Parts of the speech

Traditional grammar usually describes form in terms of the eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, particles, prepositions, and articles. This is a useful starting point. Likewise, traditional grammar identifies six functions that words may perform in sentences: subject, predicate, object, complement, modifier, and function word. The words that have the broadest range of function are nouns and verbs. Form and function usually are the same for adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, particles, and prepositions.

ouns
!ubjects and predicates are related to nouns and verbs. Traditional grammar defines a noun as a person, place, or thing. "owever, this definition is not the best because it isn#t sufficiently inclusive. The word Monday, for example, is a noun, but it is not a thing, nor is freedom or any number of other words. For this reason, it is tempting to define a noun in terms of function: A noun is any word that can function as a subject. $lthough this definition is better than the traditional one, it is not completely accurate. $ word like running can function as a subject, and when it does it has the characteristics of a noun, but some people argue that the underlying nature of the word%its form as a verb%doesn#t change. To better describe the complexity and nuances of this situation, linguists call words like &running' nominals. This term can be applied to any word that has a classification other than noun that can be made to function as a noun. (f the situation seems complicated, it is. (n fact, defining the term noun is such a problem that many grammar books do not even try to do it. $ccepting the idea that the concept of noun is fairly abstract, however, can point us in the right direction, toward a reasonably acceptable definition. $lso, wewant a definition that students can easily grasp. From this perspective, nouns are the labels we use to name the world and our experiences in it . $s suggested earlier, nouns function as the head words for noun phrases. Thus, even complex noun phrases are dominated by the single noun that serves as head word. There are three major types of nouns. Common nouns, as the name suggests, are the largest variety. )ommon nouns signify a general class of words used in naming and include such words as those in the following list:
Typical )ommon ouns car baby elephant speaker picture ring shoe disk book politician telephone banana computer pad star movie jacket flower

Proper nouns, on the other hand, are specific names, such as *r. !pock, the +mpire !tate ,uilding, Ford +scort, and the )hicago ,ulls. *ass nouns are a special category of common nouns. -hat makes them distinct is that, unlike simple common nouns, they cannot be counted. ,elow is a short list of mass nouns:
deer research furniture air meat wisdom mud knowledge butter

.ronouns
+nglish, like other languages, resists the duplication of nouns in sentences, so it replaces duplicated nouns with what are called pronouns. / o one is sure why languages resist such duplication.0 The nouns that get replaced are called antecedents. )onsider sentence 1:
1. Fred liked *acarena, so Fred took *acarena to a movie.

The duplication of the proper nouns red and Macarena just does not sound right to most people because +nglish generally does not allow it. The duplicated nouns are replaced, as in sentence 1a:
1a. Fred liked *acarena, so he took her to a movie.

otice that sentence 1b also is acceptable:

1b. "e liked her, so Fred took *acarena to a movie.

(n this instance, however, sentence 1b is not 2uite as appropriate as 1a because the sentence lacks a context. 3eal sentences, as opposed to those that appear in books like this one, are part of a context that includes the complexities of human relationships4 prior knowledge related to past, present, and future events4 and, of course, prior conversations. The pronouns in sentence 1b suggest that red and Macarena already have been identified or are known. This suggestion is contrary to fact. (n sentence 1a, on the other hand, red and Macarena appear in the first part of the sentence, so the pronouns are linked to these antecedents without any doubt or confusion about which nouns the pronouns have replaced. $t work is an important principle for pronouns: !hey should appear as close to their antecedents as possible to avoid potential confusion.
Personal Pronouns

.ronouns that replace a duplicated noun are referred to as personal or common pronouns. The common pronouns are: "ingular: (, me, you, he, him, she, her, it Plural: we, us, you, they, them (n addition, there are several other types of pronouns: demonstrative, reciprocal, possessive, indefinite, reflexive, and relative. .ossessive and relative pronouns are examined in detail later in the book, with special attention paid to relatives because they are part of an interesting construction called a relative clause.
Reciprocal Pronouns

+nglish has two reciprocal pronouns%each other and one another%which are used to refer to the individual parts of a plural noun. )onsider sentences 56 and 57: 56. The friends gave gifts to each other. 57. The dogs looked at one another. #ach other and one another do not mean the same thing4 thus, they are not interchangeable. #ach other signifies two people or things, whereas one another

signifies more than two. !entence 56 refers to two friends4 sentence 57 refers to more than two dogs.
Possessive Pronouns

