High-Desert Performance

Designing & Constructing Del Fierro

Story & photos by Edward Marue

el Fierro is a home designed from the ground up to be an upscale, energy-independent, passive solar residence. The intention was to create a structure capable of lasting centuries and one in which interior spaces can be periodically updated as technology, lifestyles, and trends change. The theory is that this would result in lower lifetime costs with less overall environmental impact than a similarly sized conventional home. Much of the project was experimental with an eye on future scaled-down versions for affordable housing projects.
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Thanks to reduced cooling loads, 5,440 watts of photovoltaic modules on dual-axis trackers can provide most of the Marues electrical energy needs.

Launching the Project

I tackled my first energy-efficiency project on my own 1980s-era home in 2000 by weatherizing; upgrading to more efficient appliances and a high-efficiency HVAC system; using CFL lighting; and applying energy consciousness. Although I reduced energy consumption by about 40%, I concluded that theres a limit to making an older home highly efficient. To get to the next level, I needed to start from scratch. This is particularly true in the postwar desert Southwest, where the housing techniques 2-by-4 stick-frame construction, with minimal or no wall insulationreflected a time when energy was relatively cheap. After studying passive solar design, construction techniques, and materials, I was frustrated to find that little was written about the topic specific to desert climates. Most passive solar technology focuses on heating and retaining heat. While the physics of heat conduction and convection apply similarly to cooling and heating, the effects of the suns radiation play a significantly more important role in cooling design. In the summer in the desert Southwest, exposed surfaces can frequently reach temperatures in excess of 150F, so keeping out the heat is more important than in other climes.

The Del Fierro home in the high desert of Tucson, Arizona, combines design features that maximize passive cooling and reduce mechanical heating and cooling requirements. homepower.com

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What is Lava Concrete?

Developed by Paul Schwam, a local architect/builder, lava concrete (LC) is a made from a porous, lightweight volcanic aggregate called scoria, which is mixed to form a self-supporting semi-fluid. When cured, it becomes a lightweight stone. Scorias porosity holds pockets of water to help cure the cement. Once the water has evaporated, tiny air cavities remain to provide sound and thermal insulation. LC is used for foundations, floors, walls, and roofs. It provides the structure, insulation, thermal mass, and the finishall in a single and seamless, raw-to-finish process. Because LC starts as an easily workable semifluid, any shape or detail can be added to architectural elementsplanes and curves; textures and details; and accessories, such as fireplaces, furniture, moldings, drip edges, window/door trim, niches, and artwork. Builders can integrate details such as ledgers, beam pockets, utility raceways, and block-outs eliminating material and labor steps along the way. LC helps optimize the sequence of construction. Electrical, plumbing, and other utilities install first into empty forms. The structural wall is cast as the final step. The permanence of the concrete and stone structure will remain fresh, even with periodic future upgrades to utilities, internal layout, and furnishings. The lava concrete mix is pretty dry, and needs minimal hand work. The thermal mass and trapped air space of lava concrete lends itself to tempering the thermal swings of a desert climate.

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Right: Because lava concrete starts as an easily workable semifluid, any shape or detail can be added to architectural elements. Below right and lower right: Scaffolding is set up to accommodate pumping lava concrete in lifts.

After site preparation and installation of subgrade utilities and footings, rebar and forming went directly on top of the concrete foundations. Forms were constructed from treated 4-by-8 plywood with cut-outs for window and door openings. Once utility raceways were installed, pouring was done by three people: one operated the delivery chute; another tended to the formed details, lightly compacting the LC to assure no voids; and the third monitored the mixing machine and conveyors. The mixing machine was key to the process and specifically designed to combine the cinder sand (scoria) and Portland cement with injected water to form a relatively dry mix. Conveyors delivered the LC to the forms, where it was poured 2 to 8 feet high in lifts. A 24-foot-tall wall may require three to 12 pours. The lava sand used was a deep red color, from Flagstaff, Arizona. Blended with about 20% Portland cement, the poured fill cures similarly to regular concrete. Sandblasting the surface restored much of the natural volcanic color that was grayed by the cement. Once sealed (water-based Okon was used for Del Fierro), the exterior requires no additional maintenance. One of the advancements developed during our project was a post/ anchor bolt system, which eliminated the need for precast anchors, and greatly simplified the hand-off to other trades. It allowed operations, such as attaching ledgers, to be done simply by pre-drilling and insertion of large bolts. During construction, tests were performed on the strength of the attachment system, under the supervision of structural engineers to comply with the local building department. Windows and doors were installed in the blanked-out openings and secured with polyurethane foam and an LC-based grout. Due to the complexity and volumetric size of this house, the cost per square foot for the basic shell was about $85. For modest-scale projects, LC can be constructed more cost-competitively. homepower.com

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Another passive cooling techniquedeep (8- to 12-foot) overhangshelp shade south- and west-facing walls and windows in the warmer months. Helping overall building efficiency, the roof includes a 2-inch, R-14 sprayed-on layer of urethane foam over a double layer of OSB over I-joists and trusses filled with loose-fill fiberglass insulation, for a value of R-45 to R-60. A white polymer reflective paint was sprayed over the urethane. Pella InsulShield triple-pane, argon-filled, low-e windows and doors retard heat transfer.
The cooling tower uses evaporative phase-change and reverse-chimney convection to draw cool air into the house.

