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COMM 292 Chapter 1 Notes

OB a field of study that looks at the impact that individuals, groups, and structures have on behaviour within organizations. OB is frequently applied to topics such as jobs, absenteeism, turnover, productivity, motivation, working in groups, and job satisfaction. Organization a consciously coordinated social unit composed of a group of people that function on a relatively continuous basis to achieve common goals OB considers that organizations are made up of individuals, groups and organizations. Different levels within an organization face different challenges. Challenges at individual level: Individual differences people with different personality characteristics, perception and behaviour. Hard to alter. Job satisfaction satisfied employees are more productive than unsatisfied employees. Negatively related to absenteeism and turnover. Motivation recognition for work well done. Rewards motivation. Empowerment the roles of mangers and employees have blurred as responsibilities of employees have grown. Freedom to make decision. Behaving ethically. Ethics is the study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong.

Challenges at group level: Working with others people skills are the key to success in any job. Workforce diversity organizations need to accommodate diverse groups of people by addressing their different lifestyles, family needs and work styles. Managers need to recognize the differences among individuals. Diversity if properly managed leads to increased creativity and innovation; if not, leads to higher turnover and miscommunication.

Challenges at organizational level: The use of temporary employees due to lack of security and stability, temporary employees dont always display commitment. Organizations need to keep those employees motivated and feel connected. Improving quality and productivity. Developing effective employees organizations need employees who will not only do their own work but also things that are not in the job description, i.e. volunteer for extra job activities, helping others on their team etc. OCB. Putting people first will result in less turnover and significantly greater sales, market values and profits. Encourages employees to work harder, smarter and more responsibly. Helping employees with work-life balance. Creating a positive work environment. Global competition loss of job to international outsourcing. Organizations and individuals must be committed to learning new skills, new ways of thinking and doing business. Managing and working in multicultural world.

Productivity a performance measure including effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness the achievement of goals. Efficiency the ratio of effective work output to the input required to production. A hospital is effective when it meets the needs of its clientele. It is efficient when it can do so at a low cost.

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employees formal job requirements, but promotes the effective functioning of the organization. i.e. showing care for organizational property. Positive organizational scholarship an area of OB research that concerns how organizations develop human strength, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential (study what is good about organizations). Building blocks of OB psychology, social psychology, sociology and anthropology. Psychology the science that seeks to measure, explain and change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Its contributions are learning, motivation, training, work stress, leadership effectiveness etc. that are mostly on the individual level. Social psychology blends concepts from psychology and sociology and focuses on peoples influence on one another. Its contributions are behavioral change, communication, group decision-making and attitude change. Sociology it studies people in relation to their social environment or culture. It contributes to OB through the study of group behaviour in organizations (group dynamics, design of work teams, organizational culture, power, and conflict). Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. It helped us understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different countries and within different organizations. OB provides a systematic approach (belief that behaviour is not random) to the study of behaviour in organizations. This approach also means making reasonably accurate predictions since behaviour is generally predictable. Systematic study looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence. Evidence-based management (EBM) basing managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence. Intuition a gut feeling not necessarily supported by research. Contingency approach an approach taken by OB that considers behaviour within the context in which it occurs, i.e. OBs answers depend upon the situation.

COMM 292 Chapter 2 Notes


Perception the process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Peoples behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Factors affect perception can reside in the perceiver, the target, and the situation. Perceiver the individual who looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he sees is the perceiver. his/her interpretation is heavily based on personal characteristics such as attitudes, personalities, motives, past experiences, and expectation.