.ossessive pronouns indicate possession, as in sentences 51 and 58: 51. My son loves baseball. 58. The books are mine. The possessive pronouns are: !ingular: my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its .lural: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs
Indefinite Pronouns

(ndefinite pronouns have general rather than specific antecedents, which means that they refer to general entities or concepts, as in sentence 59: 59. #veryone was late. The indefinite pronoun everyone does not refer to any specific individual but rather to the entire group, which gives it its indefinite status.
(ndefinite .ronouns in +nglish all anything both everybody either many no one several something any anyone each every few neither none some anybody another every everything fewer nobody one somebody

Relative Pronouns

dependent clauses begin withwords that link them to independent clauses. $n interesting and important type of dependent clause begins with a relative pronoun and therefore is called a relative clause. )onsider these sentences: :6. Frit; knew a woman who had red hair. :7. The woman whom rit$ li%ed had red hair. :1. The book that rit$ borrowed was a first edition. (n these sentences, who, whom, and that are relative pronouns. These and others are shown in the following list:
*ajor 3elative .ronouns in +nglish who whom that which whose where when why

<erbs
&erbs are the words we use to signify an action or a state of being. They make up the head of the predicate /they are the head word of the predicate0 and are interesting in large part because they convey so much information in sentences. For example, actions can occur in the past, present, or future, and verbs commonly change in relation to the time an action occurred.

-e call this feature tense. $lthough three tenses are possible, #nglish has only two: past and present. The future has to be conveyed in a way that does not involve changing the verb. !ometimes, we use thewords will or shall to indicate the future, as in'e will eat soon, but +nglish is flexible and allows us to signify the future in otherways.-e can, for example, use the present to indicate the future, as in'e eat soon. (n fact, +nglish is so flexible that sometimes we also can signify the past by using the present, as in: "o last night he as%s me for money. Can you believe it( 3omance languages like !panish have three tenses, whereas other languages, such as "opi, have only one or no tense at all. =ifferences in verb tense across languages played an important role in the shift from traditional grammar to modern grammar in the early 5>??s /a topic that we take up in the next chapter0. )omparing +nglish and !panish verbs illustrates the nature of tense and how +nglish differs from a Latin@based language. )onsider the verb spea%, which in !panish is hablar:

Past spoke hablB

Present speak hablo

Future A hablarCa

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

There are several different kinds of verbs. $lthough we cannot examine all of them, we can look at some of the more important categories. !entence5% )ogs bar%%has just a subject and a verb. !entence 7% rit$ hit the ball%has a subject, a verb, and an object. The difference is related to the fact that bar% and hit are different kinds of verbs. !ome verbs either re2uire or can work with an object4 hit is such a verb.-e call these verbs transitive verbs. Dther verbs, such as bar%, cannotwork with an object. (f we put a noun phrase after bar%, we have an ungrammatical sentence. <erbs that cannot be followed by a noun phrase are called ntransitive verbs. This distinction is straightforward and does not normally cause students any confusion, but many verbs can function both transitively and intransitively, which can be very confusing. )onsider the following:
6?. Fred ate an apple. 65. Fred ate. 6:. *acarena stopped the car. 66. *acarena stopped. 67. Frit; cooked the dinner. 61. Frit; cooked.

(n each of these cases, the verb can function either transitively or intransitively. To repeat: E Transitive verbs are followed by an object. E (ntransitive verbs are not followed by an object.

$djectives (n grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronounFs referent. !ome examples can be seen in the box to the right. )ollectively, adjectives form one of the traditional +nglish eight parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that also used to be considered adjectives.

ot all languages have adjectives, but most, including +nglish, do. /+nglish adjectives include big, old, and tired, among many others.0 $dverbs
$dverbial modifiers supply information to verbs, adjectivals, other adverbials, clauses, and sentences. They are versatile. $dverbials are not sensory4 rather they provide six different types of information: time, place, manner, degree, cause, concession Like adjectivals, adverbials consist of simple adverbs as well as entire constructions that function adverbially. The following examples illustrate adverbials that provide the six types of information just listed. ote that adverbials of degree modify adjectivals, or they may modify other adverbials: Time: .lace: *anner: =egree: )ause: )oncession: They arrived late. -e stopped there for a rest. Fred opened the box slowly. *acarena felt very tired. !he opened the box *uite rapidly. -e ate because we were hungry. Although she didn+t li%e broccoli, she ate it.