For keeping a home cool, it is critical to reduce its exposure to the sun, keeping the surface temperature of the shell as low as possible. This reduces thermal conduction through the envelope and minimizes charging of thermal mass. This can be accomplished by shading with overhangs, vegetation, the use of reflective coatings, light colors, and radiant barriers. Compromises for cooling over heating are made, since saving energy on cooling was the deciding objective. Tucson has almost twice as many cooling degree days (the number of days where mechanical cooling is needed) as heating degree days (2,954 vs. 1,678). Compare this to Ann Arbor, Michigan, which has 7,864 heating degree days and 289 cooling degree days, and youll see the drastic differences in passive design requirements.

PV Tech Specs
Overview
System type: Batteryless, grid-tied solar-electric Location: Tucson, Arizona Solar resource: 9 average daily peak sun-hours (for dual-axis tracking system) Record low temperature: 6F Average high temperature: 100F Average monthly production: 1,104 AC kWh Utility electricity offset annually: 87%

An Inherently Cool Design

Readily available earthen-based building materials, such as adobe and rammed earth, have been used in the Southwest throughout history. Modern performance-driven designs fully benefit from their inherently high thermal mass, fire resistance, and durability. I originally intended to use rammed earth, which involves compressing a mixture of earth, chalk, lime, and gravel (and sometimes a cement stabilizer). But at 3,450 square feet, costs for rammed earth were prohibitive due to the volume and complexity of the house, with its high ceilings, parapets, and intricate architecture. A member of my design team introduced me to lava concrete (LC), a lightweight cast-in-place concrete made from volcanic cinder sand, very abundant in Arizona and other parts of the world. The construction is similar to casting rammed earth, but much less labor-intensive. Once cured, the steel-reinforced structure is strong and considerably more durable than rammed earth or other earthen building systems. With an R-value of 3.27 per inch, our 18-inchthick walls would be nearly R-59. The LC also provides thermal mass and soundproofing. The inside was finished with a natural clay plaster from American Clay, which also contributes to the homes thermal mass. A cooling tower provides evaporative cooling and muchneeded humidity in the dry months of March through June. A mister injects moisture at the top of the tower, wherein the cooler, dense air falls by gravity, displacing warmer household air out through open windows at each end of the house, and a small electric fan augments the airflow. The cooling tower also works at night when the outside ambient air temperature is cooler than the displaced inside ambient room air.

Photovoltaic System Components

Modules: 32 BP SX170B, 170 W STC, 35.4 Vmp, 4.8 Imp, 44.2 Voc, 5.0 Isc Array: Four eight-module series strings, 5,440 W STC total, 283.2 Vmp, 19.2 Imp, 353.6 Voc, 20.0 Isc Array combiner box: Square D HU361RB Array installation: Array Technologies AZ-225 Wattsun dualaxis trackers on pole mounts Inverters: Two Xantrex GT 3.0, 3 kW rated output 600 VDC maximum input, 195-550 VDC MPPT operating range, 240 VAC output

System Cost
Initial cost: $45,064 Less incentives: $16,320 TEP utility rebate Final installed cost: $28,744

Major Load Information

Space heating: Electric forced-air heat pump Cooling: Electric forced-air heat pump; evaporative cooling tower (electric fan) Water heating: Solar hot water system, with propane backup Cooking: Electric Clothes drying: Electric Refrigeration: Electric

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Mechanical Systems
All appliances (range, oven, microwave, dishwasher, refrigerators, washer, and dryer) are Energy Star-rated, and CFL and LED lighting is used throughout. Two 40-gallon batch solar water heaters are backed up with two Bosch 2400E LP on-demand propane-fired units. The SHW system can either feed the backup unit or send the solar-heated water directly to the house. We have it route through the backup units, which are temperature-modulated. When needed, mechanical cooling and heating is provided by three high-efficiency (16 SEER-rated) fresh or recirculated air-source heat pumps, 2-, 4- and 5-ton units, respectively. A grid-tied 5.44 kW, dual-axis, tracked PV array provides most of the homes electricity. (The array size was based on the most PV modules I could get on a pair of Wattsun AZ-225 trackers.) PVWatts calculates that our system should generate 13,253 kWh annually. Since PV module prices have dropped, I plan on adding a ground-mounted PV system to cover the propertys entire electricity requirements, including the guest house and shop. For the first year of data gathered, ending in July 2010, our usage exceeded our original energy budget. During that
Two identical PV systems, each using a 3 kW Xantrex grid-tied inverter, combine at the main AC service entrance.

The meters here are, left to right, an auxiliary circuit used during construction and testing, the utility main meter for net metering, and the solar production meter for the utility.

