catin s*uare design Store patronage 7igh Medium Co0 and none 7igh : / 1 Interest in the store Medium 1 : / Co0 / 1 :
#&perimental Settings 2here are t0o t(pes of settings in 0hich e'periments conducted% Laborator #&periment It is an artificial setting for e'perimentation in 0hich the researcher constructs the desired conditions% 7ield #&periment 1n e'perimental location set in actual market conditions% Caborator( e'periments have some advantages over field e'periments% 2he laborator( environment offers a high degree of control because it isolates the e'periment in a carefull( monitored environment%
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Limitations of #&perimentation Time &'periments can be time consuming% Cost &'periments are often e'pensive% "dministration &'periments can be difficult to administer% It ma( be impossible to control for the effects of the e'traneous variables; particularl( in a field environment% Test marketing 2est marketing; also called market testing; is an application of controlled e'periment; done in limited but carefull( selected parts of the marketplace called test markets% It involves a replication of a planned national marketing program in the test markets% 5ften; the marketing mi' variables -independent variables. are varied in test marketing; and the sales -dependent variable. are monitored so that an appropriate national marketing strateg( can be identified% 2he t0o ma=or ob=ectives of test marketing are) 1% 2o determine market acceptance of the product 2% 2o test alternative levels of marketing mi' variables% 2est marketing procedures ma( be classified as standard test markets; controlled and minEmarket tests; and simulated test marketing% Standard Test Market It is a test market in 0hich the product is soled through regular distribution channels% 9or e'ample; no special considerations are given to products simpl( because the( are being testEmarketed% 2he duration of the test depends on the repurchase c(cle for the product; the probabilit( of competitive response; cost considerations; the initial consumer response; and compan( philosoph(% 2he test should last long enough for repurchase activit( to be observed% If competitive reaction to the test is anticipated; the duration should be short% Recent evidence suggests that tests of ne0 brands should run for at least 10 months% Controlled Test Market 1 testEmarketing program conducted b( an outside research compan( in field e'perimentation% 2he research compan( guarantees distribution of the product in retail outlets that represent a predetermined percentage of the market% Measuring and Scaling Measurement in marketing research is determining ho0 much of a propert(D characteristic is possessed b( an ob=ect% Measurement is to determine the intensit( of some characteristic of interest to the researcher% 4o0 0hat are 0e reall( measuring> 8e are not measuring ob=ects but 0e are measuring some propertiesEcalled attributes or characteristics% 2hus 0e do not measure bu(ers but their characteristics like their preferences or perceptions% 5b=ects in marketing research are consumers; brands; stores; advertisements etc% 6roperties are characteristics of an ob=ect that can be used to distinguish one ob=ect from the other% 6roperties ma( be) a%*b+ecti$e properties 0hich are ph(sicall( verifiable characteristics such as age; income; number of cans purchased; store last visited and so on% b%Sub+ecti$e properties 0hich cannot be directl( observed and are mental constructs such as perceptions; attitudes% Sub=ective properties are observerEable and intangible into a rating scale% 2here are several e'amples of both these properties in marketing e%g% market potential for ne0 product; sales of e'isting 3!
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product; demographic and ps(chographic characteristics of the bu(ers; effectiveness of a ne0 advertising campaign; market share; and the like% Rating scales Sub=ective properties e%g% attitude; beliefs; intentions; preferences etc% are measured 0ith the help of rating scales usuall( called scales% In a scale numbers are assigned to the amount of characteristic or ?construct@ being measured% 2he number varies according to the amount of characteristic available in the ob=ect% 2here are four basic scales% ). Nominal scale 1 nominal scale is one in 0hich number serve as labels to identif( or categori<e ob=ects or events% 1ll numbers are e*ual 0ith respect to characteristics of ob=ects% &ach number is assigned to onl( one ob=ect and each ob=ect has onl( one number% 2he number in a nominal scale does not have an( relationship 0ith the amount of characteristic% 9or e'ample a uni*ue number is given to each pla(er in a football team but pla(er having a number " does not pla( better t0ice than the pla(er having number % 1lthough nominal scales are used for the lo0est form of measurement; (et nominal scales are fre*uentl( used in marketing research% 4ominal level identification are needed in marketing research to identif( brands; store t(pes; sales territories customers; gender; geographic location; race; religion; bu(erDnon bu(er heav( and light users etc% 2he numbers assigned to such categories are mutuall( e'clusive% 1lphabets; even s(mbols; could be used instead of numbers in nominal scales% 4ominal scales simpl( label ob=ects and do not provide information on greater than or less than% Fsuall( counting is permissible operation in nominal scale% 2hus statistics like fre*uenc( distribution; percentages; mode; chiEs*uare etc% are used 0hile anal(<ing data gathered b( nominal scale% 1verage in these scales is meaningless%
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LECTURE # 10
Rating scales Sub=ective properties e%g% attitude; beliefs; intentions; preferences etc% are measured 0ith the help of rating scales usuall( called scales% In a scale numbers are assigned to the amount of characteristic or ?construct@ being measured% 2he number varies according to the amount of characteristic available in the ob=ect% 2here are four basic scales% ). Nominal scale 1 nominal scale is one in 0hich number serve as labels to identif( or categori<e ob=ects or events% 1ll numbers are e*ual 0ith respect to characteristics of ob=ects% &ach number is assigned to onl( one ob=ect and each ob=ect has onl( one number% 2he number in a nominal scale does not have an( relationship 0ith the amount of characteristic% 9or e'ample a uni*ue number is given to each pla(er in a football team but pla(er having a number " does not pla( better t0ice than the pla(er having number % 1lthough nominal scales are used for the lo0est form of measurement; (et nominal scales are fre*uentl( used in marketing research% 4ominal level identification are needed in marketing research to identif( brands; store t(pes; sales territories customers; gender; geographic location; race; religion; bu(erDnon bu(er heav( and light users etc% 2he numbers assigned to such categories are mutuall( e'clusive% 1lphabets; even s(mbols; could be used instead of numbers in nominal scales% 4ominal scales simpl( label ob=ects and do not provide information on greater than or less than% Fsuall( counting is permissible operation in nominal scale% 2hus statistics like fre*uenc( distribution; percentages; mode; chiEs*uare etc% are used 0hile anal(<ing data gathered b( nominal scale% 1verage in these scales is meaningless% 3. *rdinal Scale 1n ordinal scale defines ordered relationship among the ob=ects measured% It indicates relative si<e difference bet0een ob=ects% 1n ordinal scale sho0s 0hether an ob=ect has more or less of the attribute but not as to ho0 much less or more% It sho0s relative position of the ob=ects under measurement but not 0hat the magnitude of difference is% 8orld ranking of cricket teams; finishing order of horse race; positions of the students in the class and social class are e'amples of ordinal scales% In marketing research opinions; measurement of preferences; relative attitudes; evaluation of *ualit( of different brands of the same product etc% are through ordinal scales% In ordinal scale difference of numbers indicate difference in rank and nothing else% 2he statistics commonl( used in anal(<ing data gathered b( ordinal scale is percentile; median; rank order correlation etc% 4. Inter$al scale 5ne problem 0ith the ordinal scale is that it defines the order of the ob=ects but it does not tell about 0hat is difference -or distance. bet0een the ob=ects% Interval scale sho0s that as the interval bet0een the numbers on the scale represent e*ual increments of the attribute being measured; the differences can be compared% 1 difference bet0een 2! and 2# is the same as bet0een 2# and 27 0hich is same as bet0een 27 and 2"% 2he most common e'ample of interval scale in life is that of thermometer% :ut as (ou kno0 t0o t(pes of thermometer; /elsius and 9ahrenheit do not have a fi'ed or true <ero or free<ing point% :oth the <eros and units of measurements are different although the amount of heat in various intervals on each thermometer 0ill be same% Cet us illustrate it 0ith figures% 1mount of heat bet0een ""o and ",o on 9ahrenheit is same as bet0een ,1oE,2o but amount of heat bet0een ""o and ",o on 9ahrenheit is different from amount of heat bet0een ""o and ",o on /elsius%
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Statistical techni*ues that are used in nominal and ordinal scales can also be used in interval scale% In addition to that; statistics like mean; standard deviation; product moment correlation etc% can also be used in interval scale% 5. Ratio scale Ratio scale is one in 0hich a true <ero e'ist% 2rue <ero or absolute <ero means that number <ero is assigned to the absence of the characteristic being measured% 2hus 0e can compute ratio of scale values% 9or e'ample; it is possible to sa( ho0 man( times greater or smaller one ob=ect is than another% 2his is the onl( t(pe of scale that allo0s making comparison of absolute *uantities% 8e can sa( that market share of compan( 1 is t0ice as much as of compan( :% In market research; data on number of customers; costs; sales; market share and some other marketing variables are measured on ratio scales% 1ll statistical techni*ues can be applied to anal(<e ratio scale data% Summar( of four basic rating scales is given belo0% T pes of Rating Scale Scale 4ature 1pplication in marketing research 4ominal Identification; labeling of /lassification b( gender; ob=ects location; social class% Identification of stores; brands etc 5rdinal 5rdered relations according to Ranking; preferences; merit more or less of the attribute list; positions in the tournament Interval Interval bet0een ad=acent 1ttitude measurement; inde' ranks are e*ual numbers; temperature Ratio 1bsolute <ero e'ists% Sales; income; age; units /omparisons possible produced costs; market share 2he scales are used in marketing research can be divided into t0o t(pes) Comparati$e and non! comparati$e scales. In the first t(pe; direct comparison of ob=ects can be made 0ith one another% Data in comparative scales have ordinal or rank order properties% &ach ob=ect in nonEcomparative scaling is scaled independentl( of others in the set% 2he data in such scales is usuall( interval or ratio scaled% Cikert scale; semantic differential or staple scales are the classification of itemi<ed non comparative scales% Comparati$e scales 9irst t(pe of comparative scaling is paired comparison scale. 6aired Comparison Scale 1 paired comparative scale is a techni*ue in 0hich respondent is presented 0ith t0o ob=ects at a time in the pair and asked to select one according to some criterion% It is like an ordinal scale in 0hich t0o ob=ects are ranked% Cet us see the e'ample% 8e are presenting (ou 0ith ten pairs of shampoo brands% 6lease indicate 0hich one (ou like for (our use% 1 : / D & 1 E 1 1 0 0 : 0 E 0 0 0
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0 1 E 0 0 1 1 1 E 1 1 1 1 0 E 2 3 0 1 In the above table; 0e see that figure 1 in the bo' means that column brand is preferred to corresponding brand in ro0 and a <ero in the bo' means that brand in ro0 is preferred to the corresponding column% 9or e'ample in the first ro0 : and / are preferred to 1 and 1 is preferred to D and & 0hich is also depicted in first column% Cike0ise in the second ro0; : is preferred to all other brands i%e% 1; :; /; D; & 0hich is also reflected in second column% Data in this matri' can be anal(<ed b( finding out percentages of preferences% In this case brand 1 is preferred e%g% 1 is preferred b( 2D10R1000K20S; :K 0S; /K30S ; DK0S and &K10S% 2hus (ou can find out rank order of the five brands% 6aired comparison should be used if the number of brand is limited% In case the number of brands is large; then the e'ercise becomes unmanageable% Due to this difficult(; respondents cannot usuall( meaningfull( rank more than five or si' brands% 1nother problem 0ith this techni*ue is that the comparison of t0o ob=ects at a time is seldom the 0a( choices are reall( made in the marketplace% 2hus a brand can be a first choice in paired comparison situation but performs poorl( in actual marketplace% 6aired comparison; ho0ever is most common method of testing the taste% Rank *rder Scale 2his scale is also comparative in nature% It involves asking the respondents to rank various brandsDob=ects 0ith regard to some criterion% 9or e'ample a respondent ma( be asked to rank five print ads on the basis of a0areness; it provides; liking of the respondent or intention to bu(% Cook at the follo0ing data%
"n #&ample of Rank!*rder Scale
/ D &
6lease rank the follo0ing brands of fruit =uices in order of preference from 1 to 7%rate (our most preferred brand as 1 and least preferred brand 7B all others are in bet0een 4o% 2 brands 0ill receive the same rating% 2here is no right or 0rong ans0er) it is =ust matter of preference% %rand Preference order 1 2 : # / D 1 & 7 9 ! G 3 2his techni*ue is fre*uentl( used in marketing research% 1dvantages of rankEorder scaling include that it is simple concept; eas( to administer and less time consuming to administer than other comparative scale such as paired comparison% 2he instructions for ranking ob=ects are eas( to comprehend% It is also said that the ranking made b( the respondent is closer to hisDher real purchase situation% 2he ma=or disadvantage of rank order scale is that it produces onl( ordinal data% It does not mean that first preference in the set is the most liked% It ma( be ?least disliked@ in the set% Constant!Sum Scale
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In constantEsum scale respondents are re*uired to allocate a fi'ed number of rating point -usuall( 100. among several ob=ects% It is 0idel( used to measure the relative importance of various attributes of the ob=ect% See the follo0ing e'ample% 6lease divide 100 points among the follo0ing characteristics of a tooth paste that reflects the relative importance of each characteristic to (ou in the selection of toothpaste% It an attribute is unimportant to (ou; assign <ero% 2aste NNNNNNNNNNNNN"NNNNNNNNN 9ragrance NNNNNNNNNNNNN7NNNNNNNNN 2ube NNNNNNNNNNNNN!NNNNNNNNN /leanliness of teeth NNNNNNNNNNNNN3!NNNNNNNN 6revention of tooth deca( NNNNNNNNNNNN2!NNNNNNNN 6rice NNNNNNNNNNNNN2NNNNNNNNN Iualit( NNNNNNNNNNNNN"NNNNNNNNN Shining of the teeth NNNNNNNNNNNNN10NNNNNNNN 2otal 100 NNNNNNN 2he relative importance of the attributes is determined b( the counting the points assigned b( all respondents and dividing b( the number of respondents% 2he main merit of the constant sum scale is that it permits fine distinction of attributes of an ob=ect 0ithout much time% 7o0ever it ma( be difficult to allocate points to several categories% 2he main disadvantage of this scale is that respondents ma( allocate points that e'ceeds or are short of the re*uired total sa( 103o or ,7o instead of 100%
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LECTURE # 11
1s stated earl(; in nonEcomparative scale; ob=ects are scaled independentl( of other ob=ects in the set that is the reasonB non comparative scales are also called monadic scales% 4onEcomparative scales are of t0o kinds) continuous and itemi0ed rating scales Continuous Rating Scales /ontinuous rating scale re*uires the respondents to indicate their position b( rating the ob=ect on a continuum that Non Comparati$e Scale runs from one e'treme of criterion to the other% 2he format of this scale varies% Such a scale is also called graphic scale% See the follo0ing e'ample% 7o0 0ould (ou rate 1irline 1%> 3ersion 1 bad oka( Good 3er( good &'cellent 3ersion :
9orst ? )? 3? 4? 5? 6? @? A? B? C? )?? %est
Graphic rating scales are eas( to construct but ans0ers ma( be unreliable and anal(sis complicated% 7o0ever use of computers has made the anal(sis eas( and that has increased the use of continuous rating scales in marketing research% Itemi0ed Rating Scales 1n itemi<ed rating scale contains numbers or brief descriptions or both in respect of the categories of response% Respondents select the categories that best describes their rating about the ob=ect in *uestion% Itemi<ed rating scales are Cikert Semantic Differential and Staple scales% Likert scale 2his scale is named after Rensis Cikert 0ho developed this scale% Cikert scale re*uires a respondent to sho0 a degree of agreement or disagreement 0ith a variet( of statements about the related ob=ect% Respondents indicate ho0 much the( agree or disagree 0ith the statement% 2his scale captures the integrit( of the respondentsA feelings% See the follo0ing e'ample Cikert Scale% Instructions Cisted belo0 are some statements about Jeans P% 6lease indicate (our degree of agreement or disagreement b( encircling the appropriate ans0er% Statement a% Jeans P are eas( to identif( on someone b% Jeans P make me feel good c% Jeans P are good looking d% Jeans P are reasonabl( priced Strongl( 1gree 1 Some0hat 1gree 2 4eutral 3 Some0hat Disagree Strongl( Disagree !
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
! ! !
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e% Jeans P 1 2 3 ! 0ill be m( ne't pair of Jeans 2he score of each item b( all the respondents in Cikert Scale are summed up and average is dra0n% Due to this reason; Cikert scale is also kno0n as summated scale% Semantic 'ifferential Scale 2his scale has been borro0ed from another area of research called ?semantics@% 2his scale contains a series of bipolar ad=ectives from the various characteristics of the ob=ect under stud( and respondents indicate the impression of each characteristic b( indicating the appropriate place on the continuum% It is usuall( seven point rating scale having t0o poles -ad=ectives. e%g% ?friendl( unfriendl(@ ?high *ualit(Elo0 *ualit(@ ?convenientEinconvenient@ or ?dependableEundependable@% 7aving seven separators bet0een t0o poles is mandator(% 8hile using the semantic differential scale; the respondent marks the blank that is closer to his rating% Cook at the follo0ing e'ample) 6lease indicate (our impression about Restaurant 1 b( marking the line that best describes (our opinion% Iuick service EEEEEEE slo0 service 7igh prices EEEEEEE lo0 prices Good *ualit( ford EEEEEEE lo0 *ualit( ford Cimited variet( of ford EEEEEEE 0ide variet( of ford 6oor location EEEEEEE good location Semantic Differential Scale is gaining popularit( because of its versatilit(% 2his scale is used e'tensivel( in comparing different brands; compan( images or stores% Mean is the statistics 0hich is used in Semantic Differential Scales% Staple Scales Jan Staple developed this scale and therefore this scale is called Staple scales% 2(picall( a Staple scale has ten categories of measurement ranging from E! to T! and usuall( sho0n verticall(% /ategories ma( be reduced if the researcher chooses to% Respondents select a categor( and mark the selected number to indicate his rating% 7igher the positive score better the ad=ective describes the ob=ect% Stable scale uses one pole rather than opposite poles% It is easier to construct and administer% It is e*uall( suited to telephone intervie0ing% Cook at the follo0ing e'ample% 6lease rate bank 1 0ith regard to their ?fast service@ and ?friendl( environment@ on the follo0ing scale% T! T! T T T3 T3 T2 T2 T1 T1 9riendl( environment 9ast service E1 E1 E2 E2 E3 E3 E E E! E! 'e$elopment of Rating Scales
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Rating scales take different forms as (ou have seen above% 8hile using a rating scale in hisDher research; the researcher has to choose among several alternatives% 2he researcher must make decisions regarding the scales on these aspects% a% 7o0 man( categories in the scale> b% Should the number of categories be odd or even> c% Should the scale be balanced or unbalanced> d% Should the choices be forced or unforced> e% Degree of verbal description% f% 2he final form -ph(sical. of the scale% ). .o( Man Categories in the Scale 2here is no ideal number of categories in a scale% 2he( could be as man( as 13 or as fe0 as 3 4umber of categories provide for finer discrimination b( the respondents but sometimes it is ver( difficult for the respondents to handle man( categories% 2he( reall( cannot discriminate% If the respondents are *uite kno0ledgeable large number of categories can be used other0ise small number ma( be emplo(ed% In telephonic intervie0 smaller number is appropriate% If (ou have limited space on the paper; use small number of categories% 9or marketing research five to seven categories are commonl( used in rating scales% 3. *dd or #$en If (ou should provide a neutral point in the rating scale; then use odd number but if (ou think there 0ill be no neutral respondent or (ou 0ant to force the respondents to give some ans0er; then use even number% 4. %alanced or ;nbalanced Scale 1 rating scale is balanced 0hen it has e*ual number of favorable and unfavorable responses% See the follo0ing scales% ;nbalanced Scale %alanced Scale 2he taste of drink 1 is% 2he taste of drink 1 is% &'tremel( delicious &'tremel( delicious% 3er( delicious 3er( delicious Delicious Delicious 6oor Delicious to some e'tent 3er( poor 6oor &'tremel( poor 3er( poor Fsuall( the rating scales are balanced% :alanced scales provide more ob=ective data% 5. 7orced Scales $ersus Non 7orced Scales 9orced scales forces the respondents to e'press an opinion as no provision is made for ?no opinion@% :ut if the researcher thinks that man( respondents 0ill have no opinion on the issue; the scale contains a categor( of ?no opinion@% Such a scale is called non forced scale% 6. 'egree of >erbal 'escription in a Scale 2he description of scale of categories ma( be numerical; verbal and even pictorial% Researcher has a choice to label all or sometimes onl( categories on the e'tremes are verball( labeled% 7o0ever some people think that confusion in the scale can be reduced b( labeling all scale categories%
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LECTURE # 12
Ph sical 7orm of Scale Scale ma( have different ph(sical forms% Researcher can e'ercise different options) hori<ontal; vertical; bo'es; lines or number assigned on a continuum% 6ositive or negative values ma( be used% 9or children different shapes of faces -happ( or other0ise. can indicate the choice of respondents% &'amples of different configuration of scales are sho0n belo0% Ph sical Configuration of Rating Scales 3er( po0erful 6o0erful Some 0hat po0erful 4ether neither 0eak nor po0erful Some 0hat 0eak 8eak 3er( 0eak Similarl( verbal descriptors in the scale ma( change 0ith the nature of construct being measured% Some com mostl( used descriptors of scales are used in the follo0ing e'ample% Construct 9re*uenc( of purchase 1ttitude never 3er( negative 7ighl( dissatisfied 8ill not bu( at all casuall( 4egative 'escriptors Some times 4either negative nor positive 4eutral Might or might not bu( 5ften 6ositive Most often 3er( positive Iuite satisfied 8ill bu( definitel(
/onsumer satisfaction Intention to purchase
4ot satisfied Inclined not to bu(
Satisfied 6robabl( 0ill bu(
"ccurac of Measurement 8hen 0e measure through scales or other0ise; a measured value is not the true value of the characteristic that 0e are measuring; it is rather the value that 0e observed% 2hese t0o values ma( be different% 2his difference is called measurement error% Measurement error ma( be caused b( man( potential sources of errors; some of 0hich are mentioned belo0) 1. 6ersonal factors such as fatigue; mood; health% 2. Situational factors such as noise; pressure of other people; distracters% 3. Intelligence; education etc% of the respondents% . 3ariation in the method of intervie0 such as telephonic intervie0; face to face intervie0 or mailed *uestionnaire% !. Measuring instrument factors 0hich include ambiguit( of *uestion% Cack of clarit( in instruction% #. Data anal(sis factors such as errors made in coding and tabulation process%
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2here are t0o components of total measurement error) s(stematic error and random error% S(stematic error causes a constant bias in the measurement% Some errors 0ould occur at the time of measurement each time% Suppose 0e measure the speed of s0immers 0ith the help of a stop 0atch 0hich s(stemicall( runs fast% &ach time 0e measure the speed of s0immer same t(pe and same amount of error 0ould occur% 2his is called s(stematic error% Random error on the other hand is not constant% 2his bias in the measurement is a random manner% Supposing 0e use man( stop 0atches to record our time% Such recorded time falls 0ithin a range around the true time% 7ence the error is not s(stematic but random% S(stematic errors represent the stable factor that affects the observationD measurement in the same manner each time but random error is caused b( random changes or differences in measurement situations or respondents% 2hus observed score is comprised of true score plus s(stematic error plus random error% 2his relationship can be sho0n in the follo0ing e*uation% 5 m K 2 m T S e T Re 8here 5m K observed measurement 2m K true measurement Se K s(stematic error Re K random error Cet us no0 tr( to understand the concept of validit( and reliabilit(% >alidit 1 measure has validit( if it measures 0hat it is supposed to measure% In other 0ords; the differences in the observed scores reflect the differences among the ob=ects or individuals on the measured characteristics% 3alidit( is the accurac( of measurement% 2o 0hat e'tent measurement is free from both s(stematic and random error is validit( of measurement% Some t(pes of validit( are face; predictive; convergent and discriminant validit(% 7ace or Content >alidit It is concerned 0ith the degree to 0hich the measurement ?looks like@ that it measures 0hat it is supposed to measure% It is a =udgment b( the researcher% 9or e'ample if the respondent recogni<es the advertisement; it can usuall( be accepted at face as if the respondent has been e'posed to the ad in the past% Fnfortunatel( this is the 0eakest method of assessing the validit( of *uestions% It can be improved b( having other researchers criti*ue the measurement instrument% Predicti$e >alidit If the measure can predict some future event the measuring instrument is supposed to have predictive validit(% 9or e'ample; a measure of brand preference or bu(ing intention is valid if it can be sho0n that those 0ho have strong brand preference or intention to bu( actuall( bought the brands% 6redictive validit( is ver( important for decision making 0hich establishes predictive validit(% Con$ergent >alidit If the researcher uses t0o different methods or sources of data collection for the same information and both agree; the measure is said to have convergent validit(% In convergent validit(; one measure correlates 0ith other on that characteristic% In a surve( 21 *uestionnaires 0ere left 0ith the household head in the morning and collected back in the evening% 5n the basis of that *uestionnaire; average age of the household 0as calculated as 17%2 (ears% 2hen 0 *uestionnaires 0ere picked at random and another member of the household 0as asked about the ages of the household on telephone% 1verage age 0as 17%1 (ears 0hich is prett( close% 7ence *uestionnaire had convergent validit(% 'iscriminant >alidit
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In discriminant validit(; *uestions that measure different ob=ects should (ield different result% If the researcher kno0s that these are real differences; heDshe should find that actuall( the responses differ% If t0o *uestions measure concern about theft securit( and fireEsecurit( then theft% If there are no differences bet0een these t0o constructs; there is a doubt about the validit( of the instrument% Reliabilit /onsistenc( of the instrument is called reliabilit(% If the measurement of the same group is made repeatedl( b( the same scale the results should be consistent% If there is a s(stematic error in the instrument it does not affect the reliabilit( of the instrumentB random error does% 2herefore reliabilit( can be defined as the e'tent to 0hich instrument is free from random error% Random error is the cause of inconsistenc( and produces lo0er reliabilit(% If & RK0; reliabilit( is highest% 8hat is the association bet0een the measurements obtained 0hen the scaled is administered at different times determines the reliabilit(% Scale is consistent and reliable if such an association is high% 7o0 can 0e assess reliabilit(> 2here are three methods test retest; alternative forms and internal consistenc( methods% ). Test!Retest Reliabilit It involves repeated measurement of the same respondentDs using the same scale under almost similar or e*uivalent conditions% 2he result of both time measurements is compared% If the discrepanc( is great; random error is great and therefore reliabilit( is lo0% 5n the contrar(; if the scores are similar; amount of random error is small and reliabilit( of high% 7o0 the similarit( of t0o measurements is determined is through finding the correlation% If the coefficient of correlation is high; the reliabilit( is supposed to be high% 2here are a number of problems associated 0ith this approach to reliabilit(% 9irstl(; it appears to be sort of illogical and sometime impossible to measure the same sub=ectDs t0ice as is the case of mall intercept% Second interval of time bet0een test and retest influences the reliabilit(% It has been found that all other things remaining e*ual; reliabilit( is lo0ered 0hen the time interval bet0een t0o tests increases and vice versa% 2hird; first measurement ma( change the second response of the sub=ect% It is possible that the respondents might have remembered the ans0ers that the( gave in the first instance% 9ourth; there ma( be change in the attitude of the respondent after one and administration of the sub=ects to0ards high fat milk ma( make the respondent think about hisDher health and change hisDher score in the retest% 9inall( the situational factors ma( change causing an alteration in the second measurement% It is therefore suggested that retest reliabilit( approach can best be used 0ith other approaches to reliabilit(% 3. "lternati$e 7orms Reliabilit In this approach; t0o e*uivalent alternative forms of scaleD instrument are constructed and administered to the same group of sub=ect at t0o different times% 2he scales are e*uivalent but not identical% 2ime interval bet0een administrations of t0o scales is t0o to four 0eeks% &ach time different set of scale compared to find similarit( or discrepanc(% Degree of similarit( is determined b( correlation% 2his approach is kno0n as alternative form reliabilit(% 5ne; it is time consuming and e'pensive as (ou have to develop an alternative form of scale% 2hus dela( occurs; t0o; it is difficult to make both the instruments e*uivalent as for as the constant is concerned% 4. Split .alf Reliabilit Split half reliabilit( is the simplest measure of interval consistenc(% It involves preparing a multiE item scale and then dividing it into t0o halves and correcting the item responses of these t0o halves% If the correction is high; it sho0s high interval consistenc( and hence high reliabilit(% SplitE half reliabilit( is reall( another version of alternativeEforms techni*ues e'cept that split half techni*ue is used to indicate that the items are measuring the same characteristic% 2he problem
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0ith this techni*ue is that the result depend on lo0 the splitting of item is made% 5ne 0a( to split the scale into t0o halves of odd and even numbered items; another 0a( is to divide them randoml(%
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LECTURE # 13
Sampling Marketing research 0ould not e'ist toda( 0ithout sampling% 1lmost all marketing studies re*uire to select a sample to collect data% Sample ma( be that of customers; stores; households; organi<ations etc% according to the nature of research% It is useless to surve( the entire population due to budget and time constraint% 2o obtain information from ever( unit of population is impossible and in most cases not practical% 2his is one reason for the marketer to choose a sample% /enses is opposite of the sample% /enses means the entire population% In some cases senses ma( be caged instead of the sample% Cet us familiari<e ourEself 0ith these three terms) 6opulation; /enses and Sample% Population means all the elements 0hich have those characteristics that 0e 0ant to measure through the process of research% It is for the purpose of research% 6opulation is the entire group of stud( for the research at hand% Censes is complete counting of population% 2he characteristics of population called parameters can easil( be measured b( the researcher if censes is used% 2he researcher does not need to appl( an( formula etc% to find out the parameters; heDshe can find it right a0a( b( surve(ing censes% Sample is a portion of the population that represents a population% It is a representative subset of the population selected for the purpose of stud(% Sample unit is the basic level of investigation% 9hat should be used, Censes or Sample Fsuall( the researcher 0orks 0ith sample due to limitation of time and budget available% Definitel( a census is time taking and e'pensive to conduct% :ut if the census is small; it is feasible to conduct the census% /ensus ma( used instead of sample if the follo0ing conditions are prevailing% 1% 6opulation si<e is small 2% Research budget is plent( 3% 3ariance in the characteristic that researcher is measuring is large % Measurement is nonEdestructive - 1 sample unit is not destro(ed or consumed 0hen tested. !% Stud( is not a secret #% /ost of sampling error is high 5n the other hand; use of a sample 0ould be appropriate if follo0ing conditions e'ist% 1% Si<e of the population is large 2% Mone( available for research is small 3% 2ime available for stud( is short % Sampling error cost is lo0 !% Measurement process is destructive - 1 sample unit is destro(ed or consumed 0hen tested. #% 3ariation in the characteristic that research is measuring is lo0 In general sample is used in marketing research% /ensus is used onl( in e'ceptional circumstance% 5ne more reason favoring the use of sample is that anal(<ing the voluminous data generated b( the census is ver( difficult as compared to the small data collected through sample% 8e can sum up the benefit of sample as follo0) 1% Sample saves mone( 2% Sample saves time 3% Sample ma( be more accurate -due to less nonEsampling error.
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% Sample is better if the measurement or testing destro(s or consume the elements in the process of research Sampling Process Sampling process consists of a series of steps follo0ed in a se*uence% 2he steps are listed belo0% 1% Cook at the research ob=ective
2% Define the population for stud( a% elements b% sampling unit c% time d% e'tent 3% Identif( the sampling frame
% Determine sample si<e
!% Select a sampling procedure
#% 1ctuall( select the sample
8e 0ill e'plain these steps in details ). Look at the Research *b+ecti$es 1s (ou kno0; research ob=ectives include the information needs; research *uestions; research h(potheses and research boundaries% 2he researcher should reEstud( these ob=ectives as the second step iEe definition of population entirel( depends on the research ob=ectives% In fact; research ob=ectives provide foundation for ever( other stop in the research process like sampling; tool of research; data anal(sis techni*ues etc% Research ob=ectives are available in the document called research proposal% 3. 'efine the Population for Stud 2his is the basic and most important step of the sampling process% 2he researcher must specif( the population 0hich is the target of the stud(% It does not comprise of human population al0a(s% It ma( be collection of ob=ects; products; stores; branches; or human being% 2he target population for stud( should be defined in e'act and not in vague terms% Imprecise definition of the population is ,
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misleading and 0astage of time% Definition of population enables the researcher to identif( the group from 0here the sample 0ill be dra0n% 1 population should be defined in terms of elements sampling unit; time and e'tent% Cet us see 0hat these terms mean% #lement is the ob=ect from 0hich or about 0hich the information is sought% It provides the basis of anal(sis that is undertaken in a research% 2he most common elements in marketing research are individual; families; companies; retailers; 0holesalers; products etc% 2he elements depend on the ob=ectives of research% Sampling ;nit is an element of a unit including element 0hich is selected at some stage of the sampling process% 9or e'ample an individual in a population can be sampling unit or a famil( household 0hich include this individual can be a sampling unit% 1 sampling unit is the basic level of investigation% Time refers to the time period under consideration% 9or e'ample industrial units 0hich 0ere established bet0een the (ears 2000 and 2003% #&tent refers to the geographical boundaries; e%g% te'tile units 0ithin the geographical boundaries of District Sheikhupura% Cook ho0 target population has been defined in terms of elements; sampling units; e'tent and time in the follo0ing e'amples% #&ample I 9or a surve( of female health care product) &lement EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 9emale 20E3! Sampling unit EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 9emale 20E3! 2ime EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Shopping bet0een 5ctober 01 to 4ovember 30; 2007 &'tent EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Cahore #&ample II 6opulation to measure reaction of bu(er to an industrial chemical &lement EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE /hemical &ngineer Sampling unit EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE /hemical &ngineers of companies purchasing over Rs% ! million of chemicals per annum 2ime EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 200# &'tent EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE 6un=ab #&ample III 6opulation to monitor sale of ne0l( launched product% &lement EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Retail outlet 0here our product is sold Sampling unit EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDepartmental stores; general stores; medical stores; 0hich sell our product 2ime EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE September 10 to 17; 2007 &'tent EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Cahore cit( 'etermine the Sampling 7rame 1 sampling frame is an upEtoEdate; clean; master list of all the sampling units from 0here the sample 0ill be dra0n% 1 frame ma( be a class list; emplo(ee pa(roll; a list of registered voters; telephone director( or even a map% Sampling frame ma( be needed at different stages of sampling if it is a multistage sampling% 9or e'ample ). 1 list of cities having a population over 3 million 3. 1 list of cit( residential areas 0ithin the selected cities
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4. 1 list of households 0ithin the selected residential areas 5. Cist of males over 0 (ears in each household 6lease note that sometimes an accurate; upEtoEdate list of sampling units ma( not be available% 2hus it becomes problematic to obtain an accurate sampling frame% Sometimes; even the list does not e'it at all% 9or e'ample; if (ou 0ant to find out a list of midgets in 6akistan; probabl( it is not available% Similarl( a list of allerg( sufferers is not available too% Moreover; government lists -of industrial units for e'ample. ma( not be up to date% 2he industrial units established 0ithin the last si' months ma( not have been added in the list% 2he researcher in this case 0ill have to edit or construct a list on hisDher o0n to avoid sampling frame error% Sometimes; there is neither ph(sical list nor it can be constructed% In this case sampling frame becomes a matter of 0hatever access to population a researcher can think of; for e'ample ?all shoppers 0ho bu( over Rs% !00 0orth of merchandise at departmental store P during first 0eek of 5ctober 2007@% 7ere is no list of shopper but a stream of shoppers% 1 sampling frame error occurs if the listing of population in the sampling frame is inaccurate or out of date% 'etermine the Sample Si0e Sample si<e refers to the number of elements of the population to be included in the sample for stud(% Deciding on the sample si<e is not a simple e'ercise) it has an element of comple' cit(% Some *ualitative and *uantitative considerations are involved in determining the si<e of the sample for the stud(% 7o0 large a sample should be% 2here are some statistical tools available to determine the sample si<e 0hich 0ill be discussed later% 7ere are some factors and practical approaches for determining the sample si<e% Resource Constraints In marketing research; amount of mone( and time available for the pro=ect ma( be limited% 1vailabilit( of trained and *ualified personnel ma( be a constraint as 0ell% It influences the si<e of the sample that it 0ill push the si<e to0ards smaller side% It can be done to some e'tent% If the researcher feels that budget and time is tight that ver( fe0 units can be included in the sample 0hich 0ill not be good enough for the stud(; the research probabl( should not be undertaken% In order to determine the si<e of sample on the basis of budget; the fi'ed cost and variable cost per respondent be calculated and then the sample si<e be determined% In fact; it is an issue 0hether the budget should dictate the sample si<e or the sample si<e should determine the budget% 2he latest thinking is that the research activities and the sample si<e should become the basis for the research pro=ect% 2he budget dictate the sample si<e is considered to be a back0ard thinking and should be avoided as far as possible% Comparable Studies 1nother approach to deciding on the sample si<e is to find out 0hat sample si<e has been used b( similar% 2he studies should be similar in terms of number of groups used% 2he( should also have achieved a desirable level of reliabilit(% If there are man( similar studies; then an average ma( be dra0n% 9hat the Client Sa s Sometimes clients also a0are of research techni*ues; in such cases; the client ma( suggest a sample si<e% If heDshe is *ualit( conscious; he ma( ask for the large sample% 5n the contrar( if heDshe is cost conscious; a small sample si<e is suggested% Sometimes; it becomes important to accommodate clientsA point of vie0 on this issue% Rule of thumb
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2his is an arbitrar( statement that the researcher 0ould follo0 0hile deciding on the si<e of the sample% ?It should be at least 3S of the population@ ?It should not be less than 1S of population@% 2he researcher kno0s the ob=ectives of the research% 1s such heDshe kno0s the number of groups; small and large% 7e therefore uses some intuitive feeling and common sense in selecting a sample% 5ne rule of thumb about the sample si<e is that 0hen (ou are using groups in (our research then there should be at least 100 units in a ma=or group and at least 30 in a subgroup%
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LECTURE # 14 *ther 7actors "ffecting the Sample Si0e

