UNIT - II

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:
EXPERIMENT RESEARCH DESIGN:
An experiment is defined as manipulating (changing values/situations) one or more independent variables to see how the dependent variable(s) is/are affected, while also controlling the affects of additional extraneous variables. Why do events occur some conditions and not other conditions. Experimental research study involves intervention by the researcher beyond re uirement for measurement. !sual intervention is to manipulate some variable in a setting and observe how it affects the sub"ect being studied. #esearcher manipulates the independent variable or explanatory variable and than observes whether hypothesi$ed dependent variable is affected by the intervention. e.g. by standers and thieves % whether people observe (alone/company) LAB EXPERIMENT Experiments done in n rti!i"i # or "ontri$ed en$ironment% &'en " (se- nd-e!!e"t re# tions'ip between an independent and dependent variable of interest is to be "#e r#) est *#is'ed, then all ot'er $ ri *#es that might contaminate or confound the relationship have to be ti+'t#) "ontro##ed. &t also is necessary to m nip(# te t'e independent $ ri *#e so t' t t'e extent o! " s( # e!!e"ts " n *e est *#is'ed . When controls and manipulations are introduced to establish cause'and'effect relationships in an artificial setting, is (nown as lab experiments. Con!o(nded re# tions'ip) When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variables. Extr neo(s $ ri *#e: &ndependent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. (E.g. children*s gains in social studies +,-. achievement and their self'concept +&-) % intelligence +Ex. -ar) C,NTR,L /inimi$ing the effects of extraneous independent variables ' to restrain experimental conditions % control the contaminating factors. e.g. 0#, manager arrange for a special training to a set of newly recruited secretaries % to prove his boss % cause them to function more effectively % previous intermittent experience % learners previous experience has to be controlled. MANIPULATI,N &n order to examine the causal effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable, certain manipulations need to be tried. &t means that create different levels of the independent variable to assess the impact on the dependent variable.

e.g. to test the effects of lighting on wor(er production levels among sewing machine operators. 12'day period with the usual among of light % 34 watt lamps % 34 operators into 5 groups 64 members each % manipulate the intensity of the light for the other two sub'groups % 72'watt % 144'watt light'bulbs.' exposing different groups to different degrees of changes in it. Tre tment: 8he different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as 9treatments*. 8he manipulation of the independent variable is (nown as the treatment, and results of the treatment are called treatment effects. e.g. the owner of toy shop % wages paid an hourly rate % whether paying piece rate increase their production levels. :trenuous ' tough % muscular strength % age, gender, prior experience (familiarity with the "ob) % ; groups of 12 people each % one to be used as control group. C,NTR,LLING THE C,NTAMINATING EX,GN,US ,R -NUISANCE. /ARIABLES M t"'in+ /atch the various groups by pic(ing the confounding characteristics and deliberately spreading them across groups. E.g. if 64 women among 34 members, then each group will be assigned 2 women. We are not sure that controlled all the nuisance factors, since we may not aware of them all. A safer bet is to randomi$e. R ndomi0 tion Every member would have a (nown and e ual chance of being assigned to any of these four groups (with no predetermination. 8hat is the variables of age, sex, and previous experience % the controlled variables % will have an e ual probability of being distributed among the groups. <ause and Effect #elationship after #andomi$ation =roups Experimental group 1 Experimental group 6 Experimental group 5 <ontrol group (no treatmement) INTERNAL /ALIDIT1 &t refers to the confidence we place in the cause'and %effect relationship. 2IELD EXPERIMENT An experiment done in t'e n t(r # en$ironment in which wor( goes on as usual, *(t tre tments re +i$en to one or more +ro(ps% 8he experimental and control groups in the field experiment could be made of the people wor(ing at several plants within a certain radius, or from the different shifts in the same plant, or in some other way. EXTERNAL /ALIDIT1 &t refers to the extent o! +ener #i0 *i#it) of results of a causal study to ot'er settin+s, people, or events, and internal validity refers to the degree of our confidence 8reatment ? 1.44 per piece ? 1.24 per piece ? 6.44 per piece @ld hourly rate 8reatment Effect (> increase in production) 14 12 64 4

in the causal effects (i.e. that variable A causes variable B). Cield experiments have more external validity but less internal validity (i.e. we cannot be certain of the extent to which variable A alone causes variable B). Dote that in the lab experiment, the reverse is true. 8he internal validity is very high but the external validity rather very low. 8he lab setting does not reflect the Ereal worldF setting, we do not (now to what extent the lab findings validly represent the realities in the outside world.

