Dictionary

0 T he i n fact standard number to di al for reachi ng a local phone com-
pany operator or answeri ng servi ce.

1-Pair Gas Lightning Protector Used i n Si ecor telephone network i n-
terfaces ( Fi g. 0.1) .
1
0-99
Figure 0.1 1-Pair Gas Lightning Protector
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 1
1FB A servi ce code that defi nes a flat-rate busi ness telephone li ne. A li ne
where a subscri ber can make unli mi ted local calls and not be bi lled ex-
tra, regardless of the number of calls or thei r durati on.
1FR A servi ce code that defi nes a flat-rate resi denti al telephone li ne. A
li ne where a subscri ber can make unli mi ted local calls and not be bi lled
extra, regardless of the number of calls or thei r durati on.
1MB A servi ce code that defi nes a measured-rate busi ness telephone
li ne. A li ne where the subscri ber i s bi lled ei ther for the number of calls
made or by the mi nute.
1MR A servi ce code that defi nes a measured-rate busi ness telephone
li ne. A li ne where the subscri ber i s bi lled ei ther for the number of calls
made or by the mi nute.
10/100 (Ten/One-Hundred) A reference to the newer fami ly of
Ethernet as a whole. 10BaseT i s 10 M bps, 100BaseT i s 100 M bps,
and 10BaseF i s 100 M bps over fi ber opti c. I t i s also referred to as
802, 10/100. Because the 10BaseT and 100BaseT can i nterconnect,
the network as a whole i s frequently called Ten-One Hundred net-
work. For a di agram of the I EEE 802 Ethernet fami ly, see IEEE 802
Ethernet.
10Base2 A Local-Area Network (LAN) protocol, Standard I EEE 802.3.
I t i s a 10-Mbps Ethernet speci fi cati on that uses RG-58 50-ohm thi n coax-
i al cable. I t also has a di stance li mi t of 606.8 feet ( 185 meters) per seg-
ment. As of 1995, 10Base2 i s rarely found i n servi ce anymore. See also
Cheapernet, Ethernet, IEEE 802.3, and Thinnet.
10Base5 A Local-Area Network (LAN) protocol. I t i s a 10-M bps
Ethernet speci fi cati on usi ng standard ( thi ck) 50-ohm coaxi al cable.
10Base5, whi ch i s part of the I EEE 802.3 baseband physi cal layer
speci fi cati on, has a di stance li mi t of 1640 feet ( 500 meters) per
segment. T he addi ti onal di stance beyond the 10Base2 standard i s
because of the thi cker coax, whi ch has a lower loss than i ts RG-58
counterpart ( 10Base2) . 10Base5 became outdated qui ckly because of
speed, cost, and the fact i t was cumbersome to work wi th. T hi ck
coax was also unsi ghtly compared to newer twi sted pai r, and i ts
flexi ble management and connecti vi ty. See also Ethernet and IEEE
802.3.
10BaseF A 10-Mbps Ethernet speci fi cati on that has three subcategori es,
or accessori es; 10BaseFB, 10BaseFL, and 10BaseFP. T hese standards are
2 1FB
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 2
for Ethernet over fi ber-opti c cabli ng. See also 10BaseFB, 10BaseFL,
10BaseFP, and Ethernet.
10BaseFB An accessory to the 10-Mbps Ethernet speci fi cati on 10BaseFP
that uses fi ber-opti c cabli ng. 10BaseFB i s part of the I EEE 10BaseF
speci fi cati on. I t i s not used to connect user stati ons, but i nstead pro-
vi des a synchronous si gnali ng backbone that allows addi ti onal segments
and repeaters to be connected to the network. 10BaseFB segments
can be up to 1.24 mi les ( 2000 meters) long. See also 10BaseF and
Ethernet.
10BaseFL A 10-M bps Ethernet speci fi cati on usi ng fi ber-opti c cabli ng.
10BaseFL i s part of the I EEE 10BaseF speci fi cati on and, although able
to i nteroperate wi th FOI RL, i t i s desi gned to replace the FOI RL spec-
i fi cati on. 10BaseFL segments can be up to 3280 feet ( 1000 meters)
long i f used i n conj uncti on wi th FOI RL, and up to 1.24 mi les ( 2000 me-
ters) i f 10BaseFL i s used exclusi vely. See also 10BaseF, Ethernet, and
FOIRL.
10BaseFP A 10-M bps fi ber-passi ve baseband ( si ngle channel) Ether-
net speci fi cati on usi ng fi ber-opti c cabli ng. 10BaseFP i s part of the
I EEE 10BaseF speci fi cati on. I t organi zes a number of computers
i nto a star topology wi thout the use of repeaters. 10BaseFP segments
can be up to 1640 feet ( 500 meters) long. See also 10BaseF and
Ethernet.
10BaseT 802.3 Ethernet 10Mb/s LAN standard. See Ethernet, and IEEE
802 Ethernet.
10Broad36 A 10-Mbps broadband ( multi channel) Ethernet speci fi cati on
usi ng coaxi al cable. 10Broad36, whi ch i s part of the I EEE 802.3 speci fi -
cati on, has a di stance li mi t of 2.24 mi les ( 3600 meters) per segment. See
also Ethernet and IEEE 802.3.
12-Pack Coax Cable A bundle of twelve 50-ohm coaxi al cables used to
transport STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1) si gnals through-
out a central offi ce or node ( Fi g. 0.2) . Commonly, the cables run from a
SONET carri er uni t to a DCS (Digital Cross-Connect System).
100BaseFX A 100-Mbps baseband ( si ngle channel) Fast Ethernet spec-
i fi cati on usi ng two strands of multi mode fi ber-opti c per li nk. To guaran-
tee proper si gnal ti mi ng, a 100BaseFX li nk cannot exceed 1312 feet ( 400
meters) i n length. I t i s based on the I EEE 802.3 standard. See also
100BaseX, Fast Ethernet, and IEEE 802.3.
100BaseFX 3
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100BaseT 802.3 Ethernet 100Mb/s LAN standard. See Ethernet.
100BaseT2 A physi cal layer medi a standard. A twi sted-pai r segment that
uses two pai rs of Category 3 voi ce-grade twi sted-pai r wi res. 100BaseT 2
i s not meant to be i ntenti onally deployed i n networks due to i ts di stance
li mi tati ons.T hi s standard came about to gi ve Ethernet/802.3 a way to be
i nexpensi vely deployed on exi sti ng telephone wi res.
100BaseT4 A physi cal layer medi a standard. A twi sted-pai r Ethernet seg-
ment that uses four pai rs of Category 3, 4, or 5 UT P cable. 100BaseT 4
uses a standard RJ-45 connector wi th the same pi nout as the 10BaseT
speci fi cati on, plus two bi di recti onal pai rs ( transmi t on 1 and 2, recei ve
on 3 and 6; bi di recti onal on 4 and 5; bi di recti onal on 7 and 8) . T he di stance
of wi re enabled for Ethernet transmi ssi on over 100BaseT 4 i s dependent
on the category of wi re. T he longest di stance for transmi ssi on i s for Cat-
egory 5 UT P, whi ch i s 328 feet or 100 meters. See also Appendix G.
100BaseTX A physi cal layer medi a standard. A twi sted-pai r segment
type based on two pai rs of Category 5 twi sted-pai r wi res. T he 100-based
speci fi cati on uses two pai rs of Category 5 unshi elded twi sted-pai r ( UT P) ,
two pai rs of 100-ohm shi elded twi sted-pai r ( ST P) , or Type 1 ST P cable.
4 100BaseT
Figure 0.2 Bundled Coax Cable
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 4
100BaseT X uses a Category 5 certi fi ed RJ-45 connector and the same
pi nout used i n 10BaseT ( transmi t on 1 and 2, recei ve on 3 and 6) .
100BaseT X supports full-duplex connecti on for swi tches, NI Cs, and
routers. See also Appendix G.
100BaseX 100-Mbps baseband Fast Ethernet speci fi cati on that refers to
the 100BaseFX and 100BaseT X standards for Fast Ethernet over fi ber-
opti c cabli ng. Based on the I EEE 802.3 standard. See also 100BaseFX,
100BaseTX, Fast Ethernet, and IEEE 802.3.
100VG (AnyLAN) 100-Mbps Fast Ethernet and token-ri ng medi a tech-
nology usi ng four pai rs of Category 3, 4, or 5 UT P cabli ng. T hi s trans-
port technology, developed by Hewlett-Packard, can operate on exi sti ng
10BaseT Ethernet networks. Based on the I EEE 802.12 standard. See
also IEEE 802.12.
100-Pair Cable UTP Telephone twi sted copper pai r commonly used i n
bui ldi ng hori zontal di stri buti on or i n ri ser systems, ( connecti vi ty between
floors) . T he cable i llustrated i n Fi g. 0.3 i s 100 UTP (Unshielded Twisted
Pair) plenum.
101B Closure 5
Figure 0.3 100-Pair Plenum UTP Cable
101B Closure A closure/housi ng used to protect servi ce wi re spli ces and
i nsi de wi ri ng spli ces ( Fi g. 0.4) .
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 5
110 Punch Tool A tool used to termi nate soli d twi sted-pai r copper wi re
on AT & T 100 termi nati on blocks ( Fi g. 0.5) .
6 110 Punch Tool
Figure 0.4 101B Closure
Figure 0.5 Punch Tool with 110 Blade and CAT5 RJ45 Jacks
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 6
110 Termination Block Also called AT&T 110 (one-ten) blocks.
Devi ces used to mount twi sted-pai r wi re so that di fferent devi ces i n a
network can be cross connected easi ly ( Fi g. 0.6) .
145A Test Set 7
Figure 0.6 AT&T 110 Termination Blocks
Figure 0.7 145A Test Set
145A Test Set An analog telephone cable test set that measures the
length of twi sted pai rs, and tests for grounds and shorts. T hi s test set
can also send a tone ( Fi g. 0.7) .
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 7
2B1Q (Two Binary One Quarternary) A type of Pulse Amplitude Mod-
ulation (PAM), where two bi ts presented at di fferent possi ble voltage
levels represent four bi ts at one voltage level. T hi s li ne li ne code i s a mai n-
stay for I SDN, and i s also used i n some ADSL and I DSL i mplementati ons.
2-Line Network Interface Old style wi th i nterchangeable li ghtni ng pro-
tectors. T he whi te pai nt on the tops of the protectors i ndi cates gas
type, rather than the carbon type ( Fi g. 0.8) .
8 2B1Q (Two Binary One Quarternary)
Figure 0.8 2-Line Network Interface
Figure 0.9 25-Pair Modular Splice Unit
2FR A servi ce code for a flat-rate party li ne wi th two subscri bers. For
more i nfo, see Selective Ringing Module and Party Line.
25-Pair Modular Splice Used i n a modular spli ce tool to spli ce PI C tele-
phone cable ( Fi g. 0.9) .
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258A Adapter 9
Figure 0.10 25PR Female Amp Connector (50 pin)
Figure 0.11 25PR PVC UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
25PR Connector Also called an Amphenol, Amp connector, P con-
nector (male), or C connector (female) ( Fi g. 0.10) .
25PR PVC Common telephone cabli ng used for hori zontal and verti cal
wi ri ng i n bui ldi ngs ( Fi g. 0.11) .
258A Adapter Adapter used to connect 25-pai r Amphenol cables to RJ45
patch cords ( Fi g. 0.12) .
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 9
267A Adapter Also called a one-line splitter. T hi s i s a si mple T adapter
that spli ts a si ngle j ack i nto two ( Fi g. 0.13) .
10 267A Adapter
Figure 0.12 258A AdapterHarmonica Adapter (50 pin amp to RJ45)
Figure 0.13 267A Adapter (top) and 267C Adapter (bottom)
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 10
267C Adapter Also called a two-line splitter. T hi s adapter i s frequently
confused wi th a 267A adapter, whi ch i s a one-li ne spli tter. T he 267C uni t
i s desi gned to spli t two separate li nes ( wi th two separate phone num-
bers) out of one RJ-11 j ack. See also 267A ( Fi g. 0.13) .
2500 Set A frequently referred to telephone because i t i s known to be
noncordless, to have a swi tch-hook that i s not bui lt i nto the handset,
and to have a mechani cal bell ri nger equi valence between 0.8 and 1. T he
2500 was the Western Electri c model number of thi s once most wi dely
used telephone set. A 2500 telephone i s also a reference to a tradi -
ti onal analog telephone ( Fi g. 0.14) .
3DES (Triple DES) 11
Figure 0.14 Desktop Telephone
3 Command Set A reference to Ci sco Systems method of i nteracti ng
wi th a router or swi tch, parti cularly the 5000 seri es li ne of swi tches and
many router models. T he three commands used to mani pulate and vi ew
the I OS setti ngs are SET, CLEAR, and SHOW.
3DES (Triple DES) Data Encrypti on Standard. A 168-bi t encrypti on
method that i ncorporates an algori thm developed by the Uni ted States
Nati onal Bureau of Standards.
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3FR A servi ce code for a flat-rate party li ne wi th three subscri bers. For
more i nformati on, see Selective Ringing Module and Party Line.
3G (Third Generation Network) I n wi reless communi cati ons, a con-
vergence of voi ce, data, and multi medi a servi ces at i ni ti al bandwi dths of
144 K bps, wi th a future bandwi dth maturi ty to 1 Mbps and beyond. A
si mple i denti fi cati on of wi reless communi cati ons technology evolvement
i s defi ned i n generati ons. T he fi rst generati on was AMPS, whi ch uti li zed
FDM technology to carry one call on each analog channel. T he second
generati on i s referred to as CDMA/TDMA/GSM, and placed multi ple di g-
i tal calls wi thi n PCS bandwi dths as well as provi ded enhanced servi ces.
T he thi rd generati on, 3G, i s i ntended to uni fy not only voi ce, data, and
multi medi a, but also appli cati on formats. T he standard appli cati on i n-
terface for whatever radi o i s used wi ll be I P. I n the Uni ted States and
Japan, among other countri es that have deployed both GSM and CDMA
for wi reless technology, CDMA2000 wi ll be the ( OSI layer 2) G3 mi gra-
ti on path. For countri es that use the European T DMA and GSM formats,
GPRS ( General Packet Radi o Servi ce, or W-CDMA) wi ll be the mi grati on
path. Regardless of the wi reless li nk between end users, the appli cati ons
that are accessed wi ll be done through I P. T herefore, end users wi ll be
able to exchange appli cati on i nformati on vi a open standards. For multi -
nati onal users, handset manufacturers are planni ng to produce devi ces
that are compati ble wi th both technologi es by i ncorporati ng both types
of radi o technology.
3720 A common reference for an I BM 3720 communi cati ons controller.
For more i nformati on and a di agram, see Communications Con-
troller.
For more i nformati on and a di agram, see Communications Controller.
4FR A servi ce code for a flat-rate party li ne wi th four subscri bers. For
4 Pair Shown i n Fi g. 0.15 i s 4-pai r, PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride Jacketed)
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair).
12 3FR
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4B/5B Coding (4-Bit/5-Bit Coding) A physi cal layer codi ng/com-
pressi on method used by the FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Inter-
face) for 100-M bps physi cal layer appli cati ons. I n appli cati ons where
the AT M cell format i s transmi tted over 4B/5B FDDI , an addi -
ti onal byte of overhead results from the encodi ng and cell deli mi ti ng
method. However, the net transmi ssi on rate remai ns the same because
of the compressi on. T he mechani cs of thi s compressi on method are
the same ( yet a smaller versi on) of 8B/10B codi ng. See also 8B/10B
Coding.
49A Ready Access Terminal A common termi nal found i n an outdoor
aeri al copper telephone plant ( Fi g. 0.16) . T hese termi nals wi ll soon
be very uncommon because better spli ce closures and weatherproof
access devi ces have come to market. T he 49A i s a ready-access
pi c termi nal, whi ch means that the copper pai rs are not pre-spli ced
to bi ndi ng posts wi thi n the cover. To i nstall servi ce from one of
these termi nals, a techni ci an spli ces di rectly i nto the pai r. T hese
older termi nals have been a mai nstay for telephone compani es for
decades because they are i nexpensi ve and flexi ble i n maki ng servi ce
changes.
49A Ready Access Terminal 13
Figure 0.15 4PR PVC UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 13
6-Pair Can A termi nati on or spli ci ng enclosure desi gned especi ally for
6-pai r aeri al or buri ed servi ce wi re ( Fi g. 0.17) . 6-pai r cans are avai lable
wi th li ghtni ng protectors ( protected 6-pai r can) .
14 6-Pair Can
Figure 0.17 6-Pair Can
Figure 0.16 49A Ready Access Terminal
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 14
66 Block 15
Figure 0.18 66M150 Termination Block 66 Block
66 Block T he 66M150 termi nati on block i s used to termi nate twi sted-
pai r wi re on di stri buti on frames and any other soli d 22 to 24 wi ri ng
appli cati on ( Fi g. 0.18) .
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 15
8 Click Rule/8 Second Rule A gui deli ne that I nternet websi te creators
use. T he obj ecti ve i s to get the user the i nformati on they need wi thi n 8
cli cks or 8 seconds or less. I t i s beli eved that i f an end user must wai t
longer than 8 seconds or make more than 8 cli cks, they wi ll move on to
an alternati ve websi te.
8B/10B Coding (8-Bit/10-Bit Coding) A physi cal-layer compressi on
method developed by Fi ber Channel that i s used to transfer AT M trans-
mi ssi ons from OC-3 SONET to ST S-3 twi sted pai r. T hi s i s an AT M LAN
appli cati on that i s recommended up to 100 meters. T he 8B/10B codi ng
techni que combi nes overhead wi th data. Wi th the 10 bi t/baud, 1024 sym-
bols can be transmi tted ( 0000000000 to 1111111111) . Because payload
data i s based on 8 bi ts, whi ch, i n turn, enables 256 di fferent symbols,
768 spare symbols remai n that can represent a combi nati on data-
character/overhead-i nformati on. I f a user i s transporti ng AT M over
SONET OC-3, that transmi ssi on can be di rectly transferred to a twi sted
pai r wi th no bufferi ng and no delay, so long as 8B/10B codi ng i s used.
8FR A servi ce code for a flat-rate party li ne wi th ei ght subscri bers. For
80/20 (Eighty/ Twenty) 1. A rule of thumb used by telephone compa-
ni es whereby swi tch and transport faci li ti es would be i ncreased i n a cer-
tai n area when the uti li zati on reached 80% . T hi s rule worked i n the
former monopoli sti c busi ness model well. By the ti me the remai ni ng 20%
was uti li zed, there would be addi ti onal network faci li ti es i nstalled to ac-
commodate growth. I n the newer competi ti ve busi ness envi ronment, ad-
di ti onal network faci li ti es are bui lt based only on marketi ng forecasts
and the revenue potenti al of the market that the network serves. T hi s
change i n busi ness structure and methods has had good and bad effects
on the vast maj ori ty of telecommuni cati ons servi ce customers. T he good
part i s that economi cally ri ch areas get an abundance of telecommuni -
cati ons servi ces; the bad part i s that areas that are remote or poor do
not. 2. A desi gn consi derati on i n enterpri se networks where servers are
distributed or spread out throughout a network. T he purpose of thi s de-
si gn method i s to keep 80% of the traffi c on the same autonomous sys-
tem, subnet, or broadcast domai n ( possi bly a bui ldi ng or floor) . T hi s de-
si gn was used when swi tchi ng equi pment for the backhaul of traffi c to
or through a core was very expensi ve. Si nce the drop i n pri ce for LAN
swi tchi ng equi pment, the cost of managi ng an 80/20 network has proved
to exceed the cost of the swi tchi ng equi pment that would provi de one
central core. T he core desi gn i s called a hierarchical network design.
See also Hierarchical Network Architecture and note the placement of
servers ( Fi g. 0.19) .
16 8 Click Rule/8 Second Rule
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89B Bracket T he bracket that i s used to attach 66M150 blocks to back
boards i n telephone closets or di stri buti on frames ( Fi g. 0.20) .
89B Bracket 17
Figure 0.20 89B Bracket Beside 66M150 Block
VOICE GATEWAY
TRUNKS
20% REMOTE
C SERVER TRAFFIC
SERVER SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
S
3
D
S
3
MULTI-CHANNEL ETHERNET
SERVER
S
3
D
S
3
Y IP TELEPHONY
SERVER
LAN SWITCH
80% LOCAL
LAN SWITCH
80% LOCAL
SERVER TRAFFIC
LAN SWITCH
80% LOCAL
SERVER TRAFFIC
TRUNKS 20%
REMOTE
SERVER TRAFFIC
Figure 0.19 80-20 Network Architecture
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802.1d T he I EEE standard for spanni ng tree algori thm that prevents
loops i n redundantly connected LAN swi tches. Spantree i s automati cally
enabled when redundant bri dges are connected. I f redundant bri dges
were connected to a network wi thout Spantree enabled, the dual con-
nected bri dges would forward the same frames to each other i n an end-
less loop. T hi s condi ti on saturates bandwi dth i mmedi ately, and renders
all devi ces associ ated wi th the loop useless. T he way that Spantree works
i s that when bri dges are i ni ti ali zed ( powered on) , they send a si gnal to
other networked devi ces called a Bridge Protocol Data Unit ( BDPU) .
When bri dges/swi tches recei ve these BDPUs from other devi ces, they
become aware that other bri dges are connected to the network and
whether any are connected i n redundancy to them. Usi ng BDPU i nfor-
mati on, bri dges on the network elect a root bri dge and a desi gnated
bri dge. Dependi ng on the way the bri dges are physi cally connected, all
ports are blocked or parti ally di sabled except for root ports and des-
i gnated ports, whi ch are bri dge ports closest ( by number of hops) to a
desi gnated or root bri dge. I f a li nk i s lost, an alternate port then becomes
the root port. New BDPU messages are sent to noti fy other bri dges of
the status change. Most makers of bri dgi ng hardware set the default to
automati cally send BDPUs and enable Spantree to on. T hi s i s so that i f
a network i s unknowi ngly connected wi th bri dges i n parallel, i t wi ll not
bri ng the network down. T he 802.1d standard evolved from Di gi tal Equi p-
ment Corporati ons ( DEC) Spantree algori thm. 802.1d and the ori gi nal
DEC Spantree are not i nteroperable. Further, when i ncorporated wi th
802.1Q ( VLANs) , one i nstance of spanni ng tree must be set up for each
and every VLAN.
802.1p T he I EEE standard for pri ori ti zati on of LAN traffi c among Eth-
ernet swi tches based on ei ther the swi tch port, MAC address, or I P ad-
dress associ ated wi th the communi cati ng end appli ance ( whether i t i s
an I P phone, vi deo moni tor, host PC, pri nter, or server) . Packets are
tagged as belongi ng to a queue, whi ch determi nes the pri ori ty of the
packet. By the 802.1p standard, queue 03 i s normal, and 47 are hi gh
pri ori ty. 802.1p functi ons hand-i n-hand wi th 802.1Q or VLANs.
802.1Q T he I EEE standard that evolved from Ci sco Systems I SL ( I nter-
Swi tch Li nk) protocol. I SL and 802.1Q are not i nteroperable. T he refer-
ence 802.1Q i s better known as the VLAN or tag swi tchi ng standard. I t
i s a feature on post 1998 LAN Swi tches that makes selected ports be-
have as i f they were attached to the same segment, or hub. Another
good name for thi s feature would be V-Segment, or Virtual Segment.
Devi ces/users that exchange a large amount of i nformati on are usually
placed wi thi n the same Vi rtual LAN segment. T hi s helps make the op-
erati on of the LAN swi tch more effi ci ent, keepi ng traffi c contai ned wi thi n
18 802.1d
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 18
speci fi ed ports. T hi s allows other ports on separate VLANs to carry other
nonrelated traffi c si multaneously. VLANs are confi gured by a network
engi neer, network analyst, or network admi ni strator. When I P telephony
i s i mplemented over an Ethernet swi tched network, the telephone de-
vi ces connected to the network are best placed i nto thei r own VLAN.
Most swi tches that are 802.1Q compati ble can recogni ze more than 1, 000
VLANs. Further, there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c, and dynami c. Sta-
ti c VLANs are associ ated wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c VLANs are as-
soci ated wi th the MAC addresses of devi ces attached to the swi tch. Dy-
nami c VLANs allow users to move to another offi ce that could have a
swi tch port connecti on prei nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the
MAC address of the devi ce and automati cally i nclude i ts traffi c i n the
same VLAN as the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also Frame
Tagging.
802.3ab Ten gi gabi t Ethernet over copper UT P and fi ber standard
( 10, 000BaseT ) . Sti ll i n the process of standardi zati on as of thi s wri ti ng.
I t i s expected that the technology bei ng i mplemented i n the 802.3ab
standard and/or i ts revi si ons wi ll extend Ethernet more than 40 km.
802.3u T he I EEE Ethernet 100BaseT feature speci fi cati on that provi des for
flow control ( pause frames) and full-duplex operati on. Full duplex allows
for 100 Mbps send and 100 Mbps recei ve, for a total 200 Mbps Ethernet
connecti on over Cat5 twi sted pai r. T he auto negoti ati on i s an enhancement
of the li nk i ntegri ty si gnali ng method used i n 10BaseT networks, and i s
backward-compati ble wi th li nk i ntegri ty. Auto negoti ati on allows the NI C
or the network devi ce to adjust i ts speed to the hi ghest speed that both
ends are capable of supporti ng. To be able to use thi s feature, both the net-
work devi ce ( swi tch port) and the NI C must contai n the auto negoti ati on
logi c. T hi s speci fi cati on also allows for DT E to DT E li nks of 400 meters, or
a one repeater network of approxi mately 300 meters.
802.3x Full-Duplex Transmission T he Full-duplex porti on of thi s stan-
dard provi des the means of transmi tti ng and recei vi ng si multaneously
on a si ngle wi re. Full duplex i s typi cally i mplemented between two end-
poi nts, such as between swi tches, between swi tches and servers, or be-
tween swi tches and routers. Full-duplex transmi ssi on i s not used for
desktop workstati on PCs because the PCs work at a maxi mum 90 Mbps,
whi ch makes 200 Mbps i mpracti cal. Full duplex allows bandwi dth Fast
Ethernet ( 802.3) networks to be easi ly and cost-effecti vely doubled from
100 Mbps to 200 Mbps.
802.3z 1000BaseX speci fi cati on. Also called the Gigabit Ethernet spec-
ification. Gi gabi t Ethernet i s defi ned for fi ber opti c multi mode and si ngle
802.3z 19
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 19
mode. T here i s also a copper versi on that runs di stances of 25 meters.
Gi gabi t Ethernet i s mostly i nterfaced wi th SC fi ber opti c connectors, and
there i s a wi de vari ety of laser-di ode adapters avai lable from manufac-
turers ( i .e., the Ci sco Systems GBI C connector) i n the LX, LS, and LH
range. Gi gabi t Ethernet standards use 8B/10B encodi ng and decodi ng
schemes( Fi g. 0.21) .
20 802.11b
802.11b Wi reless LAN standard update to 802.11DS for i ncreased speed
to 11 Mbps at an operati ng frequency of 2.4 GHz. T he modulati on tech-
ni que used i n 802.11b i s DSSS ( Di rect Sequence Spread Spectrum) . WEP
( Wi red Equi valent Pri vacy) i s also an addi ti on i n the 802.11b standard,
whi ch allows manufacturers to i mplement securi ty up to and i ncludi ng
128-bi t key encrypti on.
802.11DS T he 802.11 Wi reless LAN standard for the Di rect Sequence
method of li ne codi ng. I n the standard, there are 11 22-MHz wi de sta-
ti onary channels. T hi s allows for an 11 Mbps throughput, wi th up to
three nonoverlappi ng radi o channels operati ng i n the same area, whi ch
means three separate radi o uni ts ( called Access Points i n some wi re-
less ci rcles) can operate i n the same area wi thout i nterferi ng wi th each
other.
802.14 T he I EEE standard for the operati on of cable telephony modems
that enables cable T V networks that are coax and hybri d fi ber-coax i n
composi ti on to carry Ethernet 802 traffi c as well as AT M based traffi c.
T here are multi ple MAC layer i nterfaces defi ned i n 802.14 to make ca-
ble telephony servi ces equally as flexi ble to the end user as tradi ti onal
servi ces enabled by DSL or AT M.
Figure 0.21 Gigabit Ethernet Distances
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 20
900 T he i n fact standard for servi ces bi lled through telephone compa-
ni es. Some 900 servi ces i nclude weather i nformati on, stock exchange
i nformati on, and eroti c i nformati on. Phone compani es have thei r own
i ndi vi dual cri teri a for provi di ng 900 servi ces to compani es that wi sh to
sell servi ces over the telephone network. I ndi vi duals that call 900 num-
bers are bi lled a pre-determi ned amount for the call on a per-mi nute ba-
si s. Most telephone compani es requi re that anyone selli ng i nformati on
servi ces on thei r network to i nform callers of the charges i n advance and
to allow them a certai n amount of ti me to hang-up before any bi lli ng
begi ns.
911 T he standard emergency servi ce telephone number. 911 calls are not
answered by the telephone company; they are answered by an emer-
gency di spatch servi ce. T hi s i s why 911 servi ce has a separate charge on
telephone bi lls.
965TD 3M Dynatel 965T D loop analyzer i s shown i n Fi g. 0.22. Used for
testi ng twi sted-pai r telephone cable. T he 965T D i s also a data termi nal
capable of accessi ng a database vi a an i nternal modem. T he T DR ( Time
Domain Reflectometer) i s another great feature of the 965T D.
965TD 21
Figure 0.22 3M 965T Loop Analyzer
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 21
PQ104-5056F-P01.qxd 2/9/01 12:46 PM Page 22
A (Amp, Ampere) A uni t of electri cal current flow that i s equal to one
volt appli ed to one ohm of resi stance. T he Ohms Law defi ni ti on of am-
perage i s:
T he ampere can also be defi ned as one coulomb of charge flowi ng
past a poi nt i n one second. One coulomb of charge i s equal to
6, 300, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 electrons.
A Law An I T U-T standard compandi ng method used to convert analog
voi ce to compressed di gi tal i n the maj ori ty of the world for cellular ra-
di o networks. I n the Uni ted States, the mu-Law standard i s used. See
Companding.
AA (Automated Attendant) Most voi ce-mai l systems come wi th an au-
tomated attendant bui lt i n. An automated attendant i s an answeri ng ma-
chi ne that asks the caller to push 1 for sales, 2 for servi ce, etc. T hey are
also capable of routi ng callers to a di al by name di rectory. See also
Directory Tree.
AAL (ATM Adaptation Layer) A transfer format, cell header format,
and functi onal secti on of the AT M transport method. T here are fi ve vari -
ati ons of the AT M Adaptati on layer. Each i s i ntended to be used wi th a
speci fi c type of data. For a di agram of AT M layers, see Fig. A.1.
I
E
R
or Amps
Voltage
Resistance
23
A
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 23
AAL1 (ATM Adaptation Layer One) T he part of the AT M protocol
that enables the transfer of ti me-sensi ti ve data, such as voi ce or vi deo.
AAL1 uses an adapti ve clock method, where the devi ces at each end of
the li nk negoti ate a clock agreement, then i ncorporate a small buffer to
moni tor the rate at whi ch cells are bei ng transferred across the li nk.
AAL1 i s used for DS0, DS1 emulati on, and other voi ce and vi deo.
AAL2 (ATM Adaptation Layer Two) For class-B traffi c ( see di agram
under AAL) , packet technologi es, and the transport thereof. I t i s si mi -
lar to voi ce over frame, vi deo over frame, etc.
AAL3/4 (ATM Adaptation Layer Three and Four) For class C and D
( see the AAL di agram) layers that are desi gned to handle nonti me-
sensi ti ve data transfer. T hi s layer class adds header i nformati on that i n-
corporates error-checki ng functi ons before and after the ori gi nal data.
Also, a Message I D functi on allows multi plexed or i nterleaved transmi s-
si ons to be sent di rectly over the si ngle AT M vi rtual channel. T hi s layer
would be used as a backbone to carry many X.25 or Frame-Relay logi -
cal li nks, or could be used i n a campus appli cati on to carry Ethernet
from one bui ldi ng to another.
AAL5 (ATM Adaptation Layer Five) T he layer created for class C and
D types of traffi c ( see the AAL Fi gure A.1 di agram) . T he cell header
24 AAL1 (ATM Adaptation Layer One)
CONSTANT BIT
RATE
DIGITAL VOICE
DIGITAL VIDEO
SINGLE CHANNEL
DATA TRANSPORT
MULTICHANNEL
PACKET/FRAME
TRANSPORT
VARIABLE BIT RATE
VOICE AND VIDEO
END TO END TIMING NO END TO END TIMING
VARIABLE BIT RATE
CONSTANT BIT
RATE
CONNECTIONLESS CONNETION ORIENTED
CLASS
A
CLASS
B
CLASS
C
CLASS
D
AAL 1 AAL 3,4 or 5 AAL 4 or 5 AAL 2
Figure A.1 ITU-T Service Classifications for the ATM Adaptation Layers
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 24
remai ns the same except larger buffers are used and a CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) i s appended to the end of the last cell of the
packets cell stream. No Message I D functi on i s avai lable to di rectly trans-
fer multi plexed data. Cell payloads are 48 bytes, and a PT I bi t i s used to
i ndi cate the last cell of a packet.
AAR (Automatic Alternate Routing) A feature of some networks and
protocols to reroute traffi c on the fly wi thout i nterrupti ng or corrupti ng
traffi c.
AB Switch A mechani cal/manual swi tch used to swi tch a si gnal between
two source or desti nati on devi ces. For example, i f you have two com-
puters and one moni tor, you could i mplement an AB swi tch to control
whi ch computer the moni tor i s connected to. T he moni tor would con-
nect to the C port on the swi tch, and the two computers would con-
nect to the A and the B ports. AB swi tches sui t many appli cati ons of
connecti vi ty from computer to audi o/vi deo ( Fi g. A.2) .
AB Switch 25
Figure A.2 Common AB Switch
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 25
Abandoned Call When you make a call, are put on hold, then hang up
before someone answers, you have abandoned the call. Customer-servi ce
call centers li ke to know the number of abandoned calls they have so
that they know how many people to employ answeri ng calls, etc. Beli eve
i t or not, i f you hang up when calli ng a call center, someone that cares
eventually fi nds out!
Ablation To burn holes i nto metal fi lm wi th a laser. T he holes represent
ones and zeros for opti cal storage on di sks.
ABR (Available Bit Rate) Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M networks that i s used for connecti ons that are not
ti me or delay sensi ti ve. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned
as an ABR connecti on i f i t carri ed only spontaneous or bursty data. Other
QOSs defi ned by the AT M forum for AT M connecti ons i nclude CBR
(Constant Bit Rate), UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate), and VBR (Variable
Bit Rate).
Absorption Loss T he weakeni ng of li ght i ntensi ty as i t travels a length
of opti cal fi ber. T he uni t for absorpti on loss i s dB/K m ( deci bels per
ki lometer) .
AC (Alternating Current) Alternati ng current i s electri ci ty that changes/
alternates i ts di recti on of flow i n a steady cycle or peri od. T he li ne volt-
age i n most Ameri can homes i s somewhere between 110 V and 120 V AC
RMS, whi ch makes the actual peak to peak voltage about 325 V.
AC-to-DC Converter T hi s i s an electroni c devi ce that defi nes i tself.
Large-scale AC/DC converters are mostly referred to as rectifiers. T hey
convert alternati ng current to di rect current ( or voltage) by i ncorporat-
i ng a large capaci tor and two or four di ode recti fi ers for a half wave or
full wave, respecti vely. Almost all recti fi ers have regulated output, mean-
i ng the output DC voltage i s kept at a steady level, regardless of the elec-
troni c devi ce i t i s provi di ng power to. Recti fi ers are also avai lable wi th
battery backup and redundant ci rcui ts so i f a component fai ls, the out-
put voltage wont be di sturbed. AC to DC converters are rated by i nput
voltage requi rement output voltage/current abi li ty.
Acceptable Angle T he maxi mum angle that a fi ber opti c accepts li ght
and doesnt reflect i t away.
Access Charge (Carrier Common-Line Charge) What local phone com-
pani es charge long-di stance compani es to connect the far-end local por-
ti on of a call. A fee that everyone pays for every phone li ne to make up
26 Abandoned Call
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 26
for subsi di es that long-di stance servi ces pai d to help the less-profi table lo-
cal servi ces before the di vesti ture of AT & T and the RBOCs ( Regi onal Bell
Operati ng Compani es) .
Access Layer One of the three LAN network desi gn layers. I n LAN net-
work desi gn, the three swi tch layers are Core Layer, Di stri buti on Layer,
and Access Layer ( Fi g. A.3) . T he Core Layer provi des redundancy for
di stri buti ng traffi c across multi ple Access Layers. T he Access Layer
provi des hi gh-speed swi tchi ng and routi ng among a group of swi tches
networked by trunks. T he Access Layer provi des swi tches where users
connect, so hi gh port quanti ty i s desi red i n thi s layer.
Access Network 27
CORE LAYER
DISTRIBUTION LAYER
R SERVER
R SERVER
R SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
D
S
3
D
S
3
switch backplane speed
multilayer switching
and packet manipulation
OC3
OC3
ACCESS LAYER
High Port Quantity
HIERARCHICAL NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
Figure A.3 Access Layer
Access Line A connecti on provi ded by a telephone company that runs
from a customers premi ses to a central offi ce or to a co-locati on wi thi n
the central offi ce.
Access Link T he local phone li ne that connects you to a central offi ce
swi tch and gi ves you access to a long-di stance carri er. I ts an access li ne
wi th all the electroni cs that gi ve you di al tone or pri vate li ne communi -
cati ons capabi li ty.
Access List A li st kept by routers to control access to or from the router
for a number of servi ces. A good example i s the preventi on of packets
wi thi n a speci fi c I P address leavi ng a parti cular i nterface on the router.
Access Network Regardi ng xDSL, the porti on of a publi c swi tched net-
work that connects access nodes to i ndi vi dual subscri bers. I t i s also
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 27
called a local network. Todays access network i s predomi nantly passi ve
twi sted-pai r copper wi ri ng and fi ber opti c, and i s owned by such tele-
phone compani es as SBC, Ameri tech, Qwest, and GT E.
Access Node A connecti ng poi nt for a data transport or data-packet net-
work. Access nodes usually resi de i n a central offi ce envi ronment, or are
a part of a leased space agreement. Connecti ons to access nodes are pro-
vi ded by local carri er loops. Access devi ces at the end of the customer
loop are generally provi ded by the data-network servi ce provi der or by
the customer.
Access Point (AP) Another name for a cross-box where telephone ca-
bles are cross connected. See also Aerial Cross Box ( Fi g. A.4) .
28 Access Node
Figure A.4 Access Point (AP) Cross-Box
Access Server A communi cati ons processor that connects asynchronous
devi ces to a LAN or WAN through network-emulati on software that
resi des i n i ts memory. I t performs synchronous and asynchronous routi ng
of such supported protocols as Ethernet, token ri ng, frame relay, and
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 28
X.25. Access servers are someti mes referred to as network-access
servers or communications servers.
Access Service Request When a speci al-servi ce provi der ( frame relay or
long di stance pri vate li ne) needs wi re faci li ti es from thei r poi nt of presence
i n the ci ty to your locati on, they call the local telephone company and make
an access servi ce request to provi de a li ne that runs from your network i n-
terface to them. Many speci al servi ce provi ders have thei r equi pment lo-
cated i n the local phone companys central offi ce as a part of a co-locati on
agreement. When a CLEC ( competi ti ve local exchange carri er) needs to
provi de servi ce where they dont have faci li ti es, thi s i s how they do i t by
usi ng the RBOCs ( Regi onal Bell Operati ng Company) wi re faci li ti es.
Access Switch A poi nt i n a network where multi ple servi ces/protocols
are di fferenti ated and routed for enterpri se networki ng servi ces.
Access Tandem A telephone company central offi ce or node that con-
tai ns a swi tch i n whi ch all i nter and outer area code traffi c i s handled.
T he mai n LEC (Local Exchange Carrier) central offi ce i n an area code
where the hand-off for long-di stance servi ce happens ( Fi g. A.5) .
Account Code 29
LEC
NPA
LEC
Tandem
Switch
208
LEC
Tandem
Switch
713
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
Boise
South CO
Houston
North CO
Houston
Main CO
Area code 713
Houston
South CO
Houston
East CO
Boise East CO
Boise Main CO
Area code 208
IXC LINES
Figure A.5 Access Tandem
Account Code I n accounti ng for communi cati ons costs, an account code
i s used. I f you have multi ple employees i n your offi ce usi ng multi ple
phone li nes to make long-di stance calls, fi guri ng out who made those
calls can be i mpossi ble. Some long-di stance compani es offer a servi ce
where employees enter an account code before thei r call i s completed.
When the phone bi ll comes, i t i s easy to see who i s maki ng long-di stance
calls, to where, and for how long. Most i mportantly, i t i s easy to di stri b-
ute the costs among a group. Most PBX (Private Branch Exchange)
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 29
swi tches have call accounti ng systems avai lable that allow a telephone
extensi on ( or group of extensi ons) to be attached to an account code
that shows how much each phone i s uti li zed, and what calls are made
and recei ved.
ACD (Automatic Call Distributor/Distribution System) A separate
footpri nt or bui lt-i n feature of a PBX (Private Branch Exchange) that
equally di stri butes i ncomi ng calls to agents. As calls come i n, they are placed
i nto a queue ( or a wai ti ng li ne) for the next avai lable agent. ACD systems
are very versati le and relati vely easy to program as some i ncorporate thei r
own scri pt programmi ng feature. For i ncomi ng calls, the wai ti ng ti mes, pre-
recorded announcements and other call treatments can be set up by the
users/compani es to thei r di screti on. Some well-known ACD systems are
made by ACCENT, Lucent, and Northern Telecom. See also ACS.
ACIS (Automatic Customer/Caller Identification Service) T hi s
feature comes wi th many ACD (Automatic Call Distribution) systems
and enables them to make useful the DNI S si gnal attached to an i nbound
call. T he DNIS (Dialed Number Identification Service) can be used
to i denti fy the caller or call type. I f you have a call center where more
than one busi ness i s served, then the Automati c Customer/Caller I den-
ti fi cati on feature can forward the call to a certai n group of agents that
are associ ated wi th the di aled number. I t can even tell them what ki nd
of call they are answeri ng on the di splay of thei r phone. I f a customer
calls from Mexi co, then the ACD ACI S feature wi ll relate the di aled num-
ber wi th an ACD group that speaks Spani sh. Of course, the ACD system
needs to be set up or programmed by an admi ni strator to do thi s.
ACK ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for acknowledgement. Bi nary code
i s 0110000 Hex i s 60.
ACM (Advanced Communications Function) Also known as an ad-
vanced communications function control program. T he ACM pro-
gram resi des wi thi n a communi cati ons controller and i nterfaces wi th the
SNA (System Network Architecture) access method i n the host com-
puter/mai nframe to control network communi cati ons.
Acoustic T hi s term refers to the natural sound vi brati ons of an obj ect
or space. I n telecommuni cati ons, acousti cs are a concern when usi ng
hands-free or speaker-phone devi ces. I f the acousti cs of the electroni c
hands-free devi ce are poor, i t wi ll vi brate or resonate when the volume
level i s i ncreased. I f the acousti cs of the room that the devi ce i s i n are
bad, the devi ce wi ll cut i n and out as i t hears i ts own echo. Cloth cu-
bi cles have a good acousti c vi brati on-dampeni ng effect. Wi de open
30 ACD (Automatic Call Distributor/Distribution System)
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 30
rooms wi th no cei li ng ti le and sheet rock walls have a poor acousti c-
dampeni ng effect.
Acquisition T he process of a terrestri al-based devi ce locki ng on a satel-
li tes GPS (Global Positioning System) si gnal. I ncluded i n the process
of acqui ri ng the si gnal i s AGC (Automatic Gain Control) for opti mum
si gnal level, synchroni zati on, and processi ng of the data si gnal.
ACR (Allowed Cell Rate) A parameter defi ned by the AT M Forum for
AT M Traffi c Management. T he ACR vari es between the Minimum Cell
Rate (MCR) and the Peak Cell Rate (PCR). I t i s managed by the pro-
tocol congesti on control mechani sms.
ACS (Automatic Call Sequencer) I f you cant afford an ACD system,
thi s could be the answer you have been looki ng for. An ACS answers the
call, plays a recorded announcement, and puts the caller on hold. T he
calls comi ng i n ( all the calls) appear as li ghts on a telephone ( or multi ple
telephones) . T he calls that have been on hold the longest bli nk the fastest
( or have other si gnali ng methods) . ACS systems are desi gned pri mari ly
for or as a part of key systems.
Activated Return Capacity T he abi li ty of your cable T V box to send
i nformati on back to the cable-T V offi ce head end and the abi li ty of the
head end to recei ve the data. T hi s i nformati on can i nclude the I D num-
ber of the cable T V box and what stati on you are watchi ng.
Active Device An acti ve devi ce i s an electroni c component that requi res
external power to mani pulate or react to an electroni c i nput for a de-
si red output. Examples of acti ve devi ces are: transi stors, op amps, di odes,
cathode ray tubes, and I Cs. I f i ts not acti ve, i t i s a passi ve devi ce. I ncluded
i n the passi ve-devi ce category are capaci tors ( condensers, i f you want
to use a really old term) resi stors, and i nductors ( or coi ls) , whi ch i nclude
transformers.
Active Matrix Display Also called TFT (Thin Film Transistor) di s-
plays. A type of laptop computer di splay technology. I n an acti ve matri x
di splay, each pi cture element has i ts own control transi stor. T he di splay
performance of acti ve matri x di splays i s si gni fi cantly sharper, faster, and
are less stressful on human eyes, yet they consume more battery power
than passi ve matri x di splays. See also Passive Matrix Display.
Active Vocabulary A li st of words that a voi ce-recogni ti on system has
been programmed to recogni ze. Each voi ce-recogni ti on system has i ts
own set of words that are selected to fi t i ts appli cati on. T hi s i s done so
Active Vocabulary 31
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 31
that when a voi ce says pai r, the voi ce recogni zes a word that means
two, not a frui t ( pear) .
ACU (Automatic Calling Unit) A devi ce that I BM computers use to
access outsi de di al tone for communi cati ons. I t does the j ob of a modem,
but uses i ts own protocols to communi cate wi th the computer.
AD (Analog to Digital Converter, ADC) A part of a channel bank that
encodes analog voi ce si gnals i nto a stream of bi nary di gi ts. T he di gi tal
to analog converter or analog to di gi tal converter samples a callers voi ce
at a rate of 8000 ti mes per second. ( T he sample rate for a T 1 channel i s
8000 ti mes per second.) Each samples voltage level i s measured and
converted to one of 256 possi ble sample levels. T hese levels are from the
lowest, 0000000, to the hi ghest, 11111111. T he reason for 256 levels i s
because i f you count i n bi nary from 00000000 to 11111111, you end up
wi th 256, the hi ghest number possi ble wi th 8 bi ts. T he bi ts are then
transmi tted one after another at a hi gh rate of speed to thei r desti nati on,
where the same process happens i n reverse. For a di agram, see Analog
to Digital Conversion.
Ad Insertion Module I n cable T V or broadcast radi o networks, a devi ce
that broadcasts commerci al adverti si ng duri ng pre-determi ned ti me seg-
ments. Ad-i nserti on equi pment enables local cable T V compani es to sell
and i nsert adverti si ng space to local busi nesses. T he same i s appli cable
for broadcast T V/AM/FM radi o stati ons.
Adaptable Digital Filtering A method of condi ti oni ng twi sted-pai r tele-
phone li nes to carry data more effi ci ently up to 12, 000 feet before
regenerati on. T he adapti ve di gi tal fi lter can be customi zed to the
characteri sti cs of any gi ven pai r ( that i s i n good condi ti on) . T hi s method
of li ne condi ti oni ng i s not compati ble wi th XDSL.
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) A fami ly
of techni ques used to compress audi o i nformati on for data storage and
wi reless telephone networks. T hi s i s accompli shed by usi ng algori thms
that code the di fference between sound samples and dynami cally
swi tchi ng the codi ng scale to compensate for audi o si gnal ampli tude and
frequency. T hi s techni que requi res less di sk storage space and less
bandwi dth to transmi t, as opposed to PCM, whi ch encodes absolute
quanti tati ve values.
ADCCP (Advanced Data Communications Control Protocol) A bi t-
ori ented data li nk protocol developed by ANSI . ADCCP was si mi lar i n
make-up to that of HDLC and SDLC. See also HDLC.
32 ACU (Automatic Calling Unit)
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 32
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) 33
Mainframe
Server
ARP Broadcast....My IP address
is122.15.30.2, I want to talk to address
122.15.32.1
Response to ARP broadcast from IP address
122.15.30.2, your PHYSICAL address is 05525880.
my IP address is 122.15.32.1 what would you like
to talk about, and how much would you like to talk
about it?
IP address 122.15.30.2
IP address 122.15.32.1
Figure A.6 ARP Broadcast
Add On A PBX, Centron, or Central Offi ce feature ( also known as three-
way calling) . Some telephone stati ons have a button that i s desi gnated
add on. To add a thi rd caller, you push the add-on key and di al the num-
ber of the thi rd party, then push add-on agai n to bri dge the calls together.
Address Mapping A method of maki ng di ssi mi lar protocols work to-
gether. I t i s done by translati ng the address of one protocol to another
protocol. For example, when routi ng I P over X.25, the I P address must
be routed or forwarded to the X.25 address, and vi ce versa on the op-
posi te end of the transmi ssi on.
Address Mask A bi t combi nati on used to descri be whi ch porti on of an
address refers to the network or subnet, and whi ch part refers to the
host. T he address mask i s usually referred to as the mask. See also
Subnet Mask.
Address Resolution A general term that refers to overcomi ng the di f-
ferences between computer addressi ng schemes. Address resoluti on i s
most commonly a method of mappi ng or transferri ng layer 3 ( network
layer) addresses to layer 2 ( datali nk layer) addresses.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) T he ARP functi on i s to match
hi gher-level network I P addresses wi th the physi cal hardware address of
a pi ece of hardware, such as a NIC (Network Interface Card), whi ch i s
the subsequent router, PC, server, or termi nal that i t belongs to. ARP pro-
vi des the li nk of the physi cal address ( NI C) and the appropri ate I P ad-
dress. For example, an I BM mai nframe attempti ng a connecti on to a server
on an I P network would send an ARP broadcast ( i t contai ns the I P ad-
dress of the target server, as well as i ts own I P address) to the network.
I f the mai nframe recei ves the ARP, i t wi ll recogni ze i ts own I P address i n
the packet, and respond by sendi ng i ts physi cal address ( Fi g. A.6) .
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 33
Address Signals T he di gi ts you di al on your phone pad, the phone num-
ber i s actually an address si gnal to the local central offi ce that you are
connected to.
Address Translation Gateway A reference to a router software func-
ti on. T hi s software provi des address format conversi ons as data packets
are routed from one network to another. Most address translati on gate-
ways enable a router to do speci fi c address format conversi ons for trans-
mi ssi ons between speci fi c nodes of separate networks.
Addressable Programming For Pay Per Vi ew, cable T V compani es use
an addressable programmi ng system. When you call the phone number
to acti vate the Pay-Per-Vi ew movi e or event, an I VR system recei ves your
ANI si gnal or asks for your phone number. T hen, i t uses your phone
number as your customer I D code for bi lli ng; i n some cases, i t i denti fi es
whi ch cable-T V converter box to enable. Your cable T V box has an I D
code or address code i n i ts memory. When i t recei ves i ts own address
si gnal from the cable-T V offi ce head end, i t enables the hori zontal sync
or di gi tal channel for the Pay-Per-Vi ew program. I ts called addressable
programming because the converter box i s programmed after i t re-
cei ves i ts address, whi ch acts li ke a password.
Addressed Call Mode Another way of sayi ng di al-up mode. Someti mes
the term phone number i s substi tuted wi th address by some of the stan-
dards commi ttees. T hi s happened i n the V.25bi s standard. Addressed call
mode permi ts DT E and DCE to establi sh and termi nate calls by di ali ng
user-determi ned phone numbers, based on the V.25bi s modem standard.
Adjacency A relati onshi p formed between selected nei ghbori ng routers
and end nodes for the purpose of exchangi ng routi ng i nformati on. De-
vi ces usi ng the same medi a segment are consi dered to be adj acent.
Adjacent Channel Interference I n terrestri al mi crowave radi o as well
as other types of radi o communi cati on, adj acent channel i nterference re-
sults when another RF li nk i s usi ng an adj acent channel frequency. I n
selecti ng a si te, a spectrum analyzer can be used to determi ne i f any
strong si gnals are present at the si te, and i f they are, to determi ne how
close they are to the desi red frequency. T he further away from your pro-
posed frequency, the less li kely they are to cause a problem. Antenna
placement and polari zati on as well as the use of hi gh-gai n, focused an-
tennas i s the most effecti ve method of reduci ng thi s type of i nterference.
Administrative Distance A rati ng of the trustworthi ness of a routi ng i n-
formati on source. I n Ci sco routers, admi ni strati ve di stance i s expressed as
34 Address Signals
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 34
a numeri cal value between 0 and 255. T he hi gher the value, the lower the
trustworthi ness of the routi ng i nformati on. For example, i f routi ng data
has traveled through 1 router and 1 medi a segment, the chances that i t
has been corrupted are low, so the admi ni strati ve di stance i s consi dered
to be about 2. I f the routi ng data has traveled through 100 routers and
100 medi a segments, i ts admi ni strati ve di stance rati ng could be about 200.
ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) A fami ly of
techni ques used to compress audi o i nformati on for data storage and wi re-
less telephone networks. T hi s i s accompli shed by usi ng algori thms that
code the di fference between sound samples and dynami cally swi tchi ng the
codi ng scale to compensate for audi o si gnal ampli tude and frequency. T hi s
techni que requi res less di sk storage space and less bandwi dth to transmi t,
as opposed to PCM, whi ch encodes absolute quanti tati ve values.
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) Also referred to as
ADSL Full Rate or G.992.1. ADSL i s a physi cal-layer protocol that sup-
ports up to 8 Mbps bandwi dth downstream and up to 1 Mbps upstream
( Fi g. A.7) . T he asymmetri cal aspect of ADSL technology makes i t i deal
for I nternet browsi ng, vi deo on demand, and remote Local-Area Net-
work (LAN) access. Users of these appli cati ons typi cally download more
i nformati on than they send. ADSL also allows si multaneous voi ce com-
muni cati on by transmi tti ng data si gnals outsi de of the voi ce frequency
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) 35
Central Office Voice
Switch
Telephone
Telephone
Personal Computer
Twisted Copper Pair Cable
Telephone Jack
Telephone Jack
ADSL Transmission
Interface
Telephone
Network
Interface
Internet IP Router
Telephone Jack
ADSL POTs
Filter
ADSL POTs
Filter
DSLAM
ADSL
Network
Diagram
ADSL Router
Figure A.7 ADSL Network Diagram
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 35
range. Someti mes a fai nt hi ss can be heard on the li ne. To eli mi nate the
hi ss, a voi ce/data spli tter, commonly called a POTS splitter (Plain Old
Telephone Service) i s i nstalled at the j ack of each phone. T he base trans-
mi ssi on range for an ADSL li ne i s 18, 000 feet. ADSL can be extended to
remote communi ti es by usi ng ADSL repeaters ( to 48, 000 feet) or fi ber
opti c. For more i nformati on on the DSL fami ly of protocols, see xDSL.
ADSL Router T he devi ce that i nterfaces a customers personal computer
wi th the ADSL telephone li ne. T he ADSL router needs i ts own NIC
(Network Interface Card) i nstalled i n the personal computer. See also
Fig. A.8.
36 ADSL Router
Figure A.8 ADSL Router
ADSU (ATM DSU, Asynchronous Transmission Mode Digital Ser-
vice Unit) A termi nal adapter used as a demarcati on poi nt or i nter-
face poi nt to an AT M network.
Advance Replacement T he process of getti ng a replacement compo-
nent ( card, phone, power supply, software, etc.) by calli ng the di stri b-
utor or manufacturer and obtai ni ng an advance-replacement reference
number. When you recei ve your advance replacement i tem, you replace
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 36
i t i n the box wi th the bad i tem, mark the box wi th the advance-replacement
reference number and send i t back. Hopefully, the replacement i tem
doesnt go bad so that you dont have to go through all that agai n.
Advanced Data Communications Control Protocol (ADCCP) A bi t-
ori ented data li nk protocol developed by ANSI . ADCCP was si mi lar i n
make-up to that of HDLC and SDLC. See also HDLC.
Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking (APPN) An enhancement to the
ori gi nal I BM SNA (System Network Architecture). APPN handles the
followi ng: sessi on establi shment between peer nodes, dynami c trans-
parent route calculati on, and traffi c pri ori ti zati on for Advanced Program-
to-Program Communi cati on.
Advanced Program-to-Program Communication (APPC) T he I BM
SNA (System Network Architecture) software that allows hi gh-
speed communi cati on between programs on di fferent computers i n a
di stri buted/mai nframe computi ng envi ronment. APPC establi shes and
tears down vi rtual connecti ons between programs that requi re commu-
ni cati on. I t has two software i nterfaces; the fi rst i nterface i s the
programmi ng i nterface, whi ch repli es to programs requi ri ng communi -
cati ons. T he second i nterface i s the data-exchange i nterface, whi ch
establi shes the sessi ons or connecti ons between the programs.
Advertising (Router) A process i n whi ch routers send routi ng table up-
dates and/or servi ce updates at speci fi ed i ntervals. T hi s i s done so that
all routers mai ntai n accurate i nformati on about thei r network sur-
roundi ngs, whi ch assi sts i n the effi ci ent and accurate passi ng of data
packets. See also Router Protocol.
Aerial Cable Twi sted copper pai r, coax, or fi beropti c cable that i s at-
tached to power or telephone poles strung through the ai r. Electri cal
( power) , telephone ( fi ber opti c and twi sted pai r) , and cable T V ( coax)
are frequently aeri al. Aeri al cable i s attached to a steel strand wi th lash-
i ng wi re i n most cases. I t i s someti mes attached duri ng manufacturi ng
as a part of the j acket or sheath ( thi s ki nd i s called figure-8 cable) . T he
steel strand i s attached to pole wi th strand clamps and other pole at-
tachments. T hi s i s all done wi th pole-attachment agreements wi th the
owner of the pole, whi ch i s the power company, i n most cases.
Aerial Cross Box A cross box that i s mounted on a pole away from the
ground. Aeri al cross boxes ( also called tree stands) are i nstalled i n ar-
eas where easement ri ghts are narrow or i n areas where vandali sm i s a
hi gh ri sk ( Fi g. A.9) .
Aerial Cross Box 37
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 37
Aerial Service Wire Splice A common devi ce used to spli ce aeri al serv-
i ce wi re ( also called a football or potato) . See Fig. A.10.
38 Aerial Service Wire Splice
Figure A.9 Aerial Cross Box (AP) Tree Stand
Figure A.10 Aerial Service Wire Splice
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) Bui lt-i n to every radi o i s an AGC ci r-
cui t that compensates for the strength of the si gnal you are recei vi ng
( Fi g. A.11) . I f your radi o had no AGC and was tuned to a di stant stati on,
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 38
tuni ng to a local stati on would cause the volume to blare. T he way i t
works i s as follows: After the tuner has selected the frequency to be
processed, the si gnal goes to an AGC ci rcui t, whi ch i s very si mi lar to
a regular i ntermedi ate-frequency ampli fi er ( si ngle transi stor) , except
that the gai n ( ampli fi cati on) of the ci rcui t i s controlled by a level de-
tector. T he level detector samples the output voltage of the fi rst pre-
amp and converts i t to a DC voltage that i s appli ed to the base con-
fi gurati on of the AGC transi stor. T he DC voltage controls the bi as
( ampli fi cati on confi gurati on) of the AGC ci rcui t, whi ch di rectly con-
trols how large of a si gnal i s output to the fi rst preamp. T he enti re sys-
tem i s desi gned for an opti mum si gnal i nto the second preamp. When
the si gnal i s opti mal, then the level of the AGC control si gnal i s zero
i n most AGC ci rcui ts.
AGC i s an i mportant part of di gi tal mi crowave. Some mi crowave li nks
are often mi les apart. When the path of the two di sh antennas are ali gned,
the techni ci an connects a volt meter to the AGC control si gnal. As the
di sh i s rotated on i ts axi s ( azi muth) , the techni ci an watches as the AGC
control si gnal changes. When the si gnal peaks, i t i s poi nted di rectly at
the other antenna. Even though terrestri al mi crowave li nks do not move
or swi tch stati ons, they sti ll need AGC to compensate for weather
changes.
Aggressive Back-off Algorithm 39
Antenna
Tuner/
Detector AGC 1
st
pre amp 2
nd
pre amp output amp
Level detector
AGC control signal
speaker
Figure A.11 AGC
Agent 1. I n data admi ni strati on, software that processes queri es then
returns repli es on behalf of an appli cati on program. 2. I n network-
management systems, such as Novell RI P or Ci sco I GRP, an agent i s a
subprocess that resi des i n all managed devi ces ( such as routers and
servers) and reports the values of speci fi ed network vari ables to man-
agement stati ons. 3. An extensi on i n a PBX or call center envi ronment
that has vari able or condi ti onal avai labi li ty.
Aggressive Back-off Algorithm A reference to autonegoti ati on features
wi thi n Ethernet. I t i s the I EEE 802.3u 100BaseT feature speci fi cati on
that provi des for flow control ( pause frames) and full-duplex operati on.
Full duplex allows for 100 Mbps send and 100 Mbps recei ve, for a total
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 39
200 Mbps Ethernet connecti on over Cat5 twi sted pai r. T he autonegoti -
ati on i s an enhancement of the li nk i ntegri ty si gnali ng method used i n
10BaseT networks and i s backward compati ble wi th li nk i ntegri ty.
Autonegoti ati on allows the NI C or the network devi ce to adj ust i ts speed
to the hi ghest speed that both ends are capable of supporti ng. To be able
to use thi s feature, both the network devi ce ( swi tch port) and the NI C
must contai n the autonegoti ati on logi c.
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) A newer bus/i nterface archi tecture
developed by I ntel Corporati on to be used as an i nterface for computer
moni tors. AGP i s based on the PCI bus archi tecture, except that AGP
provi des a dedi cated connecti on to mai n memory for a vi deo card. T hi s
enables throughput that exceeds 1 Gbps. T he push for a faster moni tor
i nterface has come from the demands of 3-D graphi cs. AGP slots/sockets
can easi ly be di sti ngui shed by thei r offset pi n confi gurati on ( Fi g. A.12) .
40 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
Figure A.12 An AGP Video Card
Aggregate Bandwidth T he total bandwi dth of a broadband ci rcui t and
all of i ts tri butari es, i ncludi ng the payload and overhead. A T 1 has an
aggregate bandwi dth of 1.544 Mb/s.
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 40
Aggregation Device An I SDN termi nal adapter that can combi ne two B
channels ( 64 K b/s each) together for a si ngle channel that has twi ce the
bandwi dth ( 128 K b/s) . T hese adapters can swi tch back and forth from
aggregated to non-aggregated whi le the ci rcui t i s i n use.
Aggregator A long-di stance reseller. T hey si gn up wi th a long-di stance com-
pany as a reseller and all thei r customers are aggregated together for a
bulk di scount. T he long-di stance company provi des the servi ce and does
the bi lli ng. T he advantage to the long-di stance company i s that they have
more people selli ng thei r long di stance. T he advantage to the customer i s
the value-added servi ce ( consultati on/experti se) that the aggregator offers.
AH (Amp Hour) A battery rati ng for UPS system and other batteri es.
T he amp-hour rati ng i s deri ved by multi plyi ng the amount of current
that a battery can supply by the ti me i t can supply i t. I t works out to be
a rati o so that you can calculate how long your battery back-up system
wi ll last i f the power goes out.
For example: I f a battery has an amp-hour rati ng of 100, then i t can
supply 100 amps for 1 hour. Or i t can supply 50 amps for 2 hours, 25 amps
for 4 hours, 1 amp for 100 hours, etc.
AIN (Advanced Intelligent Network) T he abi li ty of a communi cati ons
network to determi ne the routi ng or handli ng of a call based on the way
the caller desi res. AI N i s used by local and long-di stance compani es to
gi ve customers a choi ce as to how they would li ke thei r calls routed. A
parti cular trunk can be speci fi cally programmed to route a speci fi c path
through swi tchi ng centers across a geographi cal area. AI N i s ulti mately
an upgrade to SS7. Some AI N trunks can be made to route to an I VR
( I nteracti ve Voi ce Response) system that gi ves the customer opti ons for
thei r call handli ng.
AIOD (Automatic Identification of Outward Dialing) T hi s i s a call-
accounti ng system feature of PBX and some key systems that captures
every number di aled by a speci fi c telephone extensi on and pri nts i t out
on a report for accounti ng and cost-tracki ng purposes.
AIR (Allowed Information Rate) T he maxi mum data transfer rate that
a frame-relay DLC (Data Link Connection) wi ll allow. T he AI R i s equal
to the CIR (Committed Information Rate) plus the EIR (Excess In-
formation Rate) of the parti cular DLC.
Air-Pressure Cable Telephone cable that i s equi pped wi th ai r-pressure
equi pment. I n many cables ni trogen i s used i nstead of ai r because i t i s
noncorrosi ve ( ai r contai ns humi di ty and oxygen that corrodes copper
Air-Pressure Cable 41
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 41
pai rs) . Ni trogen i s pumped i nto the cable and the pressure i s moni tored.
I f the cable i s cut, the pressure drop noti fi es the telephone company of
a cable problem and the ni trogen rushi ng out of the cable helps prevent
any water from enteri ng the cable ( Fi g. A.13) .
42 Airline Mileage
Figure A.13 Air-Pressure Cable
Airline Mileage T he mi leage between two ci ti es that long-di stance
pri vate-li ne pri ci ng i s based on. AT & T developed a gri d coordi nate system
( coordi nates shown i n V& H table) that gi ves every telephone central offi ce
i n the Uni ted States a verti cal and hori zontal gri d number. To calculate
the mi leage between two ci ti es, the Pythagorean theorem i s used.
To calculate mi leage between two ci ti es, follow these steps:
1. Take the di fference of the V coordi nates and square i t.
2. Take the di fference of the H coordi nates and square i t.
3. Add the two squared numbers together.
4. Di vi de by 10.
5. Take the square root of that number. T hi s i s the mi leage.
Example: What i s the ai rli ne mi leage from Los Angeles, CA to New
York, NY?
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 42
T he V coordi nate of Los Angeles i s 9213. T he V coordi nate of New
York i s 4977. T he di fference i s 4236.
H coordi nate of Los Angeles i s 7878. T he H coordi nate of New York i s
1406. T he di fference i s 6472.
Next, square both numbers: 4236
2
17, 940, 000. 6472
2
41, 890, 000.
Now, add these numbers: 17, 940, 000 41, 890, 000 59, 830, 000.
Now, di vi de these numbers: 59, 830, 000 10 5, 983, 000.
Take the square root: .
2446 mi les i s the ai rli ne mi leage between Los Angeles and New York.
Algorithm A well-defi ned rule or process for arri vi ng at a soluti on to a
problem. I n networki ng, they are commonly used to determi ne the best
route for traffi c from parti cular source to a parti cular desti nati on, and
used to create error detecti on and correcti on processes.
Alignment Error I n most Ethernet networks, an error that occurs when
the total number of bi ts of a recei ved frame i s not di vi si ble ( a factor of)
by ei ght. Ali gnment errors are usually caused by colli si ons.
All-Routes Explorer Packet I n a source route bri dgi ng network, a si g-
nal sent by a user devi ce that hunts for another end devi ce across an
enti re network.
All Trunks Busy You mi ght try to make a call and get a fast busy si gnal or
an i ntercept message that says I m sorry, all ci rcui ts are busy now. Please
try your call agai n later. T hi s si tuati on can happen for a number of rea-
sons. I f you are di ali ng long di stance, you get thi s message because all of
the trunks that your long-di stance company has between thei r i nterlata
central offi ce POPs (Points of Presence) are busy. I f you are maki ng a lo-
cal call that termi nates to a di fferent local CO and you get thi s message, i t
i s because all the i nter-offi ce trunks are busy. I f you are calli ng your nei gh-
bor and you get thi s message, then the i nter-groupi ng trunks wi thi n the lo-
cal CO swi tch are all busy. I nter-groupi ng trunks are used i n large swi tches
to i nterconnect smaller CO swi tch groups wi thi n the CO swi tch.
Alligator Clips Most analog test equi pment comes equi pped wi th alli -
gator cli ps. For a photo, see Bed of Nails Clips.
Allowed Cell Rate (ACR) A parameter defi ned by the AT M Forum for
AT M Traffi c Management. T he ACR vari es between the Minimum Cell
Rate (MCR) and the Peak Cell Rate (PCR). I t i s managed by the protocol
congesti on control mechani sms.
25, 983, 000 2446
Allowed Cell Rate (ACR) 43
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 43
Allowed Information Rate (AIR) T he maxi mum data transfer rate that
a frame-relay DLC (Data Link Connection) wi ll allow. T he AI R i s equal
to the CIR (Committed Information Rate) plus the EIR (Excess In-
formation Rate) of the parti cular DLC.
ALPETH (Aluminum/Polyethylene) T he sheath or j acket of an out-
si de plant telephone cable that i s used mostly for aeri al appli cati ons. I t
i s basi cally an alumi num wrap around the conductors, whi ch resembles
a serrated ti n can, coated wi th
1
8 of black plasti c ( Fi g. A.14) .
44 Allowed Information Rate (AIR)
Figure A.14 ALPETH
Alternate Answering Position A second attendant console where the
fi rst console can forward calls i f the fi rst console attendant i s absent. An
alternate answeri ng posi ti on can also be used for overflow of calls that
the fi rst attendant cant keep up wi th.
Alternate Routing A swi tch feature that enables all trunks to have
alternate outgoi ng assi gnments. I f the pri mary routi ng or least-cost rout-
i ng i s all busy or out of servi ce, then the swi tch wi ll route the call to an
alternate trunk to connect the call. I t i s a good i dea to use multi ple long-
di stance and local servi ces i n conj uncti on wi th alternate routi ng i n case
of a servi ce outage.
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 44
AM (Amplitude Modulation) AM i s a techni que of maki ng a voi ce or
other si gnal ri de on ( or modulate wi th) another frequency ( the carri er
frequency) . For a di agram, see Amplitude Modulation.
AMA (Automatic Message Accounting) What RBOCS call thei r call
tracki ng system for bi lli ng.
Ambient Current T he result of the voltages created by random move-
ment of electrons i n a ci rcui t when the power i s off. T here i s always
ambi ent voltage, whi ch i s why osci llator ci rcui ts start osci llati ng when
the power i s turned on. T he natural osci llati ons of the electrons become
fi ltered and ampli fi ed when the power i s appli ed to the ci rcui t.
Ambient Noise Noi se caused by the random movement of electrons i n an
electroni c ci rcui t when the power i s off or by the random movement of ai r.
Ambient Voltage Electromoti ve force created by the random move-
ment/vi brati on of electrons i n a ci rcui t when the power i s off. T here i s
always ambi ent voltage, whi ch i s why osci llator ci rcui ts start osci llati ng
when the power i s turned on. T he natural osci llati ons of the electrons
become fi ltered and ampli fi ed when the power i s appli ed to the ci rcui t.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A nongovernmental
nonprofi t standards setti ng i nsti tute that publi shes standards that i n-
dustri es voluntari ly follow. ANSI works very hard to bri ng together the
i nterests of the pri vate and publi c sector. ANSI i s the offi ci al U.S. mem-
ber body to the worlds leadi ng standards bodi es.
American National Standards Institute Communications Standards
Some examples of ANSI communi cati ons standards are:
ANSI T 1.110-1987 SS7 General i nformati on
ANSI T 1.111-1988 SS7 Message Transfer Part ( MT P)
ANSI T 1.112-1988 SS7 Si gnali ng Connecti on Control Part ( SCCP)
ANSI T 1.113-1988 SS7 I SDN user part
ANSI T 1.114-1988 SS7 Transacti on Capabi li ty Appli cati on Part ( T CAP)
ANSI T 1.206 Di gi tal Exchanges and PBX loop-back test li nes
ANSI T 1.301 ANSI ADPCM standard
ANSI T 1.401-1988 I nterface between carri ers and customer i n-
stallati ons for voi ce-grade swi tched analog
li nes Loop Start and Ground Start
ANSI T 1.501-1988 Network performance/network encodi ng li mi ts
for 32K b/s ADPCM
American National Standards Institute Communications Standards 45
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 45
ANSI T 1.601-1988 Basi c access i nterface/electri cal loops for the
network si de
ANSI T 1.T 1.Q1 Network performance standards for swi tched
exchange and I XC
ANSI T I X9.4 SONET
ANSI X3T 9.5 T PDDI FDDI on UT P/ST P
ANSI character set ANSI 256 character set code
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) AMI i s a li ne format that serves two
advantages to sendi ng a di gi tal si gnal di rectly over a twi sted pai r. T he
feature of AMI that makes i t uni que i s that each bi t i s i nverted. T hi s
makes the fi rst bi t 5 V, the second 5 V, the thi rd 5 V, etc. Alter-
nati ng the bi t polari ty also makes the si gnal look li ke i t i s half the fre-
quency to the twi sted pai r ( Fi g. A.15) .
46 AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
Ref +5
Unformatted digital signal
Reference voltage for T1 carrier is typically +135 Volts over the public network, so
AMI actually switches from +140V to +130V
AMI formatted signal
Ref
Ref 5
Figure A.15 AMI
Amp Abbrevi ati on for Ampere, see Ampere.
Amp Hour (AH) A battery rati ng for UPS system and other batteri es,
the Amp Hour rati ng i s deri ved by multi plyi ng the amount of current
that a battery can supply by the ti me i t can supply i t. I t works out to be
a rati o so that you can calculate how long your battery back-up system
wi ll last i f the power goes out.
For example: I f a battery has an amp hour rati ng of 100, then i t can
supply 100 amps for 1 hour, 50 Amps for 2 hours, 25 Amps for 4 hours,
1 amp for 100 hours, etc.
Ampere 6,300,000,000,000,000,000 electrons movi ng past a poi nt i n one
second ( a coulomb) i s equal to one ampere ( also known as an amp) of
electri cal current. T he shortcut/alternati ve to counti ng all the electrons
as they run by i s to use the Ohms law formula and calculate the amper-
age i nstead. I f you know two of the followi ng about your ci rcui t, voltage,
resi stance, or watts you can perform the calculati on. T he formulas are:
Current 1i n amps2
Voltage 1i n volts2
Resistance 1i n ohms2
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 46
or
or
Amplified Handset A handset wi th a bui lt-i n ampli fi er for the heari ng
i mpai red. Ampli fi ed handsets can be purchased for vi rtually every ki nd
of PBX telephone. Walker Electroni cs i s a well-known manufacturer of
these devi ces.
Amplifier An electroni c ci rcui t desi gned to i ncrease an i nput level charac-
teri sti c to a desi red output level characteri sti c. Some ampli fi ers are de-
si gned to ampli fy the voltage level of a si gnal and others are desi gned to
ampli fy the current of a si gnal flowi ng through a load. A typi cal stereo sys-
tem has both of these types of ampli fi ers. I f you are li steni ng to a CD player,
the si gnal ( after di gi tal to analog processi ng) i s fed to a voltage ampli fi er
to i ncrease i ts abi li ty to dri ve a current ampli fi er, whi ch ampli fi es the cur-
rent that i s dri ven through the loudspeaker. Both of these ampli fi ers ( volt-
age and current) combi ned make a power ampli fi er, hence power ( i n watts)
i s a functi on of voltage and current. Ampli fi ers are usually rated by the
amount of power that they are capable of produci ng i n a loudspeaker. Peak
power i s calculated by usi ng the peak value of a si nusoi dal waveform. RMS
( root mean square) power i s calculated by usi ng the RMS value of the si -
nusoi d waveform, whi ch mathemati cally works out to be 70.7% of the peak
value. Many ampli fi er manufacturers use the peak-power rati ng because i t
looks better. I f you compare a JVC ampli fi er that i s rated at 71 watts RMS
output, i t i s the same output as the 100-watt peak-power other brand am-
pli fi er. Hi gh-quali ty audi o ampli fi ers are usually rated i n RMS power.
Amplitude T he peak or peak-to-peak ampli tude of a si gnal measured i n
volts. T he AC si gnal below has a peak ampli tude of 10 volts or a peak-
to-peak ampli tude of 20 volts ( Fi g. A.16) .
Current 1i n amps2
B
Power 1i n watts2
Resistance 1i n ohms2
Current 1i n amps2
Power 1i n watts2
Voltage 1i n volts2
Amplitude 47
10V
0V
10V
Figure A.16 20 V Peak-to-Peak Amplitude
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 47
Amplitude Modulation AM i s a techni que of maki ng a voi ce or other
si gnal ri de on ( or modulate wi th) another frequency ( the carri er fre-
quency) . See Fig. A.17.
48 Amplitude Modulation
+V
Input signal
carrier signal
Both combined-
modulated AM
signal
Figure A.17 Amplitude Modulation
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) T hi s i s the cellular/PCS net-
work as we know i t today. T he fi rst mobi le phone system was called MTS
(Mobile Telephone System) and was developed duri ng World War I I . To
make a call on an MT S system, a human operator was needed to hand-
off/connect the call. I n the early 60s IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone
System) evolved. I MT S di d not requi re a human operator to connect a call
from one mobi le phone to another, but calls could only be made wi thi n one
cell. I n 1983, the i mplementati on of the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
System) began. AMPS allows callers to call from one mobi le phone to an-
other, from one cell to another, and connect calls between the land-based
network and the mobi le network wi thout the need for an operator.
Analog A si gnal havi ng an i nfi ni te number of levels per cycle, i n contrast
to di gi tal, whi ch has only two possi ble levels per cycle ( i .e., on or off) .
See Fig. A.18.
ANALOG DIGITAL
Figure A.18 Analog
Analog-to-Digital Conversion (Digital-to-Analog Converter/Analog-
to-Digital Converter) A part of a channel bank that performs the
functi on of encodi ng analog voi ce si gnals i nto a stream of bi nary di gi ts.
T he analog-to-di gi tal converter samples a callers voi ce at a rate of 8000
ti mes per second. ( T he sample rate for a T 1 channel i s 8000 ti mes per
second.) Each samples voltage level i s measured and converted to one
of 256 possi ble sample levels. T hese levels are from the lowest, 0000000,
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 48
to the hi ghest 11111111. I t has 256 levels because i f you count i n bi nary
from 00000000 to 11111111, you end up wi th 256, that i s the hi ghest
number possi ble wi th 8 bi ts. T he bi ts are then transmi tted one after an-
other at a hi gh rate of speed to thei r desti nati on, where the same process
happens i n reverse ( Fi g. A.19) .
Annex A 49
The samples are voltages that are converted
to binary numbers.
The samples are then transmitted in binary.
sample 1- sample 2- sample 3-sample 4
10001110-10011001-11100110-00110111-
The binary numbers are actually voltages, the binary bit stream of four samples is shown as voltages
below.
At the other end of the transmission line, the binary code is converted back into its original analog form using
the same process in reverse.
Samples of the analog signal
1 2 3 4 . . . . . .
A callers analog voice pattern
1 000 1 1 1 0 1 00 1111 00 1 1 1 1 00 11 000 11 0 1 1 1
Figure A.19 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
ANI (Automatic Number Identification) ANI i s also called Caller
I denti fi cati on or Caller I D. T hi s feature, offered by local phone compa-
ni es, sends the phone number ( and often the name of the caller) down
the phone li ne i n a di gi tal data packet between the fi rst and second ri ng.
To recei ve the data, a subscri ber that has si gned up for the servi ce needs
to have a caller-I D uni t ( also called a caller-ID box) plugged i nto the
phone li ne. T he caller-I D uni t di splays the name and the number of the
calli ng party for each i ncomi ng call. Caller I D only works i f the caller and
the called partys phone servi ce i s fed out of a central offi ce that has
caller-I D capabi li ty. I f the central offi ce does not have caller-I D capabi li ty,
then the di splay wi ll read out of area to the called party. I f the called
party does not have caller servi ce they wi ll get a di splay that says no
data sent.
Annex A A frame relay standard extensi on that outli nes the provi si on-
i ng of a Local Management Interface (LMI) that goes between the
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 49
customers equi pment and the frame relay network. T he LMI wi ll pro-
vi de network moni tori ng and status through the transmi ssi on overhead.
Annex D T he second frame relay standard extensi on that outli nes the
provi si oni ng of a Local Management I nterface ( LMI ) that goes between
the customers equi pment and the frame relay network. T he LMI wi ll pro-
vi de network moni tori ng and status through the transmi ssi on overhead.
Annular Ring A marki ng around a cable to show length some are i n
meters and some are i n feet.
Anonymous Call Rejection A feature that can be provi ded by the lo-
cal phone company that wi ll not complete anonymous calls to your li ne.
You can also rej ect anonymous calls by i nstalli ng a caller-I D uni t that has
anonymous call rej ecti on bui lt-i n to i t.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) A nongovernmental
nonprofi t standards-setti ng i nsti tute that publi shes standards that i n-
dustri es voluntari ly follow. ANSI works very hard to bri ng together the
i nterests of the pri vate and publi c sector. ANSI i s the offi ci al U.S. mem-
ber body to the worlds leadi ng standards bodi es.
ANSI Standards See American National Standards Institute Com-
munications Standards for some examples of thei r communi cati ons
standards.
Answer Back A command that a local data termi nal sends to a computer
or devi ce across a network aski ng i t to send i ts address so that the lo-
cal termi nal can veri fy that i t has connected to the correct computer.
Answer Supervision T he abi li ty of a central offi ce to know when a long-
di stance call has been answered so that the call can be bi lled. T hi s fea-
ture i s a combi nati on of the SS7 network and CO swi tch software that
i ntegrates wi th the telephone companys call accounti ng and bi lli ng sys-
tem. Anyone who bi lls people for phone calls should have thi s system,
but some do not. Hotels are famous for not havi ng answer supervi si on.
I f you make a call from your hotel room and the end you are calli ng ri ngs
for more than 30 seconds ( ei ght ri ngs) you wi ll probably be bi lled for
the call. T he hotels PBX has no way to know i f anyone pi cked up the
phone on the other end, so i t starts bi lli ng for the call after a certai n
ti me. T he hotels PBX i s supervi si ng and bi lli ng accordi ng to you bei ng
off-hook and the di gi ts you di aled, not accordi ng to when the answerer
pi cked up the li ne. To thi s day, some long-di stance compani es dont have
answer-supervi si on capabi li ty.
50 Annex D
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 50
Antenna A devi ce for recei vi ng and transmi tti ng electromagneti c si gnals.
T he opti mal antenna for a gi ven transmi ssi on or recepti on of a frequency
has a length equal to the wavelength ( or a usable fracti on) of that fre-
quency. CB radi o antennas are very long i n compari son to the antenna
on your PCS cellular phone. CB radi o i s transmi tted at frequenci es that
are low, whi ch have a long wavelength and PCS cellular i s transmi tted
at hi gh frequenci es, whi ch have shorter wavelengths. See also Yagi An-
tenna, Parabolic Dish Antenna, and Monopole Antenna.
Antennas are avai lable i n many vari eti es that are desi gned to mani pu-
late the i ncomi ng or outgoi ng si gnal.
Single pole, full wavelength For pi cki ng up weak si gnals or trans-
mi tti ng over long di stances.
Single-pole half or quarter wavelength Smaller si ze and for re-
cei vi ng nearby stati ons.
Dipole For di recti onal appli cati ons. Rabbi t ears, for example, are di -
recti onal.
Phased array For pi cki ng very di stant si gnals.
Parabolic dish For focusi ng a si gnal from or to one di recti on.
Vertical Loop For low-noi se, di recti onal recepti on. Common for
UHF T V.
Horizontal Loop For low-noi se, di recti onal recepti on.
Multielement For low-noi se, di recti onal recepti on or transmi ssi on.
Monopole Used i n cellular and PCS appli cati ons.
Antenna Beamwidth T he di mensi onal characteri sti cs of a radi o fi eld pro-
jected by an antenna element. I n general, di fferent antennas focus a radi o
fi eld to achi eve a stronger si gnal over a parti cular di recti on or area. T he
areas are descri bed as a rati o of front-to-si de, front-to-back, and other com-
parati ve methods. T hi s i s done under the assumpti on that a transmi ssi on
power loss i n one area consti tutes a gai n i n another and vi ce versa. When
a radi o li nk i s subject to i nterference from other nearby radi os, an antenna
beamwi dth wi th hi gh di mensi onal rati os i s preferred and often requi red i n
li censed appli cati ons. K eepi ng your radi o beam focused i ncreases effi ci ency
and reduces the li keli ness of i nterference from other radi o transmi ssi ons.
T he only drawback i s that these types of antennas are more expensi ve.
Antenna Farm A collecti on of satelli te di sh antennas located at a cable-
T V head end or satelli te telecommuni cati ons center.
Antenna Gain An i ndi cator of how well an antenna focuses RF energy
i n a preferred di recti on. Antenna gai n i s expressed i n dBi ( the rati o of
Antenna Gain 51
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 51
the power radi ated by the antenna i n a speci fi c di recti on to the power
radi ated i n that di recti on by a nondi recti onal antenna fed by the same
transmi tter) . Antenna manufacturers normally speci fy the antenna gai n
for each antenna they manufacture.
Anti-Static Materi als coated or manufactured wi th semi conducti ve mate-
ri als makes them anti -stati c, whi ch i s good for CMOS (Complementary
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) components. CMOS components are hi ghly
sensi ti ve to stati c di scharges and stati c fi elds ( ESD) . Your body can eas-
i ly hold a stati c charge of 40,000 V on a dry day. About 25,000 V i s re-
qui red to get a stati c shock from a door knob. Exposure to stati c elec-
tri ci ty can rui n a CMOS component i nstantly or j ust weaken i t, whi ch would
cause i t to fai l unpredi ctably. CMOS components i nclude mi croprocessor
chi ps, transi stors, RAM and ROM chi ps, and many others. I f a CMOS de-
vi ce must be used i n an ESD hazard area, T T L components are used as
an alternati ve. T T L components are not as stati c sensi ti ve, but, they are
not as fast, not as small, use more electri ci ty, and produce more heat.
AOSP (Alternate Operator Service Provider) A long-di stance company
that works li ke the old days, when a li ve operator would assi st you wi th
your call. Some calli ng-card compani es i ncorporate thi s i n thei r servi ce.
AOSP servi ce i s great, and i ts a good thi ng because we pay for each use.
AP (Access Point) Another name for a cross-box where telephone
cables are cross connected. See Fig. A.20.
52 Anti-Static
Figure A.20 Access Point (AP)
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 52
APD (Avalanche Photo Diode) A devi ce used as a li ght-to-electri ci ty
converter and si gnal ampli fi er at the same ti me. T hey are i ncor-
porated i n optoelectroni c ci rcui ts used i n fi ber-opti c termi nati ng ap-
pli cati ons.
Application Layer T he seventh and hi ghest layer of the OSI commu-
ni cati ons model. T he appli cati ons layer i s the functi on of connecti ng
an appli cati on fi le or program to a communi cati ons protocol. T he lat-
est model or gui deli ne for communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI ( open
systems i nterconnect) . I t i s the best model so far because all of the
layers or functi ons work i ndependently of each other. Older propri etary
communi cati ons models are shown below alongsi de the OSI . For a di -
agram of the OSI , SNA, and DNA layers, see Open Systems Intercon-
nection.
API (Application Program Interface) A set of routi nes, protocols
and other tools that are used by software programmers to create ap-
pli cati ons. M i crosoft Wi ndows has an API that enables programmers to
create appli cati ons that are consi stent wi th the Wi ndows user envi -
ronment.
APON (ATM Passive Optical Network) A passi ve network consi sts
of devi ces that do not requi re external power. T he physi cal charac-
teri sti cs of the carri er ( li ght, i n thi s case) are used to route and di s-
tri bute si gnals. I n xDSL networks, i t i s possi ble to extend and route
the xDSL si gnal usi ng fi ber opti c. Passi ve opti cal networks are less
expensi ve to i mplement and operate. An APON i s a passi ve opti cal
network that i s carryi ng AT M . AT M i s a practi cal and frequently used
method to transport xDSL. For more detai ls on the physi cal
characteri sti cs of li ght transmi ssi ons, see Fiber Optic, WDM, and
Refraction.
APPC (Advanced Program-to-Program Communication) T he I BM
SNA (System Network Architecture) software that allows hi gh-
speed communi cati on between programs on di fferent computers i n a
di stri buted/mai nframe computi ng envi ronment. APPC establi shes and
tears down vi rtual connecti ons between programs that requi re commu-
ni cati on. I t has two software i nterfaces; the fi rst i nterface i s the
programmi ng i nterface, whi ch repli es to programs requi ri ng communi -
cati ons. T he second i nterface i s the data-exchange i nterface, whi ch es-
tabli shes the sessi ons or connecti ons between the programs.
Applications Processor An add-on to a PBX ( Pri vate Branch Exchange)
system or CO ( Central Offi ce) swi tch that expands i ts abi li ty to provi de
Applications Processor 53
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 53
extended servi ces or process addi ti onal protocols. An example of an ap-
pli cati ons processor i s a voi ce-mai l system, ACD, frame relay or I SDN
i nterface. Physi cally, the appli cati ons processor i s often an addi ti onal
shelf, module, or card that i nterfaces i nto the PBX systems bus archi -
tecture.
APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking) An enhancement to the
ori gi nal I BM SNA (System Network Architecture). APPN handles the
followi ng: sessi on establi shment between peer nodes, dynami c trans-
parent route calculati on, and traffi c pri ori ti zati on for Advanced Program-
to-Program Communi cati on.
ARCnet (Attached Resource Computer Network) A token-bus local-
area network protocol/package developed by Datapoi nt Corporati on.
ARCnet was a popular coax medi a network soluti on after i ts i ni ti al
i ncepti on i n the late 1970s. Newer versi ons have evolved for use on other
physi cal medi a.
Area I n OSPF ( Open Shortest Path Fi rst) routi ng, a group of routers that
share i denti cal li nk state databases provi ded by a desi gnated router. I t
i s recommended that no more than 40 routers exi st wi thi n one OSPF
area.
Area Code An area code i s a three-di gi t code that desi gnates a toll cen-
ter i n the North Ameri can Numberi ng Plan. To call outsi de of your toll
center, you fi rst di al 1, then the area code for the toll center or area
you wi sh to call. See Appendi x C for a li sti ng of area codes by area. See
Appendi x D for a li sti ng of area codes by number.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) A set of communi cati ons rules
and i nstructi ons used by computers and communi cati ons i nterface
equi pment to map or forward IP (Internet Protocol) addressed data
packets to a hardware address. A hardware address i s also known as a
MAC (Media Access Control) address. ARP can only be used i n net-
works that have broadcast capabi li ti es.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
ASCI I i s a code developed by ANSI ( Fi g. A.21) . I t i s a seven-bi t
character and command code. M ore than one vari ati on of ASCI I exi sts,
such as extended ASCI I , whi ch i s ei ght bi t and has many more char-
acters. ASCI I i s the standard code that PCs use and i s the code that i s
transmi tted i nto your computer every ti me you push a key on your
keyboard.
54 APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking)
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 54
ASR (Access Service Request) 55
Least significant Most significant (hexadecimal)
bits bits
(hexadecimal) 000 (0) 001 (1) 010 (2) 011 (3) 100 (4) 101 (5) 110 (6) 111 (7)
0000 (0) NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p
0001 (1) SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 (2) STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 (3) ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 (4) EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 (5) ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 (6) ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 (7) BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 (8) BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 (9) HT EM ) 9 I Y I y
1010 (A) LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 (B) VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 (C) FF FS , < L \ l
1101 (D) CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 (E) SOH RS . > N n ~
1111 (F) SI US / ? O o DEL
DEFINITIONS OF ASCII CONTROL CODE ABBREVIATIONS
ACK - ACKNOWLEDGE FS - FORM SEPARATOR
BEL - BELL GS - GROUP SEPARATOR
BS - BACKSPACE HT - HORIZONTAL TAB
CAN - CANCEL LF - LINE FEED
CR - CARRIAGE RETURN NAK - NEGATIVE ACKNOWLEDGE
DC - DIRECT CONTROL NUL - NULL
DEL - DELETE IDLE RS - RECORD SEPARATOR
DLE - DATA LINK ESCAPE SI - SHIFT IN
EM - END OF MEDIUM SO - SHIFT OUT
ENQ - ENQUIRY SOH - START OF HEADING
EOT - END OF TRANSMISSION STX - START OF TEXT
ESC - ESCAPE SUB - SUBSTITUTE
ETB - END OF TRANSMISSION BLOCK SYN - SYNCHRONOUS IDLE
ETX - END OF TEXT US - UNIT SEPARATOR
FF - FORM FEED VT - VERTICAL TAB
Figure A.21 ASCII
ASCU (Agent Set Control Unit) An address i denti fi er for a set of ter-
mi nals that handle type-A messages i n an I BM network envi ronment. An
ASCU i denti fi es a workstati on to a concentrator and can use P1024B or
P1024C protocol.
ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) A propri etary i nte-
grated ci rcui t created to do a speci fi c j ob. An example i s Motorola
manufacturi ng a chi p to do multi plexi ng speci fi cally for a MUX that i s made
by Nortel. Motorola manufactures the chi ps for Nortel and stamps Nortels
name on them. T hen, only Nortel uses the technology and no one else.
ASR (Access Service Request) I f a speci al servi ce provi der ( frame re-
lay or long-di stance pri vate li ne) needs wi re faci li ti es from thei r poi nt of
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 55
presence i n the ci ty to customers locati on, they call the local telephone
company and make an access servi ce request to provi de a li ne that runs
from your network i nterface to them. Many speci al servi ce provi ders have
thei r equi pment located i n the local phone companys central offi ce as a
part of a co-locati on agreement. When a CLEC needs to provi de servi ce
where they dont have faci li ti es, they do i t by usi ng the RBOCS wi re
faci li ti es.
Asymmetric Communi cati ons transmi ssi on that i s full or half duplex,
where one di recti on i s very fast, compared to the other. Cable T V i s
an example of asymmetri cal communi cati on. T he cable T V head end
sends massi ve amounts of vi deo and audi o i nformati on down a coax
one way, and the cable T V set-top decoder boxes send small
amounts of I D and status i nformati on the other way back to the
head end over the same coaxi al connecti on. Someti mes asymmet-
ri cal channels are referred to as upstream for slow and down
stream for fast. ADSL i s another example of asymmetri c communi -
cati ons.
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) Also referred to as
ADSL Full Rate or G.992.1. ADSL i s a physi cal-layer protocol
that supports up to 8 M bps bandwi dth downstream and up to 1 M bps
upstream. T he asymmetri cal aspect of ADSL technology makes i t i deal
for I nternet browsi ng, vi deo on demand, and remote Local-Area
Network (LAN) access. Users of these appli cati ons typi cally down-
load more i nformati on than they send. ADSL also allows si multaneous
voi ce communi cati on by transmi tti ng data si gnals outsi de of the voi ce
frequency range. Someti mes a fai nt hi ss can be heard on the li ne. To
eli mi nate the hi ss, a voi ce/data spli tter, commonly called a POTS
splitter (Plain Old Telephone Service) i s i nstalled at the
j ack of each phone. T he base transmi ssi on range for an ADSL li ne i s
18, 000 feet. ADSL can be extended to remote communi ti es by
usi ng ADSL repeaters ( to 48, 000 feet) or fi ber opti c. For more i nfor-
mati on on the DSL fami ly of protocols, see xDSL. For a di agram, see
ADSL.
Asynchronous To communi cate wi thout external ti mi ng and to have
each communi cati ng devi ce work at i ts own speed. People talk asyn-
chronously. Even though one person talks very fast and another very
slowly, thei r brai ns sti ll recei ve the conveyed messages and respond.
Modems, FAX machi nes, and T CP/I P communi cati ons are asynchronous.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) An ANSI and CCI T T standard com-
muni cati ons protocol ( Fi g. A.22) . AT M i s a frame-format communi cati ons
56 Asymmetric
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protocol whereby data i s transmi tted and recei ved 53 bytes or octets at a
ti me. T here are 48 customer bytes ( Payload) and 5 bytes for control and
addressi ng. T hree thi ngs make AT M speci al.
1. I t i s capable of carryi ng delay-sensi ti ve transmi ssi ons wi thout delay
( such as speech, musi c, or vi deo) .
2. Many AT M channels can be concatenated to provi de more bandwi dth
( carryi ng capaci ty) .
3. I t has the abi li ty to carry many di fferent types of data at the same
ti me: LAN, WAN, vi deo, voi ce, and anythi ng else that i s capable of
bei ng di gi ti zed.
AT (Advanced Technology) 57
48 byte payload
ATM FRAME FORMAT
5 byte overhead
Another good thi ng about AT M i s that the overhead i s a bi t more than
10% , whi ch i s an i mprovement over other transport methods. To put
AT M i nto a si mple pi cture, i magi ne that you have a computer network
LAN si gnal and a vi deo si gnal. You want to send the si gnals that your
computer and vi deo are generati ng to other computers and T Vs.
Now, take the scenari o a step further. I magi ne that your computer
LAN si gnals are motorcycles and the vi deo si gnals are cars. AT M would
then be large trucks that carry the motorcycles and cars to thei r desti -
nati on and back, li nki ng your communi cati ons gap wi th two great thi ngs
i n mi nd. Your cost i s lower i n contrast to many small ci rcui ts and you
only buy one pi ece of gear to connect everythi ng ( i n contrast to many
di fferent termi nal adapters, CSU/DSU, etc.) . See also ATM.
AT (Access Tandem) A telephone company central offi ce or node
that contai ns a swi tch i n whi ch all i nter and outer area-code traffi c
i s handled. T he mai n LEC central offi ce i n an area code, where the
hand-off for long-di stance servi ce happens. For a di agram, see Access
Tandem.
AT (Advanced Technology) A reference to the I BM clone motherboard
standard baby AT form factor. A generati on of personal computers that
was i ntroduced by I BM i n 1984. T he fi rst AT computers had an I ntel
80286 mi croprocessor and hard di sk dri ves that ranged from 10 MB to
30 MB. AT computer archi tecture i s able to be upgraded easi ly by re-
placi ng RAM, hard di sk dri ves, plug-i n CPUs, and even the motherboard.
Figure A.22 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
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AT archi tecture has enabled PCs to evolve wi th new technologi es, spawn-
i ng machi nes that i ncorporate CPUs wi th speeds i n excess of 300 MHz
and hard di sk dri ves that exceed 8 GB i n memory. I llustrated i s an AT
socket-7 motherboard ( Fi g. A.23) . T he newer versi on of AT archi tecture
i s AT X. See also ATX.
58 ATA (AT Attachment)
Figure A.23 An AT Motherboard
ATA (AT Attachment) Also referred to as IDE (Intelligent Drive Elec-
tronics and Integrated Drive Electronics). ATA refers to a dri ve-
i nterface standard for CD-ROM dri ves and hard di sk dri ves. I t was called
ATA because of the populari ty of the AT (Advanced Technology) moth-
erboard at the ti me of i ts development by the Small Form Factor Com-
mi ttee. I t i s a relati vely less-expensi ve alternati ve to SCSI (Small Com-
puter System Interface) and has retai ned populari ty i n the PC i ndustry
because i t manages to conti nuously i mprove whi le remai ni ng pri ce com-
peti ti ve. Newer versi ons of thi s i nterface standard are called Fast ATA,
ATA-66, and EIDE (Enhanced IDE). See also IDE, SCSI, and Hard Disk
Drive.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) An ANSI and CCI T T standard
communi cati ons protocol. AT M i s a frame-format communi cati ons pro-
tocol whereby data i s transmi tted and recei ved 53 bytes or octets at a
PQ104-5056F-PA.qxd 2/9/01 12:51 PM Page 58
ti me. T here are 48 customer bytes ( Payload) and 5 bytes for control and
addressi ng. For more i nformati on, see Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
ATM25 T he AT M Forum-defi ned 25.6-Mbps cell-based user i nterface that
i s based on the I BM token-ri ng network.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) A transfer format, cell header format,
and functi onal secti on of the AT M transport method. T here are fi ve vari -
ati ons of the AT M adaptati on layer. Each i s i ntended to be used wi th a
speci fi c type of data. For a di agram of AT M layers, see ATM. For a di a-
gram of AAL classi fi cati ons, see AAL.
ATM Adaptation Layer One (AAL1) T he part of the AT M protocol
that enables the transfer of ti me-sensi ti ve data, such as voi ce or vi deo.
AAL1 uses an adapti ve clock method, where the devi ces at each end of
the li nk negoti ate a clock agreement, then i ncorporate a small buffer to
moni tor the rate at whi ch cells are bei ng transferred across the li nk.
AAL1 i s used for DS0, DS1 emulati on, and other voi ce and vi deo. For a
di agram, see AAL.
ATM Adaptation Layer Two (AAL2) For class-B traffi c ( see di agram
under AAL) , packet technologi es, and the transport thereof. I t i s si mi -
lar to voi ce over frame, vi deo over frame, etc.
ATM Adaptation Layer Three and Four (AAL3/4) For class-C
and -D ( see the AAL di agram) layers that are desi gned to handle non-
ti me-sensi ti ve data transfer. T hi s layer class adds header i nformati on that
i ncorporates error-checki ng functi ons before and after the ori gi nal data.
