CHAPTER (4)

Sensors and Transducers

Objectives: This chapter will consider different types of sensors. After you have read this chapter, you should be able to
Transform a temperature reading among different scales Explain the operation of different temperature sensors Describe the characteristics and applications of mechanical sensors Describe advantages, disadvantages, and applications of limit switches, photoelectric sensors, inductive sensors, capacitive sensors, and ultrasonic sensors Explain the operation of pressure, flow, and level transducers

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Sensors and Transducers 4.1 What is a transducer? The sensor or the sensing element is the first element in a measuring system and takes information about the variable being measured and transforms it into a more suitable form to be measured. The following figure illustrates the difference between sensor and transducer.
Physical variable change Passive element Change as R or L or C

Sensor

Physical variable change

Transducer

Active signal Change as V or I

Figure 4.1 Principle of Sensor/Transducer

Sensor is sometimes called a primary measuring element, it can be found simply as a mercury thermometer to measure the temperature. It may be embedded in the transducer to perform its function. That means the transducer consists of a primary element (sensor) plus a secondary element (signal conditioning circuit) that transforms the passive change or small voltage signal into active signal range that can be easily used in other chains of the control loop. Example: with a resistance thermometer, the resistance depends on the temperature value (sensor). It can be inserted into a bridge circuit (secondary element) in order to transform the change in the resistance value to a change in the voltage output. Finally, the output voltage from the bridge circuit express about the temperature change value. In general, we can say that: Transducer = Sensor + Signal conditioning circuit In the following sections, we will present the main features of different transducers to measure: Temperature - Using mechanical properties to operate - Using electrical properties to operate Pressure - Static - Dynamic Level Flow - Direct measurement - Indirect measurement Mechanical displacement

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Sensors and Transducers 4.2 Temperature sensors and transducers What is Temperature? In a qualitative manner, we can describe the temperature of an object as that which determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it. It is easy to demonstrate that when two objects of the same material are placed together (physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature cools while the cooler object becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have stopped, we say that the two objects are in thermal equilibrium. We can then define the temperature of the system by saying that the temperature is that quantity which is the same for both systems when they are in thermal equilibrium. Temperature may be defined as "the condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to or from other bodies" or the degree of hotness or coldness as referenced to a specific scale of temperature measurement. What is a Thermometer (sensor)? A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a quantitative way (sensing element). The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a property that varies regularly with its temperature. The most direct 'regular' way is a linear one: T(x) = ax + b, (4.1) where T is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of the substance changes. The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale, such as 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for its boiling point. 4.2.1 Temperature scales It was in 1724 that Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker of Danzig and Amsterdam, used mercury as the thermometric liquid. Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to be 212. He adjusted the freezing point of water to 32 so that the interval between the boiling and freezing points of water could be represented by the more rational number 180. Temperatures measured on this scale are designated as degrees Fahrenheit (F). In 1745, Carolus Linnaeus described a scale in which the freezing point of water was zero, and the boiling point 100, making it a centigrade (one hundred steps) scale. Anders Celsius (17011744) used the reverse scale in which 100 represented the freezing point and zero the boiling point of water, still, of course, with 100 degrees between the two defining points. In 1948 use of the Centigrade scale was dropped in favor of a new scale using degrees Celsius ( C). To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by 1.8 and add 32. F = 1.8 C + 32 (4.2) Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) has proposed another scale its symbol is K. To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273.
o

K = C + 273 (4.3) - 64 -

Sensors and Transducers We conclude that: Fahrenheit scale is common used in U.S. and many other English-speaking countries. Celsius scale is used in scientific measurements and industrial applications. Kelvin scale is based on an extremely low temperature. 4.2.2 Temperature measurement There are two basic categories either to use mechanical properties (expansion of a substance) or to use electrical properties to operate. Using mechanical properties 1) Capillary tube thermometer The element mercury is a liquid in the temperature range of -38.9 C to 356.7 C As a liquid, mercury expands (moves) as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated.

Figure 4.2 Thermometer

The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above figure contains a bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary tube. Its rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass scale. Mercury can be replaced by alcohol for low temperature measurement. 2) Filled thermal system The device consists of a bulb filled with expanding substance connected to a Bourdon tube mechanism via a capillary tube (30m long) as shown in figure.

Moving pointer Temperature scale

Bourdon tube

Control Room

Bulb with expanding substance

Capillary tube

Process Field

Figure 4.3 A filled system thermometer

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Sensors and Transducers The pressure inside the bulb changes as the temperature changes. Consequently, the pressure moves the pointer at the moving end of Bourdon tube. This movement is marked using the temperature scale. 3) Bimetallic thermometers This type of temperature sensor has the characteristics of being relatively inaccurate, having hysteresis, having relatively slow time of response. This sensor consists of two materials (metals) with gross different expansion coefficients and bonded together. Therefore, the temperature will make each metal to expand with a different length. Consequently, this effect can be used to close switch contacts or to actuate an on/off mechanism when temperature increases to some operating set point.

Figure 4.4 Bimetallic on/off switch

The effect also is used for temperature indicators, by means of assemblages, to convert the curvature into dial rotation.