T1PES ,2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

3 4In!orm # experiment # desi+ns: 1. Gefore'and'after without control design 8est area) Hevel of phenomenon before treatment (A) 8reatment introduced Hevel of phenomenon after treatment (B)

8reatment Effect I (B) ' (A) 6.After'only control design 8est area) <ontrol area ) 8reatment Effect I (B)'(J) 5.Gefore'and'after with control design 8ime Keriod & 8est area) Hevel of phenomenon before treatment (A) 8ime Keriod && Hevel of phenomenon after treatment (B) 8reatment introduced Hevel of phenomenon after treatment (B) Hevel of phenomenon without treatment (J)

8reatment introduced

<ontrol area ) Hevel of phenomenon without treatment (A) 8reatment Effect I (B'A)'(J'A) 3*4 2orm # experiment # desi+ns: ;. <ompletely randomi$ed design (<.#.,esign) 2. #andomi$ed bloc( design (#.G. ,esign) 3. Hatin s uare design (H.:. ,esign) 7. Cactorial design

Hevel of phenomenon without treatment (J)

/ALIDIT1 ,2 2INDINGS
8o ensure both types of validity, researchers usually try first to test the causal relationships in a tightly

controlled artificial or lab setting, and the relationship has been established, they try to test the causal relationship in a field experiment.

2ACT,RS A22ECTING INTERNAL /ALIDIT1

:ome confounding factors might still be present that could offer rival explanations as to what is causing the dependent variable. 8hese possible confounding factors pose a threat to internal validity. Histor) E!!e"ts <ertain events or factors would have an impact on the independent variable' dependent variable relationship might unexpectedly (unforeseen / uncontrollable) occur while the experiment is in progress. 8ime) t1LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL t6LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLt5 :ales ,ependent variable

:ales Kromotion &ndependent variable

,airy farmers* advertisement !ncontrolled variable M t(r tion E!!e"ts 8he maturation effects are a function of the processes'both biological and psychological'operating within the respondents as a result of the passage of time. 8ime) t1LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL t6LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLt5 :ales Kromotion &ndependent variable =aining experience and doing the "ob faster /aturation effects Testin+ E!!e"ts 8he (ind of sensiti$ation through previous testing is called the testing effect, which also affects the internal validity of experimental designs. (E.g. challenging "ob cause increases "ob satisfaction) Instr(ment tion E!!e"ts <hange in the measuring instrument between pretest and posttest, not because of the treatment*s differential impact at the end (E.g. performance of final units of output, number of re"ects, amount of resources expended) Se#e"tion E!!e"ts :ales ,ependent variable

&mproper or unmatched selection of sub"ects for the experimental and control groups. (E.g. impact of wor(ing environment on employees* attitudes toward wor( % some volunteers might be lured through incentives) St tisti" # Re+ression E!!e"ts 8he members chosen for the experiment group have extreme scores on the dependent variable. Mort #it) E!!e"ts Another confounding factor on the cause'and'effect relationship is the mortality or attrition of the members in the experimental or control group or both, as the experiment progresses.

2ACT,RS A22ECTING EXTERNAL /ALIDIT1

:ub"ect selection and its interaction with the treatment would also pose a threat to external validity. <reating experimental conditions that are as close as possible to the situations to which the results of the experiment are to be generali$ed.

