RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION
SANITATION Sanitation is one of the basic determinants of Quality of Life. Sanitation is defined as safe management of human excreta including its safe confinement, treatment, and disposal and associated hygiene related practices. The earlier concept of sanitation was only associated with safe disposal of human excreta but It also includes management of solid wastes and other hazardous wastes and drainage and management of drinking water supply. World Health Organization (WHO), in 1987 defined sanitation as is the means of collecting and disposing excreta and community liquid wastes in a hygienic way so as not to endanger the health of individuals and community as a whole. The underlying objective of sanitation is to dispose wastes in a hygienic manner so that individual and public health are not endangered but enhanced. The term sanitation can be applied to a specific aspect, concept, location or strategy such as: 1. Basic Sanitation: It refers to the management of faeces at the household level. 2. On-site Sanitation: It refers to collection and treatment of waste at the site of creation. Examples of on-site sanitation are pit latrines, septic tanks and imhoff tanks. 3. Food Sanitation: It refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety. 4. Environmental Sanitation: It refers to the control of environmental factors that form links in disease transmission. Subsets of these categories are solid waste management, wastewater treatment and industrial waste treatment. 5. Ecological Sanitation: Its an effort to emulate nature through the recycling of nutrients and water from human and animal wastes in a hygienically safe manner. The main objective of sanitation is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of diseases. In order to be sustainable, a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable, technically and institutionally appropriate; it should also protect the environment and the natural resources. When improving an existing sanitation system or designing a new sanitation system, the following sustainability criteria should be considered: 1. Health and hygiene: It includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal and downstream populations. This topic also covers aspects such as hygiene, nutrition and improvement of livelihood achieved by the application of a certain sanitation system, as well as downstream effects. 2. Environment and natural resources: It involves the required energy, water and other natural resources for construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the environment resulting from its use. It also includes the degree of recycling and reuse practiced and the effects of these (e.g. reusing SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

wastewater; returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture), and the protection of other non-renewable resources, e.g. through the production of renewable energies (such as biogas). 3. Technology and operation: It incorporates the functionality and the ease with which the entire system including the collection, transport, treatment and reuse and/or final disposal can be constructed, operated and monitored by the local community and/or the technical teams of the local utilities. Furthermore, the robustness of the system, its vulnerability towards power cuts, water shortages, floods, earthquakes etc. and the flexibility and adaptability of its technical elements to the existing infrastructure and to demographic and socio-economic developments are important aspects. 4. Financial and economic issues: It relates to the capacity of households and communities to pay for sanitation, including the construction, operation, maintenance and necessary reinvestments in the system. Besides the evaluation of these direct costs also direct benefits e.g. from recycled products (soil conditioner, fertiliser, energy and reclaimed water) and external costs and benefits have to be taken into account. Such external costs are e.g. environmental pollution and health hazards, while benefits include increased agricultural productivity and subsistence economy, employment creation, improved health and reduced environmental risks. 5. Socio-cultural and institutional aspects: The criteria in this category refer to the sociocultural acceptance and appropriateness of the system, convenience, system perceptions, gender issues and impacts on human dignity, the contribution to food security, compliance with the legal framework and stable and efficient institutional settings.

Fig 1: Faecal-oral transmission route of disease

Improper sanitation is a major cause of water-borne diseases. In the year 2002, there were 2.6 million people globally without a toilet. As a result, countless people suffered from poor health. The transmission usually takes place through the faecal-oral route and it takes place because of Poorly managed dry sanitation.

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

Damaged or poorly functioning water-borne sewerage. Poorly managed latrines.

Wagner and Lanoixs popular F-diagram(as shown in Fig 1) of disease transmission and control identify the following as the primary agents of disease transmission: Fingers Fluids Flies Fields/Floors

THE LADDER OF SANITATION Sanitation may be as cheap and simple as a protected pit latrine or as expensive and complex as a flush toilet with sewerage. The further up the ladder', the greater the benefits for people and the environment. The simplest form of sanitation is the pit latrine with a squat slab cover to stop contact with excreta by humans, animals and insects and a shelter around it for privacy and protection. The hole may be lined to prevent it collapsing. Pit toilets are used in rural or wilderness areas. Their advantages are that they are cheap and easy to build and maintain but they can smell and attract flies and the pit must be moved or emptied regularly. Moving up the ladder is the self-ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP). These are a little more expensive and use slightly more complicated technology. A vent pipe higher than the shelter reduces the smells and flies. They are still cheap to build and easy to maintain but are dependent on wind and are dark inside. The next step is the pour-flush latrine which uses a pan with a water-seal connected to a pit by a pipe. This stops flies and smells from coming out of the pit, but a water source is needed. Further up the ladder are composting toilets which vary greatly in construction and expense. They all use micro-organisms to break down the waste into organic compost or manure. Various systems of vents or fans may be used to speed up the process of composting. Advantages of composting toilets include reuse of the compost as fertilizer, reduced pollution of ground water and lack of dependence on water, but skilled labour is required for the construction. At the top of the ladder is a full sewerage system, which is an extensive series of pipes leading to a sewage treatment plant. It is costly to install and maintain such systems and rapid urbanization is stretching most existing systems beyond capacity.

