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Basic definitions
binary relation, R: X (X), R(x): the relatives of x R: a collection of ordered pairs R XX Symmetric property antisymmetric property reflective property irreflexity property x'R(x) xR(x') x'R(x) xR(x') x R(x) xR(x)
Graph: Basic Terminology # #irecte# $rap% & $ (', () consists of a finite set ' and a binary relation on '. #n un#irecte# $rap% & $ (', () consists of a finite set ' and a set of multisets of t!o elements from '.
)#* : % (%)
G = (V , E ),
the
complement of &
if a bijection f: ''' satisfyin&, for all x, y ', (x, y) ( (f(x), f(y)) ('
'ub&raphs
# (partial) sub$rap% 2 of a &raph &=(', () if 2=('', (') satisfyin& '' ' and (' ( in#uce# sub&raph: (iven a subset ) ' of the vertices, &)=(), ()), the sub&raph in#uce# by ) if ()$)xy (1x ) and y )*. spannin$ sub&raph: +he sub&raph contains all vertices of &. span: # subset S ( of the ed&es spans the sub&raph 2=('s, S), !here 's $)v '1v is an endpoint of some ed&e of S*.
clique
# subset ) ' of r vertices is an r0cli"ue if it induces a complete sub&raph, i.e., if &) 3r4 maximal cli"ue maximum cli"ue
5e$ree for (undirected) &raphs #(x) $ the si,e of its adjacent set,
1
# ( x ) =
x '
ome notations
3n : t%e complete $rap% on n vertices or n0cli"ue4 8n : t%e c%or#less cycle on n vertices or n0cycle4 9n : t%e c%or#less pat% $rap% on n vertices or n0pat%4 3m,n : t%e complete bipartite $rap% on m/n vertices partitione# into an m0stable set an# an n0stable set4 31,n : t%e star $rap% on n/1 vertices4 m3n : m #is*oint copies of 3n4 (xample: C4 = 2K2 and Kn,n = 2kn
Theorem. 5i*6stra;s s%ortest pat% al$orit%m correctly fin#s t%e len$t% of a s%ortest pat% from a to z4 Proo!. (8rove by induction) Basis Step (i $ 1). obvious Inductive Step. #ssume that for all 6 > i, the 6th time !e arrive at 'tep , l(t) is the len&th of a shortest path from a to t. 9?f t%ere is a pat% from a to a vertex + +%ose len$t% is less t%an l(t), t%en + is not in :4: #ssume that + :: Let ) be a shortest path from a to +, let x be the vertex nearest a on # that is in +, and let u be the predecessor of x on #. +hen u is not in :, so u !as chosen at 'tep durin& a previous iteration. By induction hypothesis, l(u) is the len&th of a shortest path from a to u. l(x) l(u) / +(u, x) len&th of # ; l(t). +his inequality sho!s that v is not the vertex in : !ith minimum l(t), contradicts to the assumption. .t sho!s that if there !ere a path from a to + !hose len&th is less than l(t), + !ould already have been selected at 'tep and remove from +. +herefore, every path from a to t of len&th at least l(t). <. =. 3. 9=ach time a vertex t is inserted into 9, !e have l(t) $ (a, t), the len&th of shortest path from a to t.: 98 forms a shortest0path tree.:
>
() omitted.
<. =. 3. Theorem 5.$. )n #irecte# $rap% possess an eulerian circuit if an# only if it is connecte# an# t%e incomin$ #e$ree of every vertex is e"ual to its out$oin$ #e$ree4 )n #irecte# $rap% possess an eulerian pat% if an# only if it is connecte# an# t%e incomin$ #e$ree of every vertex is e"ual to its out$oin$ #e$ree +it% t%e possible exception of t+o vertices4 @or t%ese t+o vertices, t%e incomin$ #e$ree of one is one lar$er t%an its out$oin$ #e$ree, an# t%e incomin$ #e$ree of t%e ot%er is one less t%an its out$oin$ #e$ree4
:%ere is a cycle containin$ exactly t%e vertices v1, v , vB, !, vp4 #ssume v1 is adjacent to v i > p4
1
,v i2 , ...,v ik ,
...,v ik 1,
.f vp is not adjacent to any one of v i 1,v i 1, ...,v i then vp is adjacent to at most p0601 vertices. Contradicts to the assumption.
1 2
1,
8ic4 a vertex vx that is not in the cycle. Because & is connected, there is a vertex v6 that is not in the cycle !ith an ed&e bet!een vx and v6 for some v6 in )v1, v , vB, !, vp*. "e no! ha'e the path (vx, vk, vk+1, , vj-1, vp, vp-1, ,vj, v1, v2, v3, , vk-1), *hich contains p edges. 6epeat the fore&oin& construction until !e have a path !ith n 0 1 ed&es. <. =. 3.
1E
Theorem 5.5. :%ere is al+ays a %amiltonian pat% in a #irecte# complete $rap%4 Proo!. Let there be a len&th p01 (p > n) path, (v1, v , vB, !, vp)4 Aet vx be a vertex that is not included in this path, and there is no ed&e from vx to v1. Fo!ever, (v1, vx) &4 'uppose that (vx, v ) is also an ed&e in the path. 6eplace the ed&e (v1, v ) in the ori&inal path !ith the t!o ed&es (v1, vx) an# (vx, v ) so that the vertex vx !ill be included in the ar&ument path. .f there is no ed&e from vx to v , then there must be an ed&e (v , vx) in the path and !e can repeat the ar&ument. .f !e find that it is not possible to include vertex v6 in any au&ment path by replacin& an ed&e (v6, v6/1) in the ori&inal path !ith t!o ed&es (v6, vx) and (vx, v6/1)!ith 1 6 p01, then !e conclude that there must be an ed&e (vp, vx) in the &raph. "e can repeat the ar&ument until all vertices in the &raph are included in the ar&umented path. <. =. 3. +here is no &eneral method of solution to the problem of provin& the non0existence of a hamiltonian path or circuit in a &raph.
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/actors o! a Graph
60factor of a &raph: a spannin& sub&raph !ith the de&ree of each of its vertices bein& 6. # hamiltonian circuit of a &raph is 0factor.
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Planar Graphs
planar &raph : # &raph is said to be planar if it can be dra!n on a plane is such a !ay that no ed&es cross one another, except, of course, at common vertices. re$ion : # re&ion of a planar &raph is defined to be an area of the plane that is bounded be ed&es and is not further divided into subareas. # re&ion is said to be finite if this area is finite, and is said to be infinite if its area is infinite. Clearly, a planar &raph has exactly one infinite re&ion. Theorem 5.0. @or a connecte# planar $rap%, v - e + r = ((uler;s formula) !here v, e, and r are the number of vertices, ed&es, and re&ions of the &raph, respectively. #pplication of =uler@s formula : ?n any connecte# planar $rap% t%at %as no loops an# %as t+o or more e#$es, e 3v -6. Theorem 5.1. (2urato*s3i) ) $rap% is planar if an# only if it #oes not contain any sub$rap% t%at is isometric to +it%in vertices of #e$ree to eit%er 3C or DB,B4
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