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Moulding Processes
Casting:
Sand
Sand casting is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass,
Aluminium). Molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand (natural or
synthetic).
Patterns
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The molten material is poured in the pouring cup, which is part of the gating system
that supplies the molten material to the mold cavity. The vertical part of the gating
system connected to the pouring cup is the sprue, and the horizontal portion is called
the runners and finally to the multiple points where it is introduced to the mold cavity
called the gates. Additionally there are extensions to the gating system called vents
that provide the path for the built up gases and the displaced air to vent to the
atmosphere.
The cavity is usually made oversize to allow for the metal contraction as it cools
down to room temperature. This is achieved by making the pattern oversize. To
account for shrinking, the pattern must be made oversize by these factors, on the
average. These are linear factors and apply in each direction. These shrinkage
allowance are only approximate, because the exact allowance is determined the
shape and size of the casting. In addition, different parts of the casting might require
a different shrinkage allowance.
Sand castings generally have a rough surface sometimes with surface impurities, and
surface variations. A machining (finish) allowance is made for this type of defect.
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2.3
Copper alloys 1.05 - 1.06 0.5 to 1.0 %
(0.094)
Gray Cast 3.0
1.10 0.4 to 1.6 %
Iron (0.125)
Nickel alloys 1.05 0.5 to 1.0 % N/A
Steel 1.05 - 1.10 0.5 to 2 % 5 (0.20)
Magnesium 4.0
1.07 - 1.10 0.5 to 1.0 %
alloys (0.157)
Malleable 3.0
1.06 - 1.19 0.6 to 1.6 %
Irons (0.125)
Design considerations
• When two or more uniform sections intersect, they create a region of heavy
cross-section, resulting in the problems mentioned above.
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Die
Die-casting is similar to permanent mold casting except that the metal is injected
into the mold under high pressure of 10-210Mpa. This results in a more uniform part,
generally good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy. For many parts, post-
machining can be totally eliminated, or very light machining may be required to bring
dimensions to size.
• In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber
for each shot. There is less time exposure of the melt to the plunger walls or
the plunger. This is particularly useful for metals such as Aluminium, and
Copper (and its alloys) that alloy easily with Iron at the higher temperatures.
• In a hot chamber process the pressure chamber is connected to the die cavity
is immersed permanently in the molten metal. The inlet port of the
pressurizing cylinder is uncovered as the plunger moves to the open
(unpressurized) position. This allows a new charge of molten metal to fill the
cavity and thus can fill the cavity faster than the cold chamber process. The
hot chamber process is used for metals of low melting point and high fluidity
such as tin, zinc, and lead that tend not to alloy easily with steel at their melt
temperatures
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Die casting molds which are called dies in the industry) tend to be expensive as
they are made from hardened steel-also the cycle time for building these tend to
be long. Also the stronger and harder metals such as iron and steel cannot be die-
cast
Aluminium, Zinc and Copper alloys are the materials predominantly used in die-
casting. On the other hand, pure Aluminium is rarely cast due to high shrinkage, and
susceptibility to hot cracking. It is alloyed with Silicon, which increases melt fluidity,
reduces machinability. Copper is another alloying element, which increases hardness,
reduces ductility, and reduces corrosion resistance. Aluminium is cast at a
temperature of 650 ºC (1200 ºF). It is alloyed with Silicon 9% and Copper about 3.5%
to form the Aluminium Association 380 alloy (UNS A03800). Silicon increases the melt
fluidity, reduces machinability, Copper increases hardness and reduces the ductility.
By greatly reducing the amount of Copper (less than 0.6%) the chemical resistance is
improved; thus, AA 360 (UNS A03600) is formulated for use in marine environments.
A high silicon alloy is used in automotive engines for cylinder castings, AA 390 (UNS
A03900) with 17% Silicon for high wear resistance. Common aluminium alloys for die
casting are summarized as follows:
Tensile Strength
Material Silicon Copper Properties
MPa (ksi)
AA 380 324
8.5 % 3.5 % Fair easy to fill
(UNS A03800) (47)
AA 384 331
11 % 4% Easy to fill
(UNS A03840) (48)
AA 386 317
9.5 % 0.6 % Good corrosion resistance
(UNS A03860) (46)
AA 390 283
17 % 4.5 % Good wear resistance
(UNS A03900) (41)
Zinc can be made to close tolerances and with thinner walls than Aluminium, due to
its high melt fluidity. Zinc is alloyed with Aluminium (4%), which adds strength and
hardness. The casting is done at a fairly low temperature of 425 ºC (800 ºF) so the
part does not have to cool much before it can be ejected from the die. This, in
combination with the fact that Zinc can be run using a hot chamber process allows
for a fast fill, fast cooling (and ejection) and a short cycle time. Zinc alloys are used in
making precision parts such as sprockets, gears, and connector housings.
Copper alloys are used in plumbing, electrical and marine applications where
corrosion and wear resistance is important.