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

SANITATION IN INDIA The Government of India has set up vision that All Indian Towns and Cities become totally sanitized, healthy and liveable and ensure and sustain good public health and environmental outcomes for all their citizens with a special focus on hygienic and affordable sanitation facilities for the urban poor and women. Water supply and sanitation were added to the national agenda during the first five-year planning period (1951-1956), and increasing investments have been made in subsequent plans. In line with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment and increasing recognition that centralised, government controlled, and supply driven approaches need to be changed to more decentralised, people centric and demand responsive approaches has led to the revamping of the ARWSP (Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme), and the inception of the Sector Reforms programme. This major paradigm shift in thinking and policy, launched in 1999, incorporates the principles of: Adoption of demand responsive approaches based on empowerment, to ensure full participation in decision making, control and management by communities. Shifting the role of governments from direct service delivery to that of planning, policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation and partial financial support. Partial cost sharing.

The RCRSP (Restructured Central Rural Sanitation) that came into being from 1st April 1999 advocates shift from a high subsidy to a low subsidy regime, greater household involvement and demand responsiveness, provides for the promotion of a range of toilet options to promote increased affordability, has strong emphasis on IEC and social marketing, provides for stronger backup systems such as trained masons and building materials through rural sanitary marts and production centers and includes a thrust on school sanitation as an entry point for encouraging wider acceptance of sanitation by rural masses. Centrally sponsored low cost sanitation schemes continue to remain a key component of urban sanitation in the Tenth Plan and will continue to be propagated as not just a programme for urban poor or slum populations, but also an appropriate intervention wherever the costly option of underground drainage is not feasible. A new scheme for community pay-and-use toilet complexes, and the VAMBY (Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana) housing for slum development with 20 per cent fund component for sanitation is also proposed. The national policy guiding the water and sanitation sector in India today is contained in the Eighth Five-Year Plan 1992-97) High priority was given to The primary responsibility for providing drinking water and sanitation facilities in the country rests with the State Governments, and, more specifically, the local bodies in the urban areas. The Centre provides allocates funds and also ensures that funds are provided in State budgets, and progressively larger allocations have been made for water supply and sanitation in the various five year plans. SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

RURAL SANITATION IN INDIA

Of the estimated 2.4 billion people who have no access to sanitation facilities, 600 million are thought to be in South Asia. A decade ago, only about 20-30 percent of the population in most of South Asia was estimated to have access to safe sanitation facilities. According to the 2001 Census data, only 21.9 percent of the rural population in India had access to latrines. In addition, coverage in rural areas is less than half of that in urban areas. Consumption of contaminated drinking water, improper disposal of human excreta, lack of personal and food hygiene and improper disposal of solid and liquid waste have been the major causes of many diseases in developing countries such as India. Low awareness of the potential health benefits (and, therefore, the economic benefits) of better hygiene practices, perception of costs of having a household toilet as being very high and unaffordable, looking to urban examples as the role model, the sheer convenience of open defecation and inadequate involvement of local selfgovernment bodies have kept the sanitation status low.

CENTRAL RURAL SANITATION PROGRAMME Indias first nationwide program for rural sanitation, the Central Rur al Sanitation Programme (CRSP), was launched in 1986 in the Ministry of Rural Development with the objective of improving the quality of life of rural people and to provide privacy and dignity to women. The programme was supply-driven, highly subsidized, and gave emphasis on a single construction model. The programme provided large subsidy for construction of sanitary latrines for below-thepoverty-line (BPL) households. Since its inception and up to the end of the IXth Plan, 9.45 million latrines were constructed for rural households under the CRSP as well as corresponding State MNP. The total investment made under the CRSP was US$ 138 million, and under the State sector MNP, US$ 232 million. Whatever the villages geology or water supply situation, only one design is offered a pour flush twin pit latrine with brick built superstructure. The government controls materials and construction and no local labour is involved. For a poor family, the cost of this latrine would break down as:

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

Family contribution Rs 500 Government subsidy Rs 2,000 Total Cost Rs 2,500

The government promotes the CRSP via state and district administration, or through its own national agencies such as CAPART, which works through NGOs. Coverage has been disappointing as, due to the high level of subsidy, the government is only able to allot one or two latrines per village. Many of these latrines are not being used for their original purpose as there is no widespread hygiene education work, and the main motivating force for their construction is the high subsidy. Even if more support were forthcoming, extending this subsidy approach to every household in rural India would cost the government an estimated 4.5 billion. Furthermore, the limited availability of such a high subsidy has tended to restrict beneficiaries to the more prominent members of society. Although the income qualification for subsidy has recently been reduced, the government programme, with its high specification model, is associated with the middle classes. The Programme led to only a marginal increase in the rural sanitation coverage, with average annual increase in the rural sanitation coverage of only 1 percent. There were many factors contributing to the low coverage. There was total lack of community participation in this traditional, supply driven, subsidy oriented, and government programme. There was poor utilization of whatever toilets were constructed under the Programme due to many reasons i.e. lack of awareness, poor construction standards, emphasis on high cost designs, absence of participation of beneficiaries, etc. Most of the States could not provide adequate priority to the sanitation programme. The CRSP had also neglected school sanitation, which is considered as one of the vital components of sanitation. CRSP also failed to have linkages with various local institutions like ICDS, Mahila Samakhya, women, PRIs, NGOs, research institutions, SHGs, etc. TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN The CRSP was restructured in 1999 with a provision for phasing out the allocation-based component by the end of the IXth Plan i.e. 2001-2002. The TSC was launched in April 1999, advocating of a shift from a high subsidy to a low subsidy regime, a greater household involvement and demand responsiveness, and providing for the promotion of a range of toilet options to promote increased affordability. The TSC gives emphasis on Information, Education and Communication (IEC) for demand generation of sanitation facilities, providing for stronger backup systems such as trained masons and building materials through rural sanitary marts and production centres and including a thrust on school sanitation as an entry point for encouraging wider acceptance of sanitation by rural masses as key strategies. It also lays emphasis on school sanitation and hygiene education for bringing about attitudinal and behavioural changes for relevant

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sanitation and hygiene practices from a young age. Although the low subsidy policy met with initial resistance, gradually, there is growing acceptance among implementers and local communities. Currently, the TSC promotes the safe disposal of human excreta, including childs excreta, safe handling of drinking water, proper disposal of wastewater, solid waste management, domestic sanitation and food hygiene, personal hygiene and rural environmental sanitation. It is not restricted to the construction of latrines only. OBJECTIVES OF TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN The Total Sanitation Campaign was established with the following objectives: Bring about an improvement in the general quality of life in rural areas Accelerate sanitation coverage Generate demand through awareness and health education Cover all schools and anganwadis in rural areas with sanitation facilities and promote hygiene behaviour among students and teachers Encourage cost effective and appropriate technology development and application Endeavour to reduce water and sanitation related diseases.

COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN The programme components and activities for TSC implementation are as follows: Start-Up Activities The start-up activities include conducting of preliminary survey to assess the status of sanitation and hygiene practices, peoples attitude and demand for improved sanitation, etc. with the aim to prepare the District TSC project proposals for seeking Government of India assistance. The start-up activities will also include conducting a Baseline Survey (BLS), preparation of Project Implementation Plan (PIP), initial orientation and training of key programme managers at the district level. IEC Activities Information, Education and Communication(IEC) are important components of the Programme. These intend to create demand for sanitary facilities in the rural areas for households, schools, Anganwadis, Balwadies and Community Sanitary Complexes. The activities carried out under this component should be area specific and should also involve all sections of the rural population, in a manner, where willingness of the people to construct latrines is generated. Rural Sanitary Marts and Production Center The Rural Sanitary Mart is an outlet dealing with the materials required for the construction of not only sanitary latrines but also other sanitary facilities required for individuals, families and the environment in the rural areas. RSM should necessarily have those items, which are SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