)onjuntions
$characteristic of language is that it allows people to take small linguistic units and combine them into larger ones, in an additive fashion. !ometimes the units are e2ual, in which case they are coordinated4 other times they are une2ual, in which case some units are subordinated to others. Conjunctions are function words that make many of these combinations possible, and there are two major types: coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating Conjunctions. )oordinating conjunctions, shown here,

join e2ual linguistic units: and, but, for, nor, or, yet, so The following sentences illustrate coordinating conjunctions joining individual wordsGphrases: 19. Frit; and *acarena joined the party. 1H. ,uggsy drove to the casino and bet I5?? on the upcoming race. (n sentence 19, the conjunction joins the two nouns, rit$ and Macarena. (n sentence 1H, the conjunction joins two verb phrases, drove to the casino and bet ,-.. on the upcoming race. )oordinating conjunctions also join e2ual clauses, as shown here, producing what is referred to as a compound sentence:
1>. Fred opened the door, but *acarena wouldn#t come inside 8?. *acarena could feel the ocean bree;e against her face, so she preferred to stay outside. 85. Frit; asked *acarena to go to )atalina, and Fred asked her to go to !an Francisco.

Subordinating Conjunctions. -hereas coordinating conjunctions link e2ual elements,

subordinating conjunctions link une2ual elements. *ore specifically, they link a dependent clause to an independent clause. ,ecause this type of dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, we refer to it as a subordinate clause.$subordinate clause is a dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction.
*ore )ommon !ubordinating )onjunctions because until although unless after whenever in order that so that if since though before as if as soon as as whereas while once when even if even though

(nterjectionsGexclamations Interjection is a big name for a little word. (nterjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them 2uite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. -hen interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. $n interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark /J0 when written. nterjections like er and um are also known as Khesitation devicesK. They are extremely common in +nglish. .eople use them when they donFt know what to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what to say. Lou should learn to recogni;e them when you hear them and reali;e that they have no real meaning. The table below shows some interjections with examples.

.repositions
$ preposition generally works with a noun phrase, and together they compose a prepositional phrase. /-hen a noun phrase is connected to a preposition, it often is called the object of the preposition.0 The preposition links its noun phrase to either a verb phrase or another noun phrase, which means that the prepositional phrase functions either adverbially or adjectivally. !entences 95 through 96 illustrate both types. ote that in sentence 96 the prepositional phrase functions as a sentence@level modifier: 95. The woman with the red hair drove a .orsche. 9:. Frit; walked down the street. 96. /n the morning, Fred always has wild hair. The list of +nglish prepositions is 2uite long, but some of the more common are listed below:

)ommon .repositions aboard against as beneath but down following into off over round to unlike via about along at beside by during for like on past save toward until with above amid before besides concerning except from minus onto per since towards up within across among behind between considering excepting in near opposite plus than under upon without after around below beyond despite excluding inside of outside regarding through underneath versus

$rticlesGdeterminers
Determiners

The category of determiners is broad and is made up of several subclasses of words, all of which interact with nouns in some way. (n fact, determiners always come before nouns, although not necessarily immediately before. =eterminers signal the presence of certain kinds of nouns, which is one reason that in some analyses determiners are designated as adjectives. ,ut as mentioned earlier, the semantic content of determiners is secondary rather than primary4 thus, they are sufficiently different from simple adjectives to warrant a separate classification. $t this point, we consider just one type of determiner, articles. Later in the text, we examine other types.
Articles. There are two types of articles in +nglish, definite and indefinite:

=efinite: the (ndefinite: a, an

ouns are either count nouns or noncount nouns, and all singular count nouns re2uire an article unless it has a number /a 2uantifier0 or a possessive pronoun in front of it. =efinite articles signal that a noun is specific, often tangible, or that it is identifiable. (ndefinite articles, on the other hand, signal that a noun is nonspecific, often intangible, or that it is not uni2uely identifiable. )onsider these sentences:
17. !he car was wrecked. 11. -e could hear a man#s voice coming up the stairwell. 18. $fter our ordeal, we had to search for an alibi.