Minimum wall thicknesses and minimum draft angles for die casting are
Min. Thickness
Material Min. Draft Angle (º)
mm (in)
0.9 mm
Aluminium alloys 0.5
(0.035 in)
0.6 mm
Zinc alloys 0.25
(0.025 in)
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1.25 mm
Copper alloys (Brass) 0.7
(0.050 in)
Die-castings are typically limited from 20 kg (55 lb) max. for Magnesium, to 35 kg (77
lb) max. For Zinc. Large castings tend to have greater porosity problems, due to
entrapped air, and the melt solidifying before it gets to the furthest extremities of the
die-cast cavity. The porosity problem can be somewhat overcome by vacuum die
casting
From a design point of view, it is best to design parts with uniform wall thicknesses
and cores of simple shapes. Heavy sections cause cooling problems, trapped gases
causing porosity. All corners should be radiused generously to avoid stress
concentration. Draft allowance should be provided to all for releasing the parts-these
are typically 0.25º to 0.75º per side depending on the material.
Investment
Investment casting, also called lost-wax casting, is one of the oldest known metal-
forming techniques. From 5,000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to
today’s high-technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys.
The process is generally used for small castings, but has produced complete aircraft
door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminum castings of up to 30 kg. It
is generally more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but can produce
complicated shapes that require little rework or machining.
Continuous Casting
In continuous casting, the molten steel from the steelmaking operation or ladle
metallurgy step is cast directly into semi finished shapes (slabs, blooms, and billets).
Continuous casting represents a tremendous savings in time, labour, energy, and
capital. By casting the steel directly into semi finished shapes, the following steps are
eliminated: ingot teeming, stripping, and transfer; soaking pits; and primary rolling.
Continuous casting also increases yield and product quality.
Thin slab casting is the centrepiece of a new technology that could revolutionize the
competitive structure of steelmaking both in the U.S. and worldwide by making flat
rolling accessible to minimills. Unlike conventional casting that produces a slab with
up to a 10" section; thin slab casters produce a slab from 2"-3.5" thick that is
integrated with a strip mill. The technology eliminates the large roughing mills
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required to work the thick slabs, and integrates slab production and sheet and strip
rolling, greatly reducing reheating requirements.
The main components of a continuous casting system are shown in the figure. Liquid
metal is poured from the ladle into a reservoir and the casting is bent from a vertical
to a horizontal plane in straightening rolls and finally cut into the appropriate lengths
for secondary rolling.
Electromagnetic Stirring
Gas Cutting
Shaping Processes
Extrusion:
Extrusion is the process by which long straight metal parts can be produced. The
cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round, rectangular, to L shapes,
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T shapes. Tubes and many other different types. Extrusion is done by squeezing
metal in a closed cavity through a tool, known as a die using either a mechanical or
hydraulic press.
Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of the
same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts. Surface finish for
steel is 3 µm; (125 µ in), and Aluminium and Magnesium is 0.8 µm (30 µ in).
However, this process can produce a wide variety of cross-sections that are hard to
produce cost-effectively using other methods. Minimum thickness of steel is about 3
mm (0.120 in), whereas Aluminium and Magnesium is about 1mm (0.040 in).
Minimum cross sections are 250 mm2 (0.4 in2) for steel and less than that for
Aluminium and Magnesium. Minimum corner and fillet radii are 0.4 mm (0.015 in) for
Aluminium and Magnesium, and for steel, the minimum corner radius is 0.8mm
(0.030 in) and 4 mm (0.120 in) fillet radius.
Cold Extrusion:
Hot Extrusion:
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Indirect
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Indirect Extrusion is where the die is pushed into the material causing it to escape in
the shape of the die as shown above.
Impact
Below are some products that are produced from impact extrusion.
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Forging:
Products made using forging could be mainly gears and bearings as shown below
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I have also found that forging is used in Korea to make swords for use in martial arts
and bamboo cutting made of either SKS11 or SKS7 Japanese steel.
With correct treatment and working the swords achieve amazing physical properties
such as flexibility and strength enough to pierce a steel chair.
Figure 3.4 – Korean Sword Maker during Forging Process & Finished
Product
Description
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Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation
by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form
of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press.
Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal.
With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal
stresses encountered in actual use. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility
and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has,
crystals randomly oriented.
Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids,
inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing
operations such as machining do not expose Figure 3.5 – Forging Progression Chart
voids, because there aren't any. Also coating
operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good surface,
which needs very little preparation.
Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often used in the
design of aircraft frame members.
Open Die Forgings / Hand Forgings: Open die forgings or hand forgings are made
with repeated blows in an open die, where the operator manipulates the work piece
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in the die. The finished product is a rough approximation of the die. This is what a
traditional blacksmith does, and is an old manufacturing process.
Tolerances:
• Dimension tolerances are usually positive and are approximately 0.3 % of the
dimension, rounded off to the next higher 0.5 mm (0.020 in).
• Die wear tolerances are lateral tolerances (parallel to the parting plane) and
are roughly +0.2 % for Copper alloys to +0.5 % for Aluminium and Steel.
• Die closure tolerances are in the direction of opening and closing, and range
from 1 mm (0.040 inch) for small forgings, die projection area < 150 cm2 (23
in2), to 6.25 mm (0.25 inch) for large forgings, die projection area > 6500 cm2
(100 in2).