In addition to the factors mentioned above; some more factors could influence the sample si<e% 2hese are as follo0) ). >ariabilit in the population% If the population is ver( heterogeneous; the sample 0ill be divided into groups 0ith an implication that the sample si<e 0ould be larger% Cike0ise if the research re*uires multivariate anal(sis; the sample si<e has to be large% If the population is homogenous and anal(sis is at the aggregate level then the sample 0ill be small% Precision, If the decision to be made on the basis of research is important; then accurac( of data is a primar( concern of the researcher% 2his calls for larger sample% Data must be obtained more precisel(. 2hese concepts ma( be used to determine sample si<e through a method called statistical method% :efore 0e appl( this method; let us be familiar 0ith some statistical terms% Some Important Statistical Terms Parameter 6arameter is the summar( measurement of the population or census% Statistic 5pposite to the parameter is the statistic% Statistic is the summar( measurement of the sample% It is used to estimate the population% Confidence Le$el /onfidence level is the probabilit( 0ith 0hich 0e can sa( that our true value lies 0ithin certain interval. 2his is called confidence interval% Precision Le$el 6recision level is the allo0able error bet0een the parameter and statistical value% 3ariabilit(
In statistics variabilit( is measured b( variance or standard deviation% Standard deviation is the

average distance of all the units from the mean% In marketing research usuall( ,!S or ,,S confidence level is used. Corresponding DE: >alues MUA value of ,!S confidence level is 1%,# MUA value of ,,S confidence level is 2%!" MUA value of ,,%7S confidence level is 3%0 .o( to determine Standard 'e$iationF Standard deviation can be taken from secondar( data% If (ou are an e'pert researcher then (ou can estimate the standard deviation% 2hird option is to take the sample of 30 and measure its actual standard deviation
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Steps for 'etermining the Sample Si0e Statisticall
Define precision level -e%g% V1; V2 etc.%
6recision level varies from research to research and according to the ob=ectives of the research%
Define confidence level -e%g% ,0S; ,!S etc.% Determine corresponding U value for confidence level% Determine standard deviation%
S mbols used e G Precision le$el Herror I8 s G Standard de$iation HJ8 0 G Confidence le$el n G Sample si0e
7ormula used for determining sample si0e is,

n G S3 E3 / e3 1fter using this formula; the ans0er obtained about the sample si<e might be in fraction% #&amples for 'etermining Sample Si0e #&ample I
8e 0ant to obtain mean age of a maga<ine subscriber at ,,S confidence level% 8e 0ant our
result to be V 2 of the true mean age% Suppose standard deviation is !% 8hat should be the sample si<e>
Solution,
eG I3 sG6 0 G 3.6B n G s3 03 / e3 n G H683 H3.6B83 / H383 n G 5).@ or n G 53 #&ample II 1 dair( compan( 0ants to determine the average consumption of milk per household that should be 0ithin V1%! liter of the actual consumption% 6ast trend indicates that average variation in milk consumption per household is %! liter% 8hat should be the sample si<e if ,!S confidence level is re*uired>
Solution,
eG I).6 s G 5.6
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0 G ).C@ n G s3 03 / e3 n G H5.683 H).C@83 / H).683 n G 45.6 or n G 46 If 0e kno0 value of MnA and missing an(one among precision level; standard deviation or M<A value then this unkno0n value can also be determined b( using the same formula) n K s2 <2 D e2 #&ample III 1 researcher 0ants to find monthl( amount spend on lunch in restaurants% Researcher 0ants to be ,!S confidence that the results are 0ithin V Rs% 100% 8hat 0ill be the sample si<e if the standard deviation is estimated to be Rs% 00>
Solution,
eK V100 s K 00 < K 1%,# n K s2 <2 D e2 n K - 00.2 -1%,#.2 D -100.2 n K #1% or n K #2
2his sho0s that the researcher should take #2 people as sample in order to estimate average
income spent on lunch b( the professionals%
8hen 0e increase the precision level; error decreases and sample si<e increases and vice versa% 8hen 0e increase the standard deviation then sample si<e increases% 8hen 0e increase confidence level then sample si<e increases.
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LECTURE # 15
Sampling Techni1ues Sampling techni*ues ma( be broadl( classified as nonEprobabilit( and probabilit(% 4onEprobabilit( sampling relies on the personal =udgment of the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements% 2he researcher can arbitraril( or consciousl( decide 0hat elements to include in the sample% 4onE probabilit( sampling ma( (ield good estimates of the population characteristics% 7o0ever; the( do not allo0 for ob=ective evaluation of the precision of the sample results% 2he estimates obtained are not statisticall( pro=ectable to the population%
/ommonl( used nonEprobabilit( sampling techni*ues include)

/onvenience sampling Judgmental sampling Iuota sampling Sno0ball sampling
In 6robabilit( sampling; sampling; sampling units are selected b( chance% &ver( potential sample need not
have the same probabilit( of selection; but it is possible to specif( the probabilit( of selecting an( particular sample of a given si<e% /ommonl( used probabilit( sampling techni*ues include) Simple random sampling S(stematic sampling /luster sampling
We will discuss in depth the above techniques and briefl touch on so!e others"
Non!Probabilit Sampling Techni1ues

Con$enience Sampling /onvenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements% 2he selection of sampling units is left primaril( to the intervie0er% &'amples of convenience sampling include) Fse of students; church groups and members of social organi<ations Mall intercept intervie0s 0ithout *ualif(ing the respondents Department stores using charge account lists 2earEout *uestionnaires included in a maga<ine ?6eople on the street@ intervie0s
/onvenience sampling is the least e'pensive and least time consuming of all sampling
techni*ues% 2he sampling units are accessible; eas( to measure and cooperative% In spite of these advantages; this form of sampling has serious limitations% Man( potential sources of selection bias are present; including respondent self selection% /onvenience samples are not representative of an( definable population% 7ence; it is not theoreticall( meaningful to generali<e to an( population from a convenience sample; and convenience samples are not appropriate for marketing research pro=ects involving population inferences% /onvenience samples are not recommended for descriptive or causal research; but the( can be used in e'plorator( research for generating ideas; insights; or h(pothesis%
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/onvenience samples can be used for focus groups; preEtesting *uestionnaires; or pilot studies% 4evertheless; this techni*ue is sometimes used even in large surve(s% Kudgmental Sampling Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in 0hich the population elements are selected based on the =udgment of the researcher% 2he researcher; e'ercising =udgment or e'pertise; chooses the elements to be included in the sample; because he or she believes that the( are representative of the population of interest or are other0ise appropriate% /ommon e'amples of Judgmental sampling include)
2est markets selected to determine the potential of a ne0 product 6urchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research &'pert 0itness used in court Department stores selected to test a ne0 merchandising displa( s(stem
Judgmental sampling is lo0 cost; convenient and *uick; (et it does not allo0 direct
generali<ations to a specific population% Judgmental sampling is sub=ective and its value depends entirel( on the researcherAs =udgment; e'pertise; and creativit(% It ma( be useful if broad population inferences are not re*uired% -uota Sampling Iuota sampling ma( be vie0ed as t0oEstage restricted =udgmental sampling% 2he first stage consists of developing control categories; or *uotas of population elements% 2he relevant control characteristics; 0hich ma( include se'; age; and race; are identified on the basis of =udgment% In other 0ords; the *uotas ensure that the composition of the sample is the same as the composition of the population 0ith respect to the characteristics of interest% In the second stage; sample elements are selected based on convenience or =udgment% Sno(ball Sampling In sno0ball sampling; an initial group of respondents is selected; usuall( at random% 1fter being intervie0ed; these respondents are asked to identif( others 0ho belong to the target population population of interest% Subse*uent respondents are selected based on the referrals% 2his process ma( be carried out in 0aves b( obtaining referrals from referrals; thus leading to a sno0balling effect% 1 ma=or ob=ective of sno0ball sampling is to estimate characteristics that are rare in the population% Sno0ball sampling is used in industrial bu(erEseller research to identif( bu(erEseller pairs% 2he ma=or advantage of sno0ball sampling is that it substantiall( increases the likelihood of locating the desired characteristic in the population
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Probabilit Sampling Techni1ues

Simple Random Sampling In simple random sampling -SRS.; each element in the population has a kno0n and e*ual probabilit( of selection% &ver( element element is selected independentl( of ever( other element% 2he sample is dra0n b( a random procedure from a sampling frame% 2his method is e*uivalent to a lotter( s(stem in 0hich names are placed in a container; the container is shakenB and the names of the 0inners are then dra0n out in an unbiased manner% 2he researcher first compiles a sampling frame in 0hich each element is assigned a uni*ue identification number% 2hen random numbers are generated to determine 0hich elements to include in the sample% SRS has man( desirable features% It is easil( understood% 2he sample results ma( be pro=ected to the target population% SRS suffers from at least four significant limitations% 9irst; it is often difficult to construct a sampling frame that 0ill permit a simple random sample to be dra0n% Second% SRS can result in samples that are ver( large or spread over large geographic areas; thus increasing the time and cost of data collection%
2hird; SRS often results in lo0er precision 0ith larger standard errors than other probabilit(
sampling techni*ues% 9ourth; SRS ma( or ma( not result in a representative sample% 1lthough samples dra0n 0ill represent the population 0ell on average; a given simple random sample ma( grossl( misrepresent the target population% 9or these reasons; SRS is nut 0idel( used in marketing research% S stematic Sampling In s(stematic sampling; the sample is chosen b( selecting a random starting point and then picking ever( ith element in succession from the sampling frame% 2he sampling interval; i; is determined b( dividing the population si<e 4 b( the sample si<e n and rounding to the nearest integer% S(stematic sampling is less costl( and easier than SRS; because random selection is done onl( once% Moreover the random numbers do not have to be matched 0ith individual elements as in SRS% S(stematic sampling is often emplo(ed in consumer mail; telephone; mall intercept and internet intervie0s% Stratified Sampling Stratified Sampling is a t0oEstep process in 0hich the population is partitioned into subE populations; or strata% 2he strata should be mutuall( e'clusive and collectivel( e'haustive in that ever( population element should be assigned to one and onl( one stratum and no population elements should be omitted% 4e't; elements are selected from each stratum b( a random procedure; usuall( SRS% Stratified sampling differs from *uota sampling in that the sample elements are selected probabilisticall( rather than based on convenience or =udgment% 1 ma=or ob=ective of stratified sampling is to increase precision 0ithout increasing cost% 2he elements 0ithin a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible; but the elements in different strata should he as heterogeneous as possible% 3ariables commonl( used for stratification include demographic characteristics; t(pe of customer -credit card versus nonEcredit card.; si<e of firm; or t(pe of industr(% Stratified sampling can be proportionate or disproportionate%
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LECTURE # 16
Stratified Sampling Stratified Sampling is a t0oEstep process in 0hich the population is partitioned into subE populations; or strata% 2he strata should be mutuall( e'clusive and collectivel( e'haustive in that ever( population element should be assigned to one and onl( one stratum and no population elements should be omitted% 4e't; elements are selected from each stratum b( a random procedure; usuall( SRS% Stratified sampling differs from *uota sampling in that the sample elements are selected probabilisticall( rather than based on convenience or =udgment% 1 ma=or ob=ective of stratified sampling is to increase precision 0ithout increasing cost% 2he elements 0ithin a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible; but the elements in different strata should he as heterogeneous as possible% 3ariables commonl( used for stratification include demographic characteristics; t(pe of customer -credit card versus nonEcredit card.; si<e of firm; or t(pe of industr(% Stratified sampling can be proportionate or disproportionate% Proportionate Stratified Sampling Sample si<e is proportionate to the si<e of population in each stratum% 9or e'ample;
6opulation Si<e of various strata 1 : / D & 2otal !0 3!0 100 2!0 !0 1200 Sample Si<e ,0 70 20 !0 10 2 0
'isproportionate Sampling Sample si<e is not proportionate to the si<e of population% 9or e'ample;
6opulation Si<e of various strata 1 : / D & 2otal !0 3!0 100 2!0 !0 1200 Sample Si<e 70 #0 30 !0 30 2 0
Cluster Sampling In cluster sampling; the target population is first divided into mutuall( e'clusive and collectivel( e'haustive subpopulations; or clusters% 2he ke( distinction bet0een cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling; onl( a sample of subpopulations -clusters. is chosen; 0hereas in stratified sampling; all the subpopulations -strata. are selected for further sampling% 2he ob=ectives of the t0o methods are also different% 2he ob=ective of cluster sampling is to increase sampling efficienc( b( decreasing costs% 2he ob=ective of stratified sampling is to increase precision% &lements 0ithin a cluster
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should be as heterogeneous as possible; but clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible% 1 common form of cluster sampling is area sampling; in 0hich the clusters consist of geographic areas; such as counties; housing tracts; or blocks% 2he distinguishing feature of the oneEstage area sample is that all of the households in the selected blocks -or geographic areas. are included in the sample% /luster sampling has t0o ma=or advantages) feasibilit( and lo0 cost% In man( situations; the onl( sampling frames readil( available for the target population are clusters; not population elements% /luster sampling is the most costEeffective probabilit( sampling techni*ue% 2his advantage must be 0eighed against several limitations% /luster sampling results in relativel( imprecise samples and it is difficult to form heterogeneous clusters; because; for e'ample; households in a block tend to be similar rather than dissimilar *ther Probabilit Sampling Techni1ues
In se1uential sampling; the population elements are sampled se*uentiall(; data collection and
anal(sis are done at each stage; and a decision is made as to 0hether additional population elements should be sampled% 2he sample si<e is not kno0n in advance; but a decision rule is stated before sampling begins% 1t each stage; this rule indicates 0hether sampling should he continued or 0hether enough information has been obtained% In double sampling; also called t0oEphase sampling; certain population elements are sampled t0ice% Comparison of >arious Sampling Techni1ues Method Strengths Probabilit Sampling Simple Random Sampling 6ro=ectable results; /an be understood 0ith ease% S(stematic Sampling 9eaknesses Sampling frame cannot be constructed easil(; more e'pensive; precision not high; representativeness not sure if greater variabilit( Representativeness can decrease%
Stratified Sampling
/luster Sampling
/an 0ork 0ithout sampling frame; implementation easier than simple random; /an give more precision Stratification variables cannot in findings% 2akes care of be identified and implemented variabilit( as contain all easil(% /annot handle easil( if sub populations% man( variables% More e'pensive /an economi<e on cost Cack precision; computation and time and interpretation of results difficult
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Method Non!Probabilit Sampling /onvenience Sampling
Strengths
9eaknesses
&conomical; less time consuming; convenient
ResearcherAs bias in selection; Representativeness missing; usuall( not recommended for conclusive -descriptive or causal. research Sub=ective results% Generali<ation ver( tentative
Judgmental Sampling
Cess cost; more convenient; least time consuming
Iuota Sampling
Sample can be controlled :ias in selection of units; for certain characteristics representativeness not there Relevant units 0ith needed characteristics easil( identified% Much time taking
Sno0ball Sampling
Mall Intercept Sampling Mall intercept or shopping center sampling presents some uni*ue difficulties% :ias ma( be introduced b( 1% selection of shopping center 2% part of the shopping center; and 3% 6art of the da( -time. Cet us e'amine each one in detail% Selection of Shopping Center 1 shopping center usuall( reflects primaril( the kind of families 0hich live in the area% 2here ma( be lo0 income and high income areas% It is good to use several shopping centers in different areas to bring representation 0ith respect to characteristics and income% If possible; several cities 0ith diversit( be selected for the purpose of research% Selection of Location (ithin the Shopping Center 8hich part of the shopping mall should be selected) in the beginning; in the center or in the end% 6robabl( all location turn b( turn to improve representativeness% If appropriate; different entrances of -a big. parking lot% If the researcher has an intervie0ing facilit( at a longer distance; it might result into nonE representativeness on account of refusals to go to the facilit( due to shortage of time%
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Part of the 'a HTime8 Selection Different timings should be stratified as different people shop at different times% 8omen shop on 0eekda(s; 0orking people shop in the evenings; families shop on 0eekends% Sometime 0orking people shop at the lunch hour% Cike0ise there is different kind of rush at different hours of the da(% &venings are usuall( the peak hours% Samples of shoppers should be taken at different hours of the da(% Sampling #rrors 2here are different kinds of errors in research% 5ne of them is called sampling error% 2he difference bet0een the sample value -statistics. and true underl(ing population value -parameter. is termed as sampling error% Sampling error occurs due to si<e of the sample and sampling techni*ue% Some methods can minimi<e sampling error 1 sampling error could be in sampling frame% 1 sampling frame error is the degree to 0hich sampling frame -or list. fails to account for the population% Pello0 pages and other telephone directories ma( contain sufficient sampling frame errors as these are not upEtoEdate% Some numbers are redundant 0hile some others are not listed%
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LECTURE # 17
'e$elopment of -uestionnaire Iuestionnaire or form design is an important step in formulating a research design% 5nce the researcher has specified the nature of research design and determined the scaling procedures; the( develop a *uestionnaire or an observational form% -uestionnaire and *bser$ation 7orms Surve( and observations are the t0o basic methods for obtaining *uantitative primar( data in descriptive research% :oth of these methods re*uire some procedure for standardi<ing the data collection process so that the data obtained are internall( consistent and can be anal(<ed in a uniform and coherent form% If 0 different intervie0ers conduct personal intervie0s or make observations in different parts of the countr(; the data the( collect 0ill not be comparable unless the( follo0 specific guidelines and ask *uestions and record ans0ers in a standard 0a(% 1 standardi<ed *uestionnaire or form 0ill ensure comparabilit( of the data; increase speed and accurac( of recording; and facilitates data processing% -uestionnaire 'efinition 1 *uestionnaire; 0hether it is called a schedule; intervie0 form or measuring instrument is a formali<ed set of *uestions for obtaining information from respondents% *b+ecti$es of a -uestionnaire 1n( *uestionnaire has three specific ob=ectives) 9irst; it must translate the information needed into a set of specific *uestions that the respondents can and 0ill ans0er% Second; a *uestionnaire must uplift; motivate and encourage the respondent to become involved in the intervie0; to cooperate and to complete the intervie0% 1 0ell designed *uestionnaire can motivate the respondents and increase the response rate% 2hird; a *uestionnaire should minimi<e response error% 2he response error is defined as the error that arises 0hen respondents give inaccurate ans0ers or their ans0ers are missErecorded or missE anal(<ed% 1 *uestionnaire can be a ma=or source of response error%
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-uestionnaire 'esign Process