The target novelty, motion, sounds, size, and backgrounds of a target shape the way we see it. i.e. loud people are more likely to be noticed in a quite group. The situation the time at which we see an object or event can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, social setting, and work setting. Perceptual errors include attribution theory, selective perception, halo effect, contrast effects, projection, and stereotyping. Attribution theory - the theory that when we observe what seems like atypical behavior by an individual, we attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. (3 rules to identify internal or external cause) a. Distinctiveness a behavioral rule that considers whether an individual acts similarly across a variety of situations. a) How often does the person do this in other situations? b) If the behavior is consistent with what the observer sees all the time in other situations (i.e. being late to every class), he/she will probably judge the action as internally caused, but if it is uncharacteristic of that person (was late for just one particular class), he/she will probably judge the action as externally caused. b. Consensus a behavioral rule that considers if everyone faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. a) How often do other people do this in similar situations? b) If a student is late because of the route he chose to come to school, and so is everyone else who came with it, the observer may make an external attribution for his tardiness. If, however, he was late only and the others who took the same route to school were all on time, the observer may make an internal judgment of the students tardiness. c. Consistency a behavioral rule that considers whether the individual has been acting in the same way over time. a) How often did the person do this in the past? b) If the student has always been on time for the entire semester, and arrives 10 minutes late for one class, it will be perceived differently than if he/she has arrived to class late every class for the whole semester. People tend to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors. Fundamental attribution error the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. Self-serving bias the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Selective perception peoples selective interpretation of what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. Halo effect Drawing a general impression of an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. a. Intelligent, skillful, practical, industrious, determined, and warm b. Intelligent, skillful, practical, industrious, determined, and cold Contrast effect the concept that our reaction to one person is often influenced by other people we have recently encountered. a. Job interviews: if the person before you was crappy, you look better to the interviewer. If the person before you was fantastic, you look mediocre to the interviewer. Projection attributing ones own characteristics to other people. Stereotyping judging someone on the basis of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs. Heuristics judgment shortcuts in decision making. Rules of thumb. Prejudice an unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group. Self-fulfilling prophecy a concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others. Personality the stable patterns of behavior and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts to and interacts with others. Personality traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior. Myers-Briggs type indicator a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types. 1. 2. 3. 4. Extraverted/introverted Sensing/intuitive Thinking/feeling Judging/perceiving

Big five personality model 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Extraversion a personality factor that describe the degree to which a person is sociable, talkative, and assertive Agreeableness a personality factor that describes the degree to which a person is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness - a personality factor that describe the degree to which a person is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented. Emotional Stability - a personality factor that describe the degree to which a person is calm, selfconfident, and secure. Openness to Experience - a personality factor that describe the degree to which a person is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

Core self-evaluation the degree to which an individual likes or dislikes himself or herself, whether the person sees himself or herself as capable and effective, and whether the person feels in control of his or her environment or powerless over the environment. Machiavellianism the degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. If it works, use it. Narcissism the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.

Self-monitoring a personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust behavior to external, situation factors. Risk-taking a persons willingness to take chances or risks. Type A personality a personality with aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time and, if necessary, against the opposing forces of other things or other people. Type B personality a personality that is described as easy-going, relaxed, and patient. Proactive personality a person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs. Emotion intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. Emotions are reactions to an object. Six universal emotions: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise. Emotional labour when an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions. i.e. grocery clerk is always smiling or fake smile. Emotional dissonance inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they show. Felt emotions an individuals actual emotions. Displayed emotions emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job.

Surface acting hiding ones inner feelings to display what is expected. deals with displayed emotions. Deep acting trying to modify ones true inner feelings to match what is expected. deals with felt emotions.
Emotional intelligence (EI) an assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that

influence a persons ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressure. Emotional intelligence is a persons ability to: Be self-aware of ones emotions; Detect emotions in others; Manage emotional cues and information. Employee Deviance voluntary actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization, its members, or both.

Deviant actions fall into categories such as production (leaving early); property (stealing, sabotage); political (gossiping, blaming co-worker); and personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse). Affective events theory (AET) the theory that employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work and that this emotional reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction.

COMM 292 Chapter 3 Notes

Value basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Terminal Values Goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime, i.e. freedom, happiness, a comfortable life. Instrumental Values preferable ways of behaving, i.e. ambitious, broad-minded. Hofstedes framework for assessing cultures Ethics the study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. Hofstedes survey found that managers and employees vary on five value dimensions of national culture: Power distance Individualism vs. collectivism Masculinity vs. femininity Uncertainty avoidance Long-term vs. short-term orientation

Power Distance a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. High rating large inequalities of power but are being tolerated; low rating suggests societies stress equality and opportunity, Individualism - a national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups. Masculinity - a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism. High rating indicates a culture has separate roles for men and women, with men dominating the society. Femininity - a national culture attribute that sees little differentiation between male and female roles; women are treated as equals of men in all respects. Uncertainty Avoidance - a national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them. High rating high level of anxiety about uncertainty and use laws to reduce uncertainty; low rating accepting ambiguity, take more risks and more readily accept change. Long-Term Orientation a national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. Short-Term Orientation - a national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligations. Generational differences and cultural differences are the two major factors lead to a potential clash of values between individual and organizational values in Cdn workplace. Attitudes positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or events, i.e. I like my job, Im expressing my attitude to work, thus theyre responses to situations. Job Satisfaction an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. Enjoying work is almost always the one most strongly linked to high levels of overall job satisfaction. Most people prefer work that is challenging and stimulating to work that is predictable and routine. Four methods of expressing dissatisfaction in the workplace:

Active/Destructive Exit dissatisfaction expressed by actively attempting to leave the organization. Active/Constructive Voice dissatisfaction expressed by actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions. Passive/Destructive Neglect dissatisfaction expressed by passively allowing conditions to worsen. Passive/Constructive Loyalty dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve. Organizational Commitment a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. There are three types of commitment: Affective Commitment an individuals emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Normative Commitment the obligation an individual feels to staying with the organization. Continuance Commitment an individuals calculation to stay with the organization based on the perceived costs of leaving the organization.