Also, a Message I D functi on allows multi plexed or i nterleaved transmi s-
si ons to be sent di rectly over the si ngle AT M vi rtual channel. T hi s layer
would be used as a backbone to carry many X.25 or frame-relay logi cal
li nks, or could be used i n a campus appli cati on to carry Ethernet from
one bui ldi ng to another.
ATM Adaptation Layer Five (AAL5) T he layer created for class-C
and -D types of traffi c ( see the AAL di agram) . T he cell header remai ns
the same except larger buffers are used and a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) i s appended to the end of the last cell of the packets cell stream.
No Message I D functi on i s avai lable to di rectly transfer multi plexed data.
Cell payloads are 48 bytes, and a PT I bi t i s used to i ndi cate the last cell
of a packet.
ATM DXI (ATM Data Exchange Interface) A connecti vi ty and con-
versi on method that allows an exi sti ng LAN network element ( i .e., router)
ATM DXI (ATM Data Exchange Interface) 59
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to access an AT M network vi a a pri vate li ne that i s equi pped wi th a
CSU/DSU ( V.35 or HSSI ) .
ATM DSU (Asynchronous Transmission Mode Digital Service Unit)
A termi nal adapter used as a demarcati on poi nt or i nterface poi nt to an
AT M network.
ATM DXI (ATM Data Exchange Interface) A connecti vi ty and con-
versi on method that allows an exi sti ng LAN network element ( i .e.,
router) to access an AT M network vi a a pri vate li ne that i s equi pped wi th
a CSU/DSU ( V.35 or HSSI ) .
ATM Forum An i nternati onal organi zati on j oi ntly founded i n 1991
by Northern Telecom, Ci sco Systems, Net/Adapti ve, and Spri nt. T he
organi zati on develops and promotes standards based i mplementa-
ti on agreements for AT M technology. T he AT M Forum expands
on offi ci al standards developed by ANSI and I T U-T. T he organi za-
ti on also develops i mplementati on agreements i n advance of offi ci al stan-
dards.
Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCnet) A token-bus local-
area network protocol/package developed by Datapoi nt Corporati on.
Attendant Another name for a PBX operator. T he person who connects
outgoi ng calls and/or answers, screens and di rects i ncomi ng calls i n a
poli te mannerly way. I f they dont, they would soon be replaced by an
auto-attendant.
Attenuation Reducti on of a si gnals voltage level as i t travels down a li ne,
measured i n deci bels. Attenuati on i s also called loss, because some si g-
nal i s always lost through resi stance and reactance. Opti cal li ght-wave
si gnals are also attenuated when they traverse through a fi ber-opti c be-
cause of i mpuri ti es i n the fi ber opti c, and the fact that li ght i ntensi ty de-
creases wi th di stance.
Attenuator An attenuator i s also called a pad, T pad, or H pad. I t
i s a devi ce that reduces the voltage level of a si gnal wi thout chang-
i ng i ts i mpedance. Attenuators are frequently used on telephone
li nes that termi nate to customers close to the central offi ce so that
the volume i n the handset does not hurt thei r ears. Attenuators are
also made for fi ber-opti c appli cati ons. A fi ber-opti c attenuator works
li ke your sunglasses, i t reduces the level of li ght enteri ng your eyes
so that you can see more effecti vely. For a photo, see Fiber optic
Attenuator.
60 ATM DSU (Asynchronous Transmission Mode Digital Service Unit)
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ATX A trademark of I ntel that i s not an abbrevi ati on, but a model num-
ber. M any refer to i t as Advanced Technology Expanded because i t
i s an i mprovement of the AT (Advanced Technology) generati on of
computer hardware archi tecture. T he AT X generati on of PC archi -
tecture i s based on an i mproved motherboard desi gn, whi ch i s ro-
tated 90 degrees wi thi n the cabi net. T hi s places devi ces wi thi n the
PC closer to thei r respecti ve plug-i n connectors and places the
CPU closer to the power-supply cooli ng fan. AT X motherboards also
have on-board I /O i nterfaces. T he most noti ceable estheti c di fference
between an AT and AT X archi tecture i s that the i nterface connectors
are lai d out di fferently. On the AT, the connectors are set along the
edge of the motherboard, on the AT X the connectors are blocked
together on a metal mounti ng plate. I llustrated i s an AT X slot
1 motherboard. For a vi sual compari son of AT and AT X , see PC
( Fi g. A.24) .
Audio Frequency 61
Figure A.24 ATX Motherboard
Audio Sound. Si gnal frequenci es that i f ampli fi ed and appli ed to a
loudspeaker can be heard. T hese frequenci es range from 20 Hz to
17 kHz.
Audio Frequency Si gnal frequenci es that, i f ampli fi ed and appli ed to a
loudspeaker, can be heard. T hese frequenci es range from 20 Hz to
17 kHz.
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Auger A devi ce that looks li ke a gi ant dri ll bi t, whi ch i s used for bori ng
holes i nto the ground for telephone or power poles. Some uti li ty
constructi on vehi cles are equi pped wi th augers.
AUI (Autonomous Unit Interface) A 15-pi n connector used i n CTI
(Computer Telephony Integration) appli cati ons. For a pi cture, see
DB15.
Auto Baud A term that refers to a modem or other communi cati ng de-
vi ces abi li ty to match or adapt to the bi t transmi ssi on rate of the devi ce
at the far end.
Auto Dialer A devi ce that automati cally di als preprogrammed di gi ts
when the li ne i t i s attached to breaks a di al tone. Auto di alers are used
to program long-di stance carri er access codes so that people dont have
to deal wi th the confusi on of whi ch long-di stance company to access and
when. T he person maki ng a call pushes a key on thei r phone that ac-
cesses a long-di stance trunk equi pped wi th an autodi aler that di als the
access code, then the person maki ng the call di als i n the number they
want to call. Auto di alers are also used to make a phone dedi cated to
one phone number or di rectory extensi on. I n the ci ty where I li ve there
i s a restaurant wi th no wai ters or wai tresses. When the patrons to the
restaurant are seated, they fi nd a phone at thei r table. T he phone has
no di al pad. When the phone i s pi cked up, an auto di aler i nstantly di als
the order takers extensi on and the patrons place thei r order.
Automated Attendant T he machi ne that answers the li ne and plays a
message that says: T hank you for calli ng company X. To speak to a per-
son i n sales press one, to speak to a repai r person press two. Advan-
tages of auto attendants are that you can have one number adverti sed
for multi ple departments and not have to have a full-ti me person di -
recti ng calls.
Automated Voice Response Not to be confused wi th integrated voi ce
response, an automated voi ce-response system or network i s a way of
gui di ng callers to a department, agent or pre-recorded i nformati on.
Automated-attendant/voi ce-mai l systems that have di rectory trees pro-
grammed i nto them are becomi ng the most popular ways of accom-
pli shi ng thi s. Di rectory trees are set up by the voi ce-mai l admi ni strator.
Di rectory trees are capable of bei ng as long and compli cated as the caller
can tolerate. For example, the caller hears a pre-recorded message that
prompts them to di al 1 for i nformati on about ski n ai lments, di al 2 for
flu-li ke symptoms or di al 3 for head pai n. Opti ons 1, 2, and 3 then
branch out i nto a tree ( Fi g. A.25) :
62 Auger
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Automatic Call Distributor (ACD system) A separate system or bui lt-
i n feature of a PBX that equally di stri butes i ncomi ng calls to agents. As
calls come i n, they are placed i nto a queue ( or a wai ti ng li ne) for the
next avai lable agent. ACD systems are very versati le and relati vely easy
to program because some i ncorporate thei r own scri pt programmi ng lan-
guage. For i ncomi ng calls, the wai ti ng ti mes, pre-recorded announce-
ments and other call treatments can be set up by the users/compani es
to thei r di screti on.
Automatic Gain Control See AGC.
Automatic Number Identification (ANI) A servi ce provi ded by local
and long-di stance telephone compani es that sends the name and num-
ber of the calli ng telephone to a di splay attached to the called phone
li ne. I n an i n-band si gnaled phone li ne or resi denti al telephone li ne, the
ANI si gnal packet comes as a mi ni ature data burst between the fi rst and
the second ri ng.
Autonegotiation 1. A functi on or feature of communi cati on devi ces
and/or communi cati on protocols that provi des a set of rules where com-
muni cati on methods are set on a per-sessi on basi s. T he methods agreed
on i nclude speed of transmi ssi on, packet si ze, and error correcti on. I n
LAN swi tchi ng, some swi tches have a feature bui lt i nto the hardware of
the ports that automati cally adj ust to 10BaseT or 100BaseT X, dependi ng
Auto-negotiation 63
Sample Information Mailbox/Directory Tree
For skin ailments
press 1, for neck
pain dial 2, for
head pain dial 3.
If you have all of
the above press 4,
for chest pain
press 5
For sunburn press 1,
for rash press 2, for
moles press 3
See your physician
immediately.
Call hospital
immediately.
Call hospital
immediately. Call your physician
now
If head pain comes
and goes dial 1, if
head pain never
goes awav dial 2
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
1
2
3
Eat an orange and
call physician in the
morning
Do not touch mole if
swollen or discolored,
see your physician
immediately
Apply special lotion, if
condition does not
improve within 24 hours
call physician
Apply only aloe-vera
lotion
Figure A.25 Automated Voice Response
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on whi ch type of NI C the host/computer i s equi pped wi th. 2. Autone-
goti ati on, Ethernet T he I EEE 802.3u 100 Base T feature speci fi cati on
that provi des for flow control ( pause frames) and full duplex operati on.
Full duplex allows for 100 Mbps send and 100 Mbps recei ve, for a total
200 Mbps Ethernet connecti on over Cat5 twi sted pai r. T he autonegoti -
ati on i s an enhancement of the li nk i ntegri ty si gnali ng method used i n
10BaseT networks, and i s backward-compati ble wi th li nk i ntegri ty.
Autonomous System I n I P/Routi ng a group of routers that share the
same poli ci es. Usually a si ngle corporate network i s confi gured as
one autonomous system. I n the OSPF routi ng protocol, all routers of the
same autonomous system share routi ng table updates as well as poli ci es.
Autonomous System Boundary Router I n OSPF routi ng envi ron-
ments, a router that connects to the outsi de world, or another separate
network. More speci fi cally, i t i s a router that connects one network of
poli ci es, or routi ng features to another. Autonomous System Boundary
Routers nearly always have dual Routi ng Protocols enabled, whi ch en-
able packet transfer between two networks of unli ke poli ci es.
Available Bit Rate (ABR) Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by the AT M
Forum for AT M Networks that i s used for connecti ons that are not ti me
or delay sensi ti ve. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as an
ABR connecti on i f i t carri ed only spontaneous or bursty data. Other QOSs
defi ned by the AT M Forum for AT M Networks i nclude CBR (Constant Bit
Rate), UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate), and VBR (Variable Bit Rate).
Avalanche Photodiode A devi ce used as a li ght-to-electri ci ty converter
and si gnal ampli fi er at the same ti me. T hey are i ncorporated i n opto-
electroni c ci rcui ts used i n fi ber-opti c termi nati ng appli cati ons.
Avalanching Avalanchi ng occurs when a PN di ode or transi stor j uncti on
i s reverse bi ased ( reverse posi ti ve and negati ve) wi th enough voltage to
force i t to conduct i n the wrong di recti on. Di odes and transi stors have
an avalanche voltage rati ng. When thi s voltage i s exceeded, the devi ce
avalanches. T he avalanche i s actually a sudden steady rush of current
that causes lots of heat. T hi s usually damages the devi ce ( severely) .
Some devi ces ( avalanche photodi ode, SCR, etc.) are desi gned to use the
avalanche effect i n a useful way. T hey swi tch on or conduct when the
reverse or gate voltage appli ed to them reaches a certai n level.
64 Autonomous System
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AWG (American Wire Gauge) A measurement standard for copper
wi re. T he gauge rati ng i s the thi ckness of a soli d copper wi re. T he larger
the gauge, the smaller the wi re. Most telephone wi re i s 19 AWG at the
largest and 26 AWG at the smallest. Cat3 i s commonly 24 AWG. T he elec-
tri cal wi re i n your home i s probably 12 AWG.
AX.25 A protocol that i s based on X.25 recommendati ons. AX.25 i s a
connecti on-ori ented versi on of X.25. Rather than sendi ng separate i ndi -
vi dual packets, as i s done i n X.25, the AX.25 protocol sets up a layer-3
Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) before the transmi ssi on begi ns.
When the transmi ssi on i s complete, the PVC i s di sconnected. AX.25 i s
generally useful i n older mai nframe WAN appli cati ons.
Azimuth I n di recti onal radi o transmi ssi on, the azi muth i s the di recti on
i n degrees ( beari ng) that an antenna i s transmi tti ng to i ts far-end
counterpart. I f a di recti onal radi o si gnal seems weak after a strong wi nd-
storm, the azi muth mi ght need to be reali gned.
Azimuth 65
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B 911 T hi s i s also known as Basic 911 emergency service. I t i s the older
versi on of the 911 system and i t i s what publi c servi ce commi ssi ons want
phone compani es to phase out. B 911 does not provi de automati c loca-
ti on i nformati on. I n many cases ( dependi ng on the CO swi tch/911 soft-
ware servi ng the customer that makes the 911 call) , i t does not provi de
automati c number i denti fi cati on.
B Channel T he bearer channel of an I SDN ci rcui t. I t carri es 64 K bp/s
of end-user data. T he other I SDN channel i s referred to as the D or data
channel, whi ch i s 16K bp/s and carri es phone company si gnali ng along
wi th the other stuff that makes the I SDN ci rcui t work. T he two cate-
gori es of I SDN are the BRI ( Basic Rate Interface 2B channels and 1D
channel) and the PRI ( Primary Rate Interface 23B channels and 1D
channel) . For a relati onal di agram of the two types of I SDN li nes, see
Integrated Services Digital Network.
B Connector A wi re-spli ci ng connector for spli ci ng twi sted pai r wi re,
also called beans. Beans are shaped li ke a plasti c tube that i s about as
bi g around as a dri nki ng straw, but only an i nch long. T hey have metal
teeth i nsi de them so that when two wi res are cri mped i nsi de, they make
a good connecti on and dont sli de out. Beans can also have a water-
retardant j elly i nsi de them as well.
B-ICI (Broadband InterCarrier Interface) T hi s AT M backbone solu-
ti on uses AT M to multi plex multi ple servi ces, such as cell relay, voi ce
67
B
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DS1, frame relay ( PVC) over one AT M li nk ( i .e., DS3 44.736 Mbps, ST S-
3c 155.52 Mbps, ST S-and 12c 622.08 Mbps) .
B Washer, Curved T he washer used between a telephone pole and a
strand clamp when i nstalli ng pole attachments ( Fi g. B.1) .
68 B Washer, Curved
B3ZS (Bipolar 3-Zero Substitution) A li ne-codi ng/data-transmi ssi on
format. Transmi ssi on formats are used to prevent too many consecu-
ti ve zeros from bei ng transmi tted. I f too many zeros go down the li ne
i n a row, the transmi ssi on li ne effecti vely becomes a flat li ne, wi th no
ti mi ng.
B8ZS (Binary 8-zero Substitution) A li ne-codi ng/data-transmi ssi on
format. Transmi ssi on formats are used to prevent too many consecu-
ti ve zeros from bei ng transmi tted. I f too many zeros go down the li ne
i n a row, the transmi ssi on li ne effecti vely becomes a flat li ne, wi th no
ti mi ng. I f a sequence of ei ght bi ts are detected pri or to bei ng transmi t-
ted, they are replaced wi th a di fferent pre-determi ned byte that i s not
all zeros.
Backbone T he part of a communi cati ons network that connects mai n
nodes, central offi ces, or LANs. T he backbone usually has i ts own
hi gh-speed protocol, such as swi tched token ri ng or FDDI for LAN
i nterconnecti ons, and SONET for central-offi ce and mai n-node i nter-
connecti ons.
Figure B.1 Curved B Washer
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Back-Feed Pull When i t i s di ffi cult to get large cable pulli ng equi pment
i nto end locati ons of a cable i nstallati on, outsi de plant constructi on
personnel use a techni que called a back-feed pull. I f there i s a vault or
hand hole that the cable passes through between the end poi nts, the
cable wi ll be fed i n two parts. T he fi rst secti on of cable wi ll be fed one
di recti on from the mi d-poi nt. After the fi rst half i s fed, the remai ni ng
cable i s unreeled and fed through the opposi te di recti on to other end
poi nt ( Fi g. B.2) .
Back Plane 69
Back Haul A long-di stance servi ce term. Someti mes you can save money
by creati vely routi ng long-di stance calls. Back haul i s a routi ng term
that means routi ng a call past i ts desti nati on and then back. Many new
long-di stance compani es are provi di ng less expensi ve long-di stance ser-
vi ces to speci fi c ci ti es and conglomerate long-di stance compani es take ad-
vantage of thi s by back hauli ng phone calls. Ai rli ne passengers are often
back hauled because i t i s less expensi ve to have a lay-over i n another
nearby larger ci ty even though i t i s beyond your desti nati on.
Back Hoe Fade (slang) T he cutti ng of a buri ed fi ber opti c that con-
nects two communi cati ons nodes. I t i s called a fade because i n some
equi pment archi tectures, not all communi cati ons are cut off they are
ei ther di vi ded or rerouted. To some, thi s i s a fade i n communi cati ons
servi ce, not a complete outage.
Back Plane 1. T he mai n electroni c PC board i n a communi cati ons equi p-
ment cabi net that has slots or connectors for ci rcui t cards to be plugged
i nto. T he back plane i n almost all key servi ce uni ts and PBX card cages
i s where the power bus, CPU bus, and the control bus are located
( Fi g. B.3) . 2. T he matri x of ci rcui try that performs packet forwardi ng
i n the Ethernet swi tch.
Figure B.2 New Cable Installation Using a Back-Feed Pull
Central
Office
Forward feed back feed pull
building
New cable installation using a backfeed pull
vault
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Back Pressure A method used by recei vi ng end Ethernet devi ces to stop
the transmi ssi on unti l they can process the data they have recei ved. T hi s
i s si mi lar to the DSR ( Data Set Ready) on a connecti on ori ented li nk
such as RS232 bei ng low, or off. See also Autonegotiation.
Backward Channel T he channel that flows upstream i n an asymmetri -
cal transmi ssi on. An asymmetri cal communi cati ons transmi ssi on that i s
characteri zed by one di recti on bei ng very fast compared to the other.
Cable T V i s an example of asymmetri cal communi cati on. T he cable T V
head end sends massi ve amounts of vi deo and audi o i nformati on down
a coax one way and the cable T V set-top decoder boxes send small
amounts of I D and status i nformati on the other way back to the head
end over the same coaxi al connecti on. Someti mes asymmetri cal chan-
nels are referred to as upstream for the slow channel and downstream
for the fast channel, or forward for the fast channel and backward
for the slow channel.
Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) A bi t i n the
overhead of a data packet travelli ng i n a frame-relay network. T hi s bi t
70 Back Pressure
Figure B.3 Backplane
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 70
i s set to 1 i f the packet travels through an area of network congesti on
that i s opposi te ( or backward) of i ts flow. T hi s bi t i s a si gnal from the
frame-relay network to hi gher-level protocols wi thi n DT E and DCE to
take flow-control acti on, as appropri ate. An example of flow-control ac-
ti on would be to not attempt to exceed the Committed Information
Rate (CIR) for the connecti on. T hi s would prevent the unnecessary
transmi ssi on of low-pri ori ty frames that would surely be di scarded.
Bad Line Button A button on an attendant console that enables an at-
tendant to busy out a trunk that i s i n trouble ( such as noi se or stati c) .
Some bad li ne buttons dont busy out the trunk; they j ust mark i t so that
i t can be i denti fi ed from the rest when the local phone company i s called
to fi x the problem. Someti mes the trouble i s not i n the trunk, but at least
when you call the phone company, you can tell them whi ch li ne you are
havi ng trouble wi th.
Baffle An enclosure for the back of a loudspeaker that i mproves i ts sound
quali ty by i mprovi ng i ts acousti c profi le. Baffles are made of thi n, flexi -
ble rubber foam and are frequently used on cei li ng i ntercom speakers
and automobi le speakers. T hey usually cost about $6 to $10 each, de-
pendi ng on the si ze of the speaker.
Balance, Circuit An electroni c ci rcui t that can be acti ve ( usi ng exter-
nal power) or passi ve ( usi ng only capaci tors, resi stors, and i nductors)
that i s attached to a twi sted copper pai r to even out the electroni c char-
acteri sti cs of both wi res. Balance i s very i mportant i n a transmi ssi on li ne.
I f the two wi res or pai r i s not balanced, noi se i s created on the li ne, whi ch
i nterferes wi th the transmi ssi on si gnal.
Balancing Network See Balance, Circuit.
Balun (Balanced/Unbalanced) A devi ce used for matchi ng i mpedances
or transmi ssi on characteri sti cs between di fferent medi a so that elec-
troni c si gnals can pass from one to the other wi thout bei ng severely at-
tenuated. Baluns that match twi sted pai r and coaxi al cable are very com-
mon i n local-area network envi ronments.
Band, Citizens A low-power two-way transmi ssi on radi o band i n the
Uni ted States. T here are actually two types or bands of CB radi o. T hey
are 26.965 MHz to 27.225 MHz and 462.55 MHz and 469.95 MHz.
Band-Elimination Filter A band-eli mi nati on fi lter i s a ci rcui t used to
pass a certai n range of frequenci es away from speci fi c equi pment or
Band-Elimination Filter 71
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devi ces to ground, or somewhere they are wanted. Radi o-frequency i n-
terference i s easi ly eli mi nated wi th the correct band-eli mi nati on fi lter.
Band-eli mi nati on fi lters are also called RFI (Radio Frequency Inter-
ference) fi lters, RFI suppressors and EMI (Electromagnetic Interfer-
ence) suppressors. T hey work by provi di ng an easi er path for noi se to
go through, rather than your electroni c devi ce ( such as your telephone
or modem) . Many RFI fi lters are on the market, and some are adj ustable
to di fferent frequenci es. Some are modular i nstead of hard wi red i nto
the NI or j ack so that you can plug them ri ght i nto your phone li ne. T hese
fi lters are not XDSL compati ble because XDSL has i ts own bui lt-i n li ne
condi ti oni ng. Further, fi lters are not recommended for any di gi tal serv-
i ce li ne.
Band, Frequency T he followi ng are the defi ned boundari es of radi o fre-
quency bands:
ELF Extremely Low Frequency below 300 Hz
I LF I nfra Low Frequency 300 to 3000 Hz
VLF Very Low Frequency 3 kHz to 30 kHz
LF Low Frequency 30 kHz to 300 kHz
MF Medi um Frequency 300 kHz to 3000 kHz
HF Hi gh Frequency 3 MHz to 30 MHz
VHF Very Hi gh Frequency 30 MHz to 300 MHz
UHF Ultra Hi gh Frequency 300 MHz to 3000 MHz
SHF Super Hi gh Frequency 3 GHz to 30 GHz
EHF Extremely Hi gh Frequency 30 GHz to 300 GHz
T HF Tremendously Hi gh Frequency 300 GHz to 3000 GHz
Band, Marking A label placed around an i nsulated wi re or fi ber opti c for
i denti fi cati on. Some are pri nted on duri ng manufacture and some are at-
tached duri ng i nstallati on.
Band-Pass Filter A band-pass fi lter i s used i n frequency-di vi si on multi -
plexi ng, as well as the equali zer i n your stereo. I t i s usually a capaci -
tor/resi stor/i nductor network that has a resonant frequency and a rati ng
of how well i t passes a band of frequenci es and blocks out others, called
the Q ( quali ty) of the ci rcui t. T he resonant frequency of the ci rcui t i s
the frequency that the ci rcui t wi ll pass. Band-pass fi lters are used i n
ADSL appli cati ons. See DSL Inline Filter.
Band-Stop Filter See band-elimination filter.
Bandwidth T he di fference i n frequency between the top end of a chan-
nel and the bottom end. A good example of a bandwi dth i s sound. I f you
72 Band, Frequency
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are li steni ng to a sound, such as musi c, you noti ce the di fferent pi tches.
All of these pi tches or tones of sound are audi o i nformati on that your
ear can process. T he sounds are actually vi brati ons. Bass tones vi brate
at a slow rate, about 20 to 700 vi brati ons per second. Treble tones vi brate
faster, from 3000 vi brati ons per second to 17, 000 vi brati ons per second.
T he total bandwi dth ( vi brati on range) that you are li steni ng to i s about
17, 000 20 16, 980 vi brati ons per second. T hi s i s the range or band-
wi dth of human heari ng.
Bandwidth Allocation T he process of dynami cally assi gni ng commu-
ni cati ons resources to users and software programs wi thi n a network.
T he process i ncorporates predetermi ned pri ori ty levels for data based
on i ts ti me sensi ti vi ty. Generally, when a network becomes congested,
lower-pri ori ty traffi c i s dropped. T he dropped traffi c i s retransmi tted at
a later ti me. For an example of a pri ori ty level parameter, see ABR and
MCR.
Bandwidth Control T he process of allowi ng customer traffi c to run
through a frame-relay network at a rate faster than the CIR (Commit-
ted Information Rate) setti ng for the parti cular DLC (Data Link Chan-
nel) when traffi c i s low. T hi s i s also referred to as throttling or rate
adaptation.
Bandwidth-Control Elements (BCE) T he parameters of a frame-
relay Data Link Connection (DLC) that determi ne the amount
of data that wi ll be accepted i nto the network over a peri od of ti me,
and what deli very pri ori ty they have. Bandwi dth-control elements
are:
CI R Commi tted I nformati on Rate
AI R Allowed I nformati on Rate
EI R Excess I nformati on Rate
Be Excess Burst
Bc Commi tted Burst
Tc T i me i n seconds
T hei r relati onshi ps are as follows: CIR Bc/Tc AIR CIR EIR
Bandwidth Reservation Another term synonymous wi th bandwi dth al-
locati on. See Bandwidth Allocation.
Banjo T hi s i s also called a beaver tail or break-out block. I t i s used
by techni ci ans to connect other devi ces to modular j ack wi ri ng for
testi ng purposes. Banjo i s a trademark of Harri s Dracon Di vi si on
( Fi g. B.4) .
Banjo 73
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Bantam Connector/Plug A standard plug and j ack that i s used to i n-
terface test equi pment wi th di gi tal ci rcui ts ( DS1, DS3, ST S-1) that are
wi red to DSX patch panels ( Fi g. B.5) .
74 Bantam Connector/Plug
Figure B.4 Harris Dracon Banjo RJ14 6 Conductor (Left)
RJ45 8 Conductor (Right)
Figure B.5 Bantam Connectors, Loop Back Plugs, and Patch Cords
Barge In When an attendant or operator adds themselves onto a li ne that
i s already i n use. See also Busy Override.
Barrel Connector A gender-changi ng devi ce that connects two male
coaxi al F connectors together.
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 74
Base Station A devi ce that connects wi reless communi cati ons to the
land-li ne phone network. Base stati ons can be i ntegrated i nto a BT S. See
also Cellular.
Baseband T he opposi te of broadband. Baseband i s the transmi ssi on of
one si gnal over a medi a or carri er. Telephone conversati ons i n themselves
are baseband. Applyi ng 24 telephone conversati ons to a T 1 carri er i s a
broadband appli cati on. Because T 1 has more than one channel wi thi n
one transmi ssi on, i t i s broadband. See also Broadband.
Baseband Modem A modem that modulates and demodulates a si ngle
di gi tal data transmi ssi on to and from another modem. Baseband modems
can be used over plai n twi sted-pai r wi re wi th no telephone servi ce. I n thi s
appli cati on, they are better known as short-haul modems, whi ch extend
peri pheral devi ces ( such as pri nters) 50 to 1000 feet from thei r host.
BASIC (Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) A type
of programmi ng language that has many vari ati ons, dependi ng on the
developer. Mi crosoft Vi sual Basi c i s a newer versi on of thi s style of pro-
grammi ng.
Basic Rate Interface T he small si ze I SDN li ne ( the other si ze i s a pri -
mary rate i nterface) . I t consi sts of two bearer or B channels and one data
or D channel. T he B channels are 64 K bp/s each. Wi th the appropri ate
servi ce package from the phone company and correct termi nal adapter,
you can talk on one B channel whi le usi ng your computer modem on the
other B channel. When your phone conversati on ends and you hang up,
the termi nal adapter wi ll send a message back to the phone company
through the D channel that connects both B channels together for a total
transmi ssi on bandwi dth of 128 K bp/s for your computer automati cally.
Battery A devi ce that converts chemi cal energy to electri cal energy. Bat-
teri es of over 1.5 V ( nomi nally) are composed of cells, each cell bei ng a
smaller battery that i s equal to 1.5 V i n electri cal potenti al. A 12-V lead-
aci d automoti ve-type battery i s compri sed of ei ght 1.5-V cells i n seri es
that add up to 12 V. Some batteri es are re-chargeable, dependi ng on the
two chemi cally i nteracti ng materi als that the battery i s made of.
Battery Back Up T here are two di fferent types of battery back-up sys-
tems. T here are recti fi ed power sources, whi ch conti nuously charge bat-
teri es that power a system. T hi s system i s used by telephone compani es
for thei r central offi ces. When the power goes out, the chargi ng on the
batteri es stops, but the system sti ll runs because i ts runni ng on the bat-
teri es. T he other type of battery back up i s a UPS ( uni nterruptable power
Battery Back Up 75
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 75
supply) , whi ch i s always on standby. When the power goes out, the UPS
converts the DC battery power to AC power to run the system. Whi ch
system you use depends on the type of power that your phone system
requi res. I f you have the opti on of runni ng on DC, the recti fi ed battery
back-up i s far superi or i n reli abi li ty, and they are avai lable i n many di f-
ferent si zes. Reltec i s a well-known manufacturer of these systems.
Baud Rate T he actual bi t rate on a communi cati ons li ne. Not to be con-
fused wi th bi t rate, whi ch i ncludes data compressi on.
Baum An i mpedance-matchi ng transformer used i n RF appli cati ons. Fi fty
to 75 ohms i s typi cal.
Bay A place i n a computer cabi net where a peri pheral devi ce, such as a
di sk dri ve, can be i nstalled.
BBN (Bolt, Baranek and Newman, Inc.) T he company that developed
and mai ntai ned the ARPANET ( later the I nternet) core gateway system.
BBS (Bulletin Board System) A Websi te that can be accessed by users
that acts as a central source of i nformati on. BBS Websi tes are usually
set up by parti cular i nterest category.
Bc (Committed Burst) An amount of data that i s permi tted onto and
over a frame-relay network DLC (Data Link Connection) over a spe-
ci fi c amount of ti me. See also Bandwidth-Control Element.
BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) A four-bi t code that represents the num-
bers zero through ni ne i n bi nary. I t i s basi cally i mplemented as a short
cut for enteri ng many bi nary numbers i nto a machi ne-language program.
Logi c ci rcui try decodes the BCD to bi nary for the mi croprocessor. T he
code i s
Deci mal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
76 Baud Rate
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BCM (Bit-Compression Multiplexer) A multi plexer that i ncreases
bandwi dth by encodi ng data bi ts i nto a speci al format.
BDFB (Breaker Distribution Fuse Bay) T he poi nt i n a central-offi ce
power system where each DC feed to all rows of equi pment are equi pped
wi th a fuse or a breaker. T he BDFB i s a central locati on for power di s-
tri buti on. Generally, each rack of electroni c equi pment i s also equi pped
wi th i ts own FAP (Fuse Alarm Panel).
Be (Excess Burst) One of the frame-relay bandwi dth-control elements.
I t i s someti mes a negoti ated servi ce between customers and servi ce
provi ders. An excess burst i s an amount of data i n bytes ( not a band-
wi dth, li ke Bc i s) . Excess burst data over a frame-relay network i s marked
Discard Eligible (De) by the network. I f the network i s not congested,
there i s a very good probabi li ty that the data marked De wi ll be deli v-
ered. I f the frame relay network i s congested, i t wi ll di scard data marked
De. I t i s the amount of data that exceeds the Committed Burst (Bc)
setti ng of a frame-relay DLC (Data Link Connection). See also Band-
width-Control Elements.
Beacon A frame from a token-ri ng or FDDI devi ce that i ndi cates a seri -
ous problem wi thi n the ri ngs network, such as a broken fi ber opti c. T he
beacon frame contai ns the address of the stati on assumed to be down.
Beamwidth, Antenna I n radi o envi ronments, i ncludi ng wi reless LAN,
the di mensi onal characteri sti cs of a radi o fi eld proj ected by an antenna
element. I n general, di fferent antennas focus a radi o fi eld to achi eve a
stronger si gnal over a parti cular di recti on or area. T he areas are de-
scri bed as a rati o of front-to-si de, front-to-back, and other comparati ve
methods. T hi s i s done under the assumpti on that a transmi ssi on power
loss i n one area consti tutes a gai n i n another and vi ce versa. I n the case
when a radi o li nk i s subj ect to i nterference from other nearby radi os, an
antenna wi th a beamwi dth of hi gh di mensi onal rati os i s preferred and
often requi red i n li censed appli cati ons. K eepi ng your radi o beam fo-
cused i ncreases effi ci ency and reduces the li keli ness of i nterference from
other radi o transmi ssi ons. T he only drawback i s that these types of an-
tennas are more expensi ve.
Bean A wi re-spli ci ng connector for spli ci ng twi sted-pai r wi re. Beans look
li ke a plasti c tube that i s about as bi g around as a dri nki ng straw, but
only an i nch long. T hey have metal teeth i nsi de them so that when two
wi res are cri mped i nsi de, they make a good connecti on and dont sli de
out. Beans can also have a water-retardant j elly i nsi de them as well. For
a photo, see Plain B Wire Connectors.
Bean 77
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Beaver Tail Another name for a Harri s Dracon Di vi si on Banj o or a si m-
i lar break-out devi ce. T he Banj o i s a devi ce for connecti ng test equi p-
ment to the wi ri ng i n modular j acks. For a photo, see Banjo.
BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) A bi t i n the
overhead of a data packet travelli ng i n a frame-relay network. T hi s
bi t i s set to 1 i f the packet travels through an area of network con-
gesti on that i s opposi te ( or backward) of i ts flow. T hi s bi t i s a si gnal
from the frame-relay network to hi gher-level protocols wi thi n DT E and
DCE to take flow-control acti on, as appropri ate. An example of flow-
control acti on would be to not attempt to exceed the Committed
Information Rate (CIR) for the connecti on. T hi s would prevent the
unnecessary transmi ssi on of low-pri ori ty frames that would surely be
di scarded.
Bed-of-Nails Clip A test cli p si mi lar to an alli gator cli p, except that i t
has a secti on of very sharp needle-li ke obj ects bunched together that
poke through a wi res i nsulati on when the cli p i s appli ed. T hese cli ps
achi eve a good connecti on for testi ng wi thout stri ppi ng the i nsulati on off
the wi re ( Fi g. B.6) .
78 Beaver Tail
Figure B.6 Alligator/Bed-of-Nails Clips
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 78
BEL T hi s i s an ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for bell. T he Bi nary code
i s 0111000 Hex i s 70.
Bell Operating Company (BOC) or Regional Holding Company At
the ti me of the 1984 di vesti ture, there were 22 BOCs, grouped i nto
seven Regi onal Bell Operati ng Compani es ( RBOCs) i n the Uni ted
States.
BOCs:
Bell Telephone Company of Nevada
I lli noi s Bell Telephone Company
I ndi ana Bell Telephone Company
Mi chi gan Bell Telephone Company
New England Telephone and Telegraph Company
US West Communi cati ons Company
South Central Bell Telephone Company
Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company
Ci nci nnati Bell Company
Mountai n Bell Telephone Company
Mountai n States Telephone and Telegraph Company
Southwestern Bell Telephone Company
T he Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of Maryland
T he Bell Telephone Company of Pennsylvani a
T he Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of Vi rgi ni a
T he Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Company of West Vi rgi ni a
T he Di amond State Telephone Company
T he Ohi o Bell Telephone Company
T he Paci fi c Telephone and Telegraph Company
New Jersey Bell Telephone Company
Wi sconsi n Telephone Company
RBOCs:
Ameri tech
Bell Atlanti c
Bell South
NYNEX
Paci fi c Telesi s
Southwestern Bell
US West
Bell System Practices (BSPs) A volume of standards that explai n how
to do everythi ng from termi nate an RJ11 j ack to i nstall a central offi ce.
T hey even had a standard on how to collect a past-due phone bi ll. T he
BSPs were a pre-1984 ( di vesti ture) tool for operati ng phone compani es.
Bell System Practices (BSPs) 79
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 79
T hey are no longer wi dely embraced by the RBOCS or AT & T. New equi p-
ment manufacturers have thei r own i nstructi ons for operati ng and
i nstalli ng thei r products, and each RBOC has i ts own way of operati ng a
communi cati ons company.
Bend Loss T he loss of transmi ssi on i n a fi ber-opti c or twi sted-pai r cable
because of a bend. Bendi ng fi ber-opti c cable causes the li ght traversi ng
through i t to reflect outward, i nstead of down the core of the fi ber. A
bend i n a twi sted-pai r wi re causes the di electri c or i nsulati on to change
i ts electri cal properti es, whi ch results i n a loss of si gnal.
Bending Radius T he smallest or ti ghtest bend that a fi ber can wi thstand
under a tensi le-pulli ng force wi thout damagi ng i ts transmi ssi on charac-
teri sti cs.
BER (Bit Error Rate) A way to measure data-transmi ssi on i ntegri ty.
T he bi t error rate i s a rati o of bad bi ts to good bi ts.
BERT (Bit Error Rate Test) A way to measure data transmi ssi on i n-
tegri ty. T he test gi ves a result as a rati o of bad bi ts to good bi ts.
Beta A way of referri ng to a test si te or test product. I f a new revi si on i s
released by a manufacturer, the fi rst si tes that i t i s i nstalled at i s referred
to a beta site.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) An i nterdomai n routi ng protocol that
has been used i n I nternet core router appli cati ons to exchange reach-
abi li ty i nformati on wi th other same system type routers.
BGP4 (Border Gateway Protocol version 4) T he predomi nant i nter-
domai n routi ng protocol used on the I nternet. I t i s capable of aggregat-
i ng routes li sted wi thi n a routers memory, whi ch reduces the si ze of rout-
i ng tables.
BICSI (Building Industry Consulting Service International) T he
provi der of the RCDD (Registered Communications Distribution De-
signer) certi fi cati on. T he RCDD certi fi cati on i s often referred to as a
BICSI ( pronounced bi k-see) certification. T he RCDD certi fi cati on i s
desi gned to educate professi onals i n the area of physi cal network di s-
tri buti on, i ncludi ng twi sted pai r and opti cal medi a. More i nformati on can
be found regardi ng BI CSI certi fi cati ons at http://www.bicsi.org.
Bidirectional Bus A bus that connects devi ces that clock bi ts i n as well
as out of thei r shi ft regi sters. T he devi ces that a bus i s connected to
80 Bend Loss
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 80
make i t uni di recti onal or bi di recti onal, not the bus i tself. All buses are
merely a group of parallel conductors that connect the shi ft regi sters of
components, as well as the power for the devi ces.
Big Endian A method of stori ng or transmi tti ng data i n whi ch the most-
si gni fi cant bi t or byte i s presented fi rst. T he opposi te i s referred to as
little-endian, whi ch presents the least-si gni fi cant bi t fi rst.
Billed Telephone Number T he number that i s the regarded as the
bi lli ng account number on a phone bi ll. Someti mes when a customer
calls a phone company for servi ce, the customer-servi ce representa-
ti ve wi ll ask the customer for the bi lled telephone number because
that i s the number that all the other customers phone numbers and
charges are referenced to. T hi s method i s used so that a customer
doesnt get a phone bi ll for every i ndi vi dual phone li ne they have.
Binary A number system that counts wi th only two di gi ts, 0 and 1. We
are all more fami li ar wi th the arabi c base ten, whi ch counts wi th ten
di gi ts: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. T he followi ng i s a li st of numbers
and thei r bi nary equi valent. For a larger table of bi nary numbers, see
Appendix E.
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) A four-bi t code for representi ng the
numbers zero through ni ne i n bi nary. I t i s basi cally i mplemented as a
short cut for enteri ng many bi nary numbers i nto a machi ne-language
program. Logi c ci rcui try decodes the BCD to bi nary for the mi cropro-
cessor. T he code i s ( Fi g. B.7) :
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) 81
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Binary-to-Decimal Conversion For a conversi on table of Bi nary to Dec-
i mal and Hexadeci mal, see Appendix E.
Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion For a conversi on table for bi nary
to deci mal and hexadeci mal, see Appendix E.
Binder A method of separati ng groups of 25 pai rs i n a twi sted-pai r ca-
ble wi th counts of more than 25 ( Fi g. B.8) . Colored plasti c ri bbon
bi nds, desi gnates and separates each group of 25 pai rs. T he fi rst
bi nder group i s whi te/blue pai rs 1 to 25, the second i s whi te/orange
pai rs 26 to 50, the thi rd i s whi te/green pai rs 51 to 75, the fourth i s
whi te/brown pai rs 76 to 100, etc. I f you would li ke to see the enti re
Figure B.8 Binder
82 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
decimal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
Figure B.7 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
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li st of bi nder groups and thei r associ ated pai rs, see Color Code,
Twisted Pair.
Binder Group A method of separati ng groups of 25 pai rs i n a twi sted-
pai r cable wi th counts of more than 25. See Binder.
Binding Post A reference used to i denti fy where twi sted copper pai rs
are termi nated i n access poi nts, cross boxes, and termi nals. Physi cally a
bi ndi ng post i s a pai r of teeth on a 66M150 block or a pai r of
9
16
lugs.
Each bi ndi ng post has a number. When a techni ci an looks for a speci fi c
pai r i n a cable ( called a cable pair) , they refer to documents that li st
the pai rs and whi ch bi ndi ng posts they are spli ced to.
BIOS Basi c I nput Output System resi di ng i n a PC. I t contai ns the shi ft
regi sters ( dynami c RAM) used as buffers for sendi ng bi ts to the speci fi c
hardware that they are i ntended for.
Biphase Coding A bi polar ( posi ti ve negati ve alternati ng) codi ng scheme
ori gi nally developed for use i n Ethernet. T he clocki ng/ti mi ng si gnal i s
embedded i nto the data stream as the posi ti ve and negati ve swi tchi ng
cycle i tself. T hi s encodi ng scheme eli mi nated the need for separate clock-
i ng leads.
Bipolar 1. A copper twi sted-pai r transmi ssi on method ( or li ne format) ,
where bi ts that are transmi tted are alternated posi ti ve and negati ve. T hi s
transmi ssi on techni que i ncreases the di stance a transmi ssi on can travel
on a twi sted pai r. 2. A transi stor.
Bis French for encore.
BISDN (Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network) A con-
ceptual telecommuni cati ons servi ce. When the i dea of BI SDN was con-
cei ved, i t would have the abi li ty to provi de on-demand bandwi dth to
customers for vari ous servi ces, such as vi deo, data transfer, etc. BI SDN
types of servi ces have evolved through AT M and the I nternet. Newer
data-compressi on techni ques and hi gh-speed local telephone li nes have
made bandwi dth on demand avai lable through servi ces other than I SDN.
Frame-relay and AT M servi ces provi de excess i nformati on rates across
networks and are avai lable to customers at a relati vely low cost. T he
standardi zati on and wi despread use of I nternet protocols, AT M feature
flexi bi li ty, and the i mplementati on of xDSL i n local networks are the en-
ablers of BI SDN.
Bisync A ni ckname for a tradi ti on-breaki ng data-communi cati ons pro-
tocol developed by I BM. I t was one of the fi rst and perhaps the ori gi nal
of the non-character-code ori ented protocols. Hence, the name came from
Bisync 83
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bit-synchronous. T he advantage of a noncharacter-oriented or bit-synchro-
nous protocol is that they are flexible in the types and sizes of data charac-
ters they can send ( e.g., 7-bit or 8-bit, ASCI I or EBCDI C) . T he official name
for Bisync is SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control) and eventually
evolved to HDLC (High-Level Data-Link Control). HDLC was the basis for
the LAP (Link-Access Procedure) developed by the I T U ( then the CCI T T ) ,
which ultimately became the basis for the X.25 standard in 1976.
Bit (Binary Digit) A uni t of data that i s represented as a one or a zero.
I nsi de most data devi ces, a bi t i s physi cally a posi ti ve 5 volts or 0 volts.
Bit Error Rate (BER) A way to measure data transmi ssi on i ntegri ty.
T he bi t error rate i s a rati o of bad bi ts to good bi ts.
Bit Interleaving A si mple way to ti me-di vi si on multi plex by i nterleavi ng
i ndi vi dual bi ts, i nstead of bytes or packets. T i mi ng of the two ends i s not
as complex wi th thi s method. Used i n X.25 and HDLC, not i n T 1 or T 3.
Bit Oriented Communi cati ons protocols that use bi ts to represent con-
trol i nformati on i n contrast to bytes. A byte can mean di fferent thi ngs
i n the di fferent vari eti es of character sets that are transmi tted. Bi t-
ori ented protocols are not character code sensi ti ve.
Bit Parity A way to check that transmi tted data i s not corrupted or di s-
torted duri ng the transmi ssi on. T he way pari ty works i s as follows. Take
a bi t stream that wi ll be transmi tted, add all the bi ts as bi nary numbers
mathemati cally, and the resulti ng number i s odd or even. Add a 1 at the
end of the stream i f the number i s even and a 0 i f the number i s odd.
When the bi ts are recei ved at the other end, they are added up and com-
pared to the last bi t. I f they add up to be an even number, then the last
bi t should be a 1. I f they add up to an odd number, then the last bi t
should be a 0. I f the case for ei ther does not hold true, then the recei v-
i ng end sends a request to retransmi t the stream of bi ts. T hey are re-
transmi tted, wi th the pari ty bi t attached all over agai n.
For example, a computer sends a bit stream of 10101011. Simply adding
the bits gives a sum of 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 5. T his is an odd
number, so add a 0 to the end of the stream to make it 101010110. T he bits
are received at the other end, added together, and compared to the parity
bit the same way. T here are new and more sophisticated ways of checking
for errors in data transmission, such as cyclic redundancy checking.
Bit Rate T he average net number of bi ts bei ng transmi tted over a com-
muni cati ons li ne i n a second, i ncludi ng compressi on and encodi ng tech-
ni ques, as well as retransmi ssi on of corrupted data.
84 Bit (Binary Digit)
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Bit Robbing Bi t robbi ng i s often known as in-band signaling. T he prac-
ti ce of taki ng a bi t here and there i n the begi nni ng and end of a di gi tal
transmi ssi on for use i n the overhead of the transmi ssi on equi pment. Bi t
robbi ng i s bad when the si gnals bei ng multi plexed i nto the transmi ssi on
are data. Robbi ng a bi t from a data stream severely corrupts data. Bi t
robbi ng i s a techni que reserved for multi plexi ng multi ple voi ce ci rcui ts
onto a T 1. Ci rcui ts i ntended to transmi t data use out of band si gnali ng
or clear-channel si gnali ng.
Bit Stream A seri es of voltage pulses that represent a bi nary code. A se-
ri al data transport. A bi t stream can exi st on a transmi ssi on li ne or wi thi n
the electroni cs of a data devi ce.
Bit Stuffing T he temporary modi fi cati on of user data duri ng transmi s-
si on so that i t does not i nterfere wi th lower-layer si gnali ng functi ons. For
i nstance, i n X.25, a flag byte i s put before and after the frame. T hi s byte
i s a 01111110. I f the data bei ng sent contai ns a 01111110, such as a lower
case w ( 0111111) , followed by a lower case s or lower case a ( whi ch
both start wi th a 0) , the data would be mi staken for a flag. T hi s would
cause random characters and bi ts to be lost, whi ch would ulti mately make
transmi ssi on i mpossi ble beyond the error-correcti on stage. To fi x the sce-
nari o, a 0 i s i nserted ( or stuffed) any ti me that fi ve consecuti ve ones
appear. T he data i s framed, transmi tted, deframed, and then after every
fi ve ones, a zero i s deleted ( or unstuffed) . T he data i s then handed to
the packet layer.
Bits Clock A devi ce that provi des a ti mi ng pulse i n the form of a 1-0-1-
0-1-0-1-0 bi t stream. Bi ts clocks are used extensi vely i n SONET net-
works. A bi ts clock provi des the ti mi ng pulse that nodes i n a network
synchroni ze to ( Fi g. B.9) .
Bits Clock 85
Figure B.9 Bits Clock
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Bits Per Second T he average net number of bi ts bei ng transmi tted over
a communi cati ons li ne i n a second, i ncludi ng compressi on and encodi ng
techni ques, as well as retransmi ssi on of corrupted data.
Black Box Usually a devi ce that converts or routes one type of data or
si gnal appli ed to the i nput to a desi red useful output for a speci fi c ap-
pli cati on. One company called Black Box Corporati on speci ali zes i n the
manufacture of these speci ali zed devi ces.
Black Hole A name for an area ( or router) of an I nternetwork where
packets enter, but do not emerge. T hus, data i s lost. Black holes can be
caused by any of the followi ng: system ( router table) confi gurati on, bad
hardware, or an adverse operati ng envi ronment ( noncompati ble equi p-
ment) .
Blended Agent An agent i n a call center that recei ves calls from outsi de
customers. When the i ncomi ng call rate slows down, i t makes outgoi ng
calls.
Blended Call Center A call center that recei ves calls from customers
and also calls customers. Someti mes agents are dedi cated to ei ther i n-
bound or outbound calls.
BLF (Busy Lamp Field) A part of or an add-on module to a phone or
console that allows the user to see multi ple extensi ons and i f that ex-
tensi on i s i n use ( or busy) .
Blocked Call A call that cannot be completed because the Central Of-
fi ce or PBX swi tchi ng capaci ty i s full at the ti me the call was at-
tempted. Blocki ng can occur at any poi nt i n a network where a call i s
swi tched ( from CO to CO or from local to long di stance) . T he caller
wi th a blocked call ei ther hears a fast busy or an i ntercept message
that says I m sorry, all ci rcui ts are busy now. Please try your call agai n
later.
Blocking When a central offi ce or PBX has fully uti li zed i ts capaci ty to
connect calls, i t blocks them. Callers tryi ng to call i n or out of a swi tch
that i s blocki ng calls wi ll get a fast busy si gnal.
BNC (British Naval Connector) A type of connector used on all
di fferent types of coax. I t i s keyed so that i t locks i nto place and
i t has better transmi ssi on characteri sti cs than an F connector ( Fi g.
B.10) .
86 Bits Per Second
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Figure B.10 BNC (British Naval Connector)
BOC (Bell Operating Company or Regional Holding Company) At
the ti me of di vesti ture, there were 22 BOCs, grouped i nto seven Re-
gional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs). For a li sti ng of the BOCs
and RBOCs, see Bell Operating Company.
Body Belt Used by communi cati ons/power/constructi on personnel to
harness themselves to telephone/power poles or tower structures. T hi s
i s also called a safety belt or a climbing belt. For a photo, see safety
belt.
Bolt, Baranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) T he company that developed
and mai ntai ned the ARPANET ( later, called the Internet) core gateway
system.
Bond 1. What telephone company constructi on personnel call the con-
necti on between the sheath of a telephone cable and an electri cal ground.
2. An electri cal connecti on.
Bond 87
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Bonding I n I SDN the j oi ni ng of two 64K bp/s B channels together for one
128 K bp/s channel.
Boomerang Server A method of layer 7 networki ng. I n WAN network-
i ng or I nternet appli cati ons, a boomerang server i s reference to a router
that i s equi pped wi th speci al software that enables i t to measure the
network di stance between two network servers that provi de the same
appli cati on. To provi de an end user accessi ng a redundant appli cati on
wi th the qui ckest response ti me, i t makes sense to have them connect
wi th the closest server. T he boomerang server recei ves the i ni ti al request
for connecti on, and then creates a race request among multi ple servers.
T he server that responds the qui ckest i s the closest by factual network
performance, and gets the request packet forwarded to i t. T he transac-
ti on between end user and appropri ate server then takes place. T hi s i s
also called a race conditional routing scheme.
Boot To restart a computer or CPU-based system by physi cally turni ng
i t off, then back on, whi ch resets the CPU. T hi s i s also called bootstrap.
Boot PROM (Boot-Programmable Read-Only Memory) A memory
chi p wi th permanent programmed i nstructi ons burned i nto i t. I t i s used
to provi de executable i nstructi ons to a computer devi ce when i t i s i ni -
ti ally turned on or restarted.
BootP A feature added to networki ng that uses the User Datagram Pro-
tocol ( UDP) to formulate network requests to allow a di skless devi ce to
obtai n and confi gure i ts own I P i nformati on, such as I P address and sub-
net mask. T he workstati on looks to the BootP server for fi les duri ng
power-on/start-up ( the BootP server i s a PC or server that i s runni ng
the BootP program and database) . To i ncorporate and use BootP, a BootP
server must be confi gured on the network. Before BootP was defi ned by
RFC951, I P addresses had to be confi gured manually by an admi ni stra-
tor i n order to operate di skless workstati ons.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) An i nterdomai n routi ng protocol that
i s used i n I nternet core router appli cati ons to exchange reachabi li ty i n-
formati on wi th other same system type routers.
Bounce A common term used by techni ci ans i n place of reset, wi th re-
gard to di gi tal communi cati on channels, such as T 1s.
Boundary Router I n OSPF routi ng envi ronments, a router that connects
to the outsi de world or another separate network. More speci fi cally, i t i s
a router that connects one network of policies or routing features to
88 Bonding
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another. Autonomous system boundary routers nearly always have dual
routi ng protocols enabled, whi ch enable packet transfer between two
networks of unli ke poli ci es.
BPAD (Bisynchronous Packet Assembler Dissasembler) A hardware-
based devi ce that i nserts bytes i nto packet frames and vi ce-versa i n packet
multi plexi ng/transmi ssi on equi pment.
BPS (Bits Per Second) T he average net number of bi ts bei ng trans-
mi tted over a communi cati ons li ne i n a second i ncludi ng compressi on
and encodi ng techni ques, as well as retransmi ssi on of corrupted data.
BPSK (Binary Phase-Shift Keying) A method of transmi tti ng bi nary
bi ts i n a form of frequency shi ft, or FM, that i s the same concept as
frequency-shi ft keyi ng. T he di fference i s that wi th BPSK , you change the
phase of the frequency, i nstead of the frequency i tself. T he two are shown
i n the di agram. I f you look closely, you can see the changes i n the wave-
forms that represent the swi tch from a one to a zero value.
Breakdown Voltage T he voltage at whi ch i nsulati on i n a cable or an elec-
troni c devi ce fai ls.
Break-Out Box A test devi ce that plugs i nto a data cable ( i .e., RS232)
and provi des easy test access for each wi re i n the cable.
Breaker Distribution Fuse Bay (BDFB) T he poi nt i n a central-offi ce
power system, where each DC feed to all rows of equi pment are equi pped
wi th a fuse or a breaker. T he BDFB i s a central locati on for power di s-
tri buti on. Generally, each rack of electroni c equi pment i s also equi pped
wi th i ts own FAP (Fuse Alarm Panel). See Fi g. B.11.
BRI (Basic Rate Interface) T he small-si ze ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) li ne ( the other si ze i s a Pri mary Rate I nterface) . I t i s
made up of two bearer or B channels and one data or D channel. T he
B channels are 64 K bp/s each. Wi th the appropri ate servi ce package from
the phone company and correct termi nal adapter, you can talk on one B
channel whi le usi ng your computer modem on the other B channel. When
your phone conversati on ends and you hang up, the termi nal adapter wi ll
send a message back to the phone company through the D channel that
connects both B channels together for a total transmi ssi on bandwi dth of
128 K bp/s for your computer automati cally. For a di agram, see ISDN.
Bridge A bri dge i s a devi ce that connects two networks at the data-li nk
level. T he data-li nk level i s the si mplest protocol layer i n the OSI to make
Bridge 89
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a connecti on between two networks because no data i nterpretati on i s
needed at thi s level. As a result, data can be transmi tted wi th vi rtually
no delay. I n other words, a bri dge si mply deci des whether the data-
gram/packet should pass or not pass. T hey operate over segments that
use the same protocol, such as Ethernet or token ri ng. Bri dges can be
used to extend a network over si mi lar or di ssi mi lar medi a, such as twi sted
90 Bridge
Figure B.11 Breaker Distribution Fuse Bay (BDFB)
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 90
pai r to fi ber opti c. See also Source Routing Bridge and Transparent
Bridge.
Bridge Clip A metal cli p ( someti mes plasti c i nsulated) used to elec-
troni cally connect or bri dge across the left si de of a 66M150 block wi th
the ri ght si de ( Fi g. B.12) .
Bridge Tap 91
Figure B.12 Bridge Clip
Bridge/Source Routing A type of network bri dge that reli es on routi ng
i nformati on provi ded by an external sendi ng system.
Bridge Tap A Y spli ce i n a copper twi sted-pai r communi cati ons cable. I t
gets i ts name because the fi rst spli ce i s a strai ght through spli ce, and
the second spli ce connects the wi res by cutti ng or tappi ng them i nto
the fi rst spli ce. A bri dge tap adds flexi bi li ty to telephone plant. A tele-
phone company never knows whi ch customer i s goi ng to use lots of pai rs
for thei r servi ce and who wi ll use only a few. To remedy the si tuati on
wi thout i nstalli ng 100 pai rs of copper to each i ndi vi dual bui ldi ng, the
telephone company i nstalls the same 100 pai rs i nto three or four bui ld-
i ngs. T hi s i s done by bri dge tappi ng the cable spli ces. T he bad thi ng
about bri dge tappi ng i s that i t lengthens the pai r. Length i s bad for di gi tal
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 91
servi ces ( addi ti onal loss, and reactance) , such as T 1 and I SDN, so the
bri dge taps must be di sconnected before these servi ces are i nstalled. On
a cable drawi ng, bri dge taps are shown as arrows and telephone cable i s
shown as a li ne ( Fi g. B.13) .
92 Bridge/Transparent
BRIDGE TAP SPLICES
Cable 1
Building
A
Building
B
Building C
CO 100PR Alpeth
CA11,100
CA1-1,100 CA1-1,100 CA1-1,100
Figure B.13 Bridge Tap
Bridge/ Transparent A type of network bri dge that learns whi ch systems
are on each network by li steni ng to traffi c and bui ldi ng i ts own reference
tables.
Broadband I ncorporati ng more than one channel i nto a communi cati ons
transmi ssi on. T 1 i s a broadband communi cati ons protocol because i t
carri es 24 conversati ons over four wi res. Cable T V i s also broadband be-
cause i t carri es many T V channels over one coax.
Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN) A con-
ceptual telecommuni cati ons servi ce. When the i dea of BI SDN was con-
cei ved, i t would have the abi li ty to provi de on-demand bandwi dth to
customers for vari ous servi ces, such as vi deo, data transfer, etc. BI SDN
types of servi ces have evolved through AT M and the I nternet. Newer
data-compressi on techni ques and hi gh-speed local telephone li nes have
made bandwi dth on demand avai lable through servi ces other than I SDN.
Frame-relay and AT M servi ces provi de excess i nformati on rates across
networks and are avai lable to customers at a relati vely low cost. T he
standardi zati on and wi despread use of I nternet protocols, AT M feature
flexi bi li ty, and the i mplementati on of xDSL i n local networks are the en-
ablers of BI SDN.
Broadband Inter-Carrier Interface (B-ICI) A reference to an AT M
backbone soluti on. I t uses AT M to multi plex multi ple servi ces, such as
cell relay, voi ce DS1, frame relay ( PVC) over one AT M li nk ( i .e., DS3
44.736 Mbps, ST S-3c 155.52 Mbps, and ST S-12c 622.08 Mbps) .
Broadcast To send i nformati on i n any form to more than one place.
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Broadcast Address A speci al address reserved for sendi ng a mes-
sage to all stati ons. A broadcast address i s a desti nati on address of
all ones ( i n deci mal, 255.255.255.255) . See also IP Broadcast and
Multicast.
Brouter A marketi ng term for a multi port router, whi ch i nherently per-
forms layer 2 ( bri dgi ng or swi tchi ng) functi ons as well as layer 3
( routi ng) functi ons ( Fi g. B.14) .
BSP (Bell System Practice) 93
Figure B.14 Brouter
10-Base T on CAT5 UTP
10-base T Ethernet on CAT5 UTP
Brouter
Brouter Fiber Optic
A BROUTER
APPLICATION
Browser A computer program that allows users to download World Wi de
Web pages for vi ewi ng on thei r computers. Two popular browser pro-
grams are Netscape Navi gator and Mi crosoft I nternet Explorer. T he fi rst
browser program was called Mosaic, whi ch was a text browser, as
opposed to the newer graphi cal browsers.
BS An ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for backspace. T he bi nary code i s
1000000 and the hex i s 80.
BSP (Bell System Practice) A volume of standards that explai n how
to do everythi ng from termi nate an RJ11 j ack to i nstall a central offi ce.
T hey even had a standard on how to collect a past-due phone bi ll. T he
BSPs were a pre-1984 ( di vesti ture) tool for operati ng phone compani es.
T hey are no longer wi dely embraced by the RBOCS or AT & T. New equi p-
ment manufacturers have thei r own i nstructi ons for operati ng and i n-
stalli ng thei r products, and each RBOC has i ts own way of operati ng a
communi cati ons company.
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BSS (Base Station System) A wi reless communi cati ons devi ce that
manages radi o traffi c and bandwi dth between a group of base transcei ver
stati ons.
BTA (Basic Trading Area) Geographi cal boundari es defi ned wi thi n a
cellular radi o li cense.
BTN (Billed Telephone Number) T he number that i s regarded as the
bi lli ng account number on a phone bi ll. Someti mes when a customer calls
a phone company for servi ce, the customer-servi ce representati ve wi ll
ask the customer for the bi lled telephone number because that i s the
number that all the other customers phone numbers and charges are
referenced to. T hi s method i s used so that a customer doesnt get a phone
bi ll for every i ndi vi dual phone li ne they have.
BTS (Base Transceiver Station) A stati on that transmi ts mobi le radi o
si gnals.
Buffer A temporary storage ( memory) devi ce for data. A buffer i s basi -
cally a box wi th RAM i nsi de i t. A common appli cati on for buffers i s to
collect a stream of data and temporari ly store i t unti l another devi ce,
such as a PC or server asks the buffer to download i t. T hi s i s useful when
the PC, server or LAN could be out of servi ce for a peri od of ti me. When
the server or PC i s returned to servi ce i t j ust asks for the data from the
buffer and i t i s downloaded. T he buffer i s then empty and ready to re-
cei ve more data.
Building Entrance Agreement A bui ldi ng entrance agreement gi ves a
telephone company or other uti li ty the pri vi lege to construct communi -
cati ons faci li ti es i nto a bui ldi ng and to occupy thei r own space for
equi pment, power for the equi pment, and access to sai d equi pment. Even
though havi ng a CLEC present i n a bui ldi ng i s a great advantage for
tenants, smart bui ldi ng management compani es use thei r posi ti on to an
advantage. T hey only allow the CLEC to construct the faci li ti es i nto the
bui ldi ng the way they want, when they want. T he faci li ti es ( fi ber, cable,
condui t, not electroni cs) when completed belong to the bui ldi ng. I n some
cases, the bui ldi ng management then charges rent back to the CLEC for
the use of the faci li ti es that they pai d to have desi gned and constructed.
T he CLECs must agree to all of the bui ldi ng managements terms because
wi thout bui ldi ng entrance agreements the CLECs can only exi st by usi ng
another phone compani es faci li ti es ( usually an RBOCs) to provi de servi ce.
Building Industry Consulting Service International (BICSI) T he
provi der of the RCDD (Registered Communications Distribution
94 BSS (Base Station System)
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Bus Topology A LAN physi cal topology, whi ch means the way that the
i ndi vi dual devi ces wi thi n the LAN are physi cally connected ( Fi g. B.16) .
T he method at whi ch the devi ces connected to the LAN access the me-
di a ( coax i s common for thi s topology) i s called the logical topology.
T he bus topology i s a wi re ( UT P) that behaves as a street that con-
nects a number of PCs. When a PC wants to access the network or wi re
to a server or another PC, i t looks at the street to see i f there i s no
traffi c. I f there i s no traffi c, then the PC ( or server) sends data down
the wi re ( or street) . T he data has an address attached to i t and all the
other devi ces connected to the network see the address. I f the address
belongs to a certai n devi ce, that devi ce reads the data attached to the
address. T hi s scheme of sendi ng data i s called Ethernet. One of the
i neffi ci enci es of Ethernet i s somethi ng called a collision. A colli si on
Designer) certi fi cati on. T he RCDD certi fi cati on i s often referred to as
a BICSI ( pronounced bi k-see) certification. T he RCDD certi fi cati on
i s desi gned to educate professi onals i n the area of physi cal network
di stri buti on, i ncludi ng twi sted pai r and opti cal medi a. M ore i nforma-
ti on can be found regardi ng BI CSI certi fi cati ons at http://www.
bicsi.org.
Bulletin Board System (BBS) A Websi te accessed by users that acts
as a central source of i nformati on. BBS Websi tes are usually set up by
parti cular i nterest category.
Buried Cable Terminal Where buri ed servi ce wi res are fed from be-
tween the feeder cable and the standard network i nterface. For a photo
of a Buried Terminal, see Pedestal.
Buried Service Wire Splice A speci al waterti ght spli ce that i s fi lled wi th
an encapsulant. Common types of these spli ces are made by K eptel and
Communi cati ons Technology Corporati on ( Fi g. B.15) .
Figure B.15 Buried Service Wire Splice Kit
Bus Topology 95
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 95
happens when two or more devi ces look at the network ( the wi re) and
see that i t i s clear at the same ti me, then attempt to send data at the
same ti me. T he data that i s transmi tted by the multi ple devi ces col-
li des and becomes corrupted. T he devi ces on the network sense the
colli si on and try to send thei r data agai n when the network i s clear.
T hi s method of control i s classi fi ed as a contenti on-based protocol be-
cause all the devi ces on the network contend for i ts use. All of the Eth-
ernet protocols are contenti on based. See also CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA,
and Ring Topology.
Busy Hour T he hour i n the day or month when a central offi ce or PBX
connects the most calls. T he busy hour i s an i mportant factor i n desi gni ng
a swi tch for blocki ng.
Busy Lamp Field T he li ghts on an attendant console that i ndi cate who
i s on thei r li ne ( what li nes are busy) and who i s not. Some busy lamp
fi elds are an add-on module that can be attached to a phone.
Busy Out A temporary fi x or condi ti on of a phone servi ce. To busy a
li ne out of a hunt sequence. I f a busi ness phone li ne becomes defecti ve
and i t i s i n a hunt or roll over sequence, calls wi ll not hunt or roll past
thi s li ne. Say that you have four li nes comi ng i nto your busi ness. T he
fi rst li ne i s the mai n number and i f that fi rst li ne i s busy, then calls come
i n on the second li ne, etc. I f li ne one goes bad then i t cant be called, so
96 Busy Hour
Figure B.16 Bus Topology
COAX
SERVER
PQ104-5056F-PB.qxd 2/9/01 12:54 PM Page 96
i t cant be busy. Because i t i s not busy, then calls wi ll not hunt or rotate
to the next three li nes. When you call the phone company repai r serv-
i ce they busy out the bad li ne, whi ch makes i t look busy to the network.
Your calls then start comi ng i n on the other three li nes. When a repai r
techni ci an fi ni shes wi th repai ri ng the problem on the bad li ne, he has i t
unbusi ed.
Busy Override When an attendant or operator adds themselves on to a
li ne that i s already i n use. T hi s i s also called a barge i n. I f a local phone
company operator barges i n on a phone conversati on the people on the
li ne wi ll hear a beep tone, then subsequent short beep tones as long as
the operator i s connected. T he operator can converse wi th the two par-
ti es on the li ne after bargi ng i n and pass on urgent i nformati on. T hi s i s
a common feature of PBX systems. A PBX system can be programmed
to not warn the people i n the mi ddle of thei r call that another person i s
li steni ng. T hi s feature i s often used to moni tor the quali ty of customer
servi ce i n call centers.
Busy Signal T here are two types of busy si gnals. T he most common type
i s a slow busy, whi ch means that the number you are tryi ng to call i s
bei ng used. T he other type of busy si gnal i s a fast busy, whi ch means
the phone company central offi ce could not understand the di gi ts that
you di aled or the actual phone network i s too busy to take your call.
Many fast busy si gnals are bei ng replaced wi th i ntercept messages,
whi ch tell the di aler what the problem i s. Examples of i ntercept mes-
sages are: I m sorry, all ci rcui ts are busy now. Please try your call agai n
later. And T he number di aled i s out of servi ce. Please check the num-
ber and try your call agai n.
Busy Verification T he local telephone company test to see i f a parti cu-
lar phone number ( or ci rcui t, or loop as they call them) i s busy. T he test
i s run by a DATU (Direct Access Test Unit) i n the central offi ce. When
the test comes back, i t says the li ne i s i n use busy speech or ROH
(Ringer Off Hook), whi ch means that the handset has been taken off
the hook and left there.
Butt Set (slang) A test telephone set used by telephone i nstallati on and
repai r personnel. I nstead of a plug on the end of the cord, i t has a pai r
of alli gator/bed-of-nai ls cli ps. For a photo, see Craft Test Set.
Bypass Trunk Group A method of connecti ng one central offi ce to an-
other wi thout goi ng through a tandem. T hi s method reduces tandem traf-
fi c and reduces blockage between the two offi ces that have bypass trunk
groups i nstalled. A bypass trunk group i s shown i n Fi g. B.17 on page 98.
Bypass Trunk Group 97
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Byte-Oriented Protocol An older class and era of data-li nk commu-
ni cati ons transmi ssi on rules that use a speci fi c character from a charac-
ter set code ( ASCI I or EBCDI C) to deli mi t or separate transmi tted
frames. T hese protocols have been almost completely replaced by bi t-
ori ented protocols. Byte-ori ented methods are avoi ded when possi ble.
Even less technologi cally advanced parts of the world have mi grated to
bi t-ori ented protocols, such as X.25.
Byte Reversal An electroni c logi c process used i n I ntel mi croprocessors.
I t stores least-si gni fi cant i nteger and address bi ts fi rst. See also LSB
(Least Significant Bit).
Byte Stuffing Byte stuffi ng i s what some communi cati ons protocols do
to make data more sui table for transmi ssi on. I f a customer wants to send
30 bytes, but one transmi ssi on frame carri es 48 bytes, then the trans-
mi ssi on equi pment adds 18 bytes so that the frame i s full. T hi nk of byte
stuffi ng as the styrofoam peanuts or wadded-up paper you put i n a box
when you shi p somethi ng through the mai l.
Byte Ei ght bi ts, also known as an octet ( Fi g. B.18) .
Figure B.18 Byte
98 Byte
10101010 A mathematical representation of one byte.
An electronic representation of one byte.
Figure B.17 Bypass Trunk Group
LEC
NPA
LEC
Tandem
Switch
208
LEC
Tandem
Switch
713
Boise Main CO
Area code 208
Houston
Main CO
Area code 713
Houston
South CO
Houston
East CO
Houston
North CO
Boise
South CO
Boise East CO
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
LEC
NPA
bypass
trunk
group
IXC LINES
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C A hi gh-level programmi ng language that i s somewhat si mi lar i n appli -
cati on to the Basi c programmi ng language.
C+ A hi gh-level programmi ng language.
C++ A hi gh-level programmi ng language.
C3Po (Cisco 3 Port Switch) A desi gn for Ci sco Systems desktop I P
phones, where the phone has three swi tch ports. One swi tch port i s an
Ethernet VLAN trunk for i nterfaci ng to the swi tch network, the second
i s a swi tch port for an i nterface to the PC workstati on, and the thi rd i s
to the i nternal telephone i nstrument. ( I nci dentally, there i s nothi ng i n
telecom for R2D2.)
C7 T he European versi on of SS7. SS7 and C7 are not the same protocol
even though they perform the same functi ons. Gateway swi tches ( class 1
central offi ces) convert the two di fferent i nternati onal standards when
calls are handed through.
C Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 4 GHz
and 8 GHz ( 7.5 cm to 3.75 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band Des-
ignation.
C Connector Also called a female amp connector or 25-pair female
connector. For a photo of a C connector, see 25-Pair Connector. T he
male versi on i s called a P connector.
99
C
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C Plane One of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network management.
T he three planes are: T he User Plane ( the U Plane defi nes the transfer
of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane defi nes the LMI ,
Local Management I nterface) , and the Control plane ( the plane i s del-
egated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) .
C Shell One of the UNI X program operator access levels. T he other lev-
els are V Shell and Root. To access C Shell or V Shell, a password must
be entered. To work i n a UNI X program under the root comman set, an
addi ti onal password must be used. T he di fferent shells permi t di fferent
operati ons, whi ch have di fferent command sets. T hi s allows a root user
to allow li mi ted access to C-Shell and V-Shell users.
C Wire Wi re that i s strengthened wi th steel for long-span aeri al plant
appli cati ons. Some C wi re i s noni nsulated, so i t i s also called open wire.
Open wi re fi ts the appli cati on better as i t i s used i n wi de open or very
rural areas. T he old telegraph system was an open-wi re system.
Cable T he general name for copper-based medi a to transport electri cal
voi ce, data, and vi deo si gnals. I t can be twi sted pai r or coax, and i n-
doors or outdoors. I n general, two types of cable are i nstalled i ndoors,
PVC and Plenum. Many types of cable are used outdoors. T he basi c di f-
ference i n outdoor cables i s how many PVC and alumi num sheaths are
100 C Drop Clamp
Figure C.1 C Drop Clamp
C Drop Clamp A clamp used to fasten servi ce wi re to homes/bui ldi ngs
( Fi g. C.1) .
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 100
around the conductors and i f the cable i s fi lled wi th a water-proofi ng
j elly.
Cable Act of 1984 An act passed by T he Uni ted States Congress i n 1984
that deregulated almost all of the Cable T V i ndustry and was eventually
superseded by another act i n 1992. After the 1984 Act was passed, the
FCC had control of cable T V i n only the followi ng si x areas: 1. Each CAT V
system had to be regi stered wi th the FCC pri or to any operati ons. 2. En-
forcement of all subscri bers havi ng access to an AB swi tch so that they
could easi ly swi tch from CAT V to regular T V programmi ng. 3. Re-
broadcast of local televi si on stati ons wi thout any alterati on or deleti on.
4. Non-dupli cati on of local broadcast regular T V programs. 5. Fi nes
and/or i mpri sonment for broadcasti ng i ndecent materi al. 6. Li censi ng
for recei ve-only earth stati ons for satelli te deli vered vi a pay cable.
Cable Head End T he si gnal-processi ng poi nt for telecommuni cati ons
servi ces provi ded by compani es that are tradi ti onally known as cable-
TV companies. Si nce these compani es have began offeri ng tradi ti onal
two-way telecommuni cati on servi ces, such as I nternet connecti vi ty and
basi c telephone servi ce, the equi pment housed i n the cable-T V head end
been expanded ( Fi g. C.2) .
Cable Head End 101
Emergency
Alert System
Public
Telephone
Network
Satellite Receivers Combiner
Channel Modulators
Antenna Farm
Add Insertion Electronics
RF
Coax
RF
Coax
Telephone
Personal Computer
TV Set
TV Set
Broadband Fiber Optic
Transmitter/Receiver
Mux Node
Public Service
Voice Switch
RF
Coax
Combiner
Host Digital
Terminal
DS3
DS3
RF
Internet Service
Provider
Internet Router
RF
Coax
Optical
Pole Mount
Mini Fiber Node
Optical
Voice Port
UNI
RF
Coax
Cable Modem/Internet
Set-Top
Digital
Cable Box
RF
Coax
Ethernet
Twisted
Pair
Telephone
RF
Coax
Cable TV Head End Outside Coax/Fiber Optic
Plant
Customer/Subscriber
Premises
Pole Mount
Fiber Mux
Node
Optical
Optical
Pole Mount
Mini Fiber Node
RF
Combiner
RF
Coax
Additional
Subscribers
Downstream
Upstream
Figure C.2 Cable Head End
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Cable Mapping T he tracki ng of i nstalled cable and pai rs i n a network.
Someti mes an actual map i s used and someti mes a tracki ng system of
cable, pai r, address and bi ndi ng post i s used. T he RBOCs use both.
Cable Modem Internet A servi ce provi ded by cable T V compani es that
allows for up to 5 Mbps downstream and 512 K bps upstream connecti vi ty
to I nternet-servi ce provi ders. Wi th vari ous compressi on methods, cable-
modem data-transfer rates extend beyond 10 Mbps downstream ( Fi g. C.4) .
102 Cable Knife
Figure C.3 Cable Splicers Snips and Sheath Knife
Cable Knife A kni fe used by communi cati ons cable i nstallers to stri p
ALPET H ( alumi num/polyethylene) j acketed cable ( Fi g. C.3) .
Figure C.4 Cable Modems for Cable Internet Access, Manufactured by 3Com
(Left) and RCA (Right)
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 102
Cable Plant A term that refers to a communi cati ons uti li tys twi sted pai r
and/or coax network that wi nds through towns and nei ghborhoods. I t i n-
cludes termi nals, pedestals, cross boxes, and vaults.
Cable, Riser A twi sted-pai r cable ( usually several hundred pai rs) di stri -
buti on system that progresses from the telephone company Demarc or
poi nt of entrance i n a bui ldi ng to each floor of that bui ldi ng.
Cable Router A router located at a cable-T V head end that manages I n-
ternet traffi c among cable modems located at subscri ber locati ons. Cable
routers work the same way that I nternet-servi ce provi der routers do, ex-
cept that the I P-based transmi ssi on between the router and vari ous ca-
ble modems are compressed and modulated i nto an RF si gnal. T he ana-
log RF si gnal i s then converted to di gi tal wi thi n the cable modem at the
customer premi ses.
Cable Span T he cable suspended i n the ai r between two telephone or
power poles.
Cable Stripper Several tools are used to stri p the j ackets off of ALPET H
and lead-j acketed telecommuni cati ons cable. T he most popular i s a ca-
ble kni fe and sni ps ( for a photo, see Cable Knife) . An alternati ve tool i s
shown i n Fi g. C.5.
Cable Stripper 103
Figure C.5 Cable Sheath Cutter
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104 Cable Telephony
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Traditional Analog
Cable TV Channels
1 MHz to 40 MHz 50 MHz to 550 MHz
550 MHz to 860 MHz
Digital Tier
DOWNSTREAM UPSTREAM
CABLE TV FACILITIES BANDWIDTH ALLOCATION
FOR CABLE TELEPHONY
Cable Telephony A reference to telecommuni cati ons servi ces that are
provi ded over the coaxi al outsi de plant that i s owned and operated by
cable-T V compani es. Servi ces provi ded i nclude I nternet access, tele-
phone, di gi tal cable-T V, and analog cable-T V ( Fi g. C.6) . See also HDT
(Host Digital Terminal) and Cable Modem/Internet.
Figure C.6 Cable Telephony Bandwidth Allocation
Cable TV (Community Antenna Television) A cable-T V company has
satelli te di shes i n a central locati on that pi ck up T V si gnals from around
the country. T hey retransmi t those channels down a coax that branches
out through a geographi cal area where subscri bers to the antenna serv-
i ce can be connected. Some cable-T V compani es add thei r own i nfor-
mati on channels to thei r broadcast and local adverti si ng between pro-
grammi ng on selected channels.
Cable Vault Formerly known as a manhole. A concrete enclosure that
i s usually underground and vari es i n si ze from a small crate to a large
room. T hey are speci fi cally desi gned for the housi ng and easy access to
telephone and cable-T V spli ces. Cable vaults are extremely dangerous
places because of lack of oxygen and accumulated carbon monoxi de.
Natural gas, and other dangerous gasses have a tendency to bui ld up i n-
si de them ( Fi g. C.7) .
Cable Voice Port (Also called a UNI, User Network Interface, or
Voice Port) I n cable-T V networks, a devi ce located at the telephone
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 104
subscri bers premi ses that modulates and demodulates the DS0 voi ce up-
stream and downstream channels. T he modulated DS0 voi ce si gnal i s
sent by the HDT (Host Digital Terminal) located at the cable-T V head
end. T he voi ced port provi des connecti on to the customer-premi ses tele-
phone wi ri ng. Channel control between the head end and the customer
si te voi ce port can be mai ntai ned remotely, from the head end or other
offi ce. Because the voi ce servi ce i n cable telephony i s provi ded vi a ra-
di o channels, the channels can be swi tched when a subscri ber i s expe-
ri enci ng stati c or radi o i nterference on li ne. T hi s would be equi valent to
a pai r change i n a twi sted-pai r-based telephone network. A pai r change
cannot be done by remote control and requi res a techni ci an on si te. For
a photo, see Voice Port.
Cable Voice Port 105
Figure C.7 Cable Vault (Inside View). Street Access is at Top
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 105
Cable Weight A speci fi cati on of outsi de plant cable used by outsi de plant
engi neers when fi guri ng how long a span can be, and how bi g of a mes-
senger to use.
Cache Memory Pronounced cash memory. A type of RAM i ncorporated
i nto personal-computer CPUs. Cache memory retai ns frequently used i n-
structi ons, and the locati ons of those i nstructi ons i n mai n memory. When
a CPU operates, i t looks for addresses to retri eve i nstructi ons. When
the cache memory i s holdi ng the address the CPU i s needi ng to access,
i t retri eves the i nformati on from that cache memory bank. T hi s i s called
a cache hit. When the address needed i s not i n the cache memory bank,
i t i s called a cache miss, and the CPU accesses the i nstructi ons from
the mai n memory address. See also L1 Cache.
Call-Accounting System A computer ( usually a dedi cated PC) that
connects to a swi tch vi a a seri al data port and moni tors the detai ls of
every phone call made through that swi tch. T he call detai ls are stored
as call records. Wi th the appropri ate software, the records can be re-
tri eved, sorted, processed, and queri ed to almost any speci fi c nature
that the call-accounti ng system admi ni strator desi res. T hese systems
are used by hotels to track all the calls you make from your room so
that they can bi ll you appropri ately. T hey are also used by compani es
to do bi ll-back reports for i ndi vi dual departments wi thi n the company
( Fi g. C.8) .
106 Cable Weight
Figure C.8 Call Accounting System
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Call Admission Control A traffi c management feature of AT M networks
that ensures that vi rtual channel connecti ons are not offered unless
enough bandwi dth i s avai lable on i ts network.
Call Announcement A way of transferri ng a call to another extensi on.
A feature of PBX and key systems where you have a chance to talk to
the person you are transferri ng the call to before you make the transfer.
T he way i t works on most systems i s: You are talki ng to a person that
you want to transfer, you push the transfer button on your phone, di al
the extensi on you would li ke to transfer the call to, and you hear i t ri ng.
When the person at the extensi on you have called answers the phone,
you can noti fy them that you are transferri ng a very i mportant cli ent to
them. You then push the transfer button agai n to complete the transfer.
I f the person you want to transfer to does not answer thei r phone, you
can swi tch back to the call you wanted to transfer and speak to that per-
son agai n. T he other way of transferri ng calls i s called a blind transfer,
where you si mply transfer the caller to another extensi on wi th no i n-
terventi on or control of the call.
Call Attempt An uncompleted call because of blocki ng, where callers
cannot get through because all li nes are busy. T hi s i s a report stati sti c
of central offi ce swi tches as well as PBX systems.
Call Blending T he mi x of typi cal i ncomi ng calls i n a call center wi th out-
goi ng calls made by an auto di aler wi th call-blendi ng capabi li ty. Call cen-
ters blend calls to fully uti li ze thei r employees worki ng at the ti me. I f i n-
bound calls are slow, the auto di aler i ncreases the number of outgoi ng
call attempts so i t can connect people that answer wi th agents. Auto
di alers are usually programmed wi th a predetermi ned li st of numbers to
di al, usually for customers that are expecti ng follow-up on thei r servi ces
from the company maki ng the call.
Call Detail Recording (CDR) T he i ni ti al functi on of a call-accounti ng
system i s to recei ve detai led i nformati on on telephone calls connected
through a PBX swi tch and store them i n memory. T hi s functi on i s called
call detail recording. Call detai ls i nclude number di aled and durati on
of the call for outbound calls, and the trunk I D ( or phone number) and
call durati on for i nbound calls. Each call event ( transfer, connect, di s-
connect, etc.) gets a ti me stamp.
Call Duration T he length of ti me a phone call lasts from the ti me both
ends are off-hook, unti l the ti me that one end hangs up.
Call Forwarding A servi ce offered by local phone compani es to thei r
subscri bers and a feature of PBX systems that allows a user to make calls
di aled to thei r phone ri ng to a di fferent phone or phone number.
Call Forwarding 107
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 107
Call Hand Off When your call i s transferred from one cellular si te ( or
cellular transmi tter) to another.
Call Letters T he stati on i denti fi cati on letters assi gned to broadcast ra-
di o and T V stati ons by the FCC. Some examples are: WK ND, WLI S,
WPPR, WK RP, K XRK , and CK LW.
Call Menu A recorded message that gi ves callers opti ons to choose from
by usi ng thei r di al pad. See also Auto Attendant.
Call Mix A stati sti cal account of calls i n a system. T hi s i nformati on i s
useful for determi ni ng archi tecture upgrades and troubleshooti ng. An
example of a call mi x would be 40% DI D calls, 30% autoattendant-routed
calls, and 30% zero out to human-attendant calls. From thi s call mi x, you
can see exactly how each percentage of your calls are handled.
Call Packet A packet of data that contai ns X.25 Switched Virtual Cir-
cuit (SVC) addressi ng i nformati on and other overhead.
Call Park A PBX feature that allows a call to be placed on hold i n a way
that i t can be pi cked up from any extensi on i n the offi ce. T he way i t
works i s: T he attendant or anyone else who wi shes to park the call
presses a park key on thei r telephone. T he di splay on the phone then
shows the extensi on that the call i s parked i n ( park extensi ons are i mag-
i nary, j ust reference numbers) . I n thi s example, the di splay sai d parked
i n 60. T he person that parked the call then pages the person that they
wi sh to pi ck up or recei ve the call over a loudspeaker Johnny please
pi ck up park 60. Johnny hears the page, goes to the nearest telephone
set, and presses the park key and then 60. He i s i mmedi ately connected
wi th the calli ng party that was parked by the attendant that answered
the call.
Call Pick Up T he abi li ty to answer a ri ngi ng phone that i s not yours. You
hear a phone i n the next offi ce ri ngi ng, pi ck up the recei ver and press
the pi ck-up key on your telephone, then enter the extensi on number of
the phone you wi sh to i ntercept the call from. Your phone i s i mmedi -
ately connected wi th the call and you say Hello, John Does ( or name
of the persons extensi on) li ne.
Call Pick-Up Group A group of telephones that recei ve or ri ng when
a certai n number i s called. An example of a pi ck-up group would be all
of the phones on all the desks that ri ng si multaneously when a 1-800
hotli ne i s called. When someone pi cks up the handset of any one of those
ri ngi ng phones, they answer the call.
108 Call Hand Off
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Call Priority 1. I n an Automatic Call Distribution (ACD) system, i n-
comi ng calls can be gi ven a preference as to whi ch are answered fi rst.
T he preference i s based on whi ch trunk the call comes i n on, or on the
DNIS (Dialed Number Identification Service) for the call. As of thi s
wri ti ng, the Nortel Meri di an 1 PBX ( Pri vate Branch Exchange) voi ce
swi tch has a capabi li ty of four di fferent call pri ori ty levels. 2. I n data
communi cati ons, call pri ori ty i s a preference assi gned to each ori gi na-
ti on port i n a ci rcui t-swi tched system ( i .e., swi tched Ethernet) . T hi s pref-
erence determi nes whi ch ports are connected fi rst ( and whi ch ones wai t)
i f the network i s congested.
Call Queuing T he functi on of placi ng i ncomi ng calls on hold and i n li ne
for the next avai lable call-answeri ng agent. Call queui ng i s a functi on of
Automatic Call Distribution (ACD) systems. T he queue i s an exten-
si on number wi thi n the ACD system that calls are transferred to. An ACD
system i ntegrates wi th a PBX system.
Call Record One of the many reports generated by a call-accounti ng sys-
tem. A call record detai ls a telephone call made or recei ved by a tele-
phone or extensi on by the number di aled, i ncomi ng trunk I D, durati on
of the call, and the ti me of connecti on and di sconnecti on.
Call-Request Packet A packet that i s sent by the ori gi nati ng DT E equi p-
ment i n a frame-type data transmi ssi on that requests a network termi -
nal number, network faci li ti es, and call user data ( or X.29 control i nfor-
mati on) .
Call Restrictor A devi ce that can be attached to a phone li ne or trunk
that prevents certai n numbers from bei ng di aled through or that only al-
lows a certai n group of numbers to be di aled. When i nstalli ng or pur-
chasi ng a call resti ctor, i t i s a good i dea to be sure that 911 i s di alable
under any appli cati on.
Call Return Also called last call return. A servi ce offered by local tele-
phone compani es that enables telephone customers to return a call they
mi ssed by di ali ng *NN ( the two numbers after the * depend on the lo-
cal company) . T hi s servi ce i s handy for those ti mes when you are run-
ni ng to the phone and the caller hangs up ri ght when you pi ck up the
recei ver. All you have to do i s di al the *NN code, you hear a recordi ng
that tells you the phone number of the last caller, and gi ves you the op-
ti on of ri ngi ng them back by pushi ng 1 or j ust hangi ng up. Usi ng thi s
servi ce can cost 50 to 75 cents each ti me you use i t up to a maxi mum
amount per month, usually about $6.00.
Call Return 109
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Call Second One phone call for one second. T hi s i s the smallest uni t of
telephone swi tch traffi c. One hundred call seconds i s equal to a Centum
Call Second (CCS). A one-hour call i s equal to 36 CCS, whi ch i s one
Erlang. T he Erlang i s the standard uni t of measure for telephone-swi tch
traffi c.
Call Setup Time T he ti me from when you go off-hook, di al a number,
the phone network checks to see i f the number you are calli ng i s busy,
a path i s establi shed between central offi ces, the other end ri ngs and i s
pi cked up. Even though call setup costs money, customers maki ng long-
di stance calls dont pay for the call setup ti me.
Call Trace A servi ce offered by local phone compani es. I f you recei ve a
mali ci ous or obscene telephone call, you can have the call traced by
i mmedi ately di ali ng *57 after the call. T hi s only works for the last call
recei ved. After the *57 i s pressed, a recorded message i s played that
gi ves further i nstructi ons. T he call i s tagged i n the local telephone com-
panys call detai l-recordi ng log. T he caller i s usually warned for a fi rst
offense. T he person that made the report never fi nds out who made the
obscene call, but i s not surpri sed to see how qui ckly the obscene calls
cease. *57 i s the North Ameri can Standard for last-call trace servi ce.
Call Transfer A feature of PBX systems that allows users to transfer a
conversati on or call connecti on to another extensi on. T he feature i s usu-
ally executed by pressi ng a transfer key whi le on the li ne wi th the per-
son or party they wi sh to transfer, di ali ng the di gi ts of the extensi on they
wi sh to transfer to, then pressi ng the transfer key agai n.
Call Waiting A feature offered by local phone compani es that allows
someone that i s talki ng on thei r phone li ne to recei ve another i ncomi ng
call by bri efly pressi ng the swi tch hook. T he person knows they are get-
ti ng another call because they hear a short beep or cli ck on the li ne. I f
a person does not have call wai ti ng, the caller that i s tryi ng to reach
them whi le they are on the phone wi ll recei ve a busy si gnal, as opposed
to a ri ng when they have thi s servi ce.
Caller ID (Caller Identification) Also known as ANI (Automatic
Number Identification). A feature offered by local phone compani es
that sends the phone number ( and often the name of the caller) down
the phone li ne i n a di gi tal data packet between the fi rst and second ri ng.
To recei ve the data, a subscri ber that has si gned up for the servi ce needs
to have a caller-I D uni t ( also called a caller-I D box) plugged i nto the
phone li ne. T he caller-I D uni t di splays the name and number of the call-
i ng party for each i ncomi ng call. Caller I D only works i f the caller and
110 Call Second
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the called partys phone servi ce i s fed out of a central offi ce that has
caller I D capabi li ty. I f the central offi ce does not have caller-I D capabi l-
i ty, the di splay wi ll read out of area to the called party. I f the called
party does not have caller servi ce, they wi ll get a di splay that says no
data sent.
Caller Identification (Caller ID) See Caller ID.
Caller-Independent Voice Recognition A voi ce recogni ti on system
that recogni zes a certai n number of words, rather than a speci fi c voi ce.
Camp (Camp On) A way of placi ng i ncomi ng callers on hold. A feature
of PBX systems. I f you are tryi ng to call someone and they are on thei r
phone, you or a PBX attendant can put your call on hold i n a way that
when the person you are calli ng hangs up, your call ri ngs through to
thei r phone i nstantly.
CAN T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for cancel. T he bi nary code i s
Canonical Also known as MSB (Most Significant Bit) fi rst or Big En-
dian. FDDI and token ri ng transmi t source addresses and desti nati on
addresses canoni cally, wi th the most si gni fi cant di gi t bei ng put on the
wi re fi rst. Non-canoni cal protocols such as Ethernet place the LSB
( Least Si gni fi cant Bi t) on the wi re fi rst.
CAP (Competitive-Access Provider) A company that offers pri vate li ne
servi ces i n competi ti on wi th the RBOCs (Regional Bell Operating Com-
panies) i n provi di ng pri vate li ne access to long-di stance carri ers. T he pri -
vate li ne servi ce offered by a CAP can carry a long-di stance companys di al
tone. A CAP shouldnt be confused wi th a CLEC (Competitive Local Ex-
change Carrier), whi ch not only provi des pri vate-li ne servi ce, but also
provi des thei r own swi tched di al-tone servi ces wi th thei r own swi tches.
Some CAP compani es are Electri c Li ght Wave, Teleport Communi cati ons
Group ( the fi rst CAP founded i n NY Ci ty) , Teli gent, and Metropoli tan Fi ber
Systems. Some of these compani es operate as CLECs i n certai n ci ti es.
CAP (Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation) A versi on of QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) used i n xDSL transmi ssi ons that
suppresses the carri er frequency at the central offi ce. T he carri er i s es-
senti ally recreated i n the electroni cs of the end DSL devi ce for decod-
i ng purposes. CAP requi res more electroni c ci rcui try at the end prem-
i ses, and does not adj ust to noi se condi ti ons as well as QAM. However,
CAP has better latency characteri sti cs ( does not delay bi t throughput as
CAP (Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation) 111
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much) . Vendors that i mplemented si ngle-carri er desi gn ( nonDMT ) i n
thei r xDSL products often used CAP. T he multi ple carri er DMT (Dis-
crete Multi-Tone) has been selected by ANSI as the desi gn forward li ne
code techni que for xDSL.
Capacitance A measure i n farads of a capaci tor. See Capacitor.
Capacitive Coupling I n audi o ampli fi ers, the di fferent stages of ampli -
fi cati on are li nked by capaci tors. T he capaci tors prevent the DC tran-
si stor bi as voltage from passi ng onto and i nterferi ng wi th the next am-
pli fi er, yet i t allows the AC audi o si gnal to pass through and be further
ampli fi ed. Some very hi gh end and very expensi ve audi o ampli fi ers are
di rect coupled, whi ch means all the di fferent ampli fi cati on stages are
connected by only a conductor and are i ntegrated wi th each other. T he
transi stors i n di rect-coupled ampli fi ers are usually bi ased wi th other
acti ve devi ces i nstead of resi stors. T hey are very compli cated and ex-
pensi ve, i n contrast to capaci ti ve-coupled ampli fi ers, but the low-end
frequency-response approaches 0 Hz.
Capacitor A capaci tor i s an electroni c devi ce that has two speci al prop-
erti es. I t only allows alternati ng current to pass through i t ( blocks DC
current) and i t can store an electri c charge ( Fi gs. C.9 and C.10) . One of
112 Capacitance
Figure C.9 Various Capacitors: Electrolytic (Top), Mylar and Film (Bottom)
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 112
the many appli cati ons of capaci tors i s to fi lter alternati ng current ( AC)
out of DC power suppli es and recti fi ers. T hi s i s done by placi ng a ca-
paci tor from the DC output to ground. T he capaci tor appears as an eas-
i er path to voltage fluctuati ons and RFI , and an i mpossi ble path to di -
rect current ( DC) . Physi cally, a capaci tor i s two plates of metal
separated by an i nsulator ( mylar i s common) . T he physi cal si ze of a
1-F capaci tor would be two sheets of ti n foi l the si ze of a football fi eld
i nsulated ( or separated) by a thi n sheet of mylar. T he farad i s a huge
uni t of capaci tance. T hi s i s why most capaci tors are mi crofarads ( F)
i n value.
Cap Code An I D code for a pager. T he code i s usually labeled on the out-
si de of the pager and i s the actual address I D code for that pager. When
the I D code i s broadcast, your pager recei ves the i nformati on that fol-
lows, then i t beeps ( or vi brates) and di splays the transmi tted i nforma-
ti on.
Carbon 1. A semi conductor that i s used to make electroni c components,
such as resi stors and mi crophones. 2. A name for a li ghtni ng protec-
tor. Carbon-type protectors are bei ng replaced wi th gas-type protectors.
Carbon Transmitter A mi crophone i n a handset that i s made from small
grai ns of carbon packed i nto the shape of a di aphragm. T he way these
mi crophones work i s that as the sound waves from your mouth stri ke
the carbon i n the recei ver ( mi crophone) they vi brate the carbon. T hese
vi brati ons i n the carbon change i ts electroni c resi stance i n conj uncti on
wi th your voi ce, converti ng your voi ce i nto electroni c fluctuati ons, whi ch
traverse down the phone li ne. T hi s i s an older type of mi crophone. T he
most common problem wi th carbon mi crophones i s that after a peri od
of ti me, the fi ne carbon grai ns sti ck to themselves or become settled. A
few good whacks usually fi xes the problem. When a telephone customer
wi th thi s problem saw the telephone man pound the handset wi th the
handle of screwdri ver and say there you go, all fi xed, they probably
di d not know that thi s was a standard procedure for repai ri ng defecti ve
carbon recei vers.
Card Cage A box frame that has one open si de for i nserti ng electroni c
ci rcui t cards and a back plane on the opposi te si de of the openi ng that
the ci rcui t cards plug i nto. For a photo of a card cage, see Backplane.
Card Cage 113
non-electrolytic electrolytic
Figure C.10 Schematic Symbols for Capacitors
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Carrier Band A range of frequency that i s used by a speci fi c transmi s-
si on system. T he carri er band for a T 1 i s 1.544 Mb/s. T he carri er band
for a DS0 i s 64 K b/s. See also Cable Telephony.
Carrier Common Line Charge What local phone compani es charge
long-di stance compani es to connect the far-end local porti on of a call.
Also called an access charge. A fee that everyone pays for every phone
li ne to make up for subsi di es that long-di stance servi ces pai d to help the
less profi table local servi ces before the di vesti ture of AT & T and the
RBOCs ( Regi onal Bell Operati ng Compani es) .
Carrier Detect (CD) Most modems have a li ttle red LED wi th CD next
to i t. When that li ght i s on, your modem i s connected to another modem
or communi cati ons devi ce that i t can communi cate wi th.
Carrier Failure Alarm (CFA) A noti fi cati on that ti mi ng has been lost
i n a di gi tal transmi ssi on because of excessi ve zeros i n the transmi ssi on.
When a carri er fai lure alarm occurs, all of the calls and data on that trans-
mi ssi on are dropped unti l the carri er equi pment regai ns ti mi ng.
Carrier Frequency I n radi o, cable-T V, and televi si on communi cati ons,
the frequency that carri es the audi o or T V si gnal. A radi o carri er fre-
quency i s speci fi ed by i ts locati on on the di al. For i nstance, the radi o
stati on at 1590 on your AM radi o di al ri des on a 1590-kHz carri er.
Carrier ID Code T he code that i s entered by a long-di stance caller that
wi shes to bypass the preselected long-di stance company. Each local tele-
phone li ne has a preselected long-di stance company that the subscri ber
chooses when the phone li ne i s ordered and i ni ti ally put i nto servi ce. I f
you would li ke to bypass thi s long-di stance company and use another,
you di al 1, then 0, then the carri er I D code, whi ch i s three di gi ts long.
After you enter the carri er I D code, you di al the area code and the seven-
di gi t number. Carri er-I D codes are avai lable i n almost every exchange
for long-di stance equal access.
Carrier, Long Distance A company that i s li censed by the FCC and lo-
cal Public Utility Commissions (PUCs) to provi de i ntrastate and/or
i nterstate communi cati ons servi ces. M any compani es provi de long-
di stance and local telecommuni cati ons servi ces, i ncludi ng voi ce, wi re-
less, I nternet, and vi rtual pri vate network servi ce ( i .e., frame relay,
AT M , and X.25) .
Carrier Loss I n T 1 transmi ssi ons, a carri er loss occurs when too many
consecuti ve zeros are transmi tted or when a component of the T 1 ci rcui t
114 Carrier Band
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fai ls. I n other transmi ssi ons, carri er loss i s si mply an uni ntenti onal loss
of si gnal, regardless of the reason.
Carrier-Provided Loop A carri er-provi ded loop i s a local phone li ne that
i s bought by a long-di stance company and re-sold as a part of a WAN
servi ce. I n most WAN servi ces, the long-di stance porti on of the servi ce
i s bi lled separately from the local porti on, j ust li ke your resi denti al
( phone i n your home) servi ce.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) An Ethernet LAN protocol.