Temperature scale

Moving pointer

Bimetallic strip Figure 4.5 Bimetallic thermometer

Using electrical properties 1) Resistance Thermal Detectors (RTDs) It is a temperature sensor that is based on a metal resistance increasing with temperature. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which is very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive, and less expensive. For pure metals, the characteristic relationship that governs resistance is given by: - 66 -

Sensors and Transducers R t = R o 1 + at + bt 2 + ct 3 + ... Where:

(4.4) Ro = resistance at reference temperature (usually at ice, 0oC), Rt = resistance at temperature t, a = temperature coefficient of resistance, / (oC) b,c = coefficients calculated on the basis of two or more known resistancetemperature (calibration) points

Linear approximation of the above relation is given by: R(T) = R(To )[1 + o T] ; Where: T1 < T < T2 (4.5) R(T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T R(To) = resistance at temperature To T = T- To O = fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature at To

The above equation is valid over the span T1 to T2. A typical example of RTD is PT100 sensor as shown in figure.

Figure 4.6 Temperature sensor PT-100

Industrial RTDs are commonly available with elements of platinum, nickel, 70% nickel-30 iron, or copper. The entire resistance thermometer is an assembly of parts, which include the sensing element, internal lead wires, internal supporting and insulating materials, and protection tube or case. RTDs Properties: Range of measurement, platinum (- 100 oC 650oC), 70% nickel-30% iron (-180oC 300oC). Normally, it can be used for medium range measurements. Response time, (0.5 seconds 5 seconds) Sensitivity, (platinum 0.004 /oC nickel 0.005 /oC) Signal conditioning: The RTDs is generally used in a bridge circuit. The RTDs can be found with two leads, or thee leads, or four leads for connections. The two wires type is used for short distance

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Sensors and Transducers application, where the process is too near to the controller. The connection will be as shown in figure, where the terminal block is connected to the bridge circuit.

Figure 4.7 Two wires RTD terminal block connection

Three wires RTDs are used for remote applications as shown in figure.

R1

+Vs -

R2

Vo

R3 RTD

Terminal block

Compensation leads

Figure 4.8 RTD signal conditioning for remote applications

The compensation line in the R3 leg of the bridge is required when the lead lengths are so long that thermal gradients along the RTD leg may cause changes on line resistance. These changes show up as false information, suggesting changes in RTD resistance. By using the compensation line, the same resistance changes also appear on the R3 side of the bridge and cause no net shift in the bridge null. Four wires RTD can be used with low current source to avoid the self heating problem in the resistance. We feed the current to close the circuit with RTD and measure the output voltage across the other two terminals which is proportional to the RTD value. The terminal block connection is illustrated in the following figure.

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Sensors and Transducers

Figure 4.9 Four wires RTD terminal block connection

2) Thermistors The name thermistor is derived from thermally sensitive resistor, sense the resistance of a thermistor varies as a function of temperature. It is an electrical device made of a solid semiconductor with a high temperature sensitivity. When a thermistor is used as a temperature sensing element, the relationship between resistance and temperature can be expressed as:
1 1 B TT o e

Rt = Ro

(4.6) The following figure illustrates the above relationship. Resistance (K)

Temperature (oC)
Figure 4.10 Thermistor characteristic

Thermistor Properties: Range of measurement, Maximum up to 300oC to avoid melting of semiconductor materials. Normally, it can be used for low temperature range measurements. Response time, (0.5 seconds or faster) Sensitivity, (highly sensitive, it can be changed by 1 K for change in 1 oC)

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Sensors and Transducers Signal conditioning: Circuits with instrumentation amplifiers can be or simple potential dividers. But, be care with the nonlinearity in the measurement circuit and try to obtain a simple and linear overall relationship. Remark: Both RTDs and thermistors suffer a self heating problem due to power dissipation in resistors. This makes the actual temperature is greater than it should be measured. To avoid this problem, either to use low current source or a compensation design has to be added to the circuit. The excess temperature due to self heating can be computed by the relation:

T = Where:

P Po
o

(4.7)

T = temperature rise due to self heating in C P = power dissipated in the resistor (sensing element) in Watt Po = dissipated constant of the resistor (sensing element) in Watt/oC

3) Thermocouples

For many years the thermocouples was the clear-cut choice of instrumentation and control engineers in the process industries, but in recent years the position of the thermocouple has been increasingly challenged by the RTD. Nevertheless, the thermocouple still is used widely especially in large range of temperature measurement applications.
Seebeck effect

As early as 1821, Seebeck found that bonding wires of two dissimilar metals together to form a closed circuit caused an electric current to flow in the circuit whenever a difference in temperature was imposed between the end junctions.
Alloy A Hot junction I Alloy B T Figure 4.11 Seebeck effect Cold junction

Peltier effect

Jean Peltier (1834) discovered that when an electric current flows across a junction of two dissimilar metals, heat is liberated or absorbed. When the electric current flows in the same direction as the Seebeck current, heat is absorbed at the hotter junction and liberated at the colder junction. The Peltier effect may be defined as the change in heat content when a quantity of charge (1 coulomb) crosses the junction. The Peltier effect is the fundamental basis for thermoelectric cooling and heating.
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Sensors and Transducers

Thermocouple consists of two different materials such as: J-type, Iron and Constantan, measurement range ( -190oC to 760oC) K-type, Chromel and Alumel, measurement range (-190oC to 1260oC) T-type, Constantan and Copper, measurement range (-200oC to 371oC) E-type, Chromel and Constantan, measurement range (-100oC to 1260oC) S-type, 90%platinum+10% rhodium and platinum, measurement range (0oC to 1482oC) R-type, 87%platinum+13% rhodium and platinum, measurement range (0oC to 1482oC)

Figure 4.12 Thermocouples types

The output voltage from the thermocouple can be presented as:

= (T2 - T1 )

(4.8)

Where:

= constant in volts/oC = Seebeck e.m.f in mV T1, T2 = junction temperatures in oC

T1 can be fixed as a reference junction and T2 can be considered as the measured junction temperature. The following figure shows atypical thermocouple response as the temperature increases.