/ARIABLES IN RESEARCH
What is variableM A variable is simply an attribute on which cases vary % construct / property -ariable is uality which ta(es different values or it is something which varies. 8he values can differ at various times for the same ob"ect or problem or at the same time for different ob"ects or persons. Cor ex mp#e, production units, absenteeism, motivation etc. According to Nerlinger Ea variable as a symbol to which numerals or values are assignedF e.g. x'intelligence % high (124) to low (24) <ases % organi$ation, people, offices, shops, production plants, cities, nations, event, act characteristic, trait &f an attribute does not vary % constant e.g. all manufacturing organi$ation having same ratio of male/female managers % constant T)pes o! $ ri *#es) ,ichotomous variable @nly two values % e.g. employed / unemployed, male/ female, 4/1 ,iscrete variable Cit into categories % certain values are possible % e.g. 8oyota 1 ford 6 =/ 5 <ontinuous variable -alues within given range % some cases infinite % e.g. income, temperature, age, test score, intelligence test (4 to 144, ' age 65.2, present income #s.;4, 444) Experimental variable 8he experimental (or active) variables are those which can be manipulated either by the experimenter or others.

e.g. effect of televised appearances on people*s votes for candidate % possible to manipulate the timing or content or amount of televised political ads. @rganismic variable @rganismic (also called attribute) variables are ualities (i.e. religion, income, education, political party preferences, etc.) which persons already have. !nli(e experimental variables, these properties of sub"ects cannot be usually manipulated or exposed. Dependent $ ri *#e 3D/4 De!inition) 8he variable that is primary interest to the researcher is called as dependent variable. 8he researcher has to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it. &t is possible to find a solution to the problem by finding what variables influence the dependent variable. 8he researcher is interested in uantifying and measuring the dependent variable and other variables that influence the dependent variable. Ex mp#e 1. &ntroduction of a product after test mar(eting % here, sales is the dependent variable. 6. &nvestigating the debt e uity ratio of a manufacturing company % ratio of debt to e uity is the dependent variable. 5. Employees are not loyal to the organi$ation % variance found in the level of organi$ational loyalty of employees. We need to find out what variable affect the variance in loyalty. 8here may be more than one dependent variable, for ex mp#e) 1. 8here is always conflict between uality and volume of output. 6. How cost production and customer satisfaction 8he manager is interested to (now the factors that influence all the dependent variables of interest and how some of them differ in regard to different dependent variables. 8he researcher uses multivariate analysis in this regard. Independent $ ri *#e 3I/4 De!inition) An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable either a positive or negative way. Each unit independent variable increase, there is increase or decrease in the independent variable, i.e. the variance in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable. Ex mp#e !or independent $ ri *#e ,iagram ' relationship between the independent variable (new product success) and the dependent variable (stoc( mar(et price). Dew product :uccess Independent $ ri *#e : :toc( /ar(et price Dependent $ ri *#e

,iagram of relationships between the independent variable (managerial values) and the dependent variable (power distance). /anagerial values Independent $ ri *#e Independent $ ri *#e Kredictor Kresumed cause :timulus Kredicted from Antecedent /anipulated Moder tin+ $ ri *#e 3M/4 De!inition: 8he presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent variables. 8he moderating variable has a strong contingent effect on the independent % dependent variable, i.e. the presence of moderating variable modifies the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Availability of #eference manuals Independent $ ri *#e &nterest and &nclination Moder tin+ $ ri *#e 8he distin"tion between an independent variable and a moderating variable are discussed below) Extr neo(s / ri *#es 3E/4 An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (E-s) exist that might conceivable affect a given relationship. &t must be either assumed or excluded from the study. Cortunately, these variables have little or no effect on a given situation must can safely ignored. e.g. effect of sales coupon % three day reainy spell Do. of Do. of re"ects #e"ects ,ependent variable Kower distance Dependent $ ri *#e S)non)ms

Dependent $ ri *#e : <riterion Kresumed effect #esponse Kredicted to <onse uence /easured outcome

Inter$enin+ $ ri *#e 3I//4 ,efinition) 8he intervening variable surfaces between the times the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. 8here is a temporal uality or time dimension to the intervening variable. 8he intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps to conceptuali$e and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable. 8he variable mentioned with regard to causal relationships are concrete an clearly measureable then can be seen, counted or observed in some way. &-- may be defined as that factor which theoretically affects, the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated e.g. A promotion campaign (&-) will increase savings activity (,-), especially when free pri$es are offered (/-), but chiefly among small savers (E-'control). 8his results from enhancing the motivation to same (&--)