I n local-area networks (LANs) wi th CSMA, PCs check the network to
see i f i t i s clear before transmi tti ng. T hey do thi s because i f more than
one PC sends data at the same ti me, the data gets garbled and i s mean-
i ngless to the other PCs. T hi s si multaneous data transmi ssi on i s called
a collision. T he two other types of LAN protocols that are advanced ver-
si ons of thi s one are: Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoid-
ance (CSMA/CA) and Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detec-
tion. I n Ethernet networks, PCs sense and transmi t hundreds of ti mes
per second. I f the network looks clear for a ti ny fracti on of a second, the
PC wi ll try to transmi t.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
An Ethernet LAN protocol. I n Local-Area Networks (LANs) wi th
CSMA/CD, PCs check the network to see i f i t i s clear before transmi t-
ti ng. I f the network i s clear, i t sends a j am si gnal, then wai ts a speci fi ed
ti me to allow all the other PCs to recei ve i t. I t transmi ts i ts data and
sends a clear si gnal. T hey do thi s because i f more than one PC sends
data at the same ti me, the data gets garbled and i s meani ngless to the
other PCs. T hi s si multaneous data transmi ssi on i s called a collision. I n
Ethernet networks, PCs sense and transmi t hundreds of ti mes per sec-
ond. I f the network looks clear for a ti ny fracti on of a second, the PC
wi ll try to transmi t.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
An Ethernet LAN protocol. I n Local-Area Networks (LANs) wi th
CSMA/CD, PCs check the network to see i f i t i s clear before transmi t-
ti ng. I f i t i s clear, i t transmi ts i ts data. T hey do thi s because i f more than
one PC sends data at the same ti me, the data gets garbled and i s mean-
i ngless to the other PCs. T hi s si multaneous data transmi ssi on i s called
a collision. CSMA/CD senses these colli si ons and attempts to retrans-
mi t the same data agai n when the network i s clear agai n. I n Ethernet
networks, PCs sense and transmi t hundreds of ti mes per second. I f the
network looks clear for a ti ny fracti on of a second, the PC wi ll try to
transmi t.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) 115
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Carrier Serving Area T he geographi cal boundari es of a telephone ser-
vi ce provi der. Also referred to as the Local Serving Area.
Carrier Shift A change i n frequency. Carri er shi ft i s also a way of trans-
mi tti ng bi nary ones and zeros over a phone li ne or radi o carri er, whi ch
i s called frequency-shift keying.
Carrier Signal A si gnal that carri es another si gnal. I n telecommuni ca-
ti ons, the word carrier has a broader meani ng than i n the broadcast ra-
di o or T V i ndustry. I n telecommuni cati ons, a carri er can si mply be a di g-
i tal si gnal connecti ng two modems or a T 1 ci rcui t. T he data i n i tself i s
the carri er. I n radi o, T V, or cable-T V, a carri er i s a conti nuous unchang-
i ng waveform ( ac si ne wave) of a speci fi c frequency. T he sound or vi deo
sent over the carri er si gnal changes or alters the once unchangi ng car-
ri er. I n si mple terms, the sound or vi deo ri des wi thi n or on the carri er.
See AM for more radi o carri er i nformati on.
Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation (CAP) A versi on of QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) used i n xDSL transmi ssi ons that
suppresses the carri er frequency at the central offi ce. T he carri er i s es-
senti ally recreated i n the electroni cs of the end DSL devi ce for decod-
i ng purposes. CAP requi res more electroni c ci rcui try at the end prem-
i ses, and does not adj ust to noi se condi ti ons as well as QAM. However,
CAP has better latency characteri sti cs ( does not delay bi t throughput as
much) . Vendors that i mplemented si ngle-carri er desi gn ( nonDMT ) i n
thei r xDSL products often used CAP. T he multi ple carri er DMT (Dis-
crete Multi-Tone) has been selected by ANSI as the desi gn forward li ne
code techni que for xDSL.
CAS (Channel Associated Signaling) I n I P telephony ci rcles, another
name for i n-band T 1/E1 si gnali ng. Wi thi n the 64 K bps DSO channel,
8 K bps are robbed from the data stream to provi de on-hook, off-hook,
and di aled di gi t i nformati on. T hi s i s true for all 24 channels of the T 1
and all 32 channels of the E1. For more i nformati on on T 1 Si gnali ng, see
T1, In-Band Signaling, and Out-of-Band Signaling. For more i nfor-
mati on about the i nteracti on of I P telephony wi th these legacy si gnali ng
methods, see H.323, RTP, Skinny Protocol, and MGCP.
Cascaded Amplifier An ampli fi er that consi sts of two or more ampli -
fi ers coupled together. Almost all consumer audi o electroni cs products
have more than one stage of ampli fi cati on or cascaded ampli fi er ci rcui ts
i nsi de them. T hi s desi gn i s very common i n all ki nds of ampli fi ers.
Cascaded Stars A LAN physi cal topology where star networks are con-
nected together ( Fi g. C.11) .
116 Carrier Serving Area
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CAT 5 117
utp utp utp utp
utp
utp
utp utp utp
Hub Hub
utp
Server
Figure C.11 Cascaded Stars Topology
Case Sensitive When a computers software recogni zes a di fference be-
tween upper and lower case alphabet symbols. Someti mes passwords are
case sensi ti ve.
CAT 1 Category 1. Any wi re other than phone wi re used for transmi s-
si on, except coax. CAT 1 i s nontwi sted and can be any AWG. Appli ca-
ti ons i nclude audi o speaker wi re, telephone quad conductor ( four wi re,
red-green-black-yellow) , electri cal, doorbell, thermostat, and other con-
trol wi re.
CAT 2 Category 2. Twi sted-pai r wi re of 22 to 26 AWG. UT P or ST P di g-
i tal or data-transport medi a good to speeds of up to 1.5 MHz at 300 feet.
T he nomi nal i mpedance i s 100 ( 10% ) . Typi cal appli cati ons i nclude
analog telephone and lesser analog transmi ssi on and control.
i tal or data-transport medi a that i s good to speeds of up to 16 MHz at
300 feet. Nomi nal i mpedance i s 100 ( 10% ) . Typi cal appli cati ons i n-
clude analog telephone, 10 base-T, and T 1 ( on condi ti oned pai rs) .
i tal or data-transport medi a that i s good to speeds of up to 20 MHz at
300 feet. Nomi nal i mpedance i s 100 ( 10% ) . Typi cal appli cati ons i n-
clude analog voi ce, 10 base-T, token ri ng, and T 1.
CAT 5 Category 5. Twi sted-pai r wi re of 22 to 24 AWG UT P or ST P, where
each pai r of wi re wi thi n the sheath has a di fferent number of twi sts per
foot ( Fi g. C.12) . Di gi tal or data-transport medi a that i s good to speeds
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 117
CAT 7 Category 7. Twi sted-pai r wi re 22 to 24 AWG. Each pai r of wi re
placed si de by si de wi thi n a sheath has a di fferent number of twi sts per
foot ( Fi g. C.13) . T he unusual flat shape of CAT 7 makes i t very di sti n-
gui shable from other twi sted-pai r wi re types. UTP or STP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair or Shielded Twisted Pair) di gi tal or data-transport medi a
that are good to speeds of up to 250 MHz at 300 feet. Nomi nal i mpedance
118 CAT 7
Figure C.12 CAT 5 UTP Plenum-Jacketed Twisted-Pair Cable
of up to 100 MHz at 300 feet. Nomi nal i mpedance i s 100 ( 610% ) .
Typi cal appli cati ons i nclude 10 base-T, 100 base-T, token ri ng, swi tched
token ri ng, AT M, and T 1.
Figure C.13 CAT 7 UTP Plenum-Jacketed Twisted-Pair Cable
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CB (Citizens Band) 119
i s 100 ( 10% ) . Typi cal appli cati ons i nclude 10 base-T, 100 base-T, to-
ken ri ng, swi tched token ri ng, AT M, T 1, T 3, and ST S-1.
Catalyst T he Ci sco trademark for thei r fami ly of network swi tches. I n-
cluded i s the Ci sco Catalyst 5000, whi ch i s a modular swi tchi ng system
that allows connecti on between Ethernet, CDDI , FDDI , AT M, frame re-
lay, and other LAN segments, or host/servers.
Category 3 Twisted Pair (CAT 3) See CAT 3.
Cathode T he more negati ve end of a di ode or other electroni c devi ce,
such as a vacuum tube. T he screen of your T V set and moni tor are ac-
tually the cathodes of large vacuum tubes. Fi gure C.14 shows recti fi er
symbols and the cathode locati ons.
Vacuum Tube Rectifier Solid State Rectifier Date
Anode
Heater Cathode
Anode Cathode
Figure C.14 Cathode
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) T he real name for a T V or moni tor screen.
CATV (Community Antenna Television) Better known as cable TV.
A cable-T V company recei ves satelli te and terrestri al T V si gnals. T hey
retransmi t those channels down a coax that branches out through a
geographi cal area, where subscri bers to the antenna servi ce can be
connected. Some cable-T V compani es add thei r own i nformati on chan-
nels to thei r broadcast and local adverti si ng between programmi ng on
selected channels.
CB (Citizens Band) A frequency band from 26.965 MHz to 27.225 MHz
and 462.55 MHz to 469.95 MHz that are set asi de for unli censed two-way
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communi cati ons. CB radi os are li mi ted to a transmi ssi on power of
4 Watts.
CBR (Constant Bit Rate) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M Networks that provi des preci se clocki ng to ensure
undi storted deli very. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as
a CBR connecti on i f i t carri ed such ti me-sensi ti ve data as voi ce, vi deo,
or real-ti me computi ng i nformati on. T he CBR quali ty of servi ce guaran-
tees freedom from cell loss and delay. Other QOSs defi ned by the AT M
forum for AT M connecti ons i nclude UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate), ABR
(Available Bit Rate), and VBR (Variable Bit Rate). See also AAL.
CBS (Certified Banyan Specialist) T hi s well-known i ndustry certi fi -
cati on i s offered by Banyan Systems, I nc. T here i s also a Mi crosoft Wi n-
dows NT extensi on to thi s program. I t i s desi gned for network profes-
si onals who uti li ze Banyan Vi nes and other Banyan products. More
i nformati on regardi ng Banyan trai ni ng programs can be found through
http://www.banyan.com.
CCC (Clear-Channel Coding, Clear-Channel Capability) A refer-
ence to a type of T 1 servi ce. A clear-channel T 1 i s formatted for out-of-
band si gnali ng, whi ch means there i s no bi t robbi ng and the di al tone,
hook flashes, and DT MF di gi ts are sent over the 24th ( the last) channel
i n the T 1 ci rcui t. Clear-channel si gnali ng i s usually best for data ci rcui ts
and i n-band si gnali ng i s best for voi ce ci rcui ts. I n a clear-channel ci rcui t,
all 64 K b/s i n each channel of the T 1 i nstead of 56 K b/s ( except for the
24th, whi ch i s 100% dedi cated to si gnali ng for the other 23 channels)
are avai lable to the end user.
CCDA (Cisco Certified Design Associate) T hi s well-known i ndustry
certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program i s offered by Ci sco Systems and Ci sco Sys-
tems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDA program i s provi ded to trai n i ndi vi d-
uals for si mple-routed LAN, WAN, and swi tched-LAN networks. More
i nformati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs
through http://www.cisco.com.
(CCDP) Cisco-Certified Design Professional T hi s i s a well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Ci sco Systems and
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDP program i s provi ded to trai n
i ndi vi duals for complex-routed LAN, WAN, and swi tched-LAN net-
works. A CCNA (Cisco-Certified Network Associate) certi fi cati on
must be acqui red as a prerequi si te for the CCDP program. M ore i nfor-
mati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs
120 CBR (Constant Bit Rate)
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CCFL (Cold-Cathode Fluorescent Lamp) A technology used to li ght
LCD screens. T he Dynatel 965T has a CCFL bui lt i n so that techni ci ans
can see the di splay i n the dark.
CCH (Connections Per Circuit Hour) T he number of connecti ons or
calls completed at a swi tchi ng poi nt per hour.
CCIE (Cisco-Certified Internetwork Expert) T hi s well-known i n-
dustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program i s offered by Ci sco Systems and
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCI E program i s the most advanced
level of certi fi cati on for Ci sco Systems associ ates, and i s regarded as a
very challengi ng certi fi cati on that only the experi enced can obtai n. T he
program prerequi si tes are CCDP, CCNA, and CCNP certi fi cati ons. T hi s
program i s offered to provi de trai ni ng and certi fi cati on to i ndi vi duals who
work i n the most-complex networki ng envi ronments. More i nforma-
ti on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs at
http://www.cisco.com.
CCITT (Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and
Telephony) T he CCI T T i s one of the four parts of the I T U ( I nterna-
ti onal Telecommuni cati ons Uni on) , whi ch i s based i n Swi tzerland. T he
CCI T T makes recommendati ons for the manufacture and i nteroperabi li ty
of telecommuni cati ons equi pment. T he recommendati ons are not enforced
by anythi ng other than the peer pressure of the i ndustry and the fact that
followi ng standards greatly i mproves the chances for a products success.
CCK (Complementary Code Keying) I n Wi reless LAN radi o, a modu-
lati on techni que that uti li zes a complex set of mathemati cal functi ons
known as complementary codes to transfer more data over a li nk. CCK
i s less affected by Multi path di storti on than other modulati on methods
such as QPSK ( Quadrature Phase Shi ft K eyi ng) and BPSK ( Bi nary Phase
Shi ft K eyi ng) .
CCNA (Cisco-Certified Network Associate) T hi s i s a well-known i n-
dustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Ci sco Systems and Ci sco
Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDA program i s provi ded to trai n i ndi -
vi duals for i nstallati on and mai ntenance of routed-LAN, WAN, and
swi tched-LAN networks usi ng Ci sco Systems products. T he course also
li ghtly covers general LAN and WAN telecommuni cati ons. More i nfor-
mati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs through
(CCNP) Cisco-Certified Network Professional T hi s well-known i n-
(CCNP) Cisco-Certified Network Professional 121
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 121
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCNP i s an advanced certi fi cati on
and the prerequi si te for the course track i s the CCNA (Cisco-Certified
Network Associate). T he CCNP program i s provi ded to trai n and cer-
ti fy i ndi vi duals for complex I SP envi ronments usi ng Ci sco Systems net-
worki ng products. More i nformati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Sys-
tems trai ni ng programs through http://www.cisco.com.
CCS (Centum Call Second) 1. A centum call second i s 100 seconds of
telephone conversati on. 36 centum call seconds i s one Erlang, whi ch i s
one call hour ( one hour of phone conversati on) . Erlangs are measure-
ments of telephone swi tch traffi c. 2. Common Channel Si gnali ng: An-
other term for out-of-band si gnali ng on a T 1/E1 ci rcui t. I n I P telephony
ci rcles, T 1 si gnali ng i s often referred to as CCS (Common Channel Sig-
naling) or CAS (Channel Associated Signaling). CCS uses one chan-
nel i n a T 1 to carry si gnali ng i nformati on such as on-hook or off-hook and
touch tones for the remai ni ng 23 channels ( also called DS0s) . E1 CCS uses
2 of the 32 channels for carryi ng the same type of si gnali ng i nformati on.
See also CAS, T1, and H.323 for I P telephony si gnali ng i nformati on.
CCS7 (Common-Channel Signaling No. 7) I SDN versi on of SS7. An
out-of-band si gnali ng system between central offi ces throughout the
telephone network that carri es i nformati on and si gnali ng for each phone
call ( such as bi lli ng, ANI , and ri ngi ng) , as well as i nformati on about each
central offi ce ( such as trunks busy or blocki ng and routi ng i nformati on) .
CCS7 i s uncommonly used i n North Ameri ca, Malaysi a, and Japan.
CCTV (Closed-Circuit Television) Usually CCT V i s a network of se-
curi ty cameras that termi nate i nto a vi deo processor, whi ch di splays the
camera i mages on one or more vi deo moni tors.
CD (Carrier Detect) Most modems have a li ttle red LED. When that
li ght i s on, your modem i s connected to another modem or communi ca-
ti ons devi ce that i t can understand.
CDDI (Copper Distributed-Data Interface) T he twi sted-pai r versi on
of Fiber Distributed-Data Interface (FDDI). Pronounce them the way
they look, fi ddy and si ddy. T hese two token-passi ng systems are i n-
tended to be backbone appli cati ons for LAN envi ronments. CDDI i s ca-
pable of transmi ssi on speeds of 100 Mb/s. For more i nformati on on the
way i t works, see the ori gi nal versi on, FDDI.
CD-E (Compact Disc Erasable) T he ori gi nal name for CD-RW (Com-
pact Disc Re-Writeable) technology when i t was developed i n 1995. By
the ti me the product was offered to consumers i n 1997, i ts name had
122 CCS (Centum Call Second)
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evolved to CD-RW. CD-RWs are capable of bei ng erased and rerecorded
10, 000 ti mes.
CD-I (Compact-Disc Interactive) A multi medi a educati on and enter-
tai nment system, developed by Phi li ps and Sony, consi sti ng of a propri -
etary compact di sc player that connects to a televi si on set. T he CD-I sys-
tem i ncorporates CD-RTOS (Compact-Disc Real-Time Operating
System), whi ch synchroni zes i nteracti ve vi deo, audi o, and text wi th real
ti me.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) A radi o transmi ssi on format
used i n North Ameri ca for wi reless telephone or cellular telephone serv-
i ce over PCS allocated bandwi dths. A company called QUALCOMM de-
veloped the pri mary CDMA method. CDMA i s a breed of spread spec-
trum radi o that uses O-QPSK ( Offset Quadrature Phase Shi ft K eyi ng)
as the modulati on techni que. T he CDMA method creates multi ple logi -
cal channels wi thi n a si ngle bandwi dth vi a Walsh codi ng, whi ch i s a ran-
dom code key generated by random electroni c noi se. I n the Walsh cod-
i ng process, 64 separate logi cal channels can be defi ned i n one physi cal
bandwi dth, whi ch i s 1.25 MHz wi de. Each logi cal channel i s preceded by
a code key duri ng transmi ssi on that i denti fi es data packets to the end
user. Each logi cal channel can be used for a voi ce conversati on, and
four of the channels are used for si gnali ng synchroni zati on, pi lot, and
pagi ng. Mobi le phones i n the transmi ssi on control of a speci fi c base sta-
ti on all use these four channels for si gnali ng, sync, key, and ti mi ng. T he
remai ni ng channels carry voi ce traffi c.
CDP (Cisco Discovery Protocol) I n Ethernet, a devi ce autosensing
method. CDP i s currently a propri etary method developed by Ci sco Sys-
tems to enable i ts Ethernet swi tch ports to di scover what ki nd of devi ce
they are connected to. After di scoveri ng what type of devi ce, CDP de-
termi nes whether the end devi ce requi res 48V DC power, as i n the case
of an I P telephone. As of thi s wri ti ng ( early 2001) , CDP i s bei ng revi ewed
by standards commi ttees and wi ll most certai nly become a standard.
CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data System) A data packet transfer
standard for sendi ng data over cellular that was developed by the CTIA
(Cellular Telephone Industry Association) i n 1993. I t i s offered by
some cellular compani es. Wi th CDPD-compati ble equi pment, you can
send data over cellular the same way you send data over a land-based
data-packet servi ce ( such as frame relay) . For the cellular telephone
company ( operator) , the CDPD equi pment i s physi cally and functi onally
separate from the cellular swi tchi ng equi pment, but i t shares the cell si te
and radi o spectrum.
CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data System) 123
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CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable) A compact-di sc standard format
that, when used wi th a CD-R or CD-RW dri ve, can record up to 650 MB
of unerasable data one ti me. T he advantage of CD-R di scs i s that they
record sli ghtly faster, and cannot be erased or modi fi ed duri ng subse-
quent uses ( although they can be copi ed to CD-RW di scs) . CD-Rs can
also be played i n regular CD-ROM dri ves, and audi o compact-di sc dri ves.
CDR (Call Detail Recording) See Call Detail Recording.
CD-ROM (Compact-Disc Read-Only Memory) A read-only non-
magneti c data storage devi ce i n the form of a reflecti ve di sk that i s
4.7 i nches i n di ameter. Data stored can be audi o, vi deo, data, or a com-
bi nati on of these ( Fi g. C.15) . M axi mum storage i s typi cally 650 M B.
T he CD-ROM i s read by a laser di ode. When the CD-ROM i s manufac-
tured, ti ny reflecti ve spots are burned i nto the surface of the di sk.
Here i s a si mple descri pti on of how a CD-ROM works: I magi ne that
you are dri vi ng a car through a tunnel wi th the headli ghts poi nti ng
strai ght up. On the cei li ng of the tunnel are mi rrors. Every ti me you
pass a mi rror, you see a flash of li ght. T he flashes of li ght and peri ods
of darkness would be ones and zeros. T he tunnel i s a track on the CD-
ROM di sk. Your headli ghts would be the laser di ode and your eyes would
be the opti cal recei ver.
124 CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable)
Figure C.15 CD-ROM Disk Drive (Internal)
CD-ROM XA (CD-ROM Extended Architecture) A versi on of the CD-
ROM that was released to consumers i n 1991 that enabled software,
audi o, and vi deo to be i nterleaved on the recorded tracks of the CD-ROM
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 124
di sc. To uti li ze thi s format, a regular CD-ROM can be used, but an XA
controller card needs to be i nstalled i n the PC.
CD-RW (Compact Disc Re-Writeable) A compact-di sc dri ve that can
wri te, read, or erase di scs made for thi s purpose ( CD-RW di scs) . CD-RW
has a storage capaci ty of 650 MB, and can be recorded and erased 10, 000
ti mes. Di scs that are recorded wi th the Multi Read standard can also be
used i n CD-ROM dri ves and compact-di sc audi o dri ves.
CD-V (Compact-Disc Video) A di sk that i s about 3 i nches i n di ameter
that i s capable of stori ng about fi ve mi nutes of audi o and vi deo.
CDVT (Cell Delay Variation Tolerance) A parameter defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M traffi c management. I n constant bi t-rate transmi s-
si ons, thi s parameter determi nes the level of j i tter that i s tolerable for
the data samples recei ved by the Peak Cell Rate (PCR). See also PCR
and ABR (Available Bit Rate).
CED (Called Equipment Identification Tone) A 2100-Hz tone wi th
whi ch a fax machi ne answers a call.
Ceiling Distribution System Also called a ceiling rack. I t consi sts of
rows of ladder-shaped i ron ( usually pai nted gray) , supported above elec-
troni c equi pment by more i ron posts bolted to the floor. I t i s used as a
safe, out-of-the-way place to mount the cables that connect the elec-
troni c equi pment below. T hey are used i n telecommuni cati ons central
offi ces and large computi ng envi ronments.
Cell A geographi cal area i n cellular communi cati ons. Each cell consi sts
of a cell si te. A cell si te consi sts of an antenna, a hut, and a doghouse
( the doghouse contai ns the transmi tti ng electroni cs and i s i n the hut) .
Cell T he basi c uni t for AT M swi tchi ng, better referred to as an ATM
frame, whi ch consi sts of 48 bytes of payload and 5 bytes of overhead.
Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT) A parameter defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M Traffi c Management. I n constant bi t-rate transmi s-
si ons, thi s parameter determi nes the level of j i tter that i s tolerable for
the data samples recei ved by the Peak Cell Rate (PCR). See also PCR
and ABR (Available Bit Rate).
Cell Loss Priority (CLP) An ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cell
header bi t that determi nes the probabi li ty of that cell bei ng dropped i f
the network becomes congested. Cells wi th CLP 0 are i nsured traffi c,
whi ch are unli kely to be dropped. Cells wi th CLP 1 are best-effort
Cell Loss Priority (CLP) 125
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traffi c, whi ch wi ll be dropped i n congested condi ti ons i n order to free
up resources for i nsured traffi c. Whether cells are dropped i nterdepends
on many congesti on-handli ng parameters wi thi n the AT M network. See
also Constant Bit Rate.
Cell Loss Ratio (CLR) An ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
quali ty-of-servi ce parameter that mi ght be i mplemented on a subscri bed
connecti on. T he CLR i s equal to the rati o of di scarded data cells to suc-
cessfully transported data cells. See also Cell Loss Priority and Insured
Rate.
Cell Relay A type of network-level communi cati ons protocol based on
the use of small, fi xed-si ze packets. T he packets are called cells because
they carry mi cro amounts of data. Because cells are small i n si ze ( a
fi xed length of 16 to 128 bytes, plus an overhead of 4 to 8 bytes) , they
can be processed and swi tched i n hardware at hi gh speed. T he reason
for fi xed si ze i s that the overhead requi red to deci pher the length of the
data contai ned i n each chunk of the transmi ssi on i s not needed, and er-
rors do not requi re a large porti on of data to be retransmi tted. T he cell
relay i s the basi s for many hi gh-speed network protocols, i ncludi ng ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode), IEEE 802.6, and SMDS (Switched
Multimegabit Data Service). When the AT M standard was developed,
48 bytes was chosen for the payload si ze because i t sui ted nei ther the
North Ameri can desi res for a 64-bi t cell nor the Eurasi an desi res for a
32-byte cell. T he 5-byte overhead was agreed upon by all. T he AT M stan-
dard was created i n a way that i t would not gi ve any country an eco-
nomi c advantage by havi ng the standards meet thei r exi sti ng needs per-
fectly. T hi s i s one of the reasons that AT M has been i mplemented slowly
over the years.
Cell Site A cell si te consi sts of an antenna, a hut, and a doghouse ( the
doghouse contai ns the transmi tti ng electroni cs and i s i n the hut) . A cell
si te i s the transmi t and recei ve center for a geographi cal area, called a
cell.
Cell Switching T he process of handi ng a call from one cellular broad-
cast si te or antenna to another wi thout i nterrupti ng the call. T hi s process
i s controlled by a Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO), to whi ch
all the cell si tes wi thi n a regi on are connected.
Cellular A wi reless desi gn method where multi ple transmi tters are
strategi cally placed throughout a geographi cal area to provi de two func-
ti ons. T he fi rst i s to radi ate the area wi th an adequate si gnal, the second
126 Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)
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Central Office 127
cell
cell site/antenna
3 miles
Diagram of a cell layout
for a geographical area
cell
cell
cell
Figure C.16 Cellular
i s to make the si ze of the radi ated areas adequate to accomodate the
number of users. Cellular desi gns are used i n the local PCS servi ce as
well as i ndoor wi reless LAN ( such as 802.11ab) desi gns. See also, PCS.
Cellular Data-Link Control (CDLC) A protocol for sendi ng data over
cellular. T he equi pment i s not i ntegrated wi th the cellular-servi ce pro-
vi der. I t works the same way a modem does for a regular phone li ne. I t
error checks and retransmi ts corrupted data.
Cellular Digital Packet Service (CDPD) A servi ce offered by some
cellular compani es. Wi th CDPD-compati ble equi pment, you can send
data over cellular the same way you send data over a land-based data-
packet servi ce ( such as frame relay) .
CEMH (Controlled Environment Man Hole) T he new nondi scri mi -
natory name for thi s i s CEV (Controlled-Environment Vault). I t con-
tai ns heati ng and cooli ng equi pment and communi cati ons electroni cs,
unli ke plai n old vaults that only contai n spli ces.
Centel A company that was bought by Spri nt i n 1992.
Central Office A bui ldi ng that houses a telecommuni cati ons swi tchi ng
or traffi cki ng system ( Fi g. C.17) . Typi cal swi tchi ng systems i nstalled i n
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 127
central offi ces i n North Ameri ca are Lucent Technologi es 5ESS and
Northern Telecoms DMS fami ly of swi tches. T here are fi ve classes of
central offi ces and fi ve maj or parts to a central offi ce. As a whole these
parts are referred to as inside plant.
128 Central Office Battery
Local Switch
environmental
AC and humidity
control
RECTIFIER
Batteries
Long distance
Switch
Distribution Frame
The Main Parts of a Central Office
Figure C.17 Central Office
Central Office Battery I n theory, central offi ce battery i s 48 Volts.
I n reali ty, i t i s 52 Volts. T he devi ati on i s because of the di fference be-
tween recti fi er output voltage and the true battery voltage. T he batteri es
that the central offi ces are powered from are arrays of 12-V batteri es i n se-
ri es and parallel ( Fi g. C.18) . T hese 12-V batteri es actually output 12.7 V.
Figure C.18 Central Office Batteries: Lead Acid (Left) and Gel Cells (Right)
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 128
Centrex LAN 129
I f four 12.7-V batteri es are placed i n seri es, they add up to 50.8 V. T he
recti fi ers i n the central offi ce that charge the batteri es have an output
voltage of 52 V. T hi s i s a di fference of 1.2 Volts, whi ch i s the tri ckle
charge for the batteri es. Ulti mately, i f the power i s on at the central of-
fi ce, you are getti ng 52 V, whi ch i s the output of the recti fi ers that power
the swi tchi ng system and charge the batteri es at the same ti me. I f the
street power i s out and the back-up generator i s not runni ng, the real
central offi ce battery voltage i s 50.8 V.
Central Office Code T he address of a central offi ce ( Fi g. C.19) . T he
second three di gi ts of your phone number ( i ncludi ng the area code) . I t
i s also referred to as the NXX. I t defi nes an exchange area, whi ch i s the
boundary area of a certai n central offi ce.
Area Code (NPA) Central Office Code Extension
805 555 1998
Figure C.19 Central Office Code
Central Office Trunk A communi cati ons path between central offi ces.
A central offi ce trunk i s usually multi plexed i nto T 1 formats.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) T he devi ce wi thi n a computer ( or
swi tch or other machi ne that performs complex tasks) that controls the
transfer of the i ndi vi dual i nstructi ons from one devi ce connected to i ts
bus ( the data or I /O bus) to another, such as ROM, RAM, subcontrollers,
decoders, and I /O ports. Some communi cati ons equi pment manufactur-
ers actually call a certai n card or porti on of the system the CPU. T hat
i s because they i nclude all of the RAM, sub processors, buffers, clocki ng
ci rcui try, and ROM as a part of the CPU. T hi s i s OK because we know
that a real CPU i s actually a small i ntegrated ci rcui t.
Centrex A servi ce provi ded by local telephone compani es that mi mi cs an
on-premi ses PBX. T he customer purchases a block of telephone numbers
( e.g., 555-1000 to 555-1999) , then every telephone on the customers prem-
i se i s connected to the telephone company as an i ndi vi dual phone li ne. Each
li ne i s associ ated wi th one of the numbers i n the customers block. T he
telephone company then programs those speci fi c li nes to route calls as de-
si red by the customer. Voi ce mai l can also be i ncorporated i nto Centrex.
Centrex LAN A servi ce that uses your modem, the phone companys wi re,
and the phone companys swi tch to connect equi pment i n an offi ce or
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campus envi ronment. T he si gnal from a peri pheral i n your offi ce goes all
the way to the phone companys central offi ce, then back, j ust to connect
to a computer i n the next room. Ethernet or token ri ng i s a much less ex-
pensi ve and better-performi ng way to connect your LAN i n the long run.
Centronics Connector A connector developed by Centroni cs that i s
wi dely used i n many appli cati ons. One standard i s a 30-pi n versi on for
personal-computer parallel-pri nter connecti ons. Another standard i s the
Centroni cs 50-pi n connector, whi ch i s used wi dely i n telecommuni cati ons
appli cati ons. T hi s connector i s often called a C connector for a female
socket and a P connector for a male plug ( Fi g. C.20) .
130 Centronics Connector
Figure C.20 Centronics 50-Pin Connector
Centum Call Second See CCS.
CEPT (Confrence Europenne des Postes et des Telecommunica-
tions) T he association of 26 European PTTs (Post, Telephone, and Tele-
graph) that resolves interconnect issues between countries and recom-
mends communication specifications to the I T U-T standards committee.
Certified Banyan Specialist (CBS) T hi s well-known i ndustry certi fi -
cati on i s offered by Banyan Systems, I nc. T here i s also a Mi crosoft Wi n-
dows NT extensi on to thi s program. I t i s desi gned for network profes-
si onals who uti li ze Banyan Vi nes and other Banyan products. More
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i nformati on regardi ng Banyan trai ni ng programs can be found through
http://www.banyan.com.
Certified Internet Professional (CIP) A well-known i ndustry certi fi -
cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng part-
ners. T he CI P i s an advanced certi fi cati on. T he prerequi si te for the CI P
study track i s the possessi on of a CNE rati ng. T hi s trai ni ng program i s
desi gned to trai n i ndi vi duals who wi ll uti li ze Novell products i n net-
work/I nternet i ntegrati on. I nformati on regardi ng Novell trai ni ng can be
found at http://www.education.novell.com.
Certified Network Expert (CNX) A well-known i ndustry certi fi cati on
that i s offered by the CNX Consorti um. I t provi des an i ntense trai ni ng
track for LAN and MAN networki ng i n multi vendor envi ronments. More
i nformati on can be found regardi ng the CNX certi fi cati on program at
http://www.cnx.org.
Certified Novell Administrator (CNA) A well-known i ndustry certi -
fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng partners. T he
CNA program i s desi gned to educate those who wi ll mai ntai n and ad-
mi ni ster i nstalled Novell networki ng products.
Certified Novell Engineer (CNE) A well-known i ndustry certi fi ca-
ti on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng partners.
T he CNE study track i s desi gned to trai n i ndi vi duals who wi ll provi de
complex techni cal support and i nstallati on of Novell products. T he CNE
program i s an i n-depth study program that covers Novell speci fi c prod-
ucts and data networki ng as a whole. An addi ti onal level to thi s certi fi -
cati on i s called Master CNE. I nformati on regardi ng Novell trai ni ng can
be found at http://www.education.novell.com.
Cesium Clock A clock that i s used to synchroni ze communi cati ons
equi pment ( i .e., SONET transport) by provi di ng a perfectly steady out-
put pulse ( a very fast one) , the same way that a metronome provi des
steady ti mi ng for a musi cal band. I ts ti mi ng base i s a factor of the atomi c
vi brati ons of the element Cesi um.
CEV (Controlled Environment Vault) A vault that i s desi gned to have
electroni cs i n i t. T he envi ronment i nsi de the vault must be kept at a cer-
tai n temperature and humi di ty.
CFA (Carrier Failure Alarm) A noti fi cati on that ti mi ng has been
lost i n a di gi tal transmi ssi on because of excessi ve zeros i n i ts trans-
mi ssi on. When a carri er fai lure alarm occurs, all the calls and all the
CFA (Carrier Failure Alarm) 131
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data on that transmi ssi on are dropped unti l the carri er equi pment re-
gai ns ti mi ng.
CGSA (Cellular Geographic Service Area) T he geographi cal area
that a cellular company provi des servi ce, whi ch means thei r cellular radi o
waves can be recei ved wi thi n thi s area.
Channel One segment or ti me-slot i n a broadband communi cati ons trans-
mi ssi on.
Channel Bank A hardware devi ce used i n T DM networks to code/decode
a T 1 i nto 24 separate channels ( Fi g. C.21) . T he i ndi vi dual channels can
be used for T DM data transmi ssi on or voi ce. Channel banks and the T 1
connecti ons that they servi ce can be confi gured to accommodate 23 CCS
( Common Channel Si gnali ng or out-of-band) 64 K bps channels, or 24
CAS ( Channel Associ ated Si gnali ng or i n-band) 56 K bps channels. T hese
are i ntended for data and voi ce, respecti vely. See also T1.
132 CGSA (Cellular Geographic Service Area)
Channel Capacity T he maxi mum number of bi ts per second that can be
carri ed by a channel. T he channel capaci ty of a DS0 wi thi n band si gnal-
i ng i s 56 K b/s, the channel capaci ty of a DS0 wi th out-of-band si gnali ng
i s 64 K b/s.
Channel Loop Back A method of testi ng a di gi tal servi ce li ne, such as
a T 1, where the recei ve channel i s connected i nto the transmi t channel
( someti mes wi th only a pai r of wi res) at the far end ( Fi g. C.22) . T he si g-
nal can then be tested at the ori gi nati ng locati on and analyzed for er-
rors. Equi pment i s made where the loop-back can be performed vi a re-
mote control. One example of thi s equi pment i s a smart j ack.
Figure C.21 Channel Bank
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Channel Service Unit (CSU) 133
Channel Modulator I n cable-T V networks, a devi ce that recei ves a
program si gnal, such as CNN or M T V, and mi xes i t wi th an RF carri er
( Fi g. C.23) . T he program si gnal i ncludes vi deo and audi o. T he cable-T V
head-end personnel determi ne the carri er frequency for whi ch the mod-
ulator wi ll be set. T he frequency of thi s carri er determi nes the stati on
number ( i .e., 2 to 99) that the program wi ll be recei ved on by subscri bers.
Transmission
Equipment
T
T R
R
Loop-back
Figure C.22 Channel Loop Back
Figure C.23 Channel Modulator
Channel Service Unit (CSU) T hi s i s also called a CSU/DSU (Channel
Service Unit/Data Service Unit). A CSU i s a hardware devi ce that can
come i n many shapes and si zes. Rack-mount, shelf-mount, and stand-
alone CSUs are avai lable. A CSU/DSU has three mai n functi ons. T he fi rst
functi on i s to act as a demarcati on poi nt for a T 1 ( DS1) servi ce from a
local communi cati ons company. T he second functi on i s to provi de li ne-
format and li ne-code conversi on ( B8ZS to AMI , SF or D4 to ESF, 135 to
0 V) between the publi c network and the customer-premi ses equi pment,
i f necessary. T he thi rd functi on i s to provi de mai ntenance or alarm
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 133
servi ces and loop-back for i solati ng problems wi th the T 1 li ne or cus-
tomers equi pment. For a photo, see CSU/DSU.
Channel Termination Also called a chanterm, i s a cross connect that
li nks the transmi t and recei ve of two devi ces. Channel termi nati ons are
used to connect pri vate-li ne servi ces through a central offi ce. Many lo-
cal phone compani es charge an addi ti onal amount of money for each
channel termi nati on that a pri vate li ne has. I f a pri vate li ne goes from
one bui ldi ng to another bui ldi ng across town, i t probably passes through
two or three central offi ces to get there. Each connecti on through a cen-
tral offi ce requi res a channel termi nati on.
Chanterm See Channel Termination.
Character A number, letter, or symbol that i s represented by a bi nary
code. See Character Code for more i nformati on.
Character Code A code i n bi nary numbers that represents the alphabet
and other symbols. Fi gure C.24 shows ASCI I character codes.
134 Channel Termination
Least significant Most significant (hexadecimal)
bits bits
(hexadecimal) 000 (0) 001 (1) 010 (2) 011 (3) 100 (4) 101 (5) 110 (6) 111 (7)
0000 (0) NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p
0001 (1) SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 (2) STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 (3) ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 (4) EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 (5) ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 (6) ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 (7) BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 (8) BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 (9) HT EM ) 9 I Y I y
1010 (A) LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 (B) VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 (C) FF FS , < L \ l
1101 (D) CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 (E) SOH RS . > N n ~
1111 (F) SI US / ? O o DEL
Figure C.24 Character Code (ASCII)
Characteristic Impedance T he i mpedance or AC resi stance of a trans-
mi ssi on medi a such as CAT 5 twi sted pai r. T he characteri sti c i mpedance
of CAT 5 twi sted pai r i s 100 ohms. T hi s means that when a CAT 5 twi sted
pai r i s termi nated ( or connected to) a devi ce that also has an i mped-
ance of 100 ohms, the twi sted pai r, regardless of i ts physi cal length,
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 134
looks i nfi ni tely long to the ci rcui t. T he usefulness of thi s i s that the
voltage-to-current rati o i s the same all the way down the li ne. So, i f you
have 2 V of si gnal at 20 mA at the begi nni ng of the twi sted pai r, that ra-
ti o equals 2 0.02 = 100 for a photo of di fferent types of coax, see
Coax. Here are some values of characteri sti c i mpedance for common
physi cal medi a:
X-mission Media Characteristic Impedance (Z)
RG-6 coax 75 ohms
RG-8 coax 50 ohms
RG-58 coax 50 ohms
RG-59 coax 75 ohms
RG-62 coax 93 ohms
Cat 5 UT P 100 ohms
Cat 7 UT P 100 ohms
3I BM type 1 Data 150 ohms
Character-Oriented Protocol (Another name for Byte-Oriented Pro-
tocol) A pre-X.25 standard protocol used by mai nframes that prevented
data of unli ke character sets to be transmi tted over communi cati ons li nes.
Newer communi cati ons standards are bi t-ori ented protocols, and are not
character or appli cati on sensi ti ve. See also Byte-Oriented Protocol.
Character Set T he letters and numbers on computer keyboards. Di ffer-
ent standards apply to how the letters and numbers are converted to bi -
nary code. T he most wi dely embraced standard for PCs i s ASCI I .
Chip An i ntegrated electroni c component. Integration refers to many ci r-
cui ts i ntegrated i nto one small devi ce.
Chipping Sequence I n wi reless data transmi ssi ons, speci fi cally DSSS
( Di rect Sequence Spread Spectrum) , a code of bi nary di gi ts that are
transmi tted si multaneously and equate to one bi t of data. Chi ppi ng i s a
functi onal part of CCK ( Compli mentary Code K eyi ng) , whi ch i s the mod-
ulati on method used i n DSSS. See also DSSS and CCK.
Chipset A group of mi crochi ps i n a computer that allows hardware pe-
ri pheral devi ces ( such as modems and network i nterface cards) i n PCI
and I SA buses to communi cate wi thout usi ng the mai n CPU. T hi s reduces
the CPU processi ng load, thus helpi ng the computer accompli sh tasks
faster.
Choke Also called a choke coil or RF choke. A coi l of wi re manufactured
wi th the i ntent of bei ng a fi lter that reduces the passi ng of hi gh fre-
quenci es through i t. For a photo, see RF Choke.
Choke 135
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Choke Coil See Choke.
CI (Clear Indication/Clear Request) T he packet that i s sent when a
devi ce on an X.25 network would li ke to end a call. T he other devi ce
confi rms the end of the call by sendi ng a CC (Clear Confirm) packet.
For a di agram of X.25 packet-level header structure, see X.25 Call-
Request Packet.
CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing) A method of reduci ng the si ze
of routi ng tables, thus, the computati onal strai n requi red to route pack-
ets usi ng them. T he method used to accompli sh thi s i s known as route
aggregation. Route aggregati on combi nes complex route i nformati on
and reduces i t to a si mpli fi ed port. I t i s also vi ewed as combi ng many
networks i nto a few. Addresses are grouped and then associ ated wi th a
port, si mi lar to the way an area code i s speci fi c to a geographi c locati on
contai ni ng a large amount of phone numbers. A telephone swi tch proces-
sor uti li zes only the area code i nformati on to route the call, yet passes
the enti re di aled di gi t sequence to be used by the network processor
that i s next i n the call connect sequence. I n CI DR, i t i s not qui te as si m-
ple because I P addresses are not as easi ly grouped i nto routes, but the
fact that the absolute value of the most si gni fi cant address di gi ts are the
ones used remai ns the same.
CIP (Certified Internet Professional) A well-known i ndustry certi fi -
cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng part-
ners. T he CI P i s an advanced certi fi cati on. T he prerequi si te for the CI P
study track i s the possessi on of a CNE rati ng. T hi s trai ni ng program i s
desi gned to trai n i ndi vi duals who wi ll uti li ze Novell products i n net-
work/I nternet i ntegrati on. I nformati on regardi ng Novell trai ni ng can be
Circuit 1. Another name for a phone li ne. T here are many types of ci r-
cui ts: di gi tal, analog, T 1, and I SDN ci rcui ts. 2. An electroni c devi ce that
recei ves a gi ven i nput and converts i t i nto a desi rable output. For
i nstance, a T V converts a transmi ssi on i nput i nto a pi cture and sound.
A T V can be regarded as one gi ant ci rcui t or many small ci rcui ts.
Circuit Board Any form of electroni cs parts placement that i s on a flat
surface.
Circuit Breaker An electroni c or electri cal devi ce i nstalled i n a power-
di stri buti on system that di sconnects ( or turns off) the power when the
speci fi ed current rati ng of the ci rcui t breaker i s exceeded ( Fi g. C.25) .
I n most cases, when the speci fi ed current i n a ci rcui t i s exceeded, there
136 Choke Coil
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i s a problem. Ci rcui t breakers di sconnect the power before the prob-
lem causes other problems ( such as fi re or power-supply overloadi ng) .
Circuit ID Code 137
Figure C.25 Circuit Breaker. Three 200-Amp Breakers are Shown on a 48-V
Distribution Bus
Circuit ID Code T he part of a CCS or SS7 si gnali ng message that i den-
ti fi es ( gi ves a name to) the ci rcui t that i s bei ng establi shed between two
poi nts.
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 137
Circuit Switching Also referred to as line switching. I n early voi ce
telecommuni cati ons, the li ne swi tchi ng was performed by operators
si tti ng i n front of a cord board. When a caller wanted to make a call,
they would pi ck up the recei ver and an operator would ask what num-
ber, please? T he caller would then tell the operator what number to
connect them to, and the operator would plug a cord i nto the li ne and
connect i t to the li ne ( or loop) associ ated wi th the number they wanted
to call. Today, li ne swi tchi ng i s performed by swi tches. Switches
( also called PBX and key systems) are electroni c machi nes that work
si mi lar to the operator. I nstead of speaki ng wi th the operator, the
swi tch and caller si gnal each other to accompli sh the swi tchi ng func-
ti on. When the caller goes off hook, the central offi ce swi tch sends a
di al tone. T he di al tone i s a si gnal to the caller to enter number
please. T he caller enters di gi ts that si gnal the number to whi ch they
would li ke to be connected. T he central offi ce then sends a ri ng si g-
nal to the party bei ng called and a ri ng si mulati on si gnal to the call-
i ng party, whi ch lets them know that the central-offi ce swi tch recei ved
the di gi ts ok and i s si gnali ng the party bei ng called. T he party bei ng
called then pi cks up the handset, whi ch acti vates the swi tch hook and
places a 1000-ohm short on the li ne. T he 1000-ohm short si gnals the
central offi ce that the party i s ready to recei ve the call. T he central
offi ce swi tch then stops the ri ng si gnali ng and swi tches the talk paths
i nto place for the two callers.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) Pronounced Si sk. A
software and hardware archi tecture method that uti li zes a computers
CPU for the maj ori ty of the work load, rather than the software. CI SC
processors support up to 200 i nstructi ons. Most personal computers are
made wi th CI SC processors. See also RISC.
Cisco-Certified Design Associate (CCDA) T hi s well-known i ndustry
certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program i s offered by Ci sco Systems and Ci sco Sys-
tems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDA program i s provi ded to trai n i ndi vi d-
uals for si mple-routed LAN, WAN, and swi tched-LAN networks. More
Cisco-Certified Design Professional (CCDP) T hi s i s a well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Ci sco Systems and
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDP program i s provi ded
to trai n i ndi vi duals for complex-routed LAN, WAN, and swi tched-
LAN networks. A CCNA (Cisco-Certified Network Associate) certi fi -
cati on must be acqui red as a prerequi si te for the CCDP program. M ore
138 Circuit Switching
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Cisco-Certified Internetwork Expert (CCIE) T hi s well-known i n-
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCI E program i s the most advanced
level of certi fi cati on for Ci sco Systems associ ates, and i s regarded as a
very challengi ng certi fi cati on that only the experi enced can obtai n. T he
program prerequi si tes are CCDP, CCNA, and CCNP certi fi cati ons. T hi s
program i s offered to provi de trai ni ng and certi fi cati on to i ndi vi duals
who work i n the most-complex networki ng envi ronments. More i n-
formati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs at
http:// www.cisco.com.
Cisco-Certified Network Associate (CCNA) T hi s well-known i ndus-
try certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program i s offered by Ci sco Systems and Ci sco
Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCDA program i s provi ded to trai n i ndi -
vi duals for i nstallati on and mai ntenance of routed-LAN, WAN, and
swi tched-LAN networks usi ng Ci sco Systems products. T he course also
li ghtly covers general LAN and WAN telecommuni cati ons. More i nfor-
mati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Systems trai ni ng programs through
Cisco-Certified Network Professional (CCNP) T hi s well-known i n-
Ci sco Systems trai ni ng partners. T he CCNP i s an advanced certi fi cati on
and the prerequi si te for the course track i s the CCNA (Cisco-Certified
Network Associate). T he CCNP program i s provi ded to trai n and cer-
ti fy i ndi vi duals for complex I SP envi ronments usi ng Ci sco Systems net-
worki ng products. More i nformati on can be found regardi ng Ci sco Sys-
tems trai ni ng programs through http://www.cisco.com.
Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) I n Ethernet, a devi ce autosensing
method. CDP i s currently a propri etary method developed by Ci sco Sys-
tems to enable i ts Ethernet swi tch ports to di scover what ki nd of devi ce
they are connected to. After di scoveri ng what type of devi ce, CDP de-
termi nes whether the end devi ce requi res 48V DC power, as i n the case
of an I P Telephone. As of thi s wri ti ng ( early 2001) , CDP i s bei ng re-
vi ewed by standards commi ttees and wi ll most certai nly become a stan-
dard.
Citizens Band (CB) See CB.
Citizens Band (CB) 139
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Cladding One of the two glass secti ons of a fi ber opti c ( Fi g. C.25) .
140 Cladding
cladding
core
Figure C.26 Cladding
CLAS (Centrex Line-Assignment Service) A feature offered wi th
centrex servi ce that allows customers to di al i nto the telephone com-
panys li ne-assi gnment computer system and make changes to where ex-
tensi ons are located, ri ngi ng and hunt groups, and whi ch extensi on num-
bers or phone numbers are i n servi ce.
Class-1 Central Office A centermost poi nt i n a large logi cal network hi -
erarchy of long-di stance central offi ce swi tches.
Class-2 Central Office An older term for an network hi erarchy of swi tch
poi nts. Central offi ces are now becomi ng so well connected i n so many
ways that they are rapi dly becomi ng ei ther a class-5, 4 or a class-1 cen-
tral offi ce.
Class-3 Central Office An older term for an older network hi erarchy of
swi tch poi nts. Central offi ces are now becomi ng so well connected i n so
many ways that they are rapi dly becomi ng ei ther a class-5,4 or a class-1
central offi ce.
Class-4 Central Office A tandem central offi ce or mai n swi tch center
for an area code. T hat mi ght also perform class-5 end-connecti on func-
ti ons.
Class-5 Central Office A local telephone company central offi ce that
connects to end customers.
Class-A IP Address An I P address wi thi n the range of 1.0.0.0 and
126.255.255.255. T here are a total of 126 Class-A I P addresses. Each
Class-A address can support 16, 777, 216 hosts. Address 127.x.x.x was
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 140
used duri ng the development of I P, and i s not a vali d address for network
use. Class-A addresses are mostly allocated to and used by very large
corporati ons, governments, and uni versi ti es to i denti fy thei r I nternet do-
mai n. I nternet addresses are assi gned by I nterNI C.
Class-B IP Address An I P address wi th the range of 128.0.0.0 to 191.
255.255.255. T here are a total of 16, 384 Class-B I P addresses. Each
Class-B address can support 65, 534 hosts. Class-B addresses are used
by medi um to large corporati ons to i denti fy thei r I nternet domai n.
I nternet addresses are assi gned by I nterNI C.
Class-C IP Address An I P address wi th the range of 192.0.0.0 to 223.
255.255.255. T here are a total of 2, 097, 152 possi ble Class-C networks.
Each Class-C address can support up to 254 hosts. Class-C addresses
are used by small corporati ons to i denti fy thei r I nternet domai n. I nter-
net addresses are assi gned by I nterNI C.
Class-D IP Address An I P address wi th the range of 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255 are used for M ulti cast addressi ng. Such modern rout-
i ng protocols as ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) and Ci scos
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) are capable of recogni z-
i ng multi cast addresses. See also IP Multicast. Class-D addresses are
not assi gned to speci fi c hosts, but to groups of hosts on a network.
M ulti cast addresses are assi gned by the admi ni strator of the I nternet-
work.
Class-E IP Address An I P address wi th the range of 240.0.0.0 to 255.
255.255.254. T hese addresses are reserved for speci al-purpose and fu-
ture addressi ng modes. T he address 255.255.255.255 i s the dej ure stan-
dard broadcast address. Class-E addresses are not assi gned i n a network.
Class of Service (COS) A type of telephone servi ce or telephone li ne
purchased from a telephone company. Some class-of-servi ce examples
follow:
1FR One flat rate, resi denti al. What most resi denti al customers
have.
1MR One measured rate, resi denti al. Where the li ne has a low
monthly fee, but each call beyond a certai n number costs up to an ad-
di ti onal 10 cents.
1FB One flat rate, busi ness. What most small-busi ness customers
have.
1F4 A four-user party li ne.
Class of Service (COS) 141
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Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) A method of reduci ng the si ze
of routi ng tables thus, the computati onal strai n requi red to route packets
usi ng them. T he method used to accompli sh thi s i s known as route ag-
gregation. Route aggregati on combi nes complex route i nformati on and
reduces i t to a si mpli fi ed port. I t i s also vi ewed as combi ng many networks
i nto a few. Addresses are grouped and then associ ated wi th a port, si mi -
lar to the way an area code i s speci fi c to a geographi c locati on contai ni ng
a large amount of phone numbers. A telephone swi tch processor uti li zes
only the area code i nformati on to route the call, yet passes the enti re
di aled di gi t sequence to be used by the network processor that i s next i n
the call connect sequence. I n CI DR, i t i s not qui te as si mple because I P
addresses are not as easi ly grouped i nto routes, but the fact that the ab-
solute value of the most si gni fi cant address di gi ts are the ones used re-
mai ns the same.
Clear Channel See CCC.
Clear To Send (CTS) See CTS.
Cleaving A term used i n the spli ci ng fi ber opti c that means to cut the
end of the fi ber clean at 90 degrees, wi th mi ni mal rough edges, i n prepa-
rati on for a fusi on spli ce. Where a mechani cal spli ce i s i nvolved, the
end of the fi ber opti c i s hand-smoothed wi th a poli shi ng puck before
spli ci ng.
CLI (Command Line Interface) Another term for prompt-response
type i nterfaces used by admi ni strators to confi gure network devi ces and
systems. CLI systems are somewhat crypti c and syntax ori ented, mak-
i ng them frustrati ng for some people to use. Many manufacturers are i n-
tegrati ng web-based ( HT ML/GUI ) management i nterfaces i nto thei r sys-
tems that allevi ate the need to remember command functi ons. For most
systems, the opti on to use the CLI i s sti ll there.
Client-Server Environment A type of network envi ronment wi th re-
questers ( cli ents) and provi ders ( servers) . A servi ce requested could be
for processi ng, a fi le, or an appli cati on.
Climbers What telecommuni cati ons and power company personnel wear
to cli mb wooden telephone and power poles. T he offi ci al name for these
devi ces are linemans climbers. T hey are also called spurs, hooks, and
gaffs. T hey consi st of a steel shank wi th straps so that i t can be strapped
to a persons leg. On the i nsi de of the shank i s a spi ke that i s used to
stab i nto the pole. T he cli mbers i n Fi g. C.27 were manufactured by
Bucki ngham Mfg. I nc.
142 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
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Clipping 143
Climbing Belt Used by communi cati ons/power/constructi on personnel
to harness themselves to telephone/power poles or tower structures. Also
called a safety belt and body belt. For a photo, see Safety Belt.
Clipper A ci rcui t that takes a si ne-wave i nput, li ke that of a ti mi ng os-
ci llator and converts i t i nto a square-wave form that can be used as a
clock si gnal for a di gi tal devi ce. A cli pper ci rcui t i s si mply an ampli fi er
that i s overdri ven i nto saturati on, whi ch causes a form of di storti on ( i n
thi s case, useful) called clipping.
Clipping You can experi ence cli ppi ng by turni ng up the volume on an i n-
expensi ve stereo and noti ci ng that at a certai n poi nt, the sound repro-
ducti on i s unclear ( Fi g. C.28) . Fi rst, the bass tones are affected because
Figure C.27 Linemans Climbers
Maximum amplification
Input signal Maximum output
Without clipping overdriven output
The part of the wave that is above and
below the maximum amplification
is not reproduced it is clipped off.
Figure C.28 Clipping
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 143
they take the most energy to reproduce. At thi s poi nt i n i ncreasi ng the
volume, the sound level i s not getti ng any louder, the si gnal i s only be-
comi ng more corrupted. Techni cally, clipping i s a form of si gnal di stor-
ti on where the ampli fi cati on of a si gnal i n volts exceeds the saturati on
bi as voltage of the transi stor i n an ampli fi er. I n other words, the peak
and negati ve peaks of the output waveform are not i ncluded because the
ampli fi er i s not capable of ampli fyi ng the i nput anymore.
CLLI Code An 11-di gi t alphanumeri c code that i denti fi es physi cal loca-
ti ons i n the phone network. Almost every si gni fi cant bui ldi ng i n the
Uni ted States has a CLLI code. I t i s pronounced si lly code.
CLNP (Connectionless Network Protocol) An OSI (Open Systems
Interconnect) network layer protocol that does not requi re a ci rcui t to
be establi shed before data i s transmi tted. T he basi s of a connecti onless
protocol i s that there i s no di rect RTS (Request to Send) or ACK (Ac-
knowledge) type of si gnali ng, thus, no di rect connecti on. See also
CLNS.
CLNS (Connectionless Network Service) An OSI (Open Systems In-
terconnect) network layer protocol that does not requi re a ci rcui t to be
establi shed before data i s transmi tted. CLNS works as a part of or wi th
other protocols that resi de i n the network layer and other layers. All
packets are sent i ndependently of each other. See also CLNP.
Clock A devi ce that provi des ti mi ng pulses for communi cati ons equi p-
ment or devi ces wi thi n a computer the same way that a metronome pro-
vi des a steady ti me for a musi cal band ( Fi g. C.29) .
Clock Bias T he di fference between a clocks output and true uni versal
ti me. Si mply put, how far off a pi ece of equi pments ti mi ng i s. I t i s usu-
ally measured i n posi ti ve or negati ve mi croseconds.
Clocking See Clock.
Clone Fraud T he cri me of fi ndi ng cellular I D codes by moni tori ng cel-
lular transmi ssi ons ( wi th expensi ve cellular equi pment) , then copyi ng
the code to another cellular phone and maki ng calls wi th i t. T he ai rti me
for the copi ed phone ( the clone) i s bi lled to the ori gi nal phone.
Closure A casi ng, pedestal, or cabi net used to house open ends or spli ces
i n outsi de cable plant. Closures mostly refer to spli ces. Di fferent names
for buri ed spli ce closures or enclosures are Xaga and Cold-N-Close. A
popular aeri al spli ce closure i s the T RAC closure.
144 CLLI Code
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CLP (Cell Loss Priority) An ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cell
header bi t that determi nes the probabi li ty of that cell bei ng dropped i f
the network becomes congested. Cells wi th CLP 0 are i nsured traffi c,
whi ch are unli kely to be dropped. Cells wi th CLP 1 are best-effort traf-
fi c, whi ch wi ll be dropped i n congested condi ti ons i n order to free up
resources for i nsured traffi c. Whether cells are dropped i nterdepends on
many congesti on-handli ng parameters wi thi n the AT M network. See also
Constant Bit Rate.
CLR (Cell Loss Ratio) An ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) quali ty-
of-servi ce parameter that mi ght be i mplemented on a subscri bed con-
necti on. T he CLR i s equal to the rati o of di scarded data cells to success-
fully transported data cells. See also Cell Loss Priority and Insured Rate.
CLR (Cell Loss Ratio) 145
Figure C.29 Clock Source (Distributed)
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 145
Cluster Controller 1. Generally, an i ntelli gent devi ce that provi des the
data communi cati ons management and control for a cluster of termi -
nals to a data li nk. 2. I n IBM SNA (System Network Architecture), a
programmable devi ce that controls the i nput/output operati ons of at-
tached devi ces. Typi cally, i t i s an I BM 3174 or 3274 or newer type of
devi ce.
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) T he reason
why many computer and other hi gh-speed components are stati c sensi -
ti ve. Complementary Metal-Oxi de Semi conductors largest advantage
over T T L ( Transi stor-Transi stor Logi c) i s thei r low power consumpti on
( less than
1
10
of T T L) , they swi tch on wi thout drawi ng very much cur-
rent, i n contrast to T T L. Si nce very li ttle current i s drawn, very li ttle
power i s consumed and very li ttle heat i s gi ven off. T hi s allows the de-
vi ces to be much smaller.
CNA (Certified Novell Administrator) A well-known i ndustry certi -
fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng partners. T he
CNA program i s desi gned to educate those who wi ll mai ntai n and ad-
mi ni ster i nstalled Novell networki ng products.
CNE (Certified Novell Engineer) A well-known i ndustry certi fi ca-
ti on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Novell and i ts trai ni ng partners.
T he CNE study track i s desi gned to trai n i ndi vi duals who wi ll provi de
complex techni cal support and i nstallati on of Novell products. T he CNE
program i s an i n-depth study program that covers Novell speci fi c prod-
ucts and data networki ng as a whole. An addi ti onal level to thi s certi fi -
cati on called Master CNE. I nformati on regardi ng Novell trai ni ng can be
CNX (Certified Network Expert) A well-known i ndustry certi fi cati on
that i s offered by the CNX Consorti um. I t provi des an i ntense trai ni ng
track for LAN and MAN networki ng i n multi vendor envi ronments. More
i nformati on can be found regardi ng the CNX certi fi cati on program at
http://www.cnx.org.
CO An abbrevi ati on for an RBOC Central Offi ce. CLECs often refer to
thei r central swi tchi ng offi ces as Type One Nodes.
Coax (coaxial cable) A shi elded copper transmi ssi on medi a that has
one central conductor surrounded by a di electri c ( Fi g. C.30) . I t comes
i n several vari eti es. For a li sti ng of the di fferent characteri sti c i mped-
ances of coax types, see Characteristic Impedance.
146 Cluster Controller
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COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) A computer pro-
grammi ng language.
Co-Channel Interference I n radi o such as terrestri al mi crowave or
satelli te, co-channel i nterference i s when two radi os operati ng separate
li nks are set at the same frequency. I n selecti ng a si te, a spectrum an-
alyzer can be used to determi ne i f any strong si gnals are present at the
si te, and i f they are, to determi ne how close they are to the desi red fre-
quency. T he further away from your proposed frequency, the less li kely
they are to cause a problem. Antenna placement and polari zati on as well
as the use of hi gh-gai n, focused antennas i s the most effecti ve method
of reduci ng thi s type of i nterference.
Code Blocking A feature of a telecommuni cati ons swi tch that enables i t
to restri ct speci fi c extensi ons from di ali ng long di stance or j ust a spe-
ci fi c group of area codes. Local telephone compani es use thi s feature to
restri ct a customers long-di stance calli ng abi li ty from thei r phone i f they
have a poor credi t rati ng and were not able to make a deposi t for thei r
phone servi ce. T hi s feature i s frequently used i n PBX appli cati ons to pre-
vent employees from maki ng any long-di stance calls.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) A radi o transmi ssi on format
used i n North Ameri ca for wi reless telephone or cellular telephone
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 147
N-TYPE CONNECTOR
BNC CONNECTOR
F CONNECTOR
Figure C.30 Coaxial Connector Types: F (Left), BNC (Center),
and N Type (Right)
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 147
servi ce over PCS allocated bandwi dths. A company called QUALCOMM
developed the pri mary CDMA method. CDMA i s a breed of spread spec-
trum radi o that uses O-QPSK ( Offset Quadrature Phase Shi ft K eyi ng)
as the modulati on techni que. T he CDMA method creates multi ple logi -
cal channels wi thi n a si ngle bandwi dth vi a Walsh codi ng, whi ch i s a ran-
dom code key generated by random electroni c noi se. I n the Walsh cod-
i ng process, 64 separate logi cal channels can be defi ned i n one physi cal
bandwi dth, whi ch i s 1.25 MHz wi de. Each logi cal channel i s preceded by
a code key duri ng transmi ssi on that i denti fi es data packets to the end
user. Each logi cal channel can be used for a voi ce conversati on, and four
of the channels are used for si gnali ng synchroni zati on, pi lot, and pagi ng.
Mobi le phones i n the transmi ssi on control of a speci fi c base stati on all
use these four channels for si gnali ng, sync, key, and ti mi ng. T he re-
mai ni ng channels carry voi ce traffi c.
CODEC (Coder Decoder) Another name for an analog-to-di gi tal ( and
di gi tal-to-analog) converter.
Codec (Coder/Decoder) Codecs are widely used in I P telephony applica-
tions ( Fig. C.31) . T he standards used are the G series, and can compress a
voice that would be 64 K bps wide in bandwidth to 8 K bps ( in the case of
G.729) . T he Codec standard for traditional circuit based telephony is G.711,
which is the coding method for a DS0. When transporting voice over WAN
links, coded schemes are implemented to conserve bandwidth. T he diagram
for H.323 illustrates the G.7XX standards as being a part of the presenta-
tion layer.
148 CODEC (Coder Decoder)
AUDIO VIDEO
APPLICATIONS
TERMINAL CONTROL AND
MANAGEMENT
-OUT OF BAND SIGNALING-
G.711
G.723
G.729
H.XXX
Codec/
Compression
RTP
RTCP
H.225
TERMINAL TO
GATEKEEPER
REGISTRATION
ADMISSION
STATUS
C
I
S
C
O

S
K
I
N
N
Y
G
A
T
E
W
A
Y
/
R
O
U
T
E
R
P
R
O
T
O
C
O
L
H.225
CALL SIGNALING
H.245 MEDIA
CONTROL
T.124
DATA
APPLICATIONS
UNRELIABLE DATA
TRANSPORT (UDP)
RELIABLE DATA
TRANSPORT (TCP)
NETWORK LAYER (IP)
DATA LINK LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER
H.323 PROTOCOL FAMILY
FOR - VOICE OVER IP - IP TELEPHONY - IP VIDEO
Figure C.31 Codec G.7xx Standards
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 148
Coherent Light Li ght that consi sts of only one frequency or very close
to one frequency. Coherent li ght looks to the human eye as a very pure
color. Lasers and LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes, li ke the one that li ghts
when the hard dri ve i n your computer i s runni ng) emi t li ght that i s very
close to bei ng coherent. A li ght bulb emi ts noncoherent li ght, whi ch con-
si sts of many colors and wavelengths.
Coil I n telecommuni cati ons, a coil refers to a load coil, whi ch i s a voi ce-
ampli fyi ng devi ce for twi sted-pai r wi re. A load coi l i s usually placed on each
twi sted pai r used for a voi ce li ne every 3000 feet past a central offi ce. Coi ls
are usually located i n vaults, wi th twi sted-pai r spli ces. Other coi ls, used for
other electroni c appli cati ons are usually referred to as choke coils.
Coin-Operated Telephone A telephone that can be i nstalled, operated,
and mai ntai ned by a local phone company or purchased from a telephone-
equi pment di stri butor, connected to a local phone li ne and mai ntai ned by
a pri vate i ndi vi dual or company other than the local phone company. Many
di fferent ki nds of coi n-operated phones are manufactured by di fferent
compani es, j ust the same as the di fferent si ngle-li ne phones you can pur-
chase for your own home.
Collision Detection A part of CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Ac-
cess/Collision Detection), An Ethernet LAN protocol. I n LANs wi th
CSMA/CD, PCs check the network to see i f i t i s clear before transmi tti ng.
I f i t i s clear, i t transmi ts i ts data. T hey do thi s because i f more than one
PC sends data at the same ti me, the data gets garbled and i s meani ngless
to the other PCs. T hi s si multaneous data transmi ssi on i s called a collision.
CSMA/CD senses these colli si ons and attempts to retransmi t the same data
agai n when the network i s clear agai n. I n Ethernet networks, PCs are sens-
i ng and transmi tti ng hundreds of ti mes per second. I f the network looks
clear for a ti ny fracti on of a second, the PC wi ll try to transmi t.
Collapsed Core A reference to a LAN hi erarchi cal network desi gn where
there i s no di stri buti on layer ( Fi g. C.32) . I n centralized or hierarchi-
cal LAN network desi gn, the three swi tch layers are core layer, di stri -
buti on layer, and access layer. T he core layer provi des redundancy for
di stri buti ng traffi c across multi ple access layers. T he access layer pro-
vi des hi gh-speed swi tchi ng and routi ng among a networked group of
swi tches through trunks. I t also provi des swi tches where users connect,
so hi gh port quanti ty i s desi red i n thi s layer.
Collision I n X25, Logical Channel Numbers (LCNs) are constantly as-
si gned and reassi gned to DT E devi ces on the network. Outgoi ng-data
LCNs are assi gned by the hi ghest unused LCN, and i ncomi ng-data LCNs
Collision 149
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 149
are assi gned by the lowest unused LCN. I f an X.25 devi ce tri es to assi gn
both an i ncomi ng li nk and an outgoi ng li nk the same LCN, then the de-
vi ce becomes confused as to where to send the data. T hi s scenari o i s a
colli si on i n X.25. T he X.25 protocol has a maxi mum growth capaci ty of
1023 LCNs, currently the protocol only uti li zes 63 ( 063 and 0 i s re-
served) , because havi ng more than 63 DT E devi ces tryi ng to communi -
cate on the same X.25 li nk i s extremely i mpracti cal ( i t would be very
slow) .
Collision Domain I n Ethernet, the network area wi thi n whi ch frames
that have colli ded are propagated. T hi s area of the affected network wi ll
experi ence i ncreased latency or delay i n relati on to the rest of the net-
work. Repeaters and hubs propagate colli si ons; LAN Ethernet swi tches,
token-ri ng swi tches, bri dges, and routers do not. See also Collision,
CSMA, and Ethernet.
Colocation, Physical A colocati on i s an i nterconnecti on agreement and
a physi cal place where telephone compani es hand-off calls and servi ces
to each other ( Fi g. C.33) . T hi s i s usually done between a CLEC and an
RBOC. T he CLEC i nstalls and mai ntai ns i nterconnecti on equi pment usu-
ally consi sti ng of opti cal carri er ( SONET ) equi pment and a di gi tal cross-
connect system. T here are other types of colocati ons. Alarm compani es
li ke to have thei r alarm si gnali ng equi pment located i n the local central
150 Collision Domain
CORE SWITCHING LAYER
NO DISTRIBUTION
LAYER
ACCESS LAYER
TELEPHONY TELEPHONY
SERVER
SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
DD
S
3
D
S
3
COLLAPSED CORE
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
super high speed multilayer switching
OC3
OC3
MULTI-CHANNEL ETHERNET
GIGABIT ETHERNET LINKS
10/100 LINKS
TELEPHONE ROOM
COMPUTER ROOM
ETHERNET
SWITCHES
Figure C.32 Collapsed Core
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 150
offi ce for the securi ty and conveni ence of connecti ng alarm ci rcui ts. Long-
di stance compani es colocate wi th local telephone compani es, as well.
Colocation, Virtual 151
Figure C.33 Colocation. A Leased-Space Agreement (LSA)
Colocation, Virtual A colocati on i s an i nterconnecti on agreement and
a physi cal place where telephone compani es hand-off calls and servi ces
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 151
to each other. T hi s i s usually done between a CLEC and an RBOC. A vi r-
tual colocati on i s when telephone company A ( the CLEC) requests that
thei r phone companys network be connected to telephone company Bs
( the RBOCs) network. Telephone company B charges company A lots
of money. Company B owns, i nstalls, and mai ntai ns the equi pment. To
company A, the i nterconnecti on i s vi rtual because they never physi cally
do anythi ng to i t when and after i t i s i nstalled.
Color Code T he three communi cati ons color codes are the twi sted-pai r
cable color code (PIC), the fi ber-opti c color code, and the resi stor color
code. For a li sti ng of these color codes, see Appendix F.
Combination Trunk A DID (Direct Inward Dial) and DOD (Direct Out-
ward Dial) trunk all i n one. T hese trunks are basi cally the same as the
phone servi ce i n your home. T hey can be di aled out, and they can ri ng i n.
Combiner I n cable-T V networks, a devi ce that recei ves multi ple RF
transmi ssi ons ( vi a coax) on separate i nputs and places them on one out-
put ( Fi g. C.34) . Combi ners are also referred to as reverse spitters. T hey
are compri sed of RF-matchi ng transformers, and can have attenuati on
or si gnal-boost capabi li ti es. Combi ners recei ve the program si gnals from
many modulators and place them on one coax, whi ch di stri butes the
cable-T V si gnal to subscri bers.
152 Color Code
Figure C.34 A Passive RF Combiner
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Command Set Parts of a program wi thi n a swi tch or PBXs software. A
command i s a set of i nstructi ons wri tten i n a program and attached to a
command. A command i s a si mple entry that a user makes to i nstruct
the PBX to perform a functi on, such as Enable Trunk Port 8. When
thi s command i s entered, a command set wi thi n the software i s acti vated
and trunk port 8 looks for calls to come i n.
Commercial Building Telecom Wiring Standard A wi ri ng standard for
bui ldi ngs. T he standard states that all wi re on each floor of a bui ldi ng i s
run and termi nated to a si ngle locati on. All wi re run between floors i s
fed by a ri ser that termi nates at each floor where the wi re runs termi -
nate. All the ri ser cables must ori gi nate at a si ngle poi nt where the lo-
cal telephone company poi nt of presence ( NI ) i s located.
Command Line Interface (CLI) Another term for prompt-response
type i nterfaces used by admi ni strators to confi gure network devi ces and
systems. CLI systems are somewhat crypti c and syntax ori ented, mak-
i ng them frustrati ng for some people to use. Many manufacturers are
i ntegrati ng web-based ( HT ML/GUI ) management i nterfaces i nto thei r
systems that allevi ate the need to remember command functi ons. For
most systems, the opti on to use the CLI i s sti ll there.
Committed Burst (Bc) An amount of data that i s permi tted onto and
over a frame-relay network DLC (Data Link Connection) over a spe-
ci fi c amount of ti me. See also Bandwidth Control Element.
Committed Information Rate (CIR) T he rate i n K b/s or Mb/s that a
communi cati ons company wi ll guarantee over a frame relay ci rcui t that
they provi de to thei r customer. I f you purchase a frame relay ci rcui t,
there i s a place on the order agreement that you state the rate of i n-
formati on that you want to transmi t. T he choi ces usually range from
56 K b/s, to 1.5 Mb/s. I f you enter 1.5 Mb/s for your commi tted i nfor-
mati on rate, you wi ll pay more for your servi ce than the 56 K b/s Com-
mi tted I nformati on Rate. You have the capabi li ty to transmi t and are
permi tted to transmi t at rates up to the full CI R, unless the frame re-
lay network becomes congested. T hen, only your commi tted rate wi ll
get through. T hi s i s si mi lar to purchasi ng the use of lanes on the free-
way. I f the freeway has very few cars travelli ng on i t, then there i s no
sense i n buyi ng the ri ght for multi ple lanes because no one i s usi ng them
anyway. However, i f the freeway i s congested, then you are getti ng your
moneys worth wi th your lane ri ghts. You never know how congested a
frame relay network wi ll be, or when and where bottlenecks wi ll occur
i n the network.
Committed Information Rate (CIR) 153
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Common Audible Ringer A loud ri nger. A bell connected to a telephone
li ne that i s i n a noi sy or wi de-open area. When the phone ri ngs, the loud
bell also ri ngs.
Common Carrier A li censed pri vate uti li ty company that suppli es com-
muni cati on servi ces to the publi c at pri ces that are regulated by the FCC
(Federal Communications Commission) and/or local government or-
gani zati ons, dependi ng on the state or country.
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) Another term for out-of-band si g-
nali ng on a T 1/E1 ci rcui t. I n I P telephony ci rcles, T 1 si gnali ng i s often
referred to as CCS (Common Channel Signaling) or CAS (Channel
Associated Signaling). CCS uses one channel i n a T 1 to carry si gnal-
i ng i nformati on such as on-hook or off-hook and touch tones for the re-
mai ni ng 23 channels ( also called DS0s) . E1 CCS uses 2 of the 32 chan-
nels for carryi ng the same type of si gnali ng i nformati on. See also CAS,
T1, and H.323 for I P telephony si gnali ng i nformati on.
Common, Electrical Not to be confused wi th ground. Common i s a ref-
erence poi nt, and i s ungrounded. I t i s usually a si gnal return or DC ref-
erence coupli ng for transmi ssi on ci rcui ts.
Common, Return See Common, Electrical.
Communications Controller 1. Also called a front-end processor or
proxy server. I t has the capabi li ty of recei vi ng multi ple data communi -
cati ons transmi ssi ons of di fferent protocols and converti ng all of those
protocols to one common protocol, then routi ng the data to i ts desti na-
ti on. You could thi nk of a communi cati ons controller as a language trans-
lator. Many newer routers i ncorporate communi cati ons controller func-
ti ons. 2. A node i n an SNA (IBM System Network Architecture) network
that coordi nates the flow of data payload and overhead to the mai nframe,
whi ch controls all communi cati ons i n an SNA network ( Fi g. C.35) .
Communications Protocol T he method that a communi cati ons ci rcui t
or li nk exchanges i nformati on. I f you are a customer, there i snt a whole
lot to worry about wi th protocol. Just i magi ne that protocol i s j ust an-
other word for di alect. I f one pi ece of gear speaks Chi nese, dont try
to hook i t up to a pi ece of gear that speaks Engli sh. Some examples of
communi cati ons protocols are I SDN, frame relay, V.32, and Ethernet.
T hey are all very di fferent.
Communications Satellite Usually a geostati onary pi ece of electroni c
equi pment that stays i n the same locati on, relati ve to the earths
154 Common Audible Ringer
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 154
surface, but at a di stance or alti tude of 22, 000 mi les. T hey are used
to overcome the curvature of the earth for radi o-transmi ssi on appli ca-
ti ons.
Communications Server Also called an access server, i t i s a
communi cati ons-management and protocol-conversi on devi ce. A com-
muni cati ons processor that connects asynchronous ( i ndependently
ti med) and synchronous ( common ti mi ng source) devi ces to a LAN or
WAN through network/termi nal emulati on software that resi des i n i ts
memory. Older communi cati ons servers used to only handle asynchro-
nous protocols, such as I P or Novell I PX. Modern communi cati ons servers
perform the same functi ons as access servers, supporti ng synchronous
( common ti mi ng source) and asynchronous protocol routi ng, and can
even provi de certai n levels of securi ty.
Communications Workers of America T he organi zed labor uni on of
the Regi onal Bell Operati ng compani es. T hi s organi zati on negoti ates the
wage scales li sted i n CWA contract handbook.
Community-Antenna Television (CATV, Cable TV) See Cable TV.
Compact Disc (CD) See CD.
Compact Disc Erasable (CD-E) T he ori gi nal name for CD-RW (Com-
pact Disc Re-Writeable) technology when i t was developed i n 1995. By
Compact Disc Erasable (CD-E) 155
Mainframe
IBM 3745
Terminal
Terminal Terminal
Terminal
COMMUNICATIONS
CONTROLLER
Figure C.35 Communications Controller
PQ104_5056F-PC.qxd 10/2/01 3:48 PM Page 155
Click on figure to activate graphic
the ti me the product was offered to consumers i n 1997, i ts name had
evolved to CD-RW. CD-RWs are capable of bei ng erased and rerecorded
10, 000 ti mes.
Compact Disc Interactive (CD-I) A multi medi a educati on and enter-
tai nment system, developed by Phi li ps and Sony, consi sti ng of a propri etary
compact di sc player that connects to a televi si on set. T he CD-I system i n-
corporates CD-RTOS (Compact-Disc Real-Time Operating System),
whi ch synchroni zes i nteracti ve vi deo, audi o, and text wi th real ti me.
Compact Disc Recordable (CD-R) A compact-di sc standard format
that, when used wi th a CD-R or CD-RW dri ve, can record up to 650 MB
of unerasable data one ti me. T he advantage of CD-R di scs i s that they
record sli ghtly faster, and cannot be erased or modi fi ed duri ng subse-
quent uses ( although they can be copi ed to CD-RW di scs) . CD-Rs can
also be played i n regular CD-ROM dri ves, and audi o compact-di sc dri ves.
Compact Disc Rewriteable (CD-RW) A compact-di sc dri ve that can
wri te, read, or erase di scs made for thi s purpose ( CD-RW di scs) . CD-RW
has a storage capaci ty of 650 MB, and can be recorded and erased 10, 000
ti mes. Di scs that are recorded wi th the Multi Read standard can also be
used i n CD-ROM dri ves and compact-di sc audi o dri ves.
Compact-Disc ROM Extended Architecture (CD-ROM XA) A ver-
si on of the CD-ROM that was released to consumers i n 1991 that en-
abled software, audi o, and vi deo to be i nterleaved on the recorded tracks
of the CD-ROM di sc. To uti li ze thi s format, a regular CD-ROM can be
used, but an XA controller card needs to be i nstalled i n the PC.
Companding (Compression-Expansion) A pulse-code modulati on
techni que that takes small samples of an analog si gnal the same way that
i s done i n PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation), except the resultant
PAM si gnal i s converted to bi nary. Compandi ng compresses the bi nary
si gnal usi ng a mathemati cal algori thm. T hi s allows more analog channels
wi thi n the same network bandwi dth. Compandi ng i s used over PCS (Per-
sonal Communications Service) cellular radi o networks. See also Mu
Law and A Law.
Complementary Code Keying (CCK) I n wi reless LAN radi o, a modu-
lati on techni que that uti li zes a complex set of mathemati cal functi ons
known as complementary codes to transfer more data over a li nk. CCK
i s less affected by multi path di storti on than other modulati on methods
such as QPSK ( Quadrature Phase Shi ft K eyi ng) and BPSK ( Bi nary Phase
Shi ft K eyi ng) .
156 Compact Disc Interactive (CD-I)
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Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) See Comple-
mentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor.
Complementary Network Services An addi ti onal servi ce that can be
added to your telephone li ne. Voi ce mai l i s one of these. T he servi ce can
be provi ded by the local exchange carri er provi di ng the di al tone or i t
can be provi ded by a compli mentary network servi ces provi der.
Completed Call A call that i s connected to i ts desti nati on. When some-
one calls a number and the other end i s pi cked up by someone, the call
i s completed. You would thi nk that a call would be completed when the
people were fi ni shed talki ng, but i n regard to call routi ng and swi tchi ng,
that i s not the case.
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Pronounced Si sk. A
software and hardware archi tecture method that uti li zes a computers
CPU, rather than the software, for the maj ori ty of the workload. CI SC
processors support up to 200 i nstructi ons. Most personal computers are
made wi th CI SC processors. See also RISC.
Component Video A vi deo si gnal transmi ssi on and/or recepti on that con-
si sts of separate uni ts for each functi on. I n broadcast televi si on, the vi deo
i s AM, the audi o i s FM, and color i s PM. T hey are all transmi tted together
on a si ngle carri er, but processed and decoded separately.
Composite Signal T he whole si gnal, overhead and payload i ncluded. T he
composi te speed of a T 1 si gnal i s 1.544 Mb/s.
Compressed Serial Link Internet Protocol (CSLIP) An extensi on of
seri al li nk I nternet protocol that, when appropri ate, allows only header
i nformati on to be sent across a seri al I nternet connecti on, reduci ng over-
head and i ncreasi ng packet throughput. CSLI P and SLI P are early I n-
ternet di al-up transport methods for I P. T hey were made obsolete by
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), whi ch allows for encrypti on and the abi l-
i ty to support Mi crosoft Net Beui and Novell I PX i n a di al-up envi ron-
ment.
Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) A wave of products that have
been comi ng out si nce 1994. CT I appli cati ons i nterface computers wi th
telephone systems, IVR (Interactive Voice Response) systems, voi ce-
mai l systems, call-accounti ng systems, and anythi ng else that i s telecom-
muni cati ons ori ented. A good example of CT I i s an OCT EL product that
allows users to cli ck and drag voi ce-mai l messages from thei r phone to
any other telephone they would li ke to get the message. I t also provi des
Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) 157
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di agnosti c functi ons, traffi c analysi s functi ons, and admi ni strati on func-
ti ons through a GUI ( Graphical User Interface, such as Wi ndows 95) .
Concatenation To j oi n two or more AT M channels, I SDN B channels, or
T 1 DS0 channels together to make a larger si ngle channel that can carry
a broader si gnal. I n the T 1s case, concatenati on i s usually called frac-
tional T1.
Concentrator A devi ce that performs multi plexi ng and routi ng functi ons.
Condenser An obsolete term for capacitor. See Capacitor.
Condenser Microphone A mi crophone that i ncorporates a capaci tor
that changes i ts capaci tance as sound waves stri ke i t.
Conditional Transfer A call-forwardi ng feature offered by telecommu-
ni cati ons compani es. I ncomi ng traffi c i s call forwarded to di fferent tar-
get parti es, dependi ng on the ti me of day or whi ch parti es are avai lable
to recei ve calls.
Conditioned Circuit A twi sted copper pai r wi thi n an outsi de plant net-
work that i s modi fi ed to carry a di gi tal data si gnal i nstead of an analog
voi ce si gnal. Condi ti oned ci rcui ts have noi se-fi lteri ng electroni cs com-
ponents attached to them i nstead of load coi ls.
Conditioning A term that refers to modi fyi ng a twi sted copper pai r i n
an outsi de plant network so that i t can carry a di gi tal data si gnal i nstead
of an analog voi ce si gnal. Twi sted-pai r ci rcui ts ( a ci rcui t i s a local loop,
whi ch i s the pai r that connects the central offi ce to the customer) are
condi ti oned by addi ng noi se-fi lteri ng electroni c components to them.
Conductance T he mathemati cal i nverse of resi stance. T he uni t of con-
ductance i s Si emons or mhos, whi ch i s ohm ( the measure of resi stance)
spelled backwards. To calculate the conductance of a ci rcui t or devi ce,
j ust fi gure 1/R ( i n ohms) .
For example: Convert 500 ohms to a value of conductance.
1/500 ohms 0.002 si emons.
Conductor An element or chemi cal that allows electri cal current to flow
through i t easi ly under the i nfluence of electri c forces. T he followi ng li st
of conductors i s i n order of conducti ve properti es. Someti mes the qual-
i ty of a conductor i s not only vi ewed by i ts abi li ty to conduct electri ci ty
but i ts abi li ty to resi st corrosi on as well ( Fi g. C.36) .
158 Concatenation
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Conduit Condui t i s another name for tubi ng, of whi ch there are many
di fferent ki nds.
For outsi de plant appli cati ons, 4" PVC condui t i s usually used for li nk-
i ng cable vaults wi th an easy means to add, remove, and upgrade cable.
I f fi ber-opti c cable i s i nstalled i n a 4" PVC condui t, four i nnerducts of
di fferent color are pulled i nto the PVC condui t fi rst. I f condui t i s bei ng
buri ed speci fi cally for fi ber-opti c cable, then a quad-lock i s usually used.
Quad-lock i s four 1" condui ts braced together.
For i nsi de plant appli cati ons, 4" EMT condui t i s normally used. EMT
i s the standard metal condui t that electri ci ans use. PVC condui t i s not
allowed i n modern bui ldi ngs because when i t burns, i t emi ts very toxi c
chlori ne gas.
Conference Bridge A servi ce where the number of calls or people con-
nected to a conference call are controlled by a si ngle source. Most con-
ference bri dge servi ces have everyone that wants to be on a conference
call di al a toll-free number, where a conference attendant wi ll answer
thei r call, then connect them through ( or bri dge them) to the other con-
ference callers.
Conference Call A communi cati ons connecti on where three or more di f-
ferent telephone li nes ( wi th di fferent phone numbers or extensi ons) are
connected together.
Conference Europeenne des Postes et des Telecommunications
(CEPT) T he associ ati on of 26 European PTTs (Post, Telephone, and
Telegraph) that resolves i nterconnect i ssues between countri es and
recommends communi cati on speci fi cati ons to the I T U-T standards com-
mi ttee.
Confidencer A devi ce that connects to a telephone handset to block out
background noi se. Some confi dencers are i n the form of an i nter-
changeable mouthpi ece that replaces the exi sti ng mouthpi ece on your
Confidencer 159
Figure C.36 Conductor
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handset. Walker Electroni cs Company i s a well-known manufacturer of
confi dencers.
Congestion Control I n LAN swi tchi ng, ports can be overloaded wi th de-
vi ces and/or traffi c. Methods used to manage hi gh traffi c condi ti ons are
called back-pressure and aggressive back-off algorithm.
Connect Time T he durati on that a call path through a swi tch or network
i s set up. Si mply put, how long your phone call lasts.
Connection Oriented A protocol model of i nterconnecti on that has
three phases: connecti on, transfer of data, and di sconnect. Some
connecti on-ori ented protocols are X.25, T CP, and a regular telephone
call. Many protocols are a mi xture of connecti on/connecti onless, such as
AT M, T CP/I P, and frame relay.
Connection-Oriented Network Protocol (CONP) A method of com-
muni cati ons where the sender and recei ver of data are communi cati ng
di rectly vi a si gnals sent, such as RTS (Request to Send) and ACK (Ac-
knowledge). T he contrast to thi s communi cati ons method i s the con-
necti onless ori ented protocol, whi ch i s a method of communi cati ons
where the sender and recei ver do not si gnal each other di rectly. Con-
necti onless operati on forwards data across a network usi ng an address
as routi ng i nformati on for the network. Both provi de lower-layer soft-
ware connecti vi ty to upper-layer protocols.
Connectionless A reference to packet or cell-based communi cati ons
protocols that do not requi re a connecti on and di rect si gnali ng to ex-
change messages ( for example, Ethernet and frame relay) . Connec-
ti onless communi cati ons enables multi ple hosts/users to si multane-
ously share a communi cati ons channel ( or many channels) through a
network. A nonconnecti onless method or connecti on-ori ented method
i s a modem that establi shes a connecti on through a handshake. Con-
necti onless protocols are also referred to as best effort, packet, or cell
protocols.
Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) An OSI ( Open Systems
Interconnect) network layer protocol that does not requi re a ci rcui t to
be establi shed before data i s transmi tted. T he basi s of a connecti onless
protocol i s that there i s no di rect RTS (Request to Send) or ACK (Ac-
knowledge) type of si gnali ng, thus, no di rect connecti on. Some proto-
col stacks are a mi xture of connecti on ori ented and connecti onless pro-
tocols, such as T CP/I P, where T CP i s connecti on ori ented, and I P i s
connecti onless. See also CLNS.
160 Congestion Control
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Connectionless Network Service (CLNS) An OSI (Open Systems In-
terconnect) network layer protocol that does not requi re a ci rcui t to be
establi shed before data i s transmi tted. CLNS works as a part of or wi th
other protocols that resi de i n the network layer and other layers. All
packets are sent i ndependently of each other. See also CLNP.
Connections per Circuit Hour (CCH) T he number of connecti ons or
calls completed at a swi tchi ng poi nt per hour.
Connector, Genderless Someti mes called a hermaphroditic connec-
tor. A genderless connector developed by I BM that i s usually called a
Data Connector. T he Data Connector does not need complementary
plugs ( male and female) to make a connecti on, li ke all other known com-
muni cati ons modular connecti ng systems. T he Data Connector i s speci f-
i cally desi gned and used for swi tched token-ri ng backbone appli cati ons.
For a photo, see Data Connector.
CONP (Connection-Oriented Network Protocol) A method of com-
muni cati ons where the sender and recei ver of data are communi cati ng
di rectly vi a si gnals sent, such as RTS (Request to Send) and ACK (Ac-
knowledge). T he contrast to thi s communi cati ons method i s the con-
necti onless ori ented protocol, whi ch i s a method of communi cati ons
where the sender and recei ver do not si gnal each other di rectly. Con-
necti onless operati on forwards data across a network usi ng an address
as routi ng i nformati on for the network. Both provi de lower-layer soft-
ware connecti vi ty to upper-layer protocols.
Conservation of Radiance A sci enti fi c law that basi cally says that you
cannot ampli fy or i ncrease li ght wi thout a li ght-creati ng source. So, op-
ti cal fi ber does not make the li ght bri ghter as the li ght travels through
i t and nei ther do your sunglasses. I t would be cool to have glasses that
actually made the ni ght bri ghter, wi th no electroni cs, j ust the lenses.
Conservati on of radi ance si mply states that thi s i s i mpossi ble.
Console T he large telephone wi th all the keys and/or buttons on i t. I t i s
the traffi c-control center for a PBX system. T he PBX operator or atten-
dant usually has a console. T he two types of consoles desi gned for two
di fferent appli cati ons are the hotel PBX operator console and the busi -
ness PBX operator console.
Constant Bit Rate (CBR) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by
the AT M Forum for AT M Networks that provi des preci se clocki ng to
ensure undi storted deli very. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully com-
mi ssi oned as a CBR connecti on i f i t carri ed such ti me-sensi ti ve data as
Constant Bit Rate (CBR) 161
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voi ce, vi deo, or real-ti me computi ng i nformati on. T he CBR quali ty of
servi ce guarantees freedom from cell loss and delay. Other QOSs de-
fi ned by the AT M forum for AT M connecti ons i nclude UBR (Unspeci-
fied Bit Rate), ABR (Available Bit Rate), and VBR (Variable Bit
Rate). See also AAL.
Content Networking A strategy of maki ng network resources more ef-
fi ci ent by provi di ng them wi th the abi li ty to transfer data/fi les from the
core of the network to the edge ( other si de of the WAN) before i t i s
needed by mass users. T he strategy behi nd content networki ng i mple-
mentati ons i s to reduce the need for addi ti onal bandwi dth by better uti -
li zi ng the exi sti ng bandwi dth. T hi s i s useful i n both i nternet provi ders
as well as WAN envi ronments. Content networki ng also provi des packet
di recti on accordi ng to layer seven sessi ons ( also called server load bal-
ancing or server synchronization) . T here are two pri mary add-ons to
a content networked system. T he fi rst i s a content cache engi ne on the
edge of the network. Bei ng closer to the end user, i t consumes less net-
work resources as well as provi des a better response ti me for the end
user. T he second devi ce i s a content network server, whi ch controls
what data fi les are pushed out to the content cache engi ne. Content net-
worki ng wi ll be a cruci al part of networki ng when network servi ce
provi ders begi n offeri ng bandwi dth i ntensi ve servi ces such as on-demand
vi deo. See also Flash Crowd and Boomerang Server.
Contention A type of LAN control scheme used by Ethernet, where all
the users ( PCs) on the network fi ght for use of the network. T he PCs
check to see i f the network i s clear, then transmi t. Often more than
one PC tri es to transmi t at once, whi ch causes the data to be garbled
( thi s i s called a collision) . T hi s network-control scheme i s called con-
tention. I guess you could say that the PCs contend to see whi ch one
gets thei r data on the network fi rst. T he best alternati ve to thi s type
of network i s token ri ng a completely di fferent method of network
control.
Context Keys Buttons on a phone or other devi ce that have a di splay
adj acent to them. T hey perform di fferent functi ons, dependi ng on what
the di splay i s showi ng at the ti me you push that button.
Contiguous Slotting T he bandi ng together of two or more adj acent
channels i n a T 1 to get one larger channel. Also called fractional T1 and
concatenation.
Control Plane one of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network man-
agement. T he three planes are: T he User Plane ( the U Plane defi nes
162 Content Networking
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the transfer of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane de-
fi nes the LMI , Local Management I nterface) , and the Control Plane ( the
C Plane i s delegated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) .
Control Point I n I BM SNA (System Network Architecture) networks,
an element that i denti fi es the APPN networki ng components of a PU 2.1
node, manages devi ce resources, and provi des servi ces to other devi ces.
I n APPN, CPs are able to communi cate wi th logi cally adj acent CPs by
way of CP-to-CP sessi ons. See also EN and NN.
Control Signal A si gnal sent as a bi t, byte, or tone that prompts a com-
muni cati ng devi ce to do somethi ng. When you pi ck up the handset on
your telephone, the swi tch-hook pops up and makes a 1000-ohm con-
necti on across the two telephone wi res that go to the phone company.
T hi s causes a current flow out of the central offi ce swi tch. T hi s control
si gnal shows that you are off hook and would li ke to di al a number. T he
central offi ce responds to your off-hook or current flow si gnal by send-
i ng a di al tone, whi ch prompts you to di al di gi ts. T he di gi ts are a con-
trol si gnal that tells the central offi ce swi tch where to route your call.
T hese are all control si gnals, and all control si gnals ( regardless of the
protocol) are equally as systemati c and organi zed.
Controlled-Environment Vault A vault that i s desi gned to have elec-
troni cs i n i t. T he envi ronment i nsi de the vault must be kept at a certai n
temperature and humi di ty.
Controller I n telephone equi pment, controller i s another name for CPU.
I n data communi cati ons, such as LANs, a controller controls data trans-
fer between two devi ces.
Convection Cooling A method that newer telephone electroni cs uses
to cool i tself. Rather than havi ng a cooli ng fan attached to a devi ce to
cool i t, i t i s equi pped wi th metal deflectors. T he deflectors channel
warmer ai r that i s ri si ng out of the top of the equi pment, whi ch, i n turn,
pulls cooler ai r i n through the bottom. Wi th convecti on-cooled equi p-
ment, you sti ll need to have a system that cools and controls the hu-
mi di ty i n the room that the equi pment i s i n. T hi s cooli ng opti on i s avai l-
able wi th the Tellabs T i tan 5500 Di gi tal cross-connect system, for
example.
Convergence T he poi nt i n ti me when all routers wi thi n an i nternetwork
have completed the process of shari ng and updati ng all of thei r routi ng
tables so that they all match. Di fferent routi ng protocols take di fferent
amounts of ti me to converge.
Convergence 163
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Cookie Sticky ( Slang) A reference to I nternet appli cati ons or servers
that use cooki es ( whi ch are ways to track where users have been on the
I nternet) from a users computer and remembers what the users di d.
Some network appli cati ons enable users that have purchase cooki es or
golden cooki es to get pri ori ty bandwi dth and processor ti me because
they are consi dered preferred surfers.
Coprocessor An addi ti onal mi croprocessor chi p that i s added to the bus
archi tecture of a personal computer. T he coprocessor i s an extensi on of
the mai n CPUs i nstructi on set and i s generally used for speci al-purpose
operati ons, such as advanced mathemati cal calculati ons.
Cord, Base T he cord that goes between your telephone and the wall. I t
has RJ6x-type plugs on the ends. Base cords are avai lable i n 2-conductor
( RJ6x2c plugs on the ends) , 4-conductor ( RJ6x4c plugs on the ends) ,
6-conductor ( RJ6x6c plugs on the ends) , and 8-conductor ( RJ8x8c plugs
on the ends) . RJ4x4c means an RJ modular-type plug that i s 4-conductor
posi ti ons wi de wi th four conductors i nstalled.
Cord, Handset T he cord that goes between your phone and the hand-
set. Also known as a curly cord. I t has RJ4x4c ( an RJ modular-type plug
that i s four conductor posi ti ons wi de, wi th four conductors i nstalled) .
Core Layer One of the three LAN network desi gn layers. I n LAN net-
work desi gn, the three swi tch layers are core layer, di stri buti on layer,
and access layer ( Fi g. C.37) . T he core layer provi des redundancy for
164 Cookie Sticky
CORE LAYER
DISTRIBUTION
LAYER
SERVER SERVER
SERVER SERVER
SERVER SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
DD
S
3
DD
S
3
LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
(HIERARCHICAL)
super high speed switching
-routing-
high port quantity
OC3
OC3
Figure C.37 Core Layer
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di stri buti ng traffi c across multi ple access layers ( i t i s almost always de-
si rable to have two swi tches wi thi n a core) . I t also provi des central ac-
cess for servers ( and/or mai nframe and AS400 computers) . T he access
layer provi des hi gh-speed swi tchi ng and routi ng among a group of
swi tches networked by trunks. T he access layer provi des swi tches where
users connect, so hi gh port quanti ty i s desi red i n thi s layer.
Core Network Another reference to the local telephone network. I t i s a
combi nati on of swi tchi ng offi ces and transmi ssi on faci li ti es connecti ng
local central swi tchi ng offi ces together.
Core Processing Unit Some communi cati ons equi pment manufacturers
call the card or shelf that controls a communi cati ons system ( e.g., PBX)
or porti on of the system the CPU ( Fi g. C.38) . T hi s i s because they i n-
clude all of the RAM, subprocessors, buffers, clocki ng ci rcui try, and ROM
i n thi s part of the system.
Core Switch 165
Figure C.38 Northern Telecom Option 81 PBX CPU (Core) Shelf
Core Router I n a packet-swi tched star topology, a devi ce that i s a part
of the backbone communi cati ons li nk and serves as the gateway for any
communi cati ons that come from i ts local peri pheral network to other pe-
ri pheral networks.
Core Switch An Ethernet LAN swi tch located wi thi n the core of a net-
work desi gn ( Fi g. C.39) . Core swi tches are generally hi gh speed, wi th
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multi layer and quali ty of servi ce ( 802.1p and 802.1Q) capabi li ti es. See
also Core Layer.
166 COS (Class of Service)
Figure C.39 Core Switch
COS (Class of Service) A type of telephone servi ce or telephone li ne
purchased from a telephone company. See Class of Service.
Co-set A number used to prevent an all zero result from an AT M Header
Error Check calculati on. T he co-set i s cruci al i n locati ng where cells be-
gi n and end i n AT M. T he co-set i s a predefi ned ei ght-bi t pattern, con-
si sti ng of both ones and zeros, that i s compared as an exclusi ve OR func-
ti on to all AT M cycli c redundancy check header values. T he co-set
prevents a zero-multi pli ed zero event when i denti fyi ng AT M cell bound-
ari es and error correcti ons.
Coulomb A uni t of electrostati c charge equal to 6, 300, 000, 000, 000,
000, 000 electrons or protons ( electrons would be a 1C and protons
would be a 1C) . T hi s uni t of electri c charge was establi shed by Charles
Augusti n Coulomb ( 17361806) and i s useful because wi th i t we can
determi ne a standard of measurement for electri c force, whi ch led to the
measurement of electri cal charge flow ( current) , known as the ampere.
One ampere i s equal to one coulomb of charge ( the number of electrons)
flowi ng past a poi nt i n one second.
