Energy usage of refrigeration

plant is dependent on:

1. Heat loads on the cold
store
2. Coefficient of performance
(COP) of the refrigeration
plant
This information pack covers the first issue
of minimising the heat loads on cold stores.
Other information packs cover optimising
refrigeration plant and use of high efficiency
components and equipment.
Heat loads on cold stores are covered under
the following headings:
1. Transmission
2. Infiltration
3. Fans
4. Defrosts
5. Food (including respiration
and packaging)
6. Lighting
7. Machinery
8. People
9. Radiation
10. Floor heating
Heat loads on cold stores can vary
considerably. The figure right shows heat
loads on 3 similar cold stores that were all
built around the same time on the same site.
Even though the purpose of each store was
almost identical, the heat loads on the stores
varied considerably. This demonstrates that
it is vital that the heat loads on each
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Store 1 Store 2 Store 3
kW
Transmission
Evaporator fans
Defrosts
Lights
Product
Infiltration
Fork trucks
People
Calculating and minimising heat loads












individual store are assessed so that the
area(s) of highest heat gain can be targeted.
Heat loads can be calculated using the
information in this and other ICE-E information
packs or can be calculated using the free ICE-
E tools available to model the performance of
cold stores (http://www.khlim-
inet.be/drupalice/models).
Heat loads on
cold stores can
vary widely
It is therefore
important to
assess each
heat load to
determine
whether energy
savings can be
achieved
ICE-E
INFORMATION
PACK






















Transmission (insulation)
The heat load transmitted through the cold
store fabric can be calculated using the
following equation:
t UA Q A =
Where;
Q = heat flow rate (kW)
U = overall heat transfer coefficient (W
.
m
-2.
K)
obtained from:

k
x
h h U
o i
+ + =
1 1 1

Where:
hi = heat transfer coefficient on inside of room
(W
.
m
-2.
K)
ho = heat transfer coefficient on outside of
room (W
.
m
-2.
K)
x = thickness of insulation (m)
k = thermal conductivity of wall material
(W
.
m
-1.
K)
A = area of wall (m
2
)
t = air temperature difference inside and
outside the cold store (K)

Typical values for thermal conductivity
of cold store walls (W
.
m
-1.
K):
Polyurethane 0.020
Polyisocyanate 0.020
Extruded polystyrene 0.024
Expanded polystyrene 0.036-0.038
Mineral wool 0.040
Modified phenolic 0.040

Most chilled cold stores will have wall panels
at least 100 mm thick whereas frozen stores
will have walls at least 150 mm thick.
Calculation of transmission across cold store
walls provides an idealised estimate of the
transmission heat load. In reality panels may
be damaged or degrade over time. Therefore it
is recommended that the integrity of walls is
checked on a regular basis by thermographic
scanning of the walls. This can highlight areas
where the insulation is damaged and should
be replaced/repaired.
Infiltration
Infiltration through entrances, gaps in doors
or through the walls can be a significant
heat load on stores. Moisture in air
infiltrated into the store can have a high
latent load on the evaporators and can also
freeze on floors or ceilings causing safety
problems. Reducing infiltration and
methods to calculate infiltration loads are
covered more fully in the ICE-E Infiltration
through entrances information pack.
Although there are a number of methods
that can be used to assess infiltration the
Gosney and Olama model (Gosney and
Olama, 1975) is well tested and used by
ASHRAE in their refrigeration Handbook.
The calculation assumes that the air
temperature within the cold store remains
stable during door openings (this is
reasonable in a large store) and uses the
following equation:
( ) ( ) t Fm gH
r
i
r hr hi A q A
|
|
.
|

\
|
= . 1 221 . 0
5 . 0
5 . 0

Where:
q = heat through infiltration (W)
A = Area of cold store door (m
2
)
hi = Enthalpy of ambient air (kJ.kg
-1
)
hr = Enthalpy of refrigerated air (kJ.kg
-1
)
r = Density of refrigerated air (kg.m
-3
)
calculated from = p / R T (where p =
pressure in Pa (assumed to be
100,000), T = temperature in K and R =
universal gas constant (287))
i = Density of ambient air (kg.m
-3
)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m.s
-2
)
H = Height of cold store door (m)
Fm = (2/(1+(r/i)0.333))
1.5


Options to reduce infiltration heat loads are
contained in the ICE-E Infiltration through
entrances information pack and include:
1. Use of pedestrian doors
2. Better control of door openings
3. Automated doors
4. Rapid roll and fast opening doors
5. Air curtains
6. Automated cold store entrances
ICE-E INFO PACK
Transmission
Infiltration