Del Fierro Batteryless Grid-Tied PV System

PV Mounting: Two Array Technologies AZ-225 Wattsun dual-axis trackers

Ground

Combiner Boxes/ DC Disconnects: Single-pole, single-throw switch

Two PV Arrays: Each with two series strings of eight modules, BP SX170B, 170 W each, wired for 5,440 W total at 283 Vmp

Ground Lightning Arrestors: Two, LA302 MOVs

To/From Utility

Inverter 1: Xantrex GT 3.0, 600 VDC max input, 3 kW at 240 VAC output
G H1 H2

Note: All numbers are rated, manufacturers specifications, or nominal unless otherwise specified. Production Meter (Array 1)
100 KWH

kWh Meter: Utility AC Service Entrance: To 120/240 VAC loads

100 KWH

AC Disconnect (Array 1)

20A

Inverter 2: Xantrex GT 3.0, 600 VDC max input, 3 kW at 240 VAC output
G H1 H2

20A

Production Meter (Array 2)

100 KWH

AC Disconnect (Array 2)

Ground

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Above left: At first glance, this collector looks like a typical flat-plate unit. However, this is a batch-type collectora progressivetube, integrated storage/collector. Two (only one shown) each hold 40 gallons of water, eliminating the need for a separate storage tank. (Note: These are only used in nonfreezing climates.) Above right: The system has only a few simple components beyond the collectorsan expansion tank and backup tankless heater.

Del Fierro SHW System

Vacuum Breaker Solar Collector / Storage: Thermal Conversion Technology, PT 40 CN, 4 x 8 ft., 40 gal.

period, thermostats were set for 80F in summer and 68F in winter. The HVAC system measured 2,382 kWh over what was anticipated. To evaluate the buildings thermal performance, thermocouples were embedded in eight strategic locations one inch from the inner and outer surfaces of the exterior walls. Data was recorded on a computer every 15 minutes over a period of a year. This was helpful in understanding where heat transfer was significant so adjustments could be made. One zone with south and west exposure consumed power disproportionately29% of the HVAC power used for 11% of the building floor space. Planting shade trees on

BOSCH

T&P Release Valve

Backup Heater: Bosch, 2400E-LP, 170,000 Btu, propane-fired, on-demand (tankless)

SHW Tech Specs

T&P Release Valve

Overview
System type: Integrated storage tank system, 80 gal. total capacity Solar resource: 6.5 average daily peak sun-hours

Drain Valve

Drain Valve

Drain Valve

Drain Valve

Production: Unknown Percentage of hot water produced annually: 95% (estimated)

Hot to House Cold Supply In

ThreeWay Valve Tempering Valve

Three-Way Valve (Solar bypass)

Equipment
Collectors: Two Thermal Conversion Technology PT 40 CN, 40 gal. Collector installation: Roof-mounted; south-facing; 34 tilt Backup DWH: Two Bosch 2400E-LP, propane-fired, tankless

Expansion Tank

Note: Only one complete system shown

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Energy Production & Use

3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0

Energy (kWh)

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HVAC Usage

Other Usage

PV Production

Jan.

Deep roof overhangs provide ample shade for outdoor spaces.

PV production was improved by fixing a tracker problem and replacing several defective PV modules. Three module failures affected three strings of modules. With two identical systems, its easy to spot a problem. Trees were removed that had grown and shaded one of the arrays during the lateafternoon hours. We also cleaned the surface of the modules more frequently, resulting in improving PV production from 12,317 kWh annually to 13,307 kWh. The SHW systems consist of two 40-gallon ICS batch units at each end of the house, backed up by Bosch propane on-demand units. The systems performance can be measured by the backup fuel that hasnt been used. The 300-gallon underground propane tank was filled to 80% of capacity at move-in. It has never been refilled, and Additional thermal mass in the concrete floors and earthen clay wall finish helps today its just under 60% full. That means mitigate temperature swings in interior spaces. about 60 gallons of LPG was used in 32 months (or 1.9 gallons per month). This consumption also includes a frequently used gas grill, which I suspect accounts for most of the gas usage. This put us within 2% of our objective of meeting 90% of our energy needs without any compromise in lifestyle. We could squeeze out the last bit by managing computer systems, entertainment systems, and the phantom loads. those sides of the house largely corrected this problem. It was also found that the default settings on the heat pumps caused the variable-speed fan motors to operate all the time, which was unnecessary for comfort. Filters were changed more frequently and a fan was added to the cooling tower, and used in the spring and early summer months, providing needed humidity. Implementing these strategies reduced the zone to 19%. About a cord of wood was burned in the fireplace during the coldest months, reducing the nighttime heating load. These changes had no effect on lifestyle and helped keep us under the winter HVAC budget by about 4%.

Access
A UCLA physics graduate, Edward A. Marue designs off-grid power systems for remote communications and border security sites. He is also a principal in Solar Lava Development Company, specializing in advanced green design and construction.

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