required as a part of the sanitation package. It is a commercial venture with a social objective. The main aim of having a RSM is to provide materials, services and guidance needed for constructing different types of latrines and other sanitary facilities, which are technologically and financially suitable to the area. Construction of Individual Household Latrines A duly completed household sanitary latrine shall comprise of a Basic Low Cost Unit (without the super structure). All existing dry latrines in rural areas should be converted to pour flush latrines. The programme is aimed to cover all the rural families. Incentive as provided under the scheme may be extended to Below Poverty Line families, if the same is considered necessary for full involvement of the community. The construction of household toilets should be undertaken by the BPL household itself and on completion and use of the toilet by the BPL household, the cash incentive can be given to the BPL household in recognition of its achievement. The financing pattern including the incentive for BPL household for construction of Individual house hold latrines is as follows:Basic Low Cost Unit GOI Upto Rs. 625 Between Rs. 625 and 1000 Above Rs. 1000 BPL 60% 30% Nil APL Nil Nil NIl Contribution State BPL APL 20% Nil 30% Nil Nil Nil

HouseHold BPL APL 20% 100% 40% 100% 100% 100%

Table 1: Incentive for BPL household latrine construction

Community Sanitary Complex Community Sanitary Complex is an important component of the TSC .These Complexes can be set up in a place in the village acceptable to women/men/ landless families and accessible to them. The maintenance of such complexes is very essential for which Gram Panchayat should own the ultimate responsibility or make alternative arrangements at the village level. Maximum unit cost prescribed for a community complex is upto Rs 2 lakhs. School Sanitation and Hygiene Education Children are more receptive to new ideas and schools/Anganwadis are appropriate institutions for changing the behaviour, mindset and habits of children from open defecation to the use of lavatory through motivation and education. The experience gained by children through use of toilets in school and sanitation education imparted by teachers would reach home and would also influence parents to adopt good sanitary habits. School Sanitation, therefore, forms an integral part of every TSC Project. Toilets in all types of Government Schools i.e. Primary, Upper Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary and Anganwadis should be constructed. In addition to creation of hardware in the schools, it is essential that hygiene education is imparted to the children on all aspects of hygiene. For this purpose, at least one teacher in each school must be trained in hygiene education who in turn should train the children through interesting activities and community projects that emphasize hygiene behaviour. SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

Anganwadi Toilets In order to change the behaviour of the children from very early stage in life, it is essential that Anganwadis are used as a platform of behaviour change of the children as well as the mothers attending the Anganwadis. For this purpose each anganwadi should be provided with a baby friendly toilet. TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN IMPLEMEMNTATION MECHANISM The TSC is being implemented in 559 districts of the States/UTs with support from the GOI and the respective State/UT Governments. The States/UTs draw up a TSC Project for the select districts to claim GOI assistance. A TSC Project is expected to take about 3-5 years for implementation. At the district level, Zilla Panchayats implement the project. In case, Zilla Panchayat is not functional, District Water and Sanitation Mission (DWSM) can implement the TSC. Similarly, at the block and the Panchayat levels, Panchayat Samitis and respective Gram Panchayats are involved in implementation of the TSC. Fig 2 shows TSC-delivery structure. In TSC fund is earmarked both for the hardware and software activities. Fund is provided for hardware activities like construction of toilets in households, schools, Anganwadis, public places, setting up of RSMs/PCs and software activities like awareness creation, capacity building of different stakeholders, start up activity like conducting baseline survey, administrative expenses etc.
Start-up activities IEC Awareness Campaign PLA /Baseline/ PIP

NGOs/CBOs

RSM/PCs IEC & HRD activities Home visits Community sanitation survey Mobilisation Motivator identification School and Anganwadi based activities Hygiene Education PLA Extension Workers Motivators Volunteers SHGs Masons Construction Households Schools Anganwadis Community complexes Health Centres and institutions
PRIs

Fig 2: Total Sanitation Campaign Delivery Structure

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

NIRMAL GRAM PURASKAR To add vigour to the TSC, in June 2003, GoI initiated an incentive scheme for fully sanitised and open defecation free Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and Districts called the 'Nirmal Gram Puraskar'. Eligible Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and Districts are those that achieve (a) 100% sanitation coverage of individual households, (b) 100% school sanitation coverage, (c) free from open defecation and (d) clean environment maintenance.
YEAR 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 NGP GPs 38 760 4945 12144 4556 2808 AWARDED

Table 2: Nirmal Gram Puraskar Awarded Gram Panchayat

Nirmal Gram Puraskar awards in the country has covered 2808 Gram Panchayat in 2010 from 38 Gram Panchayat in 2005. An amount of 50,000 to 5,00,000 is given to Panchyati Raj Institutions depending on population for creating other sanitation infrastructure and maintenance.
Particulars

