Feminisation of agriculture, outmigration and new gender roles: an imperative to change conventional engagements with women water users

Fraser Sugden IWMI Nepal

Research team: Fraser Sugden, Floriane Clement, Niki Maskey, Anil Philip, Vidya Ramesh, Ashok Rai, Naryan Prasad Sah, Yaman Sardar, Gajendra Sah, Lalita Sah
The views expressed in this paper are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.

 Political-economic and climate induced agrarian stress is causing increase vulnerability for communities across the Eastern Gangetic plains This is driving male out-migration and a transfer of new agricultural labour responsibilities to females There are new patterns of vulnerability and new adaptation needs for women who are left behind Policies however, have not caught up with the socioeconomic realities, and womens leadership role in water management remains limited. The imperative for womens leadership is not just a gender empowerment issue. The lack of womens leadership at both household and community level in Eastern Gangetic plains is having a negative impact on agricultural productivity, climate change adaptation, and the livelihoods of those who are left behind.

Introduction

Survey sites

Tibetan Autonomous Region

Kathmandu

Nepal

Janakpur

FORMER FOREST BELT

Bihar

Madhubani Darbhanga

Biratnagar

MITHILANCHAL

Social context
Mithilanchal: large cultural region in North Bihar (India) and the Terai-Madhesh (Nepal). Tenants and marginal farmers constitute 85% of agrarian structure

Deeply entrenched gender and caste hierarchies

Adhratadhi, Madhubani

Sitpur, Morang

1. Climate change
Significant changes observed in climate patterns over last two decades
More unpredictability Greater chilling during winter Extended dry spells, particularly further west More extreme precipitation events

Dry season agriculture becoming increasingly risky.

2. Broader pattern of agrarian stress

Unequal terms of trade for agriculture, driving up price of inputs, particularly in Nepal.
Fuel and fertiliser price rises Limited subsidies for farmers in Nepal

Rising cost of living

Linked in part to rising fuel prices Increased monetisation of the economy, rising demand for cash.

Political instability, state weakness

Limited investment in key infrastructural works, including power generation Rampant local level corruption

3. Agricultural adaptation vs migration

On farm adaptation (tube wells, labour saving technologies) However, adaptation is not scale neutral. E.g. Less than 6% of marginal/tenant farmers own pumps sets or wells Diversification of livelihoods through migrant labour primary response for marginal/tenant marjority. Significant rise in out-migration on a seasonal and long term.
Migration across all wealth groups but marginal cultivators are more dependent upon this income High waged versus low waged migrants

4. Feminisation of agriculture
Women are playing an increased role in agriculture following male outmigration Significant rise in women headed households New tasks such as managing irrigation and on farm technology and marketing are becoming part of the female domain Agriculture remains crucial for family members left behind, particularly for the poorest cultivators.
Migrant remittances can not support whole family. 50-67% of women headed households are still engaged in agriculture Women led agriculture subsidises migrant economy

5. Changing roles and womens leadership in irrigation management

Leadership over water resource allocation in the past was male domain
Accessing tube well irrigation Managing communal irrigation resources

However, with fewer males in the community, entrenched gender ideologies, and limited access to resources, women have not been able to easily take up formerly male roles Too much focus by practitioners on traditional female domain such as sanitation , household water use and micro-irrigation for kitchen gardens
Women now engaged in core productive activities

 Loss of regular income means households with male migrants suffer greater vulnerability to climatic stresses such as droughts or late monsoons Accessing irrigation is thus critical for women left behind Affects poorest cultivators who already face considerable constraints accessing tube wells and other technologies
66% to 83% of women headed households from marginal/tenant farmer class Larger land owners employ labourers to compensate for loss of male labour, have access to higher remittances to cope with shocks

6. Imperative for improved womens leadership in irrigation management

However, women from marginal/tenant farmer households have limited control over water resources
They do not have access to social or financial capital necessary for investment in groundwater They play limited role in managing canals, and thus face difficulties accessing water when needed

7. Lessons and policy response

a) Improve womens access to capital and land for investment in groundwater

Tube well installation programmes need to be tailored to socio-economic position:
Capacity for females in women headed households to adapt through investment in ground water irrigation is dependent upon ones position in agrarian structure and migrant hierarchy.

Improve access to collateral free finance

Even for better off migrant households, women do not necessarily have access to remittances. Microfinance loans of a size to allow investment in irrigation invariably require high levels of collateral. Few women have land in their name for this purpose.

Reform biased assumptions in bureaucracy

Assumption of land owning, male-led farming unit Tube well installation schemes biased against women. Requires land ownership or citizenship certificates which women often dont have

b. Encourage meaningful participation of women in communal irrigation programmes

Irrigation canal management long the male domain, many falling into disrepair due to migration. Women can not easily access water when needed as they play limited role in what is left of management committees Limited effective efforts for meaningful womens participation aside from tokenistic quotas e.g. 33% for WUGs in Nepal Women need to have key leadership roles.
Quota should be adjusted to encompass management roles from central to village level Targeted training e.g. financial literacy, management

 Collective management of land and water resources with secure property rights Sakhi foundation in Bihar successfully created women run fishing collectives in Madhubani district
Reserved fishing rights for women run cooperative to half the village ponds. Combined with fisheries training and gender empowerment activities All costs and profits shared equally

c. Collective and cooperative fishing and farming

Collective agriculture in Cooch Behar

Numerous cooperative farms linked to SHGs whereby women cultivate the land collectively on a season by season basis, sharing costs of irrigation and profits Facilitates sharing of risk for women farmers, while helps overcome scale constraints

Conclusions
Feminization is transforming womens role in agricultural water management, yet policies and practitioners responses have been slow to respond. Effective female role in water management is essential for womens livelihoods in the Eastern Gangetic Plains Policy response must move beyond tokenisitc inclusion, and work towards giving women access to capital and land, facilitating meaningful participation in the water bureaucracy and identifying new models of collective management

Thank you

Thalaha, Morang