Fans
Most fans in cold rooms are used on
evaporators to distribute the air around the
cold store. Occasionally additional fans are
used to distribute air in low air velocity areas
of a store (most usual in produce stores). The
energy used by the fan is dissipated into the
cold store as heat. Therefore the cold store
user is paying for the energy to operate the
fan plus the energy required to extract the
heat from fan (direct and indirect effects).
Information on energy used by fans can
either be obtained from manufactures data or
measured directly (recommended). In most
large cold stores the fans are operated using
3-phase induction motors. These are
relatively efficient compared to shaded pole
motors that may be used in smaller small cold
stores, retail display cabinets or small
commercial appliances. Electronically
Commutated (EC) motor technology fans are
available but are only around 10% more
efficient than 3-phase induction motor fans.
Therefore if fan load is high there may be
sufficient financial benefits to justify fitting EC
fans.
Alternatively in some stores fans can be
pulsed to just ensure that air is distributed to
all parts of the store and the required
temperature maintained. This is often a
strategy applied in produce stores where
there are minimal door openings and the heat
loads are mainly from transmission.

Defrosts
Like fans, defrosts can have a direct and an
indirect heat load effect on cold stores. This is
primarily related to electric and hot gas
defrost (active) systems and not off-cycle or
passive defrost systems. If appropriate,
passive systems should be used as they do
not add any heat load to the cold store.
However, for all frozen and some chilled
stores this is not possible.
In active defrosts systems energy is
consumed by the defrost and also adds heat
into the store if the defrost is not 100%
efficient (i.e. defrost energy is wasted by
having to overheat parts of the
evaporator to ensure all ice is melted
across the whole evaporator). Often only
20-30% of the energy used for defrosting
evaporators is actually used to melt the
ice on the evaporator. To calculate the
effect defrost heaters have on cold store
heat loads an assessment needs to be
made of the defrost heater power (either
from manufacturers data or measured)
and the efficiency of the defrost
estimated. This could simply be
calculated by recording the volume of
water melted during a defrost and
comparing this to the energy required to
melt the ice.
Often evaporators are defrosted
unevenly and this can be caused by
defrosts heaters failing or by
inappropriate positioning of defrosts
heaters. Evaporators are also often over
defrosted to provide a level of safety to
ensure no ice buildup. Often defrost
periods can be reduced, especially if
other latent loads (from infiltration, food
and packaging) are reduced.

Food (including respiration
and packaging)
Heat load from the food can be
calculated using the following equations:
For sensible heat:
t A
A
=
t mc
Q

For latent heat:
t A
=
mL
Q

Where:
Q=heat extracted (kW)
m=mass of food (kg)
c=specific heat of food (kJ.kg
-1
.K
-1
)
t=temperature difference between food
and room air (K)
L=latent heat of freezing (kJ
.
kg
-1
)
t= reference time (s)
Although specific and latent heats for
ICE-E INFO PACK
Fans
Defrosts






















ICE-E INFO PACK
individual food products can be obtained a
simplification is to base heat load
calculations on product water content and
to use the specific and latent heat
capacities for water or ice:
kJ
.
kg
-1.
K
-1

Specific heat capacity of water 4.187
Specific heat capacity of ice 2.108
Latent heat of fusion 334

In produce stores respiration is also a heat
load on the store. Respiration of produce is
dependent primarily of storage temperature
with generally higher temperatures
generating higher respiration rates. In
some products such as potatoes
respiration can increase at temperatures
approaching the initial freezing point for the
product. In the case of potatoes minimum
respiration rate is achieved at
approximately 3C.
Respiration rates for a range of products
are contained in the ICE-E tools available
to model the performance of cold stores
(http://www.khlim-
inet.be/drupalice/models).
Food packaging can adsorb or desorb
moisture. Paper based packaging is
hydroscopic and the moisture loss from
packaging, if frozen onto the evaporator,
can be a latent load on the cold store.
Packaging can also have a sensible heat
load. Although these can be calculated
their contribution to overall heat loads is
usually relatively small. Further information
can be found in Cleland (2012).
To reduce heat loads from food ideally food
should enter the cold store at a
temperature close to the temperature of the
cold store. This requires food to be rapidly
unloaded from lorries and the use of
docking bays or refrigerated loading bays.
In some cases food is chilled inside a cold
store. This is common with produce where
product is commonly taken directly from
the field and placed in a store. This means
that the store has 2 functions: one to chill
the product and the second to hold the
product at the reduced temperature. Ideally
product should be cooled separately
before entering the store but this is often
not practical. As rapid chilling of the
product is often required for food quality
reasons the store therefore needs to
operate efficiently to extract the initial high
product load and then to operate
efficiently in the storage mode. This can
only be achieved by using multiple
compressors or by using an inverter
controlled compressor.