Population Criteria
Cash Incentive Recommended In US $ Incentive to Individuals Incentive to Organisation/s other than PRIs

Gram Panchayat Up to 5000 5001 and above 4,445 8,890

Block
Up to 50000 22,222 50001 and above 44,444

District Up to 1 million 66,667

Above 1 million 0.11 million

222 444

444 778

667 1,111

Table 3: Incentive Pattern under the Nirmal Gram Puraskar

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

ROLE OF GRAM PANCHAYAT IN TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN Gram Panchayats (Village level local self-government) have a pivotal role to play in the implementation of the TSC. They carry out the social mobilization towards safe sanitation and hygiene practices, and maintain a clean environment by way of safe management of wastes. Taking note of the need to empower local government institutions and promote communitybased action for sanitation and hygiene, some states announced innovative incentive frameworks for local government institutions, such as the Clean Village Campaign awards in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. These promoted competition among local governments to achieve preset standards for environmental cleanliness and collective sanitation outcomes.

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

STRENGTH OF TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN

POLITICAL WILL AND CREATION OF AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT The sanitation program in India is currently driven by strong political will within the Government. The program has been given patronage by the President of India himself who distributed Nirmal Gram Puraskars to the PRI functionaries and set the agenda for full sanitation coverage rolling. A similar commitment has been demonstrated at the Prime Ministerial and Ministerial levels, leading to greater involvement of the elected representatives. CAPACITY BUILDING AND COMMUNICATION In a demand-driven and community-based programme such as the TSC, effective and creative communication, and the capacity development of stakeholders and institutions, were the key to success. The imparting of knowledge, skills and attitude to local government representatives and district and block level officials to manage water and sanitation programs through active participation in decision-making processes were undertaken. CONCURRENT MONITORING, EVALUATION AND RESEARCH A robust monitoring system has been put in place to help improve implementation and track sustainability. An Internet-based online monitoring system. Which tracks physical and financial progress, fosters transparency and accountability. The quality of the process of implementation, the use and maintenance of toilets, and hygiene practices are monitored through third parties comprising NGOs, training institutions, and external support organizations, to ensure objectivity. This ensures timely feedback on the quality of implementation. Reports cards for states are developed twice a year to benchmark between states on outcomes. BUDGETARY INITIATIVE FOR RURAL SANITATION The Government has put aside a total of US$ 2,983.10 million, which includes a community share of US$ 445.18 million, with additional resources available for incentives for well performing local governments. The resource allocation has been substantially increased annually from US$ 31.34 million in 2002-03 to US$ 235.56 million in 2007-08.
Fig 3: Budget Allocation for different years for rural sanitation

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

ACHIEVEMENTS IN TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN Since its inception in 1999, TSC projects have been scaled up significantly and are operational in 559 rural districts. Remaining 27 districts are also being taken up in the financial year 200607. The main physical components sanctioned in the 559 projects to be achieved over a period of 4-5 years are as follows: Construction of 49.9 million individual household latrines for BPL families Construction of 45.6 million individual household latrines for APL families 657,000 toilets for schools 199,00 toilets for Balwadis/Anganwadis 36,098 community sanitary complexes 4,498 Rural Sanitary Marts / Production Centers Of the 138.2 million rural households in India (Census, 2001), nearly 24 million have constructed household toilets with support from the TSC. Besides, 250,000 school toilets, 69,000 Anganwadi toilets, 7,400 community complexes, and 6,925 production centers/ rural sanitary marts (RSMs) have been set up.

Fig 4: Progress in coverage of Rural Sanitation in India

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

CHALLENGES FACING THE TOTAL SANITATION CAMPAIGN Although the TSC was launched in 1999, the pace of progress has been slow. Rural sanitation being a State subject, it is necessary that State Governments accord high priority to the programme. This has not been so. All State Governments have not released their share of funds to TSC projects timely and some havent because of various constraints as well as lack of priority attached to the programme. There has been inadequate capacity building at the cutting edge level for implementing a demand driven project -giving emphasis on social mobilization and IEC. The major challenges can be summarized as given below; Lack of priority attached to the programme by state and district implementing agencies. The states where high priority is attached, good results are coming, e.g. West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra etc. Less emphasis on Capacity building and IEC activities: The implementation machinery at the field level, which is quite familiar with working of the supply driven, target oriented schemes of the government need to be sensitized further to the challenges of this demand driven approach. There is further need to create capacity to demand among the target group. For this change of attitude and ways of functioning of the persons responsible for the implementation of the scheme is needed. Management of this change in approach has not received the attention it deserves. Non-release of state share by some states to TSC projects Existence of state level high subsidy schemes in many states Non-promotion of range of technology options in few projects Quality of construction and maintenance Usage of the facilities so created Convergence of activities of various departments at National, State, district and grassroots level

