Biology 12 - Chapter 12 Cardiovascular system

YouTube video: The Circulatory System

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJzJKvkWWDc

12.1 The Blood Vessels

The Arteries

Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. The largest artery is the aorta. The middle layer of an artery wall consists of smooth muscle that can constrict to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. Arterioles can constrict or dilate, changing blood pressure.

The Capillaries Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to allow exchange of materials with tissue fluid. Not all capillary beds are opened at the same time. Eg. - Contraction of a sphincter muscle closes off a capillary bed (** network of many capillaries **) and blood can flow through an arteriovenous shunt that bypasses the capillary bed.
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The Veins

Venules drain into veins that take blood to the heart. Veins have much less smooth muscle and connective tissue than an artery. Veins often have valves that prevent the backward flow of blood when closed.

Questions Q: Name the 3 types of major vessels in the circulatory system and their function; rank them in order from largest diameter to smallest. A: Veins > Arteries > Capillaries Veins: blood vessels that transport blood back to the heart. Arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from heart. Capillaries: Join arterioles (small arteries) to venules (small veins) Q: What are 2 major structural differences between arteries and veins? A: 1. The walls of veins have three layers of tissues like the arteries but veins are much thinner and less elastic and muscular than arteries. 2. Veins have valves that help in the process of returning blood to the heart by preventing blood from flowing reverse, which do not exist in arteries. Q: What is the function of an arteriovenous shunt? (in plain English would be nice) A: It allows blood to flow between an artery and a vein without having to go through capillaries. Q: What is the largest artery? What are the largest veins? A: Largest artery: the aorta; largest veins: the superior and inferior vena cava

12.2 The Heart

(*) (*) (*)

(*) (*) (*) (*) (*) (*) (*) (*) (*) (*) Cardiac muscle (*) (or pulmonary valve) (*) (*)

(*) = MUST know

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The heart muscle forms the myocardium. The pericardium is the outer membranous sac. The septum is a wall dividing the right and left sides. The right and left atria empty into the right and left ventricles respectively. Atrioventricular valves occur between the atria and ventricles and semilunar valves occur between the ventricles and the attached arteries.

Passage of Blood through the Heart

via: lung

Blood follows this sequence through the heart:

Superior and inferior vena cava
Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins

Aorta

Right Atrium

Right Ventricle

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle

The oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood never mix.

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The Heartbeat

Systole is the contraction of heart chambers. Diastole is their relaxation. The heart sounds, lub-dub are due to the closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by the closing of the semilunar valves.

Intrinsic Control of Heartbeat

The SA-(sino-atrial) node (pacemaker) initiates the beat and causes the atria to contract on average every 0.85 seconds. The AV (atrio-ventricular) node conveys the stimulus and initiates contraction of the ventricles. The signal for the ventricles to contract travels from the AV node through the atrioventricular bundle to the smaller Purkinje fibers.
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Extrinsic Control of Heartbeat

A cardiac control center in medulla oblongata speeds up or slows down the heart rate by way of the parasympathetic (slower heart rate) and the sympathetic (increases heart rate) systems.

The PSNS and SNS

The autonomic nervous system (means automatic) helps regulate internal organs and glans subconsciously. The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) regulates the resting activities. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) regulates the stimulating activities.

Heart Hormones

Hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine also stimulate faster heart rate. They are derived from the amino acid tyrosine.

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The Electrocardiogram

An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle Aortal depolarization creates the QRS wave. Repolarization of the ventricles produces the T wave.

Questions Q: What do P waves, QRS signals and T waves signal as happening soon? A: The P waves indicate that the atria are about to contract. The QRS complex signals that the ventricles are about to contract. The T waves indicates that the ventricular muscle fibers are recovering from contractions (ventricular repolarization). Q: What is ventricular fibrillation? A: Ventricular fibrillation is a type of abnormalities that can be detected by an electrocardiogram. It causes uncoordinated contraction of the ventricles. Such abnormalities can be caused by an injury or drug overdose. Once the ventricles are fibrillating, they must be defibrillated by applying a strong electrical current for a short period of time. Then the SA node may be able to re-establish a coordinated beat. Q: Explain to a friend why the atrial muscles contract first, followed by the ventricular muscles? A: The contraction of the atrium causes the blood pressure in the atrium to exceed that of the ventricle, which forces the AV valves open and allows the blood the enter the ventricles. When the ventricles are full, it contracts to send blood out of the heart.