• Die match tolerances are to allow for shift in the upper die with respect to the
lower die. This is weight based and is shown in the following table.
Press Forgings: Press forging use a slow squeezing action of a press, to transfer a
great amount of compressive force to the work piece. Unlike an open-die forging
where multiple blows transfer the compressive energy to the outside of the product,
press forging transfers the force uniformly to the bulk of the material. This results in
uniform material properties and is necessary for large weight forgings. Parts made
with this process can be quite large as much as 125 kg (260 lb) and 3m (10 feet)
long.
Roll Forgings: In roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between die rollers
which reduces the cross-section and increases the length to form parts such as axles,
leaf springs etc. This is essentially a form of draw forging.
Rolling:
Forming:
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Bending:
Deep Drawing
Metal Spinning
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The basic hand metal spinning tool is called a Spoon, though many other tools can be
used to effect varied results. Spinning tools can be made of hardened
steel for using with aluminum or solid brass for
spinning stainless steel/mild steel.
Figure 4.3 – Brass Vase from Metal
Mandrels Spinning
The mandrel/chuck can be made from wood, steel alloys, or synthetic materials. The
choice of material is dictated by the hardness of the material to be spun and by how
many times the tool is expected to be used.
Cut-off tools
Cutting of the metal is done by hand held cutters, often foot long hollow bars with
tool steel shaped/sharpened files attached. This is dangerous and should only be
done by skilled tradesmen.
In CNC applications, traditional carbide or tool steel cut-off tools are used.
Rotating tools
Some metal spinning tools are allowed to spin on bearings during the forming
process. This reduces friction and heating of the tool, extending tool life and
improving surface finish. Rotating tools may also be coated with thin film of ceramic
to prolong tool life. Rotating tools are commonly used during CNC metal spinning
operations.
Commercially, rollers mounted on the end of levers are generally used to form the
material down to the mandrel in both hand spinning and CNC metal spinning. Rollers
vary in diameter and thickness depending the intended use. The wider the roller the
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smoother the surface of the spinning; the thinner rollers can be used to form smaller
radii.
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Composites:
In general, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted and
processed to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is
essentially set, although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a
thermoset polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is
initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an
organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is
a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium
foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the melt
point.
For many molding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mold piece as a "lower"
mold and another mold piece as an "upper" mold. Lower and upper refer to the
different faces of the molded panel, not the mold's configuration in space. In this
convention, there is always a lower mold, and sometimes an upper mold. Part
construction begins by applying materials to the lower mold. Lower mold and upper
mold are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such
as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc.
Continuous manufacturing processes use a different nomenclature.
The molded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and
material combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous
processes, it can be referred to as a profile.
Open molding
A process using a rigid, one sided mold which shapes only one surface of the panel.
The opposite surface is determined by the amount of material placed upon the lower
mold. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically. They include
continuous fiber forms fashioned into textile constructions and chopped fiber. The
matrix is generally a resin, and can be applied with a pressure roller, a spray device
or manually. This process is generally done at ambient temperature and atmospheric
pressure. Two variations of open molding are Hand Layup and Spray-up.
A process using a two-sided mold set that shapes both surfaces of the panel. On the
lower side is a rigid mold and on the upper side is a flexible membrane or vacuum
bag. The flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded
polymer film. Then, vacuum is applied to the mold cavity. This process can be
performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric
pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. Most economical way is using a venturi
vacuum and air compressor or a vacuum pump.
This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds.
A solid female mold is used along with a flexible male mold. The reinforcement is
place inside the female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in
place. A measured amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the
mold and the mold is then clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible
mold. The flexible male membrane is then inflated with heated compressed air or
possibly steam. The female mold can also be heated. Excess resin is forced out along
with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the production of composite
helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor. Cycle times for a helmet bag
molding machine vary form 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no
further curing if the molds are heated.
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Autoclave molding
A process using a two-sided mold set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the
lower side is a rigid mold and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from
silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be
placed manually or robotically. They include continuous fiber forms fashioned into
textile constructions. Most often, they are pre-impregnated with the resin in the form
of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some instances, a resin film is placed
upon the lower mold and dry reinforcement is placed above. The upper mold is
installed and vacuum is applied to the mold cavity. The assembly is placed into an
autoclave pressure vessel. This process is generally performed at both elevated
pressure and elevated temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high
fiber volume fraction and low void content for maximum structural efficiency.
A process using a two-sided mold set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The
lower side is a rigid mold. The upper side can be a rigid or flexible mold. Flexible
molds can be made from composite materials, silicone or extruded polymer films
such as nylon. The two sides fit together to produce a mold cavity. The distinguishing
feature of resin transfer molding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into
this cavity and the mold set is closed prior to the introduction of matrix material.
Resin transfer molding includes numerous varieties which differ in the mechanics of
how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mold cavity. These variations
include everything from vacuum infusion (see also resin infusion) to vacuum assisted
resin transfer molding. This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated
temperature.
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Bibliography
Extrusion - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion#Food
Impact Extrusion Products - www.impactintl.com.au
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