Employee Engagement an individuals involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does. Cultural Intelligence the ability to understand someones unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would people from that persons culture. Most managers fall into the following cultural intelligence profiles: Provincial they work best with people of similar background, but have difficulties working with those from different backgrounds. Analyst they analyze a foreign cultures rules and expectations to figure out how to interact with others. Natural they use intuition rather than systematic study to understand those from other cultural backgrounds. Ambassador they communicate convincingly that they fit in, even if they do not know much about the foreign culture. Mimic they control actions and behaviors to match others, even if they do not understand the significance of the cultural cues observed. Chameleon they have high levels of all three CQ components (physical, cognitive and emotional/motivational). They could be mistaken as being from the foreign culture. According to research, only about 5 percent of managers fit this profile.

COMM 292 Chapter 4 Notes


Motivation the intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal. a. Intensity how hard someone tries b. Direction where the effort is channeled c. Persistence a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort Theory X the assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

Theory Y the assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise selfdirection and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. The level of motivation varies both among individuals and within individuals at different times. Intrinsic Motivators a persons internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. Extrinsic Motivators motivation that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards. Hierarchy of Needs Theory a hierarchy of five needsphysiological, safety, social, esteem, and selfactualizationin which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. 1. Physiological hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs. 2. Safety security and protection from physical and emotional harm. 3. Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. 4. Esteem- includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition. 5. Self-actualization includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. ERG Theory a theory that posits three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth (proposed by Clayton Alderfer). Motivation-Hygiene Theory a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction (proposed by Frederick Herzberg). McClellands Theory of Needs achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation. 1. Need for achievement the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. 2. Need for power the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. 3. Need for affiliation the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Expectancy Theory the theory that individuals act depending upon their evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to them. Expectancy the belief that effort is related to performance (ranges from 0 to 1) Instrumentality the belief that performance is related to rewards (ranges from -1 to 1). Valence the value or importance an individual places on a reward. It ranges from -1 (very undesirable reward) to +1 (very desirable reward). Goal what an individual is trying to accomplish. Object or aim of an action. Management by Objectives an approach to goal setting in which specific measurable goals are jointly set by managers and employees; progress on goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress. Goals: 1. Direct attention: goals indicate where individuals should direct their efforts when they are choosing among things to do. 2. Regulate effort: goals suggest how much effort an individual should put into a given task. 3. Increase persistence: persistence represents the effort spent on a task over time.

4. Encourage the development of strategies and action plans: once goals are set, individuals can develop plans for achieving those goals. SMART Goals: Specific individuals know exactly what is to be achieved. Measurable the goals proposed can be tracked and reviewed. Attainable the goals, even if difficult, are reasonable and achievable. Results-Oriented The goals should support the vision of the organization. Time-Bound the goals are to be achieved within a stated time. Self-Efficacy Theory 1. Enactive mastery gaining relevant experience with the task or job. 2. Vicarious modeling becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. 3. Verbal persuasion becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. 4. Arousal leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. Pygmalion Effect a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something to be true can make it true. Galatea Effect occurs when high performance expectations are communicated directly to an employee. Equity Theory individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others, and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. Four referent comparisons in Equity Theory: 1. Self-inside: an employees experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization. 2. Self-outside: an employees experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization. 3. Other-inside: another individual or group of individuals inside the employees organization. 4. Other-outside: another individual or group of individuals outside the employees organization. Responses to Inequity: 1. Change inputs i.e. exert less effort 2. Change outcomes i.e. work harder than ever 3. Adjust perceptions of self maybe I dont deserve this 4. Adjust perceptions of others maybe he deserves it more because hes been here longer 5. Choose a different referent other employees of similar/same position 6. Leave the field quit and/or look for other jobs Distributive Justice the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. (i.e. I got the pay raise I deserved) Procedural Justice the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. (i.e. I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did) Interactional Justice the quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a manager. (i.e. When telling me about my pay raise, my supervisor was very nice and complementary) Organizational Justice an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. (i.e. I think this is a fair place to work) Cognitive Evaluation Theory offering extrinsic rewards (for example, pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a persons motivation. Self-concordance the degree to which a persons reasons for pursuing a goal is consistent with the persons interests and core values.