Figure 4.13 Characteristics of K-type thermocouple

For each type of thermocouple there is standard table that to obtain the output voltage (mV) against the measured junction temperature where the reference junction at 0oC (Appendix A). For example, J type TC has the measured junction T2 at 280oC and the reference T1 at 25oC, then from the table the output voltage = 15.219 1.277 = 13.942 mV. - 71 -

Sensors and Transducers Thermocouple Properties: Range of measurement, it can be used for large measurements as indicated above. Response time, it depends the thermal contact environment. In a good thermal contact from 10 to 20 ms. In poor thermal contact from 10 to 20 seconds. Sensitivity, (J-type 0.05 mV /oC , R-type 0.006 mV/oC). Signal conditioning: The output from a thermocouple is in mV. This means that considerable amplification will be necessary for a practical application. In addition, the small signal levels make the devices susceptible to electrical noise. In most cases the thermocouple is used with a high gain differential amplifier. Reference junction compensation: The output signal from the thermocouple depends on the difference between the two junctions temperature. We have fixed one of them as a reference and the second one is considered to be measured. If the temperature of the reference junction is not constant, that means, there is an error will be produced. So, different approaches are used to control its temperature variation such as: Applying a local temperature control to the reference junction temperature Design a reference compensation circuit during the measurement Applying software reference correction in the computer control applications Noise reduction techniques: Different approaches can be applied to reduce the effect of thermocouple measurement noise such as: Lead wires can be twisted and then wrapped with a grounded foil sheath Measured junction can be connected to the ground Use of an excellent amplifier with a good value of CMRR to improve the signal to noise ratio. Remarks In some applications, a group of thermocouples are connected in series so that there are perhaps ten or more hot junctions sensing the temperature. The e.m.f. produced by each is added together. Such arrangement is known as a thermopile. Temperature sensors can be immersed into a moving fluid to measure its temperature. Therefore, a protective shield for a temperature measuring device, which penetrates into the flow of the fluid being measured (thermowell) There are standard thermocouple tables that simply give the voltage for a particular type of thermocouple when the reference junctions are at a particular reference temperature, and the measurement junction is at a temperature of interest (Appendix A). 4) Solid state temperature sensors Solid state temperature sensors offer voltages that vary linearly with a temperature range (from -50oC to 150 oC), such as a zener diode. The time constant in a good thermal contact is in the range 1 to 5 seconds. The dissipation constant is in the range from 2 to 20 mW/oC. This value depends on the conditions and the heat sinking. These sensors are easy to interface to control systems and computers, and are becoming popular for measurements within a limited range. It can be used to provide automatic reference temperature compensation for thermocouples.

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Sensors and Transducers 4.3 Displacement sensors

Displacement sensors are widely used not only to measure the distance of a moving object but also it can be embedded in other sensors or transducer devices to measure pressure or level or flow as it will be shown later. Many physical variables have the capability to produce a displacement that can be converted into active signal. This is the basic principle in many transducer devices as shown in figure.
Measure variable Displacement Electric signal

Primary sensor

Converter (signal conditioning)

Figure 4.14 Transducer principle

Different types of mechanical sensors can be considered such as: 1- Potentiometer types: 2- Capacitive and inductive types 3- Variable reluctance types (LVDT) 4- Strain gauges
Potentiometer types

The simplest type of displacement sensor involves the action of displacement in moving the wiper of a potentiometer. This device then converts linear or angular motion into change of resistance. Then, a signal conditioning circuit converts the change in resistance value into voltage change.
motion

Figure 4.15 Potentiometer displacement sensor

This sensor suffers from the following drawbacks: Limited resolution Friction in the wiper High electric noise
Capacitive types

The basic operation of capacitive type sensors can be seen from the familiar equation for a parallel-plate capacitor. A C = K o d (4.9) - 73 -

Sensors and Transducers

Where:

K is the dielectric constant O is the premitivity (8.85 PF/m) A is the common area d is the plate separation distance

There are three ways to change the capacitance: 1- variation of the distance between the plates (d), that can be used for linear displacements 2- variation of the common area (A), that can bused for angular motion displacements. 3- Variation of the dielectric (K), that will be shown later in liquid level measurements. Inductive types If a permeable core is inserted into an inductor as shown in figure, the net inductance is increases. Motion

Inductance
Figure 4.16 Inductive displacement sensor

Every new position of the core produces different inductance. The inductor and movable core assembly can be used as a displacement sensor. An ac bridge or other active electronic circuit sensitive to inductance then may be employed for signal conditioning.
Variable reluctance (LVDT)

In this type, the moving core changes the magnetic flux coupling between two or more coils. A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an electro mechanical device that produces an output proportional to displacement. LVDTs offer many distinct advantages over other displacement measurement devices including: frictionless movement, infinite resolution, null repeatability, temperature stability, and environmental ruggedness. LVDTs can measure displacements from a few microns to several feet in a wide variety of environments.