"evel #

(rregular plurals There isGthere are Mse there with is and are to say what exists or what you can have. Mse there is with singular nouns, and there are with plural nouns.

There is a tree in our garden. There is a girl called Farah in my class. There is fish for dinner. There is nothing to do when it rains. There#s a cat sitting on the bench. There#s a boy in my class who can walk on his hands. There are cows in the field. There are some very big ships in the harbor today.
=emostrative pronouns
There are four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those They serve to single out, highlight, or draw attention to a noun, as in sentences 5?, 55, and 5:: 5?. !hat car is a wreck. 55. !hose peaches don#t look very ripe. 5:. !his book is really interesting.

.ossessive adjectives <erb &to be' The words am, is and are are the simple present forms of the verb be. Mse am with the pronoun (.

Mse is with singular nouns like Nmy dad# and Nthe teacher#, and with the pronouns he, she and it. Mse are with plural nouns like Nmy parents# and NOenny and *ary#, and with the pronouns we, you and they.

( am twelve. The children are asleep. ( am in the garden. )omputers are very expensive. *y mom is very tired today. *y brother and ( are upstairs. The teacher is tall. -e are in our bedrooms. !he is also pretty. Lou are my best friend. Dur dog is black. Lou and =avid are my best friends.
"ere is a table to help you remember how to use is, am and are.

first person second person third person

!ingular ( am you are he is she is it is

plural we are you are they are they are they are

There are short ways of saying and writing am, is and are with pronouns. These short forms are called contractions.

full form ( am you are he is she is it is we are they are

short form (#m you#re he#s she#s it#s we#re they#re

Lou can use these contractions to replace am, is and are when they are used with not:

full form ( am not he is not she is not it is not we are not you are not

short form (#m not he isn#t she isn#t it isn#t we aren#t you aren#t

they are not they aren#t

!imple present <erbs have forms called tenses that tell you when the action happens. (f the action happens regularly, sometimes or never, use the simple present tense.

-e always wash our hands before meals. Ooe sometimes lends me his bike. =ad jogs in the park every day. -e often go to the movies on !atrurday. *r. 3oss takes a train to work.
The simple present tense is also used to state facts.

The sun rises every morning. .enguins live in the $ntarctica. =ogs love playing in water. The earth goes around the sun. $ustralia is an island.
Mse the simple present tense to tell the events of a story that is happening now.

( arrive at school. ( see another girl crying. ( ask her why she is sad. !he says she hasn#t got any friends to play with. ( tell her that she can play with me.
Mse the simple present tense to talk about things that will happen in the future.

*y little sister starts school tomorrow. The new supermarket opens this Friday. ext week ( go on holiday to Oapan. -e fly to London on !unday. The train leaves in five minutes. *y family moves to a new house next month.
<erbs and Tenses: The !imple .resent Tense Frecuency words Too,so either and neither /agreement0 wh@ 2uestions 17

$!

"evel

.resent continuous /including future meaning0 The present progressive tense is used to talk about things that are continuing to happen. Make the present progressive tense by using am, is or are with a verb that ends in ing.

I am learning how to swim. I am eating my lunch. I am watching television. She is reading a book. Dad is baking a cake. My sister is listening to music. Uncle David is cleaning his car. The dog is barking in the garden. We are singing our favorite song. My brother and I are playing a computer game. The teachers are showing us a film. They are bringing a television set into the classroom.
The present progressive tense is also used to talk about things that are planned for the future.

I am going to the library tomorrow. My sister is giving me her bike when she gets her new one. We can t go to the movies tomorrow because my mom is working. We are having a barbecue on Sunday. !ll my friends are coming to my party ne"t week. We re taking my cousin to the #oo later today.

*odal auxiliary &can' Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning. For example, you use auxiliary verbs to say: that someone is able to do something, that someone is allowed to do something, or that someone has to do something. The hellping verbs are can, could, would, should, ought to, will, shall, may, might and must.

can and could

se can and could to say that someone is able to do something.

She can draw really good pictures. $hilip can run faster than Matt. %an you ride a bike& %an you help me with my homework& She could already read before she started school. 'ur teacher said we could go home early. I ran as fast as I could. Sarah could not come to the party because she was ill.
!ou may also use can and could to say that someone is allowed to do something.