Specif the Information Needed
Specif the T pe of -uestioning Method
'esign the -uestions
'etermine Structure of the -uestion
'etermine the -uestion 9ording
'etermine the Se1uence of -uestions
Identif La out of the -uestionnaire
Produce the -uestionnaire 7orm
'o Pre!testing
Specif the Information Needed 2he first step in *uestionnaire design is to specif( the information needed% 2his is also the first step in the research design process% It is helpful to revie0 components of the problem and the approach; particularl( the research *uestions; h(potheses and the information needed% It is also important to have a clear idea of the target population% 2he characteristics of the respondents group have a great influence on *uestionnaire design% Iuestions that are appropriate for college students ma( not be appropriate for house0ives% Fnderstanding is related to respondent socioeconomic characteristics% 2he more diversified the respondent group; the more difficult it is to design a single *uestionnaire that is appropriate for the entire group% T pe of Inter$ie(ing Method 1n appreciation of ho0 the t(pe of intervie0ing method influences *uestionnaire design can be obtained b( considering ho0 the *uestionnaire is administered under each method% In personal intervie0s; respondents see the *uestionnaire and interact face to face 0ith the intervie0er% 2hus length(; comple' and varied *uestions can be asked% In telephone intervie0s; the respondents interact 0ith the intervie0er; but the( do not see the *uestionnaire% 2his limits the t(pe of
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*uestions that can be asked to short and simple ones% Mail *uestionnaires are self administered; so the *uestions must be simple and detailed instructions must be provided% Indi$idual -uestion Content 8hat to include in individual *uestions> Is the -uestion Necessar F &ver( *uestion in a *uestionnaire should contribute to the information needed or serve some specific purpose% If there is no satisfactor( use for the data resulting from a *uestion; that *uestion should be eliminated% It is useful to ask some neutral *uestions at the beginning of the *uestionnaire to establish involvement and rapport; particularl( 0hen the topic of the *uestionnaire is sensitive or controversial% Sometimes filler *uestions are asked to disguise the purpose or sponsorship of the pro=ect% Rather than limiting the *uestions to the brand of interest; *uestions about competing brands ma( also be included to disguise the sponsorship% "re Se$eral -uestions Needed Instead of *neF ?Do (ou think /ola 1 is a tast( and refreshing soft drink> HIncorrect8 Such a *uestion is called a doubleEbarreled *uestion; because t0o or more *uestions are combined into one% 2o obtain the re*uired information; t0o distinct *uestions should be asked) ?Do (ou think /ola 1 is a tast( and soft drink>@ and ?Do (ou think /ola 1 is a refreshing soft drink>@ HCorrect8 *$ercoming Inabilit to "ns(er Researchers should not assume that respondents can provide accurate or reasonable ans0ers to all *uestions% Is the Respondent InformedF 1 husband ma( not be informed about monthl( e'penses for groceries and department store purchases if it is the 0ife 0ho makes these purchases; or vice versa% Research has sho0n that respondents 0ill often ans0er *uestions even though the( are uniformed% In situations 0here not all respondents are likel( to be informed about the topic of interest; filter *uestions that measure familiarit(; product use and past e'perience should be asked before *uestions about the topic themselves% 9ilter *uestions enable the researcher to filter out the respondents 0ho are not ade*uatel( informed% Can the Respondent RememberF Man( things that 0e might accept ever(one to kno0 are remembered b( onl( a fe0% 2est this out on (ourself% /an (ou ans0er the follo0ing> 8hat is the brand name of the trouser (ou 0ere 0earing three 0eeks ago> 8hat did (ou have for dinner t0o 0eeks ago> 8hat (ou 0ere doing a month ago at noon> 7o0 man( liters of soft drinks did (ou consume during the last three 0eeks> 2hese *uestions are incorrect as the( e'ceed the abilit( of the respondents to remember% &vidence indicates that consumers are particularl( poor at remembering *uantities of products consumed% 2hus; Soft drink consumption ma( be better obtained b( asking) 7o0 often do (ou consume soft drinks in a t(pical 0eek>
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than once a 0eek 5ne to three times per 0eek 9our to si' times per 0eek Seven or more times per 0eek Can the Respondent "rticulateF Respondents ma( be unable to articulate certain t(pe of responses% 9or e'ample; atmosphere of the department store% If the respondents are unable to articulate their responses to a *uestion; the( are likel( to ignore that *uestion and ma( refuse to respond to the rest of the *uestionnaire% 2hus respondents should be given ads; such as pictures; maps; and descriptions to help them articulate their responses% *$ercoming ;n(illingness to "ns(er If respondents are able to ans0er a particular *uestion; the( ma( be un0illing to do so; either because too much effort is re*uired% 2he situation or conte't ma( not seem appropriate for disclosure; no legitimate purpose or need for the information re*uested is apparent; or the information re*uested is sensitive% #ffort re1uired of the Respondents 2he researcher should minimi<e the effort re*uired of the respondents% Suppose the researcher is interested in determining from 0hich departments in a store the respondent purchased merchandi<e on the most recent shopping trip% 2his information can be obtained in at least t0o 0a(s% 6lease list all the departments from 0hich (ou purchase merchandi<e on (our most recent shopping trip to a department store% HIncorrect8 In the list that follo0s; please check all the departments from 0hich (ou purchased merchandi<e on (our most recent shopping trip to a department store) 8omenAs shoes MenAs apparel /hildrenAs apparel /osmetics . . . Je0elr( 5ther -please specif(. 2he second option is preferable; because it re*uires less effort from respondents% Conte&t Some *uestions ma( seem appropriate in some conte'ts but not in others% 9or e'ample; *uestions about personal h(giene habits ma( be appropriate 0hen asked in a surve( sponsored b( the 6akistan Medical 1ssociation; but not in one sponsored b( a fast food restaurant% Respondents are un0illing to respond to *uestions that the( consider to be inappropriate for the given conte't% Legitimate Purpose Respondents are also un0illing to divulge information that the( do not see as serving a legitimate purpose% 8h( should affirm marketing cereals 0ant to kno0 their age; income and occupation> :ut a statement such as; ?2o determine ho0 the consumption of cereal and ##
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preferences of cereal brands var( among people of different ages; incomes and occupations; 0e need information on+@ can make the re*uest for information seem legitimate% Sensiti$e Information Respondents are un0illing to disclose; at least accuratel(; sensitive information because this ma( cause embarrassment or threaten the respondentAs prestige or selfEimage% Sensitive topics include mone(; famil( life; political and religious beliefs; and involvement in accidents or crimes% Increasing the 9illingness of Respondents 6lace sensitive topics at the end of the *uestionnaire% :( then; initial mistrust has been overcome; rapport has been created; legitimac( of the pro=ect has been established and respondents are more 0illing to give information% 6reface the *uestion 0ith a statement that the behavior of interest is common% 9or e'ample; before re*uesting information on credit card debt; sa(; ?Recent studies sho0 that most 6akistanis are in debt%@ 2his techni*ue is called the use of counter biasing statement%
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LECTURE # 18
Designing a good research questionnairecontd

Choosing -uestion Structure 1 *uestion ma( be unstructured or structured% ;nstructured -uestions Fnstructured *uestions are openEended *uestions that respondents ans0er in their o0n 0ords% 2he( are also referred as freeEresponse or freeEans0er *uestions% 9or e'ampleB 8hat is (our hobb(> 8hat is (our favorite political part(> 5penEended *uestions are good as first *uestions on a topic% Respondents are free to e'press an( vie0s% 2heir comments and e'planations can provide the researcher 0ith rich insights% 7ence; unstructured *uestions are useful in e'plorator( research% 1 principal disadvantage is that potential for intervie0er bias is high% 8hether the intervie0ers record the ans0ers verbatim or 0rite do0n onl( the main points; the data depend on the skill of the intervie0ers% 1nother ma=or disadvantage of unstructured *uestions is that the coding of responses is costl( and time consuming% 2o summari<e responses in a format useful for data anal(sis and interpretation can be e'tensive% Structured -uestions Structured *uestions specif( the set of response alternatives and the response format% 1 structured *uestion ma( be multiple choices; dichotomous or a scale% Multiple!choice -uestions In multipleEchoice *uestions; the researcher provides a choice of ans0ers and respondents are to select one or more of the alternatives given% /onsider the follo0ing *uestion) Do (ou intend to bu( ane0 house 0ithin the ne't three months> Definitel( 0ill not bu( 6robabl( 0ill not bu( Fndecided 6robabl( 0ill bu( Definitel( 0ill bu( 5ther -please specif(. 2he response alternatives should include the set of all possible choices% 2he response alternatives should be mutuall( e'clusive% Respondents should also be able to identif( one; and onl( one; alternative; unless the researcher specificall( allo0s t0o or more choices% 5rder or the position bias is the respondentsA tendenc( to check an alternative merel( because it occupies a certain position or is listed in a certain order% Respondents tend to check the first or the last statement in a list; particularl( the first% &ach alternative should appear once in each of the e'treme positions; once in the middle and once some0here in bet0een% MultipleEchoice *uestions overcome man( of the disadvantages of openEended *uestions; because intervie0er bias is reduced and these *uestions are administered *uickl(% 1lso; coding and processing of data are much less costl( and time consuming% In selfEadministered *uestionnaires; respondent cooperation is improved if the ma=orit( of the *uestions are structured%
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are considerable effort is re*uired to design effective multipleEchoice *uestions% It is difficult to obtain information on alternatives not listed% &ven if an ?5ther -please specif(.@ categor( is included; respondents tend to choose among the listed alternatives% 2here is also the potential for order bias% 'ichotomous -uestions 1 dichotomous *uestion has onl( t0o response alternatives) (es or no; agree or disagree; and so on% 5ften; the t0o response alternatives of interest are supplemented b( a neutral alternative; such as ?no opinion;@ ?donAt kno0;@ ?both@ or ?none%@ 9or e'ample) Do (ou intend to bu( a ne0 house 0ithin the ne't three months> Pes 4o DonAt kno0 Issue in the design of dichotomous *uestions is 0hether to include a neutral response alternative% If it is not included; respondents are forced to choose bet0een ?Pes@ and ?4o@ even if the( feel indifferent% 5n the other hand; if a neutral alternative is included; respondents can avoid taking a position on the issue; thereb( biasing the results% 8e offer the follo0ing guidelines) If a substantial proportion of the respondents can be e'pected to be neutral; include a neutral alternative% If the proportion of neutral respondents is e'pected to be small; avoid the neutral alternative% Scales Scales 0ere discussed in detail in chapter " and ,% Choosing -uestion 9ording Deciding on *uestion 0ording is perhaps the most critical and difficult task in developing a *uestionnaire% 2o avoid the problems; 0e offer the follo0ing guidelines) Define the issue Fse ordinar( 0ords 1void ambiguous 0ords 1void leading *uestions 1void implicit alternatives 1void implicit assumptions 1void generali<ation and estimates Fse positive and negative statements 'efine the Issue 1 *uestion should clearl( define the issue being addressed% /onsider the follo0ing *uestion) 8hich brand of soap do (ou use> HIncorrect8 1 better 0ording for this *uestion 0ould be) 8hich brand or brands of soap have (ou personall( used during the last month> In case of more than one brand; please list all the brands that appl(% HCorrect8 ;se *rdinar 9ords 5rdinar( 0ords should be used in a *uestionnaire and the( should match the vocabular( level of the respondents% 9or e'ample; education as for certain respondents groups; the education level is ver( lo0% 2echnical =argon should also be avoided% Most respondents do not understand technical marketing 0ords% 9or e'ample) Do (ou think the distribution of soft drinks is ade*uate> HIncorrect8 Do (ou think soft drinks are readil( available 0hen (ou 0ant to bu( them> HIncorrect8
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;se ;nambiguous 9ords 8ords should have a single meaning that is kno0n to the respondents% 1 number of 0ords that appear to be unambiguous have different meanings to different people% 2hese include ?usuall(;@ ?normall(;@ ?fre*uentl(;@ ?often;@ ?regularl(;@ ?occasionall(;@ and ?sometimes%@ /onsider the follo0ing *uestion) In a t(pical month; ho0 often do (ou shop in general stores> 4ever 5ccasionall( Sometimes 5ften Regularl( HIncorrect8
In
a t(pical month; ho0 often do (ou shop in general stores> than once 1 or 2 times 3 or times More than times HCorrect8
Cess Researcher
should consult a dictionar( and thesaurus% "$oid Leading or %iasing -uestions 1 leading *uestion is one that clues the respondent to 0hat ans0er is desired or leads the respondent to ans0er in a certain 0a(; as in the follo0ing) Do (ou think that patriotic 6akistanis should bu( imported automobiles 0hen that 0ould put 6akistani labor out of 0ork> Pes 4o DonAt kno0 HIncorrect8
Do
4o DonAt
(ou think that 6akistanis should bu( imported automobiles>
Pes
kno0 HCorrect8 :ias ma( also arise 0hen respondents are given clues about the sponsor of the pro=ect% Respondents tend to respond favorabl( to0ard the sponsor% 2he *uestion; ?Is /olgate (our favorite toothpaste>@ is likel( to bias the response% 1 more unbiased 0a( of obtaining this information 0ould be to ask; ?8hat is (our favorite toothpaste brand>@ "$oid Implicit "lternati$es 1n alternative that is not e'plicitl( e'pressed in the opinions is an implicit alternative% /onsider the follo0ing *uestions) Do (ou like to fl( 0hen traveling short distances> HIncorrect8 Do (ou like to fl( 0hen traveling short distances; or 0ould (ou rather drive> HCorrect8 In the first *uestion; the alternative of driving is onl( implicit but in the second *uestion it is e'plicit% 2he first *uestion is likel( to (ield a greater preference for fl(ing than the second *uestion% "$oid Implicit "ssumptions Iuestions should not be 0orded so that the ans0er is dependent upon implicit assumptions about 0hat 0ill happen as a conse*uence% /onsider the follo0ing e'ample)
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(ou in favor of a balanced budget> HIncorrect8 1re (ou in favor of a balanced budget if it 0ould result in an increase in the personal income ta'> HCorrect8 Implicit in *uestion 1 are the conse*uences that 0ill arise as a result of a balanced budget% 2here might be a cut in defense e'penditures; increase in personal income ta'; cut in social programs; and so on% Iuestion 2 is a better 0a( to 0ord this *uestion% "$oid 2enerali0ations and #stimates Iuestions should be specific; not general% Moreover; *uestions should be 0orded so that the respondent does not have to make generali<ations or compute estimates% 9or e'ample) 8hat is the annual per capita e'penditure on cosmetics in (our household> HIncorrect8 8hat is the monthl( -or 0eekl(. e'penditure on cosmetics in (our household> 1nd 7o0 man( members are there 0ho use cosmetics in (our household> HCorrect8 2he researcher can then perform the necessar( calculations% Se1uencing the -uestions 1fter the 0ording of the *uestions has been described; their se*uence should be established% 8hat should be the flo0 or order of the *uestions in the *uestionnaire% 1lthough this aspect dra0s heavil( on the skill and e'perience of the researcher; there are some suggestions for the se*uencing of the *uestions 0ithin the *uestionnaire% 2hese suggestions are presented belo0% ;se a simple and interesting 1uestion in the beginning. 2o open the *uestionnaire; the respondentAs interest and curiosit( must be captured immediatel(% 2his is a good 0a( to establish rapport 0ith the respondents% 2his also gives confidence to the respondent% 9or e'ample; if (ou are conducting a surve( on the use of cookbooks; the first *uestion ma( be ?Do (ou like to cook>@ 2eneral 1uestions should be asked first and specific 1uestions later. 8ithin a given topic; general *uestions should be follo0ed b( specific *uestions% 9or e'ample ?8hat considerations are important to (ou in bu(ing tea@ should precede the *uestion ?8hen (ou are bu(ing tea; is aroma important to (ou>@ Moving from general to specific *uestion is called 9unnel 1pproach% ;ninteresting and hard 1uestions should be placed late in the se1uence. Se*uence the embarrassing; sensitive; dull and comple' *uestions 0ell do0n in the *uestionnaire% More demanding and personal *uestions about age; income etc% should be placed at the end so that the respondent feels ps(chologicall( comfortable%
2here are three t(pes of information gathered 0ith the help of a *uestionnaire% 2hese t(pes are) :asic information Identification information /lassification information :asic information relates directl( to research problem% Identification information asks name; telephone number and address% /lassification information is used to classif( the respondent in various groups for the purpose of
anal(sis% 1s a general rule; the order of these information should be like this) :asic information first; follo0ed b( the classification and finall( identification information% Logical *rder% 2he *uestionnaire should flo0 smoothl( and logicall( from one topic to the ne't% Sudden shifts should be avoided as these tend to confuse the respondent and leads to himDher to indecision% 8hen a ne0 topic is introduced; a transaction statement should be given to s0itch the respondentAs train of thought properl(% :ranching *uestions should be designed carefull(% It is
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advised that the research *uestionnaire be divided into several parts for basic information and these parts should be logicall( arranged%
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LECTURE # 19 'ata collection and field(ork

Co$ering Letter for -uestionnaire
Introducing -uestionnaire Introducing *uestionnaire is an important step in the designing of *uestionnaire% It is usuall( given in a covering letter 0hich accompanies the *uestionnaire% In personal intervie0s; it ma( take the form of opening remarks% 4o matter cover letter or opening remarks; it contains the follo0ing points) 4ame of the sponsorDsurve( team 8h( the surve( is being conducted 7o0 the respondents 0ere selected Re*uest for response 1n( incentive provided for participating 1s far the name of the sponsor is concerned the surve( ma( be undisguised or disguised%
In undisguised approach; name of the researcher and sponsor is identified 0hereas in disguised
name of the sponsoring compan( is concealed from the respondents% 5ne reason for disguising the name is that 0e should not let the competitor kno0 about the surve(% 1nother reason for concealing the name of the sponsor is that sometime disclosure of the name of the compan( might influence the ans0ers of the respondents% In the cover letter purpose of the surve( should be stated simpl( and clearl(% 2he statement of purpose ma( be concise and described in one or t0o sentences% Statements like ?8e are conducting a research -surve(. or customer perception about banks in Gulberg area@ should be good enough% In this statement (ou are even concealing the name of the sponsor 2he respondents should also kno0 ho0 the( 0ere selected% &ach one is curious ?8h( me%@ 2ell the respondents ho0$ ma( be the( 0ere selected at random; ma( be =udgmental or ma( be b( referral -Sno0balling. 2o0ards the end of the cover letter or opening remarks; the respondents be re*uested to cooperate and participate in the stud( b( providing necessar( data% ?Ma( I re*uest (our goodEself to take five minutes to fill in the attached *uestionnaire and send it back in enclosed postage paid self addressed envelope%@ In a personal or telephonic intervie0; it might be like thisB ?Ma( I ask (ou no0 a fe0 *uestions about (our e'perience in Fniversit( OPU 0here (ou have been educated@ or ?Pou are one of the fe0 people selected to e'press (our vie0s on proposed topic% 2he last section of the cover letter might mention about the incentive; if an(; provided to the respondents for participation in the stud(% Different forms of incentives ma( be used% 9ollo0ing are some of the e'amples) Reduce the an'iet( of the respondents concerning their privac(% 1ssure the respondents that their names 0ill be confidential% 2here 0ill be complete anon(mit(% 5ffer a sample of product% 5ffer to provide a cop( of the results of the research%
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5ffer monetar( incentives% 9or e'ample Rs% 100 for a completel( filled *uestionnaire% /reation of introduction to the research b( 0a( of a cover letter re*uires much careful effort in
the development of a *uestionnaire% 1n e'ample of the cover letter is given on the ne't slides% 1:/ Research /ompan( Dear Mr% 1li; 8e are conducting a research surve( among managers of plastic industries in 6akistan% 2he basic purpose of the research is to find out the advantages and disadvantages of some ne0 products% Pour opinion 0ill enable the plastic manufactures to be a0are of the re*uirements of the plastic users and opinion of the non users% In its turn; it 0ill help them to design the needed products more carefull(% Pour name has been selected randoml( from a list of plastic industries obtained from the Cahore /hamber of /ommerce and Industr(% Pou are re*uested to please spare onl( ten minutes to complete the enclosed *uestionnaire and return it in the stamped; self addressed envelope attached 0ith the *uestionnaire% Pour ans0ers are ver( important for our research% Ma( I assure (ou that (our ans0ers 0ill be kept strictl( confidential and anon(mous% If (ou 0ant to receive a cop( of the findings of this research; please indicate so on the designated place on the *uestionnaire% 8e 0ill be pleased to send (ou a cop( of the report to (ou as soon as it is read(% 6lease return the *uestionnaire at the earliest% 2hank (ou ver( much for (our help% Pours trul(; 1hmad 4a0a< Director &ncl) 1s above Pre!testing the -uestionnaire :efore the *uestionnaire can be used in field operations; it should be preEtested and revised% 7o0 the *uestionnaire 0ill perform under actual conditions can be determined b( preEtesting% 1 pretest is use of *uestionnaire on a trial basis in a small pilot stud( to determine ho0 0ell the *uestionnaire 0orks% Iuestionnaire preEtest is vital% 6reEtest for a *uestionnaire is the same as in the test marketing in ne0 product development% 2here should be at least one preEtest and revision of the *uestionnaire before it is read( for field operations% Purpose of Pre!testing 2he main purpose of preEtesting is to improve the *uestionnaire so that the *uestions are easil( understood% Specificall( preEtest assesses the follo0ing) Does the *uestionnaire include precise instructions for the respondents to fill in the *uestionnaire> Does each *uestion ask for onl( one bit of information -Double barreled *uestions. Is the 0ording of *uestion understandable> Do 0ords create confusion or give double meaning%
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2here are no leading and loading *uestions% Does the *uestionnaire contain technical 0ords or abbreviations 0hich ma( be unfamiliar> 1re the *uestions sufficient to cover all conceivable ans0ers> Se*uence and flo0 of *uestions is ade*uate% General appearance of the *uestionnaire is appealing and motivating the respondents to cooperate%
Method of Pre!testing the -uestionnaire 2he follo0ing steps are follo0ed in preEtesting the *uestionnaire) Select 10E1! persons other than the actuall( sampled units% 2he preEtest group should include respondents similar to those to be used in actual stud(% 2hese respondents should be informed about the purpose of the preEtest before the preEtest actuall( starts% 2he( should be re*uested to cooperate in spotting 0ords; phrases; instructions; *uestion flo0 and other aspects of the *uestionnaire 0hich are confusing and difficult to understand or a problem other0ise% 9irst use personal intervie0 for preEtest and discover an( problem and revise if necessar(% 2hen the revised *uestionnaire be preEtested in the manner it is to be used ultimatel( in the final surve( i%e% b( mail or telephone 6rotocol anal(sis or debriefing procedures ma( be used in preEtesting% In protocol anal(sis; the respondents do ?loud thinking@ 0hile giving ans0ers to the *uestions% /omments are tape recorded and anal(<ed later% If debriefing procedure is used then the respondents are told; after completing the *uestionnaire; that this 0as merel( a preEtest and its ob=ective 0as to improve the *uestionnaire% 2hen the( are invited to comment on the *uestions; se*uence; 0ordings etc% and an( other problem that the( faced 0hen the( 0ere filling the *uestionnaire% 6repare dumm( tables from the responses of the preEtest and check if there is an( problem in tabulating the information or if some *uestions are superfluous% Revise the *uestionnaire in the light of the preEtest% &liminate *uestions that do not provide ade*uate information; change 0ording and se*uence if =ustified% Remove all the problems that 0ere identified during preEtest% If there 0ere man( changes in the *uestionnaire; the revised *uestionnaire should be preEtested again using a different sample of respondents% Pre!coding the -uestionnaire 6reEcoding the *uestionnaire is perhaps the final task in the development of the *uestionnaire% 6reEcoding includes placing the codes -numbers. on the *uestionnaire to facilitate data entr( after collection of data% 2he ob=ective of preEcoding is associating each response 0ith a uni*ue number or letter% 4umber is usuall( preferred to letter because it is more fast to ke(stroke the numbers in the computers and computer can process numbers than letters more efficientl(% #&ample of Pre!coding the -uestionnaire 7ave (ou purchased 6i<<a 1 in the last fifteen da(s> Pes -1. 4o -2.
2he last time (ou bought 6i<<a 1

7!

8as delivered to (our house -1. Pou picked it (ourself -2. 8as delivered in (our office -3. Pou ate the pi<<a at their restaurant% - .
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8hat is (our opinion about the taste of 6i<<a 1>

&'cellent -1. Good -2. Satisfactor( -3. 6oor - .
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LECTURE # 20
'ata "nal sis, 'ata preparation and data cleaning 7inal Production of -uestionnaire
1fter preEtesting and preEcoding; the *uestionnaire should be produced finall(% 2he ph(sical appearance of the *uestionnaire can affect the response rate and the accurac( of the ans0ers% 2he follo0ing points should be kept in mind in the final productionDreproduction of the *uestionnaire%
Fse good *ualit( paper% 2he *uestionnaire should have a professional appearance% If the *ualit( of the paper is poor or
other0ise appearance is shabb(; the respondent ma( think that the research pro=ect is unimportant and *ualit( of the response ma( not be that good% If the *uestionnaire runs to several pages; it should be in the form of a booklet instead of stapled sheets of paper% Iuestions should be numbered seriall(% 2his helps keep the control in field operation% If anon(mit( is an issue; donAt use these numbers% Ceave reasonable space for openEended *uestions% If (ou leave less space; the ans0ers ma( be short accordingl(% If the respondent has to skip a *uestion or section; use ?go to%@ DonAt spread one *uestion on t0o pages% &ach *uestion should be on one page onl(% 2(pe and font should be large enough to be read clearl(% 3ertical instead of hori<ontal response columns should be used% If is easier to read do0n the column rather than side0a(s% /olor coding ma( be used if convenient% 1lso different colors of *uestionnaires ma( be used for different respondent groups% 2he *uestionnaire should appear as short but not at the e'pense of overcro0ding the *uestions% Instructions and directions to respond different *uestions or set of *uestions should be clear and be placed close to the *uestions% 7inal Checklist for -uestionnaire 'esign Specif( 0hat information 0ill be sought Revie0 research problem; information needed; research *uestions and h(potheses% 7ave a clear idea of (our respondents% Determine the t(pe of intervie0ing i%e% personal intervie0; telephonic intervie0 or mailed *uestionnaire% Determine the content of *uestions% /heck if the *uestion is necessar(% 7o0 man( *uestions are needed for re*uired information> 1void double barreled *uestions% Make sure each *uestion address onl( one specific issue% Is the respondent informed> Fse filter *uestions% /an the respondent remember> Fse aided recall% Is the respondent 0illing to share information> 6rovide necessar( motivation% 1void threatening *uestions%
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the re*uest for information appear to be legitimate> 8hat is the level of effort re*uired from the respondent> Is the information re*uired sensitive> If so :ring sensitive topics at the end of the *uestionnaire% Fse third person techni*ue% Fse counter biasing statement% Determine response 9ormatDStructure 8hich structure of the *uestion is appropriate> 5pen ended; structured; multiple choice; dichotomous> In e'plorator( research; use openEended *uestions% 8henever possible; use structured *uestions% In multiple choice *uestions; use all possible choices% /learl( indicate; if the items are to be ranked or onl( one item is to be selected% In dichotomous *uestions; include a neutral choice; if (ou think there 0ill be man( neutral opinions% Determine the 0ording of the *uestions% Fse simple language and 0ords% 1void ambiguous 0ording like fre*uentl(; often etc% 1void leading *uestions% 1void loading *uestions% 1void implicit assumptions% 1void implicit alternatives% Fse positive and negative statements% DonAt make the respondent compute a lot% Determine the se*uence of *uestions% Fse a simple nonEthreatening open ended *uestion in the beginning% Fse the funnel approach for asking broad *uestions and then narro0ing them do0n% 1sk sensitive or hard *uestions late in the *uestionnaire% 9ollo0 chronological order 0hen collecting historical data% 1sk filter *uestions if needed% Iuestions about one topic be completed before moving to the ne't topic% Fse logical order in se*uencing 0herever possible% Determine ph(sical characteristics of *uestionnaire% Make sure that *uestionnaire has a professional appearance% Start 0ith introduction to *uestionnaire% -Separate introductor( letter if appropriate. Iualit( of the print and paper should be good% 2r( to make *uestionnaire short but not at the cost of overcro0ded appearance% If *uestionnaire has man( pages; use a booklet form% Cist the name of the organi<ation on the first page of the *uestionnaire unless (ou feel to disguise the name due to some genuine reasons% Iuestions should be numbered% 6reEcode ans0ers for eas( processing in computer% Fse ?go to@ if the respondent should skip some *uestions% 4umber the *uestionnaire in serial order% Fse vertical response columns% Directions or instructions should be clear and placed as close to the *uestions as possible% 6reEtest and revise the *uestionnaire%
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at least one preEtesting% If time permits; preEtests ma( be t0o or more% 6reEtest the *uestionnaire first b( personal intervie0 then b( the method that is to be used ultimatel(% 6reEtest all aspects of *uestionnaire i%e% content; 0ording; form; se*uence; difficult( level etc% 6reEtest sample ma( be small -1!E30. for initial testing% Pou ma( use protocol and debriefing procedures for the identification of problems in the *uestionnaire% 2he preEtest sample should be dra0n from the same population from 0hich the ultimate sample has been dra0n% 6repare dumm( tables and anal(<e the data% Make revisions if necessar(% If more than one preEtest; each should be done on different sample of respondents%
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LECTURE # 21 'ata "nal sis, 'ata preparation and data cleaningLcontd