Ratiometric wiring scheme

Open wiring scheme

Figure 4.17 LVDT displacement sensor

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Sensors and Transducers

An LVDT operates on the principal of magnetic coupling between a primary and two secondary windings. The primary coil is typically energized with a 2-5 Volt sine wave with frequencies between 2-10 kHz. The primary winding produces a magnetic field that passes through the two secondary windings. A magnetically permeable metal core (Ni-Ir) slides through the center of the coils and provides an efficient path for the magnetic flux. The amount of Voltage induced in the secondary windings varies with the core's position. In ratiometric signal conditioning, both the Voltage on coil A and coil B are used to determine the position of the core. The following equation is computed by the ratiometric signal conditioner to determine the position where G is the gain or sensitivity.

(4.10) The above requires that the sum of the secondary coils remain constant for high linearity. Ratiometrically wound LVDTs provide this necessary condition. Ratiometric LVDT signal conditioning offers several advantages over the open style. The ratiometric scheme is highly temperature insensitive. Temperature affects the LVDT signal by changing the magnetic induction efficiency. Since both Voltage A and Voltage B are affected equally, the net effect is high temperature immunity. The ratiometric scheme is also insensitive to phase shifts between the primary and secondary windings. As a result very long cables may be employed with no loss of accuracy around the null position. In the open type, the voltage Vc is directly proportional to the displacement of the core as shown in the following equation where G is the gain or sensitivity. Displacement = G Vc (4.11)

In order to determine the direction of the displacement, the output phase of the secondary winding is compared with the phase of the primary winding.
Strain Gauges

A strain gauge is a thin metal foil that changes resistance with applied strain. Strain gauges are the preferred choice in stress analysis due to their small size and relatively low cost. Strain gauges can measure strain levels from a few micro-strain (e) to over 100,000 micro-strain. When used in conjunction with a precision signal conditioner, accurate strain measurements are possible. Careful attention to the various error sources will assure accurate measurements. Errors in strain gauge measurements are numerous and if not properly avoided can be quite large. Some of the more significant errors are those due to temperature effects, bonding errors, noise pickup, lead wire effects, over excitation, and transverse sensitivity. The metal foil strain gauge is one of the most common methods used to measure the stress in materials. Since stress cannot be measured directly, it must be determined from other measurable parameters. Typically, the strain (e=L/L) of the material is measured through the use of a strain gauge. The stress (= force/area) is computed based on known material properties (e.g., knowing the modulus of elasticity E and assuming Hook's Law = Ee). A metal foil gauge measures the strain in a material based on the assumptions that the gauge will deform perfectly with the material and that the gauge resistance will change linearly with applied strain. The resistance of a strain gauge is given by: - 75 -

Sensors and Transducers

R =

L A (4.12)

where p is the resistivity, L is the length, and A is the cross sectional area. When a gauge is stretched all three variables will change. By measuring the gage resistance and knowing the relationship between gage resistance and gauge strain, one can compute the strain level in the strain gage and theoretically in the test specimen. In general, a gauge factor (GF) is defined to be the average ratio of the resistance change to length change (strain) of the gauge. GF = R/R L/L (4.13) The higher the number, the more sensitive is the gauge. Typical values for modern metallic strain gauges (copper-nickel alloy) are around 2. The gauge factor incorporates the change in resistance due to dimensional stretching and due to the change in resistivity (p) with strain. Forces (weights) applied to a known area can also be measured using strain gauges (Load cell)s. This can be done by calculated the stress by measuring the strain using the above relationships.
Strain Gauge Signal Conditioning

The changes of resistance associated with strain gauges are small and present measurement situation. A Wheatstone bridge arrangement is commonly used to measure the small changes in resistance associated with strain gauges. A power source (Vexe), three matching resistors (R), and a high quality instrumentation amplifier make up the simplified circuit. The strain gage (Rgauge) is typically wired in a three wire configuration as shown to minimize lead wire errors (Rlead). When the bridge is balanced (i.e., R=Rgauge), the differential voltage into the amplifier will be zero (i.e., V2 - V1 = 0 Volts). The result is zero output voltage from the amplifier. Any change in Rgauge due to strain will upset the bridge balance and the differential input voltage to the amplifier will increase. The resulting bridge voltage will be amplified by the instrumentation amplifier. Note that, strain gauge can be affected by temperature that add increases the resistance value. In order to compensate the temperature effect, we use a dummy stain guage in the bridge as R4 in the figure. The dummy sensor is not sensitive to the applied force it compensates only the temperature effect in the null condition.

Figure 4.18 Strain gauge signal conditioning circuit

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Sensors and Transducers 4.4 Object detector sensors

One type of feedback frequently needed by industrial-control systems is the position of one or more components of the operation being controlled. Object detection sensors are devices used to provide information on the presence or absence of an object as shown in figure.

Figure 4.19 Sensors in industry applications

There are different types of these sensors in industry such as: Limit switches Photoelectric sensors Inductive proximity sensors Capacitive proximity sensors Ultrasonic sensors
Table 4.1 Industrial sensors

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Sensors and Transducers Limit Switches

A typical limit switch consists of a switch body and an operating head. The switch body includes electrical contacts to energize and deenergize a circuit. The operating head incorporates some type of lever arm or plunger, referred to as an actuator. The standard limit switch is a mechanical device that uses physical contact to detect the presence of an object (target). When the target comes in contact with the actuator, the actuator is rotated from its normal position to the operating position. This mechanical operation activates contacts within the switch body.