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12.3 The Vascular Pathways

1) The Pulmonary Circuit

Right Ventricle 2 pulmon ary arteries 4 pulmo nary arteries

lung

4 pulmon ary veins

Left atrium

The pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle branches into two pulmonary arteries, then branch into four, which take blood to the lungs. Four pulmonary veins return blood to the left atrium.

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2) The Systemic Circuit

Left ventricle (*Speci fic organs) Arteriol es Veins Vena Cava

Aorta

arteries

Capilia ries

Venules

Right Atrium

The systemic circuit starts with the aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta branches with an artery going to a specific organ. Generally, an artery divides into arterioles and capillaries which then lead to venules The vein that takes blood to the vena cava often has the same name as the artery that delivered blood to the organ In the adult systemic circuit, arteries carry blood that is relatively high in oxygen and relatively low in carbon dioxide. This is the reverse of the pulmonary circuit

Blood in arteries

Blood pressure due to the pumping of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries. Systolic pressure is high when the heart expels the blood. Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Both decrease as blood enters more and more arterioles and arteries (capillaries, venules and veins).

Blood flow in capillaries

Blood moves slowly in capillaries because there are more capillaries than arterioles. This allows time for substances to exchange with tissues.

Blood flow in veins Venous return is dependent upon: skeletal muscle contraction

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presence of valves in veins respiratory movements Compression of veins causes blood to move forward past a valve that then prevents it from returning backward. Changes in thoracic and abdominal pressure that occur with breathing also assist the blood in flowing Varicose veins develop when the valves of veins become weak Hemorrhoids are due to varicose veins in the rectum Phlebitis in inflammation of a vein and can lead to a blood clot and possible death.

Questions
Q: Do all arteries carry oxygen-rich blood and all veins carry oxygen-poor blood? A: No, not all arteries carry oxygen-rich blood, and not all veins carry oxygen-poor blood. Pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-poor blood, while pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood. Q: Where does the heart gets its own blood (that carries nutrients and oxygen) from? A: The coronary arteries serve the heart muscle itself, supplying blood for the heart. Q: Why might someone faint and why would this be beneficial? A: Someone might feint since by falling down, their body as well as blood flow are not overcoming gravity. Once they lay in a horizontal position, their blood flow would be less hindered.

12.4 Blood
Blood composition Blood separates into two main parts: plasma and cells Plasma contains mostly water (90-92%) and plasma proteins (7-8%), but it also contains nutrients and wastes Ex. Albumin is a large plasma protein that transports bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin

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The Red Blood Cells Red blood cells contain hemoglobin for oxygen transport Each hemoglobin carries 4 oxygen molecules Red blood cells lack a nucleus and have a ~120 day life span When worn out, the red blood cells are dismantled in the liver and spleen Iron is reused by the red bone marrow where stem cells continually produce more red blood cells Lack of enough hemoglobin results in anemia. The kidneys produce erythropoietin to increase blood cell production when oxygen levels are low. (possibility for drug abuse in athletes) The White Blood Cells A few YouTube videos: How White Blood Cells Work: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TvTyj5FAaQ White Blood Cell Chases Bacteria: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnlULOjUhSQ Understanding Allergies: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfLAwO4_NTQ White blood cells have a) a nucleus b) are fewer in number and c) defend against disease. Granular leukocytes: (neutrophils, basophils and eosinophil) Carry enzymes proteins and help defend against microbes Some white blood cells live a long time Monocytes (phagocytic dendritic cells and macrophages) Dendritic cells are present in tissues that are in contact with the environment (i.e. skin, nose, lungs and intestines) Once they have captured a microbe with their long, spiky arms, called dendrites, they stimulate other white blood cells to defend the body Macrophages (well known as ferocious phagocytes) play similar roles in other organs (i.e.: liver, kidney and spleen) Lymphocytes (2 types: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes) Assist body in immunity Infectious mononucleosis is characterized by excessive B lymphocytes