Counter Rotating Ring A backbone network archi tecture that i s com-
mon to FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface), SONET (Syn-
chron-ous Optical Network), DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual
Bus), swi tched token ri ng, and CDDI (Copper-Distributed Data In-
terface).
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Coupling A means of connecti ng one adj acent ci rcui t to the next. Di f-
ferent types of coupli ng i nclude: capaci ti ve, i nducti ve, electromagneti c
( radi o) , opti cal, and di rect ( hard wi re) .
Country Code A code used i n i nternati onal di ali ng for countri es that are
not a part of the North American Number Plan ( NANP) . To di al i n-
ternati onal long di stance from the Uni ted States, di al:
011 county code ci ty code number.
For a li sti ng of country codes, see Appendix B.
To di al the Uni ted States from another country that i s a part of the
NANP, si mply di al the area code the same way you would call long di s-
tance to another state. To call the Uni ted States from another country
that i s not a part of the NANP, consult your long-di stance company. T he
Uni ted States has a di fferent country code/access code for almost every
country that i s not a part of the NANP.
Coverage Area T he geographi cal area that i s servi ced by a cellular or
PCS telephone system. Wi thi n thi s area, subscri bers can access a cel-
lular or PCS radi o si gnal li nk and make calls. I f the subscri ber travels
outsi de of thi s area, the no servi ce or roam i ndi cator appears on the
phones di splay. I f the roam i ndi cator i s on, the subscri ber sti ll has a
si gnal and can make calls, they are j ust wi thi n another cellular com-
panys coverage area and the call wi ll be more expensi ve. I f the no
servi ce i ndi cator i s on, no si gnal i s present and no phone call can be
made.
CP (Control Point) I n SNA ( I BM) networks, an element that i denti fi es
the APPN networki ng components of a PU 2.1 node, manages devi ce re-
sources, and provi des servi ces to other devi ces. I n APPN, CPs are able
to communi cate wi th logi cally adj acent CPs by way of CP-to-CP sessi ons.
See also EN and NN.
CPE (Customer-Premises Equipment) T he equi pment that i s con-
nected to a phone li ne. T he exact defi ni ti on i s anythi ng beyond the Stan-
dard Network I nterface, whi ch i ncludes wi re, j acks, telephones, answer-
i ng machi nes, and any other devi ces connected to the telephone li ne.
CPS (Cycles or Characters Per Second) See Cycle.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) 1. T he devi ce wi thi n a computer ( or
swi tch or other machi ne that performs complex tasks) that controls the
transfer of the i ndi vi dual i nstructi ons from one devi ce connected to i ts
CPU (Central Processing Unit) 167
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bus ( the data or I /O bus) to another, such as ROM, RAM, subcontrollers,
decoders, and I /O ports. 2. Core Processing Unit. Some communi ca-
ti ons equi pment manufacturers call the card that controls a communi -
cati ons system ( e.g., PBX) or porti on of the system the CPU. T hi s i s be-
cause they i nclude all of the RAM, subprocessors, buffers, clocki ng
ci rcui try, and ROM i n thi s part of the system ( Fi g. C.40) .
168 CR
Figure C.40 Slot 1 CPU (Central Processing Unit) for a Personal Computer
CR 1. T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for carri age return. T he bi nary
code i s 1101000 and the hex i s D0. 2. Call Request. A packet-level ( data
li nk layer) control si gnal sent from a DT E i nto an X.25 DCE devi ce to i n-
i ti ate a call. T he DCE then creates a Call Confi rm packet and sends i t i n
response. T hi s i ni ti ates a call through a multi plexed channel. For a di a-
gram of the call-request packet structure, see X.25 Call Request Packet.
Craft A reference to nonmanagement RBOC personnel. Many craft per-
sonnel are members of the Communi cati ons Workers of Ameri ca ( CWA)
labor uni on.
Craft Test Set Also called a Goat or Butt-Set ( Fi g. C.41) . A test tele-
phone that i s used by techni ci ans to test analog telephone li nes ( ri ng-
i ng, di al tone, moni tor, etc.) .
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) A method used by modems and
other transmi ssi on devi ces to veri fy the accurate transfer of bi ts. CRC
i s used i n connecti on-ori ented transmi ssi ons and functi ons wi th a re-
transmi t feature when bi ts recei ved are corrupted.
Crimp Tool Tools used to place connectors on the ends of di fferent types
of coax and twi sted pai r ( Fi g. C.42) .
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Crimp Tool 169
Figure C.41 Harris Dracon Craft Test Set (Also Known as a
Butt Set or Goat)
Figure C.42 Assorted Crimp Tools
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Cross Bar An obsolete telephone swi tch that was analog and had me-
chani cal relays that connected telephone calls. T hi s i s where the term
switch comes from. Old central offi ce swi tches contai ned li terally thou-
sands of mechani cal swi tches.
Cross Connect A cross connect i s the connecti on of one ci rcui t path to
another vi a a physi cal wi re. Telephone cable pai rs are termi nated or
punched down onto a termi nati on block ( usually a 66m150 or an AT & T
110 block) that has extra connecti ons avai lable for each pai r so that
j umper wi res can be easi ly connected and rearranged between them.
Cross-Over Cable A connector cable where two or more of the con-
ductors reverse themselves from one end to the other. A null modem ca-
ble i s a type of cross-over cable.
Cross Talk T he two forms of cross talk are i nducti ve cross talk, because
of wi res touchi ng ( or conducti ng to) each other that shouldnt be and
channel seepage because of i naccuraci es i n multi plexi ng equi pment ti m-
i ng or components. I nducti ve cross talk i s caused by radi o or the use of
nontwi sted-pai r wi re. I nducti ve cross talk travels from one devi ce to an-
other vi a electromagneti c fi elds generated by di fferent transmi ssi ons. A
hard cross or physi cal cross i s most commonly caused by water seepi ng
i nto a telephone cable and conducti ng the electri c si gnals on pai rs i n the
cable to each other. Channel seepage i s usually a si tuati on where the
people on one phone call can di stantly hear one si de ( only one persons
voi ce, not both) of another phone call.
CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube) T he real name for a T V or moni tor screen.
Crystal Oscillator An electroni c devi ce that i s made from a thi n pi ece
of poli shed quartz crystal ( Fi g. C.43) . When a peri odi c voltage i s appli ed
to a crystal, i t has a pi ezoelectri c reacti on. T hi s means that the voltage
appli ed to the crystal di storts i t. When the voltage i s removed, the crys-
tal physi cally vi brates. Wi th each vi brati on of the crystal, a very small
AC voltage cycle i s produced. T he physi cal si ze of the crystal determi nes
i ts osci llati ng frequency. Crystal osci llators are used because of thei r re-
li able ti mi ng.
CSDC (Circuit Switched Digital Capability) A 56 K b/s phone li ne
that can carry voi ce or data. T he condi ti oni ng equi pment i s equi pped
wi th a di gi tal-to-analog converter and vi ce versa.
CSLIP (Compressed Serial Link Internet Protocol) An extensi on of
seri al li nk I nternet protocol that, when appropri ate, allows only header
170 Cross Bar
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i nformati on to be sent across a seri al I nternet connecti on, reduci ng over-
head and i ncreasi ng packet throughput. CSLI P and SLI P are early I n-
ternet di al-up transport methods for I P. T hey were made obsolete by
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), whi ch allows for encrypti on and the
abi li ty to support Mi crosoft Net Beui and Novell I PX i n a di al-up envi -
ronment.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) See Carrier Sense Multiple
Access.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)
See Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance.
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
See Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection.
CSU (Channel Service Unit) Also called a CSU/DSU (Channel Ser-
vice Unit/Data Service Unit). A CSU i s a hardware devi ce that can come
i n many shapes and si zes. Rack-mount, shelf-mount, and stand-alone
CSUs are avai lable ( Fi g. C.44) . A CSU/DSU has three mai n functi ons.
T he fi rst functi on i s to act as a demarcati on poi nt for a T 1 ( DS1) serv-
i ce from a local communi cati ons company. T he second functi on i s to pro-
vi de li ne format and li ne-code conversi on ( B8ZS to AMI , SF or D4 to
ESF, 135 V to 0 V) between the publi c network and the customers equi p-
ment, i f necessary. T he thi rd functi on i s to provi de mai ntenance or alarm
servi ces and loop-back for i solati ng problems wi th the T 1 li ne or
CSU (Channel Service Unit) 171
Figure C.43 Crystal Oscillator
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customers equi pment. Some loop backs can be done remotely, depend-
i ng on the model CSU/DSU. Some are done wi th bantam loop plugs.
CTI (Computer Telephony Integration) A wave of products that have
been avai lable si nce 1994. CT I appli cati ons i nterface computers wi th
telephone systems, I VR systems, voi ce-mai l systems, call-accounti ng
systems, and anythi ng else that i s telecommuni cati ons ori ented. A good
example of CT I i s an OCT EL product that allows users to cli ck and drag
voi ce-mai l messages from thei r phone to any other telephone they would
li ke to get the message. I t also provi des di agnosti c functi ons, traffi c analy-
si s functi ons, and admi ni strati on functi ons through a GUI ( Graphical
User Interface, such as Wi ndows 95) .
CTS (Clear To Send) A frame-layer DT E request i n X.25. T he si gnal
that a modem sends after i t recei ves an RTS (Request To Send) si gnal.
Upon sendi ng the CT S, the modem i s ready to recei ve data. T hi s process
happens after the handshake and communi cati on parameters, such as
transfer rate and protocol have been negoti ated. For more detai ls on
X.25 frame-layer communi cati on, see X.25 Control Field.
Current T he flow of electri ci ty measured i n amperes.
Current, Line T he average off-hook current of a telephone li ne i s about
35 mA ( 0.035 A) .
172 CTI (Computer Telephony Integration)
Figure C.44 CSU (Channel Service Unit)
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Customer-Premises Equipment (CPE) Equi pment that i s connected
to a phone li ne. T he exact defi ni ti on i s anythi ng beyond the standard
network i nterface, whi ch i ncludes wi re, j acks, telephones, answeri ng ma-
chi nes, and any other devi ces connected to the telephone li ne.
Cut Over T he actual changi ng use of one type of equi pment or system
to another. I f you i nstall a new PBX i n your offi ce, the cut over i s when
you di sconnect your old system and begi n usi ng a new one.
Cut-Through Packet Switching T here are three ways that frames/
packets transverse through a LAN swi tch, bri dge, or router. T he fi rst i s
store and forward. I n Store and Forward, the enti re frame and i ts con-
tents are accepted and stored i n the swi tch. Error detecti on i s calcu-
lated ( CRC) and i f the frame i s good, the address i s looked up i n the
routi ng table. When the associ ated desti nati on port/segment i s found,
the frame i s sent on to i ts desti nati on. T hi s i s a good method for rout-
i ng traffi c because damaged frames, runt frames, and gi ant frames are
di scarded before they are transmi tted. T hi s method i s used where the
network i nfrastructure or medi a i s prone to damagi ng frames, such as
RFI envi ronments or a poor WAN network servi ce. T he di sadvantage of
the Store and Forward method i s latency. Stori ng the enti re frame whi le
the desti nati on port i s retri eved causes a delay, and i n multi ple hop
networks, thi s can cause slow network performance even when there i s
very li ttle traffi c.
T he second way that frames/packets transverse through a LAN
swi tch/router/bri dge i s the cut-through switching method. I n cut-
through swi tchi ng, only the address of an i ncomi ng frame i s processed
by memory. T he address i s associ ated wi th i ts desti nati on port/segment
i n the routi ng table, and the enti re frame sent di rectly through. T hi s
process happens i f the frame i s good or not, as long as there i s a non-
damaged address i n the frame. Cut-through swi tchi ng greatly reduces
latency delays through a network, but sti ll transmi ts bad frames. I f an
NI C card or host devi ce begi ns sendi ng lots of bad erroneous frames, the
network performance could be slowed greatly. Some LAN swi tches have
safeguards i n place to detect and suppress error storms from defecti ve
equi pment.
T he thi rd method of forwardi ng frames i s modified cut-through. T hi s
method works si mi lar to store and forward, except that i t uses a li mi ted
number of bytes to check for errors rather than the enti re frame. T hi s
method helps prevent the retransmi ssi on of defecti ve frames and also
provi des an acceptable level of latency delay through the network.
CVSD (Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation) A method
of converti ng analog voi ce i nto di gi tal and vi ce versa wi th an on-the-fly
CVSD (Continuously Variable Slope Delta Modulation) 173
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vari able sampli ng rate that ranges from 16 K b/s to 64 K b/s, dependi ng
on how much bandwi dth i s avai lable.
CWA (Communications Workers of America) See Communications
Workers of America.
Cycle One cycle of a waveforms pattern ( Fi g. C.45) . Cycles are used as
a reference to measure the frequency of a waveform or si gnal. I n the
followi ng di agram, two waveforms and one cycle of each are si ngled out.
Cycles are usually referred to as a number of cycles per uni t of ti me.
Cycles per second and hertz are measurements of the number of cycles
you get per second i n an analog transmi ssi on. Bits per second i s a meas-
urement of how many square-wave clock sample sequences are bei ng
read from a di gi tal transmi ssi on. Frequency i s a measure of the number
of cycles per second ( i n Hz) . One Hz ( hertz) i s equal to one cycle i n one
second. Two Hz i s two cycles i n one second, 1000 Hz i s 1000 cycles i n
one second.
174 CWA (Communications Workers of America)
Figure C.45 Cycle
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) A method used by modems and
other transmi ssi on devi ces to veri fy the accurate transfer of bi ts. CRC
i s used i n connecti on-ori ented transmi ssi ons and functi ons wi th a re-
transmi t feature when bi ts recei ved are corrupted.
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D Amps Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service. See also Amps.
D Bank Another term for a Channel Bank. A devi ce that demulti plexes
( breaks down) a T 1 ci rcui t to i ts 24 channels.
D Bit A control bi t i n an X.25 data packet that requests an acknowl-
edgement from the far-end devi ce on an X.25 network. Acknowledge-
ments ( called RR Receive Ready i n X.25) ori gi nate from the nearest
DCE devi ce. Because most X.25 networks have multi ple handoffs or
hops, i t i s comforti ng to be able to get a true acknowledgement from
the very far end ( techni cally called the end-point DTE) . T he D bi t i s
the si gnal i n X.25 that requests thi s type of acknowledgement. I t i s usu-
ally requested when collect calls are made. For more i nformati on about
the data packet header structure i n X.25, see X.25 Data Packet.
D Channel (Data Channel) T he name of an I SDN out-of-band si gnali ng
channel. T he two ki nds of D channels depend on whi ch I SDN ci rcui t you
have. I f you have a BRI (Basic Rate Interface), the D channel i s 16K b/s
and controls two B ( Bearer) channels. I f you have a PRI (Primary
Rate Interface), then the D channel i s 64K b/s and controls 23 B chan-
nels. Both D channels carry the same i nformati on and perform the same
functi on. A BRI ci rcui t requi res one pai r ( two wi res for transmi ssi on)
and a PRI requi res two pai rs for transmi ssi on. For a di agram that com-
pares the di fferent types of I SDN ci rcui ts, see Integrated Services
Digital Network.
175
D
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D Connector A 25-pi n mi ni versi on of the DB25 Connector. See also mini-
connector.
D4 Channel Bank A Lucent di gi tal transmi ssi on/transport product that
i s T 1 based ( Fi g. D.1) . T he D4 channel bank, whi ch i s useful for central
offi ce i ntertrunki ng, i s bei ng replaced wi th SONET transport equi pment
throughout North Ameri ca.
176 D Connector
Figure D.1 D4 Channel Bank
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D4 Framing More frequently called the super frame format for T 1
transmi ssi ons. T he super frame format consi sts of 12 standard 193-bi t
T 1 frames. T he D4 frami ng format also i ncorporates i n-band si gnali ng.
DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) A part of a channel bank that
encodes analog voice signals into a stream of binary digits. T he digital to
analog converter or analog to digital converter samples a callers voice at a
rate of 8000 times per second. ( T he sample rate for a T 1 channel is 8000
times per second.) Each samples voltage level is measured and converted
to one of 256 possible sample levels. T hese levels are from the lowest,
0000000, to the highest, 11111111. T he reason for 256 levels is because if
you count in binary from 00000000 to 11111111, you end up with 256, the
highest number possible with 8 bits. T he bits are then transmitted one af-
ter another at a high rate of speed to their destination, where the same
process happens in reverse. For a diagram, see Digital to Analog Converter.
DACS (Digital-Access Cross-Connect System) A DACS i s also called a
DCS (Digital Cross-Connect System), dependi ng on the manufacturer. A
di gi tal cross-connect system i s a fundamental part of a local and long-
di stance companys network. T he DACS or DCS i s a rack-mountable system
that enables any ci rcui t that i nterfaces wi th i t to be electroni cally cross-
connected from one path to another wi thi n the network i t i s connected to.
Ci rcui ts that can i nterface wi th a di gi tal cross-connect system i nclude DS0,
DS1, DS3 ( or T 3) , ST S-1, and SONET OC-1. An i ncomi ng ci rcui t can be
rerouted by si mply maki ng path changes i n DACS admi ni strati ve software.
I n the followi ng, a T 1 ci rcui t comi ng i nto the i nput si de ( left si de) could
be cross-connected to exi t as one of the channels i n a DS3 on the ri ght
si de. For a di agram of a DACS/DCS, see Digita Cross-Connect System.
Daisy Chain A method of connecti ng devi ces i n a stri ng. T he bus topol-
ogy for Ethernet i s an example of a dai sy chai n. For a di agram of a dai sy
chai n, better known as a bus topology, see Bus Topology.
DAL (Dedicated Access Line) A pri vate ci rcui t that provi des a di rect
connecti on ( or access) to a long-di stance carri er or other communi cati ons
servi ce, li ke frame relay or an I nternet servi ce provi der. Some DALs are
a full-servi ce ci rcui t, whi ch means that i f you have a ci rcui t that con-
nects you di rectly to your I nternet servi ce provi der, then the only bi ll
you see for that servi ce i s from the I nternet servi ce provi der. T he local
ci rcui t i s i n the I nternet servi ce provi ders name and they pay the phone
bi ll for that servi ce. You, of course, pay a si ngle bi ll for the enti re serv-
i ce. I f you are goi ng to get a di rect I nternet connecti on, thi s i s the way
to go. I f i t ever stops worki ng, you j ust call the I nternet servi ce provi der
and they determi ne where the problem i s and fi x i t.
DAL (Dedicated Access Line) 177
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Dark Current I n a photodi ode, the dark current i s the flow of electri c-
i ty through the di ode when no li ght i s present. Photodi odes are used as
li ght-sensi ti ve swi tches. When they are exposed to li ght, they act li ke a
swi tch and turn on. However, even i f no li ght i s present, a small amount
of electri ci ty sti ll flows through. T hi s i s the dark current ( Fi g. D.2) .
178 Dark Current
Figure D.2 Dark Current: The Schematic Symbol for a Photodiode
Dark Fiber A fi ber-opti c cable that i s i nstalled i n a telephone companys
outsi de plant network, but has no electroni cs connected to i t. Someti mes
customers li ke to lease or buy ri ghts to use dark fi ber, and connect thei r
own electroni cs to i t i n a poi nt-to-poi nt or ri ng appli cati on.
DASD (Direct-Access Storage Device, Dazzdee) A technology that
i ncorporates a memory-retri eval method where a di sk dri ve or RAM can
retri eve or save data di rectly to a speci fi c address wi thout havi ng to scan
through addresses i n the medi um to fi nd i t. CD-ROM i s an example of a
storage devi ce that i ncorporates DASD technology.
DAT (Digital Audio Tape) A hi gh-fi deli ty di gi tal storage medi a for
audi o appli cati ons. DAT tapes are only usable on DAT tape recorder/
players. DAT machi nes record musi c i n the same manner as Compact
Di sks. For each channel, ( left and ri ght) they convert analog sound or
musi c to a 16-bi t sample for every 20 mi croseconds of sound ( a rate
of about 48, 000 samples per second, whi ch i s 12 ti mes the accuracy
of a T 1) .
Data I n the communi cati ons i ndustry, data i s anythi ng that i s transmi t-
ted or processed di gi tally. T he only thi ng that i s not data anymore i s a
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) or analog li ne. A T 1 i s a di gi tal
ci rcui t. T he channels carry voi ces, computer transmi ssi ons, and vi deo i n
a di gi ti zed data format.
Data Burst A short transmi ssi on of data that i s not ti mi ng sensi ti ve, such
as a transmi ssi on for a credi t-card authori zati on or an hourly data down-
load. Audi o or vi deo i s ti mi ng-sensi ti ve data.
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Data Bus A two-way connecti ng scheme of 8, 16, 32, or 64 wi res or
conductors that connect a mi croprocessor ( CPU) to RAM, ROM, and I /O
devi ces ( Fi g. D.3) . A computi ng or controlli ng devi ce needs to have at
least three bus systems, a data bus, address bus, and control bus. T he
data bus provi des for transfer of data between the mi croprocessor, the
ROM and RAM, and the I /O devi ces. T he address bus works i n only one
di recti on ( from the mi croprocessor to the other devi ces) and allows the
mi croprocessor to control memory addressi ng and retri eval. T he control
bus allows the mi croprocessor to control data flow and ti mi ng for all the
vari ous components.
Data Communications Equipment (DCE) 179
microprocessor ROM RAM I/O DEVICE microprocessor ROM RAM I/O DEVICE
Figure D.3 8-Bit Data Bus
Data Circuit Terminating Equipment (DTE, Data Terminating Equip-
ment) DT E equi pment recei ves a communi cati ons si gnal. For a data
connecti on to work between I /O ( i nput output) devi ces, one needs to be
desi gnated the communi cati ons sendi ng equi pment and one the com-
muni cati ons termi nati ng or DT E. A computers pri nter port i s a DCE
port; a pri nter i s a DT E devi ce. A practi cal way to classi fy the two i s:
DCE i s the sender of data and the DT E i s the recei ver of data.
Data Circuit Transparency A ci rcui ts abi li ty to carry data wi thout any
apparent change or restructuri ng of protocol. I n reali ty, when data i s
transmi tted through the publi c network, i t gets loaded i nto other proto-
cols, but on the other end of the transmi ssi on, the data i s recei ved exactly
the way i t was sent. A clear-channel T 1 has data-ci rcui t transparency.
Data Communications To transmi t i nformati on encoded i n bi nary. Data
communi cati ons as a whole has many technologi es to accompli sh thi s.
T hese techni ques are called protocols. Some protocols i nclude ADSL,
I SDN, Ethernet, token ri ng, SONET, swi tched 56K b/s, and frame relay.
Data Communications Equipment (DCE) DCE i s the equi pment that
provi des the source communi cati ons si gnal. For a data connecti on to
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Data Conversion T he process of converti ng data from one protocol to
another. Many devi ces are made to accompli sh the transformati on of data
i n one form to another.
work between I /O ( i nput output) devi ces, one needs to be desi gnated the
communi cati ons sendi ng equi pment and one the communi cati ons ter-
mi nati ng or DTE (Data Terminating Equipment). A computers pri nter
port i s a DCE port; a pri nter i s a DT E devi ce. A practi cal way to classi fy
the two i s: DCE i s the sender of data and the DT E i s the recei ver of data.
Data Compression A method of obtai ni ng hi gher speeds of data trans-
fer wi th the same number of bi ts bei ng transmi tted per second. Before
the data i s transmi tted, i t i s encoded one or more steps beyond the ori g-
i nal bi t stream.
Data Concentrator Another name for a multiplexer. A multi plexer
encodes data of many channels to be transmi tted on one channel.
Data Connector A genderless connector developed by I BM ( Fi g. D.4) .
T hi s connector i s also called a hemaphroditic connector. T he Data
Connector does not need complementary plugs ( male and female) to
make a connecti on, li ke all other known communi cati ons modular
connecti ng systems. T he Data Connector i s speci fi cally desi gned for
swi tched token-ri ng backbone networks.
180 Data Compression
Figure D.4 Data Connector
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Data Encapsulation T he method used to transfer application/user data
from one layer of the OSI /SNA/DNA protocol stack to the next. At the upper
three layers, units of encapsulated data are referred to as packet data units.
At the transport layer, units of encapsulated data are called segments; at
the network layer, the units are called frames, and at the data-link layer,
the units are called frames. Each layer adds its own header information.
Data-Encryption Standard (DES) A cryptographi c algori thm devel-
oped i n the 1970s that i s endorsed by the Nati onal I nsti tute of Sci ence
and Technology. T he standard i s sti ll i n use today, bei ng encapsulated
wi thi n routi ng ( and other) protocols. Duri ng the encrypti on process, a
56-bi t header ( called a key) i s added to the data stream.
Data Extender A devi ce that extends a data si gnal such as an RS232 or
PBX telephone li ne ( or both si multaneously) to another locati on vi a a
di al-up publi c telephone li ne. Data Extenders i ncorporate thei r own pro-
pri etary data compressi on protocols, therefore the data extenders on each
si de of the li ne must be of the same manufacturer. T he advantage of Data
Extenders i s that they compress two si zeable di gi tal si gnals ( 56 kbps/ and
hi gher each) and modulate them to be transported over an i nexpensi ve
POT S ( Plai n Old Telephone Servi ce) li ne.
Data-Flow Control Layer Layer 5 of the SNA (System Network Archi-
tecture) model. T hi s layer determi nes and manages i nteracti ons between
sessi on partners, parti cularly data flow. I t corresponds to the sessi on layer
of the OSI model. See also System Network Architecture and OSI.
Data Integrity A term that refers to how few errors are occurri ng i n the
transfer of transmi ssi on of data. T he lower the error rate, the better the
data i ntegri ty.
Data Link I n an SNA (IBM System Network Architecture) network, ba-
si cally the two parts are data li nks and nodes ( Fi g. D.5) . T here are many
types of data li nks; some are si mply a LAN connecti on over twi sted pai r
and some i ncorporate addi ti onal hardware. T he latter connect remote
locati ons through the publi c telephone network, uti li zi ng I SDN, frame
relay, X.25, and other lower-level li nk protocols.
Data-Link Connection (DLC) A user connecti on to a frame-relay net-
work that could be thought of as a vi rtual channel on a multi plexer. A DLC
i s a half duplex ( one way) data channel. To get full duplex communi cati ons
i n frame relay, the DLCs from each user are combi ned to provi de full-duplex
communi cati ons abi li ty. Hence, two DLCs consti tute a PVC (Permanent
Virtual Circuit). See also Data-Link Connection Identifier.
Data-Link Connection (DLC) 181
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 181
182 Data-Link Connection Identifier (DLCI)
Mainframe
IBM 3174
Terminal
Terminal Terminal
Terminal
NODES
DATA LINKS
Figure D.5 Data Link
Data-Link Connection Identifier (DLCI) A number gi ven to a DLC
(Data-Link Connection) on a frame-relay servi ce ( Fi g. D.6) . DLCI s
are provi ded to customers by the frame-relay servi ce provi der. I t i s the
part of the frame-relay packet header that provi des space for 10 bi ts
Router A
New York City
DLCI 20
Router E
Dallas
DLCI 21
Router D
Los Angeles
DLCI 22
Router C
Chicago
DLCI 23
Router B
Miami
DLCI 24
T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
FRAME RELAY
NETWORK
SAMPLE DLCI ALLOCATION
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU T1
Router E
Seattle
DLCI 25
Figure D.6 Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 182
of data that i s used to name the logi cal channel that the frame wi ll be
routed to. Furthermore, the DLCI i s embedded i nto the data stream
from the very begi nni ng of the transmi ssi on to the very end. Routers
use DLCI s to speci fy a PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit) or SVC
(Switched Virtual Circuit) that li nks to other routers or devi ces i n a
frame-relay network. I n the basi c frame-relay speci fi cati on, DLCI val-
ues that are gi ven to li nks or routes are di fferent for every i ndi vi dual
router i n a network. Di fferent routers can use di fferent DLCI numbers
to i denti fy the same route ( connecti on) i n the same network. I n the
LMI (Local Management Interface) extended speci fi cati on for frame
relay, DLCI s are globally si gni fi cant and the same DLCI numbers are
gi ven to all routes by all routers. T he DLCI i s very si mi lar to ( and per-
forms the same task as) the LCN (Logical Channel Number) i n X.25.
For a table of DLCI allocati ons, see DLCI. See also LMI.
Data Link Control (DLC) T he part of a communi cati ons protocol that
resi des i n the overhead and provi des a user ( or the protocol i tself) a
means to control connect, di sconnect, error-correcti ng, transmi ssi on-
speed, and other operati on-cruci al functi ons.
Data Link Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n gen-
eral, the data li nk layer recei ves and transmi ts data over the physi cal
layer medi a ( twi sted pai r, fi ber opti c, etc.) . T he latest model ( gui deli ne)
for communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect).
I t i s the best model so far because all of the layers or functi ons work
i ndependently of each other. For a di agram of the OSI , SNA, and DNA
functi on layers, see Open Systems Interconnection.
Data-Link Switching (DLSw) An i nteroperabi li ty standard, descri bed
i n RFC 1434, that provi des a method for forwardi ng SNA and NetBI OS
traffi c over T CP/I P networks usi ng data-li nk layer swi tchi ng and encap-
sulati on. DLSw uses SSP (Switch-to-Switch Protocol) i nstead of I BM
SRB (Source Route Bridging), eli mi nati ng the maj or li mi tati ons of SRB,
such as hop-count li mi ts, broadcast traffi c, ti meouts, lack of flow con-
trol, and lack-of-pri ori ti zati on schemes. See also SRB (Source Route
Bridging) and SSP (Switch-to-Switch Protocol).
Data Network Identification Code (DNIC) Part of an X.121 address.
DNI Cs are di vi ded i nto two parts. T he fi rst part speci fi es the country i n
whi ch the addressed PSN i s located and the second speci fi es the PSN
i tself. See also X.121.
Data Packet Switch Also called a packet switch or data switch ( Fig. D.7) .
I t i s a devi ce that routes segmented transmi ssi ons between end users,
Data Packet Switch 183
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 183
Data Service Unit (DSU) Also called a CSU/DSU (Channel Service
Unit/Data Service Unit). A DSU i s a hardware devi ce that can come i n
many shapes and si zes. Rack-mount, shelf-mount, and stand-alone DSUs
are avai lable. A CSU/DSU has three mai n functi ons. T he fi rst functi on i s
to act as a demarcati on poi nt for a T 1 ( DS1) servi ce from a local com-
muni cati ons company. T he second functi on i s to provi de li ne format and
li ne-code conversi on ( B8ZS to AMI , SF or D4 to ESF, 135 V to 0 V)
between the publi c network and the customer-premi ses equi pment, i f
necessary. T he thi rd functi on i s to provi de mai ntenance or alarm serv-
i ces and loop-back for i solati ng problems wi th the T 1 li ne or customers
equi pment. For a photo, see CSU/DSU.
Data Set Ready (DSR) Pi n 6 of a DB25 connector wi red for the RS232C
protocol. T hi s wi re i s used by a modem or SDI devi ce to send a si gnal
that acknowledges that i s ready to recei ve data.
usi ng a connecti onless protocol, such as X.25, Ethernet, frame relay, to-
ken ri ng, AT M, or T CP/I P. Data packet swi tchi ng i s often performed i n
levels, wi th one protocol carryi ng another. For example, an Ethernet-
based transmi ssi on from a LAN could be routed over a frame relay or
AT M connecti on vi a a data packet swi tch. Packet swi tches consi st of PDN
(Public Data Networks) or PSN (Packet-Switching Networks), whi ch
are the basi s of the frame relay, AT M, and X.25 servi ces that publi c tele-
communi cati ons compani es offer.
184 Data Service Unit (DSU)
HOST
PAD
PAD
PC
Modem
Modem
PSE
BOISE
PSE
CHICAGO
PACKET SWITCHING NETWORK
MAJOR COMPONENTS
PSE
SAN DIEGO
TELCO
LINE
TELCO
LINE
Figure D.7 Data Packet SwitchX.25
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 184
Data Sink A loose term for DTE (Data Terminal Equipment). I t i s a
reference to network equi pment that accepts data transmi ssi ons.
Data Span Another name for a servi ce purchased from a communi ca-
ti ons company. I t can refer to any di gi tal servi ce, i ncludi ng T 1, 56K , I SDN,
or any other data-carryi ng servi ce.
Data Stream All data and overhead transmi tted through a communi ca-
ti ons li nk i n a si ngle read, wri te, or fi le-transfer operati on.
Data-Switching Exchange (DSE) Also called PSE (Packet Switching
Exchange). A part of an X.25 packet swi tchi ng network that recei ves
packets of data from a PAD ( Packet Assembler/Di ssembler) vi a a mo-
dem. T he PSE makes and holds copi es of each packet, then transmi ts
the packets one at a ti me to the PSE that they are addressed to. T he lo-
cal PSE then di scards the copi es as the far-end PSE acknowledges the
safe recei pt of the ori gi nal.
Datagram A logi cal groupi ng of i nformati on sent as a network layer uni t
over a transmi ssi on medi um wi thout pri or establi shment of a vi rtual ci r-
cui t. T he word datagram i s used i n place of packet or frame to clari fy
the connecti onless protocol envi ronment i n whi ch they exi st. I P data-
grams are the pri mary i nformati on uni ts i n the I nternet. T he terms cell,
frame, message, packet, and segment are also used to descri be uni ts
of electroni c data at di fferent layers of the OSI reference model and i n
vari ous technology ci rcles. I n T CP/I P, the datagram contai ns appli cati on
data, a T CP header, and an I P header. For a di agram of a datagram, see
IP Datagram.
Datagram Delivery Protocol T he AppleTalk network layer protocol
that i s responsi ble for the socket-to-socket deli very of datagrams over
an AppleTalk i nternetwork.
DATU (Direct-Access Test Unit) Also called MLT (Mechanized Loop
Test). Equi pment that i s ei ther added on or bui lt i nto a central offi ce
swi tch. DAT U allows a techni ci an to di al the phone number of the DAT U
or MLT equi pment and execute a test for shorts, opens, and grounds re-
motely. I n response to a di gi tal voi ce, the techni ci an enters a password
and a choi ce of opti ons. T he results of the test can be read back to the
techni ci an by a di gi tal recordi ng or sent to them vi a an alpha-numeri c
pager. DAT U uni ts can also send a locati ng tone on the techni ci ans choi ce
of T I P, RI NG, or both T I P and RI NG. T he test uni t can also short li nes
and remove the battery voltage for testi ng purposes.
DATU (Direct-Access Test Unit) 185
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 185
DB15 A connector used for data-connecti vi ty appli cati ons. I t has 15 pi ns
and can be confi gured for several protocols, i ncludi ng the popular RS-232.
DB25 A connector used for data-connecti vi ty appli cati ons. I t has 25 pi ns
and can be confi gured for several protocols, i ncludi ng the popular RS-232
( Fi g. D.9) .
DBA (Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation) A feature of nonconnecti on-
ori ented protocols at the physi cal layer, such as X.25, frame relay, and
DB (Decibel) A deci bel i s 110 of a Bel. T hi s i s a measurement of i n-
crease or decrease of a si gnal that comes from the rati o of transmi tted
power to recei ved power. To have a general i dea of what a deci bel i s, re-
member that negati ve deci bels represent a loss of power. Posi ti ve deci -
bels represent an i ncrease i n power. I f you compare deci bels wi th the
way your ear reacts to sound, every 3 deci bels would cut the ori gi nal
loudness of the sound i n half.
DB Connector (Data-Bus Connector) A type of connector for seri al
or parallel communi cati on ports i ncorporated i nto personal computers
or telecommuni cati ons devi ces. T he speci fi c connector type i s deter-
mi ned by the number of pi ns that the connector has ( i .e., DB9, DB15,
and DB25) . T he number of pi ns that are used and what purpose they
serve i s determi ned by the communi cati ons standard that i s used across
the DB physi cal i nterface. See also RS-232.
DB9 A connector used for data-connecti vi ty appli cati ons. I t has ni ne
pi ns, and i t can be confi gured for several protocols, i ncludi ng the pop-
ular RS-232 ( Fi g. D.8) .
186 DB (Decibel)
Figure D.8 DB9 Connector
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 186
AT M . T hese telecommuni cati ons protocols permi t a vari able number of
users to uti li ze the full bandwi dth of a connecti on. One method i s sta-
ti sti cal ti me-di vi si on multi plexi ng used i n X.25, whi ch assi gns packets
to avai lable channels, regardless of the user or the number of users.
AT M and frame relay are also capable of allocati ng bandwi dth to users
unti l the local loop i s fully uti li zed. T hi s i s a natural feature of these
protocols because no user actually has to make a connecti on, or reserve
a channel over the physi cal layer to make a transmi ssi on. See also
STDM, Connection-Oriented Protocol, and Connectionless Network
Protocol.
dBi (Decibels Isotropic) Parti cularly i n wi reless Ethernet ( I EEE
802.11b) and other radi o desi gn ci rcles, antenna gai n i s an i ndi cator of
how well an antenna focuses RF energy i n a preferred di recti on. Antenna
gai n i s expressed i n dBi , whi ch i s the rati o of the power radi ated by an
antenna i n a speci fi c di recti on compared to the power radi ated i n that
di recti on by a nondi recti onal antenna fed by the same transmi tter. An-
tenna manufacturers normally speci fy the antenna gai n for each antenna
they manufacture. A typi cal low-power Yagi antenna can have a 12dBi
of di recti onal advantage over an i sotropi c ( nondi recti onal) antenna. T hi s
can mean a factor of up to fi ve ti mes the radi o range.
dBi (Decibels Isotropic) 187
Figure D.9 DB25 Connector
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 187
DBm Deci bels below 1 mi lli watt. T hi s i s a measure of power loss wi th
1 mi lli watt as the transmi ssi on reference. As a common example i f you
recei ve a si gnal at 1 mi lli watt, then you have a loss of 0 dBM. I f you re-
cei ve a si gnal that i s 0.001 mi lli watts, then you have a loss of 30 dBM.
Some methods of testi ng analog phone li nes i nclude di ali ng a number
that answers and provi des a 1-mi lli watt reference si gnal at 1000 Hz. T he
meter on the li ne measures the 1000-Hz si gnal on i ts end and di splays a
readi ng. Most POT S telephone li nes are between 20 and 32 dBm.
DBrn Deci bels above reference noi se. T hi s i s the same method of compar-
i ng transmi tted and recei ved si gnals by the log 10 of a rati o, only a refer-
ence i s premeasured and used as the i nput ( the denomi nator i n the rati o) .
DBU Deci bels below 1 mi crowatt. Just dBm at a smaller i ncrement. T hi s
i s a measure of power loss wi th 1 mi crowatt as the transmi ssi on refer-
ence. As a common example i s: I f you recei ve a si gnal at 1 mi crowatt,
then you have a loss of 0 dBM. I f you recei ve a si gnal that i s 0.001 mi -
crowatts, then you have a loss of 30 dBM.
DC T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for di rect control. T he bi nary
code i s 0001001 and the hex i s 11.
DC (Direct Current) DC i s current that i s i nduced by a voltage source
that does not change di recti on from posi ti ve to negati ve. DC can fluc-
tuate, and carry an analog si gnal by varyi ng the DC current and voltage.
DC can pulse, i t can spi ke, and i t can do many thi ngs. T he one thi ng that
DC cannot do i s change di recti on. Common sources of DC are batteri es,
AC power adapters, and power recti fi ers.
DCC (Data Communications Channel) An overhead channel i n an
AT & T SONET ri ng. I t allows the i ndi vi dual nodes to communi cate con-
trol i nformati on to each other.
DCC (Data Country Code) One of two AT M address formats devel-
oped by the AT M Forum for use by pri vate networks. I t i s adapted from
the subnetwork model of addressi ng i n whi ch the AT M layer i s respon-
si ble for mappi ng network-layer addresses to AT M addresses. Compare
wi th ICD.
DCE (Data Communications Equipment) See Data Communica-
tions Equipment.
DCS (Digital Cross-Connect System) A DCS i s also called a DACS
(Digital Access Cross Connect System), dependi ng on the manufacturer.
188 DBm
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 188
A di gi tal cross-connect system i s a fundamental part of a local and long-
di stance companys network because of the rapi d deployment of broad-
band transmi ssi on equi pment ( SONET, DS3) . Cross connecti ng broadband
servi ces can be cumbersome because larger ci rcui ts ( OC-1) requi re coax.
T he DACS or DCS i s a rack-mountable system that enables any ci rcui t that
i nterfaces wi th i t to be electroni cally cross connected from one path to
another wi thi n the network i t i s connected to. Ci rcui ts that can i nterface
wi th a di gi tal cross-connect system i nclude DS0, DS1, DS3 ( or T 3) ,
ST S-1, and SONET OC-1. An i ncomi ng ci rcui t can be rerouted by si mply
maki ng path changes i n DACS admi ni strati ve software. For a di agram and
photo of a DCS/DACS system, see Digital Cross Connect System.
DCV (Digital Compressed Video) T here are several types of DCV. T he
obj ect of compressed vi deo, i n general, i s to transmi t an i ni ti al pi cture,
then transmi t only the parts of the pi cture that move. A good example
i s a vi deo phone appli cati on, where only a persons mouth and faci al fea-
tures move. Everythi ng else i n the vi deo phone pi cture stays the same.
DDM (Distributed-Data Management) A software enti ty i n I BM SNA
(System Network Architecture) envi ronments that provi des peer-to-
peer communi cati on and fi le shari ng. DDM i s one of three SNA transac-
ti on servi ces. See also Document Interchange Architecture and SNA
Distribution Services.
DDP (Datagram Delivery Protocol) T he AppleTalk network layer pro-
tocol that i s responsi ble for the socket-to-socket deli very of datagrams
over an AppleTalk I nternetwork.
DE (Discard Eligibility) DE i s one of the bi ts i n the standard 16-bi t
header of a frame-relay frame. I t i s set to 1 to noti fy the network that
i ts frame should be di scarded at the fi rst onset of network congesti on.
See also Frame Relay.
De Facto Standard A standard that has come about because of consumer
populari ty, not because of formal approval of a standards commi ttee.
Dead Spot A dead spot i s an area wi thi n a transmi tters range where the
radi o si gnal bei ng transmi tted cannot be recei ved. Dead spots occur for
many di fferent reasons. Someti mes the si gnal i s blocked or reflected,
someti mes i t i s because you are located i n a small valley that di ps below
the radi o transmi ssi on.
Decibel (dB) A deci bel i s
1
10 of a Bel. T hi s i s a measurement of i ncrease
or decrease of a si gnal that comes from the rati o of transmi tted power
Decibel (dB) 189
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 189
to recei ved power. To have a general i dea of what a deci bel i s, remem-
ber that negati ve deci bels represent a loss of power. Posi ti ve deci bels
represent an i ncrease i n power. I f you compare deci bels wi th the way
your ear reacts to sound, every 3 deci bels would cut the ori gi nal loud-
ness of the sound i n half. See also DBm.
Decimal-to-Binary Conversion For a conversi on table of bi nary to dec-
i mal and hexadeci mal, see Appendix E.
Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion For a table on deci mal-to-
hexadeci mal conversi on, see Appendix E.
Decoder A devi ce or software program that converts a si gnal or trans-
mi ssi on from one protocol to another.
Dedicated Access Reference to a telephone li ne that i s usually provi ded
by an I XC ( I nter Exchange Carri er, long-di stance company) for exclu-
si ve di ali ng of long di stance on thei r network. Someti mes the customer
has the li ne i nstalled themselves by a LEC (Local-Exchange Carrier)
and gets bi lled separately for the dedi cated-access li ne and the long-
di stance servi ce. Some dedi cated-access li nes are capable of di ali ng local
calls, but thei r long-di stance servi ce i s dedi cated to a speci fi c I XC.
Dedicated Channel A channel wi thi n a T 1 or T 3 that i s dedi cated to a
speci fi c customer. Other than that, i t i s a pri vate li ne/dedi cated ci rcui t.
Dedicated Circuit Also called a private line. A pri vate li ne i s a pai r of
wi re or ( two pai rs of wi re for a T 1) that runs from your locati on to a lo-
cati on that you want to be connected to wi th a dedi cated hi gh-speed
data connecti on. Once a pri vate li ne i s i nstalled, i t i s there all day, every
day. T here i s no di ali ng on a pri vate li ne because i t does not go through
swi tchi ng ci rcui try, although i t does get regenerated ( the data si gnal on
the channel i s recei ved and retransmi tted) . Dedi cated li nes could be on
copper, whi ch they have been very much i n the past, but si nce the de-
ployment of SONET, i t i s possi ble to put hundreds of pri vate li nes and
swi tched li nes on a pai r of opti cal fi bers.
Dedicated Line A telephone li ne from the phone company that i s dedi -
cated to one user or devi ce. Most fax machi nes and modems are on ded-
i cated li nes. A dedi cated li ne i s not a trunk because a trunk i s a li ne that
multi ple users share. A dedi cated li ne can also be a dedi cated ci rcui t ( a
pri vate data li ne) , but i t i s less common.
Default Gateway 1. An address that i denti fi es the route that leads out-
si de of a subnetwork, or segment of a local-area network. Usually the
190 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 190
default gateway I P address belongs to a router. 2. I n I P routi ng ( Layer 3
swi tchi ng) , default I P gateway routes I P packets that have unresolved des-
ti nati on I P addresses or addresses that are not i n i ts local network/routi ng
table. Setti ng the default gateway I P address tells the swi tch how to send
packets to a devi ce that i s not on the local network. Defi ni ng multi ple de-
fault I P gateways provi des redundancy. I f the pri mary default I P gateway
fai ls, a layer 3 Ethernet swi tch or router sends packets to the secondary
default I P gateways i n the order i n whi ch they were confi gured.
Default Route 1. I n data networki ng, a stati c ( manually i nput) routi ng
table entry that i nstructs the router where to send frames that have an
address that i s not i denti fi ed wi thi n routi ng memory. See also Routing
Table. 2. I n voi ce networki ng, a reference to a trunk group that a call
would be connected to i f the peri pheral devi ce that the telephone system
i s attempti ng to transfer the call to i s i n a fai led state. For example, i f a
PBX tri es to transfer a call lto an IVR (Interactive Voice Response) system
that has been powered down, the PBX would sense the outage because i t
would not get the proper si gnali ng over the connecti ng trunks. T he PBX
would then send the calls to an alternati ve desti nati on. thi s alternati ve des-
ti nati on would be a default route. T hi s routi ng could termi nate to a group
of outbound trunks, a busy si gnal, or to a queue where an agent can an-
swer the call. 3. Another name for default gateway. See Default Gateway.
Definity A PBX (Private Branch Exchange System) manufactured
by Lucent Technologi es. For a pi cture, see Private Branch Exchange.
Degaussing Coil Degaussi ng i s to demagneti ze. A degaussi ng coi l i s si m-
ply a long coi l of wi re that i s bent i nto the shape of a ci rcle. I f a CRT
( pi cture tube or moni tor tube) becomes magneti zed, you wi ll noti ce an
area of di scolorati on. By wavi ng a degaussi ng coi l around thi s area, you
wi ll demagneti ze the screen of the CRT. Many moni tors have degauss-
i ng coi ls bui lt i nto them.
Degradation Another term for attenuati on. As a si gnal traverses down a
wi re, fi ber-opti c cable, or through the ai r, i t loses power and becomes
di storted. T hi s phenomenon i s referred to as attenuation, loss, or degra-
dation.
De Jure Standard A standard that exi sts because of i ts approval by an
offi ci al standards body, as opposed to a de facto standard, whi ch exi sts
si mply because of i ndustry and market populari ty. See also De Facto
Standard and Standard.
DEL T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for delete i dle. T he bi nary code
i s 1111111 and the hex i s F7.
DEL 191
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 191
Delay T he ti me di fference between when a si gnal i s sent and when i t i s
recei ved.
Delay Variation Another way to descri be the si gnal di storti on known i n
electroni cs ci rcles as j i tter. Over I P telephony networks, delay vari ati on
i s the worst ki nd of di storti on. Delay vari ati on causes users voi ces to
sound roboti c, i f understandable at all.
Delayed Ring Transfer A PBX and key-system feature that i s j ust li ke
call forwardi ng, except that before the call i s forwarded, i t ri ngs a pre-
selected number of ti mes. I f you are not i n your offi ce and someone calls
you, you can have the call forwarded to another associ ate after a certai n
number of ri ngs. T hi s i s delayed ri ng transfer.
Delta Channel Another name for an ISDN (Integrated Services Digi-
tal Network) D channel, whi ch i s the data or control channel of an
I SDN li ne.
Delta Modulation A form of encodi ng analog si gnals to di gi tal bi nary. I n-
stead of sampli ng a si gnal and creati ng an 8-bi t bi nary number, li ke the
standard ADC, delta modulati on samples the change ( delta i s the term for
change i n the physi cal sci ences) of the si gnal ( Fi g. D.10) . Delta modula-
ti on only looks for two changes i n an analog si gnal, change hi gher and
change lower. T hi s hi gher or lower si gnal i s sent to a far-end devi ce and
the si gnal i s re-created or decoded wi th these si mple hi gher or lower i n-
structi ons. I ncluded i s a di agram of an analog si gnal and i ts delta-code equi v-
alent. Noti ce that as the si gnal goes up i n voltage, the delta-modulati on
techni que regi sters a 1, when i t goes down i n voltage i t regi sters a zero.
192 Delay
Analog
Signal
Sample
Timing
Delta modulation 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Encoded output
Figure D.10 Delta Modulation
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 192
Demarc (Dmarc, Demarcation Point) A Dmarc i s where the local
phone company hands off a telephone ci rcui t. A Dmarc can be i n the
form of a standard network i nterface for a resi denti al li ne, a DSX panel
for a T 1 or T 3, an RJ212X for a busi ness li ne, or an RJ45 for an I SDN
li ne. T he Dmarc separates customer-owned equi pment from telephone
company-owned equi pment. I t i s also the place where responsi bi li ty for
the ci rcui ts performance i s separated.
Demarcation Point See Demarc.
Demodulation T he i nverse of modulati on. When a radi o si gnal i s re-
cei ved, the i nformati on that was sent over i t ( audi o, vi deo, or data) i s
sti ll mi xed i n wi th the carri er. T he process of demodulati on removes the
carri er si gnal from the i nformati on you want. Some di fferent types of de-
modulators are AM, FM, and PM.
Demultiplex T he i nverse of multiplex. Multi plexi ng i s the process of en-
codi ng two or more di gi tal si gnals or channels onto one. T he reason that
channels are multi plexed together i n communi cati ons i s because i t saves
money. When we use all of the wi res i n a cable and need more, i t costs
less to add electroni cs on the ends of a cable than to i nstall a new one
( i magi ne the expense from LA to NY) . A T 1 encodes 24 channels i nto
one by usi ng frequency-di vi si on multi plexi ng. I n a si mpler explanati on,
a T 1 makes i t possi ble to place 24 li nes that once needed 24 pai rs on
only 2 pai rs. When a group of si gnals are multi plexed together, they are
all sampled at a hi gh rate of speed, faster than the combi ned speed of
all the channels bei ng multi plexed. For a di agram of the multi plexi ng
process, see Time Division Multiplexing.
Demux Abbrevi ati on for de-multiplex. To separate multi plexed channels
from one transmi ssi on i nto thei r ori gi nal i ndi vi dual channel.
Deregulation T he transi ti on of government authori ty and control away
from speci fi c busi ness acti vi ti es of telephone or cable T V compani es.
T he complete deregulati on of the RBOCs wi ll be a gradual process
and, dependi ng on the way i n whi ch the telecommuni cati ons i ndustry
evolves, complete deregulati on mi ght never happen. T he purpose of
deregulati on i s to promote new technology, lower pri ces, i mprove serv-
i ce, and create a more abundant supply of telecommuni cati ons serv-
i ces.
Des (Designation Strip) (slang Dez) A desi gnati on stri p, or desi
stri p i s the pi ece of paper or label that goes under a button on a phone.
T he type wri tten on the desi stri p i denti fi es the feature wi th the
Des (Designation Strip) (slang Dez) 193
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programmi ng for that button. Newer equi pment i ncorporates a small LCD
di splay for the button desi gnati on.
DES (Data Encryption Standard) A standard cryptographi c algori thm
developed by the Uni ted States Nati onal Bureau of Standards. I t i s of-
ten referred to by i ts newest versi on, whi ch i s the tri ple DES, or 3DES,
whi ch i s a 168-bi t secure encrypti on. DES i s not too di ffi cult for a hacker
to break wi th the correct tools; however, 3DES i s far more di ffi cult to
break or hack, but only wi th the support of supercomputer resources.
Designated Port See Spantree.
Designated Router (DR) I n OSPF routi ng, a router that i s elected by
bei ng i n OSPF routi ng area zero, and havi ng the hi ghest I P address. A
desi gnated router must possess one li nk to a networks backbone ( by
desi gn) . T he desi gnated router i s the router that all Area Border Routers
( ABRs) i n an autonomous system communi cate li nk state status to and
recei ve updated li nk state databases from. I f a li nk i n the pri mary back-
bone area ( routi ng area zero) should fai l, the ABR or DR recei ves a Li nk
State Update ( LSU) packet from the router that the changed li nk be-
longs to. I n response to thi s packet, the ABR or DR sends a Li nk State
ACK message and then stops forwardi ng packets. I t recalculates i ts rout-
i ng database wi th the new i nformati on, sends the routi ng database
change to the other routers wi thi n i ts area, then begi ns forwardi ng pack-
ets agai n.
Designation Strip See Des.
Desk-Top Engineer A person that mai ntai ns personal computers/
workstati ons and LAN network connecti vi ty. T hey mi ght also mai ntai n
stati on servi ces on a PBX swi tch, whi ch i s the connecti ng, programmi ng,
and movi ng of telephone extensi ons throughout a network. Desk-top engi -
neers do not usually do swi tchi ng equi pment upgrades or addi ti ons and do
not do LAN admi ni strati on. Desk-top engi neers are also called desk-top
technicians.
Desk-Top Technician See Desk-Top Engineer.
Destination Address T he i denti fi er of a network devi ce that i s recei v-
i ng data. Also called by MAC (Media-Access Control) address. As data
i s sent from a devi ce, that data works i ts way from layer to layer. Dur-
i ng i ts transport, addi ti onal headers that contai n addressi ng or routi ng
i nformati on are added on and stri pped off. I n networki ng vi a the Open
Systems Interconnect (OSI) model each i ndependent layer can add i ts
194 DES (Data Encryption Standard)
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own addressi ng and routi ng i nformati on wi thi n the header for that cor-
respondi ng layer. From start to fi ni sh, the MAC (Media-Access Control)
address remai ns encapsulated wi thi n the ori gi nal header, whi ch i s per-
manently burned i nto the memory of every network i nterface devi ce or
NIC (Network Interface Card). T hi s address i s the i denti fi er of the de-
vi ce that i s to recei ve the data.
Destination MAC T he MAC (Media-Access Control) address speci fi ed
i n the address fi eld of a packet. I t i s also called a destination address.
A desti nati on address i s the i denti fi er of a network devi ce that i s re-
cei vi ng data. As data i s sent from a devi ce, that data works i ts way from
layer to layer. Duri ng i ts transport, addi ti onal headers that contai n ad-
dressi ng or routi ng i nformati on are added on and stri pped off. I n net-
worki ng vi a the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model, each i nde-
pendent layer can add i ts own addressi ng and routi ng i nformati on wi thi n
the header for that layer. From start to fi ni sh, the MAC address remai ns
encapsulated wi thi n the ori gi nal header, whi ch i s permanently burned
i nto the memory of every network-i nterface devi ce or NIC (Network
Interface Card). See also MAC Address.
Detector T he ci rcui t i nsi de a radi o recei ver that detects fluctuati ons i n
the modulated carri er ( radi o si gnal) . T he detector si mply fi lters the car-
ri er ( radi o porti on) out of the wanted end si gnal ( audi o and/or vi deo) .
T he si mplest form of detector i s the germani um di ode/fi lter capaci tor
used i n AM recei vers.
Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) A German nati onal standards organ-
i zati on that develops de j ure standards for Germany. Many standards de-
veloped or suggested by thi s organi zati on are adopted by other organi -
zati ons that are nati onal and/or i nternati onal. T he ori gi nal DI N connector
i s one of them. See also DIN Connector.
DHCP (Dynamic Host-Configuration Protocol) A protocol that pro-
vi des the speci fi c servi ce wi thi n a network of automati cally confi guri ng
hosts/workstati ons wi thi n that network. DHCP i s capable of automati -
cally confi guri ng the I P address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS
addresses.
DIA (Document Interchange Architecture) A method or format for
transferri ng data fi les. DI A defi nes the protocols and data formats needed
for the transparent i nterchange of data fi les i n an I BM SNA (System
Network Architecture) network. DI A i s one of three SNA transacti on
servi ces. See also Distributed Data Management and SNA Distribu-
tion Services.
DIA (Document Interchange Architecture) 195
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Dial-By-Name Directory A feature of voi ce-mai l systems that enables a
caller to be transferred from the automated attendant to a person ( or
department) by knowi ng that persons name, then di ali ng ( spelli ng) the
correspondi ng letters on the di al pad. Automated attendants are re-
garded as a poor i mpressi on to customers that are fi rst-ti me callers. T hi s
i s especi ally true for compani es that deal i n servi ce or retai l.
Dial String A set of i nstructi ons that are sent to a devi ce ( such as a mo-
dem) that i s capable of di ali ng a number on an analog phone li ne. T he
i nstructi ons i n di al stri ngs are the same that you take for granted. T hey
i nclude go off-hook, wai t for di al tone, di al di gi ts, wai t for answer, etc.
Dial Tone An analog method of si gnali ng. When you pi ck up the hand-
set of a telephone that i s connected to the phone company or a PBX
system, you hear a buzzi ng hum sound. T hat sound i s a di al tone, a si g-
nal from the PBX or telephone company central offi ce swi tch to go ahead
and di al your number.
Dial-Tone Delay T he ti me from when you go off-hook and when you re-
cei ve a di al tone from the host swi tch.
Dial-Up Line A li ne that can be di aled i nto. Some di al-up li nes i nclude
the POTS (Plain-Old Telephone Service) to your house, I SDN, and
swi tched 56 data ci rcui ts.
Dial-Up Modem A modem that i s i ntended to be used on the publi c-
swi tched telephone network. I t i s connected to a phone li ne and that
phone li ne has a phone number that people can di al wi th thei r modems.
T hese modems are the most common i n personal computers. T he other
type of modem i s a short-haul modem, whi ch doesnt di al numbers i t
j ust extends a di gi tal si gnal ( e.g., to the other si de of a bui ldi ng for a
pri nter) .
Dial-Up Networking (DUN) A computer-communi cati on method where
a POT S telephone li ne i s used i n conj uncti on wi th a modem for the
physi cal and data-li nk layer connecti on and a speci fi c protocol i s used
to transfer i nformati on. I n I nternet appli cati ons, PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol) or SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) i s used.
Diaper A pi ece of plasti c wrap that i s temporari ly placed over cable faults.
DID (Direct Inward Dial) A phone li ne that comes from the local phone
company and connects to your PBX swi tch. A DI D li ne has a phone
196 Dial-By-Name Directory
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number ( and DNI S or vi rtual di rectory number attached to i t) that i s
targeted to ri ng di rectly to a phone on the PBX network wi thout goi ng
to a console operator, or anywhere else fi rst. T he PBX system usually
needs speci fi c DI D trunk ( i ncomi ng li ne) hardware to make DI D li nes
work.
Dielectric A materi al that does not conduct electri ci ty. Di electri c mate-
ri als are used as i nsulati ng materi als, such as the vi nyl coati ng on cop-
per wi res. Good di electri c materi als ( more frequently called insulators)
are glass, cerami c, rubber, and plasti c.
Differential Encoding A physi cal medi a-transmi ssi on format used i n
I EEE 802.5 and token-ri ng LANs (Local-Area Networks). Di fferenti al
encodi ng combi nes a clocki ng si gnal wi th the data stream. A bi nary 1 i s
denoted by a voltage i ncrease and a bi nary 0 i s denoted by a voltage de-
crease. T he voltage reset between voltage i ncreases and decreases rep-
resents the clocki ng or ti mi ng source. By desi gn, di fferenti al encodi ng i s
less prone to attenuati on, but i s more sensi ti ve to RFI (Radio-Frequency
Interference) than PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) formats. T hi s for-
mat i s also referred to as Differential Manchester Encoding or Man-
chester Encoding.
Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) A pre-V-seri es modem stan-
dard. T hi s phase-modulati on method was used i n Bell 201 standard
modems. DPSK i ncorporated di bi ts ( two bi ts represented by a phase
shi ft) . T he code representati on i s as follows: A phase shi ft of the current
carri er phase by 45 degrees represents a 00 bi nary value, a 135-degree
phase shi ft from the present carri er phase represents a 01 bi nary value,
a 315-degree phase shi ft from the present carri er phase represents a 10
bi nary value, and a 225-degree phase shi ft from the present carri er phase
represents a 11 bi nary value.
Digital A si gnal that has only two possi ble levels per cycle, i n contrast
to analog, whi ch can have an i nfi ni te number of possi ble levels per cycle
( Fi g. D.11) . T he great thi ng about a di gi tal si gnal i s that i t can be
Digital 197
ANALOG DIGITAL
Figure D.11 Digital
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 197
regenerated easi ly. Even though i t mi ght pi ck up noi se and RFI as i t i s
transmi tted along a wi re, when i t i s regenerated, all the noi se i s cut out
because the regenerati ng devi ce looks for only two levels of si gnal to
reproduce, 1 and 0. T herefore, all the other stuff, such as whi te noi se
and maybe even an unwanted radi o stati on, are not regenerated.
Digital Announcer A devi ce that stores RANs ( Recorded Announce-
ments) , and plays them to a speci fi c li ne/trunk when i nstructed to do so
by an ACD system ( Fi g. D.12) .
198 Digital Announcer
Figure D.12 Digital Announcer
Digital Audio Di gi tal audi o i s analog audi o that i s stored i n a di gi tal
code. I t i s good to store audi o and other i nformati on di gi tally because
when the si gnal i s read, decoded, and converted to analog, unwanted
noi se and i nterference i s fi ltered out. Other methods of audi o storage
are subj ect to unwanted electri cal noi se that i s the electroni c nature of
the storage medi a i tself. T he nature of one of these older alternati ve
technologi es, such as the audi o cassette, stores the analog si gnal di -
rectly onto a magneti c tape. T he magneti c tape i tself has i nconsi sten-
ci es i n the metals and other materi als used i n thei r manufacture. As the
magneti c tape gli des agai nst a playback head i n a cassette player, i t
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 198
creates i ts own audi o si gnal whi ch resembles a li ght hi ss sound. I n the
case of di gi tal audi o, the means of storage and encodi ng bei ng a Com-
pact Disc (CD) or a Digital Audio Tape (DAT) the i mperfecti ons i n
the storage medi a are i gnored by the electroni cs that reads the di gi tal
code from the DAT or CD. T hi s i s because they only read ones and zeros,
payi ng no attenti on to hi sses or poppi ng sounds. Even i f the si gnal i s
muffled, i t i s a muffled si gnal of ones and zeros, whi ch gets decoded
i nto a clear reproducti on.
Digital Cable TV A servi ce offered by telecommuni cati ons compani es.
Di gi tal cable T V di ffers from analog cable T V i n several aspects. Di gi tal
cable T V i s a compressed di gi tal si gnal that i s transmi tted on an analog
carri er. T he di gi tal compressi on allows for more than fi ve ti mes the num-
ber of stati ons to be deli vered vi a the same bandwi dth. T he addi ti onal
channel capaci ty allows entertai nment operators to deli ver near on-
demand programmi ng by staggeri ng the start ti mes of programs on di f-
ferent channels. Because the carri er of di gi tal T V i s analog, i t can also
be deli vered through the ai r, as i n satelli te T V systems. T he di gi tal for-
mat naturally eli mi nates unwanted noi se and i nterference from pro-
grami ng, regardless of the medi a i n whi ch i t i s deli vered.
Digital Compressed Video (DCV) T here are several types of DCV. T he
obj ect of compressed vi deo, i n general, i s to transmi t an i ni ti al pi cture,
then transmi t only the parts of the pi cture that move. A good example
i s a vi deo phone appli cati on, where only a persons mouth and faci al fea-
tures move. Everythi ng else i n the vi deo phone pi cture stay the same
duri ng most of the transmi ssi on.
Digital Cross-Connect System (DCS) A DCS i s also called a DACS
(Digital-Access Cross-Connect System), dependi ng on the manufac-
turer ( Fi g. D.13) . A di gi tal cross-connect system i s a fundamental part
of a local and long-di stance companys network because of the rapi d
deployment of broadband transmi ssi on equi pment ( SONET, DS3) .
Cross-connecti ng broadband servi ces can be cumbersome because
larger ci rcui ts ( OC-1/ST S-1) requi re coax. T he DACS or DCS i s a rack-
mountable system that enables any ci rcui t that i nterfaces wi th i t to be
electroni cally cross-connected from one path to another wi thi n the
network i t i s connected to. Ci rcui ts that can i nterface wi th a di gi tal
cross-connect system i nclude DS0, DS1, DS3 ( or T 3) , ST S-1, and
SONET OC-1. An i ncomi ng ci rcui t can be rerouted by si mply maki ng
path changes i n DACS admi ni strati ve software. I n the DACS shown i n
the di agram, a T 1 ci rcui t comi ng i nto the i nput si de ( left si de) could
be cross-connected to exi t as one of the channels i n a DS3 on the ri ght
si de.
Digital Cross-Connect System (DCS) 199
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Digital Frequency Modulation Another term for Frequency-Shift
Keying.
Digital Line Protection Digital line protection refers to the protec-
ti on of modems from the hi gher li ne voltages of di gi tal li nes. Li nes con-
nected to a di gi tal li ne i nterface card on a PBX system are wi red and
look the same as normal phone li nes from the phone company, but they
operate at a hi gher voltage. Di gi tal servi ce li nes from the phone com-
pany ( T 1) li nes are also a hi gher voltage, about 135 VDC analog
modems. Modems are not for di gi tal li nes, they are for 52-V analog li nes.
I f an analog modem i s connected to a di gi tal li ne by mi stake, i t could be
destroyed. Di gi tal li ne protecti on i s a feature desi gned i nto modems that
protects them from a mi staken connecti on to a di gi tal li ne.
Digital Loop Back A feature of transmi ssi on equi pment that allows a user
to reroute a si gnal back to the source i nstead of i nto the termi nati on or
end equi pment. By doi ng thi s, the user can see i f the si gnal goi ng i nto the
200 Digital Frequency Modulation
Figure D.13 Digital Cross-Connect System (DCS)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 200
equi pment i s good or bad. I f the si gnal loops back and i s good, but the si g-
nal i s bad comi ng out of the equi pment on the far end when the loop back
i s removed, then the trouble i s most li kely i n the end equi pment. I n many
modems and di gi tal servi ce uni ts, the loop back can be controlled remotely.
Digital Microwave Di gi tal mi crowave has become a very economi cal way
to bypass constructi on costs of broadband pri vate li ne servi ces. Many
CAPs (Competitive-Access Providers) have access to mi crowave radi o
resources, such as li censi ng, equi pment, and i nstallati on. Di gi tal mi -
crowave i s also called an eyeball shot, 38 gig, or i s j ust referred to as
radio. Most of the mi crowave bei ng i nstalled for pri vate-li ne servi ce to-
day i s i n the 33-GHz to 39-GHz frequency range. T hese mi crowave uni ts
use an FM-FSK over two si debands for transmi tti ng at full duplex. T hey
are avai lable i n T 1, DS3, and ST S-1 ( whi ch i s a DS3 formatted for
SONET ) . T he 38-GHz mi crowave has a range that depends on the si ze
of the antenna ( di sh) placed on the outdoor radi o uni t. T he choi ces i n
antenna si ze are one or two feet i n di ameter. For example, a one-foot
di sh antenna has a maxi mum range of one to three mi les, dependi ng on
the regi onal weather condi ti ons ( rai nfall, snow, and especi ally fog dras-
ti cally attenuate mi crowave transmi ssi ons) . T he two foot di sh has a range
of two to seven mi les, also dependent on the weather i n the regi on. For
a di agram of a mi crowave appli cati on, see Terrestrial Microwave.
Digital Service Cross-Connect (DSX) A reference to a di gi tal servi ce
termi nati on/patch panel that allows DS1 and DS3 ci rcui ts to be moni tored
by test equi pment, such as a T T C T berd or T-ACE. DSX panels are usu-
ally termi nated vi a wi re-wrap and accessed at the front vi a bantam-type
test cords. For a photo of wi re-wrap termi nals, see Wire-Wrap ( Fi g. D.14) .
Digital Service Cross-Connect (DSX) 201
Figure D.14 Digital Service Cross-Connect (DSX)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 201
Digital Signal Processor (DSP) A hardware enhancement to Ethernet
swi tch ports ( most commonly a gateway port for I P Telephony appli ca-
ti ons) that gi ves them the abi li ty to act as medi a termi nati on poi nts dur-
i ng the executi on of user features on I P telephony/server-based PBX sys-
tems. Also referred to as an MTP (Media Termination Point). T he
DSP wi thi n an Ethernet swi tch or router uti li zes i ts bui lt-i n codecs and
transcoders to temporari ly hold a connecti on, whereas an I P telephony
server locates an avai lable bandwi dth channel or wai ts for a user to ex-
ecute feature keystrokes on a telephone.
Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data (DSVD) A type of modem that
allows users on ei ther end to exchange data fi les and talk over the same
phone li ne. Both users must be usi ng a DSVD-compati ble modem i n order
to use the DSVD features.
Digital Subscriber Line-Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) T he di stri -
buti on devi ce for xDSL (x Digital Subscriber Loop) servi ce from a cen-
tral offi ce. T he DSLAM combi nes and separates the di fferent formats of
communi cati ons contai ned i n the xDSL carri er and routes them to thei r
respecti ve hosts. Because xDSL i s capable of carryi ng voi ce, vi deo, and
data, the voi ce needs to be routed to a voi ce central offi ce swi tch, the
vi deo needs to be routed to a CAT V head-end and the data needs to be
sent to a packet swi tch. T he DSLAM performs all of these functi ons.
Digital Subscriber Loop (DSL) See xDSL, VDSL, HDSL, IDSL, RADSL,
ADSL, QAM, DMT, and DSLAM.
Digital Subscriber Line Another name for an ISDN BRI (Basic Rate
Interface). See also DSL.
Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) A devi ce that performs the func-
ti on of encodi ng analog voi ce or vi deo si gnals i nto a stream of bi nary
di gi ts. T he analog-to-di gi tal converter wi thi n a T 1 channel bank samples
a callers voi ce at a rate of 8000 ti mes per second. Each samples voltage
level i s measured and converted to one of 256 possi ble sample levels.
T he DAC converts all of the di gi tal numbers back i nto an audi o si gnal.
See also Analog-to-Digital Converter.
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) A newer versi on of the common 650-MB
CD ( Compact Di sc) . T he DVD i s capable of stori ng 17 GB per si de. DVD
players can play newer DVD di scs contai ni ng audi o and vi deo i nforma-
ti on, as well as your old audi o-format CDs.
Dijkstras Algorithm Also referred to as SPF (Shortest Path First) or
Link State Algorithm. A class of router operati ng software that enables
202 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
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routers to bui ld thei r own complex address-routi ng tables that detai l every
router and node wi thi n thei r network. T he routi ng-table bui ldi ng process
i s accompli shed through i nformati on multi casts. T he routi ng-table multi -
casts are referred to as LSPs (Link State Packets) and they consume pay-
load bandwi dth to transmi t thi s i nformati on. T he process of sendi ng and
recei vi ng LSPs i s called the discovery process. Multi casts are only sent
when there i s a change i n the network, such as a ci rcui t connecti on goi ng
down, or a new router or connecti on bei ng added. Li nk-state algori thms
use tremendous amounts of router-system memory ( 20 MB to 30 MB i n a
30-node network) , and consume si gni fi cant processor resources wi thi n a
routers ci rcui try. Duri ng the startup of a li nk-start network, the di scovery
process can take hours. T he great advantage to thi s complex operati ng
method i s that routi ng loops are not created. See also Distance Vector
Routing Algorithm and Hybrid Routing Algorithm.
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module) A DRAM (Direct-Random
Access Memory) package that consi sts of a small ci rcui t board wi th
DRAM memory chi ps on i t. T he DI MM i s an expansi on of the ori gi nal
SI MM, provi di ng an i nterface to a 64-bi t bus, rather than a 32-bi t bus.
T he DI MM also di ffers from a SI MM i n that i t has pi n connectors on both
si des of the small board. For an i llustrati on of a DI MM, see SDRAM.
DIN Connector A screw-on type connector that i s i nstalled on coaxi al
cable i n RF/mi crowave appli cati ons. DI N connectors have better i nter-
modulati on suppressi on and power-handli ng capabi li ti es than N-type and
other coax connectors ( Fi g. D.15) .
DIN Connector 203
Figure D.15 DIN Connector
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 203
Diode An electroni c semi conductor devi ce that si mply put, only con-
ducts electri ci ty i n one di recti on ( Fi g. D.16) . Whether or not the de-
vi ce conducts i s dependent on whi ch di recti on the devi ce i s bi ased.
Di odes ( or recti fi ers) are used to change alternati ng current ( AC) to
di rect current ( DC) . I f a more posi ti ve voltage i s appli ed to the anode
lead of the di ode, then the di ode si mply acts li ke a wi re. I f the more
posi ti ve voltage i s appli ed to the cathode lead, then i t acts as i f there
i s no connecti on.
204 Diode
Figure D.16 Diode
DIP (Dual Inline Pin) A way a component i s physi cally made. A DI P
component has two rows of pi ns ( pi ns are a means to solder the com-
ponent i nto a ci rcui t) . Many components are packaged thi s way. Some
of them are DI P 8-segment di splay, DI P i ntegrated ci rcui t, and of course,
DI P swi tches.
DIP Switch A very small manual swi tch that comes i n a DI P pack-
age ( Fi g. D.17) . DI P i s an abbrevi ati on for Dual-Inline Pin, i t i s
the way a component i s physi cally made. See DIP for more i nforma-
ti on.
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 204
Direct Inward Dial (DID) 205
Dipole A type of balanced antenna wi th two elements that are fed by
transmi ssi on li ne. Di poles are mi ldly di recti onal. A common di pole an-
tenna i s the rabbi t-ear style, i s used wi th T Vs.
Direct-Access Storage Device (DASD, Dazzdee) A technology that
i ncorporates a memory-retri eval method where a di sk dri ve or RAM can
retri eve or save data di rectly to a speci fi c address wi thout havi ng to scan
through addresses i n the medi um to fi nd i t. CD-ROM i s an example of a
storage devi ce that i ncorporates DASD technology.
Direct Current (DC) DC i s electri cal current that i s i nduced by a volt-
age source that does not change di recti on from posi ti ve to negati ve. DC
can fluctuate, carry an analog si gnal by varyi ng the DC current and volt-
age. DC can pulse, i t can spi ke, i t can do many thi ngs. T he one thi ng
that DC cannot do i s change di recti on. Common sources of DC are bat-
teri es, AC power adapters, and power recti fi ers.
Direct Inward Dial (DID) A phone li ne that comes from the local phone
company and connects to your PBX swi tch. A DI D li ne has a phone num-
ber that has a DNI S or vi rtual di rectory number attached to i t and i s tar-
geted to ri ng di rectly to a phone on the PBX network wi thout goi ng to
Figure D.17 DIP Switch
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 205
a console operator or anywhere else fi rst. T he PBX system usually needs
speci fi c DI D trunk ( i ncomi ng li ne) hardware to make DI D li nes work.
Direct Inward System Access (DISA) A feature of PBX phone sys-
tems where a user can di al a number that termi nates i nto the PBX and
ei ther get another di al tone ( wi th whi ch to make long-di stance calls) or
to access thei r voi ce-mai l system.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) T he transfer of data from a peri pheral
devi ce, such as a hard di sk dri ve, i nto RAM (Random-Access Memory)
wi thout that data passi ng through the mi croprocessor. DMA transfers
data i nto memory at hi gh speeds wi th no processor overhead.
Direct Outward Dial (DOD) A feature of a PBX system that allows tele-
phone stati ons to access outsi de di al tone or not access outsi de di al tone.
I f you pi ck up a phone on a PBX system and di al 9 for an outsi de di al
tone, you mi ght hear a si ren sound i nstead. I f you do, that means that
the parti cular phone you are di ali ng on does not have DOD enabled. I n
most PBX systems, even though DOD i s not enabled, an emergency 911
call wi ll sti ll go through. I t i s common to place speci al i nstructi ons on
the phone to explai n how to make an emergency call.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) A type of radi o modula-
ti on that carri es bi nary data, consi sti ng of voi ce, data, or vi deo at rates
up to 11 Mbps ( Fi g. D.18) . Under the I EEE standard 802.11DS, whi ch
i s a part of I EEE 802.11b, the DS modulati on techni que uses a chi ppi ng
sequence of phase shi fted transmi ssi ons i n parallel for each bi t. T he se-
quence of bi ts i s sent i n parallel across a frequency spectrum consi sti ng
206 Direct Inward System Access (DISA)
01101101 11001100 11001100 0
1 1
1
2
Figure D.18 DSS Chipping
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 206
of 11 22-MHz wi de channels that range from 2.400 Ghz to 2.483 GHz.
Further, each chi ppi ng sequence i s broadcast i n dupli cate over three al-
ternati ng channels. So, when each bi t i s transmi tted i n i ts chi p code
format, one of the three channels i s i dle, whi le the other two transmi t
dupli cate i nformati on. T hi s i s why 802.11DS allows for only three radi os
to operate i n the same ai rspace each radi o needs 3 channels and there
are only 11. T he another common wi reless LAN transmi ssi on method i s
FHSS ( Frequency Hoppi ng Spread Spectrum) , whi ch i s li mi ted to
2 Mbps, operates i n the same frequency band, and does not have as long
an operati ng range as DSSS.
Direct Station Selection (DSS) A devi ce that can be added to a PBX
telephone set that has addi ti onal buttons on i ts face so that a user can
see what extensi ons are i n use ( off hook) and whi ch are free. When a
call comes i n to an answeri ng agent, he/she can look at the di rect sta-
ti on selecti on module attached to thei r phone and see whether the de-
si red person i s on thei r phone or not. Calls can be made and transferred
to the extensi ons appeari ng on the DSS by pressi ng thei r associ ated
button.
Directional Antenna An antenna that i s sensi ti ve to the di recti on of the
recei ved or transmi tted si gnal. Rabbi t ears ( di pole antennas) and di sh
type antennas are di recti onal. Di sh-type antennas are not only di rec-
ti onal, but they focus a recei ved transmi ssi on to the LNB/element ( some
call i t the stinger because i t i s rai sed to the front of the di sh) . T hey also
focus transmi tted si gnals that are bounced i nto the di sh and out to thei r
desti nati on.
Directional Coupler A devi ce that i s engi neered i nto a mi crowave an-
tenna system that allows transmi t and recei ve si gnals to be used on the
same antenna. T he devi ce accompli shes thi s by di fferenti ati ng the pow-
erful transmi t si gnal from the weak recei ve si gnal.
Dirty Power Power that comes di rectly from the power company. T he
power i n our homes i s di rty power because i t i s not a pure 120V AC.
As i t travels cross country on power li nes, i t collects all ki nds of EMI of
all frequenci es. Di rty power i s also subj ect to unpredi ctable outages.
Some devi ces that are used to clean up di rty power are UPS systems
and surge suppressors.
DISA (Direct Inward System Access) A feature of PBX phone sys-
tems where a user can di al a number that termi nates i nto the PBX and
ei ther get another di al tone ( to make long-di stance calls on) or access
thei r voi ce-mai l system.
DISA (Direct Inward System Access) 207
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DISC (Disconnect) I n X.25, a frame-layer ( level two) command that i s
defi ned by the last three bi ts i n a control byte of an unnumbered or
control type of frame i n the X.25 protocol bei ng 010. I t i s used to no-
ti fy another devi ce that i t i s goi ng offli ne. For more detai ls, see X.25 U
Frame.
Discard Eligibility (DE) DE i s one of the bi ts i n the standard 16-bi t
header of a frame-relay frame. I t i s set to 1 to noti fy the network that
i ts frame should be di scarded at the fi rst onset of network congesti on.
See also Frame Relay.
Discard Eligible I n reference to a commi tted i nformati on rate that a cus-
tomer has pai d for i n conj uncti on wi th a frame-relay ci rcui t, any data
sent at a rate that exceeds the commi tted i nformati on rate i s di scard el-
i gi ble, whi ch means i t wi ll not be transmi tted.
Disco (Disconnect) Many telephone and cable compani es call thei r or-
ders to di sconnect a servi ce di sco orders.
Disconnect Mode (DM) See DM.
Disconnect Supervision T he abi li ty of a PBX swi tch to recogni ze the
di sconnecti ng of the far end of a call. K eep i n mi nd that i n early swi tch
days, people accessed trunks by pi cki ng up a phone and released them
when the call was over. M achi nes do not know when the call i s over
because they are not the ones havi ng the conversati on. When you call
someone, have a normal conversati on, then hang up, you assume that
the PBX system di sconnected the path from your phone to the trunk
and di sconnected the li nk between that same trunk and the central
offi ce. Wi thout di sconnect supervi si on, the PBX does not know when
to release ( hang up) a central-offi ce trunk. Wi thout di sconnect su-
pervi si on, your trunks wi ll soon all be busy, but no one wi ll be on the
phone!
Discovery Mode I n Ci sco Systems routi ng methods, di scovery mode i s
a reference to a mode/feature of a router operati ng system that bui lds
and adj usts routi ng tables automati cally. Router entri es made wi thi n
these operati ng systems can be stati c ( manually entered by a user) or
dynami c ( automati c) . I t i s also referred to as dynamic configuration.
See also Link State Algorithm.
Discrete Multi Tone (DMT) A transmi ssi on format used by xDSL equi p-
ment that enables di gi tal si gnals to be encoded and transmi tted over vari -
able-quali ty twi sted copper pai rs. DMT places 256 QAM (Quadrature
208 DISC (Disconnect)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 208
Amplitude Modulation) subchannels on a si ngle copper pai r. I t i s i m-
portant to note that di fferent xDSL equi pment manufacturers have used
( and sti ll use) di fferent li ne-codi ng techni ques, i ncludi ng CAP and 2B1Q.
ANSI standards ( at the ti me of thi s wri ti ng) favor the DMT format. I n
DMT, each subchannel has a bandwi dth of 4.3125 kHz. T hi s i s a total
1.104 MHz uti li zed wi thi n the pai r. Dependi ng on the type of QAM used
wi thi n each channel, 2.048 Mbps ( E1) i s achi eved easi ly. T he charac-
teri sti c of DMT that makes i t such a great transmi ssi on method i s that
when i t i s i ni ti ally attached to a copper pai r, i t goes through a loss and
gai n test cycle of all 256 channels. Any channel that i s affected by noi se,
cross talk, poor attenuati on from bri dge taps, or other typi cal bad
thi ngs about twi sted copper plant, can be turned off and not used.
T he channels that have hi gh throughput wi ll be uti li zed. I f there i s a ma-
j or change regardi ng the pai r ( for i nstance, i f a new AM radi o transmi t-
ter i s i nstalled i n the area) , the DMT transmi ssi on electroni cs acti vely
moni tor the channels affected and ei ther modi fy the versi on of QAM on
that channel or turn the channel off. See also QAM.
Dish I n telecommuni cati ons, a dish refers to a paraboli c di sh antenna. I t
has thi s name because i ts shape i s a paraboli c curve, so all radi ans from
a si ngle poi nt are reflected i nto one di recti on. For a di agram, see Para-
bolic Dish Antenna.
Disk Controller Ei ther an expansi on card i n a personal computer or the
electroni cs that are i ncorporated i nto a di sk dri ve. A di sk controller man-
ages the hardware operati ons of di sk dri ves and di skettes.
Disk Drive A hardware devi ce that i s mani pulated by a software program
called a disk operating system. Some di sk dri ves have a di sk bui lt i n to
them and some have i nterchangeable di sks. T he functi on of a di sk dri ve i s
to store, read and wri te memory from the di sks that are made for them.
Di fferent di sk dri ves are capable of stori ng di fferent amounts of data
( measured i n bytes) . A 3.5 floppy di sk i s capable of stori ng up to 1.44 MB
( 1.44 mi lli on bytes) . A CD-ROM di sk i s capable of stori ng up to 650 MB.
Another ki nd of di sk i s a hard di sk, whi ch i s bui lt i n to a hard-di sk dri ve.
T hese di sks are not capable of bei ng i nterchanged, but they can hold many
ti mes more memory. A common hard-di sk dri ve i n a personal computer can
store more than 17 GB ( 17,000,000,000 bytes) of i nformati on. For photos,
see Hard Disk Drive and CD Rom Drive.
Disk Mirroring A data-storage techni que where data fi les are wri tten to
and from two di sk dri ves si multaneously usi ng two separate di sk con-
trollers. T he techni que i s used to provi de redundancy i n data storage so
that the data would not be lost i f a di sk or dri ver were to fai l.
Disk Mirroring 209
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Disk Operating System (DOS) A software program that mani pulates
a di sk dri ve. T he DOS contai ns the i nformati on that tells the di sk dri ve
how to format, and read and wri te to di sks. MS-DOS ( Mi crosoft di sk op-
erati ng system) i s probably the most common known di sk operati ng sys-
tem to PC users. Wi thout a DOS program loaded onto your computer, i t
i s vi rtually useless.
Disk Server I n a network envi ronment, a di sk dri ve wi thi n a PC or
server that i s accessi ble by users of the network. Data on the di sk server
can be shared by all users that have securi ty pri vi leges to the di sk
server.
Display One of the several communi cati ons output i nterfaces to a user.
Di splays enable a computer or controlli ng devi ce to communi cate wi th
a user vi sually. Di splays are avai lable i n the form of moni tors, LCD
screens, and li ght emi tti ng di odes. Other output devi ces that computers
and controlli ng devi ces use to communi cate wi th thei r users are pri nt-
ers, speakers, and li ghts ( such as alarm i ndi cators) .
Distance-Sensitive Pricing T he pri ci ng of communi cati ons servi ces
based on the di stance between the two poi nts connected by the phone
company or servi ce provi der. Long-di stance compani es use a method of
fi guri ng the di stance between two ci ti es ai rli ne mi leage ( see Airline
Mileage for more i nformati on) . T he pri ce of the servi ce i s then based
on the mi leage that i s calculated. T he more mi leage, the hi gher the pri ce.
Local exchange compani es that provi de a servi ce across town fi gure the
pri ce by the number of central offi ces the li ne passes through. Each of-
fi ce requi res a channel termi nati on ( also called chanterm) of the li ne as
i t enters and leaves each central offi ce. Physi cally, a channel termi na-
ti on i s a cross-connect from a channel of one transmi ssi on devi ce to an-
other.
Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) A software
program that assi sts the operati on of a router. DVMRP helps routers keep
track of each other and the connecti ons between them i n a network.
DVMRP uses IGMP (Internet Group-Management Protocol) to ex-
change routi ng datagrams wi th i ts nei ghbori ng routers. See also Inter-
net Group-Management Protocol and Distance Vector-Routing Algo-
rithm.
Distance Vector-Routing Algorithm A class of routi ng algori thms used
by network routers that repeat on the number of hops i n a route to fi nd
a shortest path through a network. As i nstructed by the di stance vector
protocol, all routers i n a network send thei r routi ng table i nformati on to
210 Disk Operating System (DOS)
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thei r nei ghbors i n what are called updates. Di stance vector-routi ng
algori thms call for each router to send i ts enti re routi ng table i n each
update, but only to i ts nei ghbors. T he routers refer to the address ta-
bles that are developed by the updates to pass along data. Each of a
routers ports has an associ ated table that contai ns a li st of addresses
that that port sends to and from. I f a network that i ncorporates routers
wi th di stance vector-control software i s confi gured i ncorrectly, routi ng
loops can be formed, whi ch can cause a network to crash. However, they
are computati onally si mpler than li nk-state or hybri d routi ng algori thms.
Di stance vector-routi ng algori thms are also referred to as Bellman-Ford
routing algorithms. See also Link-State Routing Algorithm and Hy-
brid Algorithm.
Distinctive Ringing A feature of a PBX system that allows telephone
sets to ri ng di fferently. T hi s i s a very ni ce feature i f you would li ke out-
si de calls to ri ng di fferently than i nternal calls from co-workers. T hi s
helps a user to know i f they should say hello or Emergency servi ce,
may I help you? Di sti ncti ve ri ngi ng i s also used i n offi ces where many
phones are i n close proxi mi ty to each other. When one phone ri ngs, all
the people i n the offi ce know whose phone i t i s by tone, pattern, and
pi tch of the ri ng. Fax machi nes can also i denti fy di sti ncti ve ri ng patterns
and answer the ri ng type for whi ch they are set.
Distortion Any change to a si gnals ori gi nal waveform, except si ze ( am-
pli tude) . Changi ng the si ze of a waveform i s ampli fi cati on ( for larger) or
attenuati on ( for smaller) . T he most common form of si gnal di storti on i s
cli ppi ng, whi ch you can hear when the volume on a low-end stereo i s
turned up to hi gh.
Distributed Data Management (DDM) A software enti ty i n I BM SNA
(System Network Architecture) envi ronments that provi des peer-to-
peer communi cati on and fi le shari ng. DDM i s one of three SNA transac-
ti on servi ces. See also DIA and SNA Distribution Services.
Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) I EEE 802.6 Standard. A broad-
band protocol that i s full duplex and i mplemented on fi ber opti c. T he
Di stri buted Queue Dual Bus i s an archi tecture that i s made of two se-
ri al busses, called a and b, whi ch carry data transmi ssi ons i n opposi te
di recti ons si multaneously ( hence full duplex) . T he busses can be i m-
plemented i n a strai ght li ne or i n a ri ng. I f a fi ber i s cut for some reason,
the node equi pment reconfi gures i tself to accommodate for the di scon-
necti on. When thi s happens, the DQDB i s di vi ded i nto two networks and
the i ndi vi dual nodes adj acent to the cut automati cally restructure them-
selves as head ends ( Fi g. D.19) .
Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) 211
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212 Distributed Routing Protocol
DQDB node 4
b bus (blue) head end
DQDB node 4
b bus (blue) head end
DQDB node 3
DQDB node 2
DQDB node 1
a bus (red) head end
DQDB node 1
a bus (red) head end
DQDB open ended bus
with head ends
automatically reconfigured
Repeater Repeater
Fiber Cut
Self reconfigured
as an "a" bus head end
Self reconfigured
as a "b" bus head end
DQDB node 3
DQDB node 2
DQDB open ended bus
Inner bus
head end
bus B
DQDB
In a ring formation
with head ends in the
same location
bus A
outer bus
head end
Figure D.19 Distributed Queue Dual Bus
Distributed Routing Protocol Also known as Link State Routing Pro-
tocol, Interior Gateway Routing Protocol, and Shortest Path First. A
di stri buted routi ng protocol i s a methodology used i n router protocol de-
si gn. T hi s methodology enables routers wi thi n an autonomous network
( i .e., corporate LAN) to i denti fy each other and the status of thei r port
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 212
Distribution Cable 213
F2 cables (100 pr)
1
st
St
2
nd
St
3
rd
St
F2 cables (100 pr)
4
th
St
5
th
St
6
th
St
Central
Office
Main
Dist.
Frame
Xbox
Xbox
F1 Cable 300 Pr
F1 Cable 300 Pr
Figure D.20A Distribution Cable: Shown as 300-Pair Feeds
Figure D.20B Distribution Cable: Feeds from a Central Office
connecti ons. Di stri buted routi ng protocols create three databases wi thi n
a routers memory: a nei ghbori ng router database, a li nk database, and a
routi ng table. T he routi ng table i s created by applyi ng Dykstras algori thm
to the fi rst two databases. T he most wi dely used i nteri or gateway rout-
i ng protocol i s Open Shortest Path Fi rst ( OSPF) . See also OSPF.
Distribution Cable Cable that connects a PBX swi tch or telephone
company central offi ce to i ts customers ( Fi g. D.20) . I t i s the cable system
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 213
of outsi de plant. Di stri buti on cable usually has two parts, an F1 ( faci li ty 1)
and an F2 ( faci li ty 2) . T he F1 goes from the central offi ce to an access
poi nt ( AP) or cross-connect poi nt where i t i s then cross-connected to
F2 pai rs. T he telephone cable that runs along nei ghborhood streets i s
usually F2 cable and the cables that run along mai n roads are usually F1
cables. For a pi cture of a cross box, see Access Point.
Distribution Frame T hi s i s also called a Main Distribution Frame
(MDF). I t i s the place where all the wi re, fi ber opti c, or coax for a net-
work i s termi nated ( Fi g. D.21) . T he di stri buti on frame i s usually placed
as close to the central offi ce swi tch or PBX as possi ble.
214 Distribution Frame
Figure D.21A Distribution Frame for a PBX
Figure D.21B Distribution Frame for a PSTN Central Office
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 214
Divestiture 215
CORE LAYER
DISTRIBUTION
LAYER
SERVER SERVER
SERVER SERVER
SERVER SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
DD
S
3
DD
S
3
(HIERARCHICAL)
-routing-
high port quantity
OC3
OC3
Distribution Layer One of the three LAN network desi gn layers. I n LAN
network desi gn, the three swi tch layers are core layer, di stri buti on layer,
and access layer ( Fi g. D.22) . T he core layer provi des redundancy for di s-
tri buti ng traffi c across multi ple access layers. T he access layer i s gener-
ally a pai r of hi gh-performance swi tches that provi de swi tchi ng and rout-
i ng among a group of access swi tches networked by trunks. T he access
layer provi des swi tches where users connect, so hi gh port quanti ty i s de-
si red i n thi s layer.
Dithering A vari able error i n a GPS (Global Positioning System) lati -
tude and longi tude si gnal. T he error i s purposely i ntegrated i nto the
posi ti oni ng system to prevent anyone other than the government from
havi ng absolutely preci se posi ti oni ng i nformati on. A typi cal di theri ng
error i n a ci vi li an-purchased GPS uni t i s about 0 to 50 feet.
Divestiture T he break up of AT & T by the Uni ted States federal govern-
ment due to a busi ness practi ce was consi dered to be of monopoli sti c
nature, effecti ve December 30, 1983. AT & T and i ts 22 Bell operati ng
compani es were separated. T he 22 Bell compani es were combi ned i nto
seven regi onal Bell operati ng compani es ( RBOCS) . AT & T was legally li m-
i ted to the long-di stance busi ness ( although they were allowed to be i n
the computer busi ness) , and the seven RBOCs were li mi ted to the local
telephone busi ness. Both AT & T and the seven RBOCS were restri cted
from manufacturi ng telecommuni cati ons equi pment and from shari ng
any customer or market i nformati on. T hi s j udgment was made by Judge
Figure D.22 Distribution Layer
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 215
Harold Greene, and i t paved the way for competi ti on i n the U.S. telecom-
muni cati ons i ndustry. T he sti pulati ons on the compani es i nvolved are
now changi ng. AT & T and the RBOCS are allowed to enter each others
busi nesses and compete wi th each other, and other new communi cati ons
compani es ( called CLECs, Competitive Local-Exchange Carriers, and
CAPs, Competitive-Access Providers, and new long-di stance compa-
ni es) are bui ldi ng networks and offeri ng communi cati ons servi ces.
DLC (Digital Loop Carrier) Equi pment that i s used to provi de two di al
tones over a si ngle twi sted copper pai r ( Fi g. D.23) . I f a customer wants
to have an addi ti onal telephone li ne i nstalled and no more twi sted pai rs
are left to feed thei r area, the telephone company can i nstall a DLC,
whi ch wi ll make two phone li nes work on one pai r. T he DLC has two
parts. T he fi rst part i s a central offi ce DLC uni t, whi ch i s rack mount-
able. T he two phone li nes ( the ori gi nal one and the new one) are cross-
connected i nto thi s uni t. T he second part i s a modi fi ed network i nter-
face that contai ns electroni cs. I t recei ves the two phone servi ces
transmi tted from the central offi ce DLC uni t over one twi sted pai r and
provi des a hand-off to the customers wi re as two separate twi sted pai rs.
T he DLC accompli shes thi s by taki ng the two analog li nes and di gi tally
multi plexi ng them onto one pai r. DLC works great for voi ce appli cati ons,
but i t can have abnormal effects on fax machi nes and modems.
DLC (Data-Link Connection) A user connecti on to a frame-relay net-
work that could be thought of as a vi rtual channel on a multi plexer. A DLC
216 DLC (Digital Loop Carrier)
CO Switch
CO DLC Unit
DLC Access
Block
DLC network
interface at
customer premises
Telephone
555-1111
Telephone
555-1111
MDF
2 phone lines
on one
twisted pair
Figure D.23 DLC (Digital Loop Carrier) Block Diagram
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 216
i s a half duplex ( one way) data channel. To get full duplex communi ca-
ti ons i n frame relay, the DLCs from each user are combi ned to provi de full-
duplex communi cati ons abi li ty. Hence, two DLCs consti tute a PVC (Per-
manent Virtual Circuit). See also Data-Link Connection Identifier.
DLCI (Data-Link Connection Identifier) A number gi ven to a DLC
(Data-Link Connection) on a frame-relay servi ce ( Fi g. D.24) . DLCI s
are provi ded to customers by the frame-relay servi ce provi der. I t i s the
part of the frame-relay packet header that provi des space for 10 bi ts of
data that i s used to name the logi cal channel that the frame wi ll be routed
to. Furthermore, the DLCI i s embedded i nto the data stream from the
very begi nni ng of the transmi ssi on to the very end. DLCI s range from 0
to 1023. Routers use DLCI s to speci fy a PVC (Permanent Virtual
Circuit) or SVC (Switched Virtual Circuit) that li nks to other routers
or devi ces i n a frame-relay network. I n the basi c frame-relay speci fi ca-
ti on, DLCI values that are gi ven to li nks or routes are di fferent for every
i ndi vi dual router i n a network. Di fferent routers can use di fferent DLCI
numbers to i denti fy the same route ( connecti on) i n the same network.
I n the LMI (Local Management Interface) extended speci fi cati on for
frame relay, DLCI s are globally si gni fi cant and the same DLCI numbers
are gi ven to all routes by all routers. T he DLCI i s very si mi lar to ( and
DLCI (Data-Link Connection Identifier) 217
Router A
New York City
DLCI 20
Router E
Dallas
DLCI 21
Router D
Los Angeles
DLCI 22
Router C
Chicago
DLCI 23
Router B
Miami
DLCI 24
T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
FRAME RELAY
NETWORK
SAMPLE DLCI ALLOCATION
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU T1
Router E
Seattle
DLCI 25
Figure D.24 DLCI (Data-Link Connection Identifier)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 217
performs the same task as) the LCN (Logical Channel Number) i n
X.25. For a table of DLCI allocati ons, see DLCI. See also LMI.
DLE ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for data li nk escape. T he bi nary
code i s 0000001, the hex i s 01.
DLL (Dynamic Link Library) An executable subrouti ne stored as a fi le
that i s separate from the programs that could use i t. DLLs allow for ef-
fi ci ent use of memory and appli cati ons to share program resources. DLL
fi le extensi ons are .DLL, .DRV, and .FON.
DLSw (Data-Link Switching) An i nteroperabi li ty standard, descri bed
i n RFC 1434, that provi des a method for forwardi ng SNA and NetBI OS
traffi c over T CP/I P networks usi ng data-li nk layer swi tchi ng and encap-
sulati on. DLSw uses SSP (Switch-to-Switch Protocol) i nstead of I BM
SRB (Source Route Bridging), eli mi nati ng the maj or li mi tati ons of SRB,
such as hop-count li mi ts, broadcast traffi c, ti meouts, lack of flow con-
trol, and lack-of-pri ori ti zati on schemes. See also SRB (Source Route
Bridging) and SSP (Switch-to-Switch Protocol).
DM (Disconnect Mode) A command defi ned by the last three bi ts i n a
control byte of an unnumbered or control type of frame i n the X.25
protocol bei ng 000. I t i s a code that a devi ce sends when i t has come
i nto servi ce and i s ready to recei ve a reset SABM to synchroni ze i nto the
li nk. For more detai ls, see X.25 U Frame.
DMA (Direct Memory Access) A technology i ncorporated i nto PC ar-
chi tecture that provi des a means of transferri ng data from a peri pheral
devi ce, such as a hard di sk dri ve, i nto RAM (Random Access Memory)
wi thout that data passi ng through the mi croprocessor. DMA transfers
data i nto memory at hi gh speeds wi th no processor overhead.
Dmarc (Demarcation Point) A Dmarc i s where the local phone com-
pany hands-off a telephone ci rcui t. A Dmarc can be i n the form of a stan-
dard network i nterface for a resi denti al li ne, a DSX panel for a T 1 or T 3,
an RJ212X for a busi ness li ne, or an RJ45 for an I SDN li ne. T he Dmarc
separates customer-owned equi pment from telephone company-owned
equi pment. I t i s also the place where responsi bi li ty for the ci rcui ts
performance i s separated.