Figure 4.20 Limit switch

One type of actuator operation is momentary. When the target comes in contact with the actuator, it rotates the actuator from the free position, through the pre-travel area, to the operating position. At this point, the electrical contacts in the switch body change state. A spring returns the actuator lever and electrical contacts to their free position when the actuator is no longer in contact with the target.

Figure 4.21 Limit switch operation

There are other four types of sensors: inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, and photoelectric. Inductive proximity sensors use an electromagnetic field to detect the presence of metal objects. Capacitive proximity sensors use an electrostatic field to detect the presence of any object. Ultrasonic proximity sensors use sound waves to detect the presence of objects. Photoelectric sensors react on changes in the received quantity of light. Some photoelectric sensors can even detect a specific color.

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Sensors and Transducers

Table 4.2 Sensors technology

Inductive proximity sensors

Inductive proximity sensors are available in a variety of sizes and configurations to meet varying applications. The sensor incorporates an electromagnetic coil which is used to detect the presence of a conductive metal object. The sensor will ignore the presence of an object if it is not metal.

Figure 4.22 Inductive proximity sensor

This type of sensor consists of four elements: coil, oscillator, trigger circuit, and an output. The oscillator is an inductive capacitive tuned circuit that creates a radio frequency. The electromagnetic field produced by the oscillator is emitted from the coil away from the face of the sensor. The circuit has just enough feedback from the field to keep the oscillator going.

Figure 4.23 Inductive sensor operation

When a metal target enters the field, eddy currents circulate within the target. This causes a load on the sensor, decreasing the amplitude of the electromagnetic field. As the target approaches the sensor the eddy currents increase which is increasing the load on the oscillator and further decreasing the amplitude of the field. The trigger circuit monitors the oscillators amplitude and at a predetermined level switches the output state of the sensor from its normal condition (on or off). As the target moves away from the sensor, the oscillators amplitude increases. At a predetermined level the trigger switches the output state of the sensor back to

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Sensors and Transducers

its normal condition (on or off). The basic operating voltage ranges are from 10 to 30 VDC, 15 to 34 VDC, and 10 to 65 VDC. The rated sensing distance (Sn) is ranged from 0.6 mm to 75 mm depending on the sensor type.
Capacitive proximity sensors

Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive proximity sensors. The main difference between the two types is that capacitive proximity sensors produce an electrostatic field instead of an electromagnetic field. Capacitive proximity switches will sense metal as well as nonmetallic materials such as paper, glass, liquids, and cloth.

Figure 4.24 Capacitive proximity sensor

The sensing surface of a capacitive sensor is formed by two concentrically shaped metal electrodes of an unwound capacitor. When an object nears the sensing surface it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance in an oscillator circuit. As a result, the oscillator begins oscillating. The trigger circuit reads the oscillators amplitude and when it reaches a specific level the output state of the sensor changes. As the target moves away from the sensor the oscillators amplitude decreases, switching the sensor output back to its original state.

Figure 4.25 Capacitive sensor operation

The basic operating voltage ranges are from 10 to 30 VDC and 10 to 65 VDC. The rated sensing distance (Sn) is ranged from 5 mm to 20 mm depending on the sensor type.

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Sensors and Transducers Ultrasonic proximity sensors

Ultrasonic proximity sensors use a transducer to send and receive high frequency sound signals. When a target enters the beam the sound is reflected back to the switch, causing it to energize or deenergize the output circuit. A piezoelectric ceramic disk is mounted in the sensor surface. It can transmit and receive high-frequency pulses. A high frequency voltage is applied to the disk, causing it to vibrate at the same frequency. The vibrating disk produces high-frequency sound waves. When transmitted pulses strike a sound-reflecting object, echoes are produced. The duration of the reflected pulse is evaluated at the transducer. When the target enters the preset operating range, the output of the switch changes the state. When the target leaves the preset operating range, the output returns to its original state.

Figure 4.26 Ultrasonic sensor

The echo can be in micro-volts. A blind zone exists directly in front of the sensor. Depending on the sensor the blind zone is from 6 to 80 cm. An object placed in the blind zone will produce an unstable output.

Figure 4.27 Ultrasonic sensor (Pulse cycle)

The time interval between the transmitted signal and the echo is directly proportional to the distance between the object and sensor. The operating range can be adjusted in terms of its width and position within the sensing range. The upper limit can be adjusted on all sensors. The lower limit can be adjusted only with certain versions. Objects beyond the upper limit do not produce a change at the output of the sensor. This is known as blanking out the background. On some sensors, a blocking range also exists. This is between the lower limit and the blind zone. An object in the blocking range prevents identification of a target in the operating range. There is a signal output assigned to both the operating range and the output range.

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Sensors and Transducers

Figure 4.28 Ultrasonic sensor ranges

The radiation pattern of an ultrasonic sensor consists of a main cone and several neighboring cones. The approximate angle of the main cone is 5. Sound travel time can be affected by physical properties of the air. This, in turn, can affect the preset operating distance of the sensor. Depending on the sensor the sensing range is either 6 - 30 cm, or 20 - 130 cm, or 40 300 cm, or 60 - 600 cm, or 80-1000cm.
Photoelectric sensor

A photoelectric sensor is another type of position sensing device. Photoelectric sensors, similar to the ones shown below, use a modulated light beam that is either broken or reflected by the target. The rated operating voltage is 10 to 30 VDC.