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AIDS is characterized by excessively low T lymphocytes Red bone marrow produces megakaryocytes that fragment into platelets at a rate of about 150000300000 a day Twelve other clotting factors help platelets form blood clots

The Platelets and Blood Clotting

The platelets and two plasma proteins, prothrombin and fibrinogen, function in blood clotting, an enzymatic process that results in fibrin threads Trapped red blood cells make a clot appear red Serum contains all the components of plasma except fibrinogen YouTube video: How does blood clot http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--bZUeb83uU

The Platelets and Blood Clotting Hemophilia

Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder due to a deficiency in a clotting factor

Bone Marrow Stem Cells

Bone marrow is multi-potent, able to continually give rise to particular types of blood cells The skin and brain also have stem cells, and mesenchymal stem cells give rise to connective tissues including heart muscle

Capillary Exchange

In a capillary, water moves out at the arterial end due to blood pressure
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At the venule end water moves in due to osmotic pressure In between, nutrients diffuse out and wastes diffuse in to the tissue fluid that bathe cells

Questions
Q: What would the body do to adapt to living at a higher altitude, where oxygen is thinner? A: Additional red blood cells and capillaries are produced to carry additional oxygen. Furthermore, additional erythropoietin is produced by the kidney to increase blood cell production. Q: What affect would carbon monoxide inhalation have on a person? A: Once carbon monoxide molecules would compete with oxygen when binding in the blood. Later, carbon monoxide would be transported by red blood cell through the lungs, the heart and blood vessels and into the systemic circuit. As a result, fewer oxygen molecules are carried by the blood which decreases the supply of oxygen for the body. Q: What function do the following perform as elements of white blood cells? Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils LymphocytesMonocytes Which ones are granular and which ones are agranular, and what do these terms mean?

*This is an important chart and you might want to memorize the function section of this chart.
A: Granular / Agranular Type of elements Neutrophils 40-70% Granular Eosinophils 1-4% Description 10-14 in diameter. Spherical cells with multiplied nuclei; fine, pink granules in cytoplasm 10-14 in diameter. Spherical cells with bilobed nuclei; coarse, deep-red, uniformly sized granules in cytoplasm Function

Phagocytize pathogens

Phagocytize antigenantibody complexes and allergens

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10-12 in diameter. Spherical cells with lobed Basophils nuclei; large, irregularly 0-1% shaped, deep-blue granules in cytoplasm 5-17 in diameter. (average Lymphocytes 9-10 ) Spherical cells with 20-45% large, round nuclei. Agranular 10-24 in diameter. Large Monocytes spherical cells with kidney4-8% shaped, round, or lobed nuclei

Release histamine, which promotes blood flow to injured tissues Responsible for specific immunity Become macrophages that phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris

Granular leukocyte are white blood cells with prominent granules in the cytoplasm. They are filled with spheres that contain enzymes and proteins, which help white blood cells defend the body against microbes. On the other hand, agranular leukocyte are white blood cells that does not contain distinctive granules. They are also called mononuclear cells, which typically have a kidney-shaped or spherical nucleus. Q: What does the enzyme plasmin do? A: Enzyme plasmin degrades many blood plasma proteins, including fibrin clots. In other words, it dissolves fibrin blood clots. Q: What are stem cells, and what are a couple of examples of they might be used in the future for treatment of diseases? A: Stem cells are cells that is ever capable of dividing and producing new cells that go on to differentiate into particular types of cells. The bone marrow has multi-potent stem cells, which have the potential to give rise to other stem cells for the various formed elements. Usage: Bone marrow stem cells are able to differentiate into other types of cells, including liver, bone, fat, cartilage, heart, and even neurons. The possibility exists that a patients own bone marrow stem cells could be used for curing certain conditions including diabetes, heart disease, liver disease, or even brain disorders (e.g., Alzheimer disease or Parkinson disease). Q: What are two pressures involved in capillary walls, and what does each one do? A: Blood Pressure and Osmotic Pressure are involved in capillary walls. Blood Pressure causes water to move from the blood to the tissue fluid, and the Osmotic Pressure causes water to move from the tissue fluid to the blood.