My mom says you can come to our house for dinner. Dad says I can t walk to school on my own. (ou can t go in there without a ticket. Mom said I could have ice cream after my dinner. The big sign on the gate said $)I*!T+, so we couldn t go in. -otes
"ould is the simple past tense form of can. #hen you put not after can, write it as one word: cannot.

They cannot find their way home.

he contraction of cannot is can$t, and the contraction of could not is couldn$t.

They can t find their way home. I m full. I can t eat any more. Sarah couldn t come to the party because she was ill.

"an and could are also used for asking for information or help, for offering something, and for suggesting something.

%an you tell me if this train goes to Topeka& %ould you show me where the accident happened& %ould you open that window, please& (ou can borrow my pen, if you like. (our sister could come with us, if she wanted to. I could lend you my football. We can go to the library instead. (ou could ask your dad to help us. .ohn can borrow his brother s skates.

.ossessive nouns Lend vs. borrow

85

The otherG anotherG the others

%!

"evel $

(diomatic future !hould

&hould is a helpin' or au(iliar) verb! Mse should to talk about necessary actions or things that people ought to do.
)hildren should not pla) in traffic. Lou should always loo* before crossing the street.
3emote future )ountable and uncountable nouns

ouns can be sin'ular or plural. -hen you are talking about one person, animal, place, or thing, use a singular noun.
a ship an owl a train a woman

Mse a or an before singular nouns. Mse an before words beginning with vo+els /a, e, i, o,u0. For example, say: an axe an igloo an egg an orange an envelope an umbrella

an ice cream an uncle 7 ,ut some words don#t follow this rule. For example, use a /not an0 before these words that begin with u: a uniform a university 7 Mse a before words beginning with the other letters of the alphabet, called consonants. For example, say: a basket a rainbow a bowl a monster a car a pillow a hill a watch a house a ;oo 7 ,ut some words don#t follow this rule. For example, use an /not a0 before these words that begin with h: an heir an honor an hour

-hen you are talking about two or more people, animals, places, or things, use plural nouns. *ost nouns are made plural by adding @s at the end.
!tar mug bat bats stars

-hen the last letters of singular nouns are ch, sh, s, ss or (, you usually add @es to form the plural. !ome plural nouns end in @ies.

,utterflies

canaries

lilies

Future countinuous Puantifiers ,! "evel % !imple past H> H1

H6

.ast countinuous

>6

se the past progressive tense to talk about things that were happening in the past and had not stopped happening. They were continuing. To make the past progressive tense, use was or were and a verb that ends in ing.

I was watching television. /en was finishing his homework. She was putting her books into her schoolbag. .enny and I were tidying the classroom. We were all dancing at the party. (ou weren t listening to the teacher. Some boys were looking out of the window.
!ou can also use the past progressive tense to say what was happening when something else happened.

Sam was doing his math homework when the phone rang. Dad was cooking our dinner when I got home. When I saw .oe, he was looking for his dog. We were all en0oying the movie when the power went out.
The ing form of a verb is called the present participle. !ou use the present participles with was or were to take the past progressive tense:

was 1 cleaning 2present participle3 were 1 listening 2present participle3

3egular and irregular verbs Many common verbs have unusual present and past tense forms. These are called irregular verbs. %emember that the simple past tense of most verbs is made by adding ed at the end: look becomes looked. &otice that the simple past tense of these common irregular verbs is 'uite different.

irregular verb simple past tense irregular verb simple past tense

break broke keep kept bring brought kneel knelt buy bought know knew catch caught leave left come came lose lost do did meet met fall fell ring rang feed fed run ran feel felt see saw fly flew sell sold get got sleep slept go went speak spoke have had write wrote
The simple past tense of other irregular verbs does not change at all.

verb simple past tense e"ample cost cost I bought a new %D. It cost twenty dollars. cut cut My brother cut his finger this morning. hit hit She hit the ball into a neighbor s garden. hurt hurt I hurt my leg when I 0umped off the wall. let let Mom opened the door and let us in. put put The tea tasted horrible because I put too much sugar in it. read read Dad read us a story last night.