Lighting
Lighting has a direct effect (through the
electrical energy used to power the lights)
and an indirect effect through the heat
generated from the lights that is a heat
load on the cold store. The heat load from
lighting is generally calculated as being
equal to the power of the lights multiplied
by a time factor related to usage of the
lights. The power used by each light is
simply obtained from the light fitting or
manufacturers data.
Lighting load can often be a high heat
load in cold stores. Depending on the
original lighting, the use of LED lighting
can save approximately 70-80% of the
heat load from lighting. Further reduction
in heat load can be achieved by the use of
sensor controlled LED lights to operate
only when operators are in the vicinity
(unlike most conventional lighting used in
cold stores LED lights can turn on and off
rapidly).

Machinery
Generally heat loads from machinery and
equipment can be obtained from
manufacturers data. The heat load from
most electric forklifts is between 2-6 kW,
dependent on size.
Reducing heat loads from machinery is
often difficult as the machinery is an
essential part of a cold store operation.
However, if taken into account in the
design stage machinery can be
minimised.

Lighting
Machinery





















The work associated with this information pack has been carried out in accordance with the highest academic standards and reasonable endeavours have been made to achieve the degree of reliability and
accuracy appropriate to work of this kind. However, the ICE-E project does not have control over the use to which the results of this work may be put by the Company and the Company will therefore be deemed
to have satisfied itself in every respect as to the suitability and fitness of the work for any particular purpose or application. In no circumstances will the ICE-E project, its servants or agents accept liability however
caused arising from any error or inaccuracy in any operation, advice or report arising from this work, nor from any resulting damage, loss, expenses or claim. ICE-E 2012
For more information, please contact: Judith Evans (j.a.evans@lsbu.ac.uk)
References
ASHRAE Refrigeration (2006),
Chapter 13.
Cleland, D.J. The effect of water
vapour on food refrigeration systems.
Proc. Inst. R 2001-12, 5-1.
Gosney W.B., Olama H.A.L. Heat and
enthalpy gains through cold room
doorways. Proc. Inst. of Refrig 1975;
72;31-41.
People
The sensible heat loads from pedestrian
access can be calculated the following
equation (from ASHRAE):
) . 6 272 ( t N Q
peo sen
=

Where:
Qsen= sensible heat load (W)
Npeo = number of people
t=temperature of room (C)

Latent heat from pedestrians can be
calculated from the following equation
sen lat
Q Q . 5 . 0 =

Where:
Qlat = latent heat (W)

Radiation
External cold stores experience
considerable fluctuation in temperature of
the external cold store surface. This can
cause stress in panels and eventual panel
breakdown in extreme cases. White
cladding is generally considered to be
best as it has low emissivity and reflects
radiant heat. The influence of radiant heat
can be taken into account in the
transmission heat load by increasing the
outside air temperature (ASHRAE).
Figures from ASRAE are shown below
where the figures are applied over a
24hour period when calculation wall heat
gain. When using the figures it should be
remembered that these are designed for
average conditions and so for high or low
solar radiation countries they may not be
totally suitable.
The above figures are part of the ICE-E
simple model. By using the ICE-E
complex model to calculate heat loads the
effect of location and position of the cold
store relative to the sun and the effect of
the solar passage throughout the day and
year can also be taken into account.

Floor heating
Floor heating is essential in stores where
temperature of the store is below 0C as
water in the ground below the store may
eventually freeze and cause frost heave
(cracking and raising of the cold store
floor). Depending on the type of heating
system used the heat load can either be
estimated from the cold store designers
data or real measurements.
Often cold store floors are over heated as
operators are concerned that they may
cause frost heave. The temperature of
cold store floors can be checked using IR
thermometers and reduced in temperature
if the floor is warmer than desired.
Example of solar radiation on cold store roof and
effect on surface temperature throughout the day
People
Radiation
Floor heating

Wall (K)
Surface
types
East South West Flat
Dark
coloured:
Slate roof
Tar roof
Black paint
5 3 5 11
Medium
coloured:
Unpainted
wood
Brick
Red tile
Dark cement
Red, grey or
green paint
4 3 4 9
Light
coloured:
White stone
Light
coloured
cement
White paint
3 2 3 5


Allowance for effect of solar radiation (ASHRAE)