MEASUREMENT ,2 /ARIABLES : ,PERATI,NAL DE2INITI,N AND SCALES

H,& /ARIABLES ARE MEASURED @b"ects that can be p')si" ##) me s(red *) some " #i*r ted instr(ments pose no measurement problem. e.g. length O width of rectangular table % with a measuring tape ,emographic characteristics of the office personnel % by simple uestions. ,PERATI,NAL DE2INITI,N: Dimensions nd E#ements o! Con"epts @perationali$ing, operationally defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by loo(ing at the behavioural dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept. 8hese are then translated into observable and measurable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of the concept. e.g. @perationali$ing, the concept of Achievement /otivation

THE 2,UR T1PES ,2 SCALES

SCALES A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study. 8he higher the level of measurement, the more precision in measurement and every level up contains all the properties of the previous level. 8he four levels of measurement, from lowest to highest, are as follows)

Nomin # S" #e A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign sub"ects to certain categories or groups. e.g. male and female (code 1 or 6) American, Australian, <hinese, =erman, &ndian, Papanese, @ther ,rdin # S" #e An ordinal scale not only categori$es the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also ran('orders the categories as some meaningful way. e.g. ran( the following % most important item 1, the next 6, 5, ;,2 5o* C' r teristi" 8he opportunity provided by the "ob to) 1.&nteract with others 6.!se a number of different s(ills 5.<omplete a whole tas( from beginning to end ;.:erve others 2.Wor( independently Inter$ # S" #e An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetical operations on the data collected from the respondents. &t measures the distance between ay two points on the scale. &t also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among the individuals. e.g. indicate the extent to which you agree with the following statements as they relate to you "ob, by circling the appropriate number against each, using the scale give below. Stron+#) Neit'er A+ree Stron+#) Dis +ree Dis +ree Nor Dis +ree A+ree A+ree 7 8 9 : ; 8he following "ob opportunities offered by the "ob are very important to me) 1.&nteract with others 1 6 5 ; 2 6.!se a number of different s(ills 1 6 5 ; 2 5.<omplete a whole tas( from beginning to end 1 6 5 ; 2 ;.:erve others 1 6 5 ; 2 2.Wor( independently 1 6 5 ; 2 R tio S" #e 8he ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it has an absolute $ero point, which is a meaningful measurement point. 8hus the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences. Cor example, the $ero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. Gut an absolute $ero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing only in the scientist*s mind. 8he number of R n6in+ o! Import n"e LLL LLL LLL LLL LLL

traffic violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Eg. A person weighing 624 pounds is twice as heavy as one who weighs 162 pounds, note that multiplying or dividing both of these numbers by any given number will preserve the ratio of 6)1. #atio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. /easures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc, are examples. 8hus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly.

MEASUREMENT: SCALING< RELIABILIT1< /ALIDIT1

SCALING TECHNI=UES 2RE=UENTL1 USED

RATING SCALES
Di"'otomo(s S" #e 8he dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Bes or Do answer. Dote that a nominal scale is used to elicit. 8he response. Eg. ,o you own a carM Bes / Do C te+or) S" #e 8he category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response. 8his also uses the nominal scale. Eg. Where in <hennai do you reside (south, north, east, west) Li6ert S" #e 8he Hi(et scale is designed to examine how strongly sub"ects agree or disagree with statements on a 2'point scale with the following anchors) Stron+#) Dis +ree 7 Neit'er A+ree Nor Dis +ree 9 Stron+#) A+ree ;

Dis +ree 8

A+ree :

Sem nti" Di!!erenti # S" #e :everal bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of the scale, and respondents are as(ed to indicate their attitudes, on what may be called a semantic differential space, toward a particular individual, ob"ect, or event on each of the attributes. 8he bipolar ad"ectives used, for instance, would employ such terms as =ood' Gad, :trong'Wea(Q 0ot'<old. 8he semantic differential scale is used to assess respondents* attitudes toward a particular brand, advertisement, ob"ect, or individual. 8his is treated as an interval scale. Eg. #esponsive LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL !nresponsive Geautiful LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL !gly <ourageous LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL LLLL 8imid