1.7 )omparatives 1.1 !uperlatives

>9 5?5

-! "evel , 8.5 .resent perfect 5?6 5?1

8.: !ince, for, already, just, and yet with present perfect

8.6 (ntensifiers

55? 55:

8.7 Msed to with still and anymore 8.1 .resent real conditionals 8.8 Future real conditionals 557 558

8.9 *odal auxiliaries would, could, can and will for polite re2uests 8.H Mse of &do' and &make' 5:5

55H

.! "evel 9.5 .resent perfect countinuous 9.: *ay vs. might Gcan vs. could 5:7 5:8 567

9.6 *ust, ought to, had better, have to and should 9.7 (ndefinite pronouns 9.1 .refixes 9.8 !uffixes 57: 577 56>

Suffixes
The tables below provide the more common noun, verb and adjective suffixes and give the usage and examples. There is only one common suffix for adverbs, and that is -ly. It is often added to adjectival suffixes as in creative and creatively.

9.9 -ould, would mind, would rather and would prefer 9.H False cognates 57>

578

/! "evel . H.5 .ast perfect 515

H.: Oust, already, never and only with past perfect H.6 .ast perfect countinuous 518

516

H.7 .assive voice /present, past and perfect tences0 H.1 .resent unreal conditionals H.8 -ish /present and past tence0 H.9 Mse of gerunds H.H Mnless 59: 597 58> 58: 588

51H

H.> )onjuntions expressing purpose

0! "evel / >.5 +ach otherGone another >.: .articipal adjectives 59>

5H: 5H7

>.6 To be used toG to get used to >.7 .ast of modals 5H8 5HH

>.1 .ast unreal conditions

#1! "evel 0 5?.5 (nverted word order 5?.: !oQthat GsuchQthat 5>5 5>6 5>1

5?.6 )omparatives Far moreGfar lessG/not0 asQas Gfewer 5?.7 3eferent words 5>H :?? :?:

5?.1 .assive voice with modals 5?.8 .ossessives before gerunds

5?.9 .arallel structure

:?7

##! "evel #1 55.5 $djective clauses and relative pronouns

(n many respects, relative clauses /3)0 are among the more interesting structures in +nglish, in part because of howtheywork as modifiers. They supply information to noun phrases, but they also can function as sentence@level modifiers. -hen they do, they modify the meaning of the independent clause rather than a syntactic component%a curious arrangement. $nother factor that makes relative clauses interesting is the relative pronoun /3.0. -e have seen how other dependent clauses%subordinate clauses and complement clauses%are connected to an independent clause via a linking word /a subordinating conjunction and a complementi;er, espectively0. 3elative clauses arelinked to independent clauses via a relative pronoun, but relative pronouns are more than just linking words. They are like regular pronouns in that they replace a duplicate noun phrase in a sentence. (n addition, they function as either the subject or the object of the relative clause. Thus, they can perform three syntactic functions in a sentence, whereas subordinators and complementi;ers can perform only one. The more common relative pronouns are shown here:
who which when whom whose why that where

$relative clause must always begin with a relative pronoun because it needs to be linked to the independent clause. -e can see the linking function in the following sample sentences: 19. ,uggsy bought the house that had belonged to Liberace. 1H. The boy who drove the van played the blues. 1>. The book that Frit; borrowed lacked an index. (f we attempted to combine these clauses without using a relative pronoun, the results would be ungrammatical:
19b. R,uggsy bought the house the house had belonged to Liberace. 1Hb. RThe boy played the blues the boy drove the van. 1>b. RThe book lacked an index Frit; borrowed the book. Relative Pronoun &hift

The multiple functions that relative pronouns play in sentences create a certain degree of confusion for many students. +specially problematic are sentences like 1>, in which the relative ronoun replaces an object noun phrase. !entence 1>a clearly shows that the boo% functions as the object noun phrase in the second clause /Frit; borrowed the boo%0. The confusion arises from the fact that objects follow nouns. !tudents know this intuitively. (t represents a basic feature of +nglish word order. ,ut the relative pronoun must link the 3)to the independent clause. $s a result, when we convert the boo% to a relative pronoun, we must shift the pronoun from its position behind the verb to a new position in front of the subject, thereby violating the standard !<Dword order. This violation makes it difficult for large numbers of native +nglish speakers to recogni;e that the word that in sentence 1> is an object. This problem is most noticeable with regard to the relative pronouns who and whom.-e use who when we relativi;e subjects4 we use whom when we relativi;e objects. They have different cases. early every native +nglish speaker

finds it difficult to use the correct form, even those who generally have little trouble using the correct case for other pronouns.