*bser$ation 7orm It is easier to design an observational form than a *uestionnaire as *uestion asking process is eliminated% 1lso there is an issue of controlling nonEsampling error% Still there are certain important issues in the development of an observation form% 2he researcher should be clear about the t(pes of observations to be made and ho0 these should be measured% 2he measurement ma( involve onl( a form; a mechanical or electronic recording device -video for e'ample. or both% 1n observational form usuall( specifies the follo0ing items in detail% 9ho to be obser$edF 6urchaser; bro0ser; males; females; couples; children; an(one entering the store% 9hat to be obser$edF :rands purchased; brands asked first; *uantit( purchased; in*uiries; influence of friendsDchildren; price inspected on the package 9hen to obser$eF 8eekda(s; 0eekends; da(; date; hour of purchase% 9here to obser$eF 2(pe of store; in the store; at the checkout counter; department 0ithin the store% 9h to obser$eF 9amil( purchase pattern; si<e of the package; influence of price; influence of brand name% 9a to obser$e. 6articipant observer; undisguised observer; hidden camera% 5bservational forms should be simple to use% 2he form should permit the observer to record the behavior in detail rather than summari<ing it% 9inall( the observational forms needs preEtesting as in the case of *uestionnaire% 6resented belo0 is a portion of an observational form to evaluate service provided b( bank emplo(ees% Customer Relation Skills Pes
&mplo(ee
4o Does not appl(
noticed and greeted immediatel(% &mplo(ee speaks pleasantl( and smiles% &mplo(ee found (our name promptl(% &mplo(ee asked (ou to be seated% &mplo(eeAs desk area 0as clean% &mplo(ee 0as helpful% Non Response Issue in 'ata Collection 4onEresponse error arises 0hen some of the potential respondents included in the sample do not respond% 2his is one of the most significant problems in surve( research% 9or a given stud(; if the nonErespondents differ from the respondents on the characteristics of interest; the sample estimates 0ill be seriousl( biased% 7igher response rates; in general; impl( lo0er rate of nonEresponse bias% Response rates themselves do not indicate 0hether the respondents are representative of the original sample% :ecause lo0 response rates increase the probabilit( of nonEresponse bias; an attempt should al0a(s be made to improve the response rate%
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Impro$ing the Response Rates

Methods of Improving Response Rates
Reducing Refusals
Reducing Not-at- homes
Prior Notification
Motivating Respondents
Incentives
Questionnaire Design and Administration
Follow-Up
#ther Facilitators
all!ac"s
Refusals Refusals result from the un0illingness or inabilit( of people included in the sample to participate% Reducing Refusals Prior Notification, In prior notification; potential respondents are sent a letter notif(ing them of the imminent mail; telephone; personal; or internet surve(% 6rior notification increases response rates for samples because it reduces surprise and uncertaint( and creates a more cooperative atmosphere% Moti$ating the Respondents, Motivated to participate in the surve( b( increasing their interest and involvement% In the footEinEtheEdoor strateg(; the intervie0er starts 0ith a relativel( small re*uest; such as ?8ill (ou please take five minutes to ans0er five *uestions>@; to 0hich a large ma=orit( of people 0ill compl(% 2he small re*uest is follo0ed b( a large re*uest; the critical re*uest that solicits participants in the surve( or e'periment% 2he rationale is that compliance 0ith an initial re*uest should increase the chances of compliance 0ith the subse*uent re*uest% 2he doorEinEtheEface is the reverse strateg(% 9ootEinEtheEdoor is more effective than doorEinEtheEface% 7ollo(!up, /ontacting the nonErespondents periodicall( is effective in decreasing refusals in mail surve(s% 20o or three mailings are needed; in addition to the original one% 9ollo0Eups can also be done b( telephone; eEmail or personal contacts% *ther 7acilitators, 6ersonali<ation; or sending letters addressed to specific individuals; is effective in increasing response rates% :esides above follo0ing are some of the strategies for improving response rates) Ma'imi<e the effectiveness of follo0Eup calls% Make materials more appealing and easier to complete% Improve surve( participant re0ards%
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the arrival of respondent materials% Incenti$es, 5ffering monetar( as 0ell as nonEmonetar( incentives to potential respondents prepaid or promised% 2he prepaid incentive is included 0ith the surve( or *uestionnaire% 2he promised incentive is sent to onl( those respondents 0ho complete the surve(% 4onEmonetar( incentives are premiums and re0ards such as pens; pencils; books and offers of surve( results% 6repaid incentives have been sho0n to increase response rates to a greater e'tent than promised incentives% 2he amount of incentive has a positive relationship 0ith response rate; but the cost of large monetar( incentives ma( out0eigh the value of additional information obtained% -uestionnaire design and administration, 1 0ell designed *uestionnaire can decrease the overall refusal rate as 0ell as refusals to specific *uestions% Cike0ise the skill used to administer the *uestionnaire in telephone and personal intervie0s can increase the response rate% 2he( do no accept a ?no@ response 0ithout an additional plea% Not at .omes, 2he percentage of not at homes can be substantiall( reduced b( emplo(ing a series of callbacks; or periodic follo0Eup attempts to contact nonErespondents%
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LECTURE # 22 'escripti$e and inferential statistics

Research Proposal
1 research proposal is 0ritten document that presents a plan for a pro=ect and its purpose is to convince the client that the researcher is capable of successfull( conducting the proposed research pro=ect% It is a planned document that serves as a road map for the researcher% It sho0s the researcherAs abilit( and competence for successfull( conducting the proposed research pro=ect% 1 good research proposal helps is getting contract 1s such a research proposal is a selling techni*ue as 0ell i%e% for professional researchers; it is a persuasive techni*ue for selling their services% It is a document 0hich is 0ritten before the research pro=ect begins% 1s the research proposal is an instrument for good planning; it re*uires maturit( to prepare a good research proposal% It sho0s the researcherAs competence for successfull( conducting the research pro=ect% 9or professional researchers; it is a persuasive techni*ue for selling their services% Parts of a Research Proposal
5n
the top; 0rite the research topic%
:efore
the detailed proposal; an e'ecutive summar(Dovervie0 or abstract ma( be given stating briefl( 0hat is given in the proposal% 2his is the part 0hich the bus( e'ecutives 0ill read%
Regular
proposal is started 0ith introductionD background% :efore 0riting the research proposal; the researcher should meet 0ith the manager to understand) 8hat is the background to the research> 8hat is the conte't in terms of management problem> 8hat is the environment> 2his part sho0s the understanding of researcher about problem% 'efine the Problem, Researcher e'tracts the research problem from the introduction part% Research problem is defined in one or t0o sentences% 2his part describes the main purpose of the research% It also describes the scope and limits of the research% !% Research 5b=ectives) Specific ob=ectives or information needs must be specified clearl( and concisel(% 2hese ob=ectives should be SM1R2 -specific; measurable; achievable; realistic and timel(.%
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6. Literature Re$ie(, 1 brief revie0 of the related literature be give in this section referencing all the booksD=ournalsD0ebsitesDne0spapers etc% Revie0 of literature helps in developing)
Theoretical frame(ork/ models . pothesis -uestionnaire

A. State Research 'esign, In this section describe the research design that the researcher 0ould adopt for the pro=ect; 0hether descriptive; causal or e'plorator( should be described in detail% Research design should contain a description of research methodolog( 0hich 0ill contain the follo0ing% 3. Nature of 'ata, 2he data is either primar( or secondar(
3. Sources of 'ata:
6rimar( data sources include people; stores; brands; customers; managers etc% Secondar( data sources include books; government reports; F45 reports;
Islamic conference reports; ministr( of agriculture; ministr( of industr( or independent researchers; consultants or s(ndicated data% Secondar( data sources ma( be internal and e'ternal both% 6rovide the list of sources in research methodolog(%
5. 'efine the Population and Sample Si0e in Research 'esign,
6opulation is the aggregate of all the units 0hich have the data for the research%
Indicate the si<e of the sample and the sampling techni*ues for selecting the sample% Instrument
of Data /ollection) Researcher should define in the research design 0hich instrument heD she 0ill use for data collection in proposed research pro=ect% Data collection instrument includes *uestionnaire; observation form; or e'perimentation etc%
In case of causal research; the researcher is re*uired to define the control and e'perimental
group%
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9ield 8ork) In this section the description of field0ork activities is given% 2his includes
7o0
the data 0ill be collected
6ersonnel 7o0 7o0 7o0 7o0 7o0
man( peopleD field force 0ill be re*uired the( 0ill be recruited the( 0ill be trained; motivated the( 0ill be supervised the *ualit( of research 0ill be controlled%
Researcher
also specifies 0hat 0ill be the control mechanism to ensure the *ualit( of data collection% Supervision of field force is ver( important and researcher should e'ert hisD her best effort to maintain the *ualit( of research%
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Lecture#23
'escripti$e and inferential statisticsLcontd
Research ProposalLcontinued
8e are continuing 0ith the parts of research proposal% In the previous lecture 0e have covered " parts of the research proposal namel(; title; e'ecutive summar(; background; research problem; specific research ob=ectives; literature revie0; research design; field0ork% 4o0 0e 0ill describe the remaining parts of the research proposal% 1fter field 0ork has been e'plained; the ne't part is data anal(sis%
,% Data 1nal(sis) In this section; method of data anal(sis is given% 8hat kind of statistics 0ill be used 0hether cross tabulation; univariate anal(sis; bivariate or multivariate anal(sis 0ill be done% 7o0 the results 0ill be interpreted% 1n( soft0are 0ill be used or not% 10% Report) 7o0 the report 0ill be prepared% 8hat 0ill be the tentative outline and 0hen 0ill it be submitted% 8hether an( oral presentation 0ill be given or no; if so 0hen%
11% :udget) 1 carefull( prepared budget is sho0n in the research proposal% 2he cost items should be 0orked meticulousl(% If this budget is more than reasonable; 0e ma( lose the bid and if less 0e ma( suffer loss% 2herefore 0e should be careful 0hile making the budget% 12% 2ime Scale) 1 time table of research activities be given for the research pro=ect 1 Gantt chart be prepared 0hich 0ill graphicall( sho0 the beginning and ending of each research activit( like development of *uestionnaire; collection; data anal(sis ; report 0riting etc% 2his 0ill give a snapshot of the entire 0ork of the pro=ect% 1lternativel( the activities ma( be listed and period re*uired for the completion of this activit( ma( be listed in front of it; and then totaling the entire period for the completion of the pro=ect% 13% 1ppendices) 1fter the main te't of the research proposal as described above; some other material ma( be added as appendi'es to impress the client% 2his might include the list of the research 0ork done previousl(; reference letters from the companies for 0hom (ou have alread( completed some research pro=ects; bioEdata of the personnel that 0ill be 0orking on this pro=ect etc% 1 research proposal has a formal format and includes prefator( parts like title; tile page; table of content etc% in addition to the regular te'tual parts as e'plained above%
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Given belo0 is 2ime Scale for a pro=ect in the form of a Gantt chart% 2his is follo0ed b( a time scale b( the activities listed in the outline form%
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Lecture#24
'ata anal sis
7ield(ork
9ield0ork is an important step in the research process% If it is poorl( managed all previous steps 0ill be neutrali<ed% 9ield0ork is e*uated to data collection and other related activitiesB e%g% contact 0ith respondents administer instrument; record data; return data to central location for processing /ollection of data ma( be b( telephonic; face to face; or mail% So 0e should first see 0hat method of data collection 0ill be used and then accordingl( design of field including activities of supervision; monitoring; mailing; observing all field operations etc% If field 0ork is not properl( organi<ed; it 0ill result into man( kinds of errors% 2here are four main aspect of field0ork 0hich are as follo0) 2ime schedule :udget 6ersonnel 6erformance measurement

Time Schedule 8hen 0e are preparing a time schedule of our activities; 0e must be realistic% 8e should allocate reasonable amount of time to data collection 0ithin the total time budget to make a time schedule; the planner should Specif( beginning and ending of the pro=ect Se*uence activities 0ithin time frame Da(s needed to complete various activities 6repare a Gantt chart %udget :udget includes assignment of cost to various activities identified in time schedule% :oth the time schedule and budget are prepared together% :udget sho0s detailed breakdo0n of the cost of all activities and some amount for unseen contingencies% It is revie0ed and approved b( some individuals in the organi<ation% 3arious cost items of cost include) 8ages and salaries 2elephone e'penses
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Material and supplies Salaries of field supervisorDs% Reproduction e'penses like photocop( etc% Miscellaneous
Personnel 6ersonnel mean human resources for the field0ork% 2hese are collectivel( called field force% Management of personnel re*uires selection; training; supervising; authenticating and evaluation of field 0orkers% 9or selection; 0e have to develop Job Description and Job Specification% 8hat should be the characteristics of the field force> Should be health( and have stamina to undertake strenuous 0ork% Should have a pleasant appearance% :e communicative; listening and possess speaking skills% &ducated up to :1 6referabl( should have some e'perience% Ine'perienced personnel result into e'cessive coding error; misreporting; and larger refusal rate
Training of 7ield 7orce

1fter the personnel have been recruited; these should be trained in the skills of data collection% 2raining is critical for field0orkers% It should be given in person at some central location% It should co$er the follo(ing, Initial contact; appointments; opening remarks to seek permission and cooperation Give training about the observation also 1sking *uestions; it brings high dividends in eliminating potential bias% :e thoroughl( familiar 0ith the *uestionnaire 5bserve order of the *uestions Fse e'act 0ording Slo0 reading 0ill help understand the *uestion b( the respondents% Repeat *uestions; if not understood 6robe carefull(
Probing -uestions 6robing *uestions are used to motivate; clarif(; enlarge; or e'plain the ans0ers% 2echni*ues include the follo0ing)
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Repeat the *uestion in the same 0ords Repeat repl( verbatim and confirm% Silent probe b( une'pected pause and looks but should not be not embarrassing Reassure and boost the respondent that there is no right or 0rong; =ust 0hat it means to himDher% &licit clarification; b( sa(ing ?I donAt *uiet understand@; ?please tell me more@; ?0hat do (ou mean@; @an(thing else@; ?an( other reason>@
Recording Replies

Seems simple but mistakes are common Record unstructured *uestion verbatim
2uidelines for recording are, Record identification data like name; date; intervie0er; pro=ect in the beginning% Record during the intervie0 and not after0ard Record in respondentsA o0n 0ords Do not summari<e Include ever(thing Include all probe comments Repeat the response so that respondent listens and verifies%
Terminating Inter$ie( 2uidelines for closing the inter$ie( are, DonAt close before all information is gathered Ceave the respondent 0ith good feelings &'press (our appreciation for his time and cooperation In telephonic inter$ie( 3erif( the telephone number once again /ourteous and polite 6ut a smile in (our voice Speak clearl( DonAt sound bored /lose intervie0 properl(
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Lecture#25
'ata anal sis
Performance Measurement of the 7ield 7orce 6erformance measurement and management are t0o important aspects of field 0ork% Supervisor should ensure that the procedures are being follo0ed% If not; give additional training to the field 0orkers% Some guidelines are) /ollected *uestioners be e'amined and edited &nsure sampling plan being follo0ed strictl( not on convenience H accessibilit( /heating and fake ans0ers be controlled b( calling the respondents on phone% 7o0ever; sometimes this thing is difficult to control% "uthentication M #$aluation 1 good method to authenticate that the data 0ere collected genuinel(; call 10 to 1!S of respondents to validate% 1sk their basic demographic data H cross check% Pou also ask about length; *ualit(; and their reaction to intervie0er from the respondents In order to evaluate the performance; check in each of the field 0orker) /ontact rate Response rates Refusal rate /ost incurred and time spent Iualit( of intervie0ing including precision; abilit( to probe; abilit( to ask sensitive *uestion; interpersonal skills and termination of intervie0 Iualit( of data) legibilit(; non response; instruction follo0ed or not; ans0ers completel( recorded or not% 'ata Preparation 8e should understand that data is recorded measures of phenomenon but information is bod( of facts in a format suitable for decision making% 2he purpose of research is to provide information% Data anal(sis is a process 0hereb( data re converted into information% 2here are man( methods and techni*ues of data anal(sis%
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Fnderstanding principles of data anal(sis is important because it m% Ceads the researcher to develop insight into information and data n% 7elps avoid erroneous =udgment and conclusions% o% 7elps interpret the anal(sis of others% Lno0ledge and po0er of data anal(sis can constructivel( influence research design but it should be remembered that it cannot rescue or compensate stud( not 0ell conceived% If research h(potheses 0ere non viable or uninteresting; or *uestions asked 0ere irrelevant; or sampling 0as inade*uate or if field0ork 0as slopp(; data anal(sis 0ill not provide an( remed( for these deficiencies% 5n the other hand; selecting inappropriate data anal(sis techni*ues has the potential to ruin a 0ell designed stud(% It 0ill bring unclear; incomplete and erroneous conclusionsB 0hich in their turn 0ill lead to inferior decisions%
8e can avoid these pitfalls onl( b( having an ade*uate understanding about techni*ues of data anal(sis%
'ata #diting 1lthough data anal(sis techni*ues are uni*ue for each stud( but all studies re*uire data editing% Data editing mean identif(ing omissions; ambiguities; and errors in the responses and taking necessar( corrective actions% 8ho is responsible for such errors or omissions; could be all or an( of the intervie0er; supervisor; or data anal(st%
6roblems that have been identified through various studies and need to be fi'ed during editing of data include but not limited to the follo0ing) Incorrect instructions b( the intervie0erB 5missions; ambiguities -t0o bo'es checked in M/I.B Inconsistencies -not married but children.B Cack of cooperation -all agree.; Ineligible respondents -age under 1". 2here are several alternatives for data editing% Some possibilities are)
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1pproach the respondent again for clarificationB Devise a ne0 categor(B /reate a categor( of ?no ans0er@ or ?missing@B or DonAt include a *uestion or the 0hole *uestionnaire in (our anal(sis%
Non Sampling #rrors Sampling and Non Sampling #rrors 1ll errors in surve( e'cept sampling plan and sampling si<e are non sampling errors% 2hese include)
4on Data Data Data
response errorsB gathering errorsB handling errorsB anal(sis errorsB errorsB
Interpretation 1mbiguit(
in problem definitionB 0ording of *uestions etc
Inappropriate
Greatest potential for these errors is at data collection stage or field 0ork% Such error ma( occur due to field0orker or respondents% 7ield(orker #rrors 2hese errors are committed b( the person 0ho administers the *uestionnaire or takes intervie0% 2he errors ma( be intentional -committed deliberatel(. or unintentional -occur 0ithout 0illful intent.% &'amples of each are listed belo0%
Intentional iel!"or#er Error$:
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/heating i%e% intentionall( falsif(ing responses due to compensation e%g% if Rs% !00 per completed intervie0 are being paid to the intervie0er; heDshe ma( inflate the number of intervie0s complete to get more mone(% /onvenient intervie0ee ma( be contacted instead of a genuine sample% Cess than agreed *uestionnaires ma( be completed 0ithout cheating% Cead the respondent to a particular ans0er through 0ording; voice inflection; or bod( language% ReE0ording the *uestion% -IsnAt it>. Subtle influence on the respondent b( shaking the head to (es or no; or sa(ing uhu; oka( etc% ;nintentional 7ield(orker #rrors, 2hree sources 6ersonal characteristics; accent; gender Intervie0erAs misunderstanding of instruction about scales; recording responses etc% Gap bet0een the educational level of research designer and the field0orker% It creates communication gap% Miscellaneous sources like fatigue; monoton(; at the end less alert; fail to check the repl(; does not follo0 skipEpattern; or hurr(%
Respondent #rrors 2hese errors are committed b( the person 0ho fills the *uestionnaire or responds to intervie0% Cike field0orker errors; respondent errors are intentional or unintentional% See e'amples belo0% Respondents: intentional #rrors, Fnfortunatel( respondents 0illfull( misrepresent themselves in t0o 0a(s 2ell a lie due to privac( or embarrassments e%g% income; marital status for lonel( 0omen; age etc% DonAt give response in 0hole or part due to bus( schedule or privac(. Respondents: unintentional #rrors, Respondents unintentionall( believe that an invalid response is a truth% Some instances are) 1ns0ering 0ithout an understanding 0hether income is 0ith or 0ithout ta'es /hecking t0o ans0ers instead of one Guessing; uncertain of accurac(; little kno0ledge; lo0 recall but feel compelled to ans0er% &lectricit( consumption in LDhr 1ttention Coss; not interested in surve( Distraction; interruption; off track
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1c*uaintance on mall; 2oddler in telephone surve(; telephone in mail surve( Respondent 9atigue; /ause no opinion%
.o( to Control 7ield #rrors 6recautions should be taken to minimi<e such errors; but these cannot be eliminated% 6otential for these errors al0a(s e'ists in field activities% 8hat are the controls for these errors> Some methods have been suggested for controlling field errors% 2hese are described belo0% Intentional field0ork errors can be controlled b( adopting these methods)
Super$ision,
5versee the 0ork% /entral telephone monitoring can be used for this% Spot cheating% Reprimand the intervie0er if needed% It is al0a(s good to inform the field 0orkers about monitoring so that the( remain alert% In the beginning accompan( the personnel to ensure that field 0orkers have been ade*uatel( trained% >alidation, 3alidate the 0ork b( reEcontacting about 10S respondents% Sometimes reE administer the instrument for comparison% Unintentional %iel!"or#er error$ can &e controlle! &' t(ree )ec(ani$)$. $% Selection and training can take best care of such errors% 10% 5rientation session) Meeting of field 0orkers 0ith the supervisor% 7eDshe gives instructions and tells about re*uirements of the *uestionnaire administration% &&% Role 6la(ing -Rehearsals.) Supervisor or somebod( pla(s the role of respondent and checks the intervie0ing skill% 1lternating of the roles ma( take place bet0een t0o field 0orkers% Control o% Intentional Re$*on!ent Error$ +ini)i,e %al$e(oo! an! non re$*on$e error$ &' %ollo"in- t(e$e tactic$: "non mit , assure confidentialit( of respondentAs name Incenti$es, Give or promise gifts like tEshirts; ballpoints; cash; diaries etc% >alidation Checks, confirm the response b( cross checking 0ith other 0a(s; for e'ample see the effect of medicine for baldness% Third Person Techni1ues, Design of *uestion in such a 0a( that it does not seem to be a direct personal *uestion rather indirect in the name of a friend; colleagues or neighbors%
ontrol of Unintentional Respondent 'rrors
Fnintentional errors on the part of respondents can be controlled b( adopting these techni*ues%
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1. 9ell 'rafted -uestionnaire, /lear instructions and e'amples remove

misunderstandings and confusions%
2. Re$ersal of Scale on #ndpoints, 4egative ad=ectives ma( be placed not on one side% If
(ou place these ad=ectives sometimes on right and sometimes on left side; it 0ill compel the respondent to think and give thoughtful ans0er%
3. Prompters, Leep respondents on task% Give 0ritten or oral statements like ?this 0as the
most difficult section to ans0er@; ?0e are almost finished@ 2his reduces the fatigue also% In the end 0e can sa( that there are different errors and different control but good design of *uestionnaire and technolog( can reduce the errors of data collection in general%
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Lecture#26
'ata "nal sis
5nce the data have been collected and checked for legibilit(; completeness; consistenc(; accurac( and response classification; 0e can proceed 0ith data anal(sis% Data anal(sis is one of the man( activities of marketing research% It is not the most important aspect of research rather it is as important as other aspects of research e%g% good problem definition; appropriate stud( design; proper sampling procedures; 0ell designed and tested instruments of data collection; 0ell monitored field0ork etc% In data anal(sis research is concerned 0ith the ade*uate kno0ledge of anal(sis techni*ues and subse*uentl( selecting the techni*ues 0hich are in hisDher ob=ectives of research% Statistical techni*ues fall in t0o categories) g% Descriptive statistics h% Inferential statistics Descriptive statistics techni*ues describe the characteristics of the sample under stud( 0hereas inferential statistics help the researcher make inferences about the population from 0hich the sample 0as dra0n% Selection of statistical techni*ues also depends on ho0 man( variables are to be anal(<ed at the same time% 1ccordingl( there is uniEvariable; biEvariable and multiEvariable anal(sis% 1nother relevant *uestion 0hile selecting the anal(sis techni*ue is 0hat level of measurement is available i%e% nominal; ordinal; interval etc% In data anal(sis; some basic data anal(sis techni*ues and some advance or sophisticated techni*ues are discussed% 8e hope that these statistical techni*ues have been learnt b( (ou in statistical course% .a$ic /ata 0nal'$i$ 1mong others; three basic data anal(sis procedures; fre*uenc( distribution; crossEtabulation and h(pothesis testing are discussed here% re1uenc' /i$tri&ution 1 fre*uenc( distribution simpl( reports the number of responses that each *uestion received% 8hen a market researcher is finding an ans0er to the *uestions about single variable; heDshe starts 0ith fre*uenc( distribution% &'amples of such *uestions ma( be) e. 7o0 man( customers are familiar 0ith our ne0 product> f. 8hat is the level of income of our brand user) lo0; medium or high> g. 7o0 man( brand lo(al customers do 0e have> h. 8hat is number of heav(; medium and light user of our product> 2he number and percentages for the value ma( be the sub=ect of fre*uenc( distribution%
E2a)*le$ 1% Distribution of customer of brand O of the 1300cc /ar province 0ise% -nK7"0. 1bsolute fre*uenc( Relative fre*uenc( -Sage. ,"
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Islamabad 6un=ab Sindh 4896 :aluchistan
03 30! 230 1 " 0#3 7"0
0 % 3,%1 2,%! 1,%0 0"%0 100
2% 9actors important in purchase of Refrigerator% -nK300. 1ttribute Si<e /olor; appearance 6rice Cess consumption of electricit( Si<e of free<er Self defrosting Ice maker; 8ater dispenser :rand name 9re*uenc( 1"3 ,0 !7 ,0 ! #0 " !1 300 6ercentage #1 30 1, 30 1" 20 2" 17
3% Monthl( income of respondents% -nK200. Monthl( Income -Rs%. W of Respondents 0E!000 !000E"000 "000E11000 11000E1 000 1 000E17000 17000E20000 Mean 1! 22 2 #0 33 2" 200
Sages 7%! 11%0 21%0 30%0 1#%! 1 %0 100
Mean is a measure of central tendenc(% 2here are different kinds of means e%g% arithmetic mean; geometric mean; harmonic mean etc% In marketing research; arithmetic mean 0hich is arithmetic average is most 0idel( used% It is the ratio bet0een the sum of observation and number of observations% Mean is the sum of values divided b( the sample si<e or number of observations% #&ample In a sample of 10 household consumers; the household income is sho0n belo0)
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9amil( W 7% 1 "% 37 ,% 2" 10% !1 11% !0 12% 3# 13% 30 1 % 1 1!% 7 1#% 2,
Monthl( Income -M000A rupees.
3,0 Mean Income -3,0D10. is 3, 0r rupees 3,000% If the data are interval grouped into categories and clauses; mean is calculated b( taking the midpoints of the categories% 2he midpoint of categor( is multiplied b( a fre*uenc( in the categor( summing up the multiplied values and dividing it b( sum of fre*uencies% Cet us see the monthl( income of respondents once again Monthl income of respondents HnG3??8 Monthl( Income -Rs%. 0E!000 !000E"000 "000E11000 11000E1 000 1 000E17000 17000E20000 W of Respondents -f. mid 6oint-'. 1! 22 2 #0 33 2" 200 Mean income -23!,000D200. is rupees117,!% *rdinal 'ata In ordinal data median is the measure of central tendenc(% Median is the midpoint of the fre*uencies% 1s per this measure !0S of the observations are above median value 0hereas !0S are belo0%
f' 37!00 1 3000 3,,000 7!0000 !11!00 !1"000 23!,000
2!00 #!00 ,!00 12!00 1!!00 1"!00
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If the numbers of observations are odd; the middle observation is the median% #&ample 2he values of sales looked b( a salesman in a month are Rs% 12!000; Rs% 17!000; Rs% 32!000; Rs% 77000; Rs% 1"0000% 1rrange them in ascending order i%e% Rs% 32!000 Rs% 1"0000 Rs% 17!000 Rs% 12!000 Rs% 77000 2he median or middle value is Rs% 17!000% If the observations are even numbers; the median 0ould be the arithmetic mean 0ould be the middle most t0o values% #&ample 1 salesman looked at the sales order 0orth the follo0ing values in a monthB Rs% 2!000; Rs% 17"000; Rs%!10000; Rs% !0000; Rs% 27!000; Rs% 370000% 9ind the median of the data% 1rrange values in descending order% Rs% !10000 Rs% !0000 Rs% 370000 Rs% 27!000 Rs% 2!0000 Rs% 17"000 In the above e'ample middle most t0o values are Rs 370000 and 27!000% 1s such the median value is arithmetic mean of the above t0o% i%e% K -370000T27!000.D2 K # !000D2 K Rs% 322!00 Mode Mode is still another measure of central tendenc(% 2his is the observation -'. 0here the fre*uenc( is ma'imum% &'ample 9ollo0ing 0ere the number of sales returns according to the models of the product sold% Model W 1; 2; 3; ; !; #; 7 W of returns #; 12; "; 2; 1; 7; 2 2he mode of sales return is in the modelW2 as the numbers of returns 0ere 12
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Lecture#27
Data analysis
Measure of 'ispersion
o% location3 )ean3 )o!e and )e!ianB describe one characteristics of data i%e% Central ten!enc'% 7o0ever in market research 0e 0ish to kno0 about another characteristic of data that is the variation or scatter among the values% 5ne can easil( visuali<e t0o variables having identical central tendencies but 0ith ver( different spread%
+ea$ure
7or e&ample If spending of t0o groups of households on purchasing of tea per annum appears like this)
Members
2roup "
3000
1!00
2100
1"00
2"00
2roup %
3#00
,72
131,
2700
2#0,
Mean of both is Rs% 22 0 but variation of bet0een t0o groups is not same% 2his information is important for a tea manufacturer for making his distribution plan% 2here are different measures of dispersion 0hich are described belo0% Range, 2he range is the difference bet0een the largest and smallest values in the data% In the previous e'ample; the range of data in 4rou* 0 is Rs% 3000 $ 1!00 K 1!00% 8hile the range of 4rou* . is Rs% 3#00 $ ,72 K 2#2"% Standard 'e$iation and >ariance 2he distance bet0een the mean and an observed value is deviation from the mean% 8hen 0e s*uare these deviations and find out the mean of these s*uared deviation; this is called 5ariance. 8hen the different data are scattered to a great e'tent variance is large; but if data are clustered around the mean; variance is small.
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Sample >ariance It is found 0ith the follo0ing formula%
2 # # . s2 = n 1
2he sum of s*uare deviations for the value from the mean O divided b( n $ 1% Standard 'e$iation of Sample Standard deviation of sample ?s@ is the s*uare root of the sample variance% 2o put it in the formula; it 0ould be
- # # .2 s= n1
#&ample
1:/
Real &state in Larachi 0ants to kno0 ho0 long does it take to the listed homes to sell% 2he Director of the firm took a sample of 10 homes listed last (ear and the number of 0eeks each house took to be sold% 2he data revealed that the sample homes took follo0ing 0eeks -rounded to the nearest 0hole 0eek. 21363932331310383113537. 8hat 0as the mean and standard deviation of the time period to sell the homes listed in 1:/ Real &state last (ear>
.ome ) 3 4 5 6
Period & 3) @ C 34 ) )?.C !5.) !).) )3.C !C.)
-# #.
- # # .2
))B.B) )@.B) ).3) )@@.5) B3.B) 103
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@ A B B )? n G )?
)? B )) 6 A &G)?)/)? G)?.)
!?.) !3.) ?.C !6.) !4.)
.?) 5.5) ?.B) 3@.?) C.@) NG53@.C
- # # .2 s= n1
s=
2#%, ,
K #%", 0eeks Rules of Standard 'e$iation