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URBAN SANITATION IN INDIA

In India, 30.66 million household i.e. nearly 35% of the household in urban area do not have adequate access to sanitation facilities at home. Besides loss of human dignity it has severe impact on environment and health. Lack of sanitation facility and unscientific disposal of waste leads to contamination of surface and ground water. Recurrence of diseases among the people also results in loss to man days of working population to the country. The situation in urban areas is not as critical in terms of scale, but the sanitation problems in crowded environments are typically more serious and immediate. In these areas, the main challenge is to ensure safe environmental sanitation. Even in areas where households have toilets, the contents of bucket-latrines and pits, even of sewers, are often emptied without regard for environmental and health considerations. Sewerage systems, if they are even available, commonly suffer from poor maintenance, which leads to overflows of raw sewage. Today, with more than 20 Indian cities with populations of more than 1 million people, including Indian megacities, such as Kolkata, Mumbai, and New Delhi, antiquated sewerage systems simply cannot handle the increased load. In New Delhi alone, existing sewers originally built to service a population of only 3 million cannot manage the wastewater produced daily by the citys present inhabitants, now cl ose to a massive 14 million. URBAN SANITATION: CHALLENGES The following four categories could be broadly classified as urban sanitation challenges in Indian context: Low Infrastructure Coverage While infrastructure coverage is gradually improving, it has so far failed to keep pace with the rate of urban growth. In India it is estimated that 17 percent of the urban population currently has no access to any sanitary facilities at all, while 5080 percent of wastewater is disposed of without any treatment (National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2007). It may take several decades for sewerage and other sanitation services to become available to all of urban India. In the meantime, the great majority of urban residents will remain dependent on on-site sanitation facilities such as pour flush toilets discharging to leach pits or septic tanks. Municipal sanitation plans should therefore include measures to improve on-site sanitationotherwise they will meet the needs of just a small portion of the city. SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

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Municipal planners should also recognize that the worst sanitary conditions tend to be found in poor areas. Construction of a toilet is generally regarded as the householders responsibility but, for poor households, investments in sanitation are often constrained by issues relating to: Affordability, including the cost of connecting to sewer networks; Uncertainty over land tenure (fear of eviction); Space constraints; and The low priority given to sanitation (people may not appreciate its importance).

Limited Access to Services Sanitation facilities may be available but could be inconvenient, unpleasant or unhygienic. This may be the result of inappropriate design or construction, or inadequate management arrangements. Poor management is often a problem with community toilet blocks. Low Service Usage Even where toilets are available, some are not used or are underused, with family members defecating outside most of the time. This might be because the facilities are unacceptable in some way (for example, people may not be willing to share toilets), or because there is a longheld preference for open defecation. Weak Institutional Arrangements State agencies and municipalities sometimes make very large investments in sanitation infrastructure, but these do not always deliver their intended benefits because of the weak institutional arrangements. ISSUES IN URBAN SANITATION The following are the major issues in urban sanitation: Poor Awareness Sanitation has been given low priority and there has been poor awareness about its inherent linkages with public health. Poor Institutional Arrangement There are considerable gaps and overlaps in institutional roles and responsibilities at the national, state and city level. Lack of Integrated City Wide Approach Sanitation investment are done in piece meal manner and dont take into account the full cycle of safe confinement, treatment and disposal. Reaching the urban poor Urban poor communities as well other residents of informal settlements have been constrained by lack of tenure, space or economic constraints, in obtaining affordable access to safe SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

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sanitation. Lack of demand responsiveness Sanitation has been provided by public agencies in a supply-driven manner, with little regard for demands and preferences of households as customers of sanitation services. NATIONAL URBAN SANITATION POLICY The overall goal of this policy is to transform Urban India into community-driven, totally sanitized, healthy and liveable cities and towns. The specifc goals are: Awareness Generation and Behaviour Change a. Generating awareness about sanitation and its linkages with public and environmental health amongst communities and institutions. b. Promoting mechanisms to bring about and sustain behavioural changes aimed at adoption of healthy sanitation practices. Achieving Open Defecation Free Cities All urban dwellers will have access to and use safe and hygienic sanitation facilities and arrangements so that no one defecates in the open. In order to achieve this goal, the following activities shall be undertaken: a. Promoting access to households with safe sanitation facilities (including proper disposal arrangements). b. Promoting community-planned and managed toilets wherever necessary, for groups of households who have constraints of space, tenure or economic constraints in gaining access to individual facilities. c. Adequate availability and 100 % upkeep and management of Public Sanitation facilities in all Urban Areas, to rid them of open defecation and environmental hazards. Integrated city wide sanitation a. Mainstream thinking, planning and implementing measures related to sanitation in all sectors and departmental domains as a cross-cutting issue, especially in all urban management endeavors. b. Strengthening national, state, city and local institutions (public, private and community) to accord priority to sanitation provision, including planning, implementation and O&M management. c. Extending access to proper sanitation facilities for poor communities and other unserved settlements.