55.: 3educed adjective clauses

Like certain other modifiers, relative clauses can function restrictively or nonrestrictively. 3estrictive relative clauses supply defining or necessary information, o they are not set off with punctuation. onrestrictive relative clauses, on the other hand, supply additional or nonessential information4 thus, they are set off with punctuation. The nonrestrictive subordinate clauses we have examined to this point have been adverbials, and they always have been sentence@level modifiers. onrestrictive relative clauses are different in this respect because sometimes they are sentence@level modifiers and sometimes they are not. )onsider the following:
8?. The book, which was a first edition, had a gold@inlaid cover. 85. Fred vacationed in *exico, which disturbed his parents.

(n sentence 8?, the relative clause, even though it is nonrestrictive, clearly modifies the noun phrase !he boo%. (n sentence 85, however, there is no single head word4 instead, the relative clause is modifying the meaning of the independent clause. That meaning might be described as &the fact that Fred vacationed in *exico.' ,ecause the entire clause is receiving the modification, we must consider the relative clause in sentence 85 to be a sentence@level modifier. .lease note: 3elative clauses that function as sentence@level modifiers always begin with the relative pronoun which 0in which is a common exception0, but not all relative clauses that begin with the relative pronoun which are sentence@level modifiers.

55.6 !hall

:57 :58 :5> ::5

55.7 noun clauses 55.1 (ndirect speech

55.8 -hetherQorGwhetherQor not 55.9 "yphenated words 55.H )ausatives ::1 ::6

# ! "evel ## 5:.5 <erbs waitGhopeGexpect ::> :65 :6:

5:.: )onectors for contrast despiteGin spite of

5:.6 )onnectors for cause and effect because ofGdue to 5:.7 !ubjunctive :67

#$! "evel # 56.5 $ttached 2uestions :6H :71

56.: .ast modals which indicate possibility 56.6 !uffixes Sful, @ness, @less 56.7 -ho vs. whom #%! "evel #$ 57.5 *ultiple meaning :11 :1: :1?

57.: )omparatives alikeG unlikeG the more TQthe more L 57.6 )ausatives in passive voice 57.7 Mnnecessary repetition :85 :1>

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#,! "evel #% 51.5 subject and verb agreement 51.: !uffixes which form nouns :87 :9? :97

51.6 !uffixes which form adjectives 51.7 3oots :9H

#-! "evel #, 58.5 -ord form :H5

Word Forms
refixes and suffixes that are used in !nglish give clues as to the meaning and, or, the function of words. Typically suffixes indicate the function of a word in a sentence. "or instance there are some suffixes that are used only for nouns and others that are used for

verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The particular suffix used in forming a word also helps to give meaning to a word, for instance competition and competitor are both nouns that are formed from the verb compete. The -or suffix, however, indicates that there is a person performing the action, whereas the -tion suffix indicates a condition or state of being. #o note, that some suffixes are used with more than one type of word, so on their own they cannot be used to infer the function of the word in the sentence. In those situations, other context clues are needed to provide the function of that word in a particular sentence. "or example, an -ing suffix occurs with nouns, verbs and adjectives$ in the sentence %Teaching is interacting with interesting people,& teaching is a noun 'a gerund(, interacting is part of a verb phrase in the present progressive tense, and interesting is an adjective that )ualifies people.

58.: )onfusing verbs setGlayGraise * * * *

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The following pairs of verbs are sometimes confusedQ Lie and Lay 3ise and 3aise !it and !et

1ie and 1ay2 * * * * 1ie present * 1ay present * lay past * laid * is laying present participle past participle have laid lie past * lay * is lying present participle past participle * have lain "ie is an intransitive verb that means S &to rest in a flat position' or &to be in a certain place.' (t does not take a direct object. "a) is a transitive verb that means &to place.' (t does take a direct object.

1ie and 1ay2 * * * * Lie on the sofa until you feel better. The papers lay in a heap on the floor Lay your jackets there. "e laid the wreath on the grave.