Figure 4.29 Photoelectric sensor

The control consists of an emitter (light source), a receiver to detect the emitted light, and associated electronics that evaluate and amplify the detected signal causing the photoelectric output switch to change state. We are all familiar with the simple application of a photoelectric sensor placed in the entrance of a store to alert the presence of a customer. This, of course, is only one possible application.

Figure 4.30 Photoelectric sensor application

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Sensors and Transducers

Modulated light increases the sensing range while reducing the effect of ambient light. Modulated light is pulsed at a specific frequency between 5 and 30 KHz. The photoelectric sensor is able to distinguish the modulated light from ambient light. Light sources used by these sensors range in the light spectrum from visible green to invisible infrared. Lightemitting diode (LED) sources are typically used.
Scan techniques

A scan technique is a method used by photoelectric sensors to detect an object (target). In part, the best technique to use depends on the target. Some targets are opaque and others are highly reflective. In some cases it is necessary to detect a change in color. Scanning distance is also a factor in selecting a scan technique. Some techniques work well at greater distances while others work better when the target is closer to the sensor.
1) Thru-Beam scan, separate emitter and receiver units are required for a thru-beam sensor. The units are aligned in a way that the greatest possible amount of pulsed light from the transmitter reaches the receiver. An object (target) placed in the path of the light beam blocks the light to the receiver, causing the receivers output to change state. When the target no longer blocks the light path the receivers output returns to its normal state. Thru-beam is suitable for detection of opaque or reflective objects. It cannot be used to detect transparent objects. In addition, vibration can cause alignment problems. The high excess gain of thrubeam sensors make them suitable for environments with airborne contaminants. The maximum sensing range is 300 feet.

Figure 4.31 Thru-beam scan technique

The effective beam of a photoelectric sensor is the region of the beams diameter where a target is detected. The effective beam on a thru-beam sensor is the diameter of the emitter and receiver lens. The effective beam extends from the emitter lens to the receiver lens. The minimum size of the target should equal the diameter of the lens.
2) Reflective scan, the emitter and receiver are in one unit. Light from the emitter is transmitted in a straight line to a reflector and returns to the receiver. A normal or a cornercube reflector can be used. When a target blocks the light path the output of the sensor changes the state. When the target no longer blocks the light path the sensor returns to its normal state. The maximum sensing range is 35 feet.

Figure 4.32 Reflective scan technique

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Sensors and Transducers

The effective beam is tapered from the sensors lens to the edges of the reflector. The minimum size of the target should equal the size of the reflector. Reflectors are ordered separately from sensors. Reflectors come in various sizes and can be round or rectangular in shape or reflective tape. The sensing distance is specified with a particular reflector.
3) Diffuse scan, the emitter and receiver are in one unit. Light from the emitter strikes the target and the reflected light is diffused from the surface at all angles. If the receiver receives enough reflected light the output will switch states. When no light is reflected back to the receiver the output returns to its original state. In diffuse scanning the emitter is placed perpendicular to the target. The receiver will be at some angle in order to receive some of the scattered (diffuse) reflection. Only a small amount of light will reach the receiver, therefore, this technique has an effective range of about 40''.

Figure 4.33 Diffuse scan technique

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Sensors and Transducers 4.5 Pressure sensors

The measurement and control of fluid (liquid or gas) pressure has to be one of the most common in all the process industries. Pressure is the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings.

Figure 4.34 Simple pressure sensor diaphragm

Pressure sensors all operate on the basis of the same principle: the detection of a physical force which arises due to pressure. For example, if a diaphragm separates two regions with different pressures on either side, there will be a physical force on the diaphragm given by : Force = (P1 - P2)(Diaphragm area) (4.14)

The force is directed from the high pressure region to the low-pressure region. In order to measure this force, we may measure the deflection of the diaphragm with a displacement transducer (such as a capacitive transducer), or we may measure the strain in the diaphragm with embedded strain gauges. In either case, it is to our advantage to have a thin diaphragm in order to maximize the deflection that we plan to measure. There are practical limits to the amount of deflection can measure. The thickness of the diaphragm is generally also limited by the technology used to manufacture it. For example, metal foil diaphragms are widely used in traditional meteorological instruments (Aneroid barometers). Standard technology for metal foil fabrication is capable of thickness down to a few millimeters at low cost and with good reliability. Static pressure is the pressure where no motion is occurring of the liquid. Its value increases as the liquid head in the tank increases. Dynamic pressure is the pressure that it exerts on its surroundings while the fluid is in motion. Its value increases as the liquid velocity increases.
Units 1 square. Ft =144 square inches ; 1 ft = 12 inch 1 psi (pound per square inch) = 1 Ib/in2 = 6.9 kpa ; 1 pascal = 1 Newton/ 1 m2 1 bar = 105 pascal

In many cases, the absolute pressure is not the quantity of major interest n describing the pressure. The atmosphere of gas that surrounds the earth exerts a pressure, because of its weight, at the surface of the earth of approximately 14.7 psi. If a closed vessel at the earth's surface contained a gas at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi, then it would exert no effective pressure on the walls of the container because the atmospheric gas exerts the same pressure from the outside. In this case, it is more appropriate to describe the pressure in a relative sense that is compared to atmospheric pressure. This is called gauge pressure and is given by:

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Sensors and Transducers

Pg = Pabs Pat (4.15) Where: Pg = gauge pressure Pabs = absolute pressure Pat = atmospheric pressure

A very common and relatively inexpensive measurement approach involves the measurement of the capacitance between the diaphragm and a fixed electrode. As shown in figure 3.52, motion of the diaphragm towards the fixed electrode increases the device capacitance as the pressure increases.