DMT (Discrete Multi Tone) A transmi ssi on format used by xDSL
equi pment that enables di gi tal si gnals to be encoded and transmi tted
over vari able-quali ty twi sted copper pai rs ( Fi g. D.25) . DMT places 256
218 DLE
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 218
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) subchannels on a si ngle
copper pai r. I t i s i mportant to note that di fferent xDSL equi pment man-
ufacturers have used ( and sti ll use) di fferent li ne-codi ng techni ques,
i ncludi ng CAP and 2B1Q. ANSI standards ( at the ti me of thi s wri ti ng)
favor the DM T format. I n DM T, each subchannel has a bandwi dth of
4.3125 kHz. T hi s i s a total 1.104 M Hz uti li zed wi thi n the pai r. Dependi ng
DMT (Discrete Multi Tone) 219
DMT
Discrete Multi Tone
0 to 4.3125 kHz
4.3125 to 8.625 kHz
8.625 to 12.9375 kHz
QAM Channel 1
QAM Channel 2
QAM Channel 3
QAM Channel 256 1.1039 to 1.104 MHz
QAM Channels 4 through 255
Channels 1 to 7
not used in ADSL
to allow POTS voice
Figure D.25 DMT (Discrete Multi Tone)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 219
Click on graphic to activate
on the type of QAM used wi thi n each channel, 2.048 M bps ( E1) i s
achi eved easi ly. T he characteri sti c of DM T that makes i t such a great
transmi ssi on method i s that when i t i s i ni ti ally attached to a copper
pai r, i t goes through a loss and gai n test cycle of all 256 channels. Any
channel that i s affected by noi se, cross talk, poor attenuati on from
bri dge taps, or other typi cal bad thi ngs about twi sted copper plant
can be turned off and not used. T he channels that have hi gh through-
put wi ll be uti li zed. I f there i s a maj or change regardi ng the pai r ( for
i nstance, i f a new AM radi o transmi tter i s i nstalled i n the area) , the
DM T transmi ssi on electroni cs acti vely moni tor the channels affected
and ei ther modi fy the versi on of QAM on that channel or turn the chan-
nel off. See also QAM.
DN (Directory Number) I n Nortel PBX admi ni strati on, the reference
to an extensi on number. T he DN i s a software enti ty. T he DN extensi on
number can be a button on a phone, an ACD agent, an ACD queue, or
trunk route. See also TN.
DND (Do Not Disturb) A feature of PBX telephone sets to di sallow any
calls or pages whi le the feature i s acti vated. T he feature i s usually
acti vated and deacti vated by pushi ng the do not di sturb ( DND) but-
ton on the phone.
DNIC (Data Network Identification Code) Part of an X.121 address.
DNI Cs are di vi ded i nto two parts. T he fi rst part speci fi es the country i n
whi ch the addressed PSN i s located and the second speci fi es the PSN
i tself. See also X.121.
DNIS (Dialed Number Identification Service) A servi ce from your
phone company that i s si mi lar to Automati c Number I denti fi cati on ( caller
I D) , except, i nstead of provi di ng the callers number, the number ( or a
four-fi ve di gi t DI D type routi ng DN i s provi ded) the caller di aled i s pro-
vi ded. T hi s i s useful when a company recei vi ng the call has several i n-
comi ng numbers. I f certai n numbers di aled by customers through a spe-
ci fi c DI D trunk determi ne how the call should be handled, then an ACD
(Automatic Call Distributor) system can use those di gi ts to route the
call to a certai n extensi on. I f 10 trunks have four di fferent 800 numbers
ri ng to them, the 800 number that i s adverti sed i n Spai n can be routed
to Spani sh-speaki ng personnel and an 800 number adverti sed i n France
can be routed to French-speaki ng personnel.
DNS (Domain Name System) Also called domain name server. An
alternati ve way of i denti fyi ng network addresses on the I nternet or i n LANs.
T he DNS and some network software tools gi ve a network admi ni strator
220 DN (Directory Number)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 220
the abi li ty to i denti fy a server as Astro1 or Beta2, or i denti fy an I nternet
address of 225.225.225.10 as www.domainnamesystem.com. DNS makes
addresses easi er for people to remember and i denti fy wi th. I t stores and
tracks these names and addresses, j ust so we can use names i nstead of
numbers when sendi ng messages. I n a DNS envi ronment, a pi ng com-
mand could be used wi th the DNS name as well as the hardware address.
Do Not Disturb See DND.
Document Interchange Architecture (DIA) A method or format for
transferri ng data fi les. DI A defi nes the protocols and data formats needed
for the transparent i nterchange of data fi les i n an I BM SNA (System
Network Architecture) network. DI A i s one of three SNA transacti on
servi ces. See also Distributed Data Management and SNA Distribu-
tion Services.
Documentation I nformati on regardi ng a network that i s updated to al-
low others that are i nvolved i n managi ng a network do so i n an effi ci ent
and ti mely manner. Managi ng a network wi thout the proper documen-
tati on on the components and the way i n whi ch the components are con-
nected can be very cumbersome, unreli able, and costly.
DOD (Direct Outward Dial) A feature of a PBX system that allows tele-
phone stati ons to access outsi de di al tone or not access outsi de di al tone.
I f you pi ck up a phone on a PBX system and di al 9 for an outsi de di al
tone, you mi ght hear a si ren sound i nstead. I f you do, the parti cular
phone you are di ali ng on i s not DOD enabled. I n most PBX systems ( even
though DOD i s not enabled) , an emergency 911 call wi ll sti ll go through.
I t i s common to place speci al i nstructi ons on the phone to explai n how
to make an emergency call.
Doghouse A closure that contai ns cellular/PCS transmi ssi on equi pment.
Doghouses can come wi th heater/ai r-condi ti oner uni ts ( envi ronmen-
tal control) and are about the si ze of a small doghouse. Near some
cellular/PCS antennae i s a small bui ldi ng, called a hut. I nsi de the hut i s
where the doghouse i s located.
Domain 1. For Wi ndows NT Envi ronments, a group of resources ( servers,
pri nters, workstati ons, etc.) that are controlled by or authenti cated
( granted access) to the same Wi ndows NT di rectory data base. Domai ns
exi st i n Wi ndows NT for securi ty and access control. 2. For the I nter-
net, a domai n i s an I nternet address, such as 225.225.225.10. T hi s address
can be i denti fi ed through DNS (Domain Name System) as a name, such
as www.domainnamesystem.com. T hat name/address could attach to
Domain 221
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another network or I nternetwork. 3. I n general or other telecom envi -
ronments ( such as I BM SNA) , a domai n i s a reference to a group of re-
sources.
Domain Controller For Wi ndows NT, the server or computer on whi ch
the Wi ndows NT software i s runni ng.
Domain Name A name that i denti fi es one or more I P addresses. A good
example of a domai n name i s mcgraw-hill.com. When thi s name i s en-
tered i nto the address fi eld of an I nternet browser, DNS (Domain Name
System) translates thi s to the I P address 208.243.114.191. T he HTML
(HyperText Markup Language) Web page that resi des at thi s address
wi ll then be to transferred to the browser that requested i t.
Domain Name System (DNS) Also called domain name server. An al-
ternati ve way of i denti fyi ng network addresses on the I nternet or i n LANs.
T he DNS and some network software tools gi ve a network admi ni strator
the abi li ty to i denti fy a server as Astro1 or Beta2, or i denti fy an I nternet
address of 225.225.225.10 as www.domainnamesystem.com. DNS makes
addresses easi er for people to remember and i denti fy wi th. I t stores and
tracks these names and addresses, j ust so we can use names i nstead of
numbers when sendi ng messages. I n a DNS envi ronment, a pi ng command
could be used wi th the DNS name as well as the hardware address.
Domain-Specific Part (DSP) A reference to the part of an NSAP (Net-
work Service Access Point) format AT M address that contai ns an area
i denti fi er, a stati on i denti fi er, and a selector byte. See also Network
Service Access Point.
Dongle (Dongle Key) A devi ce for protecti ng copyri ghts on computer
software that looks very much li ke a DB25 gender-changer/adapter. I nsi de
the dongle i s usually an encoded ROM ci rcui t wi th a user-ri ghts seri al num-
ber burned i nto i t. I f the dongle i s not plugged i nto the pri nter port of the
PC that the software i s loaded on, the software does not work ( Fi g. D.26) .
DOS (Disk Operating System) See Disk Operating System.
DOS Attack A hacker method of bri ngi ng a network server down through
overuti li zati on of the servers CPU. T he hacker opens multi ple DOS ses-
si ons wi th the server unti l i t cannot process all of the sessi ons si multa-
neously. T he server ulti mately freezes up or shuts down.
Dot Address A reference to the common notati on for I P addresses
i n the form N.N.N.N., where each number N represents one byte
222 Domain Controller
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( converted to deci mal) of the four-byte I P address. I t i s also called dot-
ted notation or four-part dotted notation. After DNS (Domain Name
System) was developed, i t became necessary to speci fy whi ch address
was bei ng referred to ( the dot address or the name address) . See also
Domain Name System.
Dotted Notation See Dot Address.
Dot Pitch A measure of computer moni tor resoluti on capabi li ty. I n com-
puter CRT tubes, phosphors are arranged i n ti ny tri angular patterns.
Each tri angle i s composed of a green, red, and blue dot. T he dot pi tch
i s the di stance i n mi lli meters between dots of the same color from one
tri angle to i ts nei ghbor. T he smaller the dot pi tch, the hi gher the detai l
capabi li ty of the moni tor. See also Stripe Pitch.
Double Word I n computer memory, a word i s 16 bi ts, whi ch i s one
data uni t processed by the bus. Newer computers and other pro-
cessi ng systems are bui lt wi th 32- and 64-bi t busses, whi ch gi ves
them the abi li ty to process double words ( 32 bi ts) and quad words
( 64 bi ts) .
Downstream I n asymmetri cal broadband transmi ssi ons, a reference
to the bandwi dth or i nformati on flow away from the servi ce provi der
Downstream 223
Figure D.26 Dongle Key
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and toward the customer/subscri ber. ADSL and cable-modem/I nternet
servi ces are asymmetri cal. T hey consi st of a larger downstream and
smaller upstream component. Asymmetri cal transmi ssi ons are best
sui ted for end-user I nternet servi ces.
DPSK (Differential Phase Shift Keying) A pre-V-seri es modem stan-
dard. T hi s phase-modulati on method was used i n Bell 201 standard
modems. DPSK i ncorporated di bi ts ( two bi ts represented by a phase
shi ft) . T he code representati on i s as follows: A phase shi ft of the cur-
rent carri er phase by 45 degrees represents a 00 bi nary value, a 135-
degree phase shi ft from the present carri er phase represents a 01 bi nary
value, a 315-degree phase shi ft from the present carri er phase repre-
sents a 10 bi nary value, and a 225-degree phase shi ft from the present
carri er phase represents a 11 bi nary value.
Drag Line A stri ng or rope pulled i nto a condui t for maki ng future wi re
or cable i nstallati on easi er.
Drift When a carri er frequency changes uni ntenti onally because of a
transmi tter problem. Dri ft can occur because of a temperature change.
Dri ft can also be caused by bad connecti ons, or defecti ve components.
Crystal osci llators are the most dri ft-reli able ci rcui ts. Frequency dri ft can
also be caused by temperature changes i n the atmosphere, because of
the di ffracti on of the radi o si gnal as i t travels through di fferent densi ti es
of ai r. Looki ng down a road toward the hori zon on a hot day you mi ght
noti ce that the road and other obj ects look li ke they are wet or wavy.
T hi s i s a vi sual example of atmospheri c di ffracti on, or dri ft.
Drive Bay A preprovi si oned slot located on the front of a personal com-
puter that provi des a space to i nstall an i nternal di sk dri ve, such as a
CD-ROM or floppy di sk dri ve.
Drive Ring A ri ng wi th a nai l attached to i t, used to fasten or hold drop
wi re to telephone poles or si des of bui ldi ngs ( Fi g. D.27) .
Driver Software A small software program that contai ns operati ng i n-
structi ons for a computer to control a connected or i ntegrated devi ce,
such as a pri nter, modem, or sound card.
Drop Another term for service wire. T he servi ce wi re i s the aeri al or un-
derground wi re that runs from your home or offi ce to the termi nal i n
your back or front yard. Abbrevi ati ons are ASW (Aerial Service Wire)
and BSW (Buried Service Wire). 2. A twi sted pai r or fi ber-opti c li ne
that connects a host to a node i n a LAN envi ronment.
224 DPSK (Differential Phase Shift Keying)
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Drop Cable Another term for service wire. See Drop.
Drop Clamp A devi ce that i s used to attach an aeri al servi ce wi re to a
J hook or Rams horn, whi ch i s attached to a bui ldi ng or pole.
Drop Reel A reel that i s used to transport and di stri bute drop wi re dur-
i ng i nstallati on ( Fi g. D.28) .
Drop Wire Another term for service wire. See Drop.
Dry T1 A T 1 that i s wi thout the 135V DC battery voltage. A CSU/DSU
has the abi li ty to convert a wet T 1 to a dry one. T he T 1 ci rcui t i s trans-
mi tted wi th a 135V DC voltage on the publi c telephone network to
power repeaters and other condi ti oni ng equi pment. A dry T 1 i s also
called a DS0.
DS (Digital Service) T he prefi x for di gi tal servi ce ci rcui ts. A compari -
son of the DS-level ci rcui ts and other carri ers i s i n Fi g. D.27.
DS (Direct Sequence) I n wi reless LAN, a shortened versi on of the term
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum). A type of radi o modulati on
that carri es bi nary data, consi sti ng of voi ce, data, or vi deo at rates up to
11 Mbps. Under the I EEE standard 802.11DS, whi ch i s a part of I EEE
802.11b, the DS modulati on techni que uses a chi ppi ng sequence of
DS (Direct Sequence) 225
Figure D.27 Drive Rings
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226 DS0 (Digital Service Level Zero)
Figure D.28 Drop Wire Reel
phase-shi fted transmi ssi ons i n parallel for each bi t. T he sequence of bi ts
i s sent i n parallel across a frequency spectrum consi sti ng of 11 22-MHz
wi de channels that range from 2.400 Ghz to 2.483 GHz. Further, each
chi ppi ng sequence i s broadcast i n dupli cate over three alternati ng chan-
nels. So, when each bi t i s transmi tted i n i ts chi p code format, one of
the three channels i s i dle whi le the other two transmi t dupli cate i nfor-
mati on. T hi s i s why 802.11DS allows for only three radi os to operate i n
the same ai rspace each radi o needs 3 channels and there are only 11.
T he another common wi reless LAN transmi ssi on method i s FHSS ( Fre-
quency Hoppi ng Spread Spectrum) , whi ch i s li mi ted to 2 Mbps, operates
i n the same frequency band, and does not have as much operati ng range
as DSSS.
DS0 (Digital Service Level Zero) 64 K b/s. Equi valent of one voi ce
( or one analog POT S) li ne. A DS0 i s the basi c bui ldi ng block of whi ch
all the other DS servi ces are compri sed. A DS0 can come i n two
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flavors, i n-band si gnaled and out-of-band si gnaled. T he i n-band si gnaled
DS0 i s best sui ted for carryi ng voi ce appli cati ons. I t has a 56 K b/s user
bandwi dth and an 8 K b/s channel i s bi t-robbed from the total 64 K b/s
DS0 bandwi dth. T he si gnali ng channel i s for carryi ng di aled di gi ts, of
hook and di al-tone si gnals for a central offi ce. Wi th the i n-band si g-
nali ng format, 24 DS0s can be carri ed on a T 1. T he counterpart i s an
out-of-band si gnaled DS0, whi ch has a bandwi dth of 64 K b/s. T hi s for-
mat i s best sui ted for data transmi ssi ons. You can get 23 out-of-band
si gnaled DS0s on a T 1. T he 24th channel i s used for the si gnali ng of
the other 23.
DS1 (Digital Service Level 1) 1.544 Mb/s. Another name for a T 1 ( Fi g.
D.29) . T he speci fi c di fference between a DS1 and a T 1 i s that the T 1 i s
on copper and comes wi th a 135-V battery voltage, and the DS1 i s a
dry ci rcui t, on copper or fi ber-opti c li nes, wi th no battery voltage. Other
than that, they are the same. A DS1 has a total bandwi dth or transmi s-
si on speed of 1.544 Mb/s. T he 1.544 Mb/s i s di vi ded i nto 24 64 K b/s chan-
nels. A DS1 ( T 1) i s avai lable i n several di fferent packages that offer di f-
ferent li ne formats and frami ng formats. T he package that a customer
requests from a phone company depends on what they want to use the
DS1 for and what ki nd of equi pment they have. Telecommuni cati ons cus-
tomers use DS1 ci rcui ts as pri vate li nes to connect data devi ces from
one geographi cal place to another or to transport large amounts of di al
tone to the premi ses. DS1 ci rcui ts are also used to connect di rectly to a
long-di stance company for broadband WAN servi ce. Telecommuni cati ons
compani es also use DS1 ( they are T 1 ci rcui ts wi thi n thei r own network)
ci rcui ts to provi de more telephone servi ce where a shortage of twi sted
pai rs i s avai lable ( see SLC96) .
DS1C (Digital Service Level 1) 227
DS1circuit/line types and applications
Line format/coding framing format signaling Application
AMI SF/D4 in-band 24 voice/modem channels
AMI ESF in-band 24 voice/modem channels
AMI ESF out-of-band 23 voice/modem or digital/data channels
B8ZS SF/D4 in-band 24 voice/modem channels
B8ZS ESF in-band 24 voice/modem channels
B8ZS ESF out-of-band 23 voice/modem or digital/data channels
Figure D.29 DS1/T1 Line Coding and Framing Formats
DS1C (Digital Service Level 1) A di gi tal si gnal that combi nes two DS1
channels. T he aggregate frequency i s 3.152 Mb/s, whi ch contai ns
3.088 Mb/s of payload, ( two DS1s) and 64 K b/s ( one DS0) of overhead
for transmi ssi on control.
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DS2 (Digital Service Level 2) 6.312 Mb/s. A DS2 i s four DS1 channels
multi plexed together wi thi n a DS3 multi plexer. A DS2 i s not avai lable to
customers. I t i s j ust a step i n the creati on of a DS3.
DS3 (Digital Service Level 3) 44.736 Mb/s. A DS3 i s a ci rcui t that i s
provi ded to customers by telephone compani es ( Fi g. D.30) . I t i s a trans-
port for 28 T 1 ci rcui ts, whi ch adds up to 672 DS0 ci rcui ts ( voi ce chan-
nels) . Telecommuni cati ons customers use DS3 ci rcui ts as pri vate li nes
to connect data devi ces from one geographi cal place to another or to
transport large amounts of di al tone to the premi ses. DS3 ci rcui ts are
also used to connect di rectly to a long-di stance company for broadband
WAN servi ce. Telecommuni cati ons compani es also use DS3 ci rcui ts to
provi de more telephone servi ce where a shortage of twi sted pai rs i s i n
thei r cable plant. Someti mes i t i s less expensi ve for a telephone company
to i nstall the DS3 electroni cs i n areas, rather than long feeds of large
twi sted copper-pai r cables. DS4 ( Di gi tal Servi ce Level 4) 274 Mb/s. A DS4
i s a transport for si x DS3 ci rcui ts. I ts capaci ty i n DS1 ci rcui ts i s 168. T he
capaci ty i n DS0 ci rcui ts i s 4032.
228 DS2 (Digital Service Level 2)
DS3 44.73 Mbps FRAME STRUCTURE
680 Bits
84 bits 84 bits 84 bits 84 bits 84 bits 84 bits 84 bits 84 bits
4760 Bits Total
Timing/Control Bit 84 Bit Payload
Net Payload = 44.21 Mbps
Figure D.30 DS3 44.73 Mbps Frame Structure
DSL (Digital Subscriber Loop) See xDSL, VDSL, HDSL, IDSL, RADSL,
ADSL, QAM, DMT, and DSLAM.
DSL Inline Filter A devi ce that i solates the background hi ss on an xDSL
li ne from telephones ( Fi g. D.31) . For a di agram of how they connect,
see ADSL.
DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line-Access Multiplexer) Pronounced
dee-slam. T he di stri buti on devi ce for xDSL (x Digital Subscriber
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 228
DSR (Data Set Ready) 229
Figure D.31 ADSL In-Line Filter
Loop) servi ce from a central offi ce ( Fi g. D.32) . T he DSLAM combi nes
and separates the di fferent formats of communi cati ons contai ned i n the
xDSL carri er and routes them to thei r respecti ve hosts. Because xDSL
i s capable of carryi ng voi ce, vi deo, and data, the voi ce needs to be routed
to a voi ce central offi ce swi tch, the vi deo needs to be routed to a CAT V
head-end and the data needs to be sent to a packet swi tch. T he DSLAM
performs all of these functi ons.
DSP (Digital Signal Processor) An enhancement to Ethernet swi tch
ports ( most commonly gateway ports i n I P Telephony) that gi ves them
the abi li ty to act as medi a termi nati on poi nts duri ng the executi on of user
features on I P telephony/server-based PBX systems. Also referred to as
an MTP (Media Termination Point). T he DSP wi thi n an Ethernet swi tch
or router uti li zes i ts bui lt-i n codecs and transcoders to temporari ly hold
a connecti on whi le an I P telephony server locates an avai lable bandwi dth
channel or wai ts for a user to execute feature keystrokes on a telephone.
DSP (Domain-Specific Part) A reference to the part of an NSAP (Net-
work Service Access Point) format AT M address that contai ns an area
i denti fi er, a stati on i denti fi er, and a selector byte. See also Network Ser-
vice Access Point.
DSR (Data Set Ready) Pi n 6 of a DB25 connector wi red for the RS232C
protocol. T hi s i s the wi re that a modem or SDI devi ce uses to send a
si gnal that acknowledges that i t i s ready to recei ve data.
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 229
230 DSR (Data Set Ready)
Figure D.32 DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line-Access Multiplexer)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 230
DSS (Digital Switched Service) 1. A servi ce offered by telephone com-
pani es where a telephone li ne i s swi tched whi le sti ll i n i ts di gi tal form.
Many telephone li nes that leave a customers premi ses vi a T 1 are con-
verted to analog when they reach the telephone company central offi ce.
DSS li nes are run di rectly i nto the central offi ce telephone swi tch i n di g-
i tal form ( 64 K bp/s per li ne) . 2. A devi ce that can be added to a PBX
telephone set that has addi ti onal buttons on i ts face so that a user can
see what extensi ons are i n use ( off hook) and whi ch are free. When a call
comes i n to an answeri ng agent, he or she can look at the di rect stati on
selecti on module attached to thei r phone and see whether the desi red
person i s on thei r phone or not. Calls can be made and transferred to the
extensi ons appeari ng on the DSS by pressi ng the associ ated button.
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) A type of radi o modula-
ti on that carri es bi nary data, consi sti ng of coded voi ce, data, or vi deo at
rates up to 11 Mbps. Under the I EEE standard 802.11DS, whi ch i s a part
of I EEE 802.11b, the DS modulati on techni que uses a chi ppi ng sequence
of phase-shi fted transmi ssi ons i n parallel for each bi t. T he sequence of bi ts
i s sent i n parallel across a frequency spectrum consi sti ng of 11 22-MHz
wi de channels that range from 2.400 Ghz to 2.483 GHz. Further, each
chi ppi ng sequence i s broadcast i n dupli cate over three alternati ng chan-
nels. So, when each bi t i s transmi tted i n i ts chi p code format, one of the
three channels i s i dle whi le the other two transmi t dupli cate i nformati on.
T hi s i s why 802.11DS allows for only three radi os to operate i n the same
ai rspace each radi o needs 3 channels and there are only 11. T he another
common wi reless LAN transmi ssi on method i s FHSS ( Frequency Hoppi ng
Spread Spectrum) , whi ch i s li mi ted to 2 Mbps, operates i n the same fre-
quency band, and does not have as much operati ng range as DSSS.
DSU (Data Service Unit, CSU/DSU, Channel Service Unit/Data Ser-
vice Unit) A DSU is a hardware device that is available in many shapes
and sizes. Rack-mount, shelf-mount, and stand-alone DSUs are available. A
CSU/DSU has three main functions. T he first function is to act as a demar-
cation point for a T 1 ( DS1) service from a local communications company.
T he second function is to provide line format and line-code conversion
( B8ZS to AMI , SF or D4 to ESF, 135 V to 0 V) between the public-network
and the customer-premises equipment, if necessary. T he third function is
to provide maintenance or alarm services and loop-back for isolating prob-
lems with the T 1 line or customers equipment. For a photo, see CSU/DSU.
DSVD (Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data) A type of modem that
allows users on ei ther end to exchange data fi les and talk over the same
phone li ne. Both users must be usi ng a DSVD-compati ble modem i n or-
der to use the DSVD features.
DSVD (Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data) 231
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 231
DSX (Digital Service Cross-Connect) A reference to a di gi tal-servi ce
termi nati on/patch panel that allows DS1 and DS3 ci rcui ts to be moni -
tored by test equi pment, such as a T T C T berd or T-ACE. DSX panels
are usually termi nated vi a wi re-wrap and accessed at the front panel by
bantam-type connector j acks. For a photo of wi re-wrap termi nals, see
Wire-Wrap. For a photo of a DSX panel, see Digital Service Cross-
Connect Panel.
DTE (Data Terminating Equipment) DT E i s equi pment that recei ves
a communi cati ons si gnal. For a data connecti on to work between I /O
( i nput/output) devi ces, one needs to be desi gnated the communi cati ons-
sendi ng equi pment and one the communi cati ons-termi nati ng or DT E
( data-termi nati ng equi pment) . A computers pri nter port i s a DCE port,
a pri nter i s a DT E devi ce. A practi cal way to classi fy the two i s: DCE i s
the sender of data and the DT E i s the recei ver of data.
DTMF (Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency) T he tones that you hear
when you di al a si ngle-li ne push-button phone. T he tones are a mi xture
of two frequenci es. For a di agram, see Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency.
DTMF Cut Through A feature of voi ce-response systems, voi ce-mai l sys-
tems, and auto attendants to hear the di gi ts that you di al and play a RAN
( recorded announcement) at the same ti me. T hi s feature reduces the
frustrati on level for people who hate to li sten to voi ce-message systems
because when the li stener makes thei r choi ce ( pushes a key) the selec-
ti on i s executed and the RAN stops i mmedi ately.
DTR (Data Terminal Ready) A li ght on the front of a modem or data-
communi cati ons devi ce that i ndi cates that i t i s ready to recei ve a
handshake si gnal from another communi cati ons devi ce.
DTU (Digital Test Unit) Some DT Us are stand-alone devi ces, and some
are add-ons for i ntegrati on i nto telecommuni cati ons equi pment.
Dual Homing Another term for alternate routing, redundancy, or self-
healing that i s used i n telecommuni cati ons networki ng.
Dual Ring of Trees A network topology that uses a dual ri ng topology
as a backbone for other ri ng or star networks ( Fi g. D.33) .
Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency (DTMF) T he tones that you hear
when you di al a si ngle-li ne push-button phone ( Fi g. D.34) . T he tones are
a mi xture of two frequenci es. T he frequenci es are connected accordi ng
to the di agram provi ded.
232 DSX (Digital Service Cross-Connect)
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 232
Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency (DTMF) 233
Token Ring
FDDI Ring
or
switched
token ring
server
server
star
Ethernet
Figure D.33 Dual Ring of Trees
1 2
ABC
3
DEF
5
JKL
4
GHI
8
TUV
0
oper
6
MNO
7
PRS
9
WXY
#
*
1209 Hz
697 Hz
770 Hz
852 Hz
941 Hz
1336 Hz 1477 Hz
FREQUENCIES COMBINED ON A DTMF KEYPAD
Figure D.34 Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency (DTMF) Keypad
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 233
Duct A condui t or pi pe that runs from one locati on to another, wi thi n a
bui ldi ng, connecti ng bui ldi ngs, or connecti ng cable vaults. I t i s a good
practi ce to i nstall a duct, then pull cable i nto i t, rather than di rectly
mounti ng or buryi ng the cable.
Dumb Terminal An I /O ( i nput/output) communi cati ons termi nal. T hey
are called dumb because they do not do any processi ng of i nformati on,
they j ust di splay i t. Dumb termi nals are used to di splay i nput/output i n-
formati on from ACD systems, PBX swi tches, SONET transport equi p-
ment, or other i nterface appli cati ons. Dumb termi nals are not used as
much anymore because termi nal-emulati on programs are avai lable for
personal computers. Examples of popular dumb termi nals are the Wyse
50 and VT 100 ( Fi g. D.35) .
234 Duct
Figure D.35 WYSE 50 Dumb Terminal
Dummy Load A devi ce that i s connected to electroni c output equi pment,
such as radi o transmi tters, power suppli es, and even stereo systems to
test them under full strai n. One dummy load for a home stereo system,
for example, i s two large 8-ohm resi stors, one for each channel ( left and
ri ght) i n place of the speakers. T he resi stors allow a full volume-range
( power output) test wi thout havi ng to endure the sound.
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 234
DUN (Dial-Up Networking) A computer-communi cati on method where
a POT S telephone li ne i s used i n conj uncti on wi th a modem for the
physi cal and data-li nk layer connecti on and a speci fi c protocol i s used
to transfer i nformati on. I n I nternet appli cati ons, PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol) or SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) i s used.
Duplex Jack A j ack or connecti ng block wi th two j acks on i ts face.
Duplex Transmission (Full Duplex) A communi cati ons protocol that
has the abi li ty to send and recei ve at the same ti me. A DS1 i s a full-
duplex protocol that carri es other protocols. T he alternati ve to full du-
plex i s half duplex, where two communi cati ons devi ces take turns shar-
i ng a li ne. Humans speak half duplex, because i t i s too hard to have a
meani ngful conversati on whi le both people are talki ng at the same ti me.
CB radi os and Walki e Talki es are also half duplex.
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) A memory-storage system that comes i n
the same footpri nt and hardware format as the CD-ROM. DVDs have a
storage capaci ty of 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data on each si de of the di sk.
DVD dri ves are able to access data at a rate of 1.3 Mbps.
DVD2 (Digital Versatile Disk, 2nd Generation) A versi on of the DVD
di sk dri ve that can read CD-R and CD-RW di sks, as well as audi o CDs.
See also DVD.
DVD-RAM A standard for DVD di sks that can be wri tten to and erased
over 10, 000 ti mes and have a storage capaci ty of 2.6 GB per si de.
DVD-RAM formatted di sks are not compati ble wi th DVD-RW di sks and
vi ce versa at the ti me of thi s wri ti ng.
DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disk Read-Only Memory) A DVD standard
that enables multi medi a entertai nment to be provi ded i n i mproved for-
mats over VHS vi deo recordi ngs, and can also play audi o CDs, CD-I di scs,
and CD-R di scs. T he DVD-ROM standard di sc can hold up to 17 GB of
data. T he standard compressi on format used to place vi deo and data on
them i s MPEG-2.
DVD-RW (Digital Video Disc ReWriteable) A standard for DVD di sks
that can be wri tten to and erased more than 10, 000 ti mes, and have a
capaci ty of 3 GB per si de. DVD-RAM formatted di sks are not compati -
ble wi th DVD-RW di sks and vi ce versa at the ti me of thi s wri ti ng.
DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol) A software
program that assi sts the operati on of a router. DVMRP helps routers keep
DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol) 235
PQ104_5056F-PD.qxd 2/10/01 12:07 PM Page 235
track of each other and the connecti ons between them i n a network.
DVMRP uses IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) to ex-
change routi ng datagrams wi th i ts nei ghbori ng routers. See also IGMP.
DWDM (Dense Wave Division Multiplexing) Another term for WDM
(Wave Division Multiplexing), whi ch i s to separate di fferent trans-
mi ssi ons by frequency, as AM and FM radi o broadcasts are. WDM i s a
speci fi c reference to separati ng di fferent transmi ssi ons by usi ng differ-
ent colors (or frequencies) of light wi thi n the same fi ber opti c strand.
See also WDM.
Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation (DBA) A feature of nonconnecti on-
ori ented protocols at the physi cal layer, such as X.25, frame relay, and
AT M. T hese telecommuni cati ons protocols permi t a vari able number of
users to uti li ze the full bandwi dth of a connecti on. One method i s sta-
ti sti cal ti me-di vi si on multi plexi ng used i n X.25, whi ch assi gns packets to
avai lable channels, regardless of the user or the number of users. AT M
and frame relay are also capable of allocati ng bandwi dth to users unti l
the local loop i s fully uti li zed. T hi s i s a natural feature of these protocols
because no user actually has to make a connecti on, or reserve a chan-
nel over the physi cal layer to make a transmi ssi on. See also STDM, Con-
nection-Oriented Protocol, and Connectionless Network Protocol.
Dynamic Configuration A reference to a mode/feature of a routers
operati ng system that bui lds and adj usts routi ng tables automati cally.
Router entri es made wi thi n these operati ng systems can be stati c
( manually entered by a user) or dynami c ( automati c) . I t i s also referred
to as discovery mode i n Ci sco Systems networks. See also Link-State
Algorithm and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) A protocol that provides
the specific service within a network of automatically configuring hosts/
workstati ons wi thi n that network. DHCP i s capable of automati cally con-
fi guri ng the I P address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS addresses.
Dynamic Link Library (DLL) An executable subrouti ne stored as a fi le
that i s separate from the programs that could use i t. DLLs allow for
effi ci ent use of memory and appli cati ons to share program resources.
DLL fi le extensi ons are .DLL, .DRV, and .FON.
Dynamic Load Balancing A feature of ACD (Automatic Call Distribu-
tor) systems to evenly di stri bute i ncomi ng calls to agents.
236 DWDM (Dense Wave Division Multiplexing)
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Dynamic Memory (DRAM) RAM ( random access memory) that holds
i ts data as long as the power i s on. T he other popular RAM memory i s
stati c memory, whi ch i s slower, but holds i ts data when the power i s i n-
terrupted. See also NVRAM and RAM.
Dynamic Routing A reference to a type of operati ng system wi thi n a
router that adj usts i ts routi ng/address tables automati cally when the i n-
ternetwork that i t resi des i n changes. An example of a network change
would be to add a new connecti on between two exi sti ng routers or to
bri dge two networks together. T he functi on wi thi n the operati ng system
that makes dynami c routi ng possi ble i s called by several names, i nclud-
i ng discovery, multicasting, and flash updating. An example of a dy-
namic routing protocol i s Ci sco Systems Enhanced IGRP (Enhanced
Interior Gateway-Routing Protocol). See also Link-State Algorithm.
Dynamic VLAN T here are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c and dynami c. Sta-
nami c VLANs allow users to move to another offi ce, whi ch could have a
data connecti on i nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the MAC address
of the devi ce and automati cally i nclude i ts traffi c i n the same VLAN as
the previ ously connected swi tch port. Dynami c VLANs are not recom-
mended i n large hi erarchi cal campus networks or multi layered swi tched
enterpri se networks due to troubleshooti ng complexi ty. Dynami c VLANs
have an i nherent nature to eventually overuti li ze a network backbone i n
campus envi ronments. Dynami c VLANs are i ntended for use i n si ngle-
offi ce or si ngle-bui ldi ng envi ronments. See also VLAN and Frame
Tagging.
Dynamic VLAN 237
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E.164 Number Another name for an I SDN 15-di gi t telephone number,
referred to as ITU-T E.164 addressing. See also SPID.
E Link (Extended Link) An SS7 (Signaling System 7) si gnali ng con-
necti on between a si gnali ng-end poi nt translator and a si gnal-transfer
poi nt. SS7 i s the protocol that controls call transfers between central
offi ces i n North Ameri ca.
E-Mail (Electronic Mail) A software program that you can load onto a
computer network that allows the users on the network to wri te each
other notes and send copi es of documents. Lotus Notes and CCMai l are
two examples of thi s software. See also X.400 and POP.
E&M (Ear and Mouth) A type of loop si gnali ng for analog telephone
ci rcui ts. E& M technology dates back to the ti me telegraphs were used
and i s an outdated servi ce no longer offered as a servi ce by most tele-
phone compani es, however, E& M trunki ng sti ll has speci al uses because
of i ts si mpli sti c nature. E& M i nterfaces come i n handy i n the PBX
envi ronment when there i s a need to connect to an analog audi o devi ce
such as an overhead pagi ng system, or tape recorder. T here are 5 types
of E& M i nterfaces that can have ei ther two or si x wi res i n the loop. T he
most common type of E& M si gnali ng i s the Four Wi re Wi nk Start E& M,
and the next most used i s the Four Wi re I mmedi ate Start E& M.
T he Wi nk Start E& M operates as follows: T he call ori gi nati ng swi tch
goes off-hook and then wai ts for a wi nk from the termi nati ng or
239
E
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 239
240 E1
desti nati on swi tch. When the desti nati on swi tch provi des the 200 ms off-
hook wi nk, then the ori gi nati ng swi tch sends di aled di gi ts. After the
di aled di gi ts are recei ved and a connecti on i s made to the termi nati ng
loop by a handset bei ng taken off hook, the same off hook condi ti on
i s gi ven over to the E& M trunk connecti ng the termi nati ng swi tch to the
desti nati on swi tch. When one swi tch goes on-hook or hangs up, the
other does as well. T he most si mple E& M si gnali ng method i s the I m-
medi ate Start E& M, where the ori gi nati ng end goes off-hook, or pro-
vi des a 1000 ohm short on the li ne and sends di gi ts wi thout regard to
the other end. T he ori gi nati ng swi tch stays off-hook unti l the recei vi ng
swi tch goes off-hook and then back on-hook, or the call ori gi nator goes
back on-hook or hangs up. T he E& M i mmedi ate start i s the better
choi ce for i nterfaci ng external audi o devi ces to PBX systems, and i s the
less appropri ate choi ce for PBX trunki ng because i f the termi nati ng
swi tch does not answer the call, and the ori gi nati ng swi tch does not
manually hang-up or go back on-hook, then the loop i s left connected.
T hi s problem wi th I mmedi ate Start E& M i s the reason that Wi nk Start
E& M was brought about. Wi nk Start E& M i s also called E& M wi th
Answer Supervi si on.
E1 A European standard that i s the counterpart to an Ameri can T 1.
T he E1 and T 1 are not completely the same. T hey both use 64 K bps
channels, but the T 1 has 24 and the E1 has 32. T he followi ng table com-
pares E1 and T 1. T he European standards are used i n all countri es, ex-
cept the Uni ted States, Japan, and Si ngapore ( Fi g. E.1) .
E2 A European standard that carri es four E1 ci rcui ts. I t i s used i n si mi -
lar appli cati ons i n Europe that a T 2 does i n North Ameri ca. A compari -
son of E2 and T 2 ci rcui ts follows. T he European standards are used i n
all countri es, except the Uni ted States, Japan, and Si ngapore ( Fi g. E.2) .
E3 A European versi on of a T 3. An E3 has a smaller bandwi dth and car-
ri es fewer sub-channels i n compari son to a T 3. T he European standards
are used i n all countri es, except the Uni ted States, Japan, and Si ngapore
( Fi g. E.3) .
Figure E.1 E1
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 240
E911 (Enhanced 911) Enhanced 911 servi ce uses an ANI (Automatic
Number Identification) si gnal that comes i n wi th the call and cross ref-
erences i t to a database of addresses and di splays the result on a PSAP
(Public Safety Answering Point) agents moni tor screen. Standard 911
uses the ANI only. E911 i s useful for the ti mes that the caller i s not ca-
pable or knowledgeable enough of the area to provi de a correct address
i n a ti mely manner.
EA (Extended Addressing) Extra bi ts reserved i n a frame header for
appli cati ons that requi re addi ti onal addressi ng i nformati on.
Ear and Mouth See E&M Trunk.
Earth Bulge When i mplementi ng terrestri al radi o paths longer than
7 mi les, the curvature of the Earth may become a factor i n path plan-
ni ng and requi re that the antenna be located hi gher off the ground. T he
addi ti onal antenna hei ght needed can be calculated usi ng the followi ng
formula:
where H hei ght of earth bulge ( i n feet) and D di stance be-
tween antennas ( i n mi les) .
Earth Ground T he electri cal potenti al of the earth ( 0 V ) . To mai ntai n a
good earth ground, a metalli c rod i s dri ven i nto the ground ( the length
of a standard groundi ng rod can vary, dependi ng on the geographi cal
H
D
2
8
Earth Ground 241
Figure E.2 E2
Figure E.3 E3
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 241
locati on) . Any wi re connected to that rod i s grounded. T he power
company i nstalls a rod li ke thi s when they connect power to a home.
T he telephone and cable-T V compani es wi re thei r network i nterfaces
( li ghtni ng protecti on) to the power companys earthground rod. T he al-
ternati ve to earth ground i s a floati ng ground. A floati ng ground i s si m-
ply a reference poi nt that i s not earth grounded. T he negati ve termi -
nal of your car battery i s a floati ng ground and any home appli ance that
has a two-prong electri cal plug i s also a floati ng ground.
EAS (Emergency Alert System) An emergency broadcast system that
i s i ncorporated i nto cable-T V network-di stri buti on systems. Si mply put,
i t i s an overri de or cut-i n to all cable-T V stati ons. I n an emergency, the
government can overri de the normally transmi tted programmi ng for the
purpose of i nformi ng the publi c. For a photo, see Emergency Alert
System; for a di agram, see Cable-TV Head End.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code) T he
character code used wi dely i n I BM mai nframe envi ronment computi ng
systems ( Fi g. E.4) . Personal computers predomi nantly use the ASCI I code.
242 EAS (Emergency Alert System)
Figure E.4 EBCDIC-to-Binary Conversion Table
EBS (Emergency Broadcast System) An alert system that i s i ncorpo-
rated i nto cable-T V network-di stri buti on systems. Si mply put, i t i s an
overri de or cut-i n to all cable-T V stati ons. I n an emergency, the gov-
ernment can overri de the normally transmi tted programmi ng for the pur-
pose of i nformi ng the publi c. For a photo of an EBS character genera-
tor, see Emergency Alert System.
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 242
ECH (Enhanced Call Handling) A reference to devi ces that provi de
servi ce for telephone calls, such as voi ce-mai l systems, i ntegrated voi ce-
response systems and ACD (Automatic Call Distribution) systems.
Echo Trail A reference to echo delay detecti on as measured by the
Codecs of voi ce-enabled routers. Echo i s a byproduct of voi ce networks
where the user hears thei r own voi ce. I n ci rcui t-swi tched telephony
networks, echo i s caused by a mi smatch of i mpedance from the two-
channel ( four-wi re) swi tch/transport envi ronment to the si ngle-channel
( two-wi re) local loop. A small echo i s i ntenti onally left i n voi ce network
desi gn because i t provi des a confi rmati on to users that thei r voi ce i s be-
i ng transmi tted. When echo exceeds 25 ms, i t becomes a nui sance to the
speaker. T hi s echo i s managed by echo cancellers. T he Codecs wi thi n
routers that do translati ons from VoI P networks to the publi c phone net-
work or swi tch-based PBXs have bui lt-i n echo cancellers. T he echo can-
cellers wi thi n Codecs are li mi ted to the amount of delay they can wai t
for. T hi s audi o memory i s called the echo trail and i s li mi ted to 40 ms.
See also G.711, G.729.
ECP (Enhanced Call Processing) A reference to a lucent technolo-
gi es voi ce-mai l feature that allows callers to route themselves to thei r
desti nati on vi a a prompt/response system of messages.
(ECP) Extended Capabilities Port A standard parallel port for PCs
that supports bi di recti onal communi cati ons for pri nters at 10 ti mes the
speed of the ori gi nal Centroni cs standard.
Eddy Current Eddy current i s the electri cal current produced i n the
core ( the central pi ece of metal that coi ls of wi re are wrapped around)
of a transformer. As the transformers core magneti zes and demagnet-
i zes i n conj uncti on wi th the AC electri ci ty flowi ng through the coi ls
wrapped around i t, magneti c fi elds are created. T hese magneti c fi elds
cause electri c current to flow i n the core. T he core heats up because of
the current flow, and thi s heat i s consi dered an i neffi ci ency. T hi s i neffi -
ci ency i s called eddy current loss.
Edge A reference to the part of a network beyond a WAN li nk, where an
end user i s located. See also Content Networking.
EDO DRAM (Extended Data-Output Dynamic Random-Access
Memory) A type of DRAM that i s faster than conventi onal DRAM
( Fi g. E.5) . EDO DRAM i s capable of fetchi ng bytes of data whi le si multa-
neously sendi ng bytes to the CPU. EDO DRAM has been outdated by
SDRAM, whi ch, at speeds greater than 100 MHz, i s twi ce as fast. I llus-
trated i s a 16-MB SI MM EDO DRAM. See also SDRAM.
EDO DRAM (Extended Data-Output Dynamic Random-Access Memory) 243
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 243
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
A type of EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory).
A microchip that contains circuitry that is capable of storing binary
instructions, then being erased or reset. Read-only memory is where in-
structions that tell a CPU how to work are stored. T he different types of
EPROM devices include EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory) and UVEPROM Ultra-Violet Erasable Programma-
ble Read-Only Memory), which can be erased by ultraviolet light exposure.
EIA Standards (Electronic Industries Association Standards) EI A
standards are avai lable from the EI As headquarters i n Washi ngton, DC.
EIA-530 Electroni c I ndustri es Associ ati on Standard 530 i s the standard
for two electri cal i mplementati ons of RS-422 ( for balanced transmi ssi on)
and RS-423 ( for unbalanced transmi ssi on) . See also RS-422, RS-423,
and EIA/TIA-449.
EIA/TIA-232 Electroni c I ndustri es Associ ati on/Telecommuni cati ons I n-
dustry Associ ati on Standard 232 i s the common physi cal-layer i nterface
standard that supports unbalanced ci rcui ts at si gnal speeds of up to
64 K bps. I t i s i nterchangeable wi th the V.24 standard. I t i s also called
RS-232.
EIA/TIA-449 Electroni c I ndustri es Associ ati on/Telecommuni cati ons I n-
dustry Associ ati on Standard 449 i s a physi cal-layer i nterface developed
by EI A and T I A. I t i s a versi on of EI A/T I A-232 capable of 2 Mbps and
longer cable runs. I t i s also called RS-449.
EIA/TIA-586 Electroni c I ndustri es Associ ati on/Telecommuni cati ons
I ndustry Associ ati on Standard that descri bes the characteri sti cs and ap-
pli cati ons for vari ous grades of UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cabli ng.
For more speci fi c i nformati on, see CAT 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7.
EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics) Also called Fast AT
Attachment (Fast ATA). An i mprovement over the standard I DE
244 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
Figure E.5 A 16-MB SIMM EDO DRAM Board
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 244
storage interface, which transfers data to and from a disk medium at speeds
up to 16.6 Mbps, whi ch i s four ti mes faster than I DE. EI DE i s also
capable of supporti ng dri ves that store up to 8 GB more than I DE di sk
dri ves.
Eight Click Rule/Eight Second Rule A gui deli ne that I nternet websi te
creators use. T he obj ecti ve i s to get the user the i nformati on they need
wi thi n 8 cli cks and 8 seconds or less. I t i s beli eved that i f an end user
must wai t longer than 8 seconds or make more than 8 cli cks, they wi ll
move onto an alternati ve websi te.
Eighty/Twenty 1. A rule of thumb used by telephone compani es whereby
swi tch and transport faci li ti es would be i ncreased i n a certai n area when
the uti li zati on reached 80% . T hi s rule worked i n the former monopoli s-
ti c busi ness model well. By the ti me the remai ni ng 20% was uti li zed,
there would be addi ti onal network faci li ti es i nstalled to accommodate
growth. I n the newer competi ti ve busi ness envi ronment, addi ti onal net-
work faci li ti es are bui lt based only on marketi ng forecasts and the rev-
enue potenti al of the market that the network serves. T hi s change i n
busi ness atti tude has had good effects on the vast maj ori ty of telecom-
muni cati ons servi ce customers. 2. A desi gn consi derati on i n enterpri se
networks where servers are di stri buted throughout a network. T he pur-
pose of thi s desi gn method i s to keep 80% of the traffi c on the same
Eighty/Twenty 245
Figure E.6
80/20 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 245
autonomous system ( possi bly a bui ldi ng or floor) . T hi s desi gn was used
when swi tchi ng equi pment for the backhaul of traffi c to or through a
core was very expensi ve. Si nce the drop i n pri ce for LAN swi tchi ng
equi pment, the cost of managi ng an 80/20 network has proved to exceed
the cost of the swi tchi ng equi pment that would provi de one central core.
T he core desi gn i s called a hi erarchi cal network desi gn. See also
Hierarchical Network Architecture and note the placement of servers
( See Fi g. E.6 on previ ous page) .
EIR (Excess Information Rate) T hi s i s the rate of data transfer i n bi ts
per second that exceeds the CIR (Committed Information Rate) on a
frame-relay DLC (Data Link Connection). T hese frames have thei r DE
(Discard Eligibility) bi t set to 1, whi ch means that i f congesti on occurs
i n the network, these frames wi ll be di scarded. Most frame-relay servi ce
provi ders try to transport customer data at a rate equal to the EI R, but
they only guarantee to transport i t at the CIR (Committed Information
Rate), a hi gh percentage of the ti me ( 95% to 99% ) . See also CIR
and AIR.
EISA (Extended Industry-Standard Architecture) A 32-bi t bus i n-
terface for personal computers and some UNI X-based workstati ons and
servers. EI SA was an i mprovement to the 16-bi t ISA (Industry-
Standard Architecture).
ELAN (Emulated LAN: Emulated Local Area Network) ( Pro-
nounced E-LAN; also called LANE: LAN Emulati on) A reference to an
AT M ( Asynchronous Transfer Mode) wi th added features to make i t i n-
terface di rectly wi th desktop host/computers thus, emulati ng Ether-
net. AT M i s a swi tchi ng method, whi ch makes i t di ffi cult to scale and di f-
fi cult to extend to the desktop. Because the core of AT M i s a vi rtual
pri vate li ne swi tch technology and not a vari able packet technology, i t
does not have the natural scalabi li ty that Ethernet does. T he ELAN set
of features are add-ons to AT M that make i t a li ttle more scalable and
much easi er to get to the desktop. T he challenge of ELAN sti ll remai ns
i n pri ce and i n conti nui ng to be compati ble wi th future network appli -
cati ons such as I P telephony.
Electrolysis T he use of electri ci ty to change the properti es of chemi cals
or electroplati ng. Many wi res and conductors are electroplated wi th
di fferent metals to i ncrease conducti vi ty. T hi s i s the opposi te of creat-
i ng electri ci ty wi th the use of chemi cals ( batteri es) .
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) I nterference caused by a radi o
si gnal or other magneti c fi eld, i nduci ng i tself onto a medi um ( twi sted/
246 EIR (Excess Information Rate)
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 246
non-twi sted pai r wi re) or devi ce ( telephone or other electroni cs) . T he
world we li ve i n i s full of radi o waves that are emi tted from electri c ap-
pli ances, such as blenders, automobi le engi nes, transmi tters, and even
fluorescent li ghts. Even though we take preventati ve measures to avoi d
pi cki ng up these unwanted si gnals, they someti mes fi nd thei r way i nto
places where they are not wanted. Electromagneti c i nterference i s usu-
ally caused by one of two thi ngs. T he fi rst i s when a wi re connected to
a devi ce acts as an antenna and pi cks up the EMI , whi ch i s then passed
on to the electroni cs i nsi de the devi ce and i s ampli fi ed. T he second i s
when an electroni c component i nsi de a devi ce acts as an antenna be-
cause of poor desi gn, poor shi eldi ng, or because the component i s
defecti ve.
Electromotive Force (EMF) Another name for voltage, whi ch i s the
ori gi nati on of the desi gnator used i n Ohms Law formulas. I n the formula
for calculati ng voltage, E represents voltage ( i n volts) , R represents re-
si stance ( i n ohms) , and I represents current ( i n amps) . E I R
Electronic Switching System (ESS) A fami ly of telecommuni cati ons
swi tches manufactured by Lucent Technologi es. T he 5ESS i s a common
central offi ce swi tch used by RBOCs.
Electronic Warfare A professi onal fi eld i n the armed forces that speci al-
i zes i n the sci ence of di sabli ng communi cati on and control equi pment wi th
the use of EMI , EMP, and by creati ng ghost or decepti ve radar i mages.
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Stati c electri ci ty. ESD became a bi g deal
when computer and electroni cs manufacturi ng compani es started usi ng
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) electroni c com-
ponents i n the devi ces that they make. Many mi crochi ps contai n CMOS
transi stors called MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistors). CMOS components are i n every PC made today. T hey are
also used to make the ci rcui try for LCD watches, telecommuni cati ons
equi pment, home electroni cs, and many others. T he advantage of CMOS
components i s that they use less power than other components ( such as
TTL, Transistor/Transistor Logic) . T hi s i s why you can have a ti ny bat-
tery power your wri st watch or calculator for months. However, the di s-
advantage of CMOS i s that i t i s extremely sensi ti ve to stati c electri ci ty.
Whenever handli ng CMOS components, be sure that your body i s grounded
( to drai n off any stati c that mi ght be on your body) . CMOS components
can be damaged by stati c fi elds, such as one that i s created when you brush
your hai r. Even i f the stati c doesnt arc out i nto a component, i ts fi eld can
sti ll damage or weaken i t. I f CMOS components are weakened by stati c,
they usually fai l unpredi ctably i n the future.
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 247
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E-LMI (Enhanced Local Management Interface) I n frame relay ap-
pli cati ons, E-LMI si mpli fi es the process of confi guri ng traffi c shapi ng on
routers. Wi thout the E-LMI feature, users must confi gure traffi c shapi ng
rate enforcement values, possi bly for every vi rtual ci rcui t. Enabli ng
E-LMI reduces chances of speci fyi ng i nconsi stent or i ncorrect values
when confi guri ng network routers. I t also enables a router to adj ust the
PVC values dynami cally to changes made i n the Frame Relay Network
he i s connected to. An example of such a change would be a change i n
CI R values of a PVC as a result of a change i n the contract between a
customer and i ts servi ce provi der. Usi ng E-LMI , the frame relay swi tch
automati cally conveys the new CI R, Be, and Bc values of the PVC to the
end routers.
EM ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for End of Medium. T he bi nary code
i s 1001001, the Hex i s 91.
Emergency Alert System (EAS) An emergency broadcast system that
i s i ncorporated i nto cable-T V network-di stri buti on systems ( Fi g. E.7) .
Si mply put, i t i s an overri de or cut-i n to all cable-T V stati ons. I n an
emergency, the government can overri de the normally transmi tted pro-
grammi ng for the purpose of i nformi ng the publi c. For a photo, see Emer-
gency Alert System; for a di agram, see Cable-TV Head End.
EMF (Electromotive Force) See Electromotive Force.
248 E-LMI (Enhanced Local Management Interface)
Figure E.7 Emergency Alert EAS Character Generator
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 248
EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) See Electromagnetic Interference.
Emission A reference to electromagneti c waves ( thi s i ncludes heat, ra-
di o, and li ght) radi ati ng from a source. For example, the sun emi ts ul-
travi olet radi ati on and radi o stati ons emi t electromagneti c si gnals.
EMT (Electrical Metal Tubing) T he metal tubi ng that electri ci ans use
to encase electri cal wi re. EMT i s also used to provi de a path i nto and
throughout bui ldi ngs i n telecommuni cati ons appli cati ons. EMT i s 2 to
4 i nches i n di ameter and protects the communi cati ons cable ( copper or
fi ber) from bei ng cut easi ly.
Emulated Local-Area Network (ELAN) ( Pronounced E-LAN; also
called LANE: LAN Emulati on) A reference to an AT M ( Asynchronous
Transfer Mode) wi th added features to make i t i nterface di rectly wi th
desktop host/computers thus, emulati ng Ethernet. AT M i s a swi tchi ng
method, whi ch makes i t di ffi cult to scale and di ffi cult to extend to the
desktop. Because the core of AT M i s a vi rtual pri vate li ne swi tch tech-
nology and not a vari able packet technology, i t does not have the natu-
ral scalabi li ty that Ethernet does. T he ELAN set of features are add-ons
to AT M that make i t a li ttle more scalable and much easi er to get to the
desktop. T he challenge of ELAN sti ll remai ns i n pri ce and i n conti nui ng
to be compati ble wi th future network appli cati ons such as I P telephony.
Emulation T he use of a PC to act or communi cate as a dumb I /O termi -
nal. To use a PC i n thi s appli cati on ( such as to plug i nto a mi crowave
li nk and boost i ts power) , i t must be equi pped wi th termi nal-emulati on
software. T he mi crowave-li nk devi ce has i ts own mi croprocessor and only
needs a devi ce to communi cate wi th, that devi ce i s usually a VT 100 ter-
mi nal. Termi nal-emulati on software allows your PC to look li ke a VT 100
termi nal to the mi crowave radi o equi pment.
Encapsulation T he process of recei vi ng bi nary data of a parti cular for-
mat or protocol, and addi ng addi ti onal routi ng/si gnal bi ts to the begi n-
ni ng and/or end. T he new bi ts are called a header ( or trailer, i f added
to the end) . As data moves toward the physi cal layer of a network ( or
down levels) , i t recei ves addi ti onal headers. As data moves toward the
host appli cati on ( or up levels) , the headers are stri pped off. Data uni ts
are gi ven a di fferent name, dependi ng on whi ch level of the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnect) model where they currently resi de. See also
Tunneling.
Encapsulation Bridging A method of transporti ng a frame of data from
one physi cal-layer protocol ( such as Ethernet) to another ( such as FDDI )
Encapsulation Bridging 249
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by addi ng an addi ti onal header and possi bly a trai ler. Another bri dgi ng
method i s called translational bridging, where the MAC (Media-
Access Control) protocol address format wi thi n the frame i s changed.
Both bri dgi ng methods are accompli shed by Ci sco and Nortel router/
routi ng equi pment.
Encryption T he process of translati ng of data i nto a secret code. En-
crypti on i s the most effecti ve way to achi eve data securi ty. To read an
encrypted fi le, you must have access to a key or password that enables
you to decrypt i t. Nonencrypted data i s called plain text, encrypted data
i s referred to as cipher text. Most data encrypti on methods are based
on algori thms.
End Device/Instrument A telephone, fax machi ne, modem, termi nal
adapter, PBX system, computer, or anythi ng else that termi nates a com-
muni cati ons li nk.
End Office (EO) T he telephone company central offi ce that serves or
connects to the end user/customer. T he telephone li ne i n your home con-
nects to an EO. I n other telephony appli cati ons, a li ne mi ght connect di -
rectly to a long-di stance companys node, bypassi ng the EO. T hi s i s called
a Dedicated Access Line (DAL).
End to End A reference to the abi li ty of a ci rcui t to communi cate/si gnal
from one end user to another wi thout alteri ng servi ce. Regular POTS
(Plain Old Telephone Service) telephone li nes are end-to-end si gnaled
communi cati on li nes. After the ci rcui t i s establi shed, you can sti ll di al
di gi ts i nto a voi ce-mai l system to reach an extensi on.
End User T he customer, the one that uses or consumes a product or
devi ce.
Enet Abbrevi ati on for Ethernet.
Engineer Furnish and Install (EF&I) A way to purchase somethi ng.
I f you would li ke to i nstall a SONET ri ng i n your campus envi ronment
and you ask Nortel Networks for pri ci ng, they wi ll offer you the opti on
of j ust buyi ng the equi pment or buyi ng the equi pment, and havi ng them
engi neer and i nstall i t.
Enhanced 911 Enhanced 911 servi ce uses an ANI si gnal that comes
i n wi th the call and cross references i t to a database of addresses. I t
di splays the result on a PSAP (Public Safety Answering Point)
250 Encryption
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agents moni tor screen. Standard 911 uses the ANI only. E911 i s use-
ful for the ti mes the caller i s not emoti onally capable or knowledge-
able enough of the area to provi de a correct address i n a ti mely
manner.
Enhanced DNIS A step above standard DNIS (Dialed Number Identi-
fication Service). Enhanced DNI S comes wi th ANI (Automatic Num-
ber Identification), better known as caller ID.
Enhanced IGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) A
di stance/vector-based traffi c-control program used by routers. Ci sco Sys-
tems developed the fi rst versi on of I GRP i n the early 1980s. T he ori gi -
nal I GRP was an i mprovement over the wi dely used RIP (Routing In-
formation Protocol) because i t used less bandwi dth to mai ntai n routi ng
tables. I t accompli shed thi s by only transferri ng new i nformati on about
i ts routi ng tables, rather than the enti re routi ng table. Enhanced I GRP
i s also able to encapsulate and convert AppleTalk, Novell I PX, and I P
routi ng i nformati on. See also IGRP.
Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE) Also called Fast AT
Attachment (Fast ATA). An i mprovement over the standard I DE stor-
age i nterface, whi ch transfers data to and from a di sk medi um at speeds
up to 16.6 Mbps, whi ch i s four ti mes faster than I DE. EI DE i s also ca-
pable of supporti ng dri ves that store up to 8 GB more than I DE di sk
dri ves.
Enhanced Local Management Interface (E-LMI) I n frame relay ap-
pli cati ons, E-LMI si mpli fi es the process of confi guri ng traffi c shapi ng on
routers. Wi thout the E-LMI feature, users must confi gure traffi c shapi ng
rate enforcement values, possi bly for every vi rtual ci rcui t. Enabli ng
E-LMI reduces chances of speci fyi ng i nconsi stent or i ncorrect values
when confi guri ng network routers. I t also enables a router to adj ust the
PVC values dynami cally to changes made i n the frame relay network he
i s connected to. An example of such a change would be a change i n CI R
values of a PVC as a result of a change i n the contract between a cus-
tomer and i ts servi ce provi der. Usi ng E-LMI , the frame relay swi tch
automati cally conveys the new CI R, Be, and Bc values of the PVC to the
end routers.
Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) A type of parallel port that has the same
physi cal DB25 characteri sti cs as any other parallel port, yet i s twi ce as
fast. EPP i s the parallel port used on many laptop/portable computers.
See also ECP.
Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) 251
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ENQ T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for enquiry. T he bi nary code
i s 0101000 and hex i s 50.
Entity A devi ce attached to a network, such as a workstati on, router,
server, termi nal, or pri nter. Devi ces are referred to as entities because,
through the network archi tecture, devi ces are gi ven di fferent addresses
or names, called aliases. All ali ases translate through routi ng and
address tables.
Envelope 1. Reference to the modulated carri er si gnal i n a radi o trans-
mi ssi on. 2. A data block i n a packet transmi ssi on network that contai ns
addressi ng or other data i n bi nary form.
Environment Electroni c equi pment usually has speci fi ed requi rements
for the envi ronment i n whi ch i t i s located. T he requi rements are usually
li sted i n the li terature that comes wi th the equi pment. Common envi -
ronmental requi rements are: 35 degrees F to 85 degrees F, 20% to 60%
humi di ty, and dedi cated 120V AC power.
EO (End Office) See End Office.
EOT T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for end of transmission. T he
bi nary code i s 0100000 and hex i s 40.
EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) A type of parallel port that has the same
physi cal DB25 characteri sti cs as any other parallel port, yet i s twi ce as
fast. EPP i s the parallel port used on many laptop/portable computers.
See also ECP.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory A mi crochi p that
contai ns ci rcui try capable of stori ng bi nary i nstructi ons, then bei ng erased
or reset. Read-only memory i s where i nstructi ons that tell a CPU how to
work are stored. T he di fferent types of EPROM devi ces i nclude EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), and
UVEPROM (Ultra-Violet Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory).
EQ (Equalization, Equalizer) To adj ust the tone or sound of a ci rcui t
by di mi ni shi ng or augmenti ng speci fi c frequency bands. T he tone
control on a radi o i s a type of equali zer. A radi o transmi tter mi ght have
a tendency to ampli fy low-end si gnals, such as the sound of a bass gui -
tar or drums better than hi gh-end si gnals, such as the sound of a voi ce
or cymbals. An equali zer can be used to reduce or i ncrease the ampli fi -
cati on of ei ther end of the broadcast for an even and accurate re-
producti on of the i nput.
252 ENQ
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Equalization See EQ.
Equipment Cabinet T here are many types of equi pment cabi nets, but
the most common i s 7 feet hi gh by 24 to 26 i nches wi de wi th a 22- or
19-i nch wi de mounti ng rack bui lt i nto i t. Quali ty equi pment cabi nets are
equi pped wi th blower fans to ci rculate ai r through them and have a lock-
i ng door. Some have clear plasti c doors so you can vi ew the alarm/
status li ghts on the front of your equi pment. Any ti me equi pment uses
a fan to keep i t cool, you should place i t i n the cleanest, dust-free envi -
ronment possi ble. I f you have a dusty envi ronment, the fans wi ll blow
dust i nto your equi pment, whi ch wi ll bui ld up and act as an i nsulati ng
blanket. T hi s wi ll cause overheati ng and fai lure of electroni c components.
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) See EPROM.
Erlang A one-hour uni t of telephone traffi c. T hi s can be one phone call
that lasts for one hour, or two phone calls that last for 30 mi nutes each,
etc. Erlangs consi st of CCS (Centum Call Seconds).
ERP (Effective Radiated Power) T he actual power i n watts radi ated
from a transmi tters antenna. A typi cal FM radi o stati on has an ERP of
15, 000 watts ( 15 kw) .
Error Checking T he methods used by modems and other transmi ssi on
equi pment to detect errors i n the data recei ved i n a transmi ssi on. Com-
mon error-checki ng methods are VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check-
ing), LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Checking), and CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Checking). T he most accurate error-checki ng method
used i n modems today i s called CRC ( cycli c redundancy checki ng) . CRC
i s desi gned to check a frame-type protocol.
Here i s a si mpli fi ed versi on of CRC logi c. I magi ne that a bi nary number
i s read off ( transmi tted) to you. You hear the ones and zeros, and as you
hear them you wri te them down ( remember them) . T hen, you are gi ven
another number to di vi de the fi rst number by (FRC, Fame Check Se-
quence), then another number ( algori thm) that should match up as the
answer. I f the answers match, then there i s a 99.99995% chance that you
heard the fi rst number correctly and there are no errors. Drawn out i n a
very si mpli fi ed form, CRC error-checki ng logi c looks somethi ng li ke thi s:
Bit block to be transmitted: 11001000 ( thi s i s equal to 200 i n
deci mal) .
FRC frame: ( added to the end) 1010 ( thi s i s equal to 10 i n deci mal) .
Algorithm: ( the answer) 10100 ( this is equal to 20 in decimal) .
Error Checking 253
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So, the recei vi ng equi pment di vi des the block transmi tted by the FRC
frame and should get the algori thm. I f the numbers dont match, then i t
requests a retransmi ssi on.
Error Rate Some transmi ssi on test equi pment ( T T C T berd) , some com-
puter software ( Novell) , and some network adapters ( SMC Ethernet)
have the separate abi li ty to transmi t a known group of packets over a
network, then see how accurately they are returned. When they are re-
turned, the equi pment di vi des the total number of packets by the num-
ber of packets that have errors. T he end number i s a percentage, whi ch
i s the error rate.
ESC T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for escape. T he bi nary code i s
1011001 and the hex i s B2.
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) See Electrostatic Discharge.
ESF (Extended Superframe Format) A type of T 1 li ne. An addi ti onal
i nnovati on of the D4/SF ( Superframe) format. I n a T 1 ci rcui t, each chan-
nel i s sampled ( whi ch i s an 8-bi t DAC sample) and the bi ts are sent on
down the li ne. I f you take 8 bi ts and multi ply i t by 24, you get 192. I f
you add one ti mi ng bi t to the end of the 192-bi t chai n, you get 193. A
Superframe i s 12 of these 193-bi t frames, chai ned together. T hi s allows
each of the 12 frami ng bi ts ( 193rd bi t) i n each of the 193-bi t sequences
to mean somethi ng other than a ti mi ng si gnal. Di fferent meani ngs i n-
clude si gnali ng, such as di al tone, di gi ts di aled, and off-hook or busy.
T hen, i n-band si gnali ng comes i nto play, i n whi ch ESF can be confi gured
as ei ther i n-band or out-of-band. Wi thi n the 24 channels, the least-
si gni fi cant bi t ( the one that wi ll have the least effect on the accuracy of
the DAC conversi on) of the 6th and 12th samples of each frame are used
for addi ti onal si gnali ng, control, and mai ntenance. T hi s i s called bit rob-
bing, and i t i s the reason why i n-band si gnaled T 1 li nes have only 56 K b/s
of bandwi dth, as opposed to non-bi t-robbed ( clear channel) T 1 li nes,
whi ch have 64 K b/s of bandwi dth.
ESS (Electronic Switching System) A fami ly of telecommuni cati ons
swi tches manufactured by Lucent Technologi es. T he 5ESS i s a common
central-offi ce swi tch used by RBOCs.
ETB T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for end-of-transmi ssi on block.
T he bi nary code i s 0111001 and hex i s 71.
EtherChannel A Ci sco Systems trademark for combi ni ng multi ples of
two or four Ethernet trunks between swi tches i nto one. Four gi gabi t
254 Error Rate
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Ethernet li nks can be combi ned to form one 4 Gbps li nk. T hi s type of
trunki ng i s commonly used i n backbone and di stri buti on envi ronments.
Ethernet A fami ly of LAN (Local Area Network) protocols. Ethernet i s
one of the oldest communi cati on protocols for personal computers. When
a LAN i s menti oned, two thi ngs should i mmedi ately come to mi nd. Phys-
i cal topology and the protocol the LAN uses to manage communi cati ons
between devi ces. Ethernet can be i mplemented i n a bus or star physi -
cal topology ( Fi g. E.8) . T he alternati ve fami ly of LAN protocols i s the
token-passi ng type, whi ch are confi gured as a ri ng topology. See Token
Ring.
Ethernet 255
Figure E.8 Ethernet
I n an Ethernet LAN, computers are gi ven a means to communi cate
wi th each other called a protocol. A protocol i s a set of rules and i n-
structi ons for communi cati ng. Wi thi n the protocol i s a logi cal topology.
Even though a network can be connected as a star, i t can sti ll look li ke
a bus to the communi cati ons equi pment because all of the computers/
devi ces are connected to the same wi re ( i n the star di agram, the hub i s
a devi ce that connects all the wi res together) . T he way Ethernet works
i s si mi lar to the way people talk i n a group. I nstead of usi ng wi re to carry
the bi nary coded i nformati on as Ethernet does, people use ai r to carry
sound i nformati on. When there i s a si lence, then one of the persons i n
the group i s able to speak. When the person speaks, they mi ght say
Johnny, do you know the answer for 5 5? Even though all the people
i n the group hear thi s message, they know i t i s for Johnny because the
message was addressed to hi m. So, only Johnny wi ll respond 10.
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 255
T hen, i magi ne as Dawn and Vi cki acknowledge a si lence and try to speak
at the same ti me. T hi s i s confusi ng and no one understands the i nfor-
mati on. Ethernet has the same problem and i t i s called a collision. Col-
li si on i s the di sadvantage of Ethernet. Because of the possi bi li ty of col-
li si ons ( whi ch happen very frequently) , Ethernet i s called a contenti on
based protocol because all of the connected devi ces are contendi ng for
use of the network. Manufacturers have come out wi th new ways to avoi d
colli si ons, called CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA. Ethernet has many di fferent
types of wi ri ng to connect devi ces, and many di fferent NICs (Network
Interface Cards) to select from that need to be i nstalled i n each com-
puter or devi ce on the network. T he followi ng i s a li st of Ethernet pro-
tocols and the type of wi ri ng used for each.
Ethernet Autonegotiation T he I EEE 802.3u 100BaseT feature speci fi -
cati on that provi des for flow control ( pause frames) and full-duplex op-
erati on. Full duplex allows for 100 Mbps send and 100 Mbps recei ve,
for a total 200 Mbps Ethernet connecti on over a Cat5 twi sted pai r. T he
autonegoti ati on i s an enhancement of the li nk i ntegri ty si gnali ng method
used i n 10BaseT networks and i s backward compati ble wi th li nk i ntegri ty.
Ethernet Prioritization I n converged Ethernet envi ronments, a refer-
ence to the I EEE 802.1p standard for pri ori ti zati on of LAN traffi c among
Ethernet swi tches based on the swi tch port, MAC address, or I P address
associ ated wi th the communi cati ng end appli ance ( whether i t i s an I P
phone, vi deo moni tor, host PC, pri nter, or server) . Packets are tagged
as belongi ng to a queue, whi ch determi nes the pri ori ty of the packet. By
the 802.1p standard, queue 03 i s normal and 47 are hi gh pri ori ty.
802.1p functi ons hand-i n-hand wi th 802.1Q or VLANs.
Ethernet Switch A hardware devi ce that provi des dedi cated bandwi dth
to segments of the network that are attached to i t. T he pri mary purpose
of a LAN swi tch i s to provi de addi ti onal bandwi dth to users by
reduci ng the number of users per segment. I n doi ng thi s, colli si ons are
eli mi nated and the 50% to 60% effi ci ency of Ethernet i s i ncreased to near
100% ( colli si ons are sti ll possi ble between the swi tch and the attached
devi ce) . A LAN swi tch can be compared to a bri dge wi th many ports
( at a much lower cost per port) and extensi ve traffi c manageabi li ty.
Unli ke a non-POT S voi ce swi tch or PBX swi tch, multi ple hosts ( com-
puters, I P telephone extensi ons) can be connected to each port. T hi s
i s because a LAN swi tch forwards frames based on the MAC address of
256 Ethernet Autonegotiation
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 256
the connected devi ces, rather than the swi tch port as i n voi ce swi tch op-
erati on. Because basi c LAN swi tches are OSI Layer 2 devi ces ( meani ng
the forward packets based on a hardware address) , they are capable of
bri dgi ng unli ke networks, such as Ethernet to FDDI and token ri ng.
Larger LAN swi tches are capable of performi ng layer 3 routing, where
the packet forwardi ng functi on happens based on a leadi ng packets I P
address. LAN swi tches often replace Ethernet hubs ( no wi re replace-
ment i s needed, but fi ber opti c may be i nstalled for backbone connec-
ti vi ty) when they are i mplemented i nto a network. LAN swi tches are
the core enabler of I P telephony. See also Bridge, Layer 3 Switch, and
IP Telephony ( Fi g. E.9) .
ExaByte 257
ETX T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for end of text. T he bi nary code
i s 0011000 and the hex i s 30.
Even Parity A method of bi t-stream checki ng. Pari ty i s used i n error cor-
recti on. T he number of logi c ones i s counted i n a bi t stream. T here i s
odd pari ty and even pari ty. Whi ch i s used depends on i f you li ke odd
or even numbers, or i f the modem you are tryi ng to connect wi th li kes
odd or even numbers. Pari ty i s a part of error-checki ng protocol. I t i s
si mply the part of the protocol where the two devi ces are told i f they
are counti ng odd number bi ts or even number bi ts. I n odd pari ty, i f the
number of ones i s an odd number, then a pari ty bi t i s set to one at the
end of the bi t stream. T hi s i s odd parity because the pari ty bi t i s set to
one when the number of ones i s odd. I n even parity, the pari ty bi t i s
set to one when the number of one bi ts i s even.
Exa See ExaByte.
ExaByte Exa i s a uni t of sci enti fi c/engi neeri ng notati on. 1 10
18
power.
Or you could thi nk of Exa as 18 zeros on the end of a number. Fi ve
ExaBytes ( 5EB) i s equal to 5, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 bytes.
Figure E.9 Ethernet Switch
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 13/2/01 9:08 PM Page 257
Excess Information Rate (EIR) T hi s i s the rate of data transfer i n bi ts
per second that exceeds the CIR (Committed Information Rate) on a
frame-relay DLC (Data Link Connection). T hese frames have thei r
DE (Discard Eligibility) bi t set to 1, whi ch means that i f congesti on
occurs i n the network, these frames wi ll be di scarded. Most frame-relay
servi ce provi ders try to transport customer data at a rate equal to the
EI R, but they only guarantee to transport i t at the CIR (Committed
Information Rate), a hi gh percentage of the ti me ( 95% to 99% ) . See also
CIR and AIR.
Excess Rate 1. I n ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), the data-
transfer rate i n excess of the i nsured rate for a gi ven connecti on. T he
excess rate equals the maxi mum rate mi nus the i nsured rate. For ex-
ample, i f an AT M connecti on has an i nsured rate of 1.5 Mbps, and i t i s
acti vely transferri ng data at 2 Mbps, the excess rate i s 0.5 Mbps. Excess
traffi c i s deli vered only i f network resources are avai lable and the ex-
cess data transferred i s marked Discard Eligible. 2. T he term excess
rate i s occasi onally used as a reference to Excess Information Rate
(EIR) i n a frame-relay connecti on. I n both cases, the term i s a reference
to a bonus that i s gi ven to a bandwi dth subscri ber that i s above what
they pay for because i t costs the servi ce provi der nothi ng to allow thi s
bandwi dth to be used when i t otherwi se would not be. Compare wi th In-
sured Rate and Maximum Rate.
Exchange T he area that a si ngle central offi ce servi ces. Soon, when num-
ber portabi li ty i s fully i mplemented, an exchange wi ll not be associ ated
wi th a central offi ce. I t wi ll be associ ated wi th an area and the legal reg-
ulati ons i mposed on communi cati ons compani es i n that area. Currently,
each central offi ce i s assi gned a group of numbers that i t can use. T he
numbers are the fi rst three di gi ts ( not i ncludi ng the area code) . T he
numbers ( 801) -355-xxxx, ( 801) -237-xxxx, and ( 801) -575-xxxx are as-
si gned to the Quest Salt Lake Ci ty, Utah mai n central offi ce.
Exchange Area An area served by multi ple communi cati ons compani es
and multi ple central offi ces. Each exchange area has i ts own legal
regulati ons regardi ng how compani es can compete ( or pri ce and
package thei r servi ces) and what servi ces they are requi red to provi de.
Expansion T he reverse of compressi on i n compandi ng ( compressi on-
expansi on) . A pulse-code modulati on techni que that takes small
samples of an analog si gnal the same way that i s done i n (PAM) Pulse
Amplitude Modulation, except that the resultant PAM si gnal i s converted
to bi nary. Compandi ng compresses the bi nary si gnal usi ng a mathemati -
cal algori thm. T hi s allows more analog channels wi thi n the same network
258 Excess Information Rate (EIR)
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 258
bandwi dth. Compandi ng i s used over PCS (Personal Communications
Service) cellular radi o networks. See also Mu Law and A Law.
Expansion Slots Space allocated i n a K SU for the addi ti on of ci rcui t
cards i n the future. Addi ti onal ci rcui t cards needed mi ght be trunk
i nterface cards or stati on/extensi on i nterface cards.
Explicit Frame Tagging I n LAN swi tchi ng, frame taggi ng i s a method
used to i denti fy whi ch Vi rtual LAN ( VLAN) a packet belongs to. Wi thi n
an Ethernet swi tch, a VLAN behaves as a si ngle Ethernet segment, where
all computers/hosts that are a part of a VLAN see each others traffi c.
T raffi c cannot traverse from one VLAN group to another unless i t
leaves the swi tch and i s routed back i n on another port. T he router pro-
vi des traffi c securi ty/management. Frames are marked by the swi tch i n
two methods: i mpli ci t and expli ci t. I mpli ci t frame taggi ng i s a method
where the VLAN i nformati on i s added wi thi n the packet. Expli ci t frame
taggi ng i s a method where an external VLAN header i s added to the
frame.
Explorer Packet I n I BM source-route bri dgi ng networks, a message sent
through a network by an end devi ce that gathers path and route i nfor-
mati on. When the message returns to the devi ce that sent i t, i t contai ns
a li st of all of the enti ti es i n the network and the order that they are
connected. From a di gi tal or mathemati cal standpoi nt, thi s i s a complete
map of the network.
Extended Addressing (EA) Extra bi ts reserved i n a frame header ( two
i n frame relay) for appli cati ons that requi re addi ti onal addressi ng i nfor-
mati on.
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
T he character code used wi dely i n I BM mai nframe-envi ronment com-
puti ng systems. Personal computers predomi nantly use the ASCI I
code. For a table of EBCDI C characters and thei r bi nary values, see
EBCDIC.
Extended Capabilities Port (ECP) A standard parallel port for PCs
that supports bi di recti onal communi cati ons for pri nters at 10 ti mes the
speed of the ori gi nal Centroni cs standard.
Extended Industry-Standard Architecture (EISA) A 32-bi t bus i n-
terface for personal computers and some UNI X-based workstati ons and
servers. EI SA was an i mprovement to the 16-bi t ISA (Industry-
Standard Architecture).
Extended Industry-Standard Architecture (EISA) 259
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 259
Extended Superframe Format (ESF) See ESF.
Extensible Markup Language (XML) A database format that i s i n-
tended to enhance the capabi li ti es of content servi ces and deli very over
the I nternet. XML i s more flexi ble than HT ML because i t allows for data-
base formats to be self-defi ni ng. What makes XML able to work thi s way
i s that i t does not have a fi xed tag set or fi xed semanti cs, whi ch means
that the semanti cs and tag sets are defi ned by the appli cati on programs
that uti li ze the XML. XML could be thought of as a translati on book where
users can place a word, whatever word i t may be i n any language wi th
any pronunci ati on or sound, and then place a pi cture or meani ng next
to the word; further, the pages of the book can be ordered any way the
user li kes. However, some connecti on to another book and page must
be made for reference ( thi s would be one of the other databases, such
as a banki ng record) . When the book i s completed, i t i s, of course, a data-
base i n i tself. XML also features a si mpler method of set-up than HT ML
and i s wi dely avai lable. I t i s commonplace for XML to be used to access
a porti on of data from an I nternet web page and transfer i t to another
di splay method, such as a stock ti cker di splay, a pager or cellular phone
di splay, or telephone di splay.
Extension A telephone or equi pment connecti on on a PBX (Private
Branch Exchange) or key system. Extensi ons can be from two to seven
di gi ts long. An extensi on i s someti mes referred to as a DN (Directory
Number). An extensi on can be an electroni c keyphone i f i t i s connected
to a di gi tal PBX i nterface or i t can be a modem, fax machi ne, or analog
phone ( li ke the ones made for home use) i f i t i s connected to an analog
i nterface.
External Modem Also called a stand-alone modem. A modem that
comes i n i ts own package ( case) and comes wi th a cable that plugs i nto
a COM port/seri al port on a computer or data devi ce. External modems
are popular for di al-up remote-access admi ni strati on for PBX swi tches.
T he alternati ve to external modems are i nternal modems, whi ch are pop-
ular i n PCs and come i n the form of ci rcui t cards that plug i nto the PCs
motherboard. Both do the same j ob equally as well, but most computers
only have two COM ports. I f you use an i nternal modem, then you can
use your two COM ports for other appli cati ons, you dont have to have
another power outlet, and i nternal modems are usually less money.
Extranet A part of a company i ntranet that permi ts outsi de I nternet
users to vi ew and i nteract wi th certai n functi ons wi thi n the company
network, such as corporate updates, employment pages, and product or-
deri ng.
260 Extended Superframe Format (ESF)
PQ104_5056F-PE.qxd 10/2/01 3:25 PM Page 260
Eyeball Shot Another name for a terrestri al mi crowave li nk. T he li nk i s
made by two radi o transcei vers equi pped wi th paraboli c di sh antennas
poi nted di rectly at each other. Radi o can carry poi nt-to-poi nt transmi s-
si ons of many bandwi dths, i ncludi ng DS1, DS2, DS3, ST S1, and OC1.
T hei r range can vary, dependi ng on the si ze of the antenna ( di sh) ,
weather i n the regi on, and the amount of power emi tted. I ncludi ng all
of the previ ous factors, a li nk can range from 0 to 50 mi les. For a di a-
gram, see Terrestrial Microwave.
Eyeball Shot 261
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F Connector A connector for coax cable. T he standard for cable-T V i s
75-ohm coax wi th an F-type connector on the end ( Fi g. F.1) . For other
types of coax connectors, see Coax.
263
F
Figure F.1 F Connector
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 263
Face Plate 1. Some telephone j acks come wi th separate face plates that
snap on to the front of a telephone j ack. T he snap-on/snap-off desi gn
makes i t easi er to access the wi re connecti ons, but thi s style of j ack i s
usually a poor choi ce for a long-term appli cati on. 2. Some telephone
sets have face plates that fi t over the buttons and di splay of the phone.
I nstead of buyi ng the phone that i s the color of your choi ce, you si m-
ply buy a uni versal phone, then buy the face plates wi th your choi ce of
color.
Facilities 1. A reference to equi pment requi red to complete a commu-
ni cati ons obj ecti ve. For example, twi sted copper pai rs, coax, and fi ber
opti c are consi dered faci li ti es to local telecommuni cati ons provi ders.
2. T he part of an X.25 packet header i n the X.25 protocol that negoti -
ates and defi nes wi ndow si ze, packet si ze, protocol, and transfer speed,
to name a few.
Facilities-Based Carrier A telephone company that has i ts own
swi tches and communi cati ons faci li ti es, unli ke a reseller.
FACS (Facilities) A porti on of a phone company that tracks the use
of faci li ti es ( cable pai rs and central-offi ce swi tch ports) . I f you are a
telephone network techni ci an and you fi nd that a pai r i n a cable ( ca-
ble pai r) i s bad, you call FACS and noti fy them that the pai r i s unus-
able. T hi s way, they dont thi nk that they have an extra pai r for future
servi ce.
Facsimile A fax machi ne. A machi ne that can di al a telephone number
connected to another fax machi ne and generate a copy of a document
fed i nto i t on the far end.
Fan Out A multi plexer. T he devi ce that breaks a DS1 or DS3 servi ce
down i nto the si ze that a customer wants. A fan out on a DS3 li ne breaks
the 28 DS1 channels out for a customer and a fan out on a DS1 li ne
breaks the DS1 i nto 24 DS0 channels.
FAP (Fuse Alarm Panel) A power-di stri buti on panel that i s i nstalled at
the top of a relay rack. All equi pment i n the rack i s wi red to the panel
for power. Each devi ce has i ts own fuse wi thi n the panel to protect the
recti fi er from an over-current condi ti on i f a devi ce fai ls or a wi re shorts.
I f any of the fuses blow, an alarm i ndi cator i s di splayed. For a photo, see
Fuse Alarm Panel.
Far-End Cross-Talk (FEXT) T he uncommon phenomena of si gnals
sent over twi sted copper pai rs bleedi ng onto each other vi a magneti c
fi elds produced at cross connecti ons, or wi thi n defecti ve electroni c
264 Face Plate
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Farad T he standard uni t of capaci tance. A capaci tor i s an electroni c de-
vi ce wi th two speci al properti es. I t only allows alternati ng current to pass
through i t, and i t can store an electri c charge. One of the many appli ca-
ti ons of capaci tors i s to fi lter AC out of DC power suppli es and recti fi ers.
T hi s i s done by placi ng a capaci tor from the DC output to ground. T he ca-
paci tor appears as an easi er path to voltage fluctuati ons and RFI , and an
i mpossi ble path to di rect current ( DC) . Physi cally, a capaci tor i s two plates
of metal separated by an i nsulator ( mylar i s common) . T he physi cal si ze
of a 1-F capaci tor would be two sheets of ti n foi l the si ze of a football fi eld,
i nsulated ( or separated) by a thi n sheet of mylar. T he farad i s a huge uni t
of capaci tance, so most capaci tors are measured i n mi crofarads ( F) . For
a schemati c symbol of a capaci tor and a photo, see Capacitor.
Fast ATA (Fast AT Attachment) Also called EIDE (Enhanced Inte-
grated Drive Electronics), i t i s an i mprovement over the standard I DE
storage i nterface, whi ch transfers data to and from a di sk medi um at speeds
up to 16.6 Mbps, whi ch i s four ti mes faster than I DE. EI DE i s also capa-
ble of supporti ng dri ves that store up to 8 GB more than I DE di sk dri ves.
equi pment ( Fi g. F.2) . T he far end refers to the problem occurri ng be-
tween a remote node and customer i nterface ( or customer equi pment) .
Fast ATA (Fast AT Attachment) 265
Figure F.2 Far-End Cross-Talk
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 265
FAT (File Allocation Table) A computer fi le that tracks as a di rectory
for the contents of a hard dri ve. See also FAT16 and FAT32.
Fat Client A reference to a network attached workstati on that has ade-
quate processi ng power for appli cati ons uti li zed wi thi n i ts realm of busi -
ness. A fat cli ent performs data processi ng vi a i ts own i nternal hardware,
and reli es on networked servers for data storage, retri eval, and shari ng.
A fat cli ent envi ronment emulates the evolvi ng cli ent/server computi ng
strategy opposed to the thi n-cli ent type. As wi th all technologi es, whi ch
i s best economi cally and admi ni strati vely depends on the users appli -
cati on. See also Thin Client.
FAT16 (File Allocation Table Version 16) A di sk-dri ve fi le-tracki ng
method that used 16 bi ts to address clusters, whi ch li mi ted the si ze of
hard-dri ve parti ti ons to 512 MB. FAT 16 uses 32 K B clusters to store data.
FAT32 (File Allocation Table Version 32) A di sk-dri ve fi le-tracki ng
method that uses 32 bi ts to address memory clusters. FAT 32 supports
hard dri ves as large as 2 T B ( terabytes) . FAT 32 uses 4-K B memory clus-
ters to store data.
FAX See Facsimile.
Fax Gateway A routi ng devi ce that uses H.323 Codec for di gi tal to ana-
log conversi on, or standard T.38 phase 2, whi ch i s a Ci sco Systems de-
veloped fax gateway protocol that i s now an I T U-T standard, I T U-T T.38.
A fax gateway i s a devi ce/port that allows a si ngle telephone li ne to re-
cei ve both faxes and voi ce calls. T he fax gateway answers all i ncomi ng
calls. I t li stens for a fax handshake tone, and i f i t does not hear one, i t
ri ngs the telephone connected to i t. T.38 i s a feature that can be enabled
on i ndi vi dual router FXS ports. A fax gateway performs the same func-
ti on as a fax swi tch, only i n a LAN appli cati on.
Fax Jack A devi ce that connects to a phone li ne and has two j acks on
the other end, one for a fax machi ne and one for a telephone. T hese de-
vi ces are for users that want to use only one phone li ne for faxes and
voi ce calls. When a call arri ves, the fax j ack answers the li ne i mmedi -
ately and wai ts for a mechani cal tone from another fax machi ne. I f i t
does not hear the tone, i t assumes that the call i s a person and not a fax
machi ne. I t then ri ngs the phone on i ts other end. I f the fax j ack would
have heard a tone, i t would have connected the li ne to the fax machi ne
plugged i nto i ts other end. T he only bad thi ng about fax j acks or other
li ne-shari ng devi ces i s that when they sei ze the li ne i mmedi ately, they
block caller-I D ( ANI ) si gnals.
266 FAT (File Allocation Table)
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Fax on Demand A feature of voi ce-response systems that enable a caller
to li sten to a recorded message that gi ves them a selecti on of i nforma-
ti on that they can recei ve vi a a fax. After maki ng a selecti on, the caller
i s then prompted by another recordi ng to enter the number that they
would li ke the i nformati on faxed to.
Fax Switch See Fax Jack.
FCC (Federal Communications Commission) An organi zati on of the
federal government that was set up by the Federal Communi cati ons Act
of 1934. T he FCC works i n conj uncti on wi th the 50 state Publi c Servi ce
Commi ssi on bodi es and Congress. I t has the legal authori ty to regulate
the followi ng three areas of communi cati ons. Communi cati ons bei ng de-
fi ned as radi o, vi deo, telephone, and satelli te communi cati ons wi thi n the
Uni ted States. 1. Regulate who i s permi tted to manufacture and sell
telecommuni cati ons equi pment and servi ce. 2. Regulate the pri ce of
i nterstate long di stance. 3. Determi ne the electri cal standards for
telecommuni cati ons, such as operati ng frequency of transmi tti ng devi ces.
FCC Complaints 1-888-225-5322 i s a publi c servi ce to i ni ti ate complai nts
regardi ng slammi ng, radi o i nterference, i llegal moni tori ng acti vi ti es, and
other FCC-regulated i ssues.
FCC Tariff A ruli ng on a type of communi cati ons servi ce. A tari ff defi nes
a servi ce and the pri ce that certai n compani es are allowed to charge.
Tari ffs usually restri ct RBOCs and AT & T from bei ng competi ti ve by forc-
i ng them to sell servi ce at hi gher pri ces than the compani es wi sh. I f the
FCC di d not i mpose these tari ffs on the communi cati ons gi ants, i t would
be i mpossi ble for new smaller compani es to become establi shed and com-
pete. I ncumbent provi ders would si mply drop thei r rates so low that the
other compani es would be dri ven out of busi ness or be dri ven to bei ng
bought out by one of the larger compani es.
FCS (Frame Check Sequence) A 16-bi t cycli c redundancy check used
i n X.25. T he FCS has i ts own secti on of overhead i n the X.25 frame. FCS
i s proven to be over 99.998% effecti ve i n detecti ng errors. For more i n-
formati on, see X.25.
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) LAN backbone protocol
that requi res i ts own fi ber-opti c cabli ng, NI C cards, and software to con-
fi gure them. FDDI i s a 100 Mb/s protocol that came about when Ether-
net and token ri ng were i n thei r 10 Mb/s and 16 Mb/s i nfanthood. Si nce
then, Ethernet has developed 1000 Base-T, whi ch i s a 1, 000 Mb/s pro-
tocol. Token Ri ng has now developed i nto Swi tched Token Ri ng, whi ch
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) 267
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has a maxi mum throughput of 80 Mb/s. T he maxi mum throughput of FDDI
i s a true 100Mb/s, and i ts self-heali ng ri ng capabi li ty i s only matched by
Swi tched Token Ri ng and exceeded by SONET. FDDI i s a great LAN back-
bone archi tecture, but i t i s twi ce as expensi ve as i ts Ethernet and Token
Ri ng competi ti on, and i t requi res fi ber-opti c cabli ng. I f your backbone
archi tecture wi ll carry i mportant data that cannot have any downti me,
FDDI and Swi tched Token Ri ng are your opti ons. I f you have cruci al data
flow and long di stances ( a ri ng of more than a 2-mi le ci rcumference) or
an envi ronment where EMI i s abundant ( such as a factory wi th large elec-
tri cal equi pment) , then FDDI on fi ber opti c wi ll be your pri me backbone
archi tecture. A FDDI ri ng has a maxi mum ci rcumference of 62 mi les
( 100 km) , but a repeater or node must be spaced every 1.25 mi les
( 2 km) . Up to 1000 nodes can be placed on a FDDI ri ng. Swi tched FDDI
has become avai lable recently. For a di agram of a FDDI appli cati on, see
Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexing) Multi plexi ng i s the process
of encodi ng two or more di gi tal si gnals or channels onto one. Channels
are multi plexed together i n communi cati ons to save money. When we
use all of the wi res i n a cable and need more, i t costs less to add elec-
troni cs on the ends of a cable than to i nstall a new one ( i magi ne the ex-
pense from LA to NY) . A T 1 encodes 24 channels i nto one by usi ng ti me-
di vi si on multi plexi ng. Many radi o stati ons are put i n the same ai rspace
by usi ng frequency-di vi si on multi plexi ng.
FDMA (Frequency-Division Multiple Access) Another name for
frequency-division multiplexing that the cellular telephone i ndustry
uses.
FDX (Full Duplex) 1. A full-duplex li ne or communi cati ons path i s able
to communi cate both di recti ons, transmi t and recei ve, at the same ti me.
A T 1 i s a full-duplex li ne, wi th one pai r used for transmi t and the other
used for recei ve. Full duplex can be accompli shed on one pai r of wi res
by usi ng two multi plexed channels, one for recei ve, and one for transmi t.
T here are two other types of transmi ssi ons. One i s half duplex, where
transmi t and recei ve are sent one at a ti me. A CB radi o works i n half-
duplex mode: one person talks whi le another li stens, and vi ce versa. T he
other type of transmi ssi on i s si mplex, where communi cati on i s one way
only. An FM radi o stati on or T V broadcast i s si mplex. 2. I n LAN swi tch-
i ng, a feature that enables speed to be doubled by havi ng si multaneous
two-way conversati on. For example, a full-duplex 100BaseT X connec-
ti on between a swi tch port and a host/computer would have si multane-
ous 100 Mbps capabi li ty for transmi t and 100 Mbps for recei ve, for a total
of 200 Mbps throughput. Full-duplex Ethernet operati on i s a byproduct
268 FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexing)
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of LAN swi tch archi tecture. LAN swi tches must be i mplemented to obtai n
full-duplex Ethernet. Full-duplex functi onali ty does not work across hubs.
Feature Buttons Buttons on PBX telephone sets that acti vate features
such as hands free, call forward, do not di sturb, transfer, and speed di al.
Feature buttons can be changed or customi zed to a users li ki ng. For ex-
ample, i f John li kes to have the top feature button as hands free and
the bottom button as transfer, then the buttons can be programmed
for those functi ons. I f Sally li kes the bottom button to be her si sters
speed call button, then the feature button on the bottom of the phone
can be programmed that way.
Feature Cartridge A cartri dge contai ni ng ROM or RAM that permi ts a
phone system ( PBX) to use di fferent features. I always thought that i f
you buy the system, why not put all the software features on i t, and make
i t si mple. I f you would li ke to have the features, you need addi ti onal soft-
ware, and software li censes are expensi ve. Feature cartri dges gi ve cus-
tomers the opti on of buyi ng what they want.
Feature Code I f you want to use a feature on a PBX system, but dont
have a button on your phone that performs that feature, you can use a
feature button i n combi nati on wi th a code. I f you would li ke to transfer
a call on a phone system, but you dont have a transfer button on your
phone, you can transfer the call by pushi ng the feature button and then
enteri ng a code ( e.g., 52) on the di al pad. Feature codes are also used
i n the publi c telephone network. I f you are a USWest customer i n Utah,
you can acti vate a feature that calls the party that j ust called you ( i f you
di d not get to the ri ngi ng phone i n ti me to answer i t) . T he feature code
for thi s servi ce i s *69. Just pi ck up the phone and di al *69. T here i s a
charge for thi s servi ce j ust li ke there i s a charge for di rectory assi stance.
Feature Group I n PBX systems, programmi ng i ndi vi dual telephone ex-
tensi ons can be very tedi ous i f you have 300 of them on your system.
Some PBX manufacturers bui ld a feature i nto thei r programmi ng called
a feature group. You can assi gn features to a feature group, such as:
transfer on button 1; speed di al on buttons 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; do not di sturb
on button 2; voi ce mai l on button 3; etc. T hen you can assi gn extensi ons
to the feature group. Each extensi on assi gned to a feature group wi ll
have the features of that feature group. T hi s i s much easi er than pro-
grammi ng every button on all 300 phones.
Feature Phone A reference to a PBX telephone set that is capable of select
features, such as do not di sturb, call forwardi ng, speed di al, transfer, etc.
FEC (Forward Error Correction) See Forward Error Correction.
FEC (Forward Error Correction) 269
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Figure F.3 A Feedhorn with LNB Converter Attached Above the Satellite Dish
FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) A bi t i n the over-
head of a data packet travelli ng i n a frame-relay network. T hi s bi t i s set
to 1 i f the packet travels through an area of network congesti on that
i s the same di recti on ( or forward) of i ts flow. T hi s bi t i s a si gnal from
the frame-relay network to hi gher-level protocols wi thi n DT E and DCE
to take appropri ate flow-control acti on. An example of flow-control
acti on would be to not attempt to exceed the Committed Information
Rate (CIR) for the connecti on. T hi s would prevent the unnecessary
transmi ssi on of low pri ori ty frames that would surely be di scarded. T he
counterpart of FECN i s BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notifi-
cation).
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) See FCC.
Federal Telecom Standards Commission An organi zati on establi shed
i n 1973 to assi st i n the development i n telecommuni cati ons i nterface
standards. Federal Standards begi n wi th FEDST D.
Federal Universal Service Fee A Federal tax placed on telecommuni -
cati ons servi ces provi ded by telephone compani es.
Feedback T he rei ntroducti on of an ampli fi ers output si gnal back to i ts
i nput. I f you have been at a publi c gatheri ng or speech and heard the
mi crophone make a loud squeal sound through the loudspeakers, you
have heard a type of feedback. T hi s type i s caused by the sound from
the speakers fi ndi ng i ts way back i nto the mi crophone and the ampli fi er.
Feedhorn A part of a paraboli c di sh apparatus that i s suspended i n front
of the di sh. T he feedhorn i s compri sed of a cover and an LNB converter,
whi ch contai ns the actual antenna ( Fi g. F.3) . See also LNB Converter.
270 FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification)
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FEP (Front-End Processor) A communications front-end device that
can be loaded with a firewall to prevent unwanted users from accessing
the communications network. An FEP can also perform routing, and differ-
entiate between different communications protocols, depending on the soft-
ware that runs on it. For a diagram of an FEP, see Front-End Processor.
FER (Frame Error Rate) Some transmi ssi on test equi pment ( T T C
T berd) , some computer software ( Novell) , and some network adapters
( SMC Ethernet) have the separate abi li ty to transmi t a known group of
packets over a network and then see how accurately they are returned.
When they are returned, the equi pment di vi des the total number of
packets ( or frames) by the number of packets that have errors. T he end
number i s a percentage, whi ch i s the error rate. See also Telnet and Ping.
Ferric Oxide A compound that i s someti mes used as a coati ng on mag-
neti c tapes. I t ( and some other compounds) can be magneti zed.
Ferrule 1. A part of a fi ber-opti c connector that holds the connector ends
i n ali gnment when they are connected together. 2. A metal ri ng that i s
someti mes found on power cords. I t helps to reduce RFI passi ng from
the power company i nto the devi ce usi ng the cord.
FET (Field-Effect Transistor) T he two di fferent vari eti es of transi s-
tors, bi polar and fi eld-effect, are desi gned to mani pulate electri ci ty flow-
i ng through them i n di fferent ways. Bi polar transi stors are current-
controlled devi ces and fi eld-effect transi stors are voltage-controlled
devi ces. T he advantage of fi eld-effect transi stors i s that because they are
voltage controlled, they can swi tch from one to zero and draw hardly
any current. Current i s what drai ns batteri es and fi eld-effect transi stors
help make batteri es last a long ti me. Bi polar transi stors are composed
of di fferent types of si li con stacked on top of each other. Fi eld-effect
transi stors are composed of one pi ece of si li con, wi th a di fferent type of
si li con added to the si des ( Fi g. F.4) . Fi eld-effect transi stors are avai lable
FET (Field-Effect Transistor) 271
Comparison of Transistor Construction
Bipolar Transistor
Collector
Field Effect Transistor
Source
N-type Silicon
Base
Gate
P-Type Silicon
Emitter
Drain
Figure F.4 FET (Field-Effect Transistor)
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 271
272 FEXT (Far-End Cross-Talk)
i n di fferent types: Juncti on, MOS ( Metal-Oxi de Semi conductor) , I S ( I on-
Sensi ti ve) , DE ( Depleti on-Enhancement) MOSFET, and E ( Enhance-
ment-Only) MOSFET.