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

COMPONENTS OF NATIONAL URBAN SANITATION POLICY The government of India shall support the following components of the national urban sanitation policy: Awareness Generation A country-wide Information, Education and Communication (IEC) Strategy will be designed and implemented for raising awareness on the public health and environmental importance of sanitation. The socio-cultural biases against sanitation and sanitary work need to be targeted, and dignity and humane approach promoted in the elevation of priority to sanitation in public affairs. Institutional Roles The Govt. of India will support clear assignment of roles and responsibilities, resources and capacities and institutional incentives in relation to setting standards, planning and financing, implementation, knowledge development, capacity building and training, Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E), and regulatory arrangements. Knowledge Development The policy recognizes the importance of developing and disseminating knowledge on institutional development, technology choices and management regimes, planning new developments and upgradation, and sustainability issues. Capacity Building Govt. of India will help formulate and implement a National level strategy on capacity building and training to support states and cities to build their personnel capacities and organizational systems for delivery of sanitation services. National Monitoring & Evaluation At the national level, the Govt. of India will support periodic rating of cities by independent agencies. A National Annual Award will be instituted on the basis of this rating. CITY SANITATION PLAN City Sanitation Plans are strategic planning processes for citywide sanita-tion sector development. Addressing technical and non-technical aspects of sanitation services, city sanitation plans include the vision, missions, and goals of sanitation development as well as strategies to meet these goals. Although each city is different, city sanitation services should be developed based on a common set of principles. Services must be comprehensive and continuously accessible to all residents. The entire city should have sanitation services suited to its needs, allowing all residents to enjoy the benefits of improved sanitation. SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

To meet the total sanitation principles, a city needs a strategic approach. Following are some generic approaches that a city can use as the basis for developing more strategic approaches to sanitation development. Enhance synergy among the actors in sanitation development, including municipal government agencies, the private sector, NGOs, and others. Employ appropriate technologies that are suitable to user needs, while ensuring that they are relevant to the citys actual conditions, comply with technical standards, and prevent potential impacts. Develop sanitation in all parts of the city (citywide), prioritising poor residential areas where the health risks are highest. Promote awareness of health and hygiene behaviour while creating demand for better sanitation services. Create opportunities and incentives for private sector initiatives in the development and operation of sanitation services . Foster better use of existing sanitation services, which becomes the basis for developing new services. Encourage the development of community-based sanitation services, especially in areas where public and private services are difficult to establish. Engage stakeholder groups, including women groups, in sanitation planning, in line with their respective capacities. Create enabling institutional and regulatory frameworks to accelerate sanitation services development. Increase funding from sources other than municipal government, such as from the national and provincial governments, donor agencies, the private sector and the public. Adopt step-wise sanitation development as available resources allow.

Fig 5: Elements for planning and implementation of city wide sanitation

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

CASE STUDY I: CITY SANITATION PLAN, MUNI KI RETI, UTTRAKHAND

INTRODUCTION Muni ki reti town has an area of 6 sq. kms having a population of 7,881 as per 2001 census the current population of the city has been estimated about 12,000 with the annual growth rate of 10% . The city was declared an Urban Local Body (ULB) in 1949. The city ULB is known as Nagar Panchayat (class IV city) as it falls in the category of cities having population limit of 20,000. There are seven municipal wards in the city and whole city is divided in to two clusters for the sanitary purpose functions.