#"S of population fall 0ithin V1 standard deviation% ,!S of the population fall bet0een V2 standard deviations and ,,%7S or virtuall( all population fall bet0een V3 standard deviation%
#&ample Cet us take another e'ample to illustrate the concepts% 1 bank branch located in the heart of the cit( developed a process to serve the customers during lunch hour -from 1)00 to 2)00 p%m%.% 2he 0aiting time of the customers -the time customer entered in the bank to 0hen his transaction 0as completed. 0as noted in minutes during the lunch hour for a 0eek% 1 random sample of 12 customers 0as selected and the 0aiting time of these individuals 0as recorded as follo0s% 5/6/4/6/@/3/A/3/5/4/3 Co)*ute t(e arit()etic )ean3 )e!ian3 )o!e3 5ariance an! $tan!ar! !e5iation.
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" customer (alks into the branch and asks the managers ho( long he is e&pected to (ait. The manager replies <"lmost certainl not more than si& minutes.= 9hat do ou sa about the accurac of this statementF Solution Customer O ) 3 4 5 6 @ A B B )? )) )3 n G )3 9aiting time & 5 6 4 6 6 @ 3 A 3 5 4 3 G5B/)3 G5
-# #.
? ) !) ) ) 3 !3 4 !3 ? !) !3
- # # .2
? ) ) ) ) 5 5 C 5 ? ) 5 NG ).B3
+ean 6 4 )inute 7ariance 6 3.312 $ 6 1.82 +e!ian: 0rran-e in !e$cen!in- or!er 7363535353434333332322 +e!ian 6 4 8 4 9 2 6 4 +o!e 65 Statement of the manager is correct because the range of V one standard deviation is - E1%"2.
- T1%"2.% Ma=orit( of the people take not more than 5.82 )in. Coefficient of >ariation
/oefficient
of variation -/3. is the ratio of the standard deviation to mean e'pressed in follo0ing 10!
formula%
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C> is e&pressed in percentage and is useful (hen the $ariable is measured on a ratio scale. /3 is a useful measure of relative dispersion 0hen means are positive% It compares the sets of numbers 0ith different magnitudes% #&ample, 2he standard deviation of closing prices of t0o shares O and P 0ere Rs% ! and !0 and mean closing prices during a 0eek 0ere Rs% 10 and 1000 respectivel(% In 0hich share should 0e invest> Solution If 0e look at onl( the standard deviation 0e might decide to invest in share O because it has less volatilit(% :ut 0hen 0e look at the mean prices and 0ork out the ratio of standard deviation to mean i%e% /oefficient of 3ariation; the picture is different;
s $% = 100 #
! 100 = !0S 10 !0 $% = 100 = !S 1000 $%# =

4o0 0e 0ill change the decision in favor of P as fluctuation in PAs prices is much lesser than share O% So coefficient of variation is a good measure of comparing the riskiness in this case%
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Lecture#28
'ata anal sis
Charts and 2raphs
Data can be sho0n b( charts and graphs in addition to the te't and tables% 1lthough the te't and tables are useful for e'plaining and interpretation; charts and graphic illustration ma( add to the value of information because the( provide information to the reader in a glance% Due to availabilit( of computer soft0are; it is no0 ver( eas( and *uick to make these charts and graphs% 2here are man( kinds of charts that can be used in data anal(sis; but 0e 0ill mention onl( three t(pes 0hich are more common) 6ie chart; Cine chart -graph.; :ar chart% Pie Chart 6ie chart is probabl( the most familiar chart used in representing *uantitative data% 1 pie chart is simpl( a circle divided into sections; 0ith each of the sections representing a portion of the total% 1s the sections are presented as part of the 0hole; pie chart is particularl( more useful in sho0ing relative si<e% 6ie chart is prepared for categorical data% #&ample
Share of market of different brands of mobile phone sets%
BRAND D, 14% BRAND A, 35% BRAND C, 20% BRAND A BRAND B BRAND C BRAND D BRAND B , 31%
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6ie chart is based on the fact that the circle has 3#0 degrees% 2he pie is divided into different slices according to percentage in the categor(% Different colors can be used% 2o sho0 emphasis on some categor( of data; the relevant portion of the pie can be lifted -it called e'ploding the pie.% 1 pie chart can have man( sections or slices; but it is recommended that no more than si' sections should be generated in a pie% #&ample In order to determine the significant source of business;8R hotel e'amined the checkE in cards of 1000 customers randoml(% 2he( found the follo0ing breakEup of data% Individual travelers 2our groups :usiness travelers Government officials 5thers 2otal Solution R#L"TI># 7R#-;#NCI#S "bsolute Individual travelers 2our groups :usiness travelers Govt% officials 5thers 2otal 7re1uenc 230 12! Relati$e 7re1uenc 23%0 S 12%! S 37%"S 1 %3S 12% S 230 12! 37" 1 3 12 1000
12%37" 23% 14%

1 3 12 1000
13%
100S
38%
Individual travelers T ur !r u"s # vt. $$i%ials &t'ers
Business travelers
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Line Chart or 2raph 6ie chart is one scale chart% It is best used for static comparison that is the phenomenon at one time% 2he bar chart is having t0o dimensions one of 0hich usuall( is the time% It sho0s d(namic relation of the changes 0ith time such as time series fluctuations% In the chart OEa'is represents time and PEa'is; the values of the variables% More than one variable can be plotted on the same graph but each variable is represented b( different lines in different colors or form -dashes or dots. 0ith e'planations in the legend at the bottom of the graph% #&ample
Pear 3??? 3??) 3??3 3??4 3??5 3??6 3??@ 3??A
S %3 %" # !%" 7%2 %# # 7%!
T 3%2 %2 ! 3%1 3%7 %1 !%1 !%
P !%2 # #%2 #%" 7%! # 7 "%!
25 20 15 10 5
%ar0 Chart
* T +
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 200( 200)

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In a bar chart; each categor( is depicted b( a bar; vertical or hori<ontal% 2he length or height of the bar sho0s the fre*uenc( or percentage of observations falling into a categor(% 2he lengths or heights of different bars allo0 the user to compare the magnitudes of different categories easil(% #&ample 2he e'pansion of a bank in terms of opening of ne0 branches from 2001 to 2007 0as as follo0s Pears 2001 2002 2003 200 200! 200# 2007 >alues 1! 2" 1 21 1, 23 2!
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 200( 200) +eries1
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>ariation in %ar Chart :ar chart has variation% 6ictures can be used instead of bars e%g people for population; pictures of cars of automobile production; and piles of 1000 rupees note for sales% 1nother variation of bar chart used fre*uentl( is grouped bar chart 0here more than one categor( can be captured and can be compared side b( side in different colours% Cet us again take the data of split air conditioners as given in the line graph% #&ample 1 surve( of retail sales of split air conditioners of 3 brands S;2;P from 2000 to 2007; revealed the follo0ing values in million of rupees% Sales of split air conditioners in million of rupees Pear 3??? 3??) 3??3 3??4 3??5 3??6 3??@ 3??A S %3 %" # !%" 7%2 %# # 7%! T 3%2 %2 ! 3%1 3%7 %1 !%1 !% P !%2 # #%2 #%" 7%! # 7 "%!
, 8 ) ( 5 4 3 2 1 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 200( 200)

+ T *
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Lecture#29
'ata anal sis
. pothesis Testing
7(pothesis
is educated guess; a tentative statement about the relationship bet0een t0o or more
variables% It is to be empiricall( tested and be stated before the marketing pro=ect begins% 7(potheses must be formall( stated% 2hese are focal points for researchers in marketing% 7(potheses ma( be in operational -general. terms or null and alternative forms% Null and "lternati$e 7orm of . pothesis 2esting of h(pothesis usuall( begins 0ith stating the h(pothesis in a null and alternative form% 9or e'ample; 0e might 0ant to see 0hether mean age of a class of consumer is 30 (ears% In this case 2he null h(pothesis -7o. 0ill be 7o)XK30 8e can 0rite the null and alternative h(pothesis as) 7o)XK30 71)XY30 *ne tailed and t(o tailed test 6revious e'ample of alternative h(pothesis is t0o tailed as 0e 0ill re=ect the null h(pothesis if the mean age 0as lesser or greater than 30% 1nother alternative h(pothesis in this situation could be that the mean age is greater than 30% In this case 0e 0ould 0rite null and alternate form of h(pothesis as) 7o) XK30 71) XZ30 7ere the h(pothesis is one tailed as 0e have a specific direction in mind for the alternative h(pothesis% 8e can also phrase the null h(pothesis to cover a range of values% 9or e'ample; 7o) X[30 8hich implies an alternative h(pothesis 71) XZ30 7ere again one tailed test 0ould appl(% 2he researcher should be careful to phrase the alternative h(pothesis in a 0a( as to accept the alternative h(pothesis that is of real interest if null h(pothesis is re=ected% *ne!Tailed or T(o!Tailed Test Defective parts are more than 2 S E 5neEtailed Sales returns are less than S p%m%E5neEtailed 8ithin one per cent of the mean $ t0oEtailed :et0een !S and #S N t0oEtailed 8e use one and t0oE tailed concept 0hen 0e look critical values in the probabilit( tables% 8e should have this concept clearl( 0e that 0e can look into the appropriate table% Steps in . pothesis Testing
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9ollo0ing steps are usuall( follo0ed in h(pothesis testing) 9ormulate a null and alternative h(pothesis Specif( the significance level Select the appropriate statistical techni*ue according to the nature and t(pe of data collected 6erform the statistical test appl(ing the techni*ue above Cook for the value of test statistics -critical value. in the relevant standard normal table on the confidence level as specified in step W 2 above% /ompare the value of statistics as calculated in step W 0ith critical value and accept or re=ect the h(pothesis% 1t the end researcher dra0s conclusion% 'ifferent Statistical Tests 8hich statistical techni*ue or test to select for our anal(sis or h(pothesis testing depends on our ob=ectives of research pro=ect% 5b=ectives ma( be translated into research *uestions andDor research h(potheses% 2here are man( statistical tests and techni*ues 0hich are used in data anal(sis in marketing research% Some of them are described in the ne't lectures in detail%
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Lecture#30
'ata anal sis Chi QS1uare Test
It is a test of association% It determines 0hether there is a s(stematic association in t0o variables under investigation% 2he null h(pothesis 0ould be that there is no association -or dependence. bet0een the variables and accordingl( an alternative h(pothesis 0ill be framed% In this test; observed and e'pected fre*uencies computed and cross tabulation is done% Cross Tabulation /ross tabulation sho0s t0o or more variables at a time% It merges responses 0ith regard to t0o or more variables in the same table% 9re*uencies of one variable are cross tabulated and distributed according to other categories% Cook at the follo0ing data) Gender of students 0ho visited Cahore <oo) 7re1uenc %o s 2irls Total 7re1uent $isitors ! 20 #! Less fre1uent $isitors 23 7 70 Total #" #7 13! .o( Man >ariablesF 8e ma( have one or t0o variables to test through chiE s*uare% 2hus the data are called univariate and bivariate respectivel(% /ross tabulation is done accordingl(% 8e 0ill take e'ample of each in the ne't pages and appl( chiEs*uare statistics according% Cet us see this e'ample of univariate data% ;ni$ariate 'ata Q H#&ample O ?)8 1 plastic compan( sells its products in three primar( colors) (ello0; blue H red% 2he marketing manager thinks that customers do not have an( color preference% Manager set up a test 0here 2 0 purchasers 0ere provided e*ual opportunit( to bu( an( of the color% 2he follo0ing results 0ere obtained 0 bought blue; 120 bought red and "0 (ello0% Is the thinking of marketing manager correct> 2est it at %0! \level% Table 7o E 2here is no color preference of purchaser of plastic among three colors
71
E 2here is a color preference
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/olor Pello0 :lue Red 2otal

fo
"0 0 120
0 f e"0 - f o f e .0 - f o f e . 2 "0 "0 E 0 0 1#00 1#00
- fo fe .2 0 fe
20 20 0
/ritical value at 0%0! level degree of freedom 3 K kE1 K 3E1K2 is !%,, 7o is re=ected 71 accepted Red most popular color :lue least ;ni$ariate 'ata H#&ampleO 38 Cet us take another e'ample of using /hiE s*uare in the univariate data% 1 research compan( 0anted to find out the best *ualit( of picture in various brand of 23% 2he researcher set placed # color 23 sets in the lobb( of the hotel 0ith brand names covered and asked the people to 0atch the picture *ualit( of each set and indicate 0hich set had the best *ualit( of picture% 2he surve( continued for three 0eeks and 1302 people gave their opinion after 0atching% Data 0ere tabulated as follo0% Table T> brand Number Labeling as best picture M #7! 4 2"0 5 "1 6 11, I 123 R 22 2est the null h(pothesis at ] K 0%!\that all brand of 23 have almost the same *ualit( of picture%
Let us prepare a contingenc table sho(ing e&pected $alues and calculate the
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2 at ] K 0%! \and degree of freedom vKkK1K#E1K!% 4o0 let us look at the critical value of 2 2 2he critical value of K 11%07%1s the calculated value of is 1331%3, is greater than the critical value 11%07%
7ence null h(pothesis is re=ected%
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Lecture#31 'ata anal sis

%i$ariate Chi!S1uare Suppose that in the surve( on the hotel guest satisfaction; a *uestion 0as asked of all respondents 0ho indicated that the( 0ere not likel( to return in three hotels 1; : and /% 2hese guests 0ere asked to indicate the primar( reason for their response% 2he resultant data are presented in the follo0ing paragraph% 2he reasons for not planning to return to the hotel) 7" 0ere primaril( due to room rent; 70 0ere primaril( due to location; 2 0ere primaril( due to room space; and 3, 0ere due to other reasons% 1s in previous table; there 0ere 10, guests in the 7otel 1; 2 guests in the 7otel :; 7" guests in the 7otel / 0ho 0ere not planning to return to the hotel% 2he observed fre*uencies in the cells of the contingenc( table represent the =oint tallies of the sampled guests 0ith respect to primar( reason for not returning and 0ith respect to hotel propert(% 2he null and alternative h(potheses are) 7o) 2here is no relationship bet0een the primar( reason for not returning H the hotels% 71) 2here is a relationship bet0een the primar( reason for not returning H the hotels% *bser$ed 7re1uencies
.*T#L Reason for not Returning Room rent Location Room space *ther Total " 0 32 1, 1" 10, % 1 12 " " 2 C 2 2# 1! 13 7" Total 7" 70 2 3, 22,
2o test this null h(pothesis of independence against the alternate that there is a relationship bet0een the t0o categorical variables; follo0ing e*uation is used to compute the test static as follo0s)
2=
- fo fe . fe
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Computed the #&pected 7re1uencies 2he e'pected fre*uenc( in a cell is the product of its ro0 total and column divided b( the over all sample si<e
fe K ro0 total R column total n

Ro0 total K sum of all fre*uencies in a ro0 /olumn total K sum of all fre*uencies in a column n K overall sample si<e #RP#CT#' 7R#-;#NCI#S .*T#L Reason for not Returning Room rent Location Room space *ther Total " 37%12 33%31 1,%,, 1"%!# 10, % 1 %30 12%"3 7%7 7%1! 2 C 2#%!# 23%" 1 %30 13%2" 7" Total 7" 70 2 3, 22,
2he test statistics sho0n in e*uation of appro'imatel( follo0s a chiEs*uare distribution 0ith degrees of freedom e*ual to the number of ro0s in the contingenc( table minus 1 times the number of columns in the table minus 1% 9or an rRc contingenc( table there are -rE1.-cE1. degrees of freedom) Degrees of freedomK -rE1.-cE1. 2 2he Etest statistics for these data is computed as sho0n in table)
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C#LL Room rent/.otel " Room rent/.otel % Room rent/.otel C Location/.otel " Location/.otel % Location/.otel C Room space/.otel " Room space/.otel % Room space/.otel C *ther/.otel " *ther/.otel % *ther/.otel C
7o 0 1 2 32 12 2# 1, " 1! 1" " 13
7e 37%12 1 %30 2#%!# 33%31 12%"3 23%" 1,%,, 7%7 1 %30 1"%!# 7%1! 13%2"
Hfo!fe8 2%"" E0%3 E2%!# E1%31 E%0"3 2%1# E%0,, 0%3 0%7 E%0!# 0%"! E%2"
Hfo!fe83 "%2, %0, #%!! 1%71 0%#"" %## 0%," 0%0, 0% , 0%31 0%72 0%07
Hfo!fe83/fe 0%22 0%00# 0%2! 0%0! 0%0! 0%1, 0%0 0%01 0%03 0%01 0%100 0%00!
0%," 2 is greater than 12%!,; Fsing a level of significance of ]K0%0!; the computed test statistics; K%,"; the upperEtail critical value from the chiEs*uare distribution 0ith - E1.-3E1.K# degrees of freedom; so the null h(pothesis of independence is accepted%
"nother #&ample of Chi!S1uare

Calculation of #ducation!Confidence
#ducation ;nder Metric " great e&tent Some e&tent >er little Total ,! 272 1 0 !07 ;pto %.". !7 27 1#3 , M.". M "bo$e 3, 21 1 " 01 Total 1,1 7#0 !1 1 02
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Cell O
*bser$ed
fo
#&pected
fe
Contribution - fo fe .2 fe ,%71 1%!" % # 0%03 0%1 0%0! 3%27 0%11 2%"0 2K22%1!
/ell1;1 /ell1;2 /ell1;3 /ell2;1 /ell2;2 /ell2;3 /ell3;1 /ell3;2 /ell3;3
,! !7 3, 272 27 21 1 0 1#3 1 "
#,%1 #7%3 ! %# 27 %" 2#7%" 217% 1#3%1 1!"%, 12,%0
Given a significance level of 0%01 and degrees of freedom ^dfK-rE1.-cE1._; the critical value of '2 for the contingenc( table is 1!%0,% 2he h(pothesis is to be tested is 7o) the variables are independent 7a) the variables are not independent 1nd the decision rule is 2 If 2 [ 1!%0,; accept 7o If ` 1!%0,; re=ect 7o Re+ect or "ccept Null . pothesis 2he table sho0s the computation of the chiEs*uare test statistics for the data on &ducation% Since 2 the value of the test statistic is greater than the critical value -22%1!Z1!%0,.; the null h(pothesis is re=ectedB the t0o variables are not independent% 2here is a relationship bet0een education H confidence in television programs% 1s before; insights into the relationship can be obtained b( investigating individual contributions%
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Lecture#32
Correlation and Regression Man( marketing research pro=ects are carried out to stud( relationshipsE relationship bet0een sales revenues and advertising e'penses; relationship bet0een market share and the number of salespeople; relationship bet0een sales and distance to the nearest competing stores% Some association bet0een categories obtained from nominal data has alread( been discussed in chiEs*uare% 1ssociation bet0een t0o intervalEscaled data is measured through correlation% /orrelations are various t(pes and used for various purposes such as nonmonotonic; monotonic; linear; curvilinear; rank order etc% Cet us discuss some of them% Non!monotonic Relationship 1 nonEmonotonic relationship is one 0here presence or absence of one variable is s(stematicall( associated 0ith the presence or absence of another variable but there is no discernable direction of relationship% 7o0ever the relationship e'ists% 9or e'ample in a fast food restaurant; the e'perience tells us that morning customers bu( tea but afternoon customers t(picall( purchase soft drink% 2his relationship is no 0a( e'clusive% 2here is no guarantee that morning customer 0ould al0a(s order tea and afternoon customers al0a(s order soft drink% 7o0ever a relationship does e'ist% Monotonic Relationship 1 monotonic relationship is one 0hen a researcher can assign onl( a general direction association bet0een t0o variables% Monotonic relationship can be either increasing or decreasing% If one variable increases and the other also increases; it is called monotonic increasing relationship% 5n the other hand; monotonic decreasing relationship 0ould be 0hen one variable increases but the other decreases% Monotonic means that the direction of the relationship is described% 7o0ever e'act amount of change in one variable as the other variable changes cannot be indicated% LIN#"R C*RR#L"TI*N /orrelation or linear correlation is a measure of nature and degree of association or coEvariation bet0een t0o variables% 2hese variables are measured b( interval or ratio scales% /oEvariation is defined as an amount of change in one variable s(stematicall( associated 0ith a change in another variable% /oefficient of /orrelation-r. is the inde' number that communicates the strength of association bet0een t0o variables sa( O and P% Strength is indicated b( the absolute si<e of correlation% 7ere is a rule of thumb about the strength of correlation -after it is proved that correlation is statisticall( significant.
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Range of Coefficient 00 to T 20 T 21 to T 0 T 1 to T "0 T "1 to T100
Strength of "ssociation 4one 3er( 0eak Moderate Strong
/orrelation coefficients that are closer to <ero indicate that there is no s(stematic association bet0een the t0o variables and the ones 0hich are closer to T 1%0 sho0 that there is some s(stematic association bet0een t0o variables% Direction of association is indicated b( the sign -T or E. of the si<e of the coefficient% If the sign is positive; it means there is positive direction of the coEvariation bet0een the t0o variables; that is; both variables change in the same direction% In this case if variable O increases; P 0ould also increase% 5n the other hand a negative sign in correlation indicates a negative coEvariation 0hich means if one variable increases the other 0ould decrease and vice versa% #&ample If 0e find that number of (ears of education -variable O. and hours in reading ne0s paper -variable P. have a correlation of 0%"7; it means the( are positivel( correlated% It 0ill be interpreted like this) people 0ith more education spend more time on reading ne0spaper% :ut if 0e find a correlation of E0%"1 bet0een smoking cigarettes and education; it means more educated people smoke less% Product Moment Correlation 6roduct Moment correlation is the statistic 0idel( used in determining the si<e or strength of association bet0een t0o intervals or ratio scaled variables% It is also kno0n as 6earson /orrelation /oefficient as it 0as originall( proposed b( Larl 6earson% Sometimes it is also called as bivariate correlation; simple correlation or correlation coefficient% 6roduct Moment /orrelation is computed 0ith this formula% # # r# = 2 2 # #
)( ) (
) )
8here O and P are the t0o variables; # and bet0een O and P% Cet us see some e'amples
are their respective means and
r#
is the correlation
#&ample ) 1 compan( 0ants to find out if the number of sales persons in a sales territor( has some relationship 0ith the sales revenue% 9rom a random sample of 10 territories follo0ing data 0ere obtained
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Territor O 1 2 3 ! # 7 " , 10 Solution O of sales person R ! 7 # , 12 " 11 1# 13 7