Four ways to increase an individuals intrinsic motivation: 1. Sense of choice The opportunity to select what one will do and perform the way one thinks best. Individuals can use their own judgment to carry out the task. 2. Sense of competence The feeling of accomplishment for doing a good job. Individuals are more likely to feel a sense of accomplishment when they carry out challenging tasks. 3. Sense of meaningfulness The opportunity to pursue worthwhile tasks. Individuals feel good about what they are doing and believe that what they are doing matters. 4. Sense of progress The feeling of accomplishment that one is making progress on a task, and that it is moving forward. Operant Conditioning a type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Positive reinforcement: following a response with something pleasant. Giving a privilege Negative reinforcement: following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant. Taking away a privilege Punishment: causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. Administering pain Extinction: eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour.

Continuous Reinforcement a desired behavior is reinforced each and every time it is demonstrated. Intermittent reinforcement a desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating, but not every time it is demonstrated. a. Fixed-interval schedule the reward is given at fixed time intervals b. Variable-interval schedule the reward is given at variable time intervals c. Fixed-ratio schedule the reward is given at fixed amounts of output d. Variable-ratio schedule the reward is given at variable amounts of output

COMM 292 Chapter 5 Notes


Variable-pay Programs a reward program in which a portion of an employees pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. There are four major forms of individual-based variable-pay programs: Piece-rate Pay Plan an individual-based incentive plan in which employees are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. Merit-based pay plans an individual-based incentive plan based on performance appraisal ratings. Bonuses an individual-based incentive plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance. Skill-based Pay an individual-based incentive plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do.

There is one major form of group-based pay-for-performance program: Gainsharing a group-based incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money to be shared.

There are two major forms of organizational-based pay-for-performance programs: Profit-sharing Plan an organization-wide incentive plan in which the employer shares profits with employees based on a predetermined formula. Employee Stock Ownership Plan a company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.

Teamwork, unions, public sector employees, and ethical considerations present distinct challenges to pay-forperformance programs. Teamwork incentive pay, especially when it is awarded to individuals, can have a negative effect on group cohesiveness and productivity, and in some cases it may not offer significant benefits to a company. Unions unionized employees are typically paid on the basis of seniority and job categories, with little range within a category, and few opportunities to receive performance-based pay. Public sector employees because public sector work is often of a service nature, it can be hard to measure productivity in the same way manufacturing or retail firms do. Ethical considerations organizations also need to consider the ethical implications of their performance-based plans (demanding employees work unpaid hours etc.).

Flexible Benefits a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation. a. Modular plans: predesigned packages of benefits, with each module put together to meet the needs of a specific group of employees. b. Core-plus plans: Consist of a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options from which employees can select and add to the core. c. Flexible spending accounts: allow employees to set aside up to the dollar amount offered in the plan to pay for particular services. Job Design how tasks are assigned to form a job. Job Rotation the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another (McDonalds make employees learn all of the tasks associated with making, packaging, and serving hamburgers). Job Enlargement the horizontal expansion of jobs (instead of only sorting mails, a mail sorters job could be enlarged to delivering mails and running outgoing letters). Job Characteristics Model (JCM) a model that identifies five core job dimensions and their relationship to personal and work outcomes. Job Enrichment the vertical expansion of jobs, it increases the degree to which workers control the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work. According to JCM, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: a. Skill Variety the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities b. Task identity the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. c. Task significance the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. (a,b and c create meaningful work) d. Autonomy the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. (it creates responsibility for outcomes) e. Feedback the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. (it provides the knowledge of results) Compressed Workweek a four-day week, with employees working 10 hours a day; or nine days of work over two weeks. Flextime an arrangement where employees work during a common core period each day but can form their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core. Job Sharing the practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job. Telecommuting an arrangement where employees do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their office.

Research shows that four basic emotional drives (needs) guide individuals: Drive to acquire (reward system) sharply differentiate good performers from average and poor performers; tie rewards clearly to performance. Drive to bond (culture) foster mutual reliance and friendship among co-workers; value collaboration and teamwork; encourage sharing of best practices. Drive to comprehend (job design) design jobs that have distinct and important roles in the organization; design jobs that are meaningful and foster a sense of contribution to the organization. Drive to defend (performance management and recourse allocation process) increase the transparency of all processes; emphasize their fairness.