N(meri" # S" #e 8he numerical scale also semantic differential scale, with the difference that numbers on a 2'point or 7'point scale provided, with bipolar ad"ectives at both ends. 8his is also an interval scale. Extremely Extremely Kleased 7 3 2 ; 5 6 1 ,ispleased Itemi0ed R tin+ S" #e A 2'point or 7'point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item and the respondent states the appropriate number on the side of each item, or circles the relevant number against each item. 8his uses an interval scale. Eg. #espond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number on the line by each item. 1 -ery !nli(ely 6 !nli(ely 5 Deither !nli(ely Dor Hi(ely ; Hi(ely 2 -ery Hi(ely

LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL 1. & will be changing my "ob within the next 16 months 6. & will ta(e on new assignments in the near future 5. &t is possible that & will be out of this organi$ation within the next 16 months Dote that the above is balanced rating scale with a neutral point 2ixed or Const nt S(m R tin+ S" #e 8he respondents are here as(ed to distribute a given number of points across various items. 8his is more in the nature of an ordinal scale. Eg. &n choosing toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the following five aspects by allotting points for each to total 144 in all. Cragrance LLLL <olour LLLL :hape LLLL :i$e LLLL 8exture of lather LLLL LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL 8otal points 144 LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL St pe# S" #e 8his scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the items under study. 8he characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the centre and a numerical scale ranging, say, from R5 to '5, on either side of the item. LLLLLL LLLLLL LLLLLL

:tate how would you rate your supervisor*s abilities with respect of each characteristics R5 R6 R1 Adopting /odern 8echnology '1 '6 '5 R5 R6 R1 Kroduct &nnovation '1 '6 '5 R5 R6 R1 &nterpersonal :(ills '1 '6 '5

Gr p'i" R tin+ S" #e A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a particular uestion by placing a mar( at the appropriate point on the line. 8his is an ordinal scale. 14 Excellent @n a scale of 1 to 14 how would you rate 2 All right your supervisorM 1 -ery bad Consens(s S" #e :cales are also developed by consensus (agreement), where a panel of "udges selects certain items, which in its view measure the relevant concept. 8he items are chosen particularly based on their pertinence or relevance to the concept. @n such consensus scale is the T'(rstone E>( # Appe rin+ Inter$ # S" #e, where a concept is measured by a complex process followed by a panel of "udges. ,t'er S" #es 8here are also some advanced scaling methods such as multidimensional scaling, where ob"ects, people, or both, are visually scaled, and a con"oint analysis is performed. #ADN&D= :<AHE: #an(ing scales are used to tap preferences between two or among more ob"ects or items (ordinal in nature). 0owever, such ran(ing may not give definitive clues to some of the answers sought. Kaired <omparisons 8he paired comparison scale is used when, among a small number of ob"ects, respondents are as(ed to choose between two ob"ects at a time. 8his helps to assess preferences. E.g. Dew flavour of soft dring and an established brand of drin(

Gut when there are more than two stimuli to "udge, the number of "udgements re uired in a paired comparison is given by the formula) D I n (n % 1) ''''''''''' 6 #esponse Katterns of 144 /embers* Kaired <omparisons of ; :uggestions for !nion Gargaining Kroposal Kriorities. :uggestions A A G < , ' ;4 ;2 S4 132 32 ' 24 64 152 G 56 5S ' TS 13S < 64 ;6 74 ' 156 ,

<omparing the total number of preference s for each of the four proposals, < is the most popular, followed by A, G, and , respectively in popularity. Corced <hoice 8he forced choice enables respondents to ran( ob"ects relative to one another among the alternative provided. 8his is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be ran(ed is limited in number. E.g. #an( the following maga$ines that you would li(e to subscribe to in the order of preference, assigning 1 for the most preferred choice and 2 for the least preferred. &ndia 8oday LLLL Gusiness World LLLL Crontline LLLL @utloo( LLLL <omparative :cale 8he comparative scale provides a benchmar( or a point of reference to assess attitudes toward the current ob"ect, event, or situation under study. E.g. in a volatile financial environment, compared to stoc(s, how wise or useful is it to invest in 8reasury bondsM Klease circle the appropriate response. /ore !seful About the :ame Hess !seful 1 6 5 ; 2