FEXT (Far-End Cross-Talk) T he uncommon phenomena of si gnals
equi pment. T he far end refers to the problem occurri ng between a re-
mote node and customer i nterface ( or customer equi pment) .
FF ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for form feed. Bi nary code i s 1100000,
Hex i s C0.
FFDI (Fast Fiber Data Interface) PlusNet Phoeni x AZ.
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) A wi reless LAN radi o
modulati on techni que where ( i n the case of 802.11FH) 79 1-M Hz radi o
channels occupy a spectrum of 2.400 to 2.483 GHz. As data i s trans-
mi tted over the radi o, the radi o alternates synchronously wi th the re-
cei ver over the 79 channels, vi a an algori thm or other method used by
the radi o manufacturer, a mi ni mum of two ti mes per second. T he max-
i mum FHSS throughput i s 2 M bps. See also DSSS ( whi ch i s newer and
provi des up to 11 M bps when deployed under the 802.11DS standard) .
Fiber-Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) See FDDI, and Fi g. F.5 for
a di agram.
FDDI Ring
FDDI NODE 6th floor
FDDI NODE 4th floor
FDDI NODE 5th floor
FDDI NODE 3rd floor
FDDI NODE 2nd floor
MAINFRAME
router
router
router
SERVERS
LAN
LAN LAN
A FDDI RING CONNECTING LANS
TO COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS
Figure F.5 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 272
Fiber Optic A thi n strand of ti ny layers of glass that have di fferent re-
fracti ve properti es. T he layers of materi al that have di fferent refracti ve
properti es enable the thi n strand to channel li ght through i t by bendi ng
the rays of li ght. T he li ght travels through the core of a fi ber, and i s bent
back toward the core when i t enters the claddi ng. Fi ber-opti c cable can
be: multi -mode or si ngle mode. Multi -mode fi ber opti c has a larger core
than si ngle-mode ( Fi g. F.6) . Si ngle mode i s better for transmi tti ng long
di stances, and multi -mode i s better for transmi tti ng multi ple colors of
li ght ( or sendi ng more than one si gnal on a si ngle fi ber) . Si ngle-mode
fi ber i s much more wi dely used i n telecommuni cati ons than multi -mode
cable. SONET i s a fi ber-opti c based protocol standard that uses si ngle-
mode, graded-i ndex fi ber opti c ( Fi g. F.7) .
Fiber Optic 273
CROSS SECTION OF FIBER OPTIC TYPES
MULTI-MODE
SINGLE-MODE
CORE
cladding
cladding
Figure F.6 Multi-mode Fiber Optic is Larger in Diameter Than
Single-Mode Fiber Optic
Figure F.7 Forty-Eight Strands of Fiber Optic in Comparison
to a Four-Pair UTP Cable
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 273
Fiber-Optic Attenuator A small devi ce wi th two connectors, one on
each si de. A fi ber-opti c attenuator works li ke your sunglasses, i t reduces
the level of li ght passi ng through i t, j ust as sunglasses reduces the level
of li ght enteri ng your eyes so that you can see more effecti vely.
Fiber-Optic Buffer T he plasti c coati ng on i ndi vi dual fi bers. T he color of
the buffer colors di sti ngui shes fi bers from each other. T he 12 di fferent
colors for buffers are shown i n Appendix F.
Fiber-Optic Cleaver A devi ce used to spli ce fi ber-opti c strands. T he
cleaver i s a preci si on tool that cuts the end of a fi ber strand to a per-
fectly smooth 90-degree flat end ( Fi g. F.8) . Wi thout havi ng the ends of
a fi ber cleaved duri ng spli ci ng, the fi bers do not li ne up exactly. I f thi s
occurs, li ght wi ll not transfer from the core of one fi ber to the next prop-
erly. T hi s i s called fresnel loss. Typi cal fresnel loss on a si ngle-mode fi ber
that has been cleaved and fusi on spli ced correctly i s 0.01 dB.
274 Fiber-Optic Attenuator
Figure F.8 Fiber-Optic Cleaver
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 274
Figure F.10 Fiber-Optic Distribution Panel
Fiber-Optic Distribution Panel 275
Figure F.9 Fiber-Optic Connectors
Fiber-Optic Color Code See Appendix F.
Fiber-Optic Connector T he three mai n di fferent types of fi ber-opti c
connectors are: SC, ST, and FT ( Fi g. F.9) .
Fiber-Optic Distribution Panel Also called a fiber-optic distribution
bay, thi s uni t i s a fi ber-opti c termi nati on devi ce and organi zer ( Fi g. F.10) .
I t also houses fi ber-opti c spli ce trays, where the connector plugs ( called
pigtails) are spli ced to the ends of fi ber-opti c cables.
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 275
Fiber-Optic Splice Closure A housi ng for a fi ber-opti c spli ce that can
be buri ed or placed i n a handhole/vault envi ronment ( Fi g. F.11) . T hese
closures are desi gned speci fi cally for fi ber opti c and have a spli ce tray
i ncorporated wi thi n them. Fi ber-opti c spli ce closures are ai rti ght when
assembled correctly.
Fiber Remote A soluti on made by Northern Telecom that extends
I PE ( i ntelli gent peri pheral equi pment, Northern Telecoms name for
PBX telephone stati on equi pment) a di stance of up to fi ve mi les ( Fi g.
F.12) .
276 Fiber-Optic Splice Closure
Figure F.11 Fiber-Optic Splice Closure
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Fiber To The Cabinet (FTTCab) A network archi tecture where an op-
ti cal fi ber connects the telephone swi tch to a street-si de cabi net, where
the si gnal i s converted to feed the subscri ber over a twi sted copper pai r.
T hi s i s a cost-effecti ve way for telephone compani es that have an exi st-
i ng twi sted copper pai r plant to i mplement di gi tal servi ces, such as those
i n the xDSL fami ly.
Fiber Transmitter A devi ce used to extend cable-T V servi ces over
fi ber opti c. Fi ber transmi tters could be thought of as a radi o-wave to
li ght-wave converter. T he si gnal carri ed by a fi ber opti c connected to a
fi ber transmi tter i s modulated the same way as the si gnal carri ed by coax.
Fi ber-transmi tter technology makes i t possi ble for cable-T V compani es
to deli ver a broader spectrum of servi ces to areas that are di stant from
the head end/node.
Fiber Tube Splitter Also called a Loose Tube Splitter. A tool used to
open the shell that encases fi ber-opti c strands. For a photo, see Loose
Tube Splitter.
FIFO (First In First Out) T hi s means that the fi rst bi t i nto a memory
( for temporary storage) i s the fi rst out when i t i s retri eved. I n some
memory-handling schemes, the last bit in is the first out ( LI FO) . You can
portray LI FO by i magi ni ng that you have a box. As you stack books i nto
the box, and then remove them one by one, the fi rst book you put i n i s
the last one out. I f you fi ll the box i n the same manner and then turn i t
over and open the bottom to remove the books, you have a FI FO i nput
and retri eval scheme.
FIFO (First In First Out) 277
Fiber Remote
Fiber Remote
IPE SHELF
fiber optic
SALES OFFICE 1
EXECUTIVE
OFFICE 2
NORTEL FIBER REMOTE APPLICATION
TELCO TRUNKS
PBX
Figure F.12 Fiber Remote: PBX Extension
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 277
Fifth Generation A reference to the Lucent 5E fami ly of electroni c tele-
phone servi ce swi tchi ng systems, whi ch i s far more advanced and flexi -
ble than the 4E and previ ous swi tches.
Filament 1. A part of an electroni c vacuum tube ( Fi g. F.13) . T he fi lament
i s often called a heater. T he fi lament i n a tube heats up and causes elec-
trons to be emi tted from the cathode. 2. T he part of an i ncandescent li ght
bulb that heats and lights. Filaments in light bulbs are often made of tung-
sten. T he li ght bulb no longer li ghts when the tungsten fi lament breaks.
File-Allocation Table (FAT) A computer fi le that tracks as a di rectory
for the contents of a hard dri ve. See also FAT16 and FAT32.
File Server A computer i n a cli ent-server envi ronment that stores fi les
or data. All the i nformati on regardi ng customer account transacti ons
could go to a file server. When a PC on a network wants to run a report
about customer accounts, the program wi ll retri eve the data from the
fi le server. T he other type of server i s an application server. T hi s means
that the program ( appli cati on i s another word for computer program)
that runs the report i s located on ( or i n) the server. T he PC ( cli ent) re-
quests the appli cati on server to calculate reports, then the server down-
loads the reports to the PC or a pri nter.
File-Transfer Protocol (FTP) See FTP.
Filtering A functi on of bri dges where i f a frame i s recei ved from a net-
work segment/port that has a desti nati on address that i s on that same
segment/port, then i t i s not processed through the bri dge. Bri dges trans-
port frames that must move from one segment/port to another.
FireWire A speci fi cati on for an external seri al bus that can transfer data
at 400 Mbps and handle 63 si multaneous devi ces. T hi s bus i s i ntended
for use wi th DVD players, graphi cs and audi o peri pherals, and other
278 Fifth Generation
A Vacuum Tube diode An Incandescent Light Bulb
Anode
Filament
Heater
Cathode
Filament
Figure F.13 Filament
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 278
multi medi a devi ces. Fi reWi re i s an i nnovati on of Apple Computers, as i s
defi ned under I EEE 1394.
Firmware Software i nstructi ons set permanently i n ROM that are only
able to be changed by replaci ng and reburni ng the ROM chi p that con-
tai ns the i nformati on. See also EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Pro-
grammable Read-Only Memory).
Fish Tape A tool for pulli ng wi re through walls, condui t, or anywhere
else that wi re needs to go. I t i s a coi l of thi n and sti ff metal tape encased
i n plasti c. I t has an openi ng where the sti ff wi re tape can be pulled out
and extended through a condui t ( or other place) where the wi re needs
to be i nstalled. T he wi re i s then attached to the end of the fi sh tape so
that i t can be pulled through. As the person holdi ng the fi sh tape i s
pulli ng the wi re through the condui t, they recoi l i t back i nto the plasti c
case. T hi s tool i s necessary for electri ci ans and telecommuni cati on wi re
i nstallers.
FITC (Fiber To The Curb) A reference to a hybri d fi ber/copper pub-
li c telephone network desi gn, where broadband servi ces are carri ed by
fi ber opti c to a termi nal near a customers premi ses. T he drop li ne that
runs from the termi nal i s twi sted pai r or coax.
FITH (Fiber To The House) A reference to an all fi ber-opti c publi c
telephone network desi gn, where broadband servi ces are deli vered to
the customer premi ses/network i nterface by fi ber opti c.
Fixed Wireless A mi crowave band of radi o servi ces that use modulati on
schemes si mi lar to PCS/cellular only permi tted to transmi t at hi gher
power. Fi xed wi reless i s an alternati ve to the twi sted-pai r and coax
method of provi di ng local telephone servi ce.
Flag 1. A si ngle bi t used i n a communi cati on header to si gnal a mai nte-
nance or other condi ti on. 2. I n X.25, a byte sequence of 01111110 put
at the start and end of an X.25 frame. When X.25 li nes are i dle or i f no
data i s bei ng sent over them, the two ends conti nuously send each other
flags to keep themselves synchroni zed. 3. A reference to an i f-then
logi cal condi ti on that i s used i n lower-level computer programmi ng
languages.
Flapping A network problem that i s caused by a faulty ci rcui t connec-
ti on ( or a si mi lar condi ti on) that fools routers i nto thi nki ng that the
ci rcui t i s conti nuously bei ng added or dropped from the network. T hi s
causes the routers to conti nuously readverti se the route as bei ng
Flapping 279
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avai lable or unavai lable i n the network. Dependi ng on the routi ng pro-
tocol used ( di stance vector, li nk state, or hybri d) , the problem can af-
fect only the li nk that i s made by the ci rcui t or the enti re network.
Flash A form of telecommuni cati ons si gnali ng. To send a flash si gnal,
press the swi tch-hook of a telephone bri efly. I f you have call wai ti ng on
your telephone li ne and another call comes i n ( you hear the beep) , you
bri efly push i n the swi tch hook on your telephone to swi tch to your other
call. When you want to revert back to the ori gi nal call, bri efly press the
swi tch hook on your phone agai n. Some telephones have a flash button
on them, whi ch i s a more conveni ent and less cumbersome way to send
a flash si gnal than fli ppi ng the telephones swi tch hook.
Flash Crowd I n I nternet envi ronments, an overrun on a network server
by legi ti mate users. Publi cly adverti sed events often cause a huge de-
mand for a parti cular websi te. A good example i s when the NASA Mars
probe was transmi tti ng pi ctures of Mars that could be vi ewed on the I n-
ternet at NASAs websi te.
Flash Memory Di gi tal storage that can be electri cally erased and re-
programmed so that software can be stored, booted, and rewri tten, as
necessary. Flash memory retai ns data when power i s removed. I t was
developed by I ntel and i s li censed to other semi conductor compani es.
Flash Update A hand-over of address/routi ng i nformati on from one router
to another in response to a change being made within the network. Flash up-
dates occur automatically in link-state and hybrid router operating systems.
Flat Network A LAN deployment techni que that i ncorporates all net-
work hosts and servers i nto one broadcast domai n, or effecti vely the
same Ethernet segment. Appli cati ons that are chatty or broadcast/
multi cast i ntensi ve should not be i mplemented on flat networks. When
flat networks are segmented, acti ve hubs are replaced wi th LAN swi tches,
whi ch provi de multi ple VLAN ( Vi rtual LAN segment) servi ces and
i nherent securi ty features.
Flexible Ringing Also called distinctive ringing. A feature of a PBX
system that allows telephone sets to ri ng di fferently. T hi s i s a very ni ce
feature i f you would li ke outsi de calls to ri ng di fferently than i nternal
calls from co-workers. T hi s helps a user to know i f they should say hello
or Emergency servi ce, may I help you? Di sti ncti ve ri ngi ng i s also used
i n offi ces where many phones are close to each other. When one phone
ri ngs, all the people i n the offi ce know whose phone i t i s by tone, pat-
tern, and pi tch of the ri ng.
280 Flash
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Flicker A characteri sti c of computer moni tors, yet consi dered a form of
vi deo di storti on by some. Fli cker i s caused by the screen refresh rate. I f
the refresh rate i s slower than 70 refresh cycles per second ( or 70 Hz) ,
i t wi ll most li kely be noti ceable and strai ni ng to the human eye.
Flip Flop T he i ndi vi dual devi ces that dynami c computer or data-devi ce
memori es are made of. One fli p-flop can store one bi t of i nformati on.
T he RS-fli p flop i s the mai n component of a 555 ti mer ( an electroni cs
i ndustry-standard ci rcui t) . A fli p flop i s a member of the logi c compo-
nent fami ly ( Fi g. F.14) . I t i s compri sed of two transi stors that turn on
and off i nversely to each other and four bi as resi stors. On the schemati c
symbol, S represents for set and R represents reset. Output Q i s posi -
ti ve when a posi ti ve pulse fi nds i ts way to the S lead of the RS fli p-flop;
the Q output stays posi ti ve and remembers the pulse. T he Q output i s
reset to low when the R lead recei ves a posi ti ve pulse.
Flooding What routi ng/bri dgi ng/LAN swi tches do when they do not rec-
ogni ze a frames desti nati on address. When a frame contai ni ng a reci pi -
ent address that has not been seen before i s recei ved from a port/
segment, the LAN swi tch transmi ts the frame out on all of i ts ports
( wi thi n the same Vi rtual LAN) . When and i f a response i s generated from
a devi ce, the sender address i s recogni zed i n the frame header and stored
i n the routi ng table wi th i ts associ ated port. T hi s method of locati ng/
di scoveri ng whi ch port an unknown user i s attached to i s called flood-
ing. RI P, EI GRP, RI PV2, and BGP use thi s method.
Floppy Disk A magneti c di sk used for stori ng di gi tal data. A floppy di sk
i s li terally a floppy plasti c di sk, coated wi th i ron oxi de ( or another mag-
neti c compound) i nsi de of a plasti c case. A 3.5'' floppy di sk i s capable
of stori ng up to 1.44 megabytes ( 1, 440, 000 bytes) of data.
Flow A reference to the rate of data travelli ng through a LAN, WAN, or
multi -user envi ronment. More speci fi cally, the data flowi ng from an ori g-
i nati on devi ce, such as a LAN host ( or networked PC) across an acti ve
Flow 281
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL FOR AN RS FLIP-FLOP
Bit storage Bit pulse input
for 555 timer use (discharge)
Positive pulse reset
S Q
_
R Q
Figure F.14 Flip Flop
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 281
vi rtual channel wi thi n a network and to a desti nati on devi ce. Multi ple
flows can exi st on a si ngle ci rcui t.
Flow Control 1. A reference to the techni que of ensuri ng that a trans-
mi tti ng devi ce, such as a modem, does not overwhelm a recei vi ng devi ce
wi th data. When the i ncomi ng memory buffer on the recei vi ng devi ce i s
full, a message i s sent to the sendi ng devi ce to suspend the transmi ssi on
unti l the data i n the buffer has been processed. I BM calls thei r flow-
control method pacing, but most people j ust refer to i t as flow control,
regardless of the network bei ng di scussed. 2. I n full-duplex LAN swi tch-
i ng, a method used by swi tches to slow the transmi ssi on of traffi c. T hi s
i s done usi ng a pause frame to stop the transmi ssi on of a host. T he swi tch
contai ns the pause frame to one speci fi c port, therefore not stoppi ng all
traffi c through the enti re network.
Flush Jack A telephone or data-connecti on j ack that i s mounted i n a wall
i n the same manner as an electri cal outlet. Flush j acks can have as many
as si x connecti ons/plugs on i ts face. AMP, Si ecor, Levi ton, Lucent, and
Amphenol are all compani es that manufacture a wi de vari ety of flush
j acks and other connecti vi ty soluti ons.
Flux A materi al that i s used i n the center of solder rolls. Some solders
have aci d cores, whi ch cleans the connecti on to be soldered. I f the con-
necti on i s di rty, then the solder wi ll not adhere to the metal.
FM (Frequency Modulation) See Frequency Modulation.
FNC (Federal Networking Council) T he counci l that coordi nates the
communi cati ons networki ng among Federal agenci es, such as NASA and
the Department of Defense.
FOD (Fax on Demand) A feature of voi ce-response systems that en-
ables a caller to li sten to a recorded message that gi ves them a selecti on
of i nformati on that they can recei ve vi a a fax. After maki ng a selecti on,
the caller i s then prompted by another recordi ng to enter the number
that they would li ke the i nformati on faxed to.
Fog Attenuation I n wi reless networks, the di mi ni shment of a radi o si g-
nal due to di spersi on caused by water droplets i n the ai r. For speci fi c
detai ls, see Rain Attenuation.
FOIRL (Fiber Optic Inter Repeater Link) A fi ber-opti c versi on of
Ethernet developed on the I EEE 802.3 fi ber-opti c speci fi cati on. FOI RL
i s the early versi on of the 10BaseFL speci fi cati on, whi ch i s for replaci ng
FOI RL. See also 10BaseFL.
282 Flow Control
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Football Another name for an aeri al servi ce wi re spli ce. For a photo, see
Aerial Service Wire Splice.
Footprint 1. T he path that a satelli te makes across the Earths surface.
I f you drew a li ne of the satelli tes path on the face of the Earth, that
li ne would be i ts footpri nt. 2. A reference to a cabi net or the space a
devi ce takes up. I f a sales person tells you that you can have a bunch of
new features i n the same footpri nt, then you dont have to change the
cabi net, you mi ght only need to change some software and a card or two.
Forced Account Code Billing A servi ce offered by long-di stance com-
pani es and a feature of PBX systems. T he way the feature works i s that
every ti me an i ndi vi dual wants to make a long-di stance call they must
i nput ( or di al) an account code ( and someti mes a password) after they
di al a 1 ( 1 i s the fi rst number di aled i n long-di stance calls) . After they
di al the account code and/or password, they hear a confi rmati on tone,
then they conti nue by di ali ng the long-di stance phone number. When the
telephone bi ll comes, each call on each account code i s i temi zed. T hi s
i s a conveni ent way to keep track of who i s maki ng whi ch long-di stance
phone calls, to where, and when. T hen, you wi ll have the abi li ty to go to
the person and ask why.
Foreign Exchange Service A telephone number that i s served by an-
other exchange. I f you are on the south si de of town, that area of town
i s probably servi ced by a di fferent central offi ce exchange than the north
si de of town. Lets say that your busi ness moves to the north si de of
town. T he telephone company noti fi es you that you wi ll need to change
your phone number because you are movi ng to a di fferent exchange
area. ( Each central offi ce exchange has i ts own number plan for the
fi rst three of seven di gi ts.) You cannot change your phone number be-
cause you have pai d a fortune to adverti se i t. You dont want your cli ents
to be hassled by getti ng an i ntercept message sayi ng that T he number
you have di aled xxx-xxxx has been changed. T he new number i s xxx-
xxxx. So, the telephone company offers you a servi ce where your tele-
phone li nes are forwarded from your old offi ce ( south) to your new of-
fi ce. T hi s servi ce i s called foreign exchange service. Your li nes feed
from a di fferent ( or forei gn) central offi ce than the offi ce you are ac-
tually served by. Your customers then call you on the same number and
never know that you moved, and they dont have to li sten to a record-
i ng. You wi ll probably only need to make your adverti sed numbers for-
ei gn exchange ( abbrevi ated FX) li nes or trunks. T he rest can be regu-
lar phone li nes that are servi ced from your exchange area. Soon, FX
li nes wi ll be a thi ng of the past. Because of the Telecommuni cati ons Act
of 1996, all phone numbers wi thi n an area code must be portable from
one exchange or servi ce provi der to another. T hi s i s called number
Foreign Exchange Service 283
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portability. T hi s means that i n the previ ous scenari o, you could have
had your numbers moved to any exchange wi thi n the area code and
even changed phone compani es wi thout havi ng to change your phone
number.
FORTRAN (Formula Translation) A hi gh-level computer program-
mi ng language.
Forward A feature of PBX systems and a servi ce offered by local, long-
di stance, and cellular telephone compani es. T he way that the Forward
feature ( also called Call Forwarding) works i s i f you know you are not
goi ng to be at your phone, you can make all your calls ri ng at a di ffer-
ent number.
Forward Error Correction (FEC) A method of recoupi ng lost data
over a transmi ssi on where the recei ver of the damaged data uses a code
to attempt to repai r or correct the damage. T hi s method saves band-
wi dth by avoi di ng retransmi ssi ons. T he other method of error correcti on
i s called BEC (Backward Error Correction), whi ch operates by havi ng
the recei ver of a damaged data stream si mply requests a retransmi ssi on
of the data.
Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) A bi t i n the over-
head of a data packet travelli ng i n a frame-relay network. T hi s bi t i s set
to 1 i f the packet travels through an area of network congesti on that i s
the same di recti on ( or forward) of i ts flow. T hi s bi t i s a si gnal from the
frame-relay network to hi gher-level protocols wi thi n DT E and DCE to
take appropri ate flow-control acti on. An example of flow-control acti on
would be to not attempt to exceed the Committed Information Rate
(CIR) for the connecti on. T hi s would prevent the unnecessary trans-
mi ssi on of low pri ori ty frames that would surely be di scarded. T he coun-
terpart of FECN i s BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notifica-
tion).
Forwarding Rate I n bri dges or routers, the amount of data i n packets
per second that a devi ce such as a swi tch/router/bri dge can transfer traf-
fi c i n on one port and out on another.
Four-Part Dotted Notation T he term gi ven to the way that T CP/I P ad-
dresses and subnet masks are wri tten i n the form N.N.N.N., where each
number N represents one byte ( converted to deci mal) of the four-byte
I P address. T he deci mals are only there to make the number easi er
for people to understand, the same way dashes are i nserted i nto tele-
phone numbers. Routi ng and other network equi pment/software do not
284 FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
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recogni ze the dots. An example of a four-part dotted notati on address
i s: 255.255.255.248. I t i s also called a Dot Address.
FDPL (Foreign Data Processor Link) Rockwells versi on of a seri al
data i nterface from a PBX swi tch to a PC or other I /O equi pment. North-
ern Telecom calls FDPLs MSDLs (Meridian Serial Data Link). I t
i s usually an addi ti onal card that plugs i nto a PBX systems common
equi pment-expansi on area, whi ch i s equi pped wi th an RS-232 commu-
ni cati ons port.
Fractal Compression A data-compressi on method used i n graphi cs and
other fi les by converti ng them i nto mathemati cal equati ons, rather than
strai ght bi nary values.
Fractional T1 A way to confi gure a T 1 ( DS1) servi ce so that two or more
of the DS0 ci rcui ts are j oi ned together to make a larger data communi -
cati ons channel. I f a full T 1 i s too bi g and expensi ve, but a 56K li ne i s
too small, then a fracti onal T 1 mi ght offer a good mi d-range soluti on.
Fractional T3 A pri vate li ne servi ce where 4, 8, 12, or 16 T 1 ci rcui ts
( multi ples of DS2) are combi ned together for a pri vate data communi -
cati ons li ne.
FRAD (Frame Relay Access Device) A devi ce located on the custo-
mers premi ses that acts as the Network I nterface for frame relay servi ces.
Fragment An i ncomplete data frame.
Fragmentation T he process performed by a router or other network de-
vi ce whereby packets or datagrams are treated as fi les themselves and
broken i nto smaller-si zed data uni ts for transmi ssi on over a di fferent ac-
cess protocol. For example, Ethernet packet si ze permi ts up to 1500
bytes of user data. X.25 runni ng a common confi gurati on only allows 128
bytes. A router would fragment the Ethernet packets to transmi t them
over the X.25 network. I n T CP/I P, the I P layer i s responsi ble for both
fragmenti ng and reassembli ng fragmented packets.
Frame A uni t of data at the data-li nk and physi cal layers of the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnect) model. A frame i s the means of transport for
packets, segments, and PDUs (Packet Data Units), whi ch are means of
transporti ng the payload data through thei r accordi ng layers of the OSI
( Fi g. F.15) . AT M, frame relay, X.25, and T 1 all have di fferent frami ng for-
mats at thei r respecti ve physi cal layers. A frame consi sts of two secti ons.
T hey are called the header and the data, or the overhead and the
Frame 285
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286 Frame
Each box represents an 8-bit sample for one of 24 channels. The last box represents a timing bit.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 T
192 information bits
193 bits total 1 DS1 frame
Figure F.15 A DS1 Frame
payload, respecti vely. T he purpose of the header i s to carry address and
routi ng control i nformati on; the purpose of the data secti on i s to carry
data. See also Data Encapsulation.
Frame One complete sampli ng and conversi on cycle of a multi plexed data
transmi ssi on. A frame i s someti mes confused wi th a packet. A packet i s
an envelope that contai ns data and an address that the data i s sent to.
A packet contai ns data to be transmi tted, error-correcti ng i nformati on
for the data i n the packet, an address, ti mi ng i nformati on, and other bi ts
of data, dependi ng on the protocol that the packet was formed under. A
frame i s a momentary pi cture of a multi plexed data transmi ssi on, con-
tai ni ng bi ts of data, or samples from each channel.
Frame-Check Sequence (FCS) A part of Cycli c Redundancy Checki ng
error correcti on i n data transmi ssi ons. See Error Checking for more
i nformati on.
Frame Forwarding A reference to the process by whi ch frame-based
traffi c, such as HDLC (High-Level Data-Link Control), SDLC (Syn-
chronous Data-Link Control), and more evolved protocols ( such as
X.25 and frame relay) traverse an AT M network.
Frame Rate (FPS) Frames per second. T he number of frames trans-
ferred i n a second.
Frame Relay A packet-forwardi ng standard protocol. Frame relay i s a
pri vate networki ng servi ce offered by many telecommuni cati ons com-
pani es to accommodate the need for vi rtual WAN connecti ons ( Fi g.
F.16) . T he gross data-transfer speeds for frame relay start at 56 K bps,
and the protocol allows speeds beyond 2 Gbps, although the hi ghest
speeds offered to customers are li mi ted to 44 M bps ( DS3/ST S1) . To
connect to the servi ce, a FRAD (Frame-Relay Access Device) i s
placed at the customers premi ses. T he FRAD i s a router i n most
cases. Each FRAD wi thi n a customers network i s assi gned a DLCI
(Data-Link Connection Identifier), and each connecti on has a CIR
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(Committed Information Rate), among other servi ce parameters.
Frame-relay networks are commonly referred to as Public Data Net-
works (PDNs).
Frame-Relay Compatible Protocols T CP/I P, X.25, SNA, Novell, Banyan
Vi nes, Decnet, NFS, Novell I PX, Appletalk, and more.
Frame-Relay Frame Format T he frame format for frame relay has fi ve
fi elds. I n order, they are the flag, the header, the user i nformati on, the
FCS, and the flag ( Fi g. F.17) . T he flags i n frame relay are exactly as they
are i n the HDLC standard X.25, consi sti ng of the followi ng octet:
01111110. T hey exi st for the sole purpose of separati ng frames. T he
header i s compri sed of two octets, and i s the core of the frame. I t de-
fi nes the DLCI hi gh order, C/R, EA, DLCI low order, FECN, BECN, DE,
and another EA.
Frame-Relay Frame Format 287
Figure F.16 Frame Relay Switch/Mfg. by Ascend
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288 Frame Tagging
Flag
1 byte
Header
2 bytes
User Data
up to 4096 bytes
Frame Check
Sequence
Flag
1 byte
01111110
DLCI high order
6 bits
DLCI low
order
4 bits
C/R
1 bit
EA
1 bit
FECN
1 bit
BECN
1 bit
DE
1 bit
EA
1 bit
Command
Response
Bit
Extended
Addressing
Forward Explicit
Congestion
Notification
Backward Explicit
Congestion
Notification
Discard
Eligibility
Extended
Addressing
16-Bit Frame Check
Sequence
01111110
All Frames Start and End
with a Flag Sequence of
01111110
Figure F.17 Frame-Relay Frame Format
Frame Tagging I n LAN swi tchi ng, frame taggi ng i s a method used to
i denti fy whi ch Vi rtual LAN ( VLAN) a packet belongs to. Wi thi n an
Ethernet swi tch, a VLAN behaves as a si ngle Ethernet segment, where
all computers/hosts that are a part of a VLAN see each others traffi c.
Traffi c cannot traverse from one VLAN group to another unless i t leaves
the swi tch and i s routed back i n on another port. T he router provi des
traffi c securi ty/management. Frames are marked by the swi tch i n two
methods: i mpli ci t and expli ci t. I mpli ci t frame taggi ng i s a method where
the VLAN i nformati on i s added wi thi n the packet. Expli ci t frame taggi ng
i s a method where an external VLAN header i s added to the frame. See
also 802.1Q.
Framing Bit A bi t added to a multi plexed data stream that separates
each complete cycle of sampli ng, DAC conversi on through all the chan-
nels bei ng multi plexed. A frami ng bi t can also be called a timing bit.
See Frame for more detai ls.
Franchise A ri ght ( li cense) to provi de telecommuni cati ons servi ce to a
communi ty, county, or ci ty. Telephone compani es and cable-T V compa-
ni es must have a franchi se agreement before they sell thei r servi ces.
Copi es of franchi se agreements are publi c documents and you can get
one from your local PSC offi ce.
Free Phone T he European name for toll-free servi ce that i s si mi lar to
800 servi ce i n the Uni ted States. Calls made to these numbers are bi lled
to the called party or the owner of the number.
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Free-Space Communications A reference to radi o communi cati ons,
such as terrestri al mi crowave, satelli te, and cellular.
Free Space Path Loss I n radi o transmi ssi ons, si gnals degrade as they
propagate through space. Better sai d, they weaken as di stance i ncreases
i n a predi ctable manner. Free space path loss i s a factor i n calculati ng
the li nk vi abi li ty. Free space path loss i s easi ly calculated for mi les or
ki lometers usi ng one of the followi ng formulas:
Lp 96.6 20 log
10
F 20 log
10
D
where Lp free space path loss between antennas ( i n dB) , F frequency
i n GHz, D path length i n mi les; or
Lp 92.4 20 log
10
F 20 log
10
D
where Lp free space path loss between antennas ( i n dB) , F frequency
i n GHz, D path length i n ki lometers.
Frequency Frequency i s a measure of the number of cycles per second,
and i ts uni t i s the hertz ( Hz) . One hertz i s equal to one cycle i n one sec-
ond. Two Hz i s two cycles i n one second, 1000 Hz i s 1000 cycles i n one sec-
ond (CPS). Cycles are used as a reference to measure the frequency of a
waveform or si gnal. Cycles are usually referred to as a number of cycles
per uni t of ti me. CPS and Hz are measurements of the number of cycles
you get per second i n an analog transmi ssi on. BPS i s measurement of how
many square wave clock sample sequences are bei ng read from a di gi tal
transmi ssi on. For a di agram of one cycle i n a waveform, see Cycle.
Frequency Band A range of frequenci es that a certai n class of radi o com-
muni cati ons operates wi thi n. For example, FM radi o operates wi thi n 87.9
MHz and 108 MHz, whi ch falls wi thi n the VHF frequency band. For a
general li st of frequency ranges, see Band, Frequency.
Frequency Band Division I n broadband fi xed wi reless, each system or
hop i s a full-duplex system. Two frequency bands are used to achi eve
thi s two-way operati on, wi th the hi gher frequency band consi dered the
hi gh band i n the li nk, and the lower frequency consi dered the low
band. T he transmi tter at one end of the li nk uses the hi gh band; the
transmi tter at the other end uses the low band.
Frequency-Division Multiple Access Another name for frequency di -
vi si on multi plexi ng that the cellular telephone i ndustry uses.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) See FDM.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) 289
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Frequency Hopping A method of radi o transmi ssi on where the carri er
frequency changes at fi xed i ntervals.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) A wi reless LAN radi o
modulati on techni que where ( i n the case of 802.11FH) 79 1-MHz radi o
channels occupy a spectrum of 2.400 to 2.483 GHz. As data i s transmi t-
ted over the radi o, the radi o alternates synchronously wi th the recei ver
over the 79 channels vi a an algori thm or other method used by the ra-
di o manufacturer a mi ni mum of two ti mes per second. T he maxi mum
FHSS throughput i s 2 Mbps. See also DSSS ( whi ch i s newer and pro-
vi des up to 11 Mbps when deployed under the 802.11DS standard) .
Frequency Modulation (FM) See FM ( Fi g. F.18) .
Frequency Response A range of frequenci es. A hi gh-end quali ty home
stereo system mi ght have an output frequency response of 20 Hz to
20 kHz ( the range of human heari ng) . A telephone li ne has a frequency
response of 500 Hz to 3500 Hz ( the range of human voi ce) .
290 Frequency Hopping
FM CARRIER SIGNAL
A VOICE SIGNAL TO BE TRANSMITTED
THE VOICE SIGNAL MODULATED ON THE CARRIER, CAUSING FREQUENCY CHANGES
Figure F.18 Frequency Modulation
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 290
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) A method of bi nary si gnal modulati on.
FSK i s the way that modems send bi ts over the telephone li nes. Each
bi t i s converted to a frequency. A 0 i s represented by a slower frequency,
and a 1 i s represented by a hi gher frequency. Morse Code i s a method
of bi nary keyi ng, where all si gnals have two states ( bi nary) , long and
short. FSK i s the same technology, only two di fferent frequenci es are
used, i nstead of two lengths of beeps or li nes ( Fi g. F.19) .
Fresnel Loss A loss of si gnal i n a fi ber opti c because of a spli ce or a crack
i n the glass of the fi ber. T he spli ce or crack causes a type of reflecti on,
called a fresnel reflecti on. T hi s causes the li ght to scatter i n di fferent
di recti ons, rather than focus i ts way down the fi ber.
Fresnel Reflection 1. A reflecti on of li ght because of a spli ce or a crack
i n a fi ber opti c ( Fi g. F.20) . 2. A reflecti on of a terrestri al radi o si gnal off
of an obj ect ( such as a bui ldi ng, hi ll, or body of water) from i ts fresnel
Fresnel Reflection 291
FSK conversion of bits to frequencies
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
Figure F.19 Frequency Shift Keying
Fresnel reflections
Line of sight path
WATER or other object
Figure F.20 Fresnel Reflection
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 291
292 Fresnel Zone
zone. Fresnel reflecti ons can cause a reducti on i n si gnal strength or a
total loss of the si gnal altogether.
Fresnel Zone T he area within a terrestrial microwave dispersion pattern,
but outside of the line-of-sight path. T he fresnel zone should be clear of any
obstructions. Obstructions in the fresnel zone can cause fresnel reflections.
FRF (Frame Relay Forum) An associ ati on of corporate members con-
si sti ng of vendors, carri ers, users, and consultants commi tted to the i m-
plementation of frame relay in accordance with national and international
standards. For more i nformati on, check thei r websi te, www.frforum.com.
FRF.11 T he frame relay forum i mplementati on agreement for voi ce over
frame relay ( May 1997) . T hi s speci fi cati on defi nes multi plexed data,
voi ce, fax, DT MF di gi t-relay, and CAS/Robbed-bi t si gnali ng frame for-
mats, but does not i nclude call setup, routi ng, or admi ni strati on faci li ti es.
FRF.12 T he convergence of voi ce and data over the same packet struc-
ture wi thi n frame relay. T he FRF.12 I mplementati on Agreement ( also
known as FRF.11 Annex C) was developed to allow long data frames to
be fragmented i nto smaller pi eces and i nterleaved wi th real-ti me frames.
I n thi s way, real-ti me voi ce and non-real-ti me data frames can be carri ed
together on lower speed li nks wi thout causi ng excessi ve delay to the
real-ti me traffi c. After thi s standard was released, voi ce over frame sti ll
had the same pri mary drawback of di ffi cult end-to-end management of
traffi c. T he frame relay network i solates end poi nts from a management
perspecti ve when the packets bei ng carri ed are broken up and loaded
di rectly i nto the frame. I P voi ce i s often carri ed over frame relay because
i t gi ves the user the best of all three worlds, convergence of voi ce and
data, end-to-end network vi si bi li ty, and cost-effecti ve transport.
Friction Electricity Another name for static electricity. T he opposi te of
stati c electri ci ty i s dynamic electricity, li ke that from a power outlet. Sta-
ti c electri ci ty consi sts of free electrons ( electrons that are not a part of
the valence shell of an element) . T he free electrons have no means to flow
to a posi ti vely charged medi a, so they bui ld up and form a charge or a
voltage. T he voltage i s not measurable because when a measuri ng devi ce
i s i ntroduced to the stati c fi eld of electrons, i t provi des a path for them to
flow. When the electrons start flowi ng, they are no longer stati c. Typi cal
stati c or fri cti onal charges on a dry day can reach beyond 30,000 volts.
FRMR (Frame Reject) A command defi ned by the last three bi ts i n
the control byte of an unnumbered or control type frame i n the
X.25 protocol bei ng 001. A frame rej ect i s a response to an i nvali d or
meani ngless control frame. After the FRMR has been sent, a SABM (Set
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 292
Asynchronous Balanced Mode) frame should be returned, whi ch wi ll
reset the li nk. For more i nformati on on X.25 frame-level si gnali ng, see
X.25 U Frame and X.25 Control Frame.
Front-End Processor (FEP) A communi cati ons front end devi ce that
can be loaded wi th a fi rewall to prevent unwanted users from access-
i ng the communi cati ons network ( Fi g. F.21) . An FEP can also perform
routi ng and di fferenti ate between di fferent communi cati ons protocols,
dependi ng on the software that runs on i t.
FS T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for form separator. T he bi nary
code i s 1100001 and the hex i s C1.
FSK (Frequency-Shift Keying) See Frequency-Shift Keying.
FT Connector A metalli c, screw-on fi ber-opti c connector. For a photo,
see Fiber-Optic Connector.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) A set of i nstructi ons for transferri ng fi les
on a network that uses T CP/I P. T ELNET i s an example of an FT P. T here
are two parts to an FT P: the server part and the cli ent part. T he server
part runs on a larger computer ( or server) and the cli ent part i s run
by hosts that copy or transfer fi les from the servers. FT P i s very useful
because i t allows communi cati ng machi nes of di fferent types and
operati ng systems to transfer i nformati on. FT P i s also capable of doi ng
some data-format conversi ons ( i .e., ASCI I to bi nary) .
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) 293
Ethernet
FEP
PC
SERVER
PC PC
PC
CSU/DSU
DATA LINE NETWIRK
56K,Frame Relay, etc.
PC
Figure F.21 Front-End Processor
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FTTC (Fiber to the Curb, FITC) See FITC.
FTTCab (Fiber to the Cabinet) A network archi tecture where an op-
ti cal fi ber connects the telephone swi tch to a street-si de cabi net, where
the si gnal i s converted to feed the subscri ber over a twi sted copper pai r.
T hi s i s a cost-effecti ve way for telephone compani es that have exi sti ng
twi sted copper pai r plant to i mplement di gi tal servi ces, such as those i n
the xDSL fami ly.
FTTH (Fiber to the House) Another vari ati on of FI T H. I t j ust depends
on whi ch country you are i n or whi ch servi ce provi der/manufacturer you
are worki ng wi th.
Full Duplex 1. See FDX. 2. I n LAN swi tchi ng, a feature that enables
speed to be doubled by havi ng si multaneous two-way conversati on. For
example, a full-duplex 100BaseT X connecti on between a swi tch port
and a host/computer would have si multaneous 100 M bps capabi li ty for
transmi t and 100 M bps for recei ve, for a total of 200 M bps throughput.
Full-duplex Ethernet operati on i s a byproduct of LAN swi tch archi -
tecture. LAN swi tches must be i mplemented to obtai n full-duplex Eth-
ernet. Full-duplex functi onali ty does not work across hubs.
Functional Entity An enti ty, i f i t i s physi cal or logi cal, that performs a
task. An example of a functi onal enti ty i s the data li nk layer of the OSI
protocol. I t i s not necessari ly a thi ng, i t i s j ust a phase i n a process.
Functional Signaling Si gnali ng of an I SDN li ne or other communi cati on
where the si gnali ng of the ci rcui t i s performed i n a manner that the user
understands as well as the machi nes that make the communi cati ons
work. An I SDN si gnal that i s functi onal i s a di splay readi ng that says i n-
comi ng call from John Doe, the I SDN could j ust gi ve a ri ng or some
other noti fi cati on, but the call-si gnali ng i nformati on bi ts i n the I SDN ci r-
cui t are actually decoded and passed on to the user.
Fuse A current-sensi ti ve protecti on devi ce. A fuse i s desi gned i nto equi p-
ment so that i f a component wi thi n that equi pment should fai l, i t wi ll
blow the fuse. When a component fai ls, i t draws excessi ve current. Ex-
cessi ve current causes excessi ve heat, whi ch causes fi re and rui ns other
components ( not to menti on danger to people) . Always replace a fuse
wi th the correct si ze. Replaci ng a blown fuse wi th one that has a hi gher
amperage rati ng could damage the equi pment.
Fuse Alarm Panel (FAP) A power-di stri buti on panel that i s i nstalled at
the top of a relay rack ( Fi g. F.22) . All equi pment i n the rack i s wi red to
the panel for power. Each devi ce has i ts own fuse wi thi n the panel to
294 FTTC (Fiber to the Curb, FITC)
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 294
protect the recti fi er from an over-current condi ti on i f the devi ce fai ls or
a wi re i s shorted. I f any of the fuses blow, an alarm i ndi cator i s di splayed.
Fusion Splicing 295
Figure F.22 Fuse Alarm Panel (FAP)
Fusion Splicing A method of spli ci ng fi ber-opti c cable. Fusi on spli ces have
less fresnel refracti on when they are complete and, therefore, less loss than
mechani cal spli ces. T he way a fusi on spli cer works i s after the two fi ber
ends to be spli ced are i nserted i nto the spli ce housi ng, the spli cer cleaves
the ends, butts them together and thermally fuses the ends together.
Fuji kura i s a popular manufacturer of fusi on-spli ci ng equi pment ( Fi g. F.23) .
Figure F.23 Fusion Splicer
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FXS (Foreign Exchange Station End) A telephony connecti on that i s
i ntended to be connected to an end devi ce, such as an analog 2500 tele-
phone. FXS i nterfaces come i n several data li nk layer types, i ncludi ng
ground start, loop start, and E& M. T hey are also avai lable i n RJ11- and
Amp/Centroni cs-style connectors for the physi cal i nterface ( Fi g. F.25) .
FX Line See Foreign Exchange Service.
FX Trunk See Foreign Exchange Service.
FXO (Foreign Exchange Office) 1. A telephone company central
offi ce that i s of another exchange, whi ch means that i t has a di ffer-
ent numberi ng plan. See Foreign Exchange Service. 2. An analog
telephony i nterface that i s i ntended to connect to a central offi ce or
PBX . FX O i nterfaces come i n several types, i ncludi ng ground start,
loop start, and E& M . For trunks that are larger i n capaci ty, T 1 and
I SDN are used rather than si ngle FX O i nterfaces ( Fi g. F.24) .
296 FX Line
Figure F.24 FXO Interface Module
PBX
POTS Phone
FXS
ROUTER AS AN
H. 323 GATEWAY
(Layer 3 Gateway)
ROUTER AS AN
H. 323 GATEWAY
(Layer 3 Gat eway)
FXO
Frame Relay WAN
T
1
T
1
FXS - FXO
Figure F.25 FXS/FXO
PQ104_5056F-PF.qxd 2/10/01 12:22 PM Page 296
G.703/G.704 A physi cal connecti on standard. T he I T U-T G.703/G.704
standards are electri cal and mechani cal speci fi cati ons for connecti ons
between telephone company equi pment and customer DT E usi ng BNC
connectors and operati ng at E1 data rates.
G.704 T he I T U-T electri cal and mechani cal speci fi cati ons for hi erarchi -
cal i nterfaces between telephone company equi pment and customer-
owned DTE (Data Terminating Equipment) usi ng BNC connectors
for E1.
G.706 T he I T U-T standard for frame ali gnment and CRC for hi erarchi cal
di gi tal frame structures li sted i n G.704 ( E1/T 1, 3) .
G.707 T he I T U-T standard for European SDH bi t rates ( ST M rates) .
G.708 T he I T U-T standard for network-mode i nterface for European
SDH.
G.709 T he I T U-T standard for synchronous transfer mode multi plexi ng.
G.711 A Codec standard. T he G.711 I T U-T standard for voi ce com-
pressi on descri bes the 64 K bps PCM voi ce codi ng techni que. I n G.711,
encoded voi ce i s already i n the correct format for di gi tal voi ce deli v-
ery i n the PST N or through PBXs. Usi ng thi s type of compressi on i n
a VoI P network reduces delay and i mproves voi ce quali ty. I t also
297
G
PQ104-5056F-PG.qxd 2/9/01 1:54 PM Page 297
reduces the load placed on routers performi ng the di gi tal si gnal pro-
cessi ng. T he di sadvantage i s that i t i s a bandwi dth guzzler i n terms
of connecti ons over a WAN li nk. T he bandwi dth per conversati on re-
qui red, i ncludi ng Ethernet and other frami ng overhead, can approach
128 K bps. T he most i mportant aspect of G.711 and other Codec meth-
ods i s that they provi de a true convergence of traffi c for VoI P net-
works, whi ch makes for better end-user management of bandwi dth.
See also G.729.
G.721 T he I T U standard for 32 K bps ADPCM.
G.722 T he I T U standard for 7-kHz audi o codi ng for DS0 channels.
G.723 A Codec standard. T he I T U-T G.723.1 standard descri bes a com-
pressi on techni que that can be used for compressi ng speech or audi o
si gnal components at a very low bi t rate as part of the H.324 fami ly
of standards. T hi s Coder/Decoder has two bi t rates associ ated wi th i t:
5.3 and 6.3 K bps. T he hi gher bi t rate i s based on M L-M LQ technology
and provi des a somewhat hi gher quali ty of sound. T he lower bi t rate
i s based on code exi ted li near predi cti on ( CELP) and provi des system
desi gners wi th addi ti onal flexi bi li ty. G.723 i s not a VoI P Codec method
because of the true bandwi dth advantages of G.729, and the fact that
I P telephony products run the H.323 sessi on protocol.
G.725 T he I T U-T standard for the use of a 7-kHz audi o codec over DS0.
G.726 A Codec standard. T he I T U-T G.723.1 standard descri bes ADPCM
codi ng at 40, 32, 24, and 16 K bps. ADPCM-encoded voi ce can be i nter-
changed between packet voi ce, PST N, and PBX networks i f the PBX net-
works have ADPCM i nterface capabi li ty. Some long-haul i nterface ci rcui t
swi tch desi gns i ncorporate thi s, but i s not a preferred desi gn as con-
trasted to G.711 and G.729 i n cost.
G.728 A Codec standard. T he G.728 I T U-T standard descri bes a 16-
K bps low-delay versi on of CELP ( Code Exci ted Li near Predi cti on) voi ce
compressi on. G.728 CELP voi ce codi ng must be translated i nto a pub-
li c telephony format by a router or voi ce gateway for deli very to the
PST N. T hi s i s not a popular method used i n I P telephony or VoI P net-
works due to a lack of advantage i n voi ce quali ty, router load, or band-
wi dth.
G.729 A Codec standard. T he G.729 I T U-T standard descri bes CELP
( Code Exci ted Li near Predi cti on) compressi on where voi ce channels
are coded i nto 8 K bps streams ( Fi g. G.1) . T here are two vari ati ons
298 G.721
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of thi s standard ( G.729 and G.729 Annex A) that di ffer pri mari ly i n
computati onal complexi ty; both provi de near-excellent speech quali ty
si mi lar to 32 K bps ADPCM . T he G.729 standard i s preferred i n a VoI P
network because i t conserves bandwi dth on an 8: 1 rati o. One voi ce
connecti on wi th overhead ( Ethernet and other frami ng) consumes
about 11 K bps over a WAN li nk ( i .e., T 1 pri vate li ne) . All G.729 CELP
voi ce codi ng must be translated i nto a publi c telephony format by a
router or voi ce gateway for deli very to the PST N. G.729 has some
drawbacks, i ncludi ng the i nabi li ty to carry modem traffi c to any si g-
ni fi cant extent, and i t also degrades DT M F tones and musi c to a de-
gree noti ceable to a keen li stener. See also MOS (Mean Opinion
Score).
G.804 299
AUDIOVIDEO
APPLICATIONS
MANAGEMENT
-OUT-OF-BAND SIGNALING-
G.711
G.723
G.729
H. XXX
Codec/
Compression
RTP
RTCP
H. 225
TERMINAL TO
GATEKE EPER
REGISTRATI ON
ADMI SSI ON
STATUS
C
I
S
C
O

S
K
I
N
N
Y
G
A
T
E
W
A
Y
/
R
O
U
T
E
R
P
R
O
T
O
C
O
L
H. 225
CALL SI GNALING
H. 245 MEDI A
CONTRO L
T.124
DATA
APPLICATIONS
UNRELIABLE DATA
TRANSPORT (UDP)
RELI ABLE DATA
TRANSPORT (TCP)
NETWORK LAYER (IP)
DATALINK LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER
H.323 PROTOCOL FAMILY
Figure G.1 G.711 and G.729
G.747 T he I T U-T standard for second-order multi plexi ng at 6.3 Mbps to
carry three 2.048-Mbps E1s.
G.755 T he I T U-T standard for multi plexi ng three 44.736-Mbps DS3 chan-
nels to one 139.264-Mbps channel.
G.802 T he I T U-T standard for connecti ng networks that are based on di f-
ferent di gi tal hi erarchi es and di fferent voi ce-encodi ng methods.
G.804 T he I T U-T frami ng standard that defi nes the mappi ng of ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode) 53-byte cells from the data-li nk layer
to the physi cal layer. See also Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
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G.811 T he I T U-T standard for ti mi ng requi rements at the outputs for pri -
mary reference clocks sui table for plesi ochronous operati on of i nterna-
ti onal communi cati ons li nks.
G.812 T he I T U-T standard for ti mi ng requi rements at the output of slave
clocks sui table for plesi ochronous operati on of i nternati onal communi -
cati ons li nks.
G.824 T he I T U-T standard for the control of si gnal di storti on i n T 1 and
T 3 connecti ons.
G.826 An I T U-T li sti ng/publi cati on that contai ns defi ni ti ons for avai l-
abi li ty and related terms used to descri be li nk quali ty i n poi nt-to-poi nt
radi o appli cati ons that i nclude li censed and unli censed paths. See also
P.530.
G.901 T he I T U-T standard for the general consi derati ons on di gi tal-li ne
systems.
G.921 T he I T U-T standard for di gi tal li nes, based on the E1 hi erarchy.
G.960 T he I T U-T standard for di gi tal secti ons for I SDN BRI .
G.961 T he I T U-T standard for di gi tal transmi ssi on systems on twi sted
copper for I SDN BRI .
Gaff What telecommuni cati ons and power company personnel wear
to cli mb wooden telephone and power poles. T he offi ci al name for
these devi ces are linemans climbers. T hey are also called climbers,
hooks, and spurs. T hey consi st of a steel shank that has straps on
i t so that i t can be strapped to a persons leg. On the i nsi de of the
shank i s a spi ke that i s used to stab i nto the pole. For a photo, see
Climbers.
Gain, Antenna Antenna gai n i s an i ndi cator of how well an antenna fo-
cuses RF energy i n a preferred di recti on. Antenna gai n i s expressed i n
dBi ( the rati o of the power radi ated by the antenna i n a speci fi c di rec-
ti on to the power radi ated i n that di recti on by a non-di recti onal antenna
fed by the same transmi tter) . Antenna manufacturers normally speci fy
the antenna gai n for each antenna they manufacture.
Gallium Arsenide A new i nnovati on i n semi conductor technology. Gal-
li um arseni de i s more tolerant of heat than si li con, and i t also has the
speci al abi li ty to convert li ght i nto electri ci ty and vi ce versa.
300 G.811
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Game Port T he de-facto standard i nterface for personal computers,
whi ch i ncorporates a DB15 connector for attachi ng j oysti cks and other
i nteracti ve devi ces.
GAN (Global-Area Network) A network classi fi cati on. Other net-
work classi fi cati ons are: LAN (local-area network), MAN (metro-
politan-area network), and WAN (wide-area network). Ameri can
Express uti li zes a GAN to provi de fi nanci al servi ces to i ts customers
worldwi de.
Gas Carbon A devi ce the telephone compani es use for li ghtni ng protec-
ti on. When telephones were fi rst used, there was a bi g problem wi th
li ghtni ng stri ki ng telephone wi res and subsequently electrocuti ng peo-
ple or burni ng homes down. Li ghtni ng protectors gi ve li ghtni ng an eas-
i er path to ground compared to I W or a person. T he early li ghti ng pro-
tectors were made of carbon. When they were hi t by li ghtni ng, they would
short to ground, then the phone li ne would be out of servi ce unti l a tele-
phone techni ci an came and replaced them. T he new li ghtni ng protec-
tors are made wi th a gas. When the li ghtni ng hi ts them, they temporar-
i ly short to ground, then re-enable the phone li ne automati cally. T hi s
i nnovati on greatly reduced the number of bad phone li nes that a tele-
phone company would have after a thunderstorm. Gas carbons have no
carbon i n them, they are j ust called that because the old li ghtni ng pro-
tectors were made of carbon. T he new gas li ghtni ng protectors are the
same shape and si ze as the old ones, so they can easi ly fi t i nto older net-
work i nterfaces. For photos of li ghtni ng protectors, see Lightning Pro-
tector and 2 Line Network Interface.
Gate An electroni c logi c devi ce. T he three di fferent functi onal types of
logi c gates are: the AND gate, the OR gate, and the i nverter ( NOT ci r-
cui t) . Gates are reacti ve devi ces. For a certai n i nput, they react and pro-
duce an output. T hese small, si mple ci rcui ts and other ci rcui t devi ces
( such as latches and fli p-flops) make up all mi croprocessors and control
devi ces. T housands of logi c gates and other components are used to
make a si ngle mi croprocessor or control chi p.
Gate Array A ci rcui t, usually on one mi crochi p, that contai ns many gates.
T he gates are connected together to perform a functi on, such as decodi ng.
Gatekeeper I n I P telephony, an enti ty on a network ( usually a router)
that provi des address translati on and access control. I t also provi des
bandwi dth control i nformati on to I P telephony servers i nvolved i n
WAN call connecti ons. For i nstance, i f a fi rst I P telephony server would
li ke to connect a call to a second I P telephony server that i s on the
Gatekeeper 301
PQ104-5056F-PG.qxd 2/9/01 1:54 PM Page 301
other si de of a WAN network, the fi rst server i nqui res wi th the Gate-
keeper about bandwi dth avai labi li ty to carry the call packets. I f the
bandwi dth i s avai lable, the gateway si gnals the telephony server the
bandwi dth avai labi li ty associ ated wi th all routers and gateways as-
si gned that route. T he telephony server then selects the pri ori ti zed
route and si gnals the call. I f there i s not adequate bandwi dth avai l-
able, the gatekeeper noti fi es the calli ng telephony server of thi s, and
the server then commands the I P phone to play a fast-busy wave fi le
to the user.
Gateway I n I P telephony, a gateway i s the poi nt at whi ch a ci rcui t-
swi tched call i s encoded and repackaged i nto I P packets. Gateways are
hardware devi ces that are si mi lar to routers except that they only per-
form layer 2 ( bri dge) functi ons ( Fi g. G.2) . Gateways connect PST N serv-
i ces such as I SDN, POT S li nes, and T 1 channeli zed voi ce ci rcui ts to I P
telephony networks. Gateways i ncorporate protocols such as MGCP,
H.323 to communi cate wi th central control devi ces on a respecti ve I P
telephony network such as an I P telephony server.
302 Gateway
Figure G.2 IP Telephony Gateway
Gateway T he former name for a router. When gateways began to per-
form servi ces beyond what the I nternet requi red, such as LAN protocol
conversi on and opti mi zati on, they were gi ven the name routers by the
compani es that manufactured them. I n some appli cati ons, a router i s re-
ferred to as a gateway router because i t provi des a li nk to a forei gn net-
work and a speci fi c ( often li mi ted) level of securi ty.
Gauge (AWG, American Wire Gauge) A measurement standard for
copper wi re. T he gauge rati ng i s the thi ckness of a soli d copper wi re.
T he larger the gauge, the smaller the wi re ( go fi gure) . Most telephone
PQ104-5056F-PG.qxd 2/9/01 1:54 PM Page 302
wi re ranges from 19 AWG to 26 AWG. Cat3 i s commonly 24 AWG. T he
electri cal wi re i n your home i s probably 12 AWG.
Gaussian Distortion Also called white noise. Gaussi an di storti on oc-
curs at the physi cal layer of telecommuni cati ons ci rcui try and i s di sti n-
gui shable i n audi o appli cati ons as a hi ssi ng sound. I t has several causes,
i ncludi ng the random movement of electrons i n an electroni c ci rcui t, and
certai n ki nds of radi o frequenci es bei ng magneti cally i nduced i nto the
affected ci rcui try.
Gender Bender See Gender Changer.
Gender Changer A small devi ce used to mate two plug ends of the same
type ( Fi g. G.3)
General Format Identifier (GFI) 303
Figure G.3 Gender Changers: DB25 (Left) and High-Density HD15 (Right)
Gender Mender See Gender Changer.
Genderless Connector See Data Connector.
General Format Identifier (GFI) I n X.25, a type of si gnali ng frame
called a control packet i s i ntended for the packet layer to use. T he fi rst
four bi ts of the fi rst byte of thi s packet are called the general format
identifier and they are always 0001 or 0010. See also X.25.
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General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) T he thi rd generati on of wi re-
less technology offered as a servi ce i n Europe and other countri es wi th
a posture toward European standards. GPRS provi ded by telecommuni -
cati ons compani es provi des users wi th a standards-based I P appli cati on
i nterface, so multi medi a and data can be transmi tted over the radi o li nk
as well as voi ce. Transmi ssi on rates for GPRS are expected to mature to
an excess of 1 Mbps, be able to si mulate a constant connecti on, and be
able to share servi ces wi th CDMA2000 networks because the I P layer
provi des a standard appli cati on regardless of the radi o li nks used on ei -
ther end of the call.
General-Protection Fault A warni ng i n Mi crosoft Wi ndows operati ng
systems that noti fi es a user that an appli cati on has tri ed to access
a porti on of memory that i t i s not allowed to. T hi s usually means the
program i s attempti ng to perform a functi on that i t i s not able to, someti mes
because of a corrupted data address wi thi n RAM. General-protecti on faults
often requi re a user to exi t the appli cati on and reboot the PC.
GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupt) A type of ci rcui t breaker. I n
newer homes, GFCI electri cal outlets are requi red wi thi n a certai n di s-
tance of a si nk or bathtub. Unli ke a normal ci rcui t breaker that si mply
di sconnects power when a current to AC common i s exceeded ( e.g., 15
A i s common) , a GFCI breaks the ci rcui t when current to ground ( i n-
stead of AC common) i s detected. T he regular common ci rcui t breakers
are located i n the ci rcui t breaker box i n your home. T he GFCI breakers
are located i nsi de of the electri cal outlet i tself.
GHz (Gigahertz) Giga means bi lli on. 38 GHz means 38 bi lli on Hz or
38, 000, 000, 000 Hz.
Giant I n LAN networki ng, an i nvali d Ethernet frame that i s more than
1518 bytes long. T hese frames are di scarded when detected by LAN
swi tches/router devi ces.
Giga (G) Engi neeri ng notati on for bi lli on. One gi gabyte i s equal to 1 bi l-
li on bytes. Hard di sk-dri ve memori es wi th gi gabytes of capaci ty are now
becomi ng very affordable.
Gigabit One bi lli on bi ts.
Gigabyte One bi lli on bytes.
Gigabit Ethernet T he 802.3z, 1000BaseX speci fi cati on. Gi gabi t Ether-
net i s defi ned for fi ber opti c multi mode and si ngle mode, at 500 meters
304 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
PQ104-5056F-PG.qxd 2/9/01 1:54 PM Page 304
and 2 km, respecti vely. T here i s also a copper versi on that runs di stances
of 25 meters. Gi gabi t Ethernet i s i nterfaced wi th SC fi ber opti c connec-
tors, and there i s a wi de vari ety of laser-di ode adapters avai lable from
manufacturers ( i .e., the Ci sco Systems GBI C connector) i n the LX, LS,
and LH range. Gi gabi t Ethernet standards use 8B/10B encodi ng and de-
codi ng schemes ( Fi g. G.4) .
Global-Positioning System (GPS) 305
GIGABIT ETHERNET
802.3z and 802.3ab distances
STANDARD SPECIFICATION
Wavelength
L
nanometers Fiber Type
Modal Bandwidth
MHz-km
802.3z 1000BaseLH* 1300nm 9/10 Single Mode n/a 10km 32,810ft
802.3z 1000baseLX 1300nm 5um Single Mode n/a 3km 9,843ft
802.3z 1000BaseLX 1300nm 62.5/125um Multimode 500 550m 1804ft
802.3z 1000BaseLX 1300nm 9um Single Mode 500 5km 16,405ft
802.3z 1000BaseSX 850nm 62.5/125um Multimode 160 220m 722ft
802.3z 1000BaseSX 850nm 62.5/125um Multimode 200 275m 902ft
802.3z 1000BaseSX 850nm 50/125um Multimode 400 500m 1640ft
802.3z 1000BaseSX 850nm 50/125um Multimode 500 550m 1804ft
802.3ab 1000BaseT n/a Cat5 UTP n/a 100m 328ft
802.3ab 1000BaseCX n/a balanced copper n/a 25m 82ft
802.3u 100BaseFX 850nm 62.5/125um Multimode 400 400m 1,312ft
*Proposed 802.3z Cisco Systems Proprietary as of 10/2000.
Recommended Maximum
Distance
GII (Global Information Infrastructure) Standards are sti ll bei ng set
for GI I by the ANSI at thi s wri ti ng.
Glare I n Telephone Central Offi ce envi ronments, a trunki ng condi ti on
where both end devi ces of an E& M loop try to sei ze, or go off hook at
the same ti me.
Global-Positioning System (GPS) A system developed by the U.S. De-
partment of Defense. T he GPS system uses geostati onary satelli tes to
Figure G.4 Cisco Systems Gigabit Ethernet Interface 802.3z (GBIC-Gigabit
Interface Card)
Gigabit Ethernet 802.3 Distances
PQ104-5056F-PG.qxd 2/9/01 1:54 PM Page 305
306 GNE (Gateway Network Element)
tri angulate the posi ti on of a GPS recei ver located on the face of the earth.
Locati on i s gi ven i n lati tude, longi tude, and alti tude. T he GPS recei ver can
even calculate beari ng ( di recti on) and speed. GPS recei vers are avai lable
to the general publi c i n many electroni cs magazi nes. You can even buy
a GPS at your local Radi o Shack. T he recei vers that are sold on the ci vi l-
i an market do not decode the di theri ng of the satelli te si gnal and dont
work i ndoors. Dithering i s a random error that i s i ntroduced to the car-
ri er frequency so that the GPS system would be sli ghtly i naccurate. T he
devi ance i n locati on and alti tude i s anywhere from 50 feet. T hi s i s so
hosti le enti ti es cannot use the Department of Defenses locati on tool
agai nst the Uni ted States wi th known accuracy.
GNE (Gateway Network Element) An i nterface on SONET-node
equi pment that enables i t to i nterface and exchange network data wi th
other SONET nodes located wi thi n a network of SONET ri ngs.
Goat Another name for a craft test set. For a photo and explanati on, see
Craft Test Set.
Golden Cookie I n I nternet appli cati ons, a cooki e i s a fi le gi ven to I n-
ternet users by servers that the appli cati on i nteracts wi th. A Golden
Cooki e i s a slang term that refers to a user who has made a purchase
at the si te they are currently surfi ng, at whi ch ti me they made the pur-
chase, they were gi ven the golden cooki e. Golden cooki es can gi ve users
premi um processor/bandwi dth allocati on for surfi ng a parti cular si te i f
the si te i s equi pped wi th layer 7 networki ng abi li ty. T hi s helps I nternet
websi tes retai n customers that actually make purchases by gi vi ng them
faster network servi ce or performance.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) T he thi rd generati on of wi re-
less technology offered as a servi ce i n Europe and other countri es wi th
a posture toward European standards. GPRS provi ded by telecommuni -
cati ons compani es provi des users wi th a standards-based I P appli cati on
i nterface, so multi medi a and data can be transmi tted over the radi o li nk
as well as voi ce. Transmi ssi on rates for GPRS are expected to mature to
an excess of 1 Mbps, be able to si mulate a constant connecti on, and be
able to share servi ces wi th CDMA2000 networks because the I P layer
provi des a standard appli cati on regardless of the radi o li nks used on
ei ther end of the call.
GPS (Global-Positioning System) See Global-Positioning System.
Grade-1 Cable A type of twi sted-pai r cable that i s desi gned for PBX, tele-
phone, RS-232, and other low-speed ( 1Mb/s or less) data appli cati ons.
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Grade-2 Cable A type of twi sted-pai r cable that i s desi gned for trans-
mi ssi ons up to 4 Mb/s. I t i s good for older I BM 3270 appli cati ons, I BM
PC networks, and I SDN.
Grade-3 Cable A type of twi sted-pai r cable that i s desi gned for older
LAN networks li ke 10BASE-T and 802.5 Token Ri ng.
Grade-4 Cable A type of twi sted-pai r cable desi gned for Ethernet speeds
up to 10 Mb/s. See CAT4 and CAT5.
Grade-5 Cable A type of twi sted-pai r cable desi gned for speeds up to
100 Mb/s. Used on I BM Token-Ri ng networks. T hi s i s not CAT 5 cable.
Grade 5 cable i s two twi sted pai rs of stranded copper.
Graded-Index Fiber T he core of graded-i ndex fi ber opti c i s made of
many layers of glass, consi sti ng of many refracti ve i ndexes that cause
the li ght to gradually bend as i t approaches the outsi de of the fi ber
( Fi g. G.5) . Graded-i ndex fi ber ( li ke stepped-i ndex fi ber) i s avai lable i n
multi -mode or si ngle-mode, and i t i s more expensi ve. T he alternati ve
to graded-i ndex fi ber i s stepped-i ndex fi ber, whi ch has a core made of
glass, consi sti ng of one refracti ve i ndex.
Graphics-Controller Card 307
LIGHT AS IT TRAVERSES THROUGH THE CORE OF A FIBER OPTIC
Stepped index fiber Graded index fiber
Figure G.5 Graded-Index Fiber Vs. Stepped-Index Fiber
Graphic Equalizer To adj ust the tone or sound of a ci rcui t by di mi ni sh-
i ng or augmenti ng speci fi c frequency bands. T he tone control on a radi o
i s a type of equali zer. A radi o transmi tter mi ght have a tendency to am-
pli fy low-end si gnals, such as the sound of a bass gui tar or drums better
than hi gh-end si gnals, such as the sound of a voi ce or cymbals. An equal-
i zer can be used to reduce or i ncrease the ampli fi cati on of ei ther end of
the broadcast for an even and accurate reproducti on of the i nput.
Graphics-Controller Card An add-on ci rcui t card that controls and
moni tors advanced functi ons. T he graphi cs card determi nes the resolu-
ti on, refresh rate, and number of colors possi ble. See also SVGA and
AGP.
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Gray, Elisha T he possi ble true i nventor of the telephone. Alexander Gra-
ham Bell beat hi m to the patent by a few hours.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Also known as zulu time. T hi s now-
obsolete term was named after the very accurate clock standards i n
Greenwi ch, England. T he clocks are i ncredi bly accurate because of the
cesi um ti mi ng reference standard, whi ch i s the ti me-keepi ng element i n
bi ts clocks ( ti mi ng devi ces used i n central offi ce nodes to synchroni ze
SONET equi pment. Greenwi ch Mean T i me i s now known as Universal
Time Coordinated (UTC).
Grid T he part of an electroni c vacuum tube that the i nput si gnal i s fed
to. T he gri d mani pulates current flow between the fi lament and the plate
( anode) . See Fig. G.6.
308 Gray, Elisha
Vacuum Tube amplifier (Triode)
Anode
GRID
Heater Cathode
Figure G.6 The Grid of a Vacuum Tube
Ground Earth Ground. T he electri cal potenti al of the earth i s 0 V. To mai n-
tai n a good earth ground, a metalli c rod four to si x feet long i s dri ven i nto
the ground. Any wi re connected to that rod i s grounded. T he power com-
pany i nstalls a rod li ke thi s when they connect power to your home. T he
telephone and cable-T V compani es wi re thei r network i nterfaces ( li ghtni ng
protecti on) to the power companys ground rod. T he alternati ve to earth
ground i s a floating ground. A floati ng ground i s si mply a reference poi nt
that i s not earth grounded. T he negati ve termi nal of your car battery i s
a floating ground and any home appli ance that has a two-prong electri cal
plug i s also a floati ng ground ( i n newer homes that are wi red correctly) .
Ground Clamp A clamp or strap that i s used to make a secure connec-
ti on to a water pi pe or groundi ng rod. T he ground clamp then provi des
a way to connect a wi re to earth ground ( Fi g. G.7) .
Ground Fault A trouble on a telephone li ne that i s caused by one of
the twi sted-pai r phone wi res comi ng i nto contact wi th electri cal ground.
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Ground Start Trunk 309
A ground fault causes a hum on a telephone li ne. A ground fault can
ocur i n many places on a telephone li ne. Ground faults are commonly
caused by a porti on of the phone li ne bei ng wet or by a bad li ghtni ng
protector.
Grounding Field An array of groundi ng rods placed i n the ground and
connected together around an antenna si te or central-offi ce si te. T he
i dea of a groundi ng fi eld i s to provi de the best possi ble earth ground for
electroni c equi pment.
Ground Start Trunk A phone li ne that uses a ground i nstead of a short
( loop-start trunks use a short between ti p and ri ng) to si gnal the cen-
tral offi ce for a di al tone. Some PBX telephone systems requi re the use
of ground-start li nes ( trunks) . Most newer PBX systems use loop-start
( i ndi vi dual or on a T 1) trunks or I SDN PRI trunks.
Figure G.7 Ground Clamps
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Group-3 Protocol An i nternati onal standard for facsi mi le protocols that
defi nes how two communi cati ng enti ti es wi ll send and recei ve graphi c
facsi mi le i nformati on over telephone li nes. T he Group-3 protocol en-
ables an 8.5" by 11" page document to be transferred i n about 20 sec-
onds.
Group-4 Protocol An i nternati onal standard for facsi mi le protocols for
transmi ssi on by I SDN devi ces over I SDN connecti ons. See also Group-
3 Protocol.
Group Address Also known as a Multicast Address. A si ngle address
that transmi ts to multi ple network devi ces. I P multi cast addresses
range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. See also IP Multicast and
Broadcast.
GS T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for group separator. T he bi nary
code i s 1101001 and the hex i s D1.
GS Trunk (Ground-Start Trunk) See Ground-Start Trunks.
GSTN (Global Services Telephone Network) T he term used by the
I T U-T and thei r engi neeri ng recommendati on ci rcles when referri ng to
the PST N ( Publi c Servi ces Telephone Network) .
GTE (General Telephone and Electronics) An i ndependent tele-
phone company ( i ndependent of the RBOCs) . GT E owns and operates
smaller local telephone compani es across the Uni ted States.
GTP (General Telemetry Processor) A devi ce manufactured and i m-
plemented to recei ve and process telecommuni cati ons equi pment alarm-
i ng protocols, such as TBOS (Telemetry Bit-Oriented Serial).
Guard Band A frequency band separator between radi o channels. A
guard band prevents multi ple or nearby radi o stati ons on the di al from
bei ng recei ved si multaneously.
Guest Mailbox A temporary voi ce mai lbox set up i n a voi ce-mai l sys-
tem. I t can be attached to a phone or i t can be a vi rtual mai lbox, where
the user si mply has a phone number that other people can call to leave
messages.
Guy Hook A hook that i s bolted to power/communi cati ons poles and used
to attach guy wi res. See Fig. G.8.
310 Group-3 Protocol
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Guy Wire 311
Figure G.8 Guy Hook
Figure G.9 Guy Thimble
Guy Thimble A devi ce used to attach a guy wi re strand to a bolt, whi ch,
i n turn, attached to an anchor i n the ground. See Fig. G.9.
Guy Wire A steel cable that provi des lateral support for a verti cal struc-
ture, such as a telephone pole or radi o tower/antenna.
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313
H
H Channel (High-Speed Channel) A full-duplex I SDN pri mary-rate
channel operati ng at 384 K bps. Compare wi th B channel, D channel, and
E channel.
H PAD (Host Packet Assembler/Dissembler) A PAD that i s speci fi -
cally located on the host end of a communi cati ons li nk. Even though
PADs are the same on each end, someti mes techni ci ans refer to them i n
a speci fi c manner. T he H PAD i s a devi ce that i s located at the host end
of a vi rtual communi cati ons li nk i n a frame protocol envi ronment that
provi des for stati sti cal ti me di vi si on multi plexi ng. T he HPAD also adds
and removes address, envelope, and HDLC i nformati on.
H.225 I n the I T U-T H.323 fami ly ( or speci es) of protocols, H.225 provi des
support for i ncorporati ng securi ty methods and features that can be bui lt
on as needed. One example i s the cryptoH323Token, whi ch i s i ncor-
porated i nto the H.235 method of password wi th hashi ng securi ty
scheme.
H.235 Securi ty support for H.323. H.235 i ncorporates features such as
password requests that requi re communi cati ng devi ces such as routers
to i denti fy themselves and provi de a password. T hi s i s a method to
help prevent devi ces from networks other than your own to connect.
I t also i ncorporates end user I D and PI N ( Personal I denti fi cati on Num-
ber) features. T hese features are enabled by Crypto-Tokens defi ned
i n H.225.
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H.245 An I T U-T feature addi ti on to H.323 that provi des the capabi li ty for
exchangi ng DT MF si gnals out-of-band or i n CCS T 1 or I SDN ci rcui ts.
Another i mportant functi on of H.245 i s the compressi on/decompressi on
( Codec) type negoti ati on, such as G.711 and G.729, between the calli ng
and called end devi ces. H.245 also performs the UDP port negoti ati on
between the two ends of the network.
H.261 T he compressi on standard speci fi ed under the H.320 vi deocon-
ferenci ng standard. H.261 i s si mi lar to but not compati ble wi th MPEG
( H.261 i s more CPU effi ci ent) . H.261 i s the vi deo codi ng and decodi ng
method for the movi ng pi cture component of audi ovi sual servi ces at the
rates of 1 to 30 frames per second. I t descri bes the vi deo source coder,
the vi deo multi plex coder, and the transmi ssi on coder. H.261 defi nes two
pi cture formats. T he fi rst i s the CI F ( Common I ntermedi ate Format) ,
whi ch speci fi es 288 li nes of lumi nance i nformati on ( wi th 360 pi xels per
li ne) and 144 li nes of chromi nance i nformati on ( wi th 180 pi xels per li ne) .
T he second i s the QCI F ( Quarter Common I ntermedi ate Format) , whi ch
speci fi es 144 li nes of lumi nance ( wi th 180 pi xels per li ne) and 72 li nes
of chromi nance i nformati on ( wi th 90 pi xels per li ne) .QCI F provi des a
better vi deo quali ty when the number of frames per second i s less than 3.
H.261 also provi des for two di fferent codi ng methods that are used
dependi ng on the avai lable bandwi dth. T he H.261 algori thm i ncludes
a mechani sm for opti mi zi ng bandwi dth usage by tradi ng pi cture qual-
i ty agai nst moti on so that a qui ckly changi ng pi cture has a lower qual-
i ty than a relati vely stati c pi cture. When used i n thi s way, H.261 i s a
constant-bi t-rate encodi ng rather than a constant-quali ty, vari able-bi t-
rate encodi ng.
H.263 A backward-compati ble update to the H.261 standard that en-
hances pi cture quali ty usi ng a requi red half-pi xel moti on esti mati on tech-
ni que, predi cted frames, and a Huffman codi ng table opti mi zed for low
bi t rate transmi ssi ons.
H.320 An I T U-T standard that defi nes connecti on-based vi deoconfer-
enci ng usi ng I SDN PRI , 56K , and fracti onal T 1 ci rcui ts to connect the
end users. H.320 equi pment was made obsolete by H.323 standards,
whi ch enable vi deo to be sent over I P and provi de standards-based
methods of i ntegrati ng the older H.320 and newer H.323 end user
equi pment.
H.323 An I T U-T standard that descri bes packet-based vi deo, audi o, and
data conferenci ng. H.323 i s an umbrella standard that descri bes the ar-
chi tecture of the conferenci ng system and refers to a set of other stan-
dards ( H.245, H.225.0, and Q.931) to descri be i ts actual protocol. T he
314 H.245
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H standards are used for i ni ti al call si gnali ng set-up and moni tori ng across
a QoS or voi ce enabled network. T he actual I P telephony voi ce conver-
sati on i s carri ed by RT P ( Fi g. H.1) . See also H.323v1 and H.323v2.
H.323v1 315
AUDIOVIDEO
APPLICATIONS
MANAGEMENT
-OUT-OF-BAND SIGNALING-
G.711
G.723
G.729
H.XXX
Codec/
Compression
RTP
RTCP
H.225
TERMINAL TO
GATEKEEPER
REGISTRATION
ADMISSION
STATUS
C
I
S
C
O

S
K
I
N
N
Y
G
A
T
E
W
A
Y
/
R
O
U
T
E
R
P
R
O
T
O
C
O
L
H.225
CALL SIGNALING
H.245 MEDIA
CONTROL
T.124
DATA
APPLICATIONS
UNRELIABLE DATA
TRANSPORT (UDP)
RELIABLE DATA
TRANSPORT ( TCP)
NETWORK LAYER (IP)
DATA LINK LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER
H.323 PROTOCOL FAMI LY
Figure H.1 Family of Protocols
H.323 Audio I n I P telephony, audi o si gnals contai n di gi ti zed, compressed
sound. H.323 supports proved I T U standard audi o Codec algori thms, i n-
cludi ng G.711 for speech, whi ch transmi ts voi ce at 56 or 64 K bps. Sup-
port for other I T U voi ce standards ( G.722, G.723, G.728, G.729) i s op-
ti onal, because each one reflects tradeoffs between speech quali ty, bi t
rate, computi ng power, and si gnal delay.
H.323 Video I n H.323, vi deo capabi li ti es are opti onal. Vi deo-enabled
H.323 termi nals must support the H.261 Codec, wi th opti onal support
for the H.263 standard. Transmi ssi on i s no greater than that selected
duri ng a capabi li ty exchange process duri ng call setup. Because both
H.261 and H.263 support QCI F, communi cati on between di fferent ter-
mi nals i s possi ble.
H.323v1 For I P telephony purposes, the I T U-T H.323 provi des POT S li ne
si gnal translati ons between an I P WAN li nk and a POT S telephone.
H.323v1 has the abi li ty only to connect and di sconnect a call. Si gnali ng
such as hook-flash requi red to i ni ti ate supplementary features such as
hold, transfer, and conference cannot be carri ed. H.323v1 could be
vi ewed from the legacy telephony perspecti ve as bei ng an i n-band
si gnali ng method.
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H.323v2 A modi fi ed versi on of the I T U-T H.323 fami ly of protocols that
enables the RT P/UDP/I P transport stream to be rerouted vi a hook-flash
type si gnali ng on the POT S end or the I P telephony end. I nherently, wi th
the eli mi nati on of the need for the software medi a termi nati on poi nt,
H.323v2 enables compressed voi ce over the I P porti on of the network
such as G.723 and G.729. Typi cally, layer 2 gateways i ncorporate H.323v2.
H.324 An I T U-T enhancement to the ori gi nal H.320 standard that defi nes
vi deoconferenci ng usi ng plai n old telephone system ( POT S) li nes.
H.450 A feature supporti ve of I T U-T H.323 that enables supplementary
servi ces such as call transfer. H.450 allows an H.323 end poi nt to redi -
rect an answered call to another H.323 endpoi nt. Wi thi n the standard, i t
i s referred to as call deflection. T he end user wi th call forward enabled
si gnals the gateway of the new end poi nt.
Half Duplex Two-way communi cati ons, one di recti on at a ti me. CB radi o
i s an example of half-duplex operati ons; two people take turns trans-
mi tti ng and recei vi ng. T he two other types of transmi ssi ons are full
duplex and simplex. A full-duplex li ne or communi cati ons path i s able
to communi cate both di recti ons, transmi t and recei ve at the same ti me.
A T 1 i s a full-duplex li ne, wi th one pai r used for transmi t and the other
used for recei ve. Full duplex can be accompli shed on one pai r of wi res
by usi ng two multi plexed channels, one for recei ve, and one for trans-
mi t. Si mplex i s one-way communi cati on only. An FM radi o stati on or T V
broadcast i s si mplex.
Half-Wave Antenna An antenna that i s one-half the wavelength of the
frequency that i s desi gned to recei ve or transmi t. For example, the wave-
length of an antenna for a 38-GHz mi crowave si gnal i s equal to:
.
A full-wave antenna for 38 GHz would be 7.9 mm. A half wave would
be half of that, 3.9 mm. I ts a small antenna because i t i s for a small wave-
length. T hats why they call i t microwave.
Hand Hole A small cable vault that i s basi cally bi g enough to get your
hands i nto. I t i s used for outsi de cable plant spli ces. Hand holes are most
.0079 meters 7.9 mm

300, 000, 000
38, 000, 000, 000
0.0079 meters
Wavelength
Speed of light 1i n meters/second2
Frequency 1i n CPS2
316 H.323v2
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 316
common i n the fi ber-opti c realm of outsi de plant. A typi cal hand hole i s
about two feet wi de, three or four feet long, and two feet deep ( Fi g. H.2) .
Hands Free 317
Figure H.2 Hand Hole
Hand Off To connect a phone call or other servi ce from one telephone
company to another. Hand-offs usually happen i n a place called a co-
location.
Hand Shake T he i ni ti al connecti on set-up part of a protocol for modems.
When you di al out on a modem, often you can hear a beep after the
modem on the far end pi cks-up. T hi s i s a handshaking signal. After
the handshaki ng si gnal the modems go through the handshaki ng process,
whi ch i s to exchange i nformati on speci fi c to what speed they wi ll trans-
mi t and what error-detecti on protocol wi ll be used. After the handshake
i s complete, data transmi ssi on begi ns.
Hands Free Also called speaker phone. Hands free i s a feature of PBX
telephones and 2500 ( si ngle-li ne standard) telephones. I t allows the user
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 317
to talk on the telephone as i f i t were an i ntercom, not usi ng a handset.
Speaker phones have a mi crophone and a speaker bui lt i nto the tele-
phone set i tself.
Handset T he devi ce attached to a telephone that you hold to your head
duri ng a telephone call. I t has a speaker and a mi crophone.
Hard Call Forward A type of call transfer or routi ng where an i ncom-
i ng telephone call does not ri ng at the redi recti ng partys number or sta-
ti on ( the li ne that i s forwarded) . I t i mmedi ately ri ngs at the li ne or sta-
ti on to whi ch i t i s desti ned. Hard call forward i s usually set by the li ne
or stati on user, as opposed to a soft call forward, whi ch i s usually set by
a voi ce mai l, PBX, or CO swi tch admi ni strator.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Also called hard drive. A means of random-
access magneti c memory. Wi thi n larger hard di sk dri ves are actually sev-
eral magneti c di sks ( Fi g. H.3) . Magneti c heads read and wri te data to
the di sks. Hard di sk dri ves were fi rst used i n computers by I BM i n the
early 1970s. Several standards provi de a means for hard di sk dri ves to
i nterface wi th other computer components, such as the CPU and
RAM. T he most common are IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics or
Intelligent Drive Electronics) and SCSI (Small-Computer System
318 Handset
Figure H.3 A 17.3-GB Hard Disk Drive
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 318
Interface). Hard di sk dri ves are avai lable i n vari ed memory si zes that
range from several megabytes ( MB) to many gi gabytes ( GB) . I llustrated
i s a 17.3-GB I DE hard di sk dri ve that i s commonly used i n personal
computers.
Hardware Physi cal electroni c equi pment. Most electroni c equi pment
needs software, whi ch are the programs and i nstructi ons that tell i t how
to run.
Hardware Address See MAC Address.
Hardwire To be physi cally connected by wi re, ei ther wi th cross con-
nects or customi zed cables. T he alternati ve to hardwi ri ng equi pment
i s to use modular equi pment, such as a modular j ack. A modular j ack
i s equi pped wi th a plug so that devi ces can be easi ly attached and de-
tached. Old j acks, whi ch can sti ll be found i n old homes, are hard
wired, whi ch means that the telephone cord had to be permanently
affi xed to the termi nals i nsi de the j ack wi th screws. T he same went for
nonmodular or hardwi red telephones. I f you wanted to have a longer
cord, you couldnt buy one at the store and j ust plug i t i n. You had to
call the phone company and they would send a telephone techni ci an
out to i nstall a longer cord for you.
Harmonic A frequency that i s a multi ple of a lower frequency. For ex-
ample, 6000 Hz i s a harmoni c of 3000 Hz. 12, 000 Hz and 15, 000 Hz are
also harmoni cs of 3000 Hz. Multi ply 3000 or any other number by any
posi ti ve i nteger and that i s a harmoni c frequency.
Harmonic Distortion T he tendency of a ci rcui t to ampli fy and pass
harmoni cs of an i nput si gnal. Feedback i s an example of harmoni c
di storti on. Feedback i s the squeali ng sound you often hear when a
person approaches a mi crophone at a publi c speech. See also Feed-
back.
Harmonica Adapter An adapter that converts a 25-pai r cable plug i nto
12 four-conductor RJ11 plugs or 24 two-conductor RJ11 plugs. Harmon-
i ca adapters are frequently used as an alternati ve connecti vi ty ( as op-
posed to hardwi red 66M150 blocks) on temporary ( and someti mes an
i nexpensi ve permanent) i nstallati ons of key or PBX telephone systems.
For a photo, see Modular Adapter and 258A Adapter.
HBD3 (High-Density Binary 3 or High-Density Bipolar 3) A li ne-
codi ng type used on E1 ci rcui ts. T hi s li ne codi ng prevents ti mi ng loss
on E1 transmi ssi ons when excessi ve zeros are transmi tted.
HBD3 (High-Density Binary 3 or High-Density Bipolar 3) 319
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HDD (Hard Disk Drive) See Hard Disk Drive.
HDLC (High-Level Data-Link Control) A communi cati ons protocol
that was developed by the I SO, based on the SDLC (Synchronous Data-
Link Control) method created by I BM i n 1970. HDLC was revi ewed and
modi fi ed by the I T U-T ( then the CCI T T ) , and then called LAP (Link-
Access Procedure). LAP was i ncluded as a part of the 1976 versi on of
X.25. LAP was refi ned further by the I SO and the I T U-T ( then the CCI T T )
and renamed LAPB (Link-Access Procedure Balanced mode). LAPB
i s the frame-layer protocol i n X.25, and the data-li nk layer protocol by
OSI standards.
HDSL (High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line) A physi cal layer car-
ri er that deli vers data networki ng up to 1.544 Mbps over two copper
pai rs and up to 2.048 Mbps ( E1) over two or three pai rs at a base trans-
mi ssi on range of 20, 000 feet from a central offi ce. I t i s si mi lar to SDSL
and has symmetri cal transmi ssi on capabi li ti es. T he transmi ssi on range
for HDSL can be extended to more than 30, 000 feet usi ng repeaters, and
can be extended even further usi ng fi ber opti c. Li ne format and codi ng
i s not an i ssue i n HDSL i mplementati on, as i t i s wi th legacy T 1 and E1.
All HDSL i s clear channel. HDSL i s a servi ce provi ded by telephone com-
pani es. See also xDSL.
HDSL2 An enhancement to HDSL that i ncorporates OPTIS (Overlapped
PAM Transmission with Interlocking Spectra) li ne codi ng. I t i s
i ntended for long reach ( to 18, 000 feet) si ngle-pai r T 1 and long-reach
two-pai r T 1, wi thout the use of repeaters or doublers. T he HDSL2 stan-
dard provi des a si gni fi cantly more-reli able connecti on than HDSL i n
noi sy/crosstalk envi ronments. HDSL2 i s not i ntended to replace HDSL,
but to provi de an addi ti onal means of provi di ng reli able servi ce where
HDSL cannot.
HDT (Host Digital Terminal) I n cable-T V networks, HDT i s a node that
modulates many di gi tal DS0 voi ce si gnals i nto two-way upstream and
downstream RF si gnals ( Fi g. H.4) . T he HDT i s the heart of cable
telephony. I t has the abi li ty to i nterface di rectly wi th SONET nodes or
voi ce-swi tchi ng equi pment, i ncludi ng those i n the Nortel DMS fami ly.
T he HDT-modulated voi ce si gnals are combi ned onto the tradi ti onal
cable-T V transmi ssi on and demodulated at the customer premi ses by a
voi ce port. A voi ce port i s a far-end recei ver/modem that provi des cus-
tomer end modulati on/demodulati on of cable voi ce servi ce. T he voi ce
port i s then connected to customers telephone wi ri ng. Arri s/Nortel i s a
manufacturer of HDT cable telephony equi pment.
320 HDD (Hard Disk Drive)
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HDX (Half Duplex) Half duplex i s two-way communi cati ons, one di -
recti on at a ti me. CB radi o i s an example of half-duplex operati ons; two
people take turns transmi tti ng and recei vi ng. T he two other types
of transmi ssi ons are full duplex and si mplex. A full-duplex li ne or
communi cati ons path i s able to communi cate both di recti ons, transmi t
and recei ve at the same ti me. A T 1 i s a full-duplex li ne, wi th one pai r
used for transmi t and the other used for recei ve. Full duplex can be ac-
compli shed on one pai r of wi res by usi ng two multi plexed channels, one
for recei ve and one for transmi t. Si mplex i s one-way communi cati on only.
An FM radi o stati on or T V broadcast i s si mplex.
Head End Where cable-T V si gnal processi ng takes place. Located at the
head end i s the array of satelli te di shes that the cable-T V company uses
to pi ck-up thei r programmi ng transmi ssi ons. T hey re-channeli ze the sta-
ti ons ( e.g., put WGN on channel 8 and HBO on channel 14) , add i n local
commerci als and local programmi ng. When all the si gnal processi ng i s
done, the cable-T V company then sends the broadband ( a multi -channel
si gnal) T V si gnal down i ts coax cables so that i t can be di stri buted to
subscri bers. See also Cable TV.
Head End 321
Figure H.4 HDT (Host Digital Terminal)
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 321
Head End A devi ce i n a network that has multi plexi ng, demulti plexi ng,
and/or swi tchi ng capabi li ty i n a broadband network. All stati ons trans-
mi t toward a head end.
Header Bi nary address and si gnali ng i nformati on that i s added to the
front of a data packet that i nstructs network components how and where
to send the packet.
Headless (Slang) A devi ce that cannot be managed di rectly by con-
necti ng a termi nal to i t. I t must be connected to a devi ce that has that
capabi li ty. For example, a trunk card or router servi ces card i n a PBX
system cannot be managed di rectly because they do not have a console
or termi nal port bui lt i nto them. T hey must be plugged i nto a system to
be confi gured. T he i ndustry more typi cally refers to these types of de-
vi ces as bei ng unmanaged devices.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) A com-
prehensi ve law passed by the Uni ted States Congress i n 1999 that dri ves
the development of electroni c data i nterchange ( EDI ) for speci fi ed ad-
mi ni strati ve and fi nanci al health care transacti ons i n the Uni ted States. T hi s
act i s i ntended to save health care provi ders $9 bi lli on annually i n admi n-
i strati ve costs and an esti mated $4 bi lli on annually i n fraud preventi on. For
telecom network managers of hospi tal and medi cal i nsurance corporati ons,
as of 2001, there are standards for securi ty and EDI that must be followed.
Held Order A telephone or cable-T V servi ce that cannot be i nstalled be-
cause of a shortage of equi pment. T he shortage could be because the equi p-
ment i s not i nstalled yet ( such as telephone cables i n a new nei ghborhood)
or the avai lable faci li ti es have run-out ( i .e., all the pai rs i n a parti cular area
are used, or the central-offi ce swi tch has uti li zed all of i ts li ne i nterfaces) .
Henry T he uni t of i nductance. I nductance i s also referred to as reactance.
An i nductor, or coi l of wi re, i s a reacti ve devi ce. Reactance i s the re-
si stance that a component gi ves to an AC or fluctuati ng DC current. T he
two components that cause reactance: i nductors ( coi ls) and capaci tors.
T he di fference between resi stance and reactance i s that resi stance i s al-
ways the same, regardless of the voltage ampli tude or frequency appli ed
to the resi sti ve devi ce. T he reactance of a component changes along wi th
frequency changes, or the speed at whi ch an AC current changes di rec-
ti on. T he hi gher the frequency, the hi gher the reactance or resi stance to
that frequency. T he reason that coi ls of wi re cause reactance i s that
as electri ci ty flows through them, they force the electri ci ty to create
a magneti c fi eld every ti me i t changes di recti on. A perfect i nductor has
zero reactance to a DC current, and has a speci fi c reactance or resi stance
322 Head End
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 322
to every AC current. Each coi l or i nductor has a value i n henrys. T he
hi gher the number of henrys, the more i t wi ll resi st AC or fluctuati ng
DC. Coi ls are used to fi lter out ( choke out) DC fluctuati ons i n power
suppli es. T hey are also used to help tune i n radi o or other frequenci es.
Reactance i s also caused by other electroni c condi ti ons where i t i s
not useful. All wi re and electroni c components possess a small amount
of reacti ve properti es ( e.g., the reason twi sted-pai r wi re causes attenu-
ati on of si gnal strength i s because of the i nductance of the copper wi re
and the capaci tance of the two wi res bei ng next to each other.)
Hermaphroditic Connector A genderless connector developed by I BM
that i s usually called a Data Connector. T he Data Connector does not
need complementary plugs ( male and female) to make a connecti on, li ke
all other known communi cati ons modular connecti ng systems. T he Data
Connector i s speci fi cally desi gned and used for swi tched token ri ng back-
bone appli cati ons.
Hertz (Hz) A measure of the number of cycles per second in a waveform.
One Hz, or Hertz, is equal to one cycle in one second. Two Hz is two cycles
in one second, 1000 Hz is 1000 cycles in one second, or Cycles Per Second
( CPS) . Cycles are used as a reference to measure the frequency of a wave-
form or signal. Below is a diagram of two waveforms and one cycle of each
singled out. Cycles are usually referred to as a number of cycles per unit of
time. Cycles per second and Hertz are measurements of the number of cy-
cles you get per second in an analog transmission. Bits per second is meas-
urement of how many square wave clock sample sequences are being read
from a digital transmission. For a diagram of one cycle ( hertz) , see Cycle.
Heterodyne To mi x a radi o-frequency si gnal wi th an audi o or other si g-
nal to be carri ed i n a transmi ssi on.
Heterogeneous Network A network that connects more than one type
or manufacturers operati ng platform. A network that i s compri sed of
equi pment/software that i s made by di fferent manufacturers. I BMs SNA
(System Network Architecture) i s a complex networki ng standard be-
cause i t was made to connect every large heterogeneous network known
at i ts ti me of i ncepti on.
Hexadecimal A number system based on 16 numbers, i nstead of 10, li ke
the one we count wi th i n our everyday li ves. Hexadeci mal i s a conven-
i ent shortcut to i nputti ng 16-/bi t bi nary numbers duri ng machi ne-
language programmi ng. Hexadeci mal counts as follows: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. For a conversi on table of hexadeci mal,
bi nary, and deci mal numbers, see Binary-to-Decimal Conversion.
Hexadecimal 323
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Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion For a conversi on table for bi nary
( base 2) , hexadeci mal, and deci mal ( base 10) numbers, see Binary-to-
Decimal Conversion.
Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion For a conversi on table for bi nary
( base 2) , hexadeci mal, and deci mal ( base 10) numbers, see Binary-to-
Decimal Conversion.
HF (Hands Free) Also called speaker phone. Hands free i s a feature of
PBX telephones and 2500 ( si ngle-li ne standard) telephones. I t allows the
user to talk on the telephone as i f i t were an i ntercom ( not usi ng a hand-
set) . Speaker phones have a mi crophone and a speaker bui lt i nto the
telephone set i tself.
HFC (Hybrid Fiber/Coax) A reference to the modern cable-T V/
telecommuni cati ons di stri buti on plant. Fi ber opti c i s used to extend mass
amounts of bandwi dth to communi ti es. T he fi ber opti c termi nates i nto
a fi ber node. T hen servi ces are deli vered to nearby subscri bers vi a coax.
Hierarchical Network Architecture An enterpri se LAN/WAN desi gn
methodology where all traffi c leads to a central core, where servers and
other computi ng servi ces are located. I n hi erarchi cal desi gn, there are three
parts to a network that i nclude the core layer, the di stri buti on layer, and
the access layer ( Fi g. H.5) . T hi s desi gn method i s used most recently i n
compari son to the 80/20 method used i n the past. T he avai labi li ty of super
hi gh-speed LAN swi tches wi th backplanes that are capable of swi tchi ng at
a total bandwi dth i n excess of 30 Gbps have made hi erarchi cal desi gns more
practi cal than the di stri buted 80/20 computi ng method. T he largest
advantage of hi erarchi cal desi gns i s that they are hi ghly scalable and
expandable as well as flexi ble for i mplementi ng new servi ces. T he older
80/20 desi gned networks eventually grow to a poi nt where no new servi ces
can be added wi thout creati ng bottlenecks that are very expensi ve to
remedy. See also Core Layer, Distribution Layer, and Collapsed Core.
324 Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
CORE LAYER
DISTRIBUTION LAYER
ACCESS LAYER
Figure H.5 Hierarchical Network Architecture
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 324
Hierarchical Routing A method used to reduce the complexi ty of rout-
i ng tables wi thi n a large network. T hi s i s accompli shed by separati ng a
large network i nto several smaller-si zed networks, whi ch are connected
by routers, hub routers, or swi tches.
Hi-Fi (High Fidelity) An attempt a reproducti on of an audi o si gnal that
i s as close as possi ble to the ori gi nal usi ng the most advanced technol-
ogy possi ble wi thi n a pri ce range.
High and Dry A test result of di rect-access test uni ts attached to cen-
tral offi ce swi tchi ng equi pment that means a twi sted pai r i s clear of
shorts, grounds, and equi pment, i ncludi ng telephones and someti mes
load coi ls ( dependi ng on how the DAT U i s confi gured) .
High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) A physi cal layer carri er
that deli vers data networki ng up to 1.544 Mbps over two copper pai rs and
up to 2.048 Mbps ( E1) over two or three pai rs at a base transmi ssi on range
of 20,000 feet from a central offi ce. I t i s si mi lar to SDSL and has symmet-
ri cal transmi ssi on capabi li ti es. T he transmi ssi on range for HDSL can be ex-
tended to more than 30,000 feet usi ng repeaters, and can be extended even
further usi ng fi ber opti c. Li ne format and codi ng i s not an i ssue i n HDSL
i mplementati on, as i t i s wi th legacy T 1 and E1. All HDSL i s clear channel.
HDSL i s a servi ce provi ded by telephone compani es. See also xDSL.