3ise and 3aise2 * * * * 3ise present * 3aise present * raise past * raised * 3ise and 3aise2 * * * * !team rises and disappears. The tax has risen to H percent. Raise the curtain slowly. The workers raised the barn. is raising present participle past participle have raised rise past * rose * is rising present participle past participle * have risen Rise is an intransitive verb that means S &to go upward.' (t does not take a direct object. Raise is a transitive verb that means &to lift' or &make something go up.' (t does take a direct object.

"it and "et2 * * &it is an intransitive verb that means S &to occupy a seat.' (t does not take a direct object.

* * "it

&et is a transitive verb that means S &to place.' (t usually takes a direct object.

present * "et present * set sit

past * sat

present participle * is sitting

past participle * have sat

past * set

present participle * is setting

past participle * have set

"it and "et2 * * * * !he usually sits next to me in class. Finally, all the passengers had sat down. !et those boxes on the table. !omeone has set one cup on top of the other.

#.! "evel #59.5 .hrasal verbs and idioms :H8

Prepositions
The important thing to remember with prepositions is that they do not translate well. In !nglish, as in most languages, preposition usage is often idiosyncratic+that means that each use has to be learned. , good dictionary is essential to help clarify the situation with prepositions. In addition, many prepositions are used in conjunction with verbs to form verb phrases or two word verbs, and they are often an important element in idioms. -ome examples will help to show the difficulty that exists with prepositions and the need to use them carefully.

On has several different usages, e.g. I discovered a boo. on /iver 0alley /oad. 1eaning 23 The subject matter of the boo. was %/iver 0alley /oad.& 1eaning 43 I was on /iver 0alley road when I discovered the boo.. 1eaning 53 I found the boo. lying somewhere along /iver 0alley /oad. There are also various prepositions connected with %time& one preposition does not fit all cases, e.g. The appointment is on Tuesday at 26 in the morning.

7n is used to refer to a particular day of the wee., '1onday, "riday(. ,t is used to refer to a particular time of the day, '8.66 a.m., noon(. In is used to refer to a period of time in the future 'the evening, a month(.

In !nglish there are many two word or phrasal verbs$ they consist of a verb plus a preposition. These verb phrases have a special meaning and must be learned. , good dictionary will give the definitions$ learn them so that you can use them correctly and effectively. , few examples of phrasal verbs using on are3

-tudents must focus on using prepositions correctly. 1ost students depend on a good grammar text. It is important to decide on the correct preposition to use in different circumstances. I go on a different study course for a few wee.s each summer. The instructor insisted on our learning the irregular verbs. 9e worked on the irregular verbs for over a wee..

-imilarly there are many idioms that incorporate prepositions. The few examples given here, again using on, should serve to show the necessity of learning idioms and integrating idiomatic language into your use own use of !nglish. Carry on Catch on Cheat on Count on 'to continue( 'to learn( 'to be unfaithful( 'to depend on( lease carry on while I ma.e a phone call. The students caught on very )uic.ly. :arry has been cheating on his wife. 9e were counting on that ;266 to last the wee..

-ee the section on idiomatic usage for more information.

Idioms

,n idiom is defined as a group of words whose meaning must be .nown as a whole because it cannot be learned from the meaning of the same words used separately. 7bviously, there is a problem when you cannot loo. up individual words in a dictionary and find the meaning, the usual strategy we all employ when we come across a word or words that are unfamiliar. 9ith idioms, however, we must learn the group of words. It is particularly important to recogni<e idioms when you hear them or read them$ when you are able to use them comfortably in your own speech and writing, then you have achieved a higher level of mastery and fluency in the language. In everyday !nglish, idioms are in common use. In fact, idioms are so common that most native spea.ers do not even reali<e that they are using idioms. ,lso, there are a great number and vast variety of idioms in everyday use. The story %,ll 9ashed =p ,t !ighteen>& shows both the advantages and disadvantages of using idioms. In this story, the idioms, underlined, all include the word %up&. 9hile some idioms used judiciously can add to the flavour or atmosphere of your writing and provide briefer or more interesting descriptions, too many will detract from it, as is the case here. If you use too many idioms, or use them incorrectly, then you create the wrong impression, so be careful.

59.: *odifying phrases ,ibliography :>5

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