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT AND SCALES

Among all the decisions, decisions ta(en in the mar(eting function are heavily based on attitude of the current / potential customers of a company. Attitude is a learned tendency of individuals to respond in a consistent manner to a given ob"ect of orientation E#ements o! me s(rin+ ttit(de re s !o##o?s Kersons, ob"ects, events, concepts or states to be observed Environmental conditions of the study :teps to be performed in collecting the observations &nstruments to be used to perform the steps @bservations to be collected 2(nd ment #s o! D t Co##e"tion Met'ods / ri *i#it) met'ods Kaired comparison techni ue #an(ing method @rdered'category sorting #ating methods =( ntit ti$e @(d+ment met'ods ,irect "udgment methods Craction method <onstant sum method T)pes o! s" #es Dominal scale @rdinal scale &nterval scale #atio scale S" #es !or Stim(#i 8hurstone*s <ase'- :cale /odel @sgood*s :emantic ,ifferential :cale S" #in+ respondents :ummated scale (Hi(ert :cale) U'sort scale S" #es !or Stim(#i nd Respondents <umulative scaling/ =uttmann scale /ultidimensional scaling

G,,DNESS ,2 MEASURES A / #idit) B Re#i *i#it)

&t is important to ma(e sure that the instrument that we develop to measure a particular concept is indeed accurately measuring the variable, and that in fact, we are actually measuring the concept that we set out to measure. 8his ensures that in operationally defining perceptual and attitudinal variables, we have not overloo(ed some important dimensions and elements or included some irrelevant ones. 8he use of better instruments will ensure more accuracy in results, which in turn, will enhance the scientific uality of the research. 0ence, in some way we need to assess the EgoodnessF of the measures developed. Item An #)sis &tem analysis is done to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate between those sub"ects whose total scores are high, and those with low scores. RELIABILIT1 8he reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the goodnessF of the measure.

St *i#it) o! Me s(res
8he ability of a measure to remain the same over time % despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselves'is indicative of its stability and low vulnerability to changes in the situation Test-Retest Re#i *i#it) 8he reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion is called test'retest reliability E.g. same uestionnaire to same respondents after several wee(s or 3 months P r ##e#-2orm Re#i *i#it) 8wo comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated. Goth forms have similar items and the same response format, the only changes being the wordings and the order or se uence of the uestions. Intern # Consisten") o! Me s(res 8he internal consistency of measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the measure that tap the construct. &n other words, the items should Ehang together as a setF, and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items. Sp#it-' #! re#i *i#it) "oe!!i"ient. 8his reflects the correlations between two halves of a set of items. 8he coefficients obtained will vary depending on how the scale is split. We obtain split'half reliability to test for consistency when more than one scale, dimensions, or factor, is assessed. We split the items across each of the dimensions or factors based on some predetermined logic. Inter-item Consisten") Re#i *i#it) #espondents* answer to all the items in a measure correlated with one another

/ #idit)
A characteristic of measurement concerned that a test measures what the researcher actually wishes to measureQ that differences found with a measurement tool reflect true differences among respondents drawn from a population. &t is concerned above the issue of authenticity of the cause'and'effect relationships (internal validity), and their generali$ability to the external environment (external validity). Content / #idit) 3Lo+i" # / #idit)4 Ade uate and representative set of items that tab the concept. &t is a function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept delineated. 2 "e / #idit) is considered by some as a basic and very minimum index of content validity. Cace validity indicates that the items that are intended to measure a concept, do on the face of it loo( li(e they measure the concept. Criterion-Re# ted / #idit) <riterion'related validity can be established by testing for the power of the measure to differentiate individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict. Con"(rrent / #idit) is established when the scale discriminates individuals who are (nown to be different. Predi"ti$e / #idit) indicates the ability of the measuring instrument to differentiate among individuals with reference to a future criterion. Constr("t / #idit) &t testifies to how well the results obtained from the used of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed. Con$er+ent $ #idit) can be established when there is high degree correlation between two different sources responding to the same measure (e.g. both supervisors and subordinates respond similarly perceived reward system measure administered to them) Dis"rimin nt $ #idit) can be established when two distinctly different concepts are not correlated to each other (e.g. courage and honestyQ leadership and motivationQ attitudes and behavior).