Figure 4.35 Capacitance between the Diaphragm

In this case, the capacitance between these electrodes depends on the separation between the diaphragm and the electrode at all positions. Another approach to produce the displacement is to use an elbow as shown in figure. Then, the LVDT device will convert the elbow motion into output voltage signal that express about the pressure value.

Figure 4.36 Pressure transducer using LVDT

Other types of pressure measurements: Manometers Diaphragm with piezoelectric crystal to produce the output voltage Bourdon tube to express in a mechanical displacement the pressure value

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Sensors and Transducers 4.6 Flow transducers

Flow is related to pressure by causing the flowing fluid to pass through some form of restriction in the transport pipe, which creates a momentary loss of pressure. This pressure differential is related mathematically to the flow rate.

Figure 4.37 Orifice, flow nozzle, and venturi flow meters

The D/P cell is a device to measure the differential pressure between to points. The output signal from this device is proportional to the squared value of the measured flow. A square root extractor can be used to obtain a linear relation between the flow and the measure signal as shown in figure.
Square root extractor

D/P Cell

Output is a function of flow

Flow

Figure 4.38 Indirect flow measurement

Magnetic flow meter It can be shown that if charged particles move across a magnetic field, a potential is established across the flow, perpendicular to the magnetic field. Thus, if the flowing liquid is also a conductor of electricity (not necessary to be highly good conductor), the flow can be measured by allowing the liquid to flow through a magnetic field and measuring the transverse potential produced. The pipe section in which this measurement is made must be insulated and a nonconductor itself, or the potential produced will be canceled by currents in the pipe. The polarity of the measured voltage can indicate the direction of the flow. This device produces an electrical signal directly and is convenient for process control applications involving conducting fluid flow.

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Figure 4.39 Magnetic flow meter

Rotameter In a rotameter, the obstruction is a float that rises in a vertical tapered column. The distance to which the float rises in column is proportional to the flow rate. The lifting force is produced by the differential pressure that exists across the float, because it is a restriction in the flow.

Figure 4.40 Rotameter

Turbine type A turbine type flow meter is composed of a freely spinning turbine blade assembly in the flow path. The rate of rotation of the turbine is proportional to the flow rate. If the turbine is attached to a tachometer, a convenient electrical signal can be produced.

Fig 4.41 Turbine flow meter

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Sensors and Transducers 4.7 Level transducers

In many processes involving liquids contained in vessels, such as distillation columns, evaporators, and mixed tanks, the particular level of liquid in each vessel can be of great importance in process operation. Thus a continuous measurement of level is required.
Float type In a ball float design, a physical hollow ball floats on a liquid and is referred to as a datum point, provides a direct means of level measurement.

Figure 4.42 Float type

Discrete points method In this method, an array of limit switches is mounted in a one side of the tank. As level increases the contact points that produce ON state increases. Consequently, the output voltage from the signal conditioning circuit is proportional to the level value.

Figure 4.43 Discrete points level measurement

Capacitance method

In this method, two concentric cylinders are contained in a liquid. The level of the liquid partially occupies the space between the cylinders, with air in the remaining part. This device acts like two capacitors in parallel, one with the dielectric constant of air (1) and the other with that of the liquid. Thus, variation of liquid level causes variation of the electrical capacity measured between the cylinders.

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Figure 4.44 Capacitive system

Example:

The level of ethyl alcohol is to be measured fro 0 to 5 m using a capacitive system such that shown in the above figure. The following specifications define the system: For ethyl alcohol: K = 26 ; for air K=1 Cylinder separation d=0.5 cm Average radius R= 5.75 cm Distance along cylinder axis is L a) Find the range of capacity variation as the alcohol level varies from 0 to 5 m. b) Compute the level value, if the measured capacitance is 50 nF (nano Farad).
Solution We saw earlier that the capacity is given by C =KoA/d. Therefore, all we need to do is find the capacity for the entire cylinder with no alcohol, and then multiply that by 26. A= 2 R L = 2 (3.14) (0.0575 m) (5 m) = 1.806 m2 Thus, for air C = 1 (8.85 pF/m) (1.806 m2)/ (0.005 m) = 3196 pF 0.0032 F With ethyl alcohol, the capacity becomes C = 26 (0.0032 pF) = 0.0832 F The range is 0.0032 to 0.0832 F

The measured capacitance is the equivalent of two capacitances in parallel (air and alcohol). Thus, we have CTotal = Cair + Calcohol 50 nF = {(8.85 pF/m) (2) (3.14) (0.0575)(5-H)/0.005} + {26 (8.85 pF/m)(2) (3.14) (0.0575)(H)/0.005} where H is the liquid level. So,
H= 2.93 m

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Sensors and Transducers Head pressure method In this method, the D/P cell measures the differential pressure between the deepest point in the tank and either the atmospheric pressure (open tank) or the upper point in the tank (closed vessel) as shown in figure. The output signal is proportional with the squared value of the level. We can measure the level by using square root extractor as shown before.

(a) Open tank

(b) Closed tank

Figure 4.45 Head pressure method

Ultrasonic method Sonic and ultrasonic technology has been applied to the problem of level measurement of liquids and bulk solids for many years. The use of ultrasonic reflection to measure level is favored because it is a "noninvasive" technique; that is, it does not involve placing anything in the material. The measurement depends on the length of time taken for reflections of an ultrasonic pulse from the surface of the material.