Fig 6: Map of Muni Ki reti showing two clusters of city

SANITATION SCENARIO OF THE CITY

As per the secondary data collected from MNP, out of total 1551 households 1300 households (about 90%) have their own latrines with septic tank whereas the primary survey data analysis shows about 85% households having their water closet type latrines draining in to their own septic tanks /interceptor tanks/ have mixed i.e. single and twin pit latrine system in their houses. About 30 households are using public/community toilets and about 20 households are practicing open defecation in the city these are the families belonging to BPL category. About 10% households have twin pit type latrines, while 5% households lack access to any household sanitation facilities. There are no arrangements for safe disposal and cleaning of on-site installations. At 1 or 2 places cases of unsafe disposal in to nallas and open drains were observed during the primary survey. There is no data available on issues of health and hygienic SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

practice due to unsafe disposal and other sanitary lacuna in the city. MNP has lack of staff engaged in sanitation services; also there is lack of technical persons in the staff therefore MNP needs to strengthen institutional capacities to develop, implement and to sustain the attained objectives of the city sanitation plan.

Fig 7: Drainage problem in Muni ki reti

CITY SANITATION PROCESS IN MUNI KI RETI To study the existing and future requirement for city sanitation, urban local bodies conducted a base line city sanitation survey under the supportive directions provided from UDD (Urban Development Directorate, Dehradun) in the month of July & August 2010. Technical assistance was provided from the urban development directorate officials and experts to collect the information on current sanitation situation and problems related to the issues mentioned in the NUSP 2008. As Muni ki reti has not been covered under any other city level sanitation programme therefore ULBs is enthusiastically handling the city sanitation plan development and implementation. The main works are related to street cleaning, solid waste management, and maintenance of public toilets.

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

CASE STUDY II: FEMALE SARPANCH ACHIEVES TOTAL SANITATION

INTRODUCTION Hajipally is a gram panchayat (GP) in Farooqnagar Mandal of Mehboobnagar district, one of the most backward districts in Andhra Pradesh. Hajipally, under the leadership of a female sarpanch,has achieved total sanitation with access to, and usage of, toilets by 100 percent households. This GP become open defecation free (ODF) by 2008 and moved beyond ODF to address other issues such as solid and liquid waste management, ensuring cement roads, underground drainage and sanitation facilities for all institutions. The Hajipally GP received the highest award at the state-level under the state reward scheme, the Shubram Awards by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. It also received the Nirmal Gram Puraskar from the Government of India.

This village has achieved ODF status in 2008 and sustained it; the village is totally clean, without any stagnant water either in the streets or any water points. The village has cement roads and each house is connected to underground drains with a proper disposal outside the village. The people have passed a resolution that the any guest or visitor to the village during fairs or ceremonies, such as marriages or family functions, should not defecate in the open. All the school toilets/anganwadi toilets have water supply and are well maintained. Drinking water is regularly chlorinated in the village. HOW TOTAL SANITATION IS MAINTAINED? The GP could sustain the change achieved with the following activities by the GP with all the stakeholders in the village: Separate school sanitation facilities for boys and girls, with running water facility. School Sanitation and Hygiene Committee maintains degradable and non-degradable dustbins in the school campus. In winter, youth club members formed teams of four members for monitoring of open SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

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RURAL AND RESOURCE PLANNING SANITATION: ISSUES AND PRACTICES IN INDIA

defecation practices and camp fires at open defecation places by the Nigrani Committee. Cleaning of bushes to prevent open defecation in GP jurisdiction and fixing of lights in open defecation area. Notices issued by the Gram Panchayat Water and Sanitation Committee during fairs and festivals: Guests are not to go outside for defecation. A Rs 500 penalty is being imposed per family if anybody goes outside for defecation. Visits by many officials, elected representatives of the other villages and the districts have also motivated the GP to maintain the status.

INITIATION AND SUPPORT The District Support Unit formed under the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) and Swajaladhara programmes visited the village in late 2006 and formed a Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC) involving the village elders, GP members and the active youth club. The president of the youth club played a major role in ensuring the participation of all the young people in the programme. Triggering activities using the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) approach had been undertaken in the village when the district initiated the CLTS programme under the then Collectors leadership. This programme was effective in bring people together and triggering behavior change. The VWSC developed a strategy to involve various groups such as youth clubs, womens self-help groups (SHGs), elected representatives from each ward and the informal/community leaders. The triggering tools used to bring about change in the behavioiur of villagers were: Participatory approaches to trigger the community and appealing to womens dignity. Health expenditure due to poor hygiene and sanitation and faecal-oral transmission of disease.

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REFERENCES Department of drinking water and sanitation, country paper, 2011. Enhanced quality of life through sustained sanitation, India country paper, 2011. Department of water supply and sanitation, www.ddws.nic.in Annual report, 2009-10, ministry of rural development National urban sanitation policy, Ministry of Urban Development City Sanitation Plan, Muni ki Reti, Uttarakhand

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