12.5 Cardiovascular Disorders

Atherosclerosis

YouTube video: MEDICAL - How cholesterol clogs your arteries

(atherosclerosis)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLonh7ZesKs YouTube video: Artery Explorer http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GBf59Z8tgA0 Atherosclerosis is due to a build-up of fatty material, mainly cholesterol, under the inner lining of arteries
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The deposits called plaque, can cause a clot (thrombus) to form, and can dislodge as an embolus and lead to thromboembolism

Stroke, Heart Attack, and Aneurysm YouTube video: What causes a heart attack? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LA2DuxCcO4g

If a moving blood clot or embolus lodges in a cerebral blood vessel or a cerebral blood vessel bursts, the blockage causes a stroke to occur, where a portion of the brain dies If a blood clot lodges in a coronary blood vessel, a heart attack occurs Partial blockage of a coronary artery causes angina pectoris An aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel

Coronary Bypass Operations

Removing a segment of another blood vessel and replacing a clogged coronary artery is a common operation It may be possible to replace this surgery with gene therapy that causes new blood vessels to grow where the heart needs more blood flow (see lower left diagram)

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Clearing Clogged Arteries

Angioplasty uses a long tube inserted through a vessel to this point where the artery or vein is blocked; inflating the tube may force the vessel open. (See upper right diagram)

Dissolving Blood Clots

Medical treatments for dissolving blood clots include use of t-PA (tissue plasminogen activator) that converts plasminogen into plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots, but can cause brain bleeding. Aspirin reduces the stickiness of platelets and reduces clot formation and risk for heart attack

Heart Transplants and Artificial Hearts

Heart transplants are routinely performed but immunosuppressive drugs must be taken thereafter. There is a shortage of human organ donors. Work is currently underway to improve an artificial heart, and muscle cell transplant may someday be useful.

Hypertension

About 20% of Americans suffer from hypertension or blood pressure higher than 140/90. The best defense against hypertension is regular check-ups and a life-style that lowers the risk of hypertension.

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Questions
1) Name 5 different conditions/diseases that can affect the circulatory system and explain how each one affect the circulatory system and what the possible consequences are for each one. Conditions/diseases How does it affect? Fatty substances accumulate (as plaques) abnormally beneath the inter-lining of the arteries leading to the formation of a thrombus and blocking an artery Condition characterized by thoracic pain resulting from occluded coronary arteries; often precedes a heart attack. Condition resulting when an arteriole in the brain bursts or becomes blocked by an embolus (moving clot). Damage to the myocardium due to blocked circulation in the coronary arteries; also called a myocardial infraction. Ballooning of a blood vessel, most often the abdominal artery or the arteries leading to the brain. It might lead to burst of vessels. Elevated blood pressure, particularly the diastolic pressure. It can be caused by narrowing of arteries or unhealthy practices. Possible consequences Can lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney disease, aortic aneurysm, angina pectoris, and so on depending on artery. Squeezing or burning sensation in the chest. It might lead to a heart attack if not cured. Lack of oxygen causes a portion of the brain to die, and paralysis or death can result. A portion of the heart muscle dies due to a lack of oxygen, and death can result. If a major vessel such as the aorta should burst, death is likely. Addition blood pressure can damage blood vessels, heart or other organs.

Atherosclerosis

Angina Pectoris

Stroke

Heart Attack

Aneurysm

Hypertension

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