# = ,%
O of Sales Persons ! 7 # , 12 " 11 1# 13 7
Sales in ??? Rupees 2#1 2"" 3"1 12 0 317 !#7 !72 2" 317
Sales in ??? P 2#1 2"" 3"1 12 0 317 !#7 !#, 2" 317 = 3,"
- # #.
E % E2% E3% E% 2%# E1% 1%# #%# 3%# E2%
- # #. 1,%3# !%7# 11%!# E1# #%7# 1%,# 2%!# 3%!# 12%,# !%7#
- .
E127 E100 E7 2 !2 E71 17, 1"1 0 E71
- . 1#12, 10000 , !7# 270 !0 1 320 1 327#1 1#00 !0 1
- # #. - .
= 110%
!!"%" 2 0 23%" E,%# 13!%2 ,,% 2"#% 11, %# 1 170% = 10 , 2 a K 2" 3
r# =
# #
)( ( # #) (
2
)
2
=
Cet us take another e'ample%
2" 3
2here is a medium positive correlation bet0een the t0o variables%
3 03%7#
= %"
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#&ample II 1 researcher is interested to find out 0hether the high price of large refrigerators compensates in terms of saving of energ(% 7e collected data on price and annual cost of consumption of electricit( in terms of rupees from random sample of " brands of refrigerators% 2he data are presented belo0% Refrigerator %rand " % C ' # 7 2 . Price Rs. ??? "! 7# ,0 "7 110 "0 #! 7! "nnual cost of Consumption on electricit Rs. ??? %" !% !%" #%# 7%7 #%# 7%0 "%1
7ind coefficient of correction r. 9hat do ou sa about itF
r# =
=
# #
)( ( # #) (
2
)
2
10%01 10% ,
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= %,#
2here is a strong positive correlation bet0een the t0o variables% Rank *rder Correlation 8e use Rank 5rder /orrelation coefficient in data anal(sis to measure the monotonic relationship bet0een t0o variables measured on an ordinal scale% 2hat is 0hen the data are ordered into ranks% Spearmanbs Rank 5rder /orrelation 0hich measures the direction and degree of association bet0een t0o sets of rankings is found 0ith the help of follo0ing formula% 9here
r s = 1 #- d .
n-n 2 1.
rs K SpearmanAs rank order correlation d K difference of ranks in the paired ranking n K number of items ranked Ranking of various tooth paste brands according to consumer perception on their deca( prevention and 0hitening abilit(%
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The computation of spearman rank order correlation in this e&ample is as follo(s,
r s = 1 #- d .
n-n 2 1.
= 1
# 1!# "-"2 1.
,3# = 1 "-#3.
= 1 1%"#
= %"#
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1 Spearman rank order correlation of E%"# sho0s a fairl( strong relationship bet0een the t0o rank order i%e% deca( prevention and 0hitening abilit( for the tooth paste brands under stud(% 4egative sign indicates that the relationship is negative 0hich means if the ranks are higher on deca( preventionB these are lo0er on 0hitening abilit(% 2hese are the perceived rankings b( the respondent% Cet us take another e'ample% #&ample, Spearman:s Rank *rder Correlation 20o =udges 0ere asked to rate si' brands of tissue papers% 2heir ratings are given belo0% 9ind out the SpearmanAs rank order correlation bet0een the ratings assigned b( t0o =udges Tissue %rand 2 . I K S L Kudge I Rank 2 3 # 1 ! 2 1 Kudge II Rank # 3 !
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2he Spearman rank correlation rank coefficient is $ %2# 0hich is ver( 0eak and it is in opposite direction%
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Lecture#33
Testing the difference bet(een the Means Marketing research ma( be facing the problem testing the h(pothesis relating to the difference bet0een the means% Such means ma( be the sample mean and population mean or t0o independent means% /hiEs*uare is one of the procedures 0e have studied to test the significance of difference of data derived from nominal data% 9or ordinal data; 0e ma( use SpearmanAs correlation% 8e use different statistics to test the difference bet0een means based on interval data% 2hese statistical tests are classified 0hether one or t0o samples are involved% 5ne mean generated from a sample ma( be compared 0ith a mean b( h(pothesi<ed to e'ist in the populationB or t0o means generated from independent samples% <Etest and the tEtest are appropriate to test the difference bet0een the means% 2he choice is made on the researcherAs kno0ledge about the standard deviation of the population and the sample si<e% It is appropriate to use these test in the follo0ing situationsB If sample si<e is more than 30 H population standard deviation is unkno0n; use <Etest; andB If sample si<e is less than 30 and population is unkno0n; use tEtest% .o( to Calculate E or TF In order to calculate < or t statistics; 0e should have calculated population mean; standard deviation of one or more samples that 0e are testing% 2hen 0e should calculate the standard error of the mean difference% In case of one mean the standard error of the mean
In case of t0o means it 0ill be
& &# = n
2he < or t is calculated b( the follo0ing formulas% 5ne mean
8here XKpopulation mean -h(pothesi<ed. 'Ksample mean

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S'Kstandard error of the mean difference
Cet us illustrate these tests 0ith the help of same e'amples% #&ample I 1 shoe compan( is investigating the desirabilit( of adding a ne0 design of shoes to its shop% 2he compan( has decided that it 0ill add this design onl( if sells 100 pairs per 0eek in each store% It 0as put on 0 different shops randoml( and data on their sale 0as calculated% 2he data revealed an average sale of 10# pairs per 0eek per store% 2he standard deviation 0as 0orked out to be 13%"% Should the compan( introduce ne0 design> Solution
70 71 Mean S S'
X[100 XZ100 K 10# K 13%" K 2%1" Since the sample is more than 30 and variance of the population is unkno0n; 0e 0ill use <Etest; < 0ill be calculated as) < K -10#E100.D2%1" K #D2%1" K 2%7! 1s the calculated value of < -2%7!. e'ceeds the critical value in the table of 1%,# at 0%0! confidence level so the null h(pothesis is re=ected% 2he compan( should go ahead and introduce the ne0 shoes% 130
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#&ample of E!Test for T(o Independent Means Cet us take the e'ample of <Etest for t0o means% Suppose t0o independent samples of !0 each of the t0o cola beverages 1 and : (ield the follo0ing data on average 0eekl( per household consumption in Gulberg area of Cahore% /ola beverage 1 mean consumptionK#%3liters /ola beverage 1 standard deviation K2%1 /ola beverage : mean consumptionK!%7liters /ola beverage : standard deviation K1%3 Solution
Standard de$iation of t(o means
1s the sample is more than 30; 0e 0ill select <Etest in this case% Cet us calculate <)
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It is t0o tailed test and critical value of < at 0%0!K1%,#% /alculated value of < 0hich is 1%72 is less than critical value therefore 0e 0ill re=ect the null h(pothesis% /onclusion can be dra0n that is no significant difference bet0een the average 0eekl( consumption per household of the t0o brands%
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Lecture #34
2esting the Difference bet0een Means
t ! Test Pou ma( recall that 0e use tEtest if the sample is less than 30 and population variance is not kno0n% < and t are calculated in the same manner 0ith the same formula but in reading the critical value of t from the table of t distribution; 0e need degree of freedom 0hich is calculated as under Degree of freedom K -n1Tn2E2. 4o0 0e 0ill illustrate tEtest 0ith the help of some e'amples% t !Test for *ne Mean Suppose a departmental store manager believes that an average number of customers 0ho e'change merchandise each da( is not more than 20% 2he store records the number of e'changes each da( for 2# da(s it 0as open for a given month% 2he researcher calculates a sample mean e*ual to 22 and standard deviation e*ual to !% Do (ou think managerAs assumption is correct> Solution K 22 # n K 2# s K! 70 X[20 71 XZ20 S' t K !D!%1K 0%," K -22E20.D0%," K 2%0
Degree of freedomK nE1K2! /ritical value at 0%0! level of significance at 2! dfK 1%70% 1s the calculated t is greater than 1%70; 70 is re=ected% /onclusion) 1verage number of customers 0ho e'change merchandise each da( in the store is more than 20% 1ssumption is incorrect% t !Test for T(o Independent Means 1 manufacturer of car polish has recentl( developed a ne0 polish% 2he compan( is considering t0o different containers for the polish; one metal and one plastic% 2he compan( 0ill make final decision after test marketing% 2he compan( introduced metal and plastic containers on 10 independent random samples of 10 stores each% 2he results 0ere as follo0s) Table
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Store O 1 2 3
Plastic container 1# 327 370 3"0
Metal container 3 0 3"! 3"0 37# 3"2
Store O # 7 " , 10
Plastic container 3!" 00 3, 3,0 3"1
Metal container 3!" 3!2 3,0 3#0 3"!
00
8hich container the( should introduce> Solution 4ull h(pothesis 70 X1 K X2 1lternate 7(pothesis 71 X1Y X2 Mean of plastic container X 1 K 3"1%# Mean of metallic container X 2 K 370%" Standard deviation of plastic container s1 K 2!%2, Standard deviation of metallic container s2 K 1#%,7 -In calculating s in interval data; 0e derive the sum of s*uared deviation b( nE1.
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/ritical value of t0o tailed test at -n1Tn2E2. is K10T10E2K1" df at 0%0! level is 2%10 0hich is greater than calculated value% It means null h(pothesis is accepted% /onclusion) /ompan( can introduce an( container% /ustomers do not have special preference for either%
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Lecture #35
"nal sis of >ariance 8e have studied ho0 to test difference bet0een t0o independent means% 8e use t or < tests% :ut if the market researcher 0ants to e'amine the difference among more than t0o means; in that case; anal(sis of variance abbreviated as 14531 is used to accomplish these comparisons% 1lthough 14531 has traditionall( been used to anal(<e e'perimental data; it can also be used for anal(<ing surve( or observational data% "N*>" 8hen 0e are using 14531; 0e have one or more independent variables 0hich must be nonE metric or categorical and a dependent variable 0hich is metric -measured through interval or ratio scale.% Independent variables 0hich are categorical are also called factors% 1 particular level of factors or independent variables is called treatment% If one factor -although at different levels. is the treatment; oneE0a( anal(sis of variance is used% If more than one factor are the treatment; nE 0a( anal(sis variance is used% If the set of independent variables contain both categorical and metric -involving interval or ratio scales.; another techni*ue called anal(sis of covariance -14/531. is used% 4o0 0e 0ill stud( the use of oneE0a( 14531% *ne!(a anal sis of $ariance 5neE0a( 14531 is used 0hen researcher is interested to e'amine the differences in the mean values of the dependent variable for several levels of single independent variable or factor% 9or e'ample 1re the attitudes of various channels of distribution; sa( 0holesalers; retailers; or agents; different to0ards the compan(As distribution policies> Do different regions differ in sales> 1re the results of various test markets at different price levels reall( different> 1re brands evaluated differentl( b( different groups e'posed to ads> 14S8&R 25 SF/7 IF&S2I54S /14 :& 95F4D :P FSI4G 54&E81P 141CPSIS 59 31RI14/& -14531.% 2he statistics related to oneE0a( anal(sis of variance are M&14 SIF1R&; SFM 59 SIF1R&S :&28&&4 or SS bet0een; SFM 59 SIF1R&S total or SS total; and SFM 59 SIF1R&S 0ithin or SS 0ithin and 9 ratios% SS total is also called total variation -23.; SS bet0een or variation bet0een the groups -3:.; and SS 0ithin or variation 0ithin the group -38. Conducting *ne!9a "N*>" 9ollo0ing is the procedure to conduct oneE0a( anal(sis of variance% ". Identif ing the $ariables, 2he researcher first of all identifies the independent variable 0ith all its levels and dependent variable% Independent variable is generall( denoted b( O and dependent variable b( P% In oneE0a( anal(sis of variance; is one categorical variable having more than t0o categories sa( number of categories is c% If each categor( has n observations; the total sample si<e 0ill be n ' c%
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Prepare Null and alternate h pothesis. %. Measure and decompose the $ariation, 9ind out the total variation in P and separate it in variation bet0een and variation 0ithin% 2his can be e'pressed b( this e*uation) SS total G SS bet(een T SS (ithin SS total is computed b( s*uaring the deviation of each score from the grand mean and summing these s*uares%
SS 0ithin is the variabilit( that 0e observe 0ithin each group; is calculated b( s*uaring the deviation of each score from its group mean and summing these scores% 2he formula of variation 0ithin 0ill be) SS (ithin G Sum c H& Q 83 SS bet0een is the variabilit( of the group means about the grand mean and computed b( s*uaring the deviation of each group mean from the grand mean% 2his 0ill be computed 0ith this formula) SS bet0een is the variabilit( of the group means about the grand mean and computed b( s*uaring the deviation of each group mean from the grand mean; multipl(ing b( n and summing them up% 2his 0ill be computed 0ith this formula) SS bet0een K Sum Un H ! 8 3_
1fter 0e have calculated SS total; SS bet0een and SS 0ithin; 0e should no0 compute variance or mean s*uare% 2his is done b( dividing various sum of s*uares b( appropriate degree of freedom% 2o get mean s*uare bet0een groups -MS bet0een. SS bet0een is divided b( categories minus one -cE1.; i%e% SS bet(een MS bet(een G VVVVVVVVVV c!) 9or obtaining Mean S*uare 0ithin groups -MS.; SS 0ithin is divided b( cnEc degree of freedom; that is; SS 0ithin cn E c 9inall( 9Eratio is found% It is calculated b( dividing MS bet0een b( MS 0ithin% 2he bet0een Mean S*uare is used as numerator and 0ithin Mean S*uare is used as denominator% 8e can sa( that 7 G MS bet(een MS (ithin
MS 0ithin
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9Eratio is then checked against the critical value in the relevant table for comparison% 1t the end; null h(pothesis is accepted or re=ected and conclusion is dra0n% #&ample Cet us illustrate the concept 0ith the help of an e'ample) 1 compan( 0ants to launch a ne0 shampoo but the( are not sure 0hich price 0ill bring more sales% 2he( ran a test in the market before launching the product in order to decide the final price% 2o test the pricing effect; the compan( chose four separate areas and 0ithin each area the product 0as sold at three different prices in different markets% 2hus there 0ere total 12 test markets% 2he data from the e'periment is sho0n in the follo0ing table% 'ata from the Test Markets ;nit Sales in ??? Regular Reduced 'iscount Price Price HCoupon8 Rs.436 Rs. 4)6 Market M;4;5 11 12 13 Market 6;I; R 11 1 12 Market S; 2; F , 12 , Market 8; O; P " 13 10 Mean Grand Mean K ,%7! K 11%17 K 12%7! K 11
Solution SS total is -11 11%17. 2 + -11 11%17. 2 + -, 11%17. 2 + -" 11%17. 2 + -12 11%17. 2 + -1 11%17. 2 + -12 11%17. 2 + -13 11%17. 2 + -13 11%17. 2 + -12 11%17. 2 + -, 11%17. 2 + -10 11%17. 2
K 37%#7
SS 0ithin is found out b( s*uaring the deviation of each score from its group mean and then summing them up% In our e'ample) SS 0ithin K -11 $ ,%7!. 2 + -11 ,%7!. 2 + -, ,%7!. 2 + -" ,%7!. 2 + -12 $ 12%7!. 2 + -1 E 12%7!. 2 + -12 E 12%7!. 2 + -13 E 12%7!. 2
2 University of 2 akistan + -13 $ 11. 2 + Copyright -12 11. 2 +Virtual -, 11. + -10 11.
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K 1,%!#
SS bet0een is obtained b( s*uaring the deviation of each group mean from the grand mean; multipl(ing b( n and summing them up% 2hus in this e'ample) SS bet0een K -,;7! E 11%17. 2 + -12%7! $ 11%17. 2 + -11 $ 11%17. 2 K 1"%17 4o0 0e 0ill find Mean S*uare bet0een and Mean s*uare 0ithin b( dividing the respective SS b( c E1 and cn $ c degree of freedom respectivel(% 7ere are both calculations) MS bet0een K 1"%17 DcE1 K 1"%17D2 K ,%0" MS 0ithin K 1,%!7DcnEn K 1,%!7D, K 2%17 4o0 0e can find the 9Eratio) 9 K MS bet0eenD Ms 0ithin K ,%0"D2%17 K %17" 8e have found the 9Eratio 0hich is %17"% Cet us compare it 0ith table at -c E1. K2 degree of freedom in the numerator and -cn $ c. K , degree of freedom in denominator in the 9 table% 2his is e*ual to %2# 0hich is greater than the calculated value% 2herefore 0e accept the null h(pothesis% /54/CFSI54) It appears that there is no real difference of sales produced b( different prices% 1ll price treatments produce almost the same sales volume%
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Lecture #36
"N*>" and Post .oc "nal sis 1 marketing manager of a to( compan( 0ants to find out 0hether product location in the store; -front; middle and back. affects the sales of to(s% Si' stores are randoml( selected for each location% 6rice; store si<e and displa( area for the product is constant for all stores% 1fter one month of the e'perimental research period; the sales volume of each location in the stores 0as noted 0hich is given in the follo0ing table% -In rs%00. Re1uired 2est at 0%0! level of significance 0hether there is an evidence of significant difference of sales volume among various locations% 8hich location appears to be different significantl( in average sales>
Solution
4ull 7(pothesis) Mean X 1 K Mean X 2 K Mean X 3 1lternate 7(pothesis) 1ll means are not e*ual%
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2he SS total is computed b( s*uaring the deviation of each score from the grand mean and summing them up% SS 2otal K -"# E 3,%#1. 2 + -72 E 3,%#1. 2 + -! E 3,%#1. 2 + -#2 E 3,%#1. 2 + - !0 E 3,%#1. 2 + - 0 E 3,%#1. 2 + - # E 3,%#1. 2 + -#0 E 3,%#1. 2 + - 0 E 3,%#1. 2 + -2" E 3,%#1. 2 + -22 E 3,%#1. 2 + -2" E 3,%#1. 2 + -33 E 3,%#1. 2 + -2 E 3,%#1. 2 + -20 E 3,%#1. 2 + -1 E 3,%#1. 2 + -1" E 3,%#1. 2 + -1# E 3,%#1. 2 K 7 0#%2"
SS 8ithin is obtained b( s*uaring the deviation of ach scored from its grouped mean and summing them up% 2 2 2 SS 0ithin K -"# E #0%#7 . + -72 E #0%#7 . + -! E #0%#7 . + -#2 E #0%#7 . 2 + -!0 E #0%#7 . 2 + - 0 E #0%#7 . 2 + - # E 37%3. 2 + -#0 $ #. 2 + - 0 $ #. 2 + -2" $ #. 2 + -22 $ #. 2 + -2" $ #. 2 + -33 $ 20%"3. 2 + -2 $ 20%"3. 2 + -20 $ 20%"3. 2 + -1 $ 20%"3. 2 + -1" $ 20%"3. 2 + -1# $ 20%"3. 2 K 2!,,%!1
SS bet0een is obtained b( s*uiring the devotions of each group mean from the grad mean% SS bet0een K #- #0%#7 $ 3,%#1 . 2 + #- 37%3 $ 3,%#1 . 2 + #- 20%"3 $ 3,%#1 . 2 K "0,%2, Mean S*uare bet0een groups is found b( dividing SS bet0een b( c $ 1 MS bet0een is e*ual to SS bet0een D c $ 1 K 2 0 %# Mean s*uare 0ithin 0ill be found b( dividing SS 0ithin b( cn $c MS 0ithin is e*ual to SS 0ithin D cn $c K 173%30
9inall( 9 ratio is calculated b( taking the ratio of mean s*uare bet0een groups to the mean s*uare 0ithin the groups% 9 K MS bet0een D MS 0ithin 9 K 2 0 %# D 173%30 K 13%""
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4o0 Cets find the critical value of 9 at the point 0%0! level of significance in the table% 8e need degree of freedom in numerator 0hich is cE1 is e*ual to 2 and degree of freedom in the denominator 0hich is cn $ c is e*ual to 1!% 2he value of 9 at these degrees of freedom at %0! is 3%#"; 0hich is lesser than the calculated value -13%"".% 7ence 4ull 7(pothesis is re=ected% It means that there is evidence of significance difference in average sale among the various product locations in the store% 8hen 0e look at the table and 0e find that sales at the front location is different -grater. from the middle and from the back location% Multiple Comparisons 5nce the differences in the means of groups have been established; it becomes important to determine means of 0hich particular groups are significantl( different from each other% 8e do it 0ith the help of procedure called post hoc comparison% It is called post hoc because other h(potheses are formulated after the data have been inspected under one 0a( 14531% 2he procedure follo0s these steps) Post hoc "nal sis 1% Determine the number of comparisons b( the formula c-cE1.D2% 2% /ompute differences bet0een various means% 3% 5btain critical range for this procedure % /ompare each of the c-cE1.D2 pair of means 0ith the critical range% -6lease note that critical range 0ould remain same if the sample si<e in all pairs is e*ual% In case it is different; then critical range 0ill be calculated for each pair of means.% !% If the absolute difference of pair of means is greater than the critical range; the difference bet0een the pair of means is significant other0ise not% 4o0 let us go back to our previous e'ample of location of to(s in the store and perform the post hoc anal(sis% In that e'ample 0e performed 14531 test and re=ected the null h(pothesis that all sales on all locations are e*ual 0hich meant that the means of three locations i%e% front; middle and back 0ere not e*ual% 4o0 to determine 0hich pairs of means are significantl( different from each other; 0e follo0 the steps of post hoc comparison as under) 6ossible number of comparisons are c-cE1.D2; 0hich is e*ual to 3-3E1.D2 K 3% 1bsolute mean differences are) 1% X 1 E X 2 K #0%#7 E 37%3 K 23%37 2% X 1 E X 3 K #0%#7 E 20%"3 K 3,%" 3% X 2 E X 3 K 37%3 E 20%"3 K 1#% 7 5btain onl( one critical range because the three groups have the same sample si<e% 2he e*uation to obtain critical range is
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0here I is the upperEtail critical value from a studenti<ed range distribution table 0ith c degree of freedom in the numerator and cnEc degree of freedom in denominator%
2he degree of freedom in numerator is 3 and denominator is 1"E3K 1!% 8hen 0e look the value of Iu in the table against these degrees of freedomB it is 3%#7% 2aking figures of MS8 H n calculations from our previous e'ample; and appl( in the above e*uationB the critical range comes toB 1s 0e notice above; the critical range is 1,%#3% 8hen 0e compare absolute difference bet0een different pair of means 0ith critical range; 0e find that 23%37Z 1,%#3 and 3,%" Z 1,%#3 but 1#% 7 c 1,%#3% 8e therefore dra0 the conclusion that 1% X 1 E X 2 K is SIG4I9I/142 2% X 1 E X 3 K is SIG4I9I/142 3% X 2 E X 3 K is 452 SIG4I9I/142
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Lecture #37
Regression "nal sis Regression is the dependence of a variable on one or more variable% Regression anal(sis is primaril( used for the prediction purpose% 2he goal of regression anal(sis is to develop a statistical model that can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable based on the value of the independent variable% 2he independent variable is also called as predictor or e'planator( variable 0hereas dependent variable is also called criterion or response variable Regression and Correlation Regression anal(sis procedure is used to anal(<e associative relationship bet0een a metric dependent variable and one or more independent variables% It sho0s 0hether relationship bet0een criterion and predictor variable e'ists or notB that 0hether the independent variable e'plains a significant variation in the dependent variable% Secondl( the value of dependent variable is predicted for a given value of independent variable% /orrelation in contrast to regression is used to measure strength and direction of association bet0een t0o numerical variables% 2hese variables ma( not necessaril( have dependentE independent relationship% Secondl( the ob=ective in correlation anal(sis is not to use one variable to predict the otherB it simpl( measures the strength of /ovariation bet0een t0o variables% T pes of Regression Modes 2he nature of relationship bet0een the dependent and independent variable can take man( forms from simple to complicated mathematical functions% 2he simplest relationship is the straight line or linear relationship; 0here there is onl( one predictor -Independent. variable% 2his is called simple regression model or straightEline regression or simple linear regression or bivariate regression model% If there are more than one independent variables; it is a called multiple regression model% Simple Regression Model /onstruction of a regression model starts 0ith the identification of the dependent variable and independent variable or variables% "s stated alread a simple regression model/ is one in (hich/ there is one independent $ariable and one dependent $ariable. Suppose O is the onl( independent variable 0hereas P is the dependent variable% 2he simple linear regression model is P K a T b'
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(hereDa: is the intercept and Db: is the slope. Slope means the amount of change in P if there is a change of one unit in R. Simple linear regression is concerned 0ith finding on a scatter diagram a straight line that fits the data best% 2he best fit means that there is as small difference bet0een P -actual values. and d -the predicted value.% 2hus for predicted values the e*uation 0ould be d K a T b' 8hich has t0o unkno0ns a H b and are called regression parameters or regression coefficients 1 mathematical techni*ues called least s*uare method; fits best in the observed data and is used to determine the regression parameters a H b% 2his is considered to be the best techni*ue in simple linear regression model as it 0ould result in the minimum sum of s*uared differences bet0een the actual value of P and predicted value of d% In order to appl( this method; 0e must calculate *uantities to determine a H b% 2hese are
# 6 )ean o% :
6 )ean o% ; n 6 t(e $a)*le $i,e <: 6 t(e $u) o% : 5alue$ <; 6 t(e $u) o% ; 5alue$ <:2 6 $u) o% $1uare! : 5alue$ <:;6 $u) o% *ro!uct o% : = ; 2hen 0e use these calculations in the follo0ing formulas ( K a T b' 0hen 0e estimate it is d K a T b' 8here d is the estimate or predicted value of P 2he formula for calculating a and b is simple
b=
- # # .- . - # # .2
# n# # 2 n# 2 a = b# =
#&ample 1 manager of a soft drink compan( 0ishes to develop a method for allocating the deliver( time -unloading of crates. on a particular route% 1 sample of 1! customers 0as selected on the same route and the deliver( time and number of crates delivered 0ere measured% 2he results 0ere as follo0ed%
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Solution Customer O ) 3 4 5 6 @ A B C )? )) )3 )4 )5 )6 No of crates 6) @6 A3 B5 )?5 ))3 )5? )6B )@? 3?3 3)@ 35? 3@A 3A6 3B@ 'eli$er time in minutes 43 44 46 4@ 5? 4A 54 5B 53 6A 6@ @? @) @5 @@
3543
A)?
# G )@3.)4
G 5A.44
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Re1uired ;se the least s1uare method to find regression coefficients a and b. State the regression e1uation. Interpret a and b. >re!ict t(e !eli5er' ti)e %or a cu$to)er recei5in- 150 crate$ o% $o%t !rin#
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Customer O No of crates ) 3 4 5 6 @ A B C )? )) )3 )4 )5 )6 6) @6 A3 B5 )?5 ))3 )5? )6B )@? 3?3 3)@ 35? 3@A 3A6 3B@
'eli$er time Hminutes8 43 44 46 4@ 5? 4A 54 5B 53 6A 6@ @? @) @5 @@ 3@?) 5336 6)B5 A?6@ )?B)@ )3655 )C@?? 35C@5 36@?? 5?B?5 5@@6@ 6A@?? A)3BC A6@36 B)AC@ )?35 )?BC )336 )3C@ )@?? )4@C )B5C 34?5 )A@5 435C 4)4@ 4@?? 4A3) 5?C@ 546@
& )@43 3)56 363? 4?35 5)@? 5)55 @?3? A6B5 @A3? ))6)5 )3?C@ )55?? )@3BA )A@?? )BBA@
3543
A)?
5B@4@? 46@AB
)3BA33
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#
b=
G )@3.)4
G 5A.44
n# # #2 2 n# 12"722 1!-1#2 %13 7%33. = "#3#0 1!-1#2 %13. 2 12"722 11!10 = "#3#0 3, 2,2 13#1" = ,20#0 = %1 7,
" compan (ants to check the sale of the (ashing machines as a function of e&penditures on Research and 'e$elopment HR M'8. The data for the last )5 ears are represented belo(.
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'istrict ) 3 4 5 6 @ A B C )? )) )3 )4
"nnual HRM'8 #&penditure Rs.H??8 4??B )A3@ )@53 3B)@ 6666 6B5) )3C3 33?B )4)4 56@A ))?3 6)@) )6)@
"nnual sales RsH???8 5?B6 4@B) 4BC6 @@64 C654 ))A@? 45)B 66@4 4@@? A6B6 3@C5 )?@A5 3BCB
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)5
4)6)
65@B
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# = 2,21%2"
Re1uired 7ind the regression coefficients a and b. State the regression e1uation.
= !"2#%,3
9hat (ill be predicted sales if the R M ' e&penditures are Rs.6????
Solution
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#2
C?5B?@5 3CAC?A@ 3@C@)@5 AC3CB6@ 4?B6B?36 45))A3B) )@@C3@5 5BA63@5 )A34C@C 3?B6A5BC )3)55?5 3@@46C3) 33CB36@ CC3BB?) WG)6@B4)B45 )@@BA336 )465CA@) )6)A)?36 553@35?C C)?@BB5C )4B3CA@?? ))@B3A35 4?C5@C@C )44C6@?? 6A643336 A36A@4@ ))4C453A@ B4CB5?5 3CBCC?35 6C3?B4A3A
#
)33BA@B? @4645?@ @4C66C? )BA45B5B 64?))4@6 @B@C?)@? 55)@?6@ )33B4)?5 5B?66B? 45@5?@C6 3C@BABB 66?BB6)5 54C44@B )A33C@@B 4?)3CBB33
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b= = = = =
# n# # 2 n# 2 3012,""22 1 -2,21%2" !"2#%,3. 1!#"31"3 1 -2,21%2". 2 3012,""22 23"30,317 1!#"31"3 11, 7 27# #2,",!0! 373!7!!" 1%#"#
I% t(e ?R=/@ e2*en!iture$ are R$.500003 t(e *re!icte! $ale$ "ill &e
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= ,01%# + 1%#"# !00 = ,01%# + " 3 = 17 %# = 1;7 ;#00