High Fidelity (Hi-Fi) See Hi-Fi.
High-Level Data-Link Control (HDLC) A communi cati ons protocol
that was developed by the I SO, based on the SDLC (Synchronous Data-
Link Control) method created by I BM i n 1970. HDLC was revi ewed and
modi fi ed by the I T U-T ( then the CCI T T ) , and then called LAP (Link-
Access Procedure). LAP was i ncluded as a part of the 1976 versi on of
X.25. LAP was refi ned further by the I SO and the I T U-T ( then the CCI T T )
and renamed LAPB (Link-Access Procedure Balanced mode). LAPB
i s the frame-layer protocol i n X.25, and the data-li nk layer protocol by
OSI standards.
High-Level Language A computer programmi ng language that i nter-
faces meani ngful i nstructi ons ( to humans) to lower-level programmi ng
languages, such as machi ne language. FORT RAN, COBOL, C, BASI C, and
SAS are hi gh-level programmi ng languages.
High-Pass Filter An electroni c devi ce that eli mi nates frequenci es below
a speci fi ed frequency. T he two categori es of frequency fi lters are: acti ve
and passi ve. Acti ve fi lters use acti ve devi ces that requi re power, such as
High-Pass Filter 325
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 325
transi stors and op amps to ampli fy the desi red si gnal and attenuate the
undesi red si gnal. Passi ve fi lters are made wi th components that do not
requi re external power, such as capaci tors and i nductors. Capaci tors and
i nductors have reacti ve properti es that cause them to resi st or pass an
AC si gnal.
High-Performance Parallel Interface (HIPPI) Newer versi ons of
HI PPI are used as a backbone to connect supercomputers. Multi ple cop-
per pai rs or fi ber-opti c pai rs are used to achi eve transfer speeds of
6.4 Gbps ( HI PPI 6400) . HI PPI has been used as an i ntra-room computer
connecti on, but wi th the new i ncorporati on of fi ber opti c to the stan-
dard, HI PPI could be used to transmi t data across campus envi ronments.
High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI) A physi cal connecti on between
a DT E and DCE devi ce, developed by Ci sco Systems and T 3Plus
networki ng, that enables connecti on speeds well above the 64-/256-K bps
range, to whi ch other standards are li mi ted. Other standards i nclude V.35
and RS-232C seri al i nterface. Among other uses, these i nterfaces are
used to connect between a publi c telephone servi ce provi ders CSU/DSU
and a customers local network devi ce, such as a router.
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) A
comprehensi ve law passed by the Uni ted States Congress i n 1999 that dri ves
the development of electroni c data i nterchange ( EDI ) for speci fi ed ad-
mi ni strati ve and fi nanci al health care transacti ons i n the Uni ted States. T hi s
act i s i ntended to save health care provi ders $9 bi lli on annually i n admi n-
i strati ve costs and an esti mated $4 bi lli on annually i n fraud preventi on. For
telecom network managers of the hospi tal and medi cal i nsurance i ndustry,
as of 2001, there are standards for securi ty and EDI that must be followed.
HIPPI (High-Performance Parallel Interface) Newer versi ons of
HI PPI are used as a backbone to connect supercomputers. Multi ple cop-
per pai rs or fi ber-opti c pai rs are used to achi eve transfer speeds of
6.4 Gbps ( HI PPI 6400) . HI PPI has been used as an i ntra-room computer
connecti on, but wi th the new i ncorporati on of fi ber opti c to the standard,
HI PPI could be used to transmi t data across campus envi ronments.
Hit A user accessing an application or server on a network. A hit can be thought
of as a completed and ended phone call, only i n a packet swi tch envi ron-
ment rather than a ci rcui t swi tched envi ronment ( as i n a POT S voi ce call) .
HIVR (Host Interactive Voice Response) A telecommuni cati ons and
data-processi ng technology that i nterfaces a person to i nformati on held
i n a computer by usi ng a phone li ne. I f you have ever called your bank
326 High-Performance Parallel Interface (HIPPI)
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 326
and entered your account number, a password, and a prompt so that a
computeri zed voi ce can read back your bank account balance, then you
have used HI VR.
Hold Recall A feature of PBX telephone systems and key systems that
makes calls put on hold ri ng back to the person who put them on hold.
T he hold-recall ti me i nterval can be set to a ti me speci fi ed by the sys-
tem admi ni strator ( e.g., 15, 30, 45, or 60 seconds) .
Hold Down An operati onal state/condi ti on for routes i n a data network
that i s si mi lar to a busy state for voi ce trunks. Hold down i s a state that
a route i s placed i nto so that routers wi ll nei ther adverti se the route nor
accept adverti sements about the route for a speci fi c length of ti me ( the
hold-down peri od) . Hold down i s used to flush bad i nformati on about a
route from all routers i n the network. A route i s typi cally placed i n hold
down when a li nk i n that route fai ls.
Hollow Pipeline A term that i s usually used to descri be a pri vate li ne
out-of-band si gnaled ( CCC, Clear Coded Channel) DS1. T here i s no ti m-
i ng, no frami ng, no error correcti on. You i nput your bi t stream on one
end and out they come out the other end i n the same order. T here i s
only a maxi mum speed you can transmi t. For a DS1, i t i s 1.536 Mb/s.
T hi s i s 1.544 Mb/s less the frami ng overhead of 8 K b/s.
Home Run A telephone or data communi cati ons wi ri ng scheme that
means the wi re that i s i nstalled runs from a j ack to a poi nt where i t can
be cross-connected or termi nated to DCE equi pment or a telephone NI .
Each stati on ( PC or telephone must have i ts own dedi cated wi re) . CAT
5 wi ri ng and PBX wi ri ng must be i nstalled i n a home run manner. Token
ri ng i s i nstalled stati on to stati on. See Fig. H.6.
Home Run 327
Figure H.6 Home Run
Punchdown
block
located in telephone
closet
jack
jack
jack
jack
jack jack jack
JACKS WIRED IN SERIES
Punchdown block
located in telephone
closet
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 327
Homologation T he conformi ty of a product or speci fi cati on to meet
i nternati onal standards, such as those set by I T U-T. Homologati on en-
ables portabi li ty and compati bi li ty between corporate and i nternati onal
boundari es.
Hook Flash Hook flash or Flash i s a form of telecommuni cati ons si g-
nali ng. To send a flash si gnal, press the swi tch-hook of a telephone bri efly.
I f you have call wai ti ng on your telephone li ne and another call comes
i n ( you hear the beep) , you bri efly push i n the swi tch hook on your tele-
phone to swi tch to your other call. When you want to revert back to the
ori gi nal call, you bri efly press the swi tch hook on your phone agai n. Some
telephones have a flash button on them, whi ch i s a more conveni ent and
less cumbersome way to send a flash si gnal than fli ppi ng the telephones
swi tch hook.
Hook Switch (Switch Hook) T he swi tch that i s pressed when you hang
up a telephone handset ( Fi g. H.7) .
328 Homologation
Figure H.7 Hook Switch
Telephone
Location of
Switch hook
Hooks Also known as climbers, linemans climbers, spurs, and gaffs.
Cli mbers for use on power poles have a shorter blade on the shank than
cli mbers made for tree cli mbi ng ( lumber/tri mmi ng appli cati ons) . For a
photo, see Climbers.
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Hop 1. A terrestri al mi crowave radi o li nk. 2. T he passage of two data
packet between two separate network nodes ( for example, two routers) .
Hop Count A routi ng metri c ( measure) used i n routi ng algori thms. I t i s
the number of routers or swi tchi ng devi ces between a routers port and
the desti nati on address on a network. Hubs are not counted i n a hop
count. T he RIP (Routing Information Protocol) uses a hop count to
determi ne the shortest path for a packet to be routed.
Horizontal Blanking As the beam i nsi de a pi cture tube or moni tor scans
across the screen, i t must be turned off whi le i t retraces back to the
starti ng poi nt of the next li ne that i t i s goi ng to pai nt. T he turni ng off
of the beam i s called blanking.
Horizontal Output T he power ampli fi er that ampli fi es the hori zontal
output sync si gnal i n a T V or moni tor. T he output i s fed i nto a deflecti on
yolk, whi ch creates the magneti c fi elds that control traci ng of the CRT
beam i n a si deways di recti on. T here i s also a verti cal output ampli fi er,
whi ch does the same for the up and down traci ng of the CRT beam. T he
hori zontal output frequency for a standard T V i s 15.73425 kHz. When
you turn on some T Vs, you can fai ntly hear the very hi gh pi tched dog
whi stle sound of the hori zontal output ci rcui try.
Horizontal Polarization T he poi nti ng of a mi crowave di sh antenna so
that the transmi ssi on di spersi on i s i n a si deways, or hori zontal, pattern.
T he headli ghts on cars are polari zed i n a hori zontal manner, so the li ght
di spersi on i s spread across the hori zontal surface of the road. T he other
ki nd of polari zati on i s verti cal, where the transmi ssi on di spersi on i s i n
an up-and-down pattern. T he two antennas or di shes employed i n a poi nt
to poi nt appli cati on need to be polari zed the same way.
Horsepower I n electroni cs, i t i s someti mes useful to compare wattage
power to horsepower to get an i dea of what a watt of power really i s
capable of. One horsepower i s equal to 746 W. Some electri c motors are
stamped wi th horsepower rati ng.
Host A computer, server, pri nter, or workstati on that has a hardware ad-
dress and resi des on a network. Addi ti onally, a host i s si mi lar to a node
i n i ts network exi stence, except that the term host usually i mpli es that
the system processes recei ved and transmi tted data through all layers
of the network archi tecture used, reachi ng the appli cati on.
Host Address T he I P address assi gned to a workstati on, server, router,
pri nter or other networked devi ce. Host addresses are four bytes long.
Host Address 329
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An example of a host address i s 124.234.120.12. Each host address i s
translated to a MAC (Media-Access Control) address wi thi n the net-
work software ARP (Address-Resolution Protocol) fi les. Host I P ad-
dresses never end i n 0 because addresses that end i n 0 are network
addresses ( subnet masks) . See also Network Address, Subnet Mask,
MAC Address, ARP, and IP address.
Host Computer Usually a reference to a mai nframe computer ( although
many hosts are actually servers) that controls the storage and retri eval
of data i n extremely large databases. Host computers can si mply retri eve
data for another computer ( PC or Server) or do calculati ons and sum-
mary on data i tself.
Host Digital Terminal (HDT) I n cable-T V networks, HDT i s a node that
modulates many di gi tal DS0 voi ce si gnals i nto two-way upstream and
downstream RF si gnals. T he HDT i s the heart of cable telephony. I t has
the abi li ty to i nterface di rectly wi th SONET nodes or voi ce-swi tchi ng
equi pment, i ncludi ng those i n the Nortel DMS fami ly. T he HDT-
modulated voi ce si gnals are combi ned onto the tradi ti onal cable-T V
transmi ssi on and demodulated at the customer premi ses by a voi ce port.
A voi ce port i s a far-end recei ver/modem that provi des customer end
modulati on/demodulati on of cable voi ce servi ce. T he voi ce port i s then
connected to customers telephone wi ri ng. Arri s/Nortel i s a manufacturer
of HDT cable telephony equi pment.
Host Interactive Voice Response (HIVR) See HIVR.
Hot Line A telephone that ri ngs another phone wi th no di ali ng. Hot li nes
are created by usi ng devi ces called hot-shot dialers, whi ch automati -
cally di al a phone number. Telephones connected to hot-shot di alers usu-
ally have no di al pad. Hot li nes are also called ring-down circuits.
Hot Pluggable A reference to a ci rcui t card or I /O devi ce whi ch can be
i nstalled or removed wi thout turni ng off the system power.
Hot-Shot Dialer A devi ce used to create a hot li ne or ri ng-down ci rcui t.
A hot li ne i s a telephone that ri ngs another telephone wi th no di ali ng re-
qui red by the user. T he hot-shot di aler automati cally di als the phone
number when the handset i s li fted.
Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP) A Ci sco Systems propri etary fea-
ture that enables a redundant router to take over the tasks of a pri mary
should i t fai l to send an I m OK si gnal to the standby, or redundant router.
HSRP can be confi gured to provi de nearly i nstant swi tchover of packet
forwardi ng functi ons from one router on a segment/swi tch to another.
330 Host Computer
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HSRP i s often confi gured creati vely wi th ST P to provi de fai lover and re-
dundancy at layer 2 ( Ethernet swi tch) and layer 3 ( network) OSI levels.
Hotel Console A PBX console speci ally desi gned for hotel front-desk
use. Consoles are avai lable i n two types: busi ness and hotel.
HSDL (High-Speed Digital Subscriber Line) An older term for ASDL.
T hi s i s a servi ce i n the maki ng to provi de vi deo to the home over twi sted-
pai r telephone li nes. I ts current li ne format i s T 1 AMI , 16 K b/s to the
CO, ( for control to change the channel) and 1.528 Mb/s to your T V. T he
twi sted pai rs are i ncorporated wi th adapti ve di gi tal fi lteri ng to help cor-
rect attenuati on and noi se.
HSRP (Hot Standby Router Protocol) A Ci sco Systems propri etary
feature that enables a redundant router to take over the tasks of a pri -
mary should i t fai l to send an I m OK si gnal to the standby, or redun-
dant router. HSRP can be confi gured to provi de nearly i nstant swi tchover
of packet forwardi ng functi ons from one router on a segment/swi tch to
another. HSRP i s often confi gured creati vely wi th ST P to provi de fai lover
and redundancy at layer 2 ( Ethernet swi tch) and layer 3 ( network) OSI
levels.
HSSI (High-Speed Serial Interface) A physi cal connecti on between a
DT E and DCE devi ce, developed by Ci sco Systems and T 3Plus network-
i ng, that enables connecti on speeds well above the 64-/256-K bps range,
to whi ch other standards are li mi ted ( Fi g. H.8) . Other standards i nclude
V.35 and RS-232C seri al i nterface. Among other uses, these i nterfaces are
used to connect between a publi c telephone servi ce provi ders CSU/DSU
and a customers local network devi ce, such as a router.
HT 331
Figure H.8 HSSI Port
HT T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for hori zontal tab. T he bi nary
code i s 1001000 and the hex i s 90.
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HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) A text- and graphi cs-formatti ng
software that uses codi ng to i ndi cate how a recei ved part of a document
should be presented by a vi ewi ng appli cati on, such as an I nternet Web
browser. Netscape and I nternet Explorer are good examples of Web-
browser software that uti li ze HT ML. See also Hypertext and Web Browser.
HTTP (Hypertext-Transfer Protocol) T he control software used by
Web browsers and Web servers on the I nternet to provi de support to
lower-level OSI protocols when transferri ng HTML (Hyper Text Markup
Language) based fi les, whi ch contai n text and graphi cs i nformati on.
Hub I n Ethernet, a devi ce that connects many segments to one. Hubs can
be acti ve ( where they regenerate si gnals sent through them) or passi ve
( where they do not regenerate, but merely pass si gnals sent through
them) . Ethernet Hubs re-broadcast all i nformati on sent through them to
all connecti ons. See Fig. H.9.
332 HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)
Figure H.9 Hub
PC
PC PC PC PC PC
Client Server
HUB
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 332
Hypertext 333
Hunt A telephone li ne feature. I f you have several phone li nes that are
answered by a group of people, the telephone company can make those
several phone li nes work together. I f a call comes i n to a li ne that i s as-
soci ated wi th other phone li nes i n a hunt group, the call wi ll rotate from
li ne to li ne unti l i t fi nds a li ne that i s not busy. I f all the li nes are busy,
then the caller wi ll get a busy si gnal.
Hunt Group A number of telephone li nes that are associ ated together
by the telephone company central offi ce or a PBX system. When a call
comes i n to a hunt group, i t cycles through the group of li nes unti l i t
fi nds one that i s not busy, then i t ri ngs that phone ( or extensi on, i f i ts
a PBX system) .
Hybrid Cable A communi cati ons cable that consi sts of two di fferent
types of medi a. A cable that contai ns twi sted-pai r copper and coax, or
twi sted-pai r and fi ber opti c, etc., would be a hybri d cable.
Hybrid Key System A telephone swi tchi ng system that enables the user
to choose whi ch li nes appear or dont appear under speci fi c keys of elec-
troni c telephones. T hi s i s typi cal of a PBX system, except i n the case of
a hybri d key, you sti ll have to select a li ne to di al out. When usi ng a PBX
system, the li ne i s automati cally selected from a pool when you di al 9.
Hybrid Network From an admi ni strati ve level, an i nternetwork made up
of more than one type of network topology ( star and ri ng) , i ncludi ng
LANs and WANs.
Hybrid Routing Algorithm/Protocol Also called balanced hybrid rout-
ing. T hi s router operati ng software combi nes di stance vector routi ng and
li nk-state routi ng methods. Hybri d routi ng techni ques i ncorporate topol-
ogy changes to tri gger routi ng table updates and better metri cs for calcu-
lati ng routes through a network. T hese methods help produce effi ci ent
routi ng, ti mely routi ng table updates, and a more-reli able network. Also,
they do not requi re as much processor or bandwi dth overhead as li nk-state
protocols. Two examples of hybri d routi ng protocols are Ci sco Systems
Enhanced IGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) and
the OSI standard IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
routi ng protocol. See also Distance Vector Routing Algorithm and Link-
State Algorithm.
Hypertext T he name gi ven to a software feature that enables appli ca-
ti on users to move from one fi le or address to another by cli cki ng on
a word ( called a link) . I f a user i s readi ng a document about telecom-
muni cati ons and the word hypertext i s colored blue, the user could cli ck
PQ104-5056F-PH.qxd 2/9/01 1:56 PM Page 333
on that word and a new document about hypertext would be di splayed.
T he de-facto standard color for hypertext word li nks i s blue. Mi crosoft
Word i s an appli cati on that has hypertext capabi li ty. I nternet browsers,
such as Netscape Navi gator, have hypertext li nk capabi li ty. I nternet Web
page creators have made use of hypertext li nks extensi vely.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) A text- and graphi cs-
formatti ng software that uses codi ng to i ndi cate how a recei ved part of
a document should be presented by a vi ewi ng appli cati on, such as an
I nternet Web browser. Netscape and I nternet Explorer are good exam-
ples of Web-browser software that uti li ze HT ML. See also Hypertext and
Web Browser.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) T he control software used by
Web browsers and Web servers on the I nternet to provi de support to
lower-level OSI protocols when transferri ng HTML (Hyper Text Markup
Language) based fi les, whi ch contai n text and graphi cs i nformati on.
Hysteresis 1. A phenomenon i n transformer cores or other i nducti ve de-
vi ces where an electri cal current i s formed i n the metalli c core of the
devi ce. I t causes the core to heat up and i ncreases the i nducti ve value
of the devi ce. 2. Hysteresi s i s also a techni que to reduce noi se i n di g-
i tal ci rcui try. I n thi s case, a comparator i s desi gned to recei ve a feedback
from i ts output. T hi s gi ves i t a better reference to swi tch from. A com-
parator wi th a hysteresi s loop i s better known as a Schmitt trigger.
Hz (Hertz) See Hertz.
334 Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
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I Frame (Information Frame) I n X.25, a type of control header. When
the fi rst bi t of the control header i s a 0, the X.25 equi pment knows that
the rest of the data i n thi s frame i denti fi es the wi ndow number of the
frame recei ved and the number of the next frame. T he I frame i s the
maj ori ty of frames sent i n X.25 because these are the frames that carry
appli cati on data. T he other types of frames are S Frames (Supervisory
Frames) and U Frames (Unnumbered Frames). See also X.25,
S Frame, and U Frame.
I&M Abbrevi ati on for installation and maintenance.
I/O (Input/Output) A class of devi ces that i nterface humans wi th com-
puters. Some examples of user-i nterface devi ces are keyboards, moni -
tors, termi nals, and pri nters.
I&R Abbrevi ati on for installation and repair.
IAB (Internet Architecture Board) A collecti on of i nternetwork re-
searchers who di scuss i ssues perti nent to I nternet archi tecture. T hi s group
i s responsi ble for appoi nti ng a vari ety of I nternet-related groups, such as
the I nternet-Assi gned Numbers Authori ty. T he I AB members are ap-
poi nted by the trustees of the I nternet Soci ety. See also Internet Society.
IANA (Internet-Assigned Numbers Authority) An organi zati on op-
erated under the support of the ISOC (Internet Society) as a part of
335
I
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 335
the I nternet Archi tecture Board. I ANA delegates authori ty for I P-address
allocati on and domai n name assi gnment to the I nterNI C. I ANA also mai n-
tai ns a data base of protocol i denti fi ers they assi gn for the T CP/I P stack,
i ncludi ng autonomous system numbers. See also Internet Architecture
Board, Internet Society, and InterNIC.
IBDN Nortel Networks name for the CAT 5 hori zontal wi ri ng standard.
IC (Integrated Circuit) Another name for mi crochi p. An LSI (Large-
scale Integration) or VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) devi ce that
often comes i n a DI P ( dual i n-li ne) package. I C ci rcui ts are desi gned and
manufactured to do general functi ons or for speci fi c appli cati ons. Some
I Cs are made for ampli fyi ng audi o si gnals, some are made for stori ng bi -
nary memory ( i .e., RAM) , etc.
ICE Age (Information Communications and Entertainment Age)
What telecommuni cati ons compani es call todays trend i n telecommuni -
cati ons servi ces. T he stri vi ng for the abi li ty to provi de customers data
connecti vi ty, cable-T V servi ce, and voi ce servi ce on one li ne, wi th one
company, wi th one bi ll at the end of the month.
ICMP (Internet-Control Message Protocol) A network-layer I nter-
net i nstructi on set that routers and other networked equi pment use to
sense each other and share di agnosti c i nformati on about the network. I t
i s used by hosts and routers to send feedback to each other regardi ng
traffi c routi ng, retransmi ssi on, and other control or noti fi cati on. For ex-
ample, when damaged datagrams are di scarded, I CMP i s the part of the
T CP/I P stack that sends thi s i nformati on to the sender. PI NG i s a com-
mon echo request that i s generated by I CMP. I CMP messages are en-
capsulated wi thi n I P datagrams.
ICS-7750 Perhaps the fi rst I P telephony-based PBX i n a cabi net to be
i ntroduced to the open telecommuni cati ons marketplace. T he I CS-7750
truly i ntegrates voi ce i nto Ethernet ( 802.3) networks. Manufactured by
Ci sco Systems, i t was released i n September 2000. I ts maj or compo-
nents are the cabi net, the SSP ( System Swi tch Processor) , the SAP
( System Alarm Processor) , the MRP ( Multi -functi on Router Processor) ,
the SPE ( System Processi ng Engi ne) , and the Power Supply. T hi s sys-
tem i s di ffi cult to compare part for part to a ci rcui t-based PBX system
because of i ts flexi bi li ty and purpose. T he purpose of an I P telephony
system i s not to provi de voi ce ci rcui t swi tchi ng servi ces as i n a tradi -
ti onal PBX, but to i ntegrate voi ce i nto exi sti ng packet data flows by pro-
vi di ng a central source of management and a distributed method of
336 IBDN
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interconnecting to the publi c telephone network and voi ce-enabled
network appli ances.
IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics or Intelligent Drive Electronics)
A common and relati vely less-expensi ve i nterface technology for mag-
neti c- and opti cal-storage devi ces. T hi s technology i ncorporates the
dri ve-control electroni cs as a part of the hard dri ve, as other newer dri ve
technologi es. I DE i s also known as ATA (AT Attachment) for the popu-
lari ty of the AT motherboard at the ti me of i ts development by the SFF
(Small Form Factor) Committee. Newer versi ons of the ATA/I DE i n-
terface are called EIDE (Enhanced IDE), Ultra-ATA, and ATA/66. See
also SCSI.
IDI (Initial Domain Identifier) T he part of a NSAP (Network Service
Access Point)-format AT M address that speci fi es the address type, al-
locati on, and admi ni strati on control for upper OSI layers. See also Net-
work Service Access Point.
IDN (Integrated Digital Network) A term that refers to a network
that has operabi li ty between many di fferent devi ces through a standard
di gi tal protocol.
IDSL (ISDN Digital Subscriber Line) A physi cal-layer transport
method that provi des symmetri c download and upload speeds from 64
to 144 K bps on a si ngle pai r of copper wi res. T he maxi mum range
of I DSL from a central offi ce i s 18, 000 feet, but thi s can be doubled
wi th a repeater. I DSL uses 2B1Q li ne codi ng, the same ki nd of li ne-
modulati on techni que employed i n SDSL and I SDN. I DSL i s used for
transporti ng I SDN. T hi s allows the xDSL fami ly of technologi es to be
backwards compati ble wi th I SDN. For a table of the DSL fami ly of
carri ers, see xDSL.
IEC (Inter Exchange Carrier, IXC) I EC i s a long-di stance company,
li ke AT & T, Spri nt, Worldcom, or MCI .
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) A pro-
fessi onal organi zati on whose acti vi ti es i nclude the development of
telecommuni cati ons and networki ng standards. I EEE LAN standards,
such as the Ethernet 802 fami ly, are the predomi nantly i mplemented
LAN standards today.
IEEE 802 Ethernet T he fami ly of standards that defi ne 802 Ethernet.
See Fi g. I .1 and the i ndi vi dual defi ni ti ons.
IEEE 802 Ethernet 337
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IEEE 802.1 EEE speci fi cati on that defi nes a software algori thm that pre-
vents network loops by creati ng a spanni ng tree. T he ori gi nal versi on of
the algori thm was i nvented by Di gi tal Equi pment Corporati on ( DEC) .
T he I EEE 802.1 algori thm i s a modi fi cati on of the DEC versi on and they
are not compati ble. See also Spanning Tree.
IEEE 802.1d T he I EEE standard for spanni ng tree algori thm that prevents
loops i n redundantly connected LAN swi tches. Spantree i s automati cally
enabled when redundant bri dges are connected. I f redundant bri dges were
connected to a network wi thout Spantree enabled, the dual connected
bri dges would forward the same frames to each other i n an endless loop.
T hi s condi ti on saturates bandwi dth i mmedi ately, and renders all devi ces
associ ated wi th the loop useless. T he way that Spantree works i s that when
bri dges are i ni ti ali zed ( powered on) , they send a si gnal to other networked
devi ces called a Bri dge Protocol Data Uni t ( BPDU) . When bri dges/swi tches
recei ve these BPDUs from other devi ces, they become aware that other
bri dges are connected to the network and whether any are connected i n
redundancy to them. Usi ng BPDU i nformati on, bri dges on the network
elect a root bri dge and a desi gnated bri dge. Dependi ng on the way the
bri dges are physi cally connected, all ports are blocked or parti ally di s-
abled except for root ports, and desi gnated ports, whi ch are bri dge
ports closest ( by number of hops) to a desi gnated or root bri dge. I f a li nk
i s lost, an alternate port then becomes the root port. New BPDU messages
are sent to noti fy other bri dges of the status change. Most makers of
338 IEEE 802.1
OSI
NETWORK
OSI
DATA LINK
OSI
PHYSICAL
IEEE 802.4
TOKEN BUS
MAC
IEEE 802.5
TOKEN RING
MAC
TWISTED
PAIR OR OTHER
IEEE 802.1
ETHERNET
TWISTED
PAIR OR OTHER
TWISTED
PAIR OR OTHER
IEEE 802.3
ETHERNET
MAC
IEEE 802.2
LOGICAL LINK CONTROL
ERROR RECOVERY
Type 1 Connectionless
Type 2 Connection Oriented
Type 3 Connectionless
With ACK
IEEE 802 FAMILY OF ETHERNET STANDARDS
Figure I.1 IEEE 802 Ethernet
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 338
bri dgi ng hardware set the default to automati cally send BPDUs and en-
able Spantree to ON. T hi s i s so that i f a network i s unknowi ngly connected
wi th bri dges i n parallel, i t wi ll not bri ng the network down. T he 802.1d
standard evolved from Di gi tal Equi pment Corporati ons ( DEC) Spantree
algori thm. 802.1d and the ori gi nal DEC Spantree are not i nteroperable.
Further, when i ncorporated wi th 802.1Q ( VLANs) , one i nstance of span-
ni ng tree must be set up for each and every VLAN.
IEEE 802.1p T he I EEE standard for pri ori ti zati on of LAN traffi c among
Ethernet swi tches based on the swi tch port, MAC address, or I P address
associ ated wi th the communi cati ng end appli ance ( be i t an I P phone,
vi deo moni tor, host PC, pri nter, or server) . Packets are tagged as be-
longi ng to a queue, whi ch determi nes the pri ori ty of the packet. By the
802.1p standard, queues 03 are normal and 47 are hi gh pri ori ty. 802.1p
functi ons hand-i n-hand wi th 802.1Q or VLANs.
IEEE 802.1Q T he I EEE standard that evolved from Cisco Systems I SL
( I nter-Switch Link) protocol. I SL and 802.1Q are not interoperable. T he ref-
erence 802.1Q is better known as the VLAN or tag switching standard. I t is
a feature on post-1998 LAN switches that makes selected ports behave as
if they were attached to the same segment or hub. Another good name for
this feature would be V-segment or virtual-segment. Devices/users that ex-
change a large amount of information are usually placed within the same
virtual LAN segment. T his helps make the operation of the LAN switch more
efficient, keeping traffic contained within specified ports. T his allows other
ports on separate VLANs to carry other nonrelated traffic simultaneously.
VLANs are configured by a network engineer, network analyst, or network
administrator. When I P telephony is implemented over an Ethernet-switched
network, the telephone devices connected to the network are best placed
into their own VLAN. Most switches that are 802.1Q compatible can recog-
nize more than 1,000 VLANs. Further, there are two kinds of VLANs: static
and dynamic. Static VLANs are associated with switch ports, and dynamic
VLANs are associated with the MAC addresses of devices attached to the
switch. Dynamic VLANs allow users to move to another office, which could
have a switch port connection preinstalled. T he switch would recognize the
MAC address of the device and automatically include its traffic in the same
VLAN as the previously connected switch port. See also Frame Tagging.
IEEE 802.11b Wi reless LAN standard update for i ncreased speed to
11 Mbps at an operati ng frequency of 2.4 GHz. T he modulati on tech-
ni que used i n 802.11b i s DSSS ( Di rect Sequence Spread Spectrum) . WEP
( Wi red Equi valent Pri vacy) i s also an addi ti on i n the 802.11b standard,
whi ch allows manufacturers to i mplement securi ty up to and i ncludi ng
128-bi t key encrypti on.
IEEE 802.11b 339
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IEEE 802.11DS T he 802.11 wi reless LAN standard for the di rect se-
quence method of li ne codi ng. I n the standard, there are 11 22-MHz wi de
stati onary channels. T hi s allows for an 11 Mbps throughput, wi th up to
three nonoverlappi ng radi o channels operati ng i n the same area, whi ch
means three separate radi o uni ts ( called access points i n some wi reless
ci rcles) can operate i n the same area wi thout i nterferi ng wi th each other.
IEEE 802.12 T he I EEE LAN standard that defi nes the physi cal layer and
the MAC (Media-Access Control) porti on of the data li nk layer. I EEE
802.12 uses the demand-pri ori ty medi a-access scheme at 100 Mbps over
a vari ety of physi cal medi a.
IEEE 802.14 T he I EEE standard for the operati on of cable telephony
modems that enables cable-T V networks that are coax and hybri d fi ber-
coax i n composi ti on to carry Ethernet 802 traffi c as well as AT M-based
traffi c. T here are multi ple MAC layer i nterfaces defi ned i n 802.14 to make
cable telephony servi ces equally as flexi ble to the end user as tradi ti onal
servi ces enabled by DSL or AT M.
IEEE 802.2 A LAN protocol that defi nes an i mplementati on of the LLC
(Logical Link Control) porti on of the data li nk layer. 802.2 processes
errors, frami ng, flow control, and the network-layer ( layer 3) software
i nterface. 802.2 i s used i n I EEE 802.3 and I EEE 802.5 LANs. See also
IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.5.
IEEE 802.3 A LAN protocol that defi nes an i mplementati on of the phys-
i cal layer and the MAC (Media-Access Control) porti on of the data-li nk
layer. 802.3 uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection) access at a vari ety of speeds over a vari ety of physi cal me-
di a. Extensi ons to the 802.3 standard defi ne i mplementati ons for Fast
Ethernet. Older physi cal vari ati ons of the 802.3 speci fi cati on i nclude
10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseF, 10BaseT, and 10Broad36. Newer phys-
i cal vari ati ons for fast Ethernet i nclude 100BaseT, 100BaseT 4, and
100BaseX. See also CSMA/CD.
IEEE 802.3ab Ten gi gabi t Ethernet over copper UT P and fi ber standard
( 10, 000BaseT ) . Sti ll i n the process of standardi zati on as of thi s wri ti ng,
i t i s expected that the technology bei ng i mplemented i n the 802.3ab stan-
dard and/or i ts revi si ons wi ll extend the Ethernet more than 40 km.
IEEE 802.3u An Ethernet 100BaseT feature speci fi cati on that provi des
for flow control ( pause frames) and full-duplex operati on. Full duplex
allows for 100 Mbps send and 100 Mbps recei ve, for a total 200 Mbps
Ethernet connecti on over Cat5 twi sted pai r. T he autonegoti ati on i s
340 IEEE 802.11DS
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really an enhancement of the li nk i ntegri ty si gnali ng method used i n
10BaseT networks and i s backward-compati ble wi th li nk i ntegri ty.
i cal layer and the MAC (Media-Access Control) porti on of the data-li nk
layer. I EEE 802.4 uses logi cal token-passi ng access over a bus topology
and i s based on the token-bus LAN archi tecture.
i cal layer and MAC (Media-Access Control) porti on of the data-li nk
layer. 802.5 uses token-passi ng access at 4 or 16 Mbps over twi sted-pai r
cabli ng and i s si mi lar to I BM token ri ng. See also Token Ring.
EEE 802.6 A metropoli tan/campus network speci fi cati on based on DQDB
(Distributed Queue Dual Bus) technology. I EEE 802.6 supports data
rates of 1.5 to 155 Mbps. FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) i s a
hi gh-speed LAN backbone protocol that i s used mostly i n favor of DQDB.
See also DQDB and FDDI.
IEEE 1394 More commonly known as FireWire. A speci fi cati on for an
external seri al bus that can transfer data at 400 Mbps and can handle
63 si multaneous devi ces. T hi s bus i s i ntended for use wi th DVD players,
graphi cs and audi o peri pherals, and other multi medi a devi ces. Fi reWi re
i s an i nnovati on of Apple Computers.
IEEE Radar Band Designation T he frequency ranges and names gi ven
by the I EEE for radi o communi cati ons ( Fi g. I .2) .
IEEE Radar Band Designation 341
IEEE Radio Band Designations
L Band 1-2 GHz
S Band 2-4 GHz
C Band 4-8 GHz
X Band 8-12 GHz
Ku Band 12-18 GHz
K Band 18-27 GHz
Ka Band 27-40 GHz
V Band 40-75 GHz
W Band 75-110 GHz
mm Bandz 110-300 GHz
mm Band 300-3000 GHz
Figure I.2 IEEE Radio Band Designations
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IF (Intermediate Frequency) An ampli fi er stage i n radi o/T V recei vers
that i s desi gned to ampli fy and i solate a large range of frequenci es. T he
I F ampli fi er recei ves the speci fi c frequency to ampli fy from the detec-
tor stage of the tuner. T he tuner i s the devi ce or ci rcui t wi th whi ch the
user of the recei ver selects the desi red channel.
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) I n packet network-
i ng, I GMP i s one of the standards for I P multi casti ng i n the I nternet
and i n pri vate enterpri se networks. I GMP i s used to establi sh host
membershi ps, i n parti cular, multi cast groups on a si ngle network. T he
mechani sms of the protocol allow a host to i nform i ts local router, usi ng
host membershi p reports, that i t wants to recei ve messages addressed
to a speci fi c multi cast group. See also Multicast and PIM.
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) A network traffi c-control
program used by routers. Ci sco was the developer of I GRP i n the early
1980s. I GRP determi nes the best path through an I nternet by exami ni ng
the bandwi dth and delay of the networks between routers. I GRP con-
verges faster than RIP (Routing Information Protocol), thereby avoi d-
i ng the routi ng loops caused by di sagreement over the next routi ng hop
to be taken. I GRP i s also not li mi ted to a hop count of 16 li ke RI P i s. I GRP
has a new versi on that has been i mproved. I t i s called Enhanced IGRP.
IIH (IS-IS Hello, Intermediate System to Intermediate System
Hello) A routi ng protocol message that i s transmi tted between
routers and other network equi pment that are usi ng an I S-I S algori thm
wi thi n thei r operati ng system. T hi s message i s used to update routi ng
tables, network adj acenci es, and other network-status i nformati on. See
also Intermediate System to Intermediate System.
IISP (Information Infrastructure Standards Panel) A charter of the
ANSI to develop GII (Global Information Infrastructure) standards.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) I n i ntegrated voi ce, emai l,
and fax messagi ng envi ronments, I MAP i s used because when a message
i s retri eved from the message server, i t i s not deleted as i t i s i n a POP
( Post Offi ce Protocol) envi ronment. T he addi ti onal copy left on the server
enables users to access thei r messages from one poi nt vi a multi ple
devi ces, such as thei r computer, cell phone, I P telephone, or PST N voi ce
access. T he purpose of i ntegrated messagi ng i s to enable end users ac-
cess to emai l or voi ce mai l through any network appli ance. I f an emai l
i s accessed by telephone, the system wi ll read the emai l to the user, and
i f a voi ce mai l message i s accessed by a PC, the PC wi ll play the mes-
sage through i ts speakers.
342 IF (Intermediate Frequency)
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Immediate Start A reference to E& M si gnali ng for analog voi ce ci rcui ts.
E& M technology dates back to the ti me telegraphs were used and i s an
outdated servi ce no longer offered as a servi ce by most telephone com-
pani es however, E& M trunki ng sti ll has speci al uses because of i ts si m-
pli sti c nature. E& M i nterfaces come i n handy i n the PBX envi ronment
when there i s a need to connect to an analog audi o devi ce such as an
overhead pagi ng system, or tape recorder. T here are 5 types of E& M
i nterfaces that can have ei ther two or si x wi res i n the loop. T he most
common type of E& M si gnali ng i s the Four Wi re Wi nk Start E& M, and
the next most used i s the Four Wi re I mmedi ate Start E& M. T he Wi nk
Start E& M operates as follows: T he call ori gi nati ng swi tch goes off-hook
and then wai ts for a wi nk from the termi nati ng or desti nati on swi tch.
When the desti nati on swi tch provi des the 200 ms off-hook wi nk, then
the ori gi nati ng swi tch sends di aled di gi ts. After the di aled di gi ts are re-
cei ved and a connecti on i s made to the termi nati ng loop by a handset
bei ng taken off hook, the same off hook condi ti on i s gi ven over the
E& M trunk connecti ng the termi nati ng swi tch to the desti nati on swi tch.
When one swi tch goes on-hook or hangs up, the other does as well.
T he most si mple E& M si gnali ng method i s the I mmedi ate Start E& M,
where the ori gi nati ng end goes off-hook, or provi des a 1000 ohm short
on the li ne and sends di gi ts wi thout regard to the other end. T he ori gi -
nati ng swi tch stays off-hook unti l the recei vi ng swi tch goes off-hook and
then back on-hook, or the call ori gi nator goes back on-hook or hangs
up. T he E& M i mmedi ate start i s the better choi ce for i nterfaci ng exter-
nal audi o devi ces to PBX systems, and i s the less appropri ate choi ce for
PBX trunki ng because i f the termi nati ng swi tch does not answer the call,
and the ori gi nati ng swi tch does not manually hang-up or go back on-
hook, then the loop i s left connected. T hi s problem wi th I mmedi ate Start
E& M i s the reason that Wi nk Start E& M was brought about. Wi nk Start
E& M i s also called E& M wi th Answer Supervi si on.
Impedance A term used to replace resi stance i n AC or si gnal-servi ng
ci rcui ts. For example, an 8-ohm speaker i s a measure of i mpedance
( resi stance to a si gnal bei ng fed i nto i t) . I f you measure the DC resi st-
ance of the speaker wi th an ohmmeter, i t i s about 1 ohm. T hi s i s because
i mpedance i s a measure of resi stance to an AC si gnal, not a DC si gnal
( ohmmeters use a DC battery to measure resi stance wi th) . I f you put an
i mpedance meter on the speaker, i t wi ll measure the resi stance of the
speaker wi th an AC si gnal, whi ch i s resi sted by reacti ve components,
such as coi ls ( a speaker i s a coi l of wi re electri cally) and capaci tors. T he
i mpedance meter wi ll read an i mpedance of 8 ohms.
Implicit Frame Tagging I n LAN swi tchi ng, frame taggi ng i s a method
used to i denti fy whi ch Vi rtual LAN ( VLAN) a packet belongs to. Wi thi n
Implicit Frame Tagging 343
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an Ethernet swi tch, a VLAN behaves as a si ngle Ethernet segment,
where all computers/hosts that are a part of a VLAN see each others
traffi c. Traffi c cannot traverse from one VLAN group to another unless
i t leaves the swi tch and i s routed back i n on another port. I n some swi tch
desi gns thi s i s accompli shed by an on-board router i n an add-on mod-
ule form. T he router provi des traffi c securi ty/management. Frames are
marked by the swi tch i n two methods: i mpli ci t and expli ci t. I mpli ci t
frame taggi ng i s a method where the VLAN i nformati on i s added wi thi n
the packet. Expli ci t frame taggi ng i s a method where an external VLAN
header i s added to the frame.
Impulse Distortion A short and bursty di storti on that occurs at the
physi cal layer of si gnal transmi ssi ons. I mpulse di storti on i s caused by
sli ghtly di fferent voltage potenti als bei ng suddenly connected i n swi tch-
i ng equi pment. I n the audi o realm of communi cati on, i mpulse di storti on
sounds li ke a seri es of snap or pop sounds.
In-Band Signaling I n telephone ci rcui ts ( DS1 to be speci fi c) si gnals can
be sent i n two di fferent ways: i n-band and out-of-band. Si gnals are di g-
i ts that you di al, di al tone, the phone bei ng off hook, ri ngi ng, etc. An i n-
band telephone li ne i s li ke the one i n your home; the di gi ts that you di al
and the ri ngi ng are carri ed wi thi n the channel you talk on. Out-of-band
si gnali ng i s a method that telephone compani es and busi nesses use for
larger PBX appli cati ons and data-transfer appli cati ons. An out-of-band,
si gnaled DS1 has 24 multi plexed channels. T he 24th channel carri es the
si gnali ng for the other 23 channels or phone li nes. T he advantage of out-
of-band si gnali ng i s that each channel has an i ncreased capaci ty to carry
data ( 8 K b/s more) and the 23 channels are not used to fi nd out i f a li ne
i s busy ( both di recti ons, i n and out) . T he off-hook sensi ng and busy
si gnali ng i s done i n the 24th channel. I f you have a system that gets thou-
sands of calls per day, thi s can reduce traffi c.
Incoherent Light Li ght that consi sts of many frequenci es and wave-
lengths. A li ght bulb emi ts noncoherent li ght. Coherent li ght i s li ght that
consi sts of only one frequency or very close to one frequency. Coherent
li ght looks to the human eye as a very pure color. Lasers and LEDs ( li ke
the one that li ghts when the hard dri ve i n your computer i s runni ng)
emi t li ght that i s very close to bei ng coherent.
Index Of Refraction A reference to how much li ght bends when i t trav-
els through a speci fi c substance. When li ght travels through a swi mmi ng
pool i t refracts and makes everythi ng appear wavy and di storted. When
fi ber opti c i s desi gned, i t i s planned to have di fferent types of glass that
have di fferent refracti ve i ndexes. As the li ght travels from the core of the
344 Impulse Distortion
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fi ber toward the outer edge ( claddi ng) , i t i s bent back i nward because of
the i ncreasi ng i ndexes of refracti on of the glass i t i s passi ng through.
Inductance A physi cal characteri sti c of conductors, semi conductors,
and other electroni c components. I nductance i s the formati on of an elec-
tromagneti c fi eld around a devi ce as electri ci ty flows through i t. I n-
ductors are coi ls of wi re that add thi s effect wi th each wi ndi ng of the
coi l. I nductance i s measured i n henrys ( H) . An i nductor, or coi l of wi re,
i s a reacti ve devi ce. Reactance i s the resi stance that a component gi ves
to an AC or fluctuati ng DC current. T he two components that cause
reactance are i nductors ( coi ls) and capaci tors. T he di fference between
resi stance and reactance i s that resi stance i s always the same, regard-
less of the voltage ampli tude or frequency appli ed to the resi sti ve de-
vi ce. T he reactance of a component changes along wi th frequency
changes, or the speed at whi ch an AC current changes di recti on. T he
hi gher the frequency appli ed to an i nductor, the hi gher the reactance
or resi stance to that frequency. Coi ls of wi re cause reactance because
as electri ci ty flows through them, they force the electri ci ty to create a
magneti c fi eld every ti me i t changes di recti on. A perfect i nductor has
zero reactance to a DC current and has a speci fi c reactance or resi st-
ance to every frequency of AC current. Each coi l or i nductor has a value
i n henrys. T he hi gher the number of henri es, the more i t wi ll resi st AC
or fluctuati ng DC. Coi ls are used to fi lter out ( choke out) DC fluctu-
ati ons i n power suppli es. T hey are also used to help tune i n radi o or
other frequenci es.
Reactance i s also caused by other electroni c condi ti ons where i t i s
not useful. All wi re and electroni c components possess a small amount
of reacti ve properti es ( that i s, the reason that twi sted-pai r wi re causes
attenuati on of si gnal strength i s because of the i nductance of the cop-
per wi re and the capaci tance of the two adj acent wi res) .
Inductive A reference to the electromagneti c ( as opposed to the elec-
trostati c of capaci tors) reacti ve properti es of a devi ce. See also Induc-
tance.
Inductive Coupling T he use of an i nductor ( coi l of wi re) to connect one
ampli fi er or ci rcui t stage to another. I nducti ve coupli ng i s advantageous
i f low frequenci es are the cruci al part of the composi te si gnal to be
passed. Hi gh-end audi o/home-stereo equi pment i s desi gned wi th i nduc-
ti ve coupli ng.
Inductive Pick Up A mi crophone or sensi ng devi ce that uses the changes
i n a magneti c fi eld or creati on of a magneti c fi eld wi thi n a component
because of the vi brati ons i n the ai r or of a nearby obj ect.
Inductive Pick Up 345
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Inductive Tap A tap on a telephone li ne that does not connect to the
pai r of wi res. I nstead, i t pi cks up the ti ny magneti c fi eld created around
the pai r and ampli fi es i t, the same way that a radi o transmi tter recei ves
electromagneti c waves from the ai r. An i nducti ve tap must be wi thi n an
i nch or two of the pai r to successfully recei ve an electromagneti c
si gnal.
Industry-Standard Architecture (ISA) A 16-bi t bus standard used i n
personal computers i n the late 1970s and early 1980s. ISA i s a term
mostly referred to by PC users when they are looki ng for a new expan-
si on ci rcui t board, such as an i nternal modem. I SA was outdated by the
EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture) 32-bi t bus. I n 1993,
I ntel and Mi crosoft developed a new versi on of the I SA spec called Plug
and Play ISA. T hi s newer system enables the computers operati ng sys-
tem to confi gure the hardware aspect of the ci rcui t board automati cally
wi thout a user havi ng to set j umpers or DI P swi tches. I SA slots/sockets
on a motherboard are i denti fi ed by thei r black color and larger pi n si ze.
See also PCI.
INE (Intelligent Network Element) A network element, such as a
router, node or hub, that has the abi li ty to be electroni cally reconfi gured
( manually or remotely) or perform addi ti onal functi ons, such as proto-
col conversi ons.
Information Technology T he study of i mprovi ng i nformati on and data
processi ng wi th the use of newer and better devi ces/machi nes.
Infrared (IR) Li ght waves that humans cannot see. T hei r wavelength
( or frequency) i s j ust below that of red li ght. Heat radi ates i nfrared li ght-
wave radi ati on.
INIC I SDN Network I denti fi cati on Code.
Initial Domain Identifier (IDI) T he part of a NSAP (Network Service
Access Point) AT M address that speci fi es the address type, allocati on,
and admi ni strati on control for upper OSI layers. See also Network Ser-
vice Access Point.
Inline Power I n Ethernet networks, DC power provi ded to desktop de-
vi ces vi a the same conductors that provi de the transmi t and recei ve si g-
nal ( Fi g. I .3) . I nli ne power does not use the addi ti onal spare conductors
i n a CAT-5, 7 i nstallati on. T hi s enables an addi ti onal Ethernet li nk to be
i nstalled over the two spare pai rs.
346 Inductive Tap
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Input-Output Address (I/O Address) 347
Figure I.4 Innerduct
Inner-duct A flexi ble plasti c condui t that i s placed wi thi n larger condui ts.
I nner-duct i s used where multi ple communi cati ons compani es use or
lease condui t space wi thi n the same condui t ( Fi g. I .4) .
Figure I.3 Inline Powered Ethernet Switch
Input-Output Address (I/O Address) An address used to di rect
traffi c to and from devi ces attached to a computers seri al ( denoted
COM) and parallel ( denoted LPT) ports and/or expansi on cards/
slots. COM1 has usually been set i n new PCs wi th a default I /O address
of 3F8.
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 347
Input/Output (I/O) A class of devi ces that i nterface humans wi th com-
puters. Some examples of user-i nterface devi ces are keyboards, moni -
tors, termi nals, and pri nters.
Inside Dial Tone T he di al tone provi ded by a PBX system. When you
pi ck up the handset of an electroni c telephone that i s served by a PBX,
you get an i nsi de di al tone, whi ch allows you to di al an extensi on that
begi ns wi th a number other than 9 ( i nternal extensi ons should never be-
gi n wi th a 9) . When you di al 9, you get an outsi de di al tone or a di al tone
that i s served by a telephone company central offi ce.
Inside Plant Electroni c equi pment located i nsi de bui ldi ngs, i ncludi ng
central-offi ce swi tches, PBX swi tches, broadband transmi ssi on equi p-
ment, di stri buti on frame, power supply/recti fi cati on equi pment, and
anythi ng else you can fi nd i nsi de a central offi ce. Inside plant does not
i nclude telephone poles, cable, termi nals, cross boxes and cable vaults,
or anythi ng else you mi ght fi nd outdoors.
Inside Wiring (IW) T he telephone wi re that i s on the customer si de of
the Telephone Network I nterface. I W i ncludes j acks and any wi ri ng i n or
attached to the outsi de of the house, as long as i t i s electri cally on the
customer si de of the network i nterface.
Installers Tone Also called a test tone. A small box that runs on bat-
teri es and i s used to put an RF (radio frequency) tone on a pai r of
wi res. I f a telephone techni ci an cant fi nd a pai r of wi res by color or bi nd-
i ng post, they attach a tone to one end, then go to the other end and
use an i nducti ve ampli fi er ( also called a banana or probe) to fi nd the
beepi ng tone ( Fi g. I .5) .
348 Input/Output (I/O)
Figure I.5 Installers Tone and Probe
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Insured Burst I n an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) network, the
largest burst of data above the i nsured rate that wi ll be temporari ly al-
lowed on a PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit) and not tagged by the
traffi c-poli ci ng functi on for droppi ng i n the case of network congesti on.
Unli ke the i nsured rate, the i nsured burst i s not a bandwi dth or a data
rate. I t i s a quanti ty of data, speci fi ed i n bytes or cells. See also Insured
Rate and Maximum Burst.
Insured Rate I n an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) network, the
guaranteed bandwi dth or data-transfer speed that a bandwi dth sub-
scri ber wi ll recei ve when usi ng a parti cular PVC (Permanent Virtual
Circuit) connecti on. I f the network that the subscri ber i s usi ng has a
low volume of traffi c congesti on, then the network wi ll automati cally al-
low addi ti onal speed. T hi s addi ti onal speed or bandwi dth i s called the
excess rate. Another bandwi dth parameter addressed at the poi nt of sale
to a subscri ber i s maximum rate. T he maxi mum rate i s equal to the i n-
sured rate combi ned wi th the excess rate. See also Cell Loss Priority,
Cell Loss Ratio, and Maximum Rate.
Integrated Circuit (IC) See IC.
Integrated Drive Electronics/Intelligent Drive Electronics (IDE)
A common and relati vely less-expensi ve i nterface technology for
magneti c- and opti cal-storage devi ces. T hi s technology i ncorporates the
dri ve-control electroni cs as a part of the hard dri ve, as other newer dri ve
technologi es. I DE i s also known as ATA (AT Attachment) for the popu-
lari ty of the AT motherboard at the ti me of i ts development by the SFF
(Small Forum Factor) Committee. Newer versi ons of the ATA/I DE i n-
terface are called EIDE (Enhanced IDE), Ultra-ATA, and ATA/66. See
also SCSI.
Integrated IS-IS (Integrated Intermediate System to Intermediate
System) A li nk-state routi ng protocol based on the OSI routi ng
protocol I S-I S, but wi th new support for I P and other protocols. I nte-
grated I S-I S sends only one set of routi ng table updates, whi ch i s more
effi ci ent than two separate i mplementati ons. I t was formerly called Dual
IS-IS. For more i nformati on on li nk-state routi ng, see Link-State Algo-
rithm.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) I SDN i s a servi ce that
fi rst evolved i n 1979. I t bri ngs the features of PBX systems and hi gh-
speed data-transfer capabi li ty to the telephone network. T he only thi ng
that makes I SDN compli cated i s the many avai lable features. T he two
ki nds of I SDN li nes are Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) ( Fi g. I .6) . Two types of channels are contai ned wi thi n
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 349
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Standard
Telephone
ISDN BRI TERMINAL ADAPTER
MODEM LINE
ISDN BRI Telephone
ISDN BRI LINE
ISDN BRI LINE
Two of the many
ways to configure
ISDN service
ISDN BRI LINE ISDN PRI LINE

1 D Channel, 16 Kb/s
Controls 2 B channels
2 B Channels for Voice
and Data 64 Kb/s each

1 D Channel, 64 Kb/s
Controls 23 B channels
23 B Channels for Voice
and Data 64 Kb/s each
Figure I.6 ISDN Line Types for BRI (Left) and PRI for T1 (Right)
an I SDN ci rcui t. T he B ( bearer) channel carri es the customers commu-
ni cati ons, and a D ( data) channel provi des control and si gnali ng for the
B channels. T he BRI (Basic Rate Interface) I SDN li ne has two B chan-
nels and one D channel. A PRI has 23 B channels and one D channel.
350 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/13/01 2:19 PM Page 350
T he separate control of the I SDN li ne over the D channel i s what en-
ables the broad flexi bi li ty and features avai lable wi th I SDN. When you
are talki ng or sendi ng a data transmi ssi on over an I SDN li ne, the voi ce
and/or data i s carri ed by the B channels. Whi le you are talki ng on your
I SDN li ne, you can sti ll di al di gi ts ( si gnal the central offi ce) to change
or alter the state of your servi ce because of the separate D channel. For
example, i magi ne you want to arrange a meeti ng wi th a cli ent. You di al
the cli ents telephone number on your I SDN telephone to reach the cli ent.
Whi le you are speaki ng wi th the cli ent, you can di al up an I nternet ac-
cess on your computer and put two baseball ti ckets i n at the ti cket
counter usi ng the same phone li ne. T hen you can fax your cli ent di rec-
ti ons by downloadi ng a map provi ded by the baseball ti cket offi ce, di s-
connect and redi al your cli ents fax number. All of thi s occurs whi le talk-
i ng to your cli ent the enti re ti me. T hrough the advanced conveni ence
and flexi bi li ty of I SDN, you can send di fferent types of data and mes-
sages to di fferent places at the stroke of a few buttons, and at a much
faster speed than a regular telephone li ne. I f you are i nterested i n I SDN,
call your local phone company. T hey can help you deci de on what ki nd
of termi nal adapter ( equi pment that connects your computer and phone
equi pment to the I SDN li ne) to buy and what ki nd of features to sub-
scri be to. I SDN i s not yet avai lable everywhere.
Intelligent Hub A hub that has the abi li ty to be electroni cally reconfi g-
ured ( manually or remotely) and perform addi ti onal functi ons, such as
protocol conversi ons and bri dgi ng functi ons. For a di agram of where a
hub fi ts i nto a network, see Hub.
Inter LATA (Inter Local Access Transport Area) Si mply stated, a
LATA i s an area code. I nter LATA refers to servi ces that go from one
area code to another, li ke long-di stance telephone calls. Intra LATA
refers to servi ces that ori gi nate and termi nate i n the same area
code.
Interactive Terminal Interface (ITI) Another name for the X.28 i n-
terface. A reference to the software functi ons that make PADs (Packet
Assembler/Disassemblers) convert asynchronous ( stop/start or dumb)
termi nal data i nto STDM (Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing)
packets used i n X.25.
Interactive Voice Response (IVR) A telecommuni cati ons and data-
processi ng technology that i nterfaces a person to i nformati on held i n a
computer by usi ng a phone li ne ( Fi gs. I .7 and I .8) . I f you have ever called
your bank and entered your account number, a password, and a prompt
so that a computeri zed voi ce can read back your bank account balance,
Interactive Voice Response (IVR) 351
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352 Interactive Voice Response (IVR)
Mainframe
Source of Data
IVR SYSTEM
Converts Data
To Voice
Server
Source of Data
Telephone Network
Office Phone
System
For Transferring
out to talk
to a person
Customer
Figure I.8 A Network Diagram for Interactive Voice Response. Telephone
Connections are T1 and Data Connections are Ethernet
Figure I.7 Interactive Voice-Response System
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 352
then you have used I VR. I VR systems are capable of sendi ng fax i nfor-
mati on as well.
Interconnect Agreement T hi s i s also known as a co-location agree-
ment. T he two types of co-locati on agreements are physi cal and vi rtual.
A physical co-location i s an i nterconnecti on agreement and a physi cal
place where telephone compani es hand off calls and servi ces to each
other. T hi s i s usually done between a CLEC and an RBOC. T he CLEC
i nstalls and mai ntai ns i nterconnecti on equi pment usually consi sti ng of
opti cal carri er ( SONET ) equi pment and a di gi tal cross-connect system.
T here are other types of co-locati ons. Alarm compani es li ke to have thei r
alarm-si gnali ng equi pment located i n the local central offi ce for securi ty
and conveni ence of connecti ng alarm ci rcui ts. Long-di stance compani es
co-locate wi th local telephone compani es as well.
A virtual co-location i s an i nterconnecti on agreement and a physi -
cal place where telephone compani es hand off calls and servi ces to each
other. T hi s i s usually done between a CLEC and an RBOC. A vi rtual co-
locati on i s when telephone company A ( the CLEC) requests that thei r
phone companys network be connected to telephone company Bs ( the
RBOCs) network. Telephone company B charges company A lots of
money. Company B owns, i nstalls, and mai ntai ns the equi pment. To com-
pany A, the i nterconnecti on i s vi rtual, because they never physi cally do
anythi ng to i t when and after i t i s i nstalled. Company B li kes thi s, be-
cause company A does not get free access to thei r premi ses.
Interarea Routing T he term used to descri be routi ng between two or
more logi cal areas. Compare wi th Intra-Area Routing.
Interface A devi ce or software program that connects two separate en-
ti ti es. T he two enti ti es can be vi rtual ( software) , hardware/electroni c de-
vi ces, or di sti ngui sh a separati on of responsi bi li ty between two parti es
( telephone network i nterface) .
Interior Gateway Protocol Also known as Link State Routing Protocol,
Distributed Routing Protocol, and Shortest Path First. An i nteri or gate-
way routi ng protocol i s a methodology used i n router protocol desi gn. T hi s
methodology enables routers wi thi n an autonomous network ( i .e., corpo-
rate LAN) to i denti fy each other and the status of thei r port connecti ons.
I nteri or gateway routi ng protocols create three databases wi thi n a routers
memory: a nei ghbori ng router database, a li nk database, and a routi ng
table. T he routi ng table i s created by applyi ng Dykstras algori thm to the
fi rst two databases. T he two most wi dely used i nteri or gateway routi ng
protocol i s Open Shortest Path Fi rst ( OSPF) . See also OSPF.
Interior Gateway Protocol 353
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Intermediate Session Routing (ISR) T he fi rst routi ng algori thm used
i n APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking). I SR ( where sti ll used)
provi des node-to-node connecti on-ori ented routi ng. Network outages
cause sessi ons to fai l because I SR cannot provi de nondi srupti ve rerout-
i ng around a fai lure. I SR was replaced by HPR (High-Performance Rout-
ing), whi ch has been made obsolete by newer routi ng algori thms that
have been i ncorporated i nto li nk-state, di stance-vector, and hybri d rout-
i ng protocols.
Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS) An OSI
(Open-System Interconnect) li nk-state routi ng protocol that i s based
on DECnet Phase-V routi ng. One versi on of I S-I S, called Integrated IS-
IS, supports I P-based networks. For more i nformati on on li nk-state pro-
tocols, see Link-State Algorithm.
International Dialing To di al i nternati onal long di stance from the
Uni ted States, di al: 011-county code ci ty code number. For a li sti ng of
country codes, see Appendi x B. To di al the Uni ted States from another
country that i s a part of the NANP ( North Ameri can Numberi ng Plan) ,
si mply di al the area code the same way you would call long di stance to
another state. To call the Uni ted States from another country that i s not
a part of the NANP, consult your long-di stance company. T he Uni ted
States has di fferent country codes/access codes for almost every coun-
try that i s not a part of the NANP.
International GateWays I nternati onal telecommuni cati ons are done
through gateway central offi ces. Gateway central offi ces ( class 5 central
offi ces) connect communi cati ons to other countri es. T he gateway does
the translati on from T 1 to E1, T 3 to E3, and vi ce versa.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) A consor-
ti um of worldwi de telecommuni cati ons experts that has created a wi de
range of standards, i ncludi ng those relevant to data transport and data
networki ng. I SO developed the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Ref-
erence Model, whi ch i s a mai nstay for the data networki ng i ndustry.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T) A worldwi de stan-
dards organi zati on through whi ch publi c and pri vate organi zati ons de-
velop telecommuni cati ons standards for hardware and software. T he I T U
was founded i n 1865 and became a Uni ted Nati ons agency i n 1947. I t i s
responsi ble for adopti ng i nternati onal treati es, regulati ons, and standards
governi ng telecommuni cati ons. T he standardi zati on functi ons were for-
merly performed by a group wi thi n the I T U called CCI T T. After a 1992
reorgani zati on, the CCI T T no longer exi sts as a separate body.
354 Intermediate Session Routing (ISR)
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Internet A network of computers that ori gi nated as ARPANET, an i n-
formati on communi cati ons proj ect of the Uni ted States Department of
Defense. Over ti me, many other organi zati ons, pri vate and publi c, have
uti li zed the proj ect by connecti ng thei r computers to i t. I ts pri mary pro-
tocol i s T CP/I P. Today, many I nternet servi ce provi ders can offer access
to the I nternet for as li ttle as $15 per month. T he I nternet i s growi ng
exponenti ally as more servi ce provi ders and customers gai n access to
i t. I t currently li nks mi lli ons of computers, wi th whi ch users fi nd and
exchange i nformati on, buy and sell servi ces or products, and play
games.
Internet Address A 32-bi t dotted notati on address that i denti fi es a host
on a network and the network i t i s a part of. T he fi ve types of I nternet
addresses are defi ned by classes. T he network and host i denti fi cati on
wi thi n the 32-bi t address i s determi ned by the subnet mask that i s used
i n conj uncti on wi th the host I P address.
Internet-Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) An organi zati on op-
erated under the support of the I SOC ( I nternet Soci ety) as a part of the
I nternet Archi tecture Board. I ANA delegates authori ty for I P address al-
locati on and domai n name assi gnment to the I nterNI C. I ANA also mai n-
tai ns a data base of protocol i denti fi ers they assi gn for the T CP/I P stack,
i ncludi ng autonomous system numbers. See also Internet Architecture
Board, Internet Society, and InterNIC.
Internet Browser Also called a Web browser or browser. A computer pro-
gram that allows users to download World Wi de Web pages for vi ewi ng
on thei r computers. Two popular browser programs are Netscape Navi -
gator and Mi crosoft I nternet Explorer. T he fi rst browser program was
called Mosaic, and i t was a text browser, as opposed to the newer graph-
i cal browsers.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) A network-layer I nter-
net i nstructi on set that routers and other networked equi pment use to
sense each other and share di agnosti c i nformati on about the network. I t
i s used by hosts and routers to send feedback to each other regardi ng
traffi c routi ng, retransmi ssi on, and other control or noti fi cati on. For ex-
ample, when damaged datagrams are di scarded, I CMP i s the part of the
T CP/I P stack that sends thi s i nformati on to the sender. PI NG i s a com-
mon echo request that i s generated by I CMP. I CMP messages are en-
capsulated wi thi n I P datagrams.
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) I n packet networki ng,
I GMP i s one of the standards for I P multi casti ng i n the I nternet and i n
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) 355
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 355
pri vate enterpri se networks. I GMP i s used to establi sh host membershi ps,
i n parti cular, multi cast groups on a si ngle network. T he mechani sms of
the protocol allow a host to i nform i ts local router, usi ng host member-
shi p reports, that i t wants to recei ve messages addressed to a speci fi c
multi cast group. See also Multicast and PIM.
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) A protocol that pro-
vi des e-mai l users wi th a way to retri eve messages. I M AP performs
expanded functi ons of POP. I M AP allows users to vi ew/delete mai l be-
fore downloadi ng i t to thei r PC. I M AP uses SMTP (Simple Mail-
Transfer Protocol) to transfer mai l messages from the user to the
mai l server.
Internet Operating System (IOS) T he software program developed
by a group of sci enti sts at Stanford Uni versi ty. T he team was led by a
marri ed couple, Leonard Bosack and Sandy Lerner. T hey i ncorporated
thei r software i nto a Di gi tal Equi pment computer so that i t could route
traffi c to and from other computers. T hi s was the fi rst bri dge/router.
T he I OS software i nvented and developed at Stanford i s the operati ng
system on whi ch the company Ci sco Systems, I nc. was founded. For
more detai ls about I OS and what i t does, see OSPF, EIGRP, and
BGP.
Internet Protocol (IP) A network layer protocol i n the T CP/I P proto-
col stack that offers a connecti onless or packeti zed i nternetwork serv-
i ce. I P packets are deli vered on a best-effort basi s. I f a packet
or datagram cannot be deli vered successfully, i t i s di scarded. When thi s
happens, the ICMP (Internet Message Control Protocol) secti on of the
protocol stack noti fi es the sender that a datagram has been di scarded.
I P provi des features for addressi ng, type-of-servi ce speci fi cati on, frag-
mentati on, reassembly, and securi ty. See also TCP/IP.
Internet Server A server that users access for I nternet servi ces. Popu-
lar I nternet servi ces i nclude access to the I nternet, e-mai l, news updates
of the subscri bers choi ce, Web pages, etc. An I nternet server i s owned
by an I nternet servi ce provi der.
Internet Service Provider (ISP) An I nternet servi ce provi der pur-
chases di rect access to the I nternet through an I nternet company, such
as UUnet and resells the servi ce to smaller subscri bers vi a di al-up mo-
dem ( or to large customers vi a frame relay or pri vate li ne T 1) . T he I SP
adds other servi ces of thei r own, such as e-mai l, news updates of the
subscri bers choi ce, Web pages, etc. ( Fi g. I .9) .
356 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
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Internet Society (ISOC) An i nternati onal nonprofi t organi zati on that
was founded i n 1992. I ts members coordi nate the evoluti on and use of
the I nternet. I n addi ti on, the I SOC delegates authori ty to other groups
related to the I nternet, such as the I AB. T he I nternet Soci ety world head-
quarters i s located i n Reston, Vi rgi ni a, USA. See also InterNIC.
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) A Novell NetWare network
layer protocol used to transfer data from servers to workstati ons. I PX
has an extended address range that i ncludes the MAC (Media-Access
Control) address, whi ch eli mi nates the need for an ARP (Address-
Resolution Protocol).
InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center) An organi zati on
that serves the I nternet communi ty by provi di ng user assi stance, docu-
mentati on, trai ni ng, regi strati on of I nternet domai n names, and other
servi ces. See also Internet Society.
Inter-Switch Link (ISL) T hi s propri etary Ci sco Systems Ethernet
swi tch protocol evolved i nto the I EEE 802.1Q standard. I SL and 802.1Q
are not i nteroperable. T he reference 802.1Q i s better known as the
VLAN or tag swi tchi ng standard. I t i s a feature on post-1998 LAN
swi tches that makes selected ports behave as i f they were attached to
the same segment, or hub. Another good name for thi s feature would
be V-segment, or virtual-segment. Devi ces/users that exchange a large
amount of i nformati on are usually placed wi thi n the same VLAN seg-
ment. T hi s helps make the operati on of the LAN swi tch more effi ci ent,
Inter-Switch Link (ISL) 357
UUnet
Internet
Internet Server
subscriber
Local phone Company
subscriber
subscriber
DS1
24 DS0
555-1234
555-1234
555-1234
555-1234
Internet Service provider
IXC
Frame
Relay
Internet Service
Provider Connection
Diagram
Figure I.9 Internet Service Provider
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 357
keepi ng traffi c contai ned wi thi n speci fi ed ports. T hi s allows other ports
on separate VLANs to carry other nonrelated traffi c si multaneously.
VLANs are confi gured by a network engi neer, network analyst, or net-
work admi ni strator. When I P telephony i s i mplemented over an
Ethernet-swi tched network, the telephone devi ces connected to the
network are best placed i nto thei r own VLAN. M ost swi tches that are
802.1Q compati ble can recogni ze more than 1, 000 VLANs. Further,
there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c, and dynami c. Stati c VLANs are
associ ated wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c VLANs are associ ated wi th
the M AC addresses of devi ces attached to the swi tch. Dynami c VLANs
allow users to move to another offi ce, whi ch could have a swi tch port
connecti on prei nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the M AC address
of the devi ce and automati cally i nclude i ts traffi c i n the same VLAN
as the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also Frame Tagging.
Eventually became the 802.1p and 802.1Q standard for Ethernet
VLANs.
Interoffice A reference to a telephone connecti on, a call, or servi ce that
ori gi nates i n one central offi ce and termi nates i n another central offi ce
wi thi n the same area code.
Interstate Long Distance A long-di stance servi ce or call that ori gi nates
i n one state and termi nates i n another state.
Intranet An i ntercompany or other organi zati on-based network that i s
based on T CP/I P protocols. An i ntranet i s accessi ble through the I nter-
net, but only by those who have authori zati on ( passwords, decrypti on
keys, etc.) . I ntranets are less expensi ve alternati ves to pri vate networks,
and are a form of VPN (Virtual Private Network).
Intrastate Long Distance A long-di stance servi ce or call that ori gi nates
and termi nates i n the same state. A call from San Franci sco, CA to San
Di ego, CA i s an i ntrastate call.
Intra Office A reference to a connecti on, a call, or servi ce that ori gi nates
and termi nates i n the same central offi ce. I f you call your nei ghbor, you
are maki ng an i ntra-offi ce call.
Inverter 1. A devi ce that converts DC to AC. I nverters are commonly
used where data or computer equi pment i s used i n a central offi ce
( Fi g. I .10) . T he central offi ce i s equi pped wi th 52-VDC power for tele-
phone and transport equi pment. T he computer equi pment, or any other
equi pment requi ri ng 120 VAC i s connected to an i nverter, whi ch con-
verts the power. By usi ng an i nverter i nstead of j ust runni ng a 120-V
358 Interoffice
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 358
outlet, the equi pment i s protected from power outages on the same sys-
tem as the telephone equi pment ( Fi g. I .11) . 2. A logi c ci rcui t that
reverses a posi ti ve ( logi c 1) state to a 0 state.
Inverter 359
-52 V rectifier
INVERTER
Central Office
Switch
Street Power
Telemetry
gear
Alarm Co.
Equip.
120v AC output
-52 V
input
Batteries
CENTRAL OFFICE
POWER
DIAGRAM WITH
INVERTER
Figure I.10 Inverter Connection Diagram
Figure I.11 An Inverter Manufactured by Lucent Technologies (Formerly AT&T)
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 359
Inward Trunk A shared phone li ne that provi des a path for i ncomi ng
calls to a PBX system. A true i nward trunk subscri bed from a local phone
company cannot be di aled out.
In-WATS (Inward Wide-Area Telephone Service) An i nward toll-free
di ali ng servi ce ( 800/888 li nes) offered by telephone compani es. I n-WAT S
li nes are pri ced and set up for i ncomi ng-only calls, and usually calls from
a certai n area. You can also subscri be to Out-WAT S servi ce as well.
I n-WAT S can be for i nterstate and i ntrastate long di stance. I f you call an
800 number, you are most li kely calli ng an i n-WAT S servi ce li ne that a
company has set up for customers. T he ti me to start checki ng i nto WAT S
servi ce i s when your long di stance to or from a speci fi c area exceeds
$200 per month.
IOD (Identification of Outward Dialing) T hi s i s a call-accounti ng sys-
tem feature of PBX and some key systems that captures every number
di aled by a speci fi c telephone extensi on and pri nts i t out on a report for
accounti ng and cost-tracki ng purposes.
Ion An atom or molecule that has lost or gai ned one of i ts valence elec-
trons and i s no longer electri cally neutral.
Ionosphere A regi on of thi n ai r that exi sts from 60 to 600 mi les above
the Earths surface. Radi o waves between 2 to 50 MHz are reflected ( ac-
tually refracted i n the same manner that li ght i s refracted through a
graded-i ndex fi ber opti c) back to earth 500 to 3000 mi les from where
the transmi ssi on ori gi nated ( Fi g. I .12) . T he radi ati on from the sun causes
ai r to be i oni zed. T he i onosphere i s di fferent at ni ght than i t i s duri ng
the day, causi ng some radi o si gnals to be refracted only duri ng the ni ght,
or vi ce versa. Because of i onospheri c refracti on, i t i s not unusual to pi ck
up a Utah AM radi o stati on i n northern Mexi co.
360 Inward Trunk
Ionosphere
Refracted signal
transmitter
Earths surface
500 to 3,000 miles
Figure I.12 Ionosphere
IOS (Internet Operating System) T he software program developed
by a group of sci enti sts at Stanford Uni versi ty. T he team was led by a
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 360
marri ed couple, Leonard Bosack and Sandy Lerner. T hey i ncorpo-
rated thei r software i nto a Di gi tal Equi pment computer so that i t could
route traffi c to and from other computers. T hi s was the fi rst
bri dge/router. T he I OS software i nvented and developed at Stanford i s
the operati ng system on whi ch the company Ci sco Systems I nc. was
founded.
IP (Internet Protocol) A network-layer protocol i n the T CP/I P proto-
col stack that offers a connecti onless or packeti zed i nternetwork serv-
i ce. I P packets are deli vered on a best-effort basi s. I f a packet or data-
gram cannot be deli vered successfully, i t i s di scarded. When thi s happens,
the ICMP (Internet Message Control Protocol) secti on of the protocol
stack noti fi es the sender that a datagram has been di scarded. I P pro-
vi des features for addressi ng, type-of-servi ce speci fi cati on, fragmenta-
ti on, reassembly, and securi ty ( Fi g. I .13) . See also TCP/IP.
IP Broadcast 361
version
time to live
HLEN
padding
checksum
identification
protocol
source address
flags
type of service length
IP options
Data
destination address
offset flag
4 bits
3 bits 8 bits
16 bits 16 bits
13 bits
32 bits
8 bits
4 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Figure I.13 IP
IP Address I n a T CP/I P message transmi ssi on, the datagram ( or packet)
i s routed vi a the I P address. I t consi sts of two parts: the network i den-
ti fi er and the host i denti fi er.
IP-Based PBX See IP Telephony.
IP Broadcast A data frame whose subnet address mask i s 255.255.255.
255. I P broadcast frames are not passed through routers because routi ng
protocols use the zeros at the end of the subnet mask number to i denti fy
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 361
the subnet. Because 255.255.255.255 translates to 11111111.11111111.
11111111.11111111 i n bi nary, there are no end zeros, and, therefore, no
subnet ( as far as the routers operati on i s concerned) . See also Multi-
cast.
IP Datagram T he T CP/I P name for a frame. I t consi sts of the I P header
and i ts associ ated T CP segment. T he T CP segment contai ns the appli -
cati on data bei ng sent and the T CP header. T he I P header contai ns other
overhead i nformati on, such as source and desti nati on address, ti me to
li ve, route recordi ng, and more ( Fi g. I .14) . For more detai ls on the I P
header, see IP Header. See also IP Address.
362 IP Datagram
IP HEADER
IP DATA APPLICATION DATA
TCP or other protocol SEGMENT
IP DATAGRAM
IP HEADER
next layer protocol ie TCP
Figure I.14 IP Datagram
IP Header T he overhead i n an I P packet or datagram. I t carri es routi ng
and control i nformati on that gets the data i t i s carryi ng to where i t needs
to go. T he di fferent bi t fi elds that make up an I P header are explai ned
and i llustrated i n the followi ng secti on ( Fi g. I .15) .
Version T he four-bi t versi on fi eld contai ns the versi on number of the
senders I P protocol software used to create the datagram.
HLEN/Header Length Field T hi s four-bi t fi eld contai ns the length of
the I P header i n 32-bi t words. T hi s i nformati on i s used by the recei vi ng
devi ce to know where the header bi ts end and where the data bi ts
start.
Type of Service T hi s ei ght-bi t fi eld i ndi cates the class of servi ce de-
si red for the data i n i ts datagram. T he three current servi ce types are
D/Delay, T /T hroughput, and R/Reli abi li ty.
Total Length T hi s 16-bi t fi eld i ndi cates the length of the header and
data i n number of octets. T he length of the data i n the datagram can be
fi gured by subtracti ng the value i n the HLEN fi eld from the value i n the
Total Length fi eld.
Identification T he datagram I D number. Datagrams can be broken
down i nto smaller datagrams of the same format, i f needed, duri ng trans-
mi ssi on. All fragments from a speci fi c datagram take the same I D num-
ber wi th them. T hi s i s done to sati sfy protocol changes.
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 362
Flags T hi s three-bi t fi eld i s also used i n the fragmentati on/defragmen-
tati on process.
Fragment Offset T hi s 13-bi t fi eld i s used to i ndi cate the sequence of
fragments.
Time to Live T he number of router relays allowed before the datagram
i s di scarded.
Protocol Number Defi nes the protocol of the data that I P i s deli veri ng.
Header Checksum T hi s 16-bi t fi eld i s the result of an algori thm cal-
culati on performed on the header by the sender. T he recei ver performs
the same calculati on and compares results as an error check.
Source and Destination Address T he network I D number and the host
number for the source of the data and the desti nati on. Routers use thi s
i nformati on to route and deli ver the datagrams. T here are four classes
of I P addresses. See IP Address Classes for an explanati on and di agram.
IP Option Used for many types of opti onal features i n the I P protocol.
Di fferent types of opti onal data are securi ty, Source Routi ng, Route
Recordi ng, and T i mestampi ng.
Padding T he paddi ng fi eld i s where extra bi ts added to ensure that
the header ends i s an even multi ple of 32 bi ts.
IP Multicast (Internet Protocol Multicast) 363
version
time to live
HLEN
padding
checksum
identification
protocol
source address
flags
type of service length
IP options
Data
destination address
offset flag
4 bits
3 bits 8 bits
16 bits 16 bits
13 bits
32 bits
8 bits
4 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Figure I.15 IP Header
IP Multicast (Internet Protocol Multicast) A data-transmi ssi on tech-
ni que that allows I P packets to be sent to a multi ple desti nati ons. Rather
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 363
than sendi ng one packet to each desti nati on, one packet i s sent to a mul-
ti cast group that i s i denti fi ed by a si ngle I P desti nati on group address.
See also Multicast Address.
IP Security Option A U.S. Government speci fi cati on that defi nes an op-
ti onal fi eld i n the I P packet header. I t defi nes hi erarchi cal packet secu-
ri ty levels on a per-i nterface basi s.
IP Telephone An Ethernet ( 802.3) network appli ance. Some I P tele-
phones have swi tch ports bui lt i nto them for the connecti on of a PC or
other network devi ce. T he voi ce traffi c that i s i ni ti ated by an I P tele-
phone i s most wi dely sent vi a RT P and managed by MGCP, H.323, or
propri etary protocols such as Ci sco Systems Ski nny Gateway protocol.
( Fi g. I .16)
364 IP Security Option
Figure I.16 IP Telephone
IP Telephony Feature-ri ch PBX telephone servi ce over a QoS ( Quali ty of
Servi ce) enhanced LAN/WAN packet network ( Fi g. I .17) . At i ts fi rst i n-
cepti on, even many large telephone equi pment manufacturers di d not
thi nk that I P telephony could evolve as fast as i t has that i s, to provi de
the same quali ty of voi ce servi ce that i s enj oyed on a ci rcui t swi tched net-
work, only on a congested pri vate packet network. T he dri ve behi nd I P
telephony i s the fact that open standardsbased equi pment costs less and
i s less expensi ve to mai ntai n than the propri etary ci rcui tbased PBXs that
the telephone i ndustry i ni ti ally provi ded. I n descri bi ng the PBX archi tec-
ture i n a packet-swi tched envi ronment, the word distributed comes to
mi nd. Rather than havi ng a si ngle PBX chassi s i n one room, an I P
telephony network ( or I P-based PBX) i s geographi cally di stri buted
wi thi n a bui ldi ng or a campus. T hi s also makes a feature of PBX systems
called geographic redundancy much easi er to i mplement. Geographi c
redundancy means that PBX traffi c can reroute i tself to multi ple routes
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 364
and be controlled by multi ple voi ce servers i n multi ple locati ons. Com-
pari ng ci rcui t-based, tradi ti onal PBXs to thei r newer I P-based counter-
parts goes somethi ng li ke the followi ng. What was once a stati on card or
stati on i nterface i n a PBX i s equi valent to an Ethernet swi tch. T hese are
the devi ces that provi de network connecti vi ty to end network appli ances
such as I P telephones or computer workstati ons. Trunk cards or trunk i n-
terfaces are replaced wi th routers or gateways. T hese devi ces provi de con-
necti vi ty to the I nternet and publi c telco servi ce. Ci rcui t-based PBX core
processors/CPUs ( along wi th thei r associ ated software) are counterparted
by open standards based servers and open standardsbased software i n
the I P telephony network. PBX features and i ntegrated servi ces ( such as
voi ce mai l and I VR) are now easi ly added as a network appli cati on. I n an
I P telephony envi ronment wi thi n a data network, there can be many
servers performi ng support acti vi ti es for voi ce servi ces. T he telephony
server or voi ce server provi des a central place to manage the voi ce traffi c
i n the data network. Because I P telephony i s enabli ng the less expensi ve
creati on of PBX systems, thi s reduces di ffi culty of enteri ng the PBX man-
ufacturi ng i ndustry. K eep i n mi nd that j ust li ke any other i ndustry, i t opens
the doors for the creati on of superi or products as well as i nferi or ones.
T he most i mportant part of an I P-based PBX system i s the 802.1Q/802.1p
( modern Ethernet) network i nfrastructure, whi ch extends the formerly
confi ned swi tchi ng i nfrastructure of ci rcui t-based PBX systems to the
IP Telephony 365
Standards-
Based
Hardware and
IOS Software
Voice Server
Voice Mail
System
Proprietary
Hardware and
tware
Ethernet
LAN Switches
802.1Q - 802.1p
QoS
802.3
PSTN
ISDN
ISDN
ISDN
Ethernet
LAN Switches
QoS
802.3
802.3
SERVER-BASED PBX
e Telephone
Functiona Device Comparison between Circuit-Based
Telephony and IP-Based Telephony
802.3
Gateway
Routers
QoS
Figure I.17 Traditional PBX to IP Telephony Functional Comparison
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 365
desktop. I P telephony i s a sophi sti cated concept. I f anyone i s havi ng
trouble movi ng i nto thi s technology, I recommend that they thi nk of i t
as a vi rtual PBX, where voi ce traffi c i s managed at a central locati on
called a voice server or call manager server. For starters, I also rec-
ommend the revi ew and further study of the followi ng terms/topi cs:
Ethernet; I P; ST P; Layer 2, 3, 4 Swi tch; DHCP; DNS; Li nk State Routi ng;
MT P; MGCP; H.323; G.711; and RT P, whi ch carri es the I P telephony
voi ce packets.
IP Video T here are three categori es of vi deo, whether they are i n a pub-
li c broadcast, satelli te, cable-T V, or I P or analog radi o format. I n I P, or
packeti zed vi deo, the same demands for vi deo exi st as i n legacy tech-
nologi es. T he fi rst category i s broadcast vi deo, where there i s one sender
and many recei vers. T he broadcast i s scheduled, and then broadcast vi a
I P multi cast to network users; thi s can be li ve or previ ously recorded.
T he second category i s vi deo on demand, where there i s one end user
that desi res to vi ew a previ ously stored vi deo fi le as an I P uni cast trans-
mi ssi on. I n thi s case, there i s a prerecorded vi deo that i s streamed from
a storage server fi le. T he thi rd category of vi deo i s the i nteracti ve li ve
vi deo, whi ch would also i nclude vi deoconferenci ng, where all users are
li ve. T hi s i s the most complex type of vi deo and requi res both an I P uni -
cast transmi ssi on and, i n some cases, an i ntegrated multi cast, depend-
i ng on each i ndi vi dual scenari o. See also H.323, H.320, RTP, Multicast,
and Unicast.
IP Voice ( Also called voice-over IP.) T he transmi ssi on of ti mi ng-sensi ti ve
packeti zed voi ce uti li zi ng a stack of enhanced protocols ori gi nally de-
si gned for data i nternetworki ng. I refer to two types of I P voi ce: voi ce-
over I P and the newer I P telephony. Voi ce-over I P encompasses the
point-to-point i ntegrati on of voi ce and data over I P networks that may
ri de on other networks that are frame relay or AT M based. On both si des
of the data network, the voi ce i s unpacketi zed and handed off to a
ci rcui t-swi tched envi ronment. T he other type of I P voi ce i s the more
sophi sti cated I P telephony, where the voi ce i s packet swi tched through-
out the enti re local network and possi bly the wi de area network. T he
voi ce packets are translated to a ci rcui t-based swi tchi ng platform only i f
they go to the publi c network, or a tradi ti onal ci rcui t-based PBX i s i n-
tegrated locally. See also H.323, MGCP, and Skinny Protocol.
IPE (Intelligent Peripheral Equipment) One of Nortel Networks
terms that refers to a card that i nterfaces wi th PBX phones ( Fi g. I .18) .
Other references to equi pment are CM (Core Module, whi ch i s the CPU)
and CE (Common Equipment, whi ch i nterfaces the di fferent parts of
the PBX swi tch together) .
366 IP Video
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 366
IPT (IP Telephony) 367
LOCAL TELCO
LINES
NORTHERN TELECOM MERIDIAN 1 PBX
IPE SHELF / IPE
CARDS
IPE SHELF /
IPE CARDS
CE SHELF /
TRUNK
INTERFACES
CM / CORE
MODULE CPU
DMARC RJ21X
66 Blocks
cross
connects
cross
connects
Figure I.18 IPE (Intelligent Peripheral Equipment)
IPSO (IP Security Option) A U.S. Government speci fi cati on that de-
fi nes an opti onal fi eld i n the I P packet header. I t defi nes hi erarchi cal
packet securi ty levels on a per-i nterface basi s.
IPT (IP Telephony) Feature-ri ch PBX telephone servi ce over a QoS
( Quali ty of Servi ce) enhanced LAN/WAN packet network. At i ts fi rst i n-
cepti on, even many large telephone equi pment manufacturers di d not
thi nk that I P telephony could evolve as fast as i t has that i s, to provi de
the same quali ty of voi ce servi ce that i s enj oyed on a ci rcui t swi tched net-
work, only on a congested pri vate packet network. T he dri ve behi nd I P
telephony i s the fact that open standardsbased equi pment costs less and
i s less expensi ve to mai ntai n than the propri etary ci rcui tbased PBXs that
the telephone i ndustry i ni ti ally provi ded. I n descri bi ng the PBX archi -
tecture i n a packet swi tched envi ronment, the word distributed comes
to mi nd. Rather than havi ng a si ngle PBX chassi s i n one room, an I P te-
lephony network ( or I P-based PBX) i s geographi cally di stri buted wi thi n
a bui ldi ng or a campus. T hi s also makes a feature of PBX systems called
geographic redundancy much easi er to i mplement. Geographi c redun-
dancy means that PBX traffi c can reroute i tself to multi ple routes and be
controlled by multi ple voi ce servers i n multi ple locati ons. Compari ng ci r-
cui t-based, tradi ti onal PBXs to thei r newer I P-based counterparts goes
somethi ng li ke the followi ng. What was once a stati on card or stati on i n-
terface i n a PBX i s equi valent to an Ethernet swi tch. T hese are the de-
vi ces that provi de network connecti vi ty to end network appli ances such
as I P telephones or computer workstati ons. Trunk cards or trunk i nter-
faces are replaced wi th routers or gateways. T hese devi ces provi de
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:25 PM Page 367
connecti vi ty to the I nternet and publi c telco servi ce. Ci rcui t-based PBX
core processors/CPUs ( along wi th thei r associ ated software) are coun-
terparted by open standardsbased servers and open standardsbased
software i n the I P telephony network. PBX features and i ntegrated serv-
i ces ( such as voi ce mai l and I VR) are now easi ly added as a network ap-
pli cati on. I n an I P telephony envi ronment wi thi n a data network, there
can be many servers performi ng support acti vi ti es for voi ce servi ces. T he
telephony server or voi ce server provi des a central place to manage
the voi ce traffi c i n the data network. Because I P telephony i s enabli ng the
less expensi ve creati on of PBX systems, thi s reduces di ffi culty of enter-
i ng the PBX manufacturi ng i ndustry. K eep i n mi nd that j ust li ke any other
i ndustry, i t opens the doors for the creati on of superi or products as well
as i nferi or ones. T he most i mportant part of an I P-based PBX system i s
the 802.1Q/802.1p ( modern Ethernet) network i nfrastructure, whi ch ex-
tends the formerly confi ned swi tchi ng i nfrastructure of ci rcui t-based PBX
systems to the desktop. I P telephony i s a sophi sti cated concept. I f any-
one i s havi ng trouble movi ng i nto thi s technology, I recommend that they
thi nk of i t as a vi rtual PBX, where voi ce traffi c i s managed at a central
locati on called a voice server or call manager server ( Fi g. I .19) . For
starters, I also recommend the revi ew and further study of the followi ng
terms/topi cs: Ethernet; I P; ST P; Layer 2,3,4 Swi tch; DHCP; DNS; Li nk
State Routi ng; MT P; MGCP; H.323; G.711; and RT P, whi ch carri es the I P
telephony voi ce packets. For addi ti onal i llustrati ons, see IP Telephony.
368 IPTV
Figure I.19 IP Telephony Server
IPTV T he Ci sco Systems trademark for on-demand vi deo over I P. See IP
Video.
IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) A Novell NetWare network
layer protocol used to transfer data from servers to workstati ons
( Fi g. I .20) . I PX has an extended address range that i ncludes the MAC
(Media-Access Control) address, whi ch eli mi nates the need for an ARP
(Address-Resolution Protocol). I PX i s a connecti onless protocol. I t does
not have a mechani sm i ncorporated to acknowledge packets that have
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:26 PM Page 368
been recei ved or to request the retransmi ssi on of lost/di scarded pack-
ets. Furthermore, I PX has i ts own addressi ng scheme, whi ch enables
data to travel through several networks. T he address format has 80 bi ts:
32 bi ts for the network number and 48 bi ts for the node/host number.
T he node/host number i s the MAC address of the devi ce. T he network
address range i s from 00.00.00.01 to FF.FF.FF.FF. A complete example
of an I PX address i s 2a.3b.4c.5d ( 48-bi t MAC devi ce address) .
ISA (Industry-Standard Architecture) 369
MAC
IPX
header
DATA CRC
CRC
checksum
2 bytes
Length
2 bytes
TC - Transport Control - Each router
increases count by one - after 16
packet is discarded 1 byte
Packet type*
1h=RIP 4h=IPX
5h=SPX 1 byte
Destination Host
MAC address
6 bytes
Destination
Network
4 bytes
Destination
Socket
2 bytes
Source Network
Address
4 bytes
Source Host
MAC address
6 bytes
Source
Socket
2 bytes
DATA LINK LAYER FRAME
*h=Hexadecimal
Figure I.20 Novell IPX Header Format
IPXWAN (IPX Wide-Area Network) A part of the Novell network pro-
tocol stack that automati cally negoti ates end-to-end parameters for new
li nks. When a new connecti on to the network i s made, the fi rst I PX pack-
ets sent across are I PXWAN packets that negoti ate the opti ons for the
li nk. When the I PXWAN opti ons are successfully determi ned, normal I PX
transmi ssi on begi ns. See also IPX.
IR (Infrared) Li ght waves that humans cannot see. T hei r wavelength
( or frequency) i s j ust below that of red li ght. Heat produces i nfrared
li ghtwave radi ati on.
ISA (Industry-Standard Architecture) A 16-bi t bus standard used i n
personal computers i n the late 1970s and early 1980s. ISA i s a term
mostly referred to by PC users when they are looki ng for a new expan-
si on ci rcui t board, such as an i nternal modem ( Fi g. I .21) . I SA was out-
dated by the EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture) 32-bi t
bus. I n 1993, I ntel and Mi crosoft developed a new versi on of the I SA
speci fi cati on called Plug and Play ISA. T hi s newer system enables the
computers operati ng system to confi gure the hardware aspect of the ci r-
cui t board automati cally wi thout a user havi ng to set j umpers or DI P
swi tches. I SA slots/sockets on a motherboard are i denti fi ed by thei r black
color and larger pi n si ze. See also PCI.
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:26 PM Page 369
370 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Figure I.21 ISA 56 K Modem Card
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) See Integrated Ser-
vices Digital Network.
ISDN Digital Subscriber Line (IDSL) A physi cal-layer transport
method that provi des symmetri c download and upload speeds from 64
to 144 K bps on a si ngle pai r of copper wi res. T he maxi mum range of
I DSL from a central offi ce i s 18, 000 feet, but thi s can be doubled wi th
a repeater. I DSL uses 2B1Q li ne codi ng, the same ki nd of li ne-modula-
ti on techni que employed i n SDSL and I SDN. I DSL i s used for trans-
porti ng I SDN. T hi s allows the xDSL fami ly of technologi es to be back-
wards compati ble wi th I SDN. For a table of the DSL fami ly of carri ers,
see xDSL.
ISDN Terminal Adapter A devi ce that i nterfaces an I SDN li ne to
a customers equi pment. T he Terminal Adapter (TE), i s purchased
and usually connected by the customer. M any di fferent termi nal
adapters enable the use of di fferent features of an I SDN li ne. T Es come
i n a wi de pri ce range as well. For a di agram showi ng where an I SDN
termi nal adapter i s connected, see Integrated Services Digital Net-
work.
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:26 PM Page 370
IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System) An OSI
(Open-System Interconnect) li nk-state routi ng protocol that i s based
on DECnet Phase-V routi ng. One versi on of I S-I S, called Integrated IS-
IS, supports I P-based networks. For more i nformati on on li nk-state pro-
tocols, see Link-State Algorithm.
IS-IS Hello (IIH) A routi ng protocol message that i s transmi tted be-
tween routers and other network equi pment that are usi ng an I S-I S al-
gori thm wi thi n thei r operati ng system. T hi s message i s used to update
routi ng tables, network adj acenci es, and other network-status i nforma-
ti on. See also Intermediate System to Intermediate System.
ISL (Inter-Switch Link) T hi s propri etary Ci sco Systems Ethernet swi tch
protocol evolved i nto the I EEE 802.1Q standard. I SL and 802.1Q are not
i nteroperable. T he reference 802.1Q i s better known as the VLAN or tag
swi tchi ng standard. I t i s a feature on post-1998 LAN swi tches that makes
selected ports behave as i f they were attached to the same segment, or
hub. Another good name for thi s feature would be V-segment or virtual
segment. Devi ces/users that exchange a large amount of i nformati on are
usually placed wi thi n the same VLAN segment. T hi s helps make the op-
nonrelated traffi c si multaneously. VLANs are confi gured by a network en-
gi neer, network analyst, or network admi ni strator. When I P telephony i s
i mplemented over an Ethernet-swi tched network, the telephone devi ces
connected to the network are best placed i nto thei r own VLAN. Most
swi tches that are 802.1Q compati ble can recogni ze more than 1,000
VLANs. Further, there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c and dynami c. Stati c
VLANs are associ ated wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c VLANs are associ -
ated wi th the MAC addresses of devi ces attached to the swi tch. Dynami c
VLANs allow users to move to another offi ce whi ch could have a swi tch
port connecti on prei nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the MAC ad-
dress of the devi ce and automati cally i nclude i ts traffi c i n the same VLAN
as the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also Frame Tagging. Even-
tually became the 802.1p and 802.1Q standard for Ethernet VLANs.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) A consor-
ti um of worldwi de telecommuni cati ons experts that has created a wi de
range of standards, i ncludi ng those relevant to data transport and data
networki ng. I SO developed the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Ref-
erence Model, whi ch i s a mai nstay for the data networki ng i ndustry.
ISO 3309 T he HDLC procedures developed by I SO. T here are two mai n
speci fi cati ons. I SO 3309:1979 speci fi es the HDLC frame structure for use
ISO 3309 371
PQ104_5056F-PI.qxd 2/10/01 12:26 PM Page 371
i n synchronous envi ronments. I SO 3309:1984 speci fi es proposed modi -
fi cati ons to allow the use of HDLC i n asynchronous envi ronments. See
also HDLC.
ISO 9000 A set of i nternati onal quali ty-management standards defi ned
by I SO. T he standards, whi ch are not speci fi c to any country, i ndustry,
or product, allow compani es to demonstrate that they have speci fi c
processes i n place to mai ntai n an effi ci ent quali ty-tracki ng system.
ISOC (Internet Society) An i nternati onal nonprofi t organi zati on that
was founded i n 1992. I ts members coordi nate the evoluti on and use of
the I nternet. I n addi ti on, the I SOC delegates authori ty to other groups
related to the I nternet, such as the I AB. T he I nternet Soci ety world head-
quarters i s located i n Reston, Vi rgi ni a, USA. See also InterNIC.
Isochronous A transmi ssi on wi th no delay, such as a voi ce conversa-
ti on between two people. Sendi ng a letter through the mai l i s non-
i sochronous.
Isotropic I n antennas for wi reless communi cati ons, isotropic refers to a
nondi recti onal antenna, or better sai d, an antenna that transmi ts i n all
di recti ons evenly. A monopole and di pole are common physi cal i sotropi c
antenna confi gurati ons. See also dBi.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) See Internet Service Provider.
ISR (Intermediate Session Routing) T he fi rst routi ng algori thm used
i n APPN (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking). I SR ( where sti ll used)
provi des node-to-node connecti on-ori ented routi ng. Network outages
cause sessi ons to fai l because I SR cannot provi de nondi srupti ve rerouti ng
around a fai lure. I SR was replaced by HPR (High-Performance Routing),
whi ch has been made obsolete by newer routi ng algori thms that have been
i ncorporated i nto li nk-state, di stance-vector, and hybri d routi ng protocols.
ISSI (Inter-Switching System Interface) T he standard physi cal i n-
terface between SMDS swi tches.
IT (Information Technology) T he study of i mprovi ng i nformati on and
data processi ng wi th the use of newer and better devi ces/machi nes.
ITI (Interactive Terminal Interface) Another name for the X.28 i n-
terface. A reference to the software functi ons that make PADs (Packet
Assembler/Disassemblers) convert asynchronous ( stop/start or dumb)
372 ISO 9000
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termi nal data i nto STDM (Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing)
packets used i n X.25.
ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union) A worldwi de stan-
dards organi zati on through whi ch publi c and pri vate organi zati ons de-
velop telecommuni cati ons standards for hardware and software. T he I T U
was founded i n 1865 and became a Uni ted Nati ons agency i n 1947. I t i s
responsi ble for adopti ng i nternati onal treati es, regulati ons, and standards
governi ng telecommuni cati ons. T he standardi zati on functi ons were for-
merly performed by a group wi thi n the I T U called CCI T T. After a 1992
reorgani zati on, the CCI T T no longer exi sts as a separate body.
ITU-T T.38 ( Also called T.38 phase 2.) A Ci sco Systemsdeveloped fax
gateway protocol that i s now an I T U-T standard. A fax gateway i s a de-
vi ce that allows a si ngle telephone li ne to recei ve both faxes and voi ce
calls. T he fax gateway answers all i ncomi ng calls. I t li stens for a fax hand-
shake tone and i f i t does not hear one, i t ri ngs the telephone connected
to i t. T.38 i s a feature that can be enabled on i ndi vi dual router FXS ports.
IVR (Interactive Voice Response) See Interactive Voice Response.
IW (Inside Wire) T he telephone wi re that i s on the customer si de of
the telephone network i nterface. I W i ncludes j acks and any wi ri ng i n or
attached to the outsi de of the house, as long as i t i s electri cally on the
customers si de of the network i nterface.
IXC (Inter Exchange Carrier, IEC) A long-di stance company, li ke
AT & T, Spri nt, Worldcom, and MCI .
IXC (Inter Exchange Carrier, IEC) 373
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J Box (Junction Box) A metal or plasti c box used as an access for ca-
ble or wi re ( coax, fi ber, UT P, ST P) . When communi cati ons compani es
bui ld thei r networks i nto bui ldi ngs, the bui ldi ng management usually re-
qui res a J-box close to each entry of the bui ldi ng. T he J-box allows other
compani es that want to gai n access use of the same condui t.