COMM 292 Chapter 6 Notes


Group two or more people with a common relationship. Team a small number of people who work closely together toward a common objective and are accountable to one another. The extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organization to generate greater output with no increase in input. Teams can be classified into four types based on their objective: 1. Problem-solving (process-improvement) team a group of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. 2. Self-managed (self-directed) team a group of 10 to 15 employees who take on many of the responsibilities of their former managers. 3. Cross-functional (or project) team a group of employees at about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task (each individual would be expected to contribute knowledge of his or her field). a. Task force temporary cross-functional team b. Committee a group composed of members from different departments c. Skunkworks cross-functional teams that develop spontaneously to create new products, or work on complex problems (high-tech sectors). 4. Virtual teams a team that uses computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. Role a set of expected behaviors of a person in a given position in a social unit. Role expectations how others believe a person should act in a given situation. Role conflict a situation in which an individual finds that complying with one role requirement may make it more difficult to comply with another. Role ambiguity a person is unclear about his or her role. Role overload too much is expected of someone. Role underload too little is expected of someone, and that person feels that he or she is not contributing to the group. Norms acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members. a. Explicit statements made by a group member (usually group supervisor). b. Critical events in the groups history (these set important precedents). c. Primacy (the first behavioral pattern that emerges in a group frequently sets team expectations).

d. Carry-over behaviors from past situations. What makes a norm important? 1. It facilitates the groups survival. 2. It increases the predictability of group members behaviors. 3. It reduces embarrassing interpersonal problems for group members. 4. It allows members to express the central values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the groups identity. Conformity adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group. Five Stages of Group Development: 1. Forming the first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty (members are testing the waters to determine whats acceptable). 2. Storming the second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict (there is also conflict over who will control the team). 3. Norming the third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness. 4. Performing the fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. 5. Adjourning the final stage in group development for temporary groups, where attention is directed toward wrapping up activities rather than task performance. The five-stage model considers the interpersonal process of the group, while the punctuated-equilibrium model considers the time challenges that the group faces. Contextual factors relating to team performance: 1. Adequate Resources a. technology, adequate staffing, administrative assistance, encouragement, timely information 2. Leadership and Structure a. Creating a real team rather than a team in name only b. Setting a clear and meaningful direction for the teams work c. Making sure that the team structure will support working effectively d. Ensuring that the team operates within a supportive organizational context e. Providing expert coaching f. Multi-team systems systems in which different teams need to coordinate their efforts to produce a desired outcome; leadership is especially important for this. 3. Climate of Trust 4. Performance Evaluation and Rewards a. Group-based appraisals, profit-sharing, gainsharing, small-group incentives, etc. Composition factors relating to team performance: 1. Skills a. Technical expertise b. Problem-solving and decision-making skills c. Good listening, feedback, conflict resolutioninterpersonal skills 2. Personality 3. Roles a. Task-oriented roles roles performed by group members to ensure that the tasks of the group are accomplished. b. Maintenance roles roles performed by group members to maintain good relations within the group. c. Individual roles roles performed by group members that are not productive for keeping the team on task. 4. Group Diversity the presence of a heterogeneous mix of individuals within a group. a. Diversity can bring increased benefits to the team, but to do so, teams must have some common values, and they need to be willing to share information about themselves early on. 5. Size a. Most effective teams have fewer than 10 members.

b. Social loafing the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually 6. Members Flexibility a. Flexible individuals who can complete each others tasks. 7. Members Preference for Teamwork a. High-performing teams are likely to be composed of people who prefer working as part of a team Process factors relating to team performance: 1. Common Purpose a. Having a common and meaningful purpose that provides direction, momentum, and commitment for members. This purpose is a vision. b. Reflexivity a team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary 2. Specific Goals a. Team goals should be challenging. Difficult goals raise team performance. 3. Team Efficacy a. The belief that teams can succeed. b. Cohesiveness the degree to which team members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay on the tea. 4. Mental Models a. Knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done 5. Managed Level of Conflict a. Teams that avoid conflict also tend to have lower performance levels, forget to consider key issues, or remain unaware of important aspects of their situation. b. Effective teams are characterized by an appropriate level of conflict. c. Reducing team conflict: i. More, than less, information ii. Multiple alternatives iii. Goals iv. Humor (in making tough decisions) v. Balanced power structure vi. Resolve issues without forcing consensus 6. Accountability a. Successful teams make members individually and jointly accountable for the teams purpose, goals, and approach. They clearly define what they are individually responsible for and what they are jointly responsible for.

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