T(ou$an! ru*ee$
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Lecture #38
Report 9riting Research Report 2he report 0ill represent the efforts of the research team; and if is poorl( 0ritten 0ith lots of errors; the *ualit( of the 0hole research ma( become suspicious% 5n the other hand; all aspects of a research report are done 0ellB the credibilit( of the researcher 0ill be high% 8e kno0 that marketing research is conducted to assist the marketing management to take marketing decisions and reduce the risk in decision making% It should be remembered that research report is the onl( tangible output of a marketing research pro=ect% 1t the same time it is documentar( evidence that the research 0as conducted and it becomes a historical record of the organi<ation% 1s such due attention must be given to the preparation of the report% Importance of Research Report 2he final step in the research process is the preparation of a research report% 2his is the culminating activit( in the research pro=ect and it can be ver( 0ell; the most important part of the research process% Research report is the onl( part of the research pro=ect that the client 0ill actuall( see% :( definition; the purpose of the marketing research is to provide information that facilitates the decision making b( the management unless this information is properl( communicated; even the most carefull( designed and 0ell e'ecuted research pro=ect has a value e*ual to naught% 2here is an iron la0 of marketing research that <people (ould rather li$e (ith a problem that the cannot sol$e than accept a solution the cannot understand.= It simpl( means that main criteria to evaluate the research report is ho0 0ell it communicates the findings of research to the reader% 9riting the Report!2uidelines 7ere are some of the guidelines that (ou should follo0 in the preparation of the research report% Consider our Reader :efore (ou start 0riting; carefull( consider (our audience 0ho 0ill read (our report; usuall( marketing managers% Pou should paint a picture of (our audience in mind% 7o0 much information does hDshe alread( have> 7o0 much detail (ou should provide himDher to take decision% 7o0 much technical kno0ledge the reader has> 2o 0hat e'tent (ou can use technical terms%
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"$oid Technical Kargon It is generall( recommended that 0e should avoid technical =argon 0hile 0riting a research report% 2he reason is simpleB 0e ma( have more than one reader and if principal reader or some of the audience ma( kno0 the meaning of the technical terms; some of the readers ma( not% 2hus it is better to use descriptive e'planations% If it is necessar( to use some or man( technical terms; define these terms for (our reader preferabl( in a glossar( or appendi'% Logical *rgani0ation 2he report should be structured logicall( so that it is eas( to follo0% Cogical structure should be visible; especiall( in the bod( of the report% 2his makes the parts of the report coherent and clarit( is enhanced% ;se .eadings M Subheadings Report ma( be divided into headings and subheadings for the topics and subtopics respectivel(% 2opic ma( be a main idea of each section% 2he headings and subheadings are signals or signposts of a map% 2opics ma( be in the form of a single 0ord; phrase; sentence or *uestionB 0hatever fits the purpose of (our report% 7o0ever; there should be consistenc( in the format; font t(pe and font si<e in different levels headings and subheadings throughout the report% %e *b+ecti$e Research is an ob=ective and s(stematic method of collecting; anal(<ing and interpreting the data to assist marketing managers in their decision% 2his ob=ectivit( should be maintained 0hen (ou are communicating the results as 0ell% 2he report should accuratel( present the details -methodolog(; data anal(sis; results and conclusion. 0ithout regards to the e'pectations of the management or client% 8e should not change the findings to please the client% 9actual results should be presented in the report no matter 0hether these results are seen favorabl( or unfavorabl( b( the client or user of the research% 7ollo( all Principles of good Communication 2he report is meant to communicate the research findings% Pou must follo0 all principles of good communication 0hile 0riting a research report% Some of these are reproduced belo0)
Fse simple language% 3ocabular( should be eas(% If a simple 0orld is available instead of a hard
one; use it e%g% use instead of utili<e% Fse strong action verb e%g% Investigate instead of ?performing an investigation@ and recommend instead of ?making a recommendation%@ Generall( 0rite in active instead of passive voice% e%g% ?1sghar 0rote a report%@ instead of ?2he report 0as 0ritten b( 1sghar%@ &liminate unnecessar( 0ords% 2he report should be 0ritten to the point% 8rite Mno0A instead of Mat this point of time%A 1dd graphs and charts to enhance understanding% 7o0ever the brevit( should not sacrifice completeness%
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Marketing Research (MKT611) 5bserve all seven /s of communication i%e% completeness; conciseness; coherence; clarit(;
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correctness; courtes( and consideration% Professional Look 2he final report should give a professional look% It should be produced 0ith good *ualit( of paper; t(ping; margins; headings; subheadings and binding% 6rofessional appearance of the report 0ould speak about the professional 0ork that has been carried out b( the researcher % 7ormat of the Report 2he format of the research report ma( var( 0ith the purpose of the research; researcherAs st(le or userAs instructions% If the client or user of the research 0ants the research report in a specific format; follo0 hisDher instructions% Fnless there are specific instructions from the organi<ation for 0hich the research has been conducted; the follo0ing elements ma( be included to develop a format for the research report% 2hese elements are generall( included in the reports%
7ront matter or Prefator parts

2itle page Cetter of transmittal Cetter of authori<ation 2able of content &'ecutive summar(
%od or Te&tual Parts

Introduction
:ackground Statement
of the problem of the problem Research ob=ectives Research Design and Methodolog( 2(pe of research design Data collection from secondar( sources 6rimar( data collection Instrument of data collection Sampling techni*ues 9ield0ork
'ata "nal sis

Results Cimitations /onclusions and Recommendations
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References #nd matter or Supplementar parts

1ppendices
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Lecture #39
Components of Research Report 1 research report has man( components each of 0hich is listed and briefl( described belo0% PR#7"T*RP P"RTS *R 7R*NT M"TT#R Title Page 2he title page includes the title of the report; name and address of the researcher and the organi<ation conducting the research; the name of the client and the date research report is being submitted% 2he title should be concise; clear and crisp indicating the nature of the pro=ect% Transmittal Letter 2his part of a formal research report is usuall( developed at the end% 2he transmittal letter introduces the research report to the recipient of the report% 1nd can dra0 attention to particular pro=ect characteristics; contractual obligations or note0orth( conclusions; and as such can generate interest in the sub=ect matter of the report% Letter of "uthori0ation 1 letter of authori<ation is a letter 0hich 0as 0ritten b( the client or person 0ho 0anted the research to be done to the researcher authori<ing him to start research for the 0riter% 1 cop( of the letter is enough to be included in the report% Table of Contents 2he table of contents lists ma=or report topics and subtopics -sections; chapters; appendices etc%. and their beginning page numbers% It varies from being ver( detailed to consisting of general topic headings onl(% Fsuall( the ma=or headings and subheadings are included in the table of contents% 2he table of contents is follo0ed b( a list of tables; list of graphs; list of appendi'es; and list of e'hibits; if an(; if the report is length(% #&ecuti$e Summar 2he e'ecutive summar( is an important part of the report; as this the onl( portion of the report that e'ecutives often read% 2he e'ecutive summar( should be 0ritten after the rest of the report has been completed% 1n e'ecutive summar( is a mini report 0ithin the report% It is not simpl( a brief of the report but it is a distillation of the research pro=ect outlining the methodolog(; ma=or findings; and conclusions% 1n e'ecutive summar( is a bottomEline report created for decision makers 0ho have no time or desire to go into the pro=ectAs technical details%
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%*'PXT#RT;"L P"RTS Introduction 2o begin 0ith the bod( of the report; an introduction to the research background; discussions 0ith the client and possibl( the industr( e'pert to find the direction of doing research to solve this management problem% 2his part provides a clear statement of the research problem and ob=ectivesD*uestionsDh(potheses of the research% 1fter reading this section; one can understand the reason and rationale for conducting this stud( Research 'esign and Methodolog 1 complete understanding and evaluation of a pro=ect depends on the research methodolog( used% Methodolog( 0hich ranges EEfrom sampling frame and procedures; to mode of data collection; to research instrument; to techni*ues of data anal(sis emplo(edeshould be described ade*uatel(% 8ho collected data and ho0 field0ork 0as organi<ed and monitored to ensure the *ualit( of data collection is e'plained in this section% Secondar( data collection methods and sources are also discussed in this section 'ata Presentation 2his section ma( contain several chapters or subsections sho0ing data anal(sis in the form of tables; description; graphs etc% Data anal(sis is *uantitative; *ualitative or both% 2his part of the bod( is critical for the research pro=ect as the ultimate results and conclusions of the report are based on data anal(sis% Results 1s stated earlier; results ma( comprise several chapters or subEsections% Most of the time; the results are presented both at the aggregate and the subgroup level; for e'ample; market segment; market area; 0holesale; retail level% 2ables and graphs ma( highlight the results 0ith the main findings discussed in the te't% 2he results should be organi<ed in a coherent and logical 0a(% 2he standard formats that are used to arrange data in the tables are) 1lphabeticall(% /hronologicall(% Geographicall(% 1ccording to si<e 1ccording to interest of the reader% 1ccording to tradition% 1ccording to importance% Conclusions and Recommendations 2his part of the report gives the main findings; conclusions and recommendations for the organi<ation% 1 summar( of the statistical findings is not enough% 2he researcher needs to discuss the results in light of the management problem being addressed to arrive at ma=or conclusions% :ased on the results; the researcher ma( give some suggestions to the decision makers% Sometimes 1#1
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marketing researchers are not asked to recommend an(thing but confine themselves to giving their finding and conclusions% Limitations 1fter the conclusions and recommendations component of the research report; limitations of the research are mentioned% Cimitations ma( originate due to time; budget or some other organi<ational constraints% 4o research pro=ect is 0ithout shortcomings% 1 researcher is ethicall( and professionall( bound to full( disclose the shortcomings or setbacks of the research that ma( have an impact on its validit(; reliabilit(; or predictabilit(% Sometimes limitations are given before the conclusions and recommendation section so that the readers should kno0 the limitations of findings and conclusions% 2uidelines for >isuals In the research report; visuals ma( be used for enhancing the understanding of the report% Mostl( these include tables; charts and graphs; maps; figures and flo0 charts% 2he guidelines for preparing and using these visuals are) 1% Make visual aids simple and convenient to understand% 2% 6rimar( ob=ective of including such visuals should be to augment the clarit( and understanding of the content of the report% % #nd Matter or Supplementar Parts 2his is the section of the report 0hich contains Mtoo materialA% It includes an( material that the researcher thinks should also be included in the report to aid the understanding of the reader% It is in the form of appendi'es 0hich are labeled as 1ppendi' 1; :; / etc% and contain the headings as 0ell% 2hese appendi'es ma( range from a blank cop( of *uestionnaire to price lists; tables; diagrams; statistical illustrations; photographs etc% 2eneral 2uidelines 2(pe or print on one side onl( of heav(; 0hite; unrolled paper 6aper si<e) "f O 11 inches DoubleEspace the entire paper Ceft =ustif( te't onl( Ceave a minimum oneEinch margin on the sides; top; and bottom of each page 4umber pages consecutivel( in the top right corner; beginning 0ith the title page Just before the page number; use a shortened form of the title as a header 9ont si<e 12Epoint Ti!es Ro!an or $ourier are acceptable t(pefaces 5nl( black toner Indent paragraphs !E7 spaces 4o more than 27 lines of te't per page
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Lecture #40
Citation of References in Report Fnderstanding citation protects the researcher from the offence of plagiarism% It helps in compiling Citerature Revie0% :oth instructors and students must be vigilant about citations% >arious St le Manuals a$ailable in Market 2here are different manuals available to the research 0riters to learn and use citations in the research report% Some of them are mentioned belo0%
161 $ 1merican 6s(chological 1ssociation MC1 $ Modern Canguage 1ssociation /hicago St(le $ /hicago Manual of St(le 2urabian St(le $ based on /hicago St(le 7arvard Referencing S(stem 1S1 $ 1merican Sociological 1ssociation /:& E /ouncil of :iolog( &ditors 16S1 $ 1merican 6olitical Science 1ssociation
Mostl( the manual listed on number one is used in the marketing research pro=ects% 7o0 various sources are cited in 161 st(le is e'plained belo0 0ith e'amples% "P" St le 2uide %ook (ith ) to 3 authors #nd Notes
John; C%G%; H Spencer; C%J% -200 .% 1ssessment of the Global Markets% 8hite 6lains; 4P)
Congman% In!Te&t
?John H Spencer; 200 ; p% 11. -John H Spencer; 200 ; p% 11E1 . 8hen material taken is on more than t0o pages
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%ook (ith 4 to 6 authors #nd Notes

6arkinson; 1%R%; :utcher; S%I%; H Green0ood3 1%G% -2001.% 1ttitude to0ards service marketing%
7illsdale; 4J) &rlbaum% In!Te&t

-6arkinson; :utcher; H Green0ood; 2001. first citation -6arkinson et al%; 2001. subse*uent citations
#dited book #nd N*T#S

Gibbs; J%2%; H 7uang; C%4% -&ds%.% -1,,1.% Selling in the children market% San 9rancisco) Josse(E
:ass% In!Te&t
-Gibbs H 7uang; 1,,1; p% 11.
Chapter from a book #nd Notes

Masaro; D% -1,,2.% :roadening the domain of the fu<<( logical model of perception% In 7%C%
6ick; Jr%; 6% van den :roek; H D%/% Lnill -&ds%.; /ognition) /onceptual and methodological issues -pp% !1E" .% 8ashington; D/) 1merican 6s(chological 1ssociation% In!Te&t
-Masaro; 1,,2; p% 11E12. 8hen information is available on more than t0o pages
Kournal article (ith 3 authors #nd Notes

James; R%; H /ramer; S% -2003.% 2he hiring process in organi<ations% /onsulting 6s(cholog(
Journal) 6ractice and Research; !-2.; 10E3#% In!Te&t

?Aa)e$ = Cra)er3 2003@
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Kournal article (ith 4 to @ authors #nd Notes

Lendall; 6%/%; Stark; L%D%; H 1dam; 2% -1,,0.% /ognitive deficit or cognitive distortion of
childhood depression% Journal of 1bnormal 6s(cholog(; 1"; 2!!E270% In!Te&t

-Lendall; Stark; H 1dam; 1,,0. first citation -Lendall et al%; 1,,0. subse*uent citations
Ne(spaper article (ith no author #nd Notes

4e0 medicine seems to sharpl( reduce the risk of death from heart attack% -1,,,; 1ugust 2!.%
2he 8ashington 6ost; p% 112% In!Te&t

-g4e0 Medicine;g 1,,,.
Maga0ine "rticle #nd Notes Steiner; M%I% -200#; 5ctober ,.% Measuring the mind% Science; 2#2; 113E11 % In!Te&t
-Steiner; 200#.
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#lectronic book retrie$ed from database #nd Notes

4ara(ns0am(; R% M% -200".% 7undamentals of social research H6th ed.8. Retrie$ed from
ST"TY Ref database In!Te&t

-4ara(ans0am(; 200".
'ocument on uni$ersit program or department 9eb site #nd Notes

2rapp; P% F% -200!.% Multiple intelligences) 2he learning process in our students% Retrieved Jul(
1;
200#;
from
Pale
Fniversit(;
PaleE4e0
7aven
2eachers
Institute
8eb
site)
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/2001/6/01.06.10.x.html
In!Te&t
-2rapp; 200!; para% 11.
#lectronic +ournal article (ith ) to 3 authors/ retrie$ed from database #nd Notes
Shoemaker J% I and :radman S% 8) 1 model for the stud( of celebrit( preference in (outh%
Journal of /onsumer :eaviour; 20- .; !"0E!""% doi)10%1177D02#,""110!0!"77#% In!Te&t

-Shoemaker H :radman; 200#.
#lectronic +ournal article/ 4!6 authors/ retrie$ed from database/ (ithout '*I #nd Notes
2ang; 6%; Puan; 8%; H 2seng; 7% -200!.% /linical follo0Eup stud( on diabetes patients
participating in a health management plan% Journal of 4ursing Research; 13- .; 2!3E2#1% Retrieved from /I417C database% In!Te&t
-2ang; Puan; H 2seng; 200!.first citation -2ang et al%; 200!. subse*uent citations
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#electronic +ournal article (ith ) to 3 authors/ freel a$ailable/ (ithout '*I #nd Notes
Munch;
2% J%; H :arrete; 4% S% -2001.% &motional intelligence; selfEesteem and parental love% &E Journal of 6s(cholog( and consumer behavior; 2-2.; 3"E "% Retrieved
from (tt*:99oB$.li&.$"in.e!u.au9in!e2.*(*9eBa*9article95ie"9719100
In!Te&t
-Munch
H :arrete; 200#; para% 12.
"bstract #nd Notes

Meh=abeen; 1%; H 9atima; 4% -2002.% &ffects of
consumer perceptions in supermarket organi<ation development% Journal of Social 6s(cholog(; 21; ,#E111% ^1bstract_ 6s(chological 1bstracts; 2002; #"; 1bstract 4o% 1122 In!Te&t
-Meh=abee
H 9atima; 2002; p% 1.
>ideo Tape #nd Notes

4ational Institute of Medical Sciences% -200".% Drug abuse ^videotape_% Islamabad
7ormatting
Reference List *rder
6lace Start
the list of references cited at the end of the paper
references on a ne0 page each entr( flush 0ith the left margin subse*uent lines five to seven spaces -hanging indent. space both 0ithin and bet0een entries
:egin Indent
Double
1#7

Italici<e 1rrange If
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the title of books; maga<ines; etc" sources alphabeticall( beginning 0ith authorAs last name
author has more than one source; arrange entries b( (ear; earliest first
8hen
an author appears both as a sole author and; in another citation as the first author of a group; list the one author entries first
If
no author given; begin entr( 0ith the title and alphabeti<e 0ithout counting a; an; or the
Do not underline; italici<e or use *uote marks for titles used instead of an author name
Capitali0ation in Reference List

/apitali<e
onl( the first 0ord of the title; the first 0ord after a colon or dash; and proper nouns in titles of books; articles; etc%
/apitali<e
all ma=or 0ords and all 0ords of four letters or more in periodical titles%
.o( to Make a -uotations

8hen 6ut 6ut
fe0er than 0 0ords
prose *uotations in running te't *uote marks around *uoted material last name; publication (ear; and page number-s. of *uote must appear in the te't )
1uthorAs #&ample
7erman -1,,#. states that a traumatic response fre*uentl( entails a ?dela(ed; uncontrolled
repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena@ -p% 11.% #&ample 3
1
traumatic response fre*uentl( entails a ?dela(ed; uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena@ -7erman; 1,,#; p% 11.%
Long -uotations
8hen In
0 0ords or more
block form
1#"

Indent
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!E7 spaces and omit the *uotation marks% If the *uotation has internal paragraphs; indent the internal paragraphs a further !E7 spaces
Do
not use *uotation marks space the block *uote
Double /ite
the source after the end punctuation of the *uote
.loc# Cuotation$
Meile 2he
-1,,3. found the follo0ing)
?placebo effect;@ 0hich had been verified in previous studies; disappeared 0hen behaviors 0ere studied in this manner% 9urthermore; the behaviors 0ere never e'hibited again; even 0hen real drugs 0ere administered% &arlier studies 0ere clearl( premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect% -p% 27#.
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Lecture #41
Presentation of Reports Sometimes it is desirable or mandator( for a researcher to present the pro=ect results orall( to the client or their management% 5ne strateg( that the consultant researcher follo0s is that initiall( distribute a 0ritten research report; then follo0 this 0ritten report 0ith an oral presentation% It allo0s the intended audience to become familiar 0ith the research pro=ect and the( 0ill be better able to discuss 0ith the researcher an( *uestions the( ma( have about the methodolog(; findings or data of the research contained in the report% *ral Presentations Moreover man( clients make their first impressions about the *ualit( of the research pro=ect on the basis of oral presentation the researcher give to them; this activit( becomes more important for a researcher% :asicall( an oral presentation is the e'ecutive overvie0 and as such no attempt be made to communicate all details of research in an oral presentation% Decision makers ma( not be interested in the technical details; =ust the =est of ever(thing Preparing a Presentation #% Le( to successful presentation is preparation% 7% Pou should be prepared to ans0er an( *uestion that the audience ma( raise about the research process or results% "% &'tensive rehearsals are recommended% ,% It is also desirable that the presenter prepares a detailed outline for hisDher assistance% Prepare >isual "ids for Presentation 6repare visual aids as the( greatl( enhance the value of oral communication in the follo0ing 0a(s) f% 3isual aids provide a frame0ork for discussion% g% 4umerical data are better understood in visual rather than in verbal form% 2hatAs 0h( tables and graphs are used% h% Significant points can easil( be emphasi<ed b( means of visual aids% 9or e'ample if the researcher 0ants to indicate that access to the parking lot of a departmental store is a problem; he can sho0 it 0ith a diagram or a picture% Similarl( those ideas 0hich are comple' and difficult to communicate other0ise can easil( be illustrated 0ith the help of visual aids i% 9inall(; the( provide variet( to the presentation% =% 3isual aid can help refer back to critical points for discussion% 3arious kinds of visual aids include transparencies; charts; handouts; slides; videotapes; films; samples etc% k% 3ideotapes are particularl( effective in presenting the proceedings of focus groups and other aspects of field0ork that are d(namic in nature% /olor transparencies can be prepared% l% 6o0er6oint and other soft0are are easil( available for making visuals for presentation ;se of >isual "ids 170
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7o0ever it should be remembered that visual aids should not dominate the presentation% 2he researcher should remain the center of attention for the audience% 4obod( should depend on visual aids to the e'tent that the presentation stops if the e*uipment for visual aids fails -for e'ample; electricit( breaks do0n during the presentation but there is no generator arrangements.% %od Language in Presentation p% M8hat to sa(A is important in a presentation but Mho0 to sa(A is more important% M7o0 to sa(A distinguishes a mediocre communicator from an outstanding communicator% :od( language is to be effectivel( used in presenting the research report% :od( gestures clarif( verbal communication% *% 2he personal mannerisms of a researcher can either help or hinder an oral presentation% 1 researcher 0ith good oral communication skills and no offensive mannerisms is considered more effective than the one 0ho has good oral communication skills but offensive mannerisms% r% 1void distracting the audience b( fidgeting 0ith the ke( ring or pen etc% 2ake ever(thing out of (our pockets and make sure there is nothing on the dice other than (our notes% Remove pens; ke(s; clipseever(thing 2uidelines for Preparing and 'eli$ering #ffecti$e Presentation 9or (our guidance; some guidelines are provided for the preparation and deliver( of an effective oral presentation% %efore the Presentation, "% 8rite an outline of the presentation ,% 6repare necessar( visual aids 10% /heck all e*uipment% 11% 7ave a contingenc( plan in case the visual aid e*uipment fails% 12% 1nal(<e (our audience in terms of their reaction to research findings% 8ill the( agree; be hostile or indifferent% It is better to begin the presentation 0ith ideas to 0hich (ou anticipate that the audience 0ould most likel( agree% 13% 6ractice the presentation man( times% 6ossibl( (ou 0ould like to have someone 0itness (our presentation and comment ho0 to improve its effectiveness% 'uring Presentation !% Start the presentation 0ith an overvie0 and then go into details% #% 9ace the audience at all times% Maintain e(e contact% 7% 2alk to audience rather than reading e'cessivel( from a script a script on screen% "% Fse visual aids effectivel(% 2hese should reall( aid the presenter% ,% 1void distracting mannerisms including unnecessar( movement% Make sure (our movements have some purpose%
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10% :e concerned 0ith (our voice% It should not be too soft; loud; fast; slo0; or monotonous% Fse pauses to allo0 the audience some time to digest material% 11% Involve the audience% "fter Presentation, Pou have completed the presentationB ask the audience if the( have an( *uestions% IuestionE ans0er session is an interesting and important part of the presentation% 2his often concludes the talk; but audience can be permitted to ask *uestions during the presentation% 6ause and make sure that the *uestion is understood) then; if possible; give as compact response as possible% Pou should