J Hook A spi ke wi th a hook on the end, speci ally desi gned to be pounded
i nto wooden telephone/power poles. T he i nstalled J hook i s a means to
hang telephone or other aeri al servi ce wi re. To hang a servi ce wi re on a
J hook, a drop-clamp or wi re-vi se i s placed on the servi ce wi re. T he drop-
clamp or wi re-vi se i s desi gned wi th a loop that fi ts over the J hook ( Fi g. J.1) .
375
J
Figure J.1 J Hook
PQ104-5056F-PJ.qxd 2/9/01 2:00 PM Page 375
Jabber A condi ti on where a fai led or fai li ng devi ce attached to or on a
network conti nually transmi ts a random, meani ngless data si gnal onto
the network.
Jack Also called a connecting block. A devi ce that has a form of con-
necti vi ty ( a plug) used to termi nate a wi re/coax/fi ber run. T he j ack
provi des access to the termi nated wi re/coax/fi ber run vi a the connec-
tor( s) -plug( s) on i ts face. Some of the many types of j acks i nclude flush
j acks, whi ch fi t i nto a wall li ke an electri cal outlet; baseboard ( or bi s-
cui t) j acks, whi ch are shaped li ke a box and mount to a baseboard near
the floor; and duplex j acks and fourplex j acks, whi ch have more than
one plug on the face of them, wi th di fferent types of connectors i n each
plug. For more i nformati on on the types of plugs avai lable on j acks, see
R ( Fi g. J.2) J11, RJ45, RJ21X, BNC, RCA plug, ST, and SC.
376 Jabber
Figure J.2 Assorted Telephone Jacks. From Left to Right: Base Mount, Flush
Mount, Duplex Flush Mount, and Wall Mount
Jacket T he outer coveri ng of a multi ple-wi re or fi ber-opti c cable. T he
most common j acketi ng materi als are PVC ( Polyvi nyl Chlori de) , Plenum
( polyvi nyli dene di flouri de) , and ALPET H ( alumi num/polyethylene) .
Older cable j acket types i nclude lead and cloth. For a photo of ALPET H
and lead cable, see ALPETH.
Jamming A reference to the i ntenti onal i nterference of a recei vers abi -
li ty to recei ve, detect, or demodulate a radi o si gnal of any frequency. A
si gnal of i denti cal ( or nearly i denti cal) carri er frequency to the one be-
i ng j ammed i s transmi tted wi th a meani ngless si gnal modulated on i t.
T he recei ver pi cks up both si gnals, whi ch causes a hard-to-understand
blur of noi se. Di recti onal transmi ssi ons and di recti onal antennas are less
suscepti ble to si gnal j ammi ng.
PQ104-5056F-PJ.qxd 2/9/01 2:00 PM Page 376
Java A programmi ng language desi gned to wri te programs that users can
safely download from the I nternet to thei r computers wi thout fear of
vi ruses. Usi ng small Java programs called applets, I nternet Web pages
can i nclude ani mati on, sound, si mple games, and other i nteracti ve func-
ti ons. Web browsers, such as Netscape Navi gator and Mi crosoft I nternet
Explorer, have i ncorporated Java i nterpreters so that they are able to
run JAVA appli cati ons downloaded from I nternet Web pages. Java i s an
i nnovati on of Sun Mi crosystems.
JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) A Java API (Application Pro-
gramming Interface) that enables Java programs to execute SQL
(Structured Query Language) statements. T hi s allows Java programs
to i nteract wi th any SQL-compli ant data base. Because nearly all Rela-
tional Database Management Systems (DBMSs) support SQL and be-
cause Java i tself runs on most platforms, JDBC makes i t possi ble to wri te
a si ngle database appli cati on that can run on di fferent platforms and i n-
teract wi th di fferent DBMSs. JDBC i s si mi lar to ODBC (Open Data Base
Connectivity), but i s desi gned speci fi cally for Java programs, whereas
ODBC i s language i ndependent. JDBC was developed by JavaSoft, a sub-
si di ary of Sun Mi crosystems. See also Open Database Connectivity.
Jitter An analog or di gi tal communi cati ons li ne di storti on caused by the
carri er si gnal varyi ng from i ts reference ti mi ng posi ti ons. Ji tter can cause
data loss, parti cularly at hi gh speeds.
Johnny Ball A devi ce used to li nk two steel-strand loops together ( Fi g. J.3) .
Also called a Knuckle-Buster.
Johnny Ball 377
Figure J.3 A Johnny Ball (Also called a Knuckle Buster)
PQ104-5056F-PJ.qxd 2/9/01 2:00 PM Page 377
Joule (J) A uni t of energy. I f you combi ne power and ti me, you get
energy. One Joule i s equal to one watt for one second. Runni ng a 100-W
li ght bulb for one hour expends 360, 000 Joules of energy. Runni ng a
5-HP ( fi ve horse-power) lawn mower at full strength through tall grass
for one hour expends 13.428 MJ 13, 428, 000 Joules ( 746 watts
1 horsepower) . What i s useful about Joules? Joules are a way to compare
di fferent forms of energy. After calculati ng the cost per Joule of gasoli ne
energy and electri cal energy, i t can be determi ned that 1 Joule of
electri cal energy costs nearly twi ce as much as 1 Joule of gasoli ne energy.
( Based on gasoli ne at $1.50/gal, the lawnmower consumi ng
1
5
of a gallon
i n one hour, and the cost of one kW/hour i s 15 cents.)
Julian Dating A date-expressi on format that does not use months of the
year, only days. For i nstance, January 1st i s si mply 1, February 1st i s
si mply 32, and December 31st i s 365.
Jumper 1. Another name for a cross connect. A cross connect i s the
connecti on of one ci rcui t path to another vi a a physi cal wi re. Telephone
cable pai rs are termi nated or punched down onto a termi nati on block
( usually a 66M150 or an AT & T 110 block) that has extra connecti ons
avai lable for each pai r so that j umper wi res can be easi ly connected and
rearranged between them. 2. A secti on of coax used to connect a
transmi tter or transmi ssi on li ne.
Jumper Wire See Jumper.
Junction Box See J Box.
378 Joule (J)
PQ104-5056F-PJ.qxd 2/9/01 2:00 PM Page 378
K Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 18 GHz
amd 27 GHz ( 1.67 cm to 1.11 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band
Designation.
K-Style Handset T he type of handset typi cally found on PBX and key
telephones. T he ear pi ece and recei ver are square shaped.
Ka Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 27GHz
and 40 GHz ( 1.11 cm to 7.5 mm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band
Designation.
Karns Algorithm An algori thm i mplemented i nto routi ng protocols/
operati ng systems that i mproves round-tri p ti me esti mati ons by helpi ng
transport-layer protocols di sti ngui sh between good and bad round-tri p
ti me samples.
KB (Kilobyte) A measure of computer memory. See also Kilobit.
Kbit (Kilobit, Kb) 1000 bi ts. Not to be confused wi th K B, whi ch i s ki lo-
byte. T he speed of data transmi ssi on i s usually measured i n K b/s and
memory i s measured i n K b.
Kbps (Kilobits per Second) A reference to how fast data i s bei ng trans-
ferred on a communi cati ons path.
379
K
PQ104-5056F-PK.qxd 2/9/01 2:03 PM Page 379
Keep-Alive Interval T he peri od of ti me between each keep-ali ve message
sent by a network devi ce. K eep-ali ve i ntervals range from fracti ons of a
second to several seconds, dependi ng on the network devi ce and the
protocol used.
Keep-Alive Message When no user data i s bei ng transmi tted over a li nk,
a packet sent between network devi ces ( such as routers) at peri odi c
ti me i ntervals that veri fi es the vi rtual and physi cal connecti on between
them i s sti ll acti ve.
Kerberos I n the T CP/I P protocol sui te, a name gi ven to a securi ty system
that authenti cates users of a network and grants access authori zati on.
Kermit A fi le-transfer protocol that works over phone li nes and i s known
for i ts hi gh accuracy and slower speed.
Kernel T he heart of an operati ng-system program that manages a com-
puters hardware and program resources. K ernels are compri sed of short
machi ne-level i nstructi on sets.
Kevlar A fi ne, stranded yellow fi ber used to make bulletproof vests and
bui lt i nto fi ber-opti c cable to rei nforce i t.
Key A button on a telephone that executes a feature or accesses a li ne
on a telephone.
Key Pad A di al pad.
Key Service Unit (KSU) T he mai n part of a key telephone system. T he
K SU contai ns the electroni cs that control whi ch li ne i s di rected to whi ch
phone. T he K SU i s usually mounted i n a closet or near the telephone
compani es demarcati on poi nt ( where the phone li nes come i nto the
bui ldi ng) .
Keyset An electroni c telephone that works only when connected to a
propri etary K SU vi a the correct wi ri ng. K eysets do not work i f you con-
nect them di rectly i nto a normal telephone li ne. I f you li ke the i dea of
havi ng K eyset features on a normal publi c telephone li ne, see ISDN.
Key System See Key Telephone System.
Key Telephone System T he less-expensi ve and less-flexi ble alternati ve
to a PBX system ( Fi g. K .1) . On a key system, each telephone li ne appears
380 Keep-Alive Interval
PQ104-5056F-PK.qxd 2/9/01 2:03 PM Page 380
under a key ( button) on the phone. To access an outsi de li ne or answer an
i ncomi ng call, you press the key associ ated wi th that li ne. K ey systems are
di gi tal and have si x major parts, the KSU (Key Service Unit), li ne i nter-
face, stati on i nterface, power supply, connecti vi ty, and the key sets ( tele-
phone sets) . Most key systems are very user fri endly, and can be i nstalled
by a user that knows li ttle about telephony. T he K SU i s the cabi net that
contai ns the electroni cs that controls the swi tchi ng between key sets and
phone li nes. Some key systems have detachable li ne and stati on i nterfaces
that plug i nto the K SU. T he system usually comes wi th a speci fi c number
of i ncomi ng li ne i nterfaces ( 6) and a speci fi c number of stati on i nterfaces
( 16) . T hi s si ze system i s commonly referred to as a 4-16 ( four/si xteen) .
T he power supply i s often a power-adapter type. Some manufacturers
offer a UPS back-up opti on speci ally desi gned for the key system. T he key-
set telephones are sold i ndi vi dually, i n a vari ety of choi ces that i nclude
10-key ( 10 button) , 20-key ( 20 button) , di splay, and hands-free.
Key Telephone System 381
KSU
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
KEY Telephone
RJ21X
Six incoming
telco lines
TYPICAL 6-12 KEY SYSTEM
POWER SUPPLY
WIRING/
CONNECTIVITY
Figure K.1 Key Telephone System
PQ104-5056F-PK.qxd 2/9/01 2:03 PM Page 381
Keyed RJ45 An RJ45 j ack or plug that has a small protrusi on on i ts si de
that acts as a key to prevent the wrong ki nd of equi pment bei ng plugged
i nto the wrong j ack. Some modems come wi th keyed RJ45 plugs to help
prevent them from bei ng plugged i nto an RJ45 that contai ns voltages
i ntended for other equi pment, whi ch could cause damage.
KHz (Kilohertz) One kHz i s equal to 1000 Hertz, or 1000 Hz. K i lo i s j ust
an easi er way of sayi ng one thousand, and k i s a shortcut to havi ng to
wri te three zeros.
Knuckle-Buster A devi ce used to connect two steel strand loops to-
gether. Also called a Johnny Ball. For a photo, see Johnny Ball.
KSU (Key Service Unit) See Key Service Unit ( Fi g. K .2) .
382 Keyed RJ45
Figure K.2 KSU (Key Service Unit)
PQ104-5056F-PK.qxd 2/9/01 2:03 PM Page 382
KTS (Key Telephone System) See Key Telephone System.
Ku Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between
12 GHz and 18 GHz ( 2.5 cm to 1.67 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar
Band Designation.
KWH (Kilowatt Hour) A uni t of energy equal to 1000 watts of power
for one hour. T hi s i s equi valent to operati ng ten 100-watt li ght bulbs for
one hour. T he average cost of a K WH i n the USA i s about 14 cents. For
more i nformati on about energy, see Joule.
KWH (Kilowatt Hour) 383
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L Band T he band of frequencies designated by the I EEE between 1 GHz and
2 GHz ( 30 cm to 15 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band Designation.
L Carrier A long-haul T DM carri er that i s transmi tted over two coax
cables. I t i s sti ll i n use i n sub-oceani c appli cati ons. L carri er has a capaci ty
of 13, 300 voi ce channels, 3 kHz i n bandwi dth ( each) .
L1 A reference to the level-1 cache memory i n personal computers.
Level-1 cache i s a memory bank that resi des wi thi n a computers CPU
chi p. I t i s used to store frequently executed machi ne-level i nstructi ons.
L2 A reference to the level-2 cache memory i n personal computers. L2
cache memory can be i ncorporated i nto the desi gn of the CPU or i t can
be mounted externally. Cache memory i s used to store frequently exe-
cuted machi ne-level i nstructi ons.
Label swapping An older routi ng algori thm used by I BM APPN (Ad-
vanced Peer-to-Peer Networking) systems i n whi ch each router that a
message passes through on i ts way to i ts desti nati on i ndependently de-
termi nes the best path to the next router. Routi ng protocols have evolved
to be much smarter and provi de many more servi ces, such as knowi ng
the least-expensi ve path and usi ng i t fi rst. See also Link-State Algorithm.
Ladder Diagram A representati on tool used to analyze communi cati ons
si gnali ng events between a DCE and DT E ( Fi g. L.1) .
385
L
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 385
LADT (Local-Area Data Transport) A reference to di gi tal carri er ( any
carri er, T 1, 56 K , etc.) i n the local-carri er twi sted-copper plant network.
Lag Current A reference to the current flow i n a capaci ti ve electroni c
ci rcui t carryi ng a si gnal ( or AC power) , the voltage bui lds up before the
current actually flows. T hi s i s caused by capacitive reactance. I n a
purely capaci ti ve electroni c ci rcui t, the current lags behi nd the voltage
by 180 degrees.
Lambda () T he symbol that i s standard for representi ng the wavelength
of a frequency. Wavelength i s equal to: ( 300, 000, 000 m/s) /frequency
( Hz) . 300, 000, 000 m/s i s the speed of li ght i n a vacuum.
LAN (Local-Area Network) A group of computers connected together
wi thi n a bui ldi ng or campus. LANs are the most detai led of computer
386 LADT (Local-Area Data Transport)
DCE DTE
RTS
Request To Send
RR
Receive Ready
Packet 1
Packet 2
Packet 3
ACK 1
ACK 2
Packet 4
ACK 3
ACK 4
EOT
DISC
Send Packet 1
Send Packet 2
Send Packet 3
Send Packet 4
End Of Transmission
Acknowledge Packet 1
Disconnect
TIME
IN
MILLISECONDS
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Figure L.1 Ladder Diagram
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 386
networks because they deal wi th the appli cati ons and operati ng systems
of computers. T he di sti ngui shi ng thi ng among LANs i s the way that the
computers are connected and the protocol at whi ch they communi cate
over the medi a that connects them. T he two maj or LAN protocols ( logi -
cal topologi es) are Ethernet ( star and bus) and Token Ri ng. Both Eth-
ernet and Token Ri ng have evolved i nto Swi tched Ethernet and Swi tched
Token Ri ng, whi ch are di fferent i n operati on and speed than thei r pre-
decessors. Larger LANs use an operati ng system to control the LAN
envi ronment, such as Novell or Wi ndows NT. Another component of
LANs i s the server, whi ch can ei ther run programs or store data for com-
puters connected to the network. Servers are si mply other computers
( usually wi th more processi ng power and memory) that are confi gured
by an operati ng system, such as Novell or Wi ndows NT, to perform a
speci fi c functi on. For more i nformati on, see Client Server, Token Ring,
Ethernet, Switched Token Ring, Switched Ethernet, FDDI, and
DQDB.
LAN Adapter Also known as a NIC (Network Interface Card). Typi cal
LAN adapters are made by Bay Networks, SMC, US Roboti cs, and others
( Fi g. L.2) . T hey are a ci rcui t card that plugs i nto an expansi on
slot located on the mother board of a PC. T hey have an RJ45 plug and
LAN Adapter 387
Figure L.2 LAN Adapter Card (Also Called a NIC)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 387
usually a BNC for connecti ng to the twi sted-pai r or coax network wi ri ng
i n an offi ce area ( or wherever the network i s) .
LAN Switch A hardware devi ce that provi des dedi cated bandwi dth to
segments of the network that are attached to i t. T he pri mary purpose
of a LAN swi tch i s to provi de addi ti onal bandwi dth to users by re-
duci ng the number of users per segment. I n doi ng thi s, colli si ons are
eli mi nated and the 50% to 60% effi ci ency of Ethernet i s i ncreased to
near 100% ( colli si ons are sti ll possi ble between the swi tch and the
attached devi ce) . A LAN swi tch can be compared to a bri dge wi th
many ports ( at a much lower cost per port) and extensi ve traffi c man-
ageabi li ty. Unli ke a non-POT S voi ce swi tch or PBX swi tch, multi ple
hosts ( computers, I P telephone extensi ons) can be connected to each
port. T hi s i s because a LAN swi tch forwards frames based on the M AC
address of the connected devi ces rather than the swi tch port, as i n
voi ce swi tch operati on. Because basi c LAN swi tches are OSI layer 2
devi ces ( meani ng they forward packets based on a hardware address) ,
they are capable of bri dgi ng unli ke networks, such as Ethernet to FDDI
and token ri ng. Larger LAN swi tches are capable of performi ng layer
3 routing, where the packet forwardi ng functi on happens based on a
leadi ng packets I P address. LAN swi tches often replace Ethernet hubs
( no wi re replacement i s needed, but fi ber opti c may be i nstalled for
backbone connecti vi ty) when they are i mplemented i nto a network.
LAN swi tches are the core enabler of I P telephony. See also Bridge
and IP Telephony.
Land Line A regular POT S swi tched telephone li ne over twi sted copper
or other land-based faci li ty. Land li nes are noncellular or radi o.
LANE (Local-Area Network Emulation) An added feature of AT M
networks that allows SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits) wi thi n them to
be confi gured to functi on as a LAN backbone. I n i ts raw form, AT M does
not provi de data-li nk layer and network-layer protocol support. LANE
fi lls i n the gap by provi di ng multi cast and broadcast support, address
mappi ng ( MAC layer to AT M) , SVC management, and a usable packet
format. T he LANE AT M speci fi cati on also defi nes Ethernet and token-
ri ng-emulated LANs. See also ELAN.
LAP (Link-Access Procedure) T he frame layer ( data link, by OSI
terms) protocol that was deri ved from HDLC ( High-Level Data-Link
Control) for X.25. LAP evolved i nto LAPB (Link-Access Procedure Bal-
anced mode) and LAPB Extended (LAPBE). LAPB Extended allows
for a 128-packet transmi ssi on wi ndow, rather than an ei ght-packet
transmi ssi on wi ndow.
388 LAN Switch
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LAPB (Link-Access Procedure Balanced) LAPB i s the set of rules for
the packet layer ( equi valent to the network layer i n the OSI ) of the X.25
protocol to perform such functi ons as Recei ve Ready RR ( the equi valent
of Acknowledge ACK ) and Rej ect ( the equi valent of Retransmi t) . I t de-
fi nes the bi t-by-bi t structure of the frames that makes thi s layer serve
the packet layer ( network layer, i f you li ke OSI termi nology) . LAPB al-
lows for a ei ght-packet transmi ssi on wi ndow. LAPB extended allows for
larger transmi ssi on wi ndow si zes, referred to as modulo levels. For ex-
ample, LAPB modulo 128 would be an X.25 connecti on that operates at
a 128-packet transmi ssi on wi ndow. For an example of a data packet, see
X.25 Data Packet.
LAPB Extended (Link-Access Procedure Balanced Mode Extended)
A versi on of the X.25 i ncorporated LAPB protocol that allows larger wi n-
dow si zes and vari able address lengths. T he ori gi nal LAPB allowed for a
seven-packet transmi ssi on wi ndow that sui ted most terrestri al appli ca-
ti ons. When telephone company faci li ti es became less error prone and
faster, i t made sense to modi fy the LAPB part of the X.25 data-li nk layer
protocol to have less overhead. Another push for the change came from
satelli te communi cati ons, whi ch have a delay that exceeds the ei ght-
packet i n-route wi ndow ti me. LAPB Extended provi des the abi li ty to
have more packets i n transi t between the sender and recei ver. T hi s
prevents the two ends from wai ti ng for acknowledgements duri ng
transmi ssi on delays.
LAPD (Link-Access Procedure on the D channel) I SDN data-li nk
layer protocol for the D channel. LAPD was deri ved from the LAPB pro-
tocol and i s desi gned pri mari ly to sati sfy the si gnali ng requi rements of
I SDN basi c access. I t i s defi ned by I T U-T recommendati ons Q.920 and
Q.921.
LAPM (Link-Access Procedure for Modems) T he ARQ used by
modems i mplementi ng the V.42 protocol for error correcti on. See also ARQ
and V.42.
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radia-
tion) A laser i s a devi ce that emi ts only coherent li ght that i s i n
phase. Coherent li ght i s of one frequency ( one pure color, not always
vi si ble to the human eye) . Lasers create li ght si mi lar to the way a
fluorescent li ght does, by exci ti ng a gas that emi ts photons ( li ght
parti cles) wi th electri ci ty. When the parti cles are exi ted, they are
trapped between two mi rrors. One mi rror has a small spot that allows
li ght travelli ng i n a very strai ght li ne to escape. T hi s li ght i s the laser
beam.
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) 389
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LASS (Local-Area Signal Service) A si gnali ng feature that i ncorpo-
rates the # and * keys, whi ch allow central-offi ce swi tches to provi de
features to resi denti al phone-li ne subscri bers that could only be found
on PBX systems before. T he servi ces ( at an addi ti onal cost) i nclude:
Automati c Call Back ( also called Last Call Return) , whi ch i s a servi ce
that by di ali ng * and two di gi ts the customer can hear a message that
tells them what the last number was that tri ed to call thei r phone. I t also
gi ves them the opti on of di ali ng back the number or returni ng the call
automati cally. Automati c recall or last number redi al allows the caller to
redi al the previ ously di aled number by enteri ng a code. Nui sance-call
trace or last-call trace, allows the user to trace the last call made to them
and automati cally fi le a report agai nst the caller. Each trace usually costs
about $2. T hi s i s done so that people only use i t when needed, not when
they want to play a j oke on a fri end. Caller I D or i ncomi ng call I D, allows
a telephone-servi ce subscri ber to connect one caller-I D uni t to thei r
phone li ne to vi ew the calli ng parts telephone number ( and often the
name) before answeri ng the phone. Many other servi ces offered by di f-
ferent names vary, dependi ng on the telephone company offeri ng them.
Di fferent names are requi red for each servi ce by di fferent compani es
even though the servi ces are i denti cal. T he FCC i mplemented thi s rule
so that the RBOCs couldnt trademark a well-known name for each fea-
ture, thus allowi ng the smaller phone compani es to be equally as com-
peti ti ve by havi ng to use a di fferent name for each servi ce.
Last In First Out See LIFO.
Last-Number Redial A feature i ncorporated i nto PBX systems, K ey sys-
tems, and also i ncluded on home use si ngle li ne type telephones.
LATA (Local-Access Transport Area) Si mply stated, a LATA i s an area
code. Inter LATA refers to servi ces that go from one area code to another,
li ke long-di stance telephone calls. Intra LATA refers to servi ces that ori g-
i nate and termi nate i n the same area code.
Latency 1. I n Ethernet, the delay between the ti me that a devi ce requests
access to a network and the ti me that i t i s granted permi ssi on and trans-
mi ts. 2. I n network routi ng or swi tchi ng, the amount of ti me a devi ce pos-
sesses a frame. More speci fi cally, the delay between the ti me that a rout-
ing or switching device receives a frame and the time that frame is forwarded
out the desti nati on port. 3. A general reference to transmi ssi on delay or
slow response ti me i n a data network because of large amounts of traffi c.
Layer 2 Switch A bri dge, router, or LAN swi tch that deci des where to for-
ward packets based on the MAC address, whi ch i s the OSI ( Open Systems
390 LASS (Local-Area Signal Service)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 390
Layer 3 Multicast I P address class D addressi ng. See PIM Dense Mode
and PIM Sparse Mode.
Layer 3 Switch A layer 3 swi tch performs functi ons as well as those that
were tradi ti onally accompli shed exclusi vely by a router ( Fi g. L.4) . T he
maj or di fference between a layer 3 swi tch and a router i s that a router
performs i ts core functi on i n software and a swi tch performs i ts pri mary
forwardi ng/routi ng functi on i n si li con logi c devi ces ( hardware) . Perform-
i ng thi s functi on i n electroni cs rather than software drasti cally i ncreases
speed. Layer 3 swi tches forward frames and packets based on MAC ad-
dresses ( layer 2 address) and I P or I PX addresses ( layer 3 addresses)
when necessary. Layer 3 swi tches are capable of performi ng li ne format
conversi on, whi ch i s i nherent from thei r layer 2 header stri ppi ng and
reassembly. T hey have the abi li ty to convert protocols, regulate traffi c,
and provi de securi ty servi ces wi thi n the LAN. T he true operati on of a
layer 3 LAN swi tch i s as follows: a swi tch port recei ves the fi rst frame of
a transmi ssi on. I f the frame i s not addressed to the same VLAN wi thi n
the swi tch, i t i s forwarded to an on-board router. T he router forwards the
packet to the appropri ate LAN swi tch/VLAN. T he LAN swi tch that sent
the frame i n the fi rst place remembers to what port the router sent that
Layer 3 Switch 391
I nterconnect) model layer 2 address ( Fi g. L.3) . T hi s i s also the address
that i s permanently burned i nto every NI C card and network devi ce man-
ufactured. Layer 2 swi tches were known as bridges and LAN switches.
Now that bri dges and LAN swi tches can forward packets based on
i nformati on from layer 2 ( MAC address) , Layer 3 ( i .e., I P address) , and
Layer 4 ( i .e., T CP layer) , i t i s necessary to di sti ngui sh whi ch type of for-
wardi ng the network traffi c devi ce i s confi gured for. T hi s i s sai d by call-
i ng the devi ce a layer 2, layer 3, or multi layer swi tch. See also Layer 3
Switch, Layer 4 Switch, Store and Forward Switching, and VLAN.
Figure L.3 Layer 2 Ethernet Switch
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 391
fi rst packet, then sends the rest of the frames to that port. See also VLAN,
Store and Forward Switching, and Multi-Layer Switching.
392 Layer 7 Switching
Layer 7 Switching A reference to server load shari ng and content net-
worki ng. T he i dea behi nd layer 7 swi tchi ng i s that two obj ecti ves are
accompli shed. T he fi rst i s that the network i s gi ven some type of i ntel-
li gence that enables i t to predi ct traffi c. T hi s i s done by a content net-
work server placed on a conti guous network. T he server i s confi gured
by a user to push or transfer fi les from frequently used appli cati on
servers to a cache server that i s closer to the end user, or better sai d,
the edge of the network. T he second i s to i ncorporate load shari ng abi l-
i ty among multi ple servers. T hi s i s so that i f an appli cati on does recei ve
a massi ve burst of traffi c, the network can compensate by deli veri ng
packets evenly across many servers and provi de the opti on to have the
end user i nteract wi th the same server duri ng the enti re transacti on.
T hi s eli mi nates the need for communi cati ng appli cati ons to reauthenti -
cate to di fferent servers. Content that users pull from across the WAN
li nk i s also stored for others to access. See also Content Networking.
Layered Network Architecture 1. Communi cati ons i s accompli shed i n
steps. Each layer i n a network archi tecture i s a step toward the goal of
movi ng data or voi ce from one place to another. T he OSI (Open Sysems
Interconnect model) i s a layered archi tecture. 2. ( Also called a hier-
archical network architecture.) An enterpri se LAN/WAN desi gn
methodology where all traffi c leads to a central core, where servers and
other computi ng servi ces are located. I n hi erarchi cal desi gn, there are
three parts to a network: the core layer, the di stri buti on layer, and the
access layer. T hi s desi gn method i s used most recently i n compari son to
the 80/20 method used i n the past. T he avai labi li ty of super hi gh-speed
Figure L.4 Layer 3 Ethernet Core/Distribution Switch (Left)
Multi-Layer Switch Symbol (Ethernet) (Right)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 392
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) 393
CORE LAYER
ACCESS LAYER
SERVER SERVER
SERVER SERVER
PUBLIC TELEPHONE
NETWORK
FRAME RELAY
SERVICE
PROVIDER
D
S
3
D
S
3
(HIERARCHICAL)
-routing-
OC3
OC3
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) LCDs are electroni c di splay devi ces that
operate by polari zi ng li ght so that a nonacti vated segment appears
i nvi si ble agai nst a background. An acti vated segment does not reflect
li ght ( absorbs i t) and therefore appears darker than the background.
T T L i s not generally used to dri ve LCD di splays because i t does not com-
pletely deacti vate the segment. A few tenths of a volt are present
even when a T T L logi c devi ce i s completely i n the off state. CMOS i s
the best type of devi ce for dri vi ng LCD di splays because of i ts abi li ty to
turn completely off and have no remai ni ng bi as voltage. LCD di splays
consume very li ttle power, i n contrast to other di splay methods ( CRT,
LED) , but are sensi ti ve to heat and need external li ght to be vi ewed i n
the dark. LCD di splays consume li ttle space compared to CRTs and are
used i n laptop computers. See also Active Matrix Display.
Figure L.5 Layered Network Architecture
LAN swi tches wi th backplanes that are capable of swi tchi ng at a total
bandwi dth i n excess of 30 Gbps have made hi erarchi cal desi gns more
practi cal than the di stri buted 80/20 computi ng method. T he largest ad-
vantage of hi erarchi cal desi gns i s that they are hi ghly scalable and ex-
pandable, as well as flexi ble for i mplementi ng new servi ces ( Fi g. L.5) .
T he older 80/20 desi gned networks eventually grow to a poi nt where no
new servi ces can be added wi thout creati ng bottlenecks that are very
expensi ve to remedy. See also Core Layer, Distribution Layer, and
Collapsed Core.
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 393
LCI (Logical Channel Identifier) Another name for logical channel
number. See Logical Channel Number.
LCN (Logical Channel Number) I n X.25, an i denti fi er of a vi rtual ci r-
cui t that wi ll be used for all transmi ssi ons wi thi n the durati on of a call.
X.25 can support up to 4095 LCNs total i n both di recti ons for transmi t-
ti ng and recei vi ng. LCNs exi st for the same purpose i n X.25 as a DLCI
(Digital-Link Connection Identifier) exi sts i n frame relay. I t i s a tem-
porary vi rtual path used between network routi ng devi ces. T he LCN i s
not a permanent vi rtual ci rcui t, such as the type that a multi plexer would
provi de. T he LCN represents one of the temporary users of a permanent
vi rtual ci rcui t. See also X.25 Control-Packet Header Structure. 2. T he
channel number address that ri des along wi th a packet of data i n sta-
ti sti cal ti me-di vi si on multi plexi ng.
LCR (Least-Cost Routing) A feature of PBX systems that enable them
to be programmed to associ ate a di aled area code wi th a speci fi c trunk
( Fi g. L.6) . T hat trunk wi ll be the least-cost route for that area code.
Some PBX systems are capable of havi ng a rate-table database wi th a
call-accounti ng system. T he rate-table database provi des the PBX wi th
cost per mi nute i nformati on for di ali ng certai n area codes. I f a user has
an agreement wi th MCI ( e.g., WAT S servi ce to Santa Clara, CA area code
408) , then the PBX i s programmed to connect anyone that di als 9-1-
408-xxx-xxxx to the MCI WAT S trunk. T he WAT S T RUNK i s cross con-
nected to trunk i nterface/port number X. ( X could be any number that
the PBX uses i n i ts trunk-numberi ng scheme.)
394 LCI (Logical Channel Identifier)
PBX SYSTEM
LOCAL TELEPHONE
LINES/TRUNKS
RATE
TABLES
DATA
LONG DISTANCE
WATS SERVICE
NORMAL RATE
LONG DISTANCE
1+ NUMBER
Figure L.6 LCR (Least-Cost Routing)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 394
LD (Long Distance) An abbrevi ati on commonly used i n PBX and key-
system operator manuals.
LDAP ( Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) A centrali zed data-
base di rectory that can be used by many devi ces, such as an I P tele-
phone system, e-mai l di rectory, I VR system, and ACD system. Si nce
LDAPs development at the Uni versi ty of Mi chi gan i n 1997, i t has be-
come a de facto standard due to i ts wi de use as a means for accessi ng
X.500 ( and more recently, non-X.500) di rectory systems.
LDM (Limited-Distance Modem) Also called a short-haul modem or
li ne dri ver. Short-haul modems are commonly used to extend the di s-
tance of a pri nter or other DTE (Data-Termination Equipment) de-
vi ce from i ts host. One example i s to extend the pri nter dedi cated to
pri nti ng call-accounti ng records from a PBX to an accountants offi ce.
For a di agram, see Limited-Distance Modem.
Lead Cable Before plasti c ( polyethylene) was i nvented, telephone cable
was i nsulated wi th paper and j acketed i n lead ( Fi g. L.7) . T he RBOCs
sti ll have some of thi s cable i n use, and i t does have one advantage
over ALPET H ( alumi num polyethylene) j ackets. I t i s very heavy, so i t i s
Lead Cable 395
Figure L.7 Lead Cable: 100 Pair with Pulp (Paper) Insulation
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 395
nonbuoyant i n under-water appli cati ons, even when pressuri zed ( see
Air-Pressure Cable) . Lead cable i s currently bei ng removed when at all
possi ble because of the poi sonous effects of lead on the envi ronment
( the lead cable shown has pulp-i nsulated pai rs) .
Lead Current A reference to the current flow i n an i nducti ve ci rcui t. Be-
li eve i t or not, i n an i nducti ve ci rcui t carryi ng a si gnal ( or AC power) ,
the current flows before the voltage i s actually bui lt up as a result of
i nducti ve reactance. Current lead i s measured i n degrees or radi ans.
I n a purely i nducti ve ci rcui t, such as an AC motor, current leads voltage
by 180 degrees.
Leaf Internetwork T he connecti on of separate LANs i nto a star topol-
ogy wi th a core router connecti ng them.
Leased Circuit Also called a leased line or private line. A leased li ne i s
a telephone servi ce that i s permanently connected from one poi nt to an-
other. Leased ci rcui ts i nclude 56K analog and DS1. A leased ci rcui t acts
li ke a pi peli ne that carri es data from one poi nt to another. I f you put a bi t
i n one si de, the same bi t pops out on the other si de. I t can carry data
across town, across the country, or around the world. Leased li nes are rel-
ati vely expensi ve. Because leased li nes have been offered, new servi ces,
such as frame relay have evolved. Frame relay i s a cost-effecti ve soluti on
for long-haul/long-di stance data-transfer appli cati ons ( Fi g. L.8) .
396 Lead Current
TELEPHONE
COMPANY
56K Analog private
line service
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
RJ45
RJ 45
router
56K Analog Leased-Line/Private-
Line Application
Router
Figure L.8 Leased Circuit/Leased Line
Leased Line See Leased Circuit.
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 396
Leased-Line Modem A modem that uses a pri vate li ne to i nterconnect.
T hey have two or four wi res, dependi ng on the standard ( I T U) .
Leased-Space Agreement (LSA) Also called a colocation or co-lo. A
leased-spaced agreement i s an arrangement that communi cati ons
compani es or communi cati ons servi ces vendors ( such as alarm compa-
ni es or voi ce-mai l servi ce provi ders) make wi th telecommuni cati ons com-
pani es to use an area of a central offi ce or node to place thei r network-
i nterface equi pment ( Fi g. L.9) . See also Colocation.
Leased-Space Agreement (LSA) 397
Figure L.9 Leased Space for an Alarm Service Providers Equipment
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 397
LEC 1. LAN-Emulation Client. On an AT M network, a LAN emulati on
cli ent i s an enti ty or software program that emulates/translates Ether-
net and/or token ri ng and other protocols for the AT M network. T he LEC
performs data forwardi ng, address resoluti on, and other control func-
ti ons for a si ngle-end devi ce ( such as a personal computer) wi thi n a si n-
gle ELAN (Emulated LAN). Each LEC i s i denti fi ed by a uni que AT M
address, and i s associ ated wi th one or more MAC addresses reachable
through that AT M address. See also ELAN and LECS. 2. Local Ex-
change Carrier. Most commonly a reference to one of the seven RBOCs.
A telephone company that provi des telecommuni cati ons servi ces to end
users and bi lls them for i t. A local exchange carri er has swi tchi ng
networks and outsi de plant or cellular servi ce to serve i ts customers. Ex-
amples of local-exchange carri ers are: NYNEX, USWest, GT E, PAC BELL,
Southern Bell Telephone, and a myri ad of cellular-telephone servi ce
provi ders. T he newest breed of local exchange carri ers are CLECs ( Com-
peti ti ve Local Exchange Carri ers) . T hey have all the same servi ces as
the RBOCs, except that they are generally only located i n large metro-
poli tan areas. Some larger CLECs i nclude ELI ( Electri c Li ghtwave I nc.) ,
Worldcom, AT & T local, and MFS ( Metropoli tan Fi ber Systems) . CLECs
use ( almost exclusi vely) SONET i n conj uncti on wi th DCS as the
foundati on of thei r network archi tecture.
LECS (Local-Area Network Emulation Configuration Server) I n
an ATM (Asynchronous Transmission Mode) network. A devi ce or
Least-Cost Routing (LCR) See LCR ( Fi g. L.10) .
398 Least-Cost Routing (LCR)
PBX SYSTEM
LOCAL TELEPHONE
LINES/TRUNKS
RATE
TABLES
DATA
LONG DISTANCE
WATS SERVICE
NORMAL RATE
LONG DISTANCE
1+ NUMBER
Figure L.10 Least-Cost Routing (LCR)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 398
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 399
software program that assi gns i ndi vi dual LANE (LAN Emulation)
cli ents to parti cular networks by di recti ng them to the correspondi ng
server. T here i s, logi cally, one LECS per admi ni strati ve domai n. See also
LANE.
LED (Light-Emitting Diode) See Light-Emitting Diode.
Leg Iron Also called spurs and climbers. A devi ce that network techni -
ci ans wear on thei r legs to cli mb wooden telephone poles. Leg i rons are
a hook-shaped sti rrup/shank, wi th an i ron bar that straps to the techni -
ci ans i nner shi n. Each shank i s equi pped wi th a spur that poi nts out
from the i nner ankle.
LEOS (Low Earth-Orbit Satellite) A nonstati onary satelli te that or-
bi ts the earth at an alti tude range of 300 to 500 mi les. LEOS are used
for many communi cati ons servi ces, i ncludi ng pagi ng, mobi le radi o com-
muni cati ons, and data upli nk.
Level-1 Cache A memory bank that resi des wi thi n a computers CPU
chi p. I t i s used to store frequently executed machi ne-level i nstructi ons.
Level-2 Cache A memory bank that exi sts i n addi ti on to Level-1 cache
memory. I t mi ght be i ncorporated i nto the desi gn of the CPU or i t could
be mounted externally. Cache memory i s used to store frequently exe-
cuted machi ne-level i nstructi ons.
LF T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for li ne feed. T he bi nary code i s
1010000 and the hex i s A0.
LFI (Link Fragmentation and Interleave) I n I P telephony envi ron-
ments, a QoS method of managi ng voi ce packets over li nks that are slower
than 768 K bps. Because these li nks are consi dered slow i n relati on to
the 100 Mbps LAN Ethernet speeds, they requi re addi ti onal QoS atten-
ti on to enhance thei r effi ci ency.
LIFO (Last In First Out) A method of clocki ng memory bi ts i nto and
out of a memory bank. I t means that the last bi t i n i s the fi rst one out. You
can i magi ne thi s concept by stacki ng books i nto a box for storage. T he last
book you put i n the box i s the fi rst one out when you remove them.
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) A di ode that emi ts li ght when i t i s for-
ward bi ased ( Fi g. L.11) . I f you have a PC, your hard-dri ve i ndi cator and
power i ndi cator on the front are both LEDs. LEDs emi t coherent li ght,
whi ch i s li ght that i s very close to one frequency ( one color) .
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 399
Lightning Protector A devi ce used i n telephone-company network
i nterfaces that provi des an easi er path for li ghtni ng to travel to ground,
compared to a telephone user, or i nsi de wi ri ng ( Fi g. L.12) . Before li ght-
ni ng protectors, houses burned down because of li ghtni ng stri ki ng the
telephone li nes. T he two types of li ghtni ng protectors are carbon and
400 Lightning Protector
Figure L.11 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Figure L.12 Lightning Protector (100 Pair)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 400
gas. T he carbon protectors are si mply a pi ece of carbon that connects
ti p and ri ng to ground. T he gas protectors are the same, except that a
gas i s i nserted i nstead of soli d carbon. T he good thi ng about gas-
li ghtni ng protectors i s that after they are hi t by li ghti ng, they do not need
to be replaced and are reusable.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) A centrali zed data-
base di rectory that can be used by many devi ces, such as an I P tele-
phone system, e-mai l di rectory, I VR system, and ACD system. Si nce
LDAPs development at the Uni versi ty of Mi chi gan i n 1997, i t has be-
come a de facto standard due to i ts wi de use as a means for accessi ng
X.500 ( and more recently, non-X.500) di rectory systems.
Limited-Distance Modem (LDM) Also called a short-haul modem or
li ne dri ver. Short-haul modems are commonly used to extend the di s-
tance of a pri nter or other DTE (Data-Termination Equipment) devi ce
from i ts host ( Fi g. L.13) . One example i s to extend the pri nter dedi cated
to pri nti ng-call accounti ng records from a PBX to an accountants offi ce.
Limited-Distance Modem (LDM) 401
PBX
PC/Call Accounting
Software
Short-Haul Modem
Short-Haul
Modem
Short-Haul
Modem
Short-Haul
Modem
CDR Print
Out
300
CDR
Data
300
ASCII Printer
ACCOUNTANTS OFFICE SWITCH / TELEPHONE
ROOM
SHORT-HAUL MODEM APPLICATION
Figure L.13 Limited-Distance Modem (LDM), Also Called Short-Haul Modem
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 401
Limited-Resource Link A connecti on, pri vate li ne, or swi tched li ne that
i s only acti ve when bei ng used for transmi ssi on. Limited-resource link
can be a reference to a parameter setti ng on a routers port or a refer-
ence to a connecti on that i s shared by a si ngle devi ce or multi ple de-
vi ces.
Limited Router Explorer Packet See Spanning Explorer Packet.
Line Line by itself refers to a POT S ( plai n old telephone servi ce) li ne.
Any other telephone servi ce li ne i s preceded by the li ne type, such as,
56K pri vate li ne, I SDN li ne, and 56K swi tched-servi ce li ne.
Line Card A ci rcui t board that i s i nserted i nto a PBX or Hybri d K ey sys-
tem so that addi ti onal telephone li nes can be i nterfaced wi th the network.
Typi cal li ne cards gi ve an expandabi li ty of 4, 8, or 16 addi ti onal li ne ports
on the PBX system. Most PBX and K ey K SU cabi nets come wi th a stan-
dard number of card slots, and the users can buy however many cards
they need. After i nserti ng a new card i nto a system, each new trunk needs
to be confi gured. Usually the CPU i n the system does not recogni ze the
addi ti onal li ne ports unti l i t i s programmed or told to. After i t i s pro-
grammed i t wi ll traffi c outgoi ng/i ncomi ng calls accordi ngly.
Line Conditioning A term that refers to modi fyi ng a twi sted copper pai r
i n an outsi de plant network so i t can carry a di gi tal data si gnal i nstead
of an analog voi ce si gnal. Twi sted pai r ci rcui ts ( a ci rcui t i s a local loop,
whi ch i s the pai r that connects the central offi ce to the customer) are
condi ti oned by addi ng noi se fi lteri ng electroni c components to them.
Line Current T he average current of a telephone li ne when the recei ver
i s off hook i s about 35 mi lli amps, whi ch i s 0.035 amps.
Line Driver Also called a short-haul modem or limited-distance mo-
dem. Short-haul modems are commonly used to extend the di stance of
a pri nter or other DTE (Data-Termination Equipment) devi ce from i ts
host. One example i s to extend the pri nter dedi cated to pri nti ng call-
accounti ng records from a PBX to an accountants offi ce. For a di agram,
see Limited-Distance Modem.
Line Equipment Also referred to as OE (Office Equipment). T he li ne
equi pment i s the actual i nterface port ( from a ci rcui t card) on the
central offi ce swi tch i n a telephone-company central offi ce. I t i s the
equi valent to a stati on or IPE (Intelligent Peripheral Equipment) card
i n a PBX system ( T N, for Nortel Speci fi cs) . Each telephone li ne has an
associ ated li ne-equi pment or offi ce-equi pment i nterface. T hat parti cular
402 Limited-Resource Link
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 402
port i s what defi nes the telephone servi ce provi ded to the customer con-
nected to i t vi a the OSP network. T he CPU ( core) of the central-offi ce
swi tch associ ates a phone number wi th a li ne-equi pment port or OE.
When a customer of the phone company calls and requests that thei r
phone number be changed, the servi ce order eventually fi nds i ts way to
a central-offi ce techni ci an or servi ce translator that reprograms the li ne
equi pment wi th a new phone number.
Line Lock Out A reacti on of a central offi ce when a phone li ne i s left
off hook. I f you leave the phone off the hook, you get a loud Ringer Off
Hook alert si gnal. T he si gnal i s transmi tted for about a mi nute, then the
telephone company central offi ce locks the li ne out. T hi s doesnt put the
li ne out of servi ce, i t j ust stops sendi ng the current down the li ne that
i t normally would. When a phone i s off hook, the central offi ce sends 20
to 30 mi lli amps down the li ne. I f a phone i s off hook, i t wastes power, so
the central offi ce locks the li ne out. T hi s uses only 1 to 2 mA of current.
T he central-offi ce swi tch keeps the li ne locked out unti l i t can sense the
phone has been placed back on the hook.
Line Loop Back (LLB) A troubleshooti ng functi on of CSU/DSU equi p-
ment and smart j acks, where the recei ve pai r of a ci rcui t i s connected
di rectly back i nto the transmi tter ( or a person manually di sconnecti ng
DT E and connecti ng recei ve to transmi t) . T he obj ect i s to test the trans-
mi ssi on li ne. I f the transmi ssi on equi pment transmi ts a si gnal that i s
looped back to i t and i t recei ves i ts own si gnal wi th no errors, then the
li ne i s ok. I f there i s a problem, i t i s i nsi de or i t i s beyond the recei vi ng
equi pment ( Fi gs. L.14 and L.15) .
Line Loop Back (LLB) 403
Figure L.14 Line Loop Back (LLB): Bantam Loop-Back Plugs for DSX
Panel Loop Backs
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 403
Line of Sight Another name for a terrestri al mi crowave li nk, also called
an eyeball shot. T he li nk i s made by two radi o transcei vers equi pped
wi th paraboli c di sh antennas poi nted di rectly at each other. Radi o can
carry poi nt-to-poi nt transmi ssi ons of many bandwi dths i ncludi ng DS1,
DS2, DS3, ST S1, and OC1. T hei r range can vary, dependi ng on the si ze
of the antenna ( di sh) , weather i n the regi on, and the amount of power
emi tted. I ncludi ng all of the previ ous factors, a li nk can range from 0 to
50 mi les.
Line Pool A group of telephone li nes or trunks confi gured i n a PBX ( i n
a PBX, a telephone i s assi gned to a pool, rather than a button) or key
system for speci fi c call purposes. Some speci fi c purposes i nclude group-
i ng or pooli ng several li nes under one button on a telephone. When
that button i s pushed, the user wi ll access one of the trunks from the
li ne pool that i t i s assi gned. T he li ne pool could be a WAT S servi ce or
a group of li nes dedi cated for outgoi ng calls, so i ncomi ng calls are not
blocked because of too many agents maki ng outgoi ng calls at one ti me.
Line Powered Telephone equi pment that i s powered by the telephone
company central offi ce-battery and ri ng voltage. Standard 2500 tele-
phones ( noncordless analog phones, such as the ones i n your house that
have no answeri ng machi ne or are hands free) are li ne powered. T hey
requi re no battery and no power adapter.
Line Protocol T he organi zed processes and rules that communi cati ons
equi pment use to transfer bi ts and bytes ( data) . T here are many
404 Line of Sight
T1 transmission
Equipment
CSU/DSU
SERVER
T
R T
R
T
T
R
NORMAL TRANSMISSION
MODE
T1 transmission
equipment
CSU/DSU
SERVER
R
T R
R T
T
R
LOOPBACK MODE
BANTAM or REMOTE
LOOPBACK
Figure L.15 Line Loop Back (LLB): Normal Operating Mode Vs. Loopback Mode
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 404
communi cati ons protocols, and layers of protocols that carry other pro-
tocols ( called protocol stacks) , i ncludi ng I SDN, Ethernet, token ri ng,
POT S si gnali ng, DS1, AT M, frame relay, and SONET.
Line Queuing T he opposi te of call queui ng ( as i n an ACD system) . Some
telephone systems have a feature called line queuing. I f you try to di al
out and you cannot get an outsi de li ne, you are put i n queue, a wai ti ng
li ne for the next avai lable trunk. Some systems can gi ve musi c as i f you
were on hold for the li ne and some can ri ng your phone back. Back to
call queui ng, ACD systems place i ncomi ng calls i n queue for the next
avai lable agent.
Line Ringing A feature of telephone systems that enables a user to en-
able a phone to ri ng when speci fi c li nes are called. When the user pro-
grams or confi gures a speci fi c telephone extensi on/stati on/set, a prompt
usually says li ne ri ngi ng. T he user then enters the li nes that they
would li ke to ri ng on that phone. T he user would then enter the cor-
respondi ng li ne ports of the telephone system, ( i .e., 1, 2, and 5 for the
three associ ated li ne ports. Li ne 555-1234 termi nates on port 1, li ne
555-4321 termi nates on port 2, li ne 555-1111 termi nates on port 5) .
When any of these li nes are called, the telephone extensi on/stati on/set
wi ll ri ng.
Line Switching See Circuit Switching.
Line Termination A reference to a demarcati on poi nt that gi ves a
telecommuni cati ons customer access to thei r servi ce.
Line Turn Around (LTA) T he ti me requi red ( i n mi lli seconds) for
a two-wi re telecommuni cati ons ci rcui t to reverse i ts transmi ssi on
di recti on. A typi cal LT A i s 1.5 ms. See also Network Transit Time
Delay.
Line Turn-Around Time T he delay between transmi t and recei ve i n a
transmi ssi on.
Line Voltage A reference to the voltage on a pai r. T 1 li ne voltage i s 135
volts, loopstart li ne voltage ( POT S) i s 52 volts, and the li ne voltage for
most PBX and key systems i s 24 volts.
Line Wrench A wrench desi gned to fi t the tool slot of a safety belt
( Fi g. L.16) . I ts pri mary use i s to i nstall/remove pole steps and pole at-
tachments.
Line Wrench 405
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Linear Distortion Usually referred to as Non-Li near Di storti on. Non-li near
di storti on i s caused i n ampli fi er ci rcui ts when the collector current i n the
ampli fyi ng transi stor i s i nsuffi ci ent to make the transi stor work wi thi n the
opti mal range ( the li near range) of i ts transconductance curve. T he
resultant di storti on i s that the top half of the si gnal ( or posi ti ve porti on) i s
larger than the bottom half ( negati ve porti on) . I n some cases, the negati ve
porti on of the si gnal can actually be attenuated, rather than ampli fi ed.
Linearity T he consi stent regenerati on of a si gnal through an electroni c
ci rcui t. I f a ci rcui t ampli fi es a 5-volt si gnal two ti mes, 10 volts should be
the resultant output. I f the ci rcui t i s truly li near, rai si ng the 5-volt i nput
to 7 volts would gi ve a resultant output of 14-volts.
Lineman An obsolete term that used to refer to a person that mai ntai ned
and i nstalled telephone li nes and servi ces. T he new term i s network
technician.
Lines of Force I magi nary li nes drawn around a magneti c or magneti zed
obj ect that represent the di recti on and polari ty ( north and south) of the
magneti c fi eld around i t.
406 Linear Distortion
Figure L.16 Line Wrench
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 406
Link 1. A connecti on, logi cal or physi cal, that connects two communi ca-
ti ons enti ti es and allows them to exchange i nformati on. T he enti ti es can
be ei ther hardware devi ces ( such as a workstati on or mi crowave di sh) or
software appli cati ons ( such as an I nternet Web browser or software ac-
counti ng program) . See also Data-Link Connection Identifier. 2. I n
network routi ng, an i nterface on a router.
Link Budget I n radi o transmi ssi ons, a li nk budget i s a rough calculati on
of all known elements of the li nk to determi ne i f the si gnal has the proper
strength when i t reaches the other end of the li nk. To make thi s calcu-
lati on, the followi ng i nformati on i s generally used: frequency of the li nk,
free space path loss, power of the transmi tter, antenna gai n, length of
transmi ssi on cable and i ts loss, and path length. See also Earth Bulge,
Fresnel Zone, and Free Space Path Loss.
Link Fragmentation and Interleave (LFI) I n I P telephony envi ron-
ments, a QoS method of managi ng voi ce packets over li nks that are slower
than 768 K bps. Because these li nks are consi dered slow i n relati on to
the 100 Mbps LAN Ethernet speeds, they requi re addi ti onal QoS atten-
ti on to enhance thei r effi ci ency.
Link-Layer Address Another name for MAC Address (Media-Access
Control Address). A standardi zed OSI (Open-Systems Architecture
model) data-li nk layer i denti fi er that i s manufactured i nto every port or
devi ce that connects to a LAN. Network-control devi ces use MAC ad-
dresses to create and update routi ng tables and network data structures.
MAC addresses are si x bytes long. T he I EEE delegates MAC address
number ranges to manufacturi ng compani es worldwi de. MAC addresses
are also called hardware addresses, MAC-layer addresses, or physi-
cal addresses. See also Network Address.
Link Level T he actual telecommuni cati ons li ne or the connecti on be-
tween two modems. Link level i s generally a reference to an OSI
physi cal-layer transport method, such as DS1, DSL, or V.35.
Link-State Advertisement (LSA) Also called an LSP (Link-State
Packet). I t i s a broadcast packet used by routers i n a li nk-state network
routi ng envi ronment. T hese packets provi de address i nformati on to
nei ghbori ng routers about paths and costs. LSAs are the resource wi thi n
a li nk-state routi ng protocol that gathers i nformati on used to bui ld and
mai ntai n routi ng tables. See also Link-State Routing Algorithm.
Link-State Packet (LSP) Usually called a link-state advertisement.
I t i s a broadcasted data uni t used by routers i n a li nk-state network
Link-State Packet (LSP) 407
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 407
routi ng envi ronment. T hese data uni ts provi de address i nformati on to
nei ghbori ng routers about paths and costs. LSPs are the resource
wi thi n a li nk-state routi ng protocol that gathers i nformati on used to
bui ld and mai ntai n routi ng tables. See also Link-State Routing Algo-
rithm.
Link-State Routing Algorithm T he basi s of li nk-state routi ng proto-
cols. Also referred to as SPF (Shortest Path First) or Dijkstras Algo-
rithm. A class of router operati ng software that enables routers to bui ld
thei r own complex address routi ng tables that detai l every router and
node wi thi n thei r network. T he routi ng-table bui ldi ng process i s accom-
pli shed through routers exchangi ng li nk-state adverti sements. See also
Dijkstras Algorithm.
Link-State Routing Protocol Also known as Shortest Path First ( SPF) ,
Distributed Routing Protocol, and the speci fi c routi ng protocols I GRP
and Open Shortest Path First OSPF. A li nk state protocol i s a method-
ology used i n router protocol desi gn. T hi s methodology enables routers
wi thi n an autonomous network ( i .e., corporate LAN) to i denti fy each
other and the status of thei r port connecti ons. Li nk state routi ng proto-
cols create three databases wi thi n a routers memory: a nei ghbori ng
router database, a li nk database, and a routi ng table. T he routi ng table
i s created by applyi ng Dykstras algori thm to the fi rst two databases. See
also OSPF.
Link State Update (LSU) I n OSPF routi ng, a packet sent to an ABR
( Area Borer Router) or DR ( Desi gnated Router) when a li nk status
changes. I n response to thi s packet, the ABR or DR sends a li nk state
ACK message and then stops forwardi ng packets. I t recalculates i ts
routi ng database wi th the new i nformati on and sends the li nk state data-
base change to the other routers wi thi n i ts area. T hen, duri ng a short
delay, i t recalculates i ts routi ng database and begi ns forwardi ng pack-
ets agai n. T hi s same process happens for the rest of the routers wi thi n
i ts area.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) See LCD.
Little Endian A method of transmi tti ng or stori ng data where the least-
si gni fi cant bi t or byte i s presented fi rst. T he opposi te i s bi g-endi an, where
the most-si gni fi cant bi t or byte i s presented fi rst.
LLB (Line Loop Back) A troubleshooti ng functi on of CSU/DSU
equi pment and Smart Jacks where the recei ve pai r of a ci rcui t i s
connected di rectly back i nto the transmi t ( or a person manually
408 Link-State Routing Algorithm
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LNB Converter (Low-Noise Block Converter) 409
di sconnecti ng DT E and connecti ng recei ve to transmi t) . T he obj ect
i s to test the transmi ssi on li ne. I f the transmi ssi on equi pment trans-
mi ts a si gnal that i s looped back to i t and i t recei ves i ts own si gnal
wi th no errors, then the li ne i s ok. I f there i s a problem i t i s i nsi de or
i t i s beyond the recei vi ng equi pment. For a di agram see Line Loop
Back.
LLC (Logical Link Control) T he upper half or sublayer of the OSIs
(Open Systems Interconnect model) data-li nk layer. T he LLC sub-layer
handles error control, flow control, frami ng, and the addressi ng for the
lower half of the data-li nk layer MAC (Media-Access Control) address-
i ng. T he most prevalent LLC protocol i s I EEE 802.2, whi ch i ncludes both
connecti onless and connecti on-ori ented vari ants. See also Open Systems
Interconnect and Media-Access Control.
LMI (Local Management Interface) LM I i s a set of software en-
hancements to the basi c frame-relay speci fi cati on. T he enhancements
i nclude the followi ng: the abi li ty to i ntegrate wi th a keep-ali ve mecha-
ni sm, whi ch veri fi es that connecti ons ( DLCI s) are worki ng; a multi cast
mechani sm, whi ch provi des the network server wi th i ts local DLCI
(Data-Link Connection Identifier); the multi cast DLCI , global
addressi ng, whi ch gi ves all DLCI s i n a network the same value for all
routers; and a status mechani sm, whi ch provi des an on-goi ng status re-
port on the DLCI s known to the swi tch. T he customers appli cati on
sends status i nqui ri es to the servi ce provi ders network, and the net-
work returns the requested i nformati on. T he LM I data ri des wi thi n the
customer-data part of the frame-relay frame, usi ng the DLCI values 0
or 1023 ( see DLCI) . T he more-advanced LM I appli cati on i s called
CLLM (Consolidated Link-Layer Management). CLLM has the abi l-
i ty to report congesti on control for each i ndi vi dual DLCI on the net-
work.
LMOS (Line-Maintenance Operating System) A computer program
that RBOCs use to track outsi de and i nsi de telephone faci li ti es.
LMSS (Land-Mobile Satellite Service) A satelli te communi cati ons
servi ce that uti li zes low-level satelli tes for communi cati ons over a wi de-
spread geographi cal area.
LNB Converter (Low-Noise Block Converter) T he devi ce that
houses the actual antenna on a satelli te di sh. T he LNB also converts
the K u band ( extremely hi gh frequency) to C band, whi ch can easi ly
be carri ed from a satelli te di sh to a nearby head-end bui ldi ng over coax
( Fi g. L.17) .
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 409
Figure L.18 Load-Coil Detector
410 Load Balancing
Figure L.17 LNB (Low-Noise Block) Converter: Ku Band to C Band
Load Balancing A reference to the desi gni ng/engi neeri ng a PBX or
central-offi ce swi tch so that each network group shares the traffi c work
load or the desi gn/engi neeri ng of a data network to evenly share multi ple
communi cati ons paths. Some equi pment ( i n both telephone and data) wi ll
automati cally compensate for a lost communi cati ons path or network group.
Load Coil A load coi l i s a voi ce-ampli fyi ng devi ce for twi sted-pai r wi re. A
load coi l i s usually placed on each twi sted pai r used for a voi ce li ne every
3000 feet past a central offi ce. Coi ls are usually located i n vaults, wi th
twi sted-pai r spli ces. A typi cal load coi l has an i nductance of 30 mH. Other
coi ls, used for other appli cati ons, are usually referred to as choke coils.
Load-Coil Detector A test devi ce used to detect unseen load coi ls on a
pai r of wi re ( Fi g. L.18) .
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 410
Loaded Line A twi sted copper pai r that has load coi ls i n place. Loaded
li nes are for voi ce telephone li nes. To make a di gi tal si gnal, such as a T 1,
work on a twi sted pai r, the telephone company must fi rst remove the load
coi ls.
Local-Access Transport Area (LATA) Si mply stated, a LATA i s an area
code. Inter LATA refers to servi ces that go from one area code to
another, li ke long-di stance telephone calls. Intra LATA refers to serv-
i ces that ori gi nate and termi nate i n the same area code.
Local Air Time Detail T he li st of phone calls i temi zed on a cellular or
PCS telephone bi ll.
Local-Area Network (LAN) See LAN.
Local-Area Network Emulation (LANE) An added feature of AT M
networks that allows SVCs (Switched Virtual Circuits) wi thi n them to
be confi gured to functi on as a LAN backbone. I n i ts raw form, AT M does
not provi de data-li nk layer and network-layer protocol support. LANE
fi lls i n the gap by provi di ng multi cast and broadcast support, address
mappi ng ( MAC layer to AT M) , SVC management, and a usable packet
format. T he LANE AT M speci fi cati on also defi nes Ethernet and token-
ri ng emulated LANs. See also ELAN.
Local-Area Signal Service (LASS) See LASS.
Local Call A telephone call that ori gi nates and termi nates wi thi n the
same carri ers network or generally wi thi n the same area code. A call
that does not i ncur addi ti onal charges for long di stance. T he determi n-
i ng factor between whether calls wi ll be long di stance or local i s the tar-
i ff ( laws that regulate cost of telephone servi ce made by the FCC and
local governi ng PUC) that the local telephone company operates.
Local Central Office (LSO) Local Servi ng Offi ce. A central offi ce that
performs telecommuni cati ons swi tchi ng for a speci fi c number-plan area.
T he number-plan area i s currently defi ned by the fi rst three di gi ts of a
seven-di gi t telephone number. When number portabi li ty takes effect, a
local central offi ce wi ll no longer be defi ned as i ts number-plan area. I t
wi ll be defi ned by the laws set forth by the PUC and the area i ts outsi de
plant reaches. Typi cal swi tchi ng systems i nstalled i n central offi ces i n
North Ameri ca are Lucent Technologi es 5ESS and Northern Telecoms
DMS fami ly of swi tches. T here are fi ve classes of central offi ces and a
local central offi ce i s a class fi ve. T here are fi ve maj or parts to a central
offi ce. As a whole, these parts are referred to as inside plant. For a di -
agram, see Central Office.
Local Central Office (LSO) 411
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 411
Local Circuit Carrier Identification I n the Uni ted States, to i denti fy
the carri er of a local/i n-state toll calls on a telephone ci rcui t, di al 1 ( area
code) 700-4141 from the li ne i n questi on. See also Long-Distance Car-
rier Identification.
Local Distribution Frame Also called Main Distribution Frame
(MDF). T he place where all the wi re, fi ber opti c, or coax for a network
i s termi nated. T he di stri buti on frame i s usually placed as close to the
central-offi ce swi tch or PBX as possi ble.
Local Exchange A reference to the servi ng area of a central offi ce. Un-
ti l number portabi li ty takes effect, the fi rst three di gi ts of your seven-
di gi t telephone number defi nes the exchange ( speci fi c central offi ce)
you are located i n. After number portabi li ty takes effect, an exchange
wi ll be defi ned as the tari ffs and laws set forth by the local governi ng
PUC. Your telephone number wi ll be associ ated to you, rather than a
central-offi ce equi pment port or address. You and your phone number
wi ll be tracked i n a nati onal database that allows you to take your phone
number anywhere you move to, or any phone company you swi tch to,
wi thi n an area code. Eventually, you wi ll even be able to transfer your
number to a cellular or PCS phone.
Local Exchange Carrier (LEC) M ost commonly, a reference to one
of the seven RBOCs. A telephone company that provi des telecommu-
ni cati ons servi ces to end users and bi lls them for i t. A local exchange
carri er has swi tchi ng networks and outsi de plant or cellular servi ce to
serve i ts customers. Examples of local exchange carri ers are: NYNEX,
USWest, GT E, PAC BELL, Southern Bell Telephone, and a myri ad of
cellular telephone-servi ce provi ders. T he newest breed of Local Ex-
change Carri ers are CLECs ( Competi ti ve Local Exchange Carri ers) .
T hey have all the same servi ces as the RBOCs except they are gener-
ally only located i n large metropoli tan areas. Some larger CLECs i n-
clude AT & T local, ELI ( Electri c Li ghtwave, I nc.) , M CI /Worldcom, and
M FS ( M etropoli tan Fi ber Systems) . CLECs use ( almost exclusi vely)
SONET i n conj uncti on wi th DCS as the foundati on of thei r network ar-
chi tecture.
Local Explorer Packet A si gnal generated by a workstati on or other
end-user devi ce i n an SRB (Source-Route Bridging) network to fi nd
another host/end-user devi ce connected to the local ri ng. I f the local ex-
plorer packet fai ls to fi nd the sought host wi thout passi ng through a
router, then ei ther a spanni ng explorer packet or an all-routes explorer
packet i s sent. T he latter packets then search the larger LAN or WAN
for the sought devi ce.
412 Local Circuit Carrier Identification
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 412
Local Traffic Filtering A process by whi ch a bri dge or router recog-
ni zes and does not forward ( drops) frames whose source and desti na-
ti on M AC addresses are located on the same i nterface port, thus pre-
venti ng unnecessary traffi c from bei ng forwarded across the bri dge.
T he standard for thi s i s defi ned as a part of a spanni ng tree i n I EEE
802.1.
Local Loop T he pai r of wi res that extends from the local telephone com-
panys central-offi ce mai n-di stri buti on frame to the customers prem-
i ses.
Local Management Interface (LMI) LMI i s a set of software en-
hancements to the basi c frame-relay speci fi cati on. T he enhancements
i nclude the followi ng: the abi li ty to i ntegrate wi th a keep-ali ve mecha-
ni sm, whi ch veri fi es that connecti ons are worki ng; a multi cast mecha-
ni sm, whi ch provi des the network server wi th i ts local DLCI (Data-Link
Connection Identifier); the multi cast DLCI , global addressi ng, whi ch
gi ves all DLCI s i n a network the same value for all routers; and a status
mechani sm, whi ch provi des an on-goi ng status report on the DLCI s
known to the swi tch.
Local Service Area T he geographi cal area that a customer can make
calls wi thout bei ng bi lled addi ti onally for long di stance.
Local Tandem A telephone company central-offi ce swi tch that has the abi l-
i ty to connect or swi tch calls from two di fferent central offi ces ( Fi g. L.19) .
Local Traffic Filtering 413
Class-4 Local
Exchange Tandem
Class-5 Local
Exchange office
Class-5 Local
Exchange office
Class-5 Local
Exchange office
Long-Distance
Carrier
A Class-5 Local
Service Tandem
and How It
Interconnects
Other Networks
Figure L.19 Local Tandem
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 413
414 Local Trunk
TRUTH TABLE
A
C
B
AND GATE
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Figure L.20 Logic
Local Trunk A trunk that i s fed by a local central-offi ce swi tch, as op-
posed to a long-di stance carri er WAT S servi ce.
Lock Code A code that a cellular telephone user can di al i nto thei r phone
to prevent any calls from bei ng made on i t. After the code i s entered
agai n, the phone i s able to make calls.
Logic A mathemati cal process fi rst developed by the I ri sh mathemati ci an
George Boole i n the 1850s. T he premi ses of logi c i s to know i f a certai n
statement i s true or false. An example i s the li ght i s on. T hi s statement
can only be true or false. Logi c couples thi s statement wi th others, such
as the swi tch i s on, the power i s on; therefore, the li ght must be on. I f
the swi tch i s off and the power i s on, then the li ght i s off. I f the swi tch i s
on and the power i s off, then the li ght i s off. T hese statements depi ct the
truth table for an AND electroni c logi c gate, whi ch i s a pri mary bui ldi ng
block of mi croprocessors. I n the table depi cted, the li ght swi tch would be
A, the power would be B, and the li ght bulb would be C. Truth ta-
bles are wri tten i n ones and zeros, rather than ons and offs. T he sci ence
of thi s math i s called Boolean Algebra. I t i s a book i n i tself and i s usually
explai ned qui te well i n textbooks that cover di gi tal electroni cs ( Fi g. L.20) .
Logical Address Another name for network address. See Network Ad-
dress.
Logical Bus A LAN logi cal topology. T he logi cal topology defi nes the way
that a LAN communi cates. T he physi cal topology defi nes the way that a
LAN i s physi cally wi red. For example, even though an Ethernet network
mi ght be physi cally wi red i nto the formati on of a star, i t really works as
though i t were a bus. T he wi re i s j ust physi cally lai d out and connected
di fferently and the electroni cs are a li ttle di fferent.
Logical Channel A multi plexed channel or frame-swi tched medi a ( such
as frame relay) , where there i s no physi cal wi re, fi ber, radi o or coax path,
but wi thi n the protocol stack i s a communi cati ons path.
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 414
Logical Channel Identifier (LCI) Another name for logical channel
number. See Logical Channel Number.
Logical Channel Number (LCN) I n X.25, an i denti fi er of a vi rtual ci r-
cui t that wi ll be used for all transmi ssi ons wi thi n the durati on of a call.
X.25 can support up to 4095 LCNs total i n both di recti ons for transmi t-
ti ng and recei vi ng. LCNs exi st for the same purpose i n X.25 as a DLCI
(Digital-Link Connection Identifier) exi sts i n frame relay. I t i s a tem-
porary vi rtual path used between network routi ng devi ces. T he LCN i s
not a permanent vi rtual ci rcui t, such as the type that a multi plexer would
provi de. T he LCN represents one of the temporary users of a permanent
vi rtual ci rcui t. See also X.25 Control-Packet Header Structure. 2. T he
channel number address that ri des along wi th a packet of data i n sta-
ti sti cal ti me-di vi si on multi plexi ng.
Logical Link See Logical Channel.
Logical Link Control (LLC) T he upper half or sublayer of the OSIs
(Open Systems Interconnect model) data-li nk layer. T he LLC sublayer
handles error control, flow control, frami ng, and the addressi ng for the
lower half of the data-li nk layer MAC (Media-Access Control) addressi ng.
T he most prevalent LLC protocol i s I EEE 802.2, whi ch i ncludes both
connecti onless and connecti on-ori ented vari ants. See also Open Systems
Interconnect and Media-Access Control.
Logical Ring A LAN that operates as a ri ng-type protocol ( logi cal topol-
ogy) even though i t i s physi cally wi red as a star ( physi cal topology) .
Long Distance A telephone call or telecommuni cati ons servi ce that ori g-
i nates wi thi n one local servi ce area ( usually an area code) and termi -
nates i n another.
Long-Distance Carrier Identification I n the Uni ted States, to i den-
ti fy the long di stance out-of-state call carri er for a telephone ci rcui t,
di al 1-700-555-4141 from the li ne i n questi on. See also Local Circuit
Carrier Identification.
Long Haul See Long Distance.
Long Haul Modem A modem that i s capable of transmi tti ng beynd di s-
tances of one mi le. See also Short-Haul Modem.
Long Reach A reference to SONET fi ber-opti c spans or li nks longer than
25 ki lometers.
Long Reach 415
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Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) A method of checki ng for er-
rors i n communi cati ons transmi ssi ons by combi ni ng verti cal error check-
i ng and longi tudi nal error checki ng ( Fi g. L.21) . A transmi ssi on devi ce
sends data i n bytes that are logi cally stacked on top of each other. T he
stack forms a block. T he last bi t of each li ne i s used to form a check se-
quence. LRC i s about 85% accurate i n detecti ng and retransmi tti ng
blocks that contai n errors. T he newer method of error checki ng i s CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Checking).
Look-Up Table A translati on table i n a PBX system. Translati on tables
convert di aled number protocols i nto numbers that the publi c tele-
phone network can recogni ze.
Loop Also called a Local Loop. T he pai r of wi res that extends from the
local telephone companys central-offi ce mai n-di stri buti on frame to the
customers premi ses.
Loop Antenna A di recti onal antenna used mostly for UHF recepti ons.
Some older T Vs use small UHF loop antennas to recei ve broadcast chan-
nels from 13 to 83.
Loop Back Also called Line Loop Back. A troubleshooti ng functi on of
CSU/DSU equi pment and smart j acks, where the recei ve pai r of a ci r-
cui t i s connected di rectly back i nto the transmi t ( or a person manually
di sconnecti ng DT E and connecti ng recei ve to transmi t) . T he obj ect i s
416 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
DATA BLOCK
byte 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Even parity
byte 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
byte 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
byte 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
byte 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
byte 6 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
byte 7 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
byte 8 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
byte 10 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Longitudinal Parity Sequence (byte 9) SHADED
Vertical Parity Sequence (byte 10) Bottom
Row
LRC BIT
STREAM
byte 1 byte 2 byte 3 byte 4 byte 5 byte 6 byte 7 byte 8 byte 9 byte 10
10110111 10011010 01100001 11111111 00000000 11110000 00110011 10101011 100001 11001011
Figure L.21 Longitudinal Redundancy Chart (LRC)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 416
to test the transmi ssi on li ne. I f the transmi ssi on equi pment transmi ts a
si gnal that i s looped back to i t and i t recei ves i ts own si gnal wi th no
errors, then the li ne i s ok. I f there i s a problem, i t i s i nsi de or i t i s be-
yond the recei vi ng equi pment. For a di agram and photo, see Line Loop
Back.
Loop Down A command functi on that termi nates a loop-back state of a
publi c-provi ded ci rcui t. T he loop-back mode enables a user to test the
ci rcui t by recei vi ng i ts own transmi ssi on si gnal. Loop up i s a command
or term used to place a ci rcui t i n loop-back mode. See also Loop Up.
Loop Extender An add-on devi ce for a PBX swi tch or central-offi ce
swi tch that allows operati on over an abnormally long loop or twi sted pai r,
usually over 12, 000 feet for a central-offi ce swi tch and 1500 feet for a
PBX. Loop extenders are also called OPX (Off Premises Extension)
adapters for extendi ng a stati on/extensi on to a remote locati on ( over
1500 feet) .
Loop-Start Line A li ne that comes from a central offi ce. T he type of li ne
determi nes whi ch type of si gnali ng the li ne requi res to work. I f a li ne i s
dedi cated to one phone or group of phones ( li ke i n your house) , i t i s a
li ne. I f the li ne i s goi ng to be shared among many devi ces connected
together by a PBX or key system, then the li ne i s called a trunk.
A loop-start li ne i s a two-wi re central-offi ce trunk or di al-tone li ne that
recogni zes an off hook si tuati on when a telephone swi tch-hook puts a
1000-ohm short across the ti p and ri ng when the handset i s li fted. T hi s
i s the most common type of li ne. I t i s also called a POTS line and plain-
service line. Other types of li nes or trunks are: ground start and E& M
trunks, I SDN PRI , and I SDN BRI .
Loop-Start Trunk A trunk i s a li ne that comes from a central offi ce. T he
type of trunk determi nes whi ch type of si gnali ng the li ne requi res to
work. A loop-start trunk i s a two-wi re central-offi ce trunk or di al-tone
li ne that recogni zes an off hook si tuati on when a telephone swi tch hook
puts a 1000-ohm short across the ti p and ri ng when the handset i s li fted.
T hi s i s the most common type of li ne. I t i s also called a POTS line and
plain-service line. Other types of trunks are ground start, and E& M
trunks, I SDN PRI , and I SDN BRI .
Loop Up A command functi on performed by a techni ci an and/or test
equi pment, whi ch places a publi c-servi ce-provi ded ci rcui t i n loop-back
mode. Loop-back mode enables a user to test the ci rcui t by recei vi ng i ts
own transmi ssi on si gnal. Loop down i s a command functi on that removes
the loop back. See also Loop Down.
Loop Up 417
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Loop Up/Loop Down To loop up i s to put a CSU/DSU i n loopback mode.
To loop down i s to remove the loop back and resume normal opera-
ti on.
Loose Tube Buffer A PVC tube that i s about as bi g around as a dri nk-
i ng straw that has up to twelve opti cal fi bers wi thi n i t. T he i dea be-
hi nd a loose-tube buffer i s that when a cable i s bent, the fi bers i nsi de
wi ll have slack and freedom to move and naturally adj ust to the bend.
I f a fi ller i s i nsi de the loose tube, i t would crush or crack ( fracture)
the opti cal fi bers when the cable i s bent. T hi s would render them use-
less.
Loose Tube Splitter A tool used to open the shell that encases fi ber-
opti c strands ( Fi g. L.22) .
Loss T he reducti on of a si gnals voltage level as i t travels down a li ne,
measured i n deci bels. Attenuati on i s also called Loss because some si g-
nal i s always lost through resi stance and reactance. Opti cal li ghtwave
si gnals are also attenuated when they traverse through a fi ber opti c be-
cause of i mpuri ti es i n the fi ber opti c and the fact that li ght i ntensi ty de-
creases wi th di stance.
418 Loop Up/Loop Down
Figure L.22 Loose Tube Splitter
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Lossy A characteri sti c of a network that i s prone to lose packets when i t
experi ences hi gh levels of traffi c. T here are many reasons for networks
to mysteri ously di scard packets that shouldnt be lost i n ti mes of con-
gesti on. A si mple cause would be di fferent network nodes or swi tches
havi ng varyi ng traffi c-shapi ng parameter setti ngs or havi ng network
nodes that defi ne traffi c parameters di fferently.
Lost Call A call that di d not complete or was blocked because of a lack
of swi tchi ng faci li ti es.
Loudspeaker Paging A feature of PBX and key systems that allows a
user to connect the telephone system to an external pagi ng ampli fi er
and speakers. T he i nterface i s usually broken out onto a 66 block, then
cross connected to the i nput of a pagi ng ampli fi er. When a person wants
to page someone, the telephone system wi ll prompt the user to choose
internal or external ( or zone 1, 2, or 3) . I f the user chooses external,
then the page i s heard over the loudspeakers dri ven by the external am-
pli fi er i nstead of the telephone set speakers.
Low Frequency T he range of frequenci es between 30 and 300 kHz.
Low-Pass Filter An electroni c devi ce that eli mi nates frequenci es above
a speci fi ed frequency. T he two categori es of frequency fi lters are acti ve
and passi ve. Acti ve fi lters use acti ve devi ces that requi re power, such as
transi stors and 541 op amps to ampli fy the desi red si gnal and attenuate
the undesi red si gnal. Passi ve fi lters are made wi th components that do
not requi re external power, such as capaci tors and i nductors. Capaci tors
and i nductors have reacti ve properti es that cause them to resi st or pass
an AC si gnal.
LPT Port A logi cal desi gnati on for a group of I /O addresses that tells
a computer whi ch plug to send the pri nter communi cati ons to. LPT
ports are usually desi gnated LPT 0, LPT 1, and LPT 2.
LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Check) See Longitudinal Redun-
dancy Checking.
LSA 1. Leased Space Agreement. Also called a colocation or co-lo. A
leased-spaced agreement i s an arrangement that communi cati ons com-
pani es or communi cati ons servi ces vendors ( such as alarm compani es or
voi ce-mai l servi ce provi ders) make wi th telecommuni cati ons compani es
to use an area of a central offi ce or node to place thei r network-i nterface
equi pment. See also Colocation. 2. Link-State Advertisement. Also
called an LSP (Link-State Packet). I t i s a broadcast packet used
LSA 419
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 419
by routers i n a li nk-state network routi ng envi ronment. T hese packets
provi de address i nformati on to nei ghbori ng routers about paths and
costs. LSAs are the resource wi thi n a li nk-state routi ng protocol that
gathers i nformati on used to bui ld and mai ntai n routi ng tables. See
also Link-State Routing Algorithm. For a photo, see Leased-Space
Agreement.
LSB (Least-Significant Bit) T he bi t i n an octet that carri es the least
value. You can better understand thi s by compari ng i t to our base-10
numberi ng system. I magi ne a least-si gni fi cant number. I f you are
43 years old, the 4 i s the most si gni fi cant number and the 3 i s the least-
si gni fi cant number. I f the 4 were lost, then you would only be three ( a
very si gni fi cant di fference) , i t i s the most si gni fi cant compared to the 3.
I f the 3 were lost, you would sti ll be 40. LSB i s another way of sayi ng
least-si gni fi cant di gi t, whi ch i s used to round numbers off i n elemen-
tary mathemati cs. I n T 1 i n-band si gnaled ci rcui ts, least-si gni fi cant bi ts
are robbed from the bi t stream of the 6th and 12th sample i n each chan-
nel. T he voi ce-sample bi ts are replaced wi th si gnali ng i nformati on and
mai ntenance i nformati on bi ts.
LSI (Large-Scale Integration) Mi crochi p I Cs are classi fi ed as SSI
(Small-Scale Integration), MSI (Medium-Scale Integration), and LSI
(Large-Scale Integration). SSI I Cs contai n 12 or fewer devi ces, such as
logi c gates or transi stors. MSI I Cs contai n 13 to 99 devi ces and LSI I Cs
contai n 100 or more devi ces. T he typi cal CPU, such as a Penti um ( I ntel
trademark) mi croprocessor contai ns hundreds of thousands of devi ces.
For a photo of a VLSI devi ce, see Microchip.
LSP (Link-State Packet) Usually called a link-state advertisement.
I t i s a broadcasted data uni t used by routers i n a li nk-state network
routi ng envi ronment. T hese data uni ts provi de address i nformati on to
nei gh-bori ng routers about paths and costs. LSPs are the resource
wi thi n a li nk-state routi ng protocol that gathers i nformati on used to
bui ld and mai ntai n routi ng tables. See also Link-State Routing Algo-
rithm.
LSU (Link State Update) I n OSPF routi ng, a packet sent to an ABR
( Area Borer Router) or DR ( Desi gnated Router) when a li nk status
changes. I n response to thi s packet, the ABR or DR sends a li nk state
ACK message and then stops forwardi ng packets. I t recalculates i ts rout-
i ng database wi th the new i nformati on and sends the li nk state database
change to the other routers wi thi n i ts area. T hen, duri ng a short delay,
i t recalculates i ts routi ng database and begi ns forwardi ng packets agai n.
T hi s same process happens for the rest of the routers wi thi n i ts area.
420 LSB (Least-Significant Bit)
PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 420
LTA (Line Turnaround) T he ti me requi red ( i n mi lli seconds) for a two-
wi re telecommuni cati ons ci rcui t to reverse i ts transmi ssi on di recti on. A
typi cal LTA i s 1.5 ms. See also Network Transit Time Delay.
Lug More frequently called a binding post. A lug or bi ndi ng post i s a
small threaded bolt wi th a nut used to attach wi res. T he bi ndi ng post
usually has a number, whi ch i s a reference used to i denti fy where twi sted
copper pai rs are termi nated i n access poi nts, cross boxes, and termi nals.
When a techni ci an looks for a speci fi c pai r i n a cable ( called a cable
pair) , they refer to documents that li st the pai rs and whi ch bi ndi ng posts
they are spli ced to.
Lug 421
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PQ104_5056F-PL.qxd 2/10/01 12:28 PM Page 422
M Plane One of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network management.
T he three planes are: T he User Plane ( the U Plane defi nes the trans-
fer of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane defi nes the
LMI , Local Management I nterface) , and the Control Plane ( the C Plane
i s delegated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) . T he M Plane
( also called the Local Management Interface, LMI ) reports the status
and confi gurati on of connecti ons to the FRAD (Frame-Relay Access De-
vice). I t provi des noti fi cati on of the addi ti on, deleti on, avai labi li ty, and
presence of all Data-Link Connections (DLCs). I t also provi des the ex-
change sequence that mai ntai ns the data connecti ons when they are not
i n use ( also called keep-alive data) .
M1 A reference to the Meri di an 1 PBX (Private Branch Exchange)
swi tchi ng system manufactured by Nortel Networks.
Ma Bell A reference to AT & T the company that i s sai d to have gi ven
bi rth to the Baby Bells, better known as the RBOCs.
MAC (Media-Access Control) T he protocol ( there are several types,
e.g., Ethernet MAC) that determi nes the transmi ssi on of i nformati on on
a local-area network. T he MAC i s a part of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnect model) data-li nk layer that i nterfaces wi th the physi cal
layer. T he MAC i s referred to as a sublayer of the data-li nk layer. I ts
purpose i s to manage the transfer of data to the wi re or fi ber opti c,
as requi red by the used protocol. See also Data-Link Layer and LLC.
423
M
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 423
424 MAC Address (Media-Access Control Address)
VENDOR CODE SERIAL NUMBER
MAC/Physical Address
24 Bits 24 Bits
Figure M.1 Mac Address (Also Called a Physical Address)
MAC Address (Media-Access Control Address) A standardi zed OSI
(Open Systems Architecture model) data-li nk layer i denti fi er that i s
manufactured ( burned i nto ROM) i nto every port or devi ce that con-
nects to a LAN. Network-control devi ces use MAC addresses to create
and update routi ng tables and network data structures. MAC addresses
are si x bytes long ( 48 bi ts) . T he fi rst 24 bi ts of the address are a
vendor/manufacturer code, and the next 24 bi ts are the i nterface seri al
number ( Fi g. M.1) . T he I EEE delegates MAC address number ranges to
manufacturi ng compani es worldwi de. MAC addresses are also called
hardware addresses, MAC-layer addresses, or physical addresses.
See also Network Address.
MAC Address Learning Servi ce that characteri zes a learni ng bri dge, i n
whi ch the source MAC address of each recei ved packet i s stored so that
future packets desti ned for that address can be forwarded only to the bri dge
i nterface on whi ch that address i s located. Packets desti ned for unrecog-
ni zed addresses are forwarded out every bri dge i nterface. T hi s scheme helps
to mi ni mi ze traffi c on the attached LANs. MAC address learni ng i s defi ned
i n the I EEE 802.1 standard. See also Learning Bridge and MAC Address.
Machine Language T he lowest-level programmi ng language. PROMs are
the key to machi ne language. T hey contai n i nstructi ons that assi st the
mi croprocessor i n decodi ng the 8-, 16-, or 32-bi t i nstructi ons i nto func-
ti ons that the mi croprocessor executes. T he i nstructi ons ( machi ne-
language scri pts) are burned i nto the PROM when i t i s programmed.
Typi cal machi ne-language i nstructi ons i nclude: MOV A, M, whi ch i s ac-
tually entered as an OP-Code of 167, i nstructs a mi croprocessor to move
the contents of memory address A to memory address M. Another ma-
chi ne i nstructi on i s OUT, entered as an OP-Code of 323, whi ch i nstructs
a mi croprocessor to move the contents of the previ ous memory address
to a port that i s i denti fi ed i n the next i nstructi on.
MacIP Network layer protocol that encapsulates I P packets i n DDP pack-
ets for transmi ssi on over AppleTalk. MacI P also provi des proxy ARP serv-
i ces. See also DDP and Proxy ARP.
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Magnetic Ink I nk that i s used to pri nt i nformati on that wi ll be read elec-
troni cally. Magneti c i nk i s made wi th ferrous compounds. T he banki ng
i ndustry uses magneti c i nk on some of thei r pri nted materi als and typi -
cal bank-account checks have the account number pri nted i n magneti c
i nk so that they can be electroni cally processed.
Magnetic Storage A method of stori ng data by magneti zi ng a ti ny sec-
ti on of a tape or di sk for each bi t ( Fi g. M.2) .Hard-di sk dri ves and floppy-
di sk dri ves uti li ze di sks coated wi th ferromagneti c materi als. Data car-
tri dges contai n thi n plasti c tape coated wi th ferromagneti c materi als that
are recorded and read i n a si mi lar fashi on. Analog i nformati on can also
be stored magneti cally; cassette tapes are a common example.
Magnetic Storage 425
Figure M.2 A Magnetic Tape Back Up for a
Lucent Technologies 5ESS Central Office Voice Switch
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 425
Magnetic Stripe T he stri pe on the back of a credi t card or other devi ce.
Magneti c stri pes are usually used to store i nformati on, such as a name
and account number, i n a bi nary bar-code format.
Mail Bridge I n an e-mai l envi ronment, a part of a mai l gateway that en-
forces an admi ni strati ve poli cy wi th regard to what mai l i t forwards.
Mail Gateway I n an e-mai l operati ng envi ronment, a computer ( usually a
server) loaded wi th speci ali zed software that connects two or more di s-
si mi lar electroni c-mai l systems and transfers mai l messages between them.
Main Distribution Frame Also called a distribution frame. T he place
where all the wi re, fi ber opti c, or coax for a network i s termi nated. T he
di stri buti on frame i s usually placed as close to the central-offi ce swi tch
or PBX as possi ble. For a photo, see Distribution Frame.
Main Feeder An F1 ( fi rst faci li ty) cable from a central offi ce. T he feeder
cable runs to cross connect poi nts i n the telephone network where F2
( second faci li ty) cable feeds are connected/cross connected ( Fi g. M.3) .
For a photo, see Distribution Cable.
426 Magnetic Stripe
Public switch
Cross Box
Cross Box
Cross Box
Main Feed F1
Main Feed F1
F2 distribution cables
main feed F1
MDF
Cross Box
Cross Box
Cross Box
Main Feed F1
Central office
Main Feed F1
main feed F1
MDF
Telephone Network Cable
layout showing F1 and F2
Figure M.3 Main Feeder
Main Frame A large computer capable of retri evi ng i nformati on from
mass-storage uni ts and calculati ng/processi ng the data i n a very short
ti me i n compari son to a cli ent-server computi ng process. Mai n-frame
computers have been regai ni ng favori ti sm i n large data-processi ng envi -
ronments because of thei r outstandi ng reli abi li ty and processi ng power.
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 426
Main PBX A pri mary PBX that i nterfaces wi th the publi c telephone net-
work vi a CO ( central offi ce) trunk li nes ( Fi g. M.4) . T he other type of
PBX i s an off-premi ses ( remote) PBX, whi ch i s connected to the out-
si de world or publi c network by swi tchi ng through a mai n PBX.
Malicious Call Trace 427
off premise PBX
CO Trunks
off premises
trunks
phone Co.
A Main PBX connected to a
remote PBX / Key system
with analog trunks
Main PBX
Figure M.4 Main PBX
Make Busy 1. A reference to the acti vati on of the busy out feature of
an ACD telephone. I f the telephone i s busi ed out, the ACD system wi ll
not transfer calls to that telephone. T hi s i s useful when an agent i s on
break or thei r shi ft i s over. 2. A temporary fi x or condi ti on of a phone
servi ce. To busy a li ne out of a hunt sequence. I f a busi ness phone li ne
becomes defecti ve and i t i s i n a hunt or roll-over sequence, calls wi ll not
hunt or roll past thi s li ne. For example, four li nes come i nto your busi -
ness. T he fi rst li ne i s the mai n number; i f that fi rst li ne i s busy, then calls
come i n on the second li ne, etc. I f li ne one goes bad, i t cant be called,
so i t cant be busy. Because i t i s not busy, calls wi ll not hunt or rotate to
the next three li nes. When you call the phone company repai r servi ce,
they busy out the bad li ne, whi ch makes i t look busy to the network.
Your calls then start comi ng i n on the other three li nes. When a repai r
techni ci an fi ni shes repai ri ng the problem on the bad li ne, he has i t un-
busi ed. Another temporary fi x i s to call forward the li ne from the cen-
tral offi ce. T he phone company can do thi s at the customers request.
Malicious Call Trace A feature offered by local telephone compani es.
Even though all calls are kept i n an archi ved database, i t i s someti mes
di ffi cult to locate a si ngle call even i f an accurate ti me i s gi ven. T he
mali ci ous call trace or annoyance call trace flags a call when a cus-
tomer hangs up and di als the call-trace feature code after recei vi ng an
annoyance call. Usually, the charge i s $2.00 per trace. After the trace or
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 427
flag has been made, telephone company securi ty offi ci als i nvesti gate
the source of the call. I f there are multi ple occurrences, then the
telephone company wi ll press charges agai nst the mali ci ous caller. T he
person recei vi ng the mali ci ous calls wi ll never fi nd out who the caller i s
unless they are summoned to a court heari ng.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) See Metropolitan Area Network.
Managed Object I n LAN network management, a network devi ce ( such
as a workstati on or server) that can be managed by a network admi ni s-
trator through a management protocol.
Management Information Base (MIB) A data fi le wi thi n a T CP/I P-
loaded network devi ce, such as a PC or router that contai ns i nformati on
about that devi ce. T he i nformati on that i s contai ned i n the MI B i nclude
hardware addresses ( MAC address) , counters, stati sti cs, and routi ng tables.
Each software/i nformati on category i s referred to as an object. MI B works
i n conjuncti on wi th SNMP (Simple Network-Management Protocol).
Management Plane One of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network
management. T he three planes are: T he User Plane ( the U Plane de-
fi nes the transfer of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane
defi nes the LMI , Local Management I nterface) , and the Control Plane
( the C Plane i s delegated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) . T he
M Plane ( also called the Local Management Interface, LMI ) reports
the status and confi gurati on of connecti ons to the FRAD (Frame-Relay
Access Device). I t provi des noti fi cati on of the addi ti on, deleti on, avai l-
abi li ty, and presence of all Data-Link Connections (DLCs). I t also
provi des the exchange sequence that mai ntai ns the data connecti ons
when they are not i n use ( also called keep-alive data) .
Manchester Encoding Also called differential encoding. A physi cal
medi a transmi ssi on format used i n I EEE 802.5 and token-ri ng LANs
(Local-Area Networks). Di fferenti al encodi ng combi nes a clocki ng si g-
nal wi th the data stream. A bi nary 1 i s denoted by a voltage i ncrease and
a bi nary 0 i s denoted by a voltage decrease. T he voltage reset between
voltage i ncreases and decreases represents the clocki ng or ti mi ng source.
By desi gn, di fferenti al encodi ng i s less prone to attenuati on, but more
sensi ti ve to RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) than PCM (Pulse-
Code Modulation) formats.
Manual Ring-Down Line Not really a phone li ne, but two phones
connected together vi a a pai r of wi res and a talk battery ( 9 V to 24 V) .
Si gnali ng, such as ri ngi ng, i s performed manually, by fli ppi ng a swi tch on
428 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 428
and off rapi dly, whi ch di sconnects and connects the battery. T he chang-
i ng voltage i mi tates a weak ri ng voltage. Rescue teams use manual ri ng-
down li nes i n cave and mi ne-shaft rescue operati ons because thei r radi o
range i s very li mi ted i n underground tunnels.
Map A reference to mappi ng a vi rtual tri butary though an Optical
Carrier Circuit (OC-3) over a SONET ri ng or end-to-end path. Map-
pi ng the tri butary i nvolves telli ng the SONET equi pment whi ch and how
much bandwi dth wi thi n the OC ( Opti cal Carri er) wi ll be desi gnated a
channel. T he choi ces are DS0, DS1, DS3, and ST S-1. ST S-1 i s an elec-
tri cal versi on of an OC-1.
Mapping See Map.
Marine Telephone A radi o telephone that i s desi gnated speci fi c operat-
i ng frequenci es by the FCC. I t i s not cellular ( cellular i s a short-di stance
radi o appli cati on) , i t broadcasts wi th more power and a much greater di s-
tance. Tellabs manufactures mari ne telephone equi pment.
Marker Tape A plasti c label bui lt i nto cables that have cable I D and spec-
i fi cati on i nformati on pri nted on them by the manufacturer. Marker tapes
are uncommon i n newer polyethylene cables, because i t i s much easi er and
less expensi ve to pri nt the cable desi gnati on on the outsi de of the cable.
MARS (Multicast Address Resolution Server) A mechani sm for sup-
porti ng I P multi cast. A MARS serves a group of nodes ( known as a clus-
ter) ; each node i n the cluster i s confi gured wi th the AT M address of the
MARS. T he MARS supports multi cast through multi cast messages of
overlai d poi nt-to-multi poi nt connecti ons or through multi cast servers.
Martian (Mis-Addressed/Routed Transmission In A Network or Mis-
Addressed/Routed Telepacket In A Network) A data message that
ends up i n the wrong part of a network. Marti ans are caused by routi ng-
table i naccuraci es. T hose i naccuraci es are caused by the lack of mai n-
tai ni ng stati c routi ng table entri es or workstati ons that have been gi ven
bogus network addresses.
MARTians Misaddressed or Routed Telepacket on a LAN or WAN.
Mask See Address Mask and Subnet Mask.
Mast Clamp A devi ce used to attach a ram hook to a power mast
( Fi g. M.5) . T he ram hook ( also called a ram horn) i s used to attach an
aeri al servi ce wi re vi a a drop clamp.
Mast Clamp 429
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Master Clock A reference to a BI T Ss clock. A central ti mi ng devi ce for
synchronous networks, such as SONET networks. Bi ts clocks can be rack
mounted, j ust li ke other telecommuni cati ons equi pment.
Master of Network Science (MNS) A well-known i ndustry certi fi ca-
ti on/trai ni ng program offered by 3COM. T hi s program i s actually referred
to as a credential, rather than a certification by 3COM. Several hard-
ware and admi ni strati on i ntensi ve programs are avai lable under the MNS
fami ly of certi fi cati ons. T he fi rst i s the MNS LAN Solutions track, whi ch
i ncludes trai ni ng on hi gh-performance 3COM LAN swi tchi ng equi pment,
seven exams, and a lab test. Another i s the MNS LAN Solutions Plus
track, whi ch requi res completi on of the LAN Soluti ons requi rements,
and extends the trai nees knowledge i nto the AT M products offered by
3COM. Another example track i s the MNS Network Architecture, whi ch
provi des a rounded study of enterpri se networki ng. Other MNS tracks
i nclude the MNS Network Management, MNS WAN Solutions, and MNS
Remote-Access Solutions. I nformati on regardi ng the 3COM MNS trai n-
i ng programs can be found at http://www.3com.com.
MAT (Meridian Administration Tools) A Northern Telecom CT I ap-
pli cati on that allows a Meri di an PBX system to be managed through a
GUI envi ronment over a LAN or si ngle PC. I t enables a user to make ad-
mi ni strati ve changes to the system by cli cki ng on the pi cture of an i tem
430 Master Clock
Figure M.5 Mast Clamp, Including Other Hardware Used to Attach
Aerial Service Wires (Drop Wires)
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 430
to be changed ( such as a feature button on a telephone or the name di s-
play) and typi ng i n the change. I t also provi des excellent traffi c and core
analysi s tools, whi ch graph the busy hours by network group. Call ac-
counti ng i s also a feature of MAT.
Matrix T he part of a swi tch that carri es and routes calls. T he matri x i s a
vi rtual part of the core that commands whi ch channels to connect wi th
what. As multi plexed bi t streams run through a di gi tal swi tch, they are
separated and recombi ned from i nputs ( i nterface cards) to speci fi ed out-
puts ( i nterface cards) by the core ( CPU) of the swi tch. T he matri x i s not
a tangi ble obj ect; i t i s a combi nati on of the CPU and i nterface equi pment.
MAU (Media Attachment Unit) Generi cally referred to as a trans-
ceiver, thi s devi ce connects to a computer or other devi ces BNC net-
work-i nterface card port and permi ts a conveni ent connecti on to an RJ45
twi sted-pai r medi a. Transcei vers have also been called AUIs (Access Unit
Interface) and Media-Access Units ( wi th the same acronym, MAU) .
Maximum Burst An AT M parameter that speci fi es the largest burst of
data above the i nsured and maxi mum rates that wi ll be allowed tem-
porari ly on an AT M PVC, but wi ll not be dropped at the edge by the
traffi c-poli ci ng functi on. On average, the traffi c needs to be wi thi n the
maxi mum rate. T hi s parameter i s speci fi ed i n bytes or cells. See also
Maximum Rate and Insured Rate.
Maximum Rate On an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) connec-
ti on, a parameter that defi nes the total bandwi dth that wi ll be permi tted
to traverse from poi nt to poi nt under any ci rcumstances. T he maxi mum
rate i s equal to the i nsured rate and the excess rate combi ned. When the
AT M network that serves the connecti on has a low level of traffi c, the
connecti on i s permi tted to transmi t at the excess-rate value of bandwi dth.
When the network i s congested or very busy, only the i nsured rate of
bandwi dth i s allocated to the connecti on. An example of an i nsured rate
for a connecti on i s 256 K bps, and an example of the maxi mum rate for
that same connecti on could be 512 K bps. See also Excess Rate.
Mbps (Megabits Per Second) Equi valent to one mi lli on bi ts per sec-
ond. Memory or data transferred per uni t of ti me i s measured i n bi ts.
Memory storage i s measured i n bytes. T he di fference i n abbrevi ati ons i s
that bi ts are lowercase ( b) and bytes are uppercase ( B) .
MCLR (Maximum Cell-Loss Ratio) I n an ATM (Asynchronous Trans-
fer Mode) network, the maxi mum rati o of cells that do not successfully
transi t a li nk or node, compared wi th the total number of cells that arri ve
MCLR (Maximum Cell-Loss Ratio) 431
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 431
at the li nk or node. MCLR i s one of four li nk si gnals exchanged between
network nodes to determi ne the avai lable resources of