Figure 4.46 Level measurement in large vessels

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Sensors and Transducers 4.8 Basic concepts (MCQ)

Place the letter of statement that best completes the sentence in space provided. 1] The transducer can be considered as _______________. A) Sensor B) Sensor + signal conditioning C) Feedback information 2] In industry, ________ is often used as a temperature scale. A) Kelvin B) Fahrenheit C) Celsius 3] ______ is used to protect the temperature sensor while measuring the temperature in fluids. A) RTD B) Amplifier C) Thermowell 4] _________ is used to measure high temperature ranges A) Thermistor B) RTD C) Thermocouples 5] The temperature sensor that has a fastest speed of response is ___________. A) RTD B) Thermocouple C) Thermistors 6] Three wires RTD is used for _______________ A) Remote applications B) High temperature measurements C) Low temperature measurements 7] To avoid the self heating effect in temperature sensors, we can use_______ currents A) High B) Medium C) Small

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8] RTD refers to ___________. A) Reaction Timing Device B) Resistance Thermal Detector C) Resistance Thermometer Device 9] Thermocouples are temperature measuring devices that consist of ________ connected to an electronic circuit. A) Two polarized metal wires B) Two wires of the same alloy C) Two wires composed of different metals 10] Two vessels with different diameters will have the same hydrostatic pressure reading if the height of liquid in each is ___________. A) Different B) Higher in the larger diameter vessel C) Equal 11] Pressure acts ________ A) Only in one direction at a time B) In all directions C) Only in a downward direction 12] On the ________ temperature scale, freezing is 32o A) Fahernheit B) Celsius C) Kelvin 13] At 1000 feet above sea level, atmospheric pressure is _______ than at sea level. A) Greater B) Less C) No difference 14] When measuring very cold temperatures, thermometers are filled with __________. A) Mercury B) Ether C) Alcohol 15] A rotameter is the device that measures ________. A) Flow B) Pressur C) Level

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16] A displacement transducer that can measure small values is ____________. A) Potentiometer B) LVDT C) Strain Gauge 17] The dummy strain gauge is used in signal conditioning circuit to compensate the effect of ________. A) Pressure B) Force C) Temperature 18] A sensor that detects the presence of metal only is __________. A) Inductive proximity B) Capacitive proximity C) Limit switch 19] _________ sensors can be used in collision avoidance applications A) Limit switches B) Ultrasonic C) Photoelectric 20] In ________ scan technique for photoelectric sensors, the emitter and receiver are not in one unit. A) Diffuse B) Reflective C) Thru-Beam 21] Manometers are devices to measure ___________. A) Pressure B) Flow C) Level 22] The liquid level in a closed tank can be measured using ________ A) Float B) D/P cell C) Capacitance 23] Magnetic flow meter is used to measure the flow in _______ pipes. A) Metallic B) Insulated C) Long

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Sensors and Transducers 4.9 Problems

1] What are the most common temperature scales and write the relation between them? 2] Convert 150 oC into oF and oK and -200oF into oC and oK 3] A temperature sensor RTD has o(20oC)=0.004/oC. If R=106 at 20oC, find the resistance at 30oC. 4] A bridge circuit is used with a sensor located 100m away. The bridge is not lead compensated, and the cable to the sensor has a resistance of 0.45 /ft. The bridge nulls with R1 = 3400 , R2 = 3445 , and R3= 1560 . What is the sensor resistance? 5] A K-type thermocouple with 25oC reference temperature will be used to measure the temperature between 500oC to 700oC. Develop a signal conditioning that produce a corresponding output from 0 to 10 volt. 6] Explain how a D/P cell can be used to measure the liquid level in an open tank? 7] How to obtain a linear displacement transducer using variable distance capacitive type? 8] Explain the main principle of LVDT transducer? 9] What is the difference between Manometer and Rotameter? 10] What is meant by object detectors and give some examples? 11] What is the difference between: - Sensor and Transducer - Psig and Psia - RTD and Thermistor - Active SG and Dummy SG - Seebeck effect and Peltier effect 12] A thermistor Rth is used to convert temperature into resistance according to the following relation: Rth = Ro (1/ T) Where: Ro is constant and equal 100 k ohm T is the measured temperature from 10 oC to 100 oC a) Develop a signal conditioning circuit to obtain a linear output voltage signal with a gain of 0.1 V/ oC b) Plot the output volt versus the given temperature range. 13] A rectangular electrodes of 1 cm separation with height of 10 meters are used to measure the level of a liquid in a tank., K for the liquid=10, for air =1, and o =8.85 PF.meter. Compute the level value, if the measured capacitance = 4nF.

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14] A strain gauge has GF=2 and the nominal resistance = 120 ohm. Calculate the resistance change from a strain of 140 in/in 15] A temperature sensor has the relation R (ohm) = 100 + T (oC) Develop a signal conditioning circuit to provide a voltage signal in the range (0-5) volts when the temperature varies from 100 oC to 200 oC and keep the relation to be linear. 16] Suppose the RTD in the previous problem that has a dissipation constant of 25 mW/oC and is used in a circuit that puts 8 mA through the sensor. If the RTD is placed in a bath at 100oC, what resistance will the RTD have? What then is the indicated temperature?

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