1nticipate *uestions beforehand% 2ake the *uestions seriousl(%
-uestion Q "ns(er Session During the *uestion $ ans0er period (ou should) g% /oncentrate on the *uestion% h% 6ause and repeat the *uestion% It 0ill allo0 (ou to think about the ans0er% i% DonAt fake an ans0er% If (ou donAt kno0 the ans0er; sa( so% =% 1ns0er *uestions concisel( but support (our ans0ers 0ith as much evidence as possible
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Lecture #42
'emand 7orecasting 9re*uentl( marketing researchers are re*uested to estimate the current market and sales potential for a ne0 or e'isting product% 2his information is essential to configure sales territories; assign sales *uotas; determine number of salespersons needed and their compensation level; appropriate advertising and sales promotion budgets; finding ne0 prospect accounts; dropping slo0 products; and making ne0 product decisions% Sales or demand potential for ne0 or established products can be estimated% Importance of 7orecasting 2he forecasting of sales or demand is a critical input to marketing decisions and making decisions in other functional areas like production; finance; and human resources% 6oor forecasting 0ould result in e'cessive inventor(; inefficient sales e'penses; heav( discounts; lost sales; inefficient scheduling of production; and poor planning for cash flo0 and capital investments% 8e should understand that forecasting provides the basis of almost all planning and control% If the forecasts are unreliable; it is most difficult to make the right tactical or strategic decision% "ccurac of Sales 7orecasts Sales forecasting comprises of numerical estimates and these are =ust estimates and are never absolutel( correct; that is the numerical estimates al0a(s differ from actual sales results% 2his can be established onl( after the sales have been recorded% 1s such; there is no direct measure of forecasting accurac( before the forecasting period% 2herefore the tactics to be closer to accurate forecasting are that 0e; as good researchers; should /hoose s(stematic and ob=ective procedures and emplo( them ade*uatel(B and Select valid data sources that (ield information on time and in ade*uate detail% Methods of 7orecasting 2here is a variet( of approaches that can be used for forecasting% Iualitative and Iuantitative%
-uantitati$e methods ma
2hese are classified as
further be sub di$ided into Time Series #&trapolation and
Causal Models.
List of 7orecasting Methods -ualitati$e Methods Jur( of e'ecutive =udgment Sales force estimates Surve( of customer intentions Delphi
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Time!Series #&trapolation 2rend pro=ection Moving average Seasonal and c(clical inde' Causal Models Ceading indicators Regression models -ualitati$e Methods 2hese methods are based on the sub=ective =udgments of various individuals in the situation although these individuals ma( have access to *uantitative information about the past to aid their estimates% 2hese individual ma( get an opportunit( to revise and refine their estimates but still the estimates are sub=ective% Cet us e'amine these methods one b( one in detail% Kur of e&ecuti$e +udgment 2his method involves combining the =udgment of a group of managers on the issue of forecast% 1 variet( of concerned and informed managers representing such functional areas as marketing; sales; operations; manufacturing; purchasing; accounting; and finance are invited; combined on one place and asked to give their sales estimates for the ne't specified period% 2he estimates are consolidated and ma( be averaged or range is determined% 2his method is 0idel( used in forecasting but it is mostl( used to estimate the potential of consumer products and sales of service companies% "d$antages and 'isad$antages 0!5anta-e$ inclu!e3 It is fast and efficient It is *uite timel( as the forecast is generated b( the e'ecutives 0ho have most current information% 9orecast is based on collective kno0ledge and e'perience of the managers and as such the =udgment is ver( close to the real situation 2he main disadvantage is the sub=ectivit( of the e'ecutives% Sales force #stimates 2his method is based on the =udgments of the sales force 0hich is actuall( 0orking in the field% &ach sales person is asked to give his estimate of sales in his territor( for the ne't period% 1ll estimates are added and this gives a total of sales potential in all territories for the ne't period% 2hen these estimates are fineEtuned b( the sales supervisors and estimates are finali<ed% 1s the forecasts from the sales force are dra0n on the complete; sensitive and current kno0ledge of the customer and market; these estimates are ver( close to the actual% 1lthough these are sub=ective =udgments but based on rich e'perience of the sales force 17
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2he disadvantages of this method include that individual salespeople can be naturall( optimistic or pessimistic% 2here is another serious bias to occur 0hen the forecast is linked to the performance measure of salesperson% In that the salesperson 0ould intentionall( underestimate the potential of his territor( so that fe0er *uotas are assigned to him and he can easil( achieve it at the end of the period and receives appreciation andDor an( incentive attached% 2he sales force estimate approach is mostl( used in industrial organi<ations% Sur$e of customer intentions In this method; customers are re*uested to make their o0n forecasts about ho0 much of this product the( intend to bu( and use in the ne't period% 2he sales forecast; in turn; is 0orked out on the basis of their bu(ing intentions% Sampling frame is usuall( the e'isting customer or client list; 1s the bulk of sales or demand usuall( comes from e'isting customers; the sample of customers to surve( the bu(ing intentions is taken from the e'isting customers% 2he right person in the customer organi<ation must be contacted 2he surve( of customer bu(ing intentions 0orks best 0hen the number of customers; or at least the ma=or customers; is small% 1s such; the ma'imum use of this techni*ue is made in industrial organi<ations% 1s compared to Jur( of &'ecutive Judgment or Sales force &stimate methods; Surve( of :u(ing Intention is more e'pensive and time consuming% 'elphi "pproach Delphi 1pproach is someho0 an e'tension of =ur( of e'ecutive =udgment method to refine the forecasting process% In Delphi approach; group members are asked to make individual =udgments about the forecast% 2hen these =udgments are compiled and the 0hole package is returned to each member; so that heDshe can compare hisDher o0n estimate 0ith those of the other members% In this e'ercise; the names are obscured; and codes are given instead so that the personalities or positions of some members in the group do not bias the opinion of other members% 2he members are asked to revise their estimates in the light of othersA =udgments; and if the( differ from others; state the reason 0h( the( believe that their estimates are correct% 2he( return the package to the coordinator 0ho is conducting this session and serves as a clearing house% 2he coordinator for0ards the revised estimates 0ith comments of each member to other members% It means ever(bod( is receiving ever(bod(As comments% 2his process is repeated three or four times and the group usuall( reach to the final forecast of sales% -uantitati$e Methods Time!Series "nal sis 2ime series anal(sis is simpl( the e'trapolation of historical data in the ne't period% Statistical formulas are used to e'trapolate the data in the future% 2hree factors are prere*uisite for timeEseries e'trapolation and must be understood clearl(%
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Data must e'ist in time series &nvironmental change influencing the time series can make the e'trapolation err; little abilit( to forecast ?turning points@ Detection of patterns or trends in the past data must be possible%
Causal Models /ausal Models involve statistical techni*ues that relate historical sales data to the economic factors or forces that become the cause to increase or decrease the sales% 2hese methods are indeed the most sophisticated sales forecasting tools% 2he( prove to be ver( correct 0hen relevant historical data on ma=or forces causing changes in sales are available% 20o methods are mostl( used in the /ausal Models) Ceading Indicators and Regression Leading Indicators 2his approach involves the identification of leading indicators 0hich become the cause of the variation in sales of a good or service% 2hese factors can move the sales of a particular good or service up or do0n% 9or e'ample Frbani<ation ma( lead to ne0 housing 4e0 housing lead ma=or appliances sales 4umber of births leads the sale of infantErelated goods and services Regression Models 8e have alread( studied simple Regression model in 0hich independent variableDs are identified and their values are input into the model to forecast the sale for a particular period or (ear% Pou ma( recall simple regression model 0hich is Sales 9orecast K P K a T bO Multiple Regression Model is Sales 9orecastKP K a T b1O1 T b2O2 T b3O3
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Lecture #43
Ne( Product Research
Innovation and conse*uentl( development of ne0 products is critical to the life of almost all business firms as the( have to adapt to their changing environment% Some uncertaint( is associated 0ith the ne0 products as; b( definition; ne0 products contain aspects 0ith 0hich the organi<ation 0ill not be unfamiliar% 2hus; a good proportion of marketing research is directed to0ard reducing the risk involved in the introduction of ne0 products% 1 marketing manager needs the support and confirmation from market researcher at various stages of ne0 product development%
Stages in Ne( Product 'e$elopment 8e kno0 that follo0ing are the stages in the development of a ne0 product) Idea generation Idea screening /oncept development and testing :usiness anal(sis 6roduct development and laborator( testing 2esting marketing or field testing /ommerciali<ation Marketing research ma( not be needed in all of these stages but is definitel( re*uired in stage 1; 3; and #% 2he specific techni*ues that are used are in different stages are different% Cet us see 0hat those stages are 0here 0e use marketing research effectivel(% 2his is sho0n in the ne't figure%
Idea 2eneration 2he ob=ective of idea generation research is to come up 0ith completel( ne0 ideas for products; or ne0 attributes for current products; or ne0 use for current products% Ideas ma( come from different sources through various compan( personnel; for e'ample salespersons; dealers; maintenance people and customer service personnel% 1ll of these have direct contact 0ith the customers 0ho are good source of ideas about the ne0 products% 2he market researcher can rel( on the opinions of such personnel or ma( plan to accompan( these people and listen to their ideas and subse*uentl( refine them%
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7ocus 2roups 1nother method 0hich is used e'tensivel( in idea generation for ne0 products is consumer focus group% 1s man( focus groups as the time permits are used in this research primaril( as brainstorming sessions% 2he ob=ective is to generate as man( ideas as possible 0ithout being critical% In the focusEgroup intervie0s; another approach termed benefit structure anal(sis can also be used% In that the product users identif( the benefits desired and the e'tent to 0hich the product delivers those benefits% 2he result is an identification of benefits sought 0hich current products are not delivering; hence the need of ne0 product or innovating the e'isting product% 2he researcher should seek ne0 dimensions of consumer perception about the established products in the research% 2he problems associated 0ith productEuse situations 0ill come to the surface in such focus groups% In focus groups; social and environmental trends can also be anal(<ed% 9or e'ample if there is a trend of using natural foods; it might suggest that biscuits filled 0ith fruits might be a good option% 6erceptual Maps are prepared b( the researcher% 5n these maps the researcher positions various productsDbrands in the market along the dimensions 0hich users perceive critical and evaluate% &ventuall( a perceptual map can suggest gaps 0here ne0 products might fit% Concept 'e$elopment and #$aluation /oncept development and testing is another stage 0here research is re*uired% 8hat is a concept> Is it different from idea> Pes% 1 concept is full( developed and elaborated idea% 9irst the researcher translates the idea into a perceivable concept% 9or e'ample a product concept is formed b( the researcher 0hich includes ma=or attributes of the ne0 product; relative advantage over the products currentl( available in the market; tentative price; packaging; advertising approach; and a suggested name% 1s there is no tangible usable product at this point of time that can be tested; he concept should be developed and defined 0ell enough so that it is clearl( communicable% 2here ma( be simpl( a verbal description; or it ma( be accompanied 0ith the three dimensional models and other possible visuals% 1t some point it is important for the concept to include other three 6s of the marketing program that 0ill support it including its price; its name; its advertising position; and even the t(pe of store in 0hich it is sold% 2hen *uestions are asked from the respondents to test the concept% Methodolog of Concept Testing 1s the nature of most concepts testing is e'plorator(; focus group intervie0s is the most fre*uentl( used techni*ue for concept testing% Fsuall( the discussion in the focus groups centers around testing of one concept but some times a paired comparison techni*ue is used 0hen the ob=ective is to test alternate concepts%
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In that; each respondent tests a set of product concepts t0o at a time and states 0hich of the t0o is preferred% 7o0ever; in a pairedEcomparison test; as the respondents have to select one product over another; the( ma( do so using a ver( trivial attribute% Concept Test 2roup 2he respondents for concept testing normall( include the people 0ho 0ould be among the target segments% 2he aim of concept testing is to determine if a viable market e'istsB and therefore; no potential segment should be ignored for this stud(% Generall(; the concept is e'posed to the respondents for testing through personal mode; in some central location like shopping mall or some facilit( available 0ith the researcher in or outside his organi<ation%
1gain for concept testing; focus group techni*ues can be used effectivel( in 0hich there 0ill be free discussion 0ith a moderator to (ield valuable data about the concept evaluation%
*b+ecti$es of Concept Testing 2he main purpose of a concept testing is to help refine the product features; determine ho0 it should be positioned; and suggest something about different components of marketing mi'% Such a test is an overall indication of attitudes; interest and likelihood of purchase b( the target segment% 5b=ectives of concept testing ma( be outlined as belo0)
2o get a firstEhand reaction of potential consumersA vie0s of the product idea 2o select the most promising concepts for further development 2o get an initial evaluation of commerciali<ation of the ne0l( developed product; if it happens
Concept Testing -uestions Since concept testing re*uires diagnostic information; the *uestions can be posed to the respondents 0hich 0ould help determine) 8hether the respondents comprehend the product or not> 7o0 do the respondents perceive the attributes of the ne0 product> 8hat possibl( are the advantages and disadvantages of the intended product> SegmentsDsituations in 0hich the product can be used and ho0 fre*uentl( 8hat alternative concepts 0ould be preferred> Does the concept have a crucial fla0>
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Test Marketing or 7ield Testing In concept testing; 0e test onl( an imaginar( product but in test marketing; 0e test an actual tangible product after it has been developed% 1s 0e have alread( studied; test marketing or market testing is a controlled e'periment; done in a limited but carefull( selected part of the marketplace; and 0here the aim is to predict the sales or profit conse*uences; either in absolute or relative terms; of one or more proposed marketing actions% 7ere the focus of testing 0ould be the acceptabilit( of the ne0l( developed product%
Te$tin-
)ar#etin- (a$ t"o o&Becti5e$: of sales and control
6rediction
Managerial
Test Marketing as a Managerial Control Tool 1% 8e could gain e'perience in ph(sicall( handling the productEEEshelf life; breakage; storage; shipping; and so on% 8e could identif( costl( mistakes and thereb( avoid them on a national basis
2he
cans of cherr( topping began e'ploding
2% 8e could learn the difficulties of gaining distribution; of producing a ne0 commercial; of making our price hold at retail; and so on% 2his e'perience 0ould be used later in our national rollout% Test Marketing as a Predicti$e Research Tool 2o find out the potential sales of a ne0 product; 0e select a test area; run the test for desired period of time and from the sales in the test area and other statistics 0hich ma( be made available; the prediction about the sales of the countr( as a 0hole -or entire market if it is different from the countr(. can be made b( the follo0ing t0o methods% ). %u ing Income Method In this method; the sales of the test productDbrand are e'panded b( the ratio of the test areaAs bu(ing income to the bu(ing income of the countr(% 2his formula is used
/ountr(As Sales &stimate K
2otal /ountr(As income 2est area income
2est area sales
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3. The Share!of!Market Method

In this method; sales of the test brand is 0orked out b( relating to sales of the product categor( including all brands as 0hole in the area 0here the ne0 brand is being tested% 2his formula is used)
Countr'D$ Eale$ E$ti)ate 6
Te$t area $ale$ o% t(e ne" &ran! Te$t area $ale$ o% t(e "(ole *ro!uct cate-or'
Countr'D$ $ale$ o% t(e "(ole *ro!uct cate-or'
Problems of Test Marketing Salespersons in the selected area are simulated be(ond normal activit(
Special introductor( offers and promotions are often made to the trade and to consumers because it is so important to get and maintain distribution during the test to measure repurchase activit(% 2heir offers are then not available at the scale of the test for a national rollout%
/ompetitors can attempt to destro( (our abilit( to make =udgments from a test b( increasing their efforts in (our test cities out of proportion 0ith their national efforts%
Measurements accurac( can (ield ambiguous data% 1uditing store sales can often give inaccurate data because of poor store records or incomplete kno0ledge of the storeAs billing and handling s(stems%
/ompetitors ma( use (our test market to learn of (our activities and monitor (our results%
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Lecture #44
"d$ertising Research 5ne of the ma=or applications of marketing research is in advertising and promotion% More than half of the big companies get some form of advertising research done% 3arious aspects of advertising; including media audiences and the effectiveness of message of advertisement become the sub=ects of marketing research% 2hese t0o areas namel( media and message are mainsta( of advertising research% Media Research Media research is an important topic 0ithin the area of marketing research% Selection of media for advertisement is one ma=or decision that the marketing manager has to take and advertising research ultimatel( helps the compan( to select media to use in the advertising plan% /hoices have to make bet0een various media t(pes e%g% television versus radio versus ne0spapers and so forthB and not onl( this but decision must be made about 0hich specific ne0spaper; or television channel or even program 0ithin the channel% In turn the selection of media 0ould depend on man( *uestions that the advertising research 0ould attempt to ans0er% 1s such media research 0ould probe these *uestions) Media >ehicle 'istribution, 7o0 man( numbers of television sets or radio set or maga<ines or ne0spapers that carr( the advertisement% Media "udience, 7o0 man( people 0atch 23; or listens to the radio programs or read the ne0spaper or maga<ines in 0hich ad has been inserted> 5bviousl( media audience is more than the distribution of media vehicles as onl( one person is not e'posed to one media vehicle% More than one person 0atches a television or reads a maga<ine% #&posure to "d$ertisement, 6eople ma( be e'posed to a medium but ma( not notice a specific advertisement% Marketing research tries to find out ho0 man( people 0ere actuall( e'posed and noticed the advertisement in the media% 2his number is definitel( less than media audience% "d$ertising Perception, 8ho; among those 0ho noticed the advertisement; correctl( perceived and comprehended the message of the advertisement in *uestion% Sales Response, 7o0 man( of the persons 0ho 0ere e'posed to; noticed and comprehended the ad properl(; purchased the product in response to the ad% Media >ehicle 'istribution Data on some media vehicle distribution are the most readil( available from different sources and are not disputed as to their accurac(% 1dvertisement research uses of these sources fre*uentl(B 9or e'ample
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:ureau of /irculation -1:/. for ne0spapers and maga<ines have their o0n reports%
4e0spapers Data
about the sales of radio and television sets from the markets% agencies surve(s about television users%
Government In
fact for the broadcast media the measurement of vehicle distribution is much less important as compared to the media audience% Media "udiences 2he media audience is the number of people actuall( e'posed to the vehicle at least once% Ne(spapers Readers 1 ne0spaper reader is one 0ho claims to have read at least apart of the ne0spaper in *uestion on a given da(% 4e0spapers themselves sometimes collect readersA data and the advertisers rel( on these data% Tele$isions >ie(ers In advertising research; the television vie0er ship can be found out b( the follo0ing methods% 'iar Meters Personal Inter$ie( Recall In the diar( method household vie0ers are re*uested b( the researcher to record the name of the sho0s that the( 0atched and mail the diar( back to the researcher% 2he researcher can break do0n the audience estimates b( age; se'; and geographical area from diaries% "udi meter 2his device is connected electronicall( to a computer and records 0hen the television is tuned to; if an(thing 0as being 0atched% 2o avoid selfEconsciousness; the meter is placed out of vie0% :ut it 0ould not indicate the number of people 0atching a given television set% 2he audimeter provides an ob=ective measure of televisions vie0er activit( 0ith no burdensome recordkeeping People meter 2his is the remed( of the audimeter as to its disadvantage of not indicating the number of people 0atching the television% 6eople meter allo0s each member of the famil( to ?log on@ and ?log off@ his or her television vie0ing time% Coincident telephone recalls method In method a sample of households is telephoned and asked 0hat sho0 is being 0atched at that time; if an(; and also asked to identif( the sponsor or product being advertised%
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Personal inter$ie( recall method 2his method involves intervie0ing a sample of respondents at homes shortl( after the program of interest; most probabl( the prime time of sho0s on the television% Radio "udience 4o formal or s(ndicated sources are available; and the advertising researcher ma( rel( on information collected b( the media itself% Cop Testing 2he term ?cop( testing@ is used to refer to test the effectiveness all aspects i%e% color; graphics; pictures; action; and so on; of ads% It involves e'posing an audience to the advertisement and observing their response 1 lot of time and effort is spent b( the advertisers on cop( testing% /op( testing is done at different stages of its development) as a 0ritten concept; a set of dra0ings; an animated version; or a finished advertisement% It ma( be tested before or after running on the media% 2hese are called 6retests and 6osttests% 9inal version test is ideal as this is 0hat people 0ill be reacting% "d Testing Procedures
/onsumer
Jur( Methods
6h(siological In*uir(
2ests 2ests
5nEtheEair 2railer Sales
2ests
2ests
Consumer Kur
In the consumer =ur( procedure; !0 to 100 consumers from the target audience are intervie0ed
either individuall( or in small groups%

Ph siological Methods Some devices are used b( the researcher to record the different ph(siological movements of the
vie0ers and some inferences are dra0n to be used in research%
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Such devices measure the ph(siological arousal that is normall( uncontrollable b( the respondent% Skin resistance; heart beat; facial e'pressions; muscle movement; and voice pitch are anal(<ed% Some of these devices are described as under% # e camera, 2his camera tracks the movement of the e(e as it 0atches an ad% 2his determine 0hich sectionDs caught and hold attention and la(out of the ad can accord be modified% In print ad it can be found out 0here the e(e focused more time in each second% 1n anal(sis can determine 0hat the reader sa0; 0hat he or she ?returned to@ for ree'amination; 0hat point 0as ?fi'ed on@ etc% 2al$anic skin response -2SR.) It measures response to skin b( attaching electrodes from a recording device to respondents; 0hen e'posed to ads% 2achistoscope is another ph(siologicall( related testing device 0hich measures the rate at 0hich an ad conve(s information or recognition% %rain!(a$e anal sis) In this anal(sis the audience is e'posed to the advertisement and attention; interest; or emotional reaction to the advertisement can be assessed through 0ave anal(sis% 2he higher the 0ave amplitude; the more the brain activit( is at that point in the advertisement% :rain 0ave anal(sis take place in a laborator( setting In1uir Tests In*uir( tests measure the effectiveness of an ad the on the basis of consumer in*uiries that result directl( from the ad placed mostl( in ne0spapers or maga<ines% It provides a direct measure of response 0ith no intervie0; reducing costs and artificial reactions due to the intervie0ing process% *n!the!"ir Tests It involve about intervie0ing more than 100 respondents 0ho ma( be contacted b( telephone in an( of big cities and 0ho claim that the( 0atched a particular television sho0 the night before% 2he( are asked 0hat the( remember about the specific ad% 8hat 0ere the sale points in the ad and 0hether the( had an( favorable attitude in to0ards the ad or not% 2his method is mostl( used in television cop( testing although does have some critics% Trailer Tests 2his method is mostl( used in the advanced countries like FS1% 2he respondents are chosen from the shopping malls and are taken to a trailer near the mall or even a room in the mall itself% 2here the( are sho0n several ads 0ith or 0ithout surrounding programming; and different *uestions are asked about the ads including the recall test% Sales Tests
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In standard advertising tracking; the respondents 0ith the target market profile are intervie0ed; personall( or b( telephone; to measure their levels of a0areness; attitudes about the ad and the brand; and recent purchases after 0atching being e'posed to the ad% Criteria /riteria of a good advertisement message are:
"d$ertisement
recognition
Cogicall(; recognition is a necessar( condition for effective advertising% If the advertisement cannot pass this minimal test it probabl( 0ill not be effective
Recall
of its contents
.o(
does it persuadeF
Impact
on purchase beha$ior i.e. purchase
7ocus group in ad$ertising Research 9ocusEgroup research is 0idel( used in the development of an advertising campaign% 9ocus groups are mainl( used to generate ideas for advertisements and to test reactions to rough e'ecutions% 5pinions about the advertisement concepts and actual advertisements are sought% 1udience impression 0ithin the group about 0hat the ad 0as 0hat ideas 0e presented; interest in the ideas; and so on% 2he goal is to detect potent misperceptions as 0ell% (ample Questions in Ad Research
/o 'ou re)e)&er $eein- t(i$ a! on T7F
Pes 4o 8hat did (ou see in it>
4ot sureEI ma( have
.o( much interested are ou in (hat this ad is tr ing to sho( ouF 3er( interested to some e'tent not interested
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Go" !oe$ it )a#e 'ou %eel a&out t(e *ro!uctF
ItAs a good product
ItAs 5k
ItAs bad
4ot sure
Please check (hether this commercial (as "ppealing /onfusing &ffective Cle$er /onvincing Interesting Dull Irritating
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Lecture #45
International Marketing Research Need for International Marketing Research 1s 0e kno0 that the international environment is getting more comple' da( b( da( and management of man( domestic firms lacks familiarit( 0ith the foreign markets; it becomes all the more important to undertake research prior to making international marketing decisions and making marketing strateg(%
2his is e*uall( important for decisions relating to initial market entr(; product positioning; marketing mi' or subse*uent e'pansion decisions% Research 0ill save us from costl( mistakes in marketing and loss of valuable opportunities in international markets% Comple&it of International Marketing Research 1lthough the marketing research follo0s the same steps at the international level that the domestic marketing research has; (et the international marketing research is more comple' than the market research in the domestic setting%
or t(e $a#e o% re5i$ion3 let u$ li$t t(e $i2 $te*$ %ollo"e! in t(e )ar#etin- re$earc( *roce$$.
Fnderstanding the management dilemma Defining research problem and developing research ob=ectives 9ormulating researching design /ollecting dataD9ield0ork 1nal(<ing data 8riting research report and oral presentation
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Comple&it of International Marketing Marketing on global scales poses problems that are inherentl( more comple' than those encountered in a firmAs domestic market%
5perations take place on a much broader scale and scope; often involving a range of different t(pes of activities and management s(stems including licensing; strategic alliances and =oint ventures. International marketing entails operation in a variet( of diverse environmental conte'ts% 2hese range from the mature industriali<ed markets of &urope; the FS and Japan; the unstable but blossoming markets of Catin 1merica; the politicall( uncertain markets of the Middle &ast or Russia; and the volatile markets of South &ast 1sia to the emerging 1frican markets% International markets are also characteri<ed b( rapid rates of change in the technological; economic; social and political forces that shape their development%
/hange is rapid and all pervasive; but as 0ell as unpredictable; altering the nature of opportunities and threats in international markets%
Research aids in assessing 0here the best opportunities lie; 0here and ho0 to enter ne0 markets 'i$ersit of International #n$ironment Diversit( occurs particularl( in relation to consumer tastes; preferences and behavior; and to a lesser e'tent; businessEtoEbusiness markets%
2he banking s(stem; the structure of distribution adds a further level of comple'it( to strateg( development and implementation% 2his; in turn; is further compounded b( government regulation of business operations; product formulation and packaging; advertising; promotion; pricing as 0ell as trade barriers such as tariffs; import *uotas; etc
Cevel of literac( also varies from countr( to countr(% 8hile levels of literac( in industriali<e countries are t(picall( ,,S; it is important to remember that is far from the case in other countries% Information Needs
8hich markets and target segments 0ill be entered> 8hich mode of entr( and operation should be adopted for specific target markets>
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7o0 marketing resources must be allocated bet0een different levels of marketing management
-productDproduct line level; customer level and market segmentD countr( market level.
7o0 to establish a control s(stem to monitor performance in the target market
Information 4eeds Information needs var( depending on the firmAs e'perience and degree of involvement in international markets% In the initial phase of entr( into international markets; information is needed to assess opportunities and risks in different countries% Issues in International Marketing Research /omple'it( of Research Design and Difficulties in &stablishing /omparabilit( and &*uivalence are t0o predominant issues in international marketing research% 2he relevant respondent ma( differ from count( to countr(%
&uropean countries; children pla( an important role in decisions related to the purchase of chocolate or cereals; in other countries 0hich are less child oriented; the mother ma( be the relevant decision maker% &*uall(; the role of 0omen is enhancing in financial and insurance decisions%
In 0ra& $ociet'3 t(i$ i$ rarel' t(e ca$e. Secondar( data such as data on motor vehicle registrations ma( not provide e*uivalent data bet0een man( countries Sur$e Methods d.2elephone Intervie0ing e.InE7ome 6ersonal Intervie0s f.Mall Intercept g.Mail Iuestionnaires h.&lectronic Surve(s Telephone Inter$ie(ing and C"TI 2elephone intervie0ing is the dominant mode of *uestionnaire administration%
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2elephone -land line. penetration is still not complete in rural areas% In developing countries; onl( a fe0 households have telephones% 2elephone incidence is lo0 in 1frica% India is a predominantl( rural societ( 0here the penetration of telephones is less than 10S of households in the villages.
8ith the decline of costs for international telephone calls; multi countr( studies can be conducted from a single location% 2his greatl( reduces the time and costs%
Cell *(one *enetration i$ (i-(
/omputerEassisted telephone intervie0ing -/12I. facilities are 0ell developed in the Fnited States and /anada and in some &uropean countries; such as German(% Mall Intercept In 4orth 1merica; man( marketing research organi<ations have permanent facilities in malls; e*uipped 0ith intervie0ing rooms; kitchens; observation areas; and other devices% Mailed -uestionnaires :ecause of lo0 cost; mail intervie0s continue to be used in most developed countries 0here literac( is high and the postal s(stem is 0ell developed%
In 1frica; 1sia; and South 1merica; ho0ever; the use of mail surve(s and mail panels is lo0 because of illiterac( and the large proportion of the population living in rural areas% #lectronic Sur$e s In the Fnited States and /anada; the use of eEmail and the internet is gro0ing b( leaps and bounds%
Fse of these methods for conducting surve( is gro0ing not onl( 0ith business and institutional respondents; but also 0ith households% -uestionnaire Translation
2he
*uestions ma( have to be translated for administration in different cultures% Direct translation; in 0hich a bilingual translator translates the *uestionnaire directl( from a base language to the respondentAs language; is fre*uentl( used
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such as back translation and parallel translation have been suggested to avoid these
errors% back translation; the *uestionnaire is translated from the base language b( a bilingual speaker 0hose native language is the language into 0hich the *uestionnaire is being translated% 2his version is then retranslated back into the original language%
In
2ranslation errors can then be identified%
1% 1n alternative procedure is parallel translation% 1 committee of translators translate the *uestionnaire simultaneousl( and the translations are compared to decide on the final version
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>ariable #conomic
Importance
Indicators
Measure of &conomic 8ealth;G46; G46 per capita; Macro level Indicator of 6opulation; Inflation; Market 6otential; etc% Fnemplo(ment Rate; Interest Rates; etc% Measure of 6olitical Stabilit( 2(pe of Govt; &'pert ratings of and 6olitical Risk; GovtAs political stabilit(; 1ttitude to0ards business; etc% Measure of legal risk; ImportE&'port la0s; 2ariffs; protectionism; marketing mi' 4onEtariff barriers; ta'es; strategies; etc% cop(right la0s; etc Measure of 7ighDCo0 Religion; language; literac(; /onte't /ultures; 1ttitude of values; 0ork ethics; role of people; Differences in famil(; gender roles lifest(les
Political
Legal
Socio!Cultural
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Infrastructural
Measure of technological &nerg( /osts; &'tent of advancement; available media computeri<ation; 4o% of and their relative influence 2elephones; 9a' Machines; 6resence of Mass media; etc%
Personnel International research needs a real commitment in terms of personnel resources; such as sampling e'perts; telephone intervie0ing e'perts; etc% and e'ecutives 0ith appropriate skills
International Marketing Research in Practice 2here are man( ma=or research agencies 0ith multinational operations that provide the benefit of coordinating the pro=ect from the home countr( and assuring the clients of comparabilit(% 2hese agencies also ensure that the( have local staff in all of these countries that are familiar 0ith the local culture and traditions and 0ill be in a position to provide better insight about the market% Iuotations from t0o or three international research organi<ations are obtained% 6rice is not necessaril( the deciding factor% 1 cheaper *uote ma( mean less rigorous procedures% Recap of the Course
4o0
0hen (ou have completed the course; (ou should be able to do the follo0ing tasks) Fnderstand the management dilemma and the decision making situation confronting the marketing manager% Discuss and finali<e the research problem% 8rite the marketing research ob=ectives% Revie0 the related literature and develop research *uestions and or research h(potheses; if an(%
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a research design% sample si<e and select the sample using an appropriate sampling method%
Determine Develop /ollect
the data collection instrument appropriate for (our research pro=ect
data and monitor the field 0ork% data using appropriate statistical techni*ues%
1nal(<e 8rite
a professional research report and give oral presentation if re*uired b( the managementDclient%
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%ibliograph 1aker; David 1 and Da(; George S -1,,0. Marketing Research Sons%
th
&d% 4e0 Pork; John 8ile( H
:eresnson; Mark C% -1,,#. 'asic 'usiness &tatistics #th &d% 6arentice 7all International :urns; 1lvin / and :ush; Ronald 9% -2001. Marketing Research 3rd &d% 4e0 Jerse( 6arenticE7all International Inc% /hurchil; Gilbert 1% :asic -1,,2. Marketing Research% 5ralando; the Dr(den 6ress Linnear; 2homas / and 2a(lor; James R% -1,,#.% Marketing Research% 1n 1pplied 1pproach !th &d% 4e0 Pork; McGra0 7ill Cevine; David M; Lrehbiel; timoth( / and :erensopn; Mark C% -2003. 'usiness &tatistics( ) *irst $ourse" 3rd &d; 6earson Malhotra; 4aresh L% -2007. Marketing Research) 1n applied orientation% 6earson &ducation 6eterson; Robert 1% -1,"". +ar,etin- Research 2nd &d% 2e'as :usiness 6ublications Inc% 8atson; /ollinB :illingsla(; 6atrickaud 7untsberger; David 3 -1,,3.% &tatstics for +ana-e!ent and Econo!ics !th &d% 1ll(n and :aron Uikmund; 8illiam G% -1,, . 'usiness Research +ethods%
th
&d% 2he Dr(den 6ress
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14531 and 6ost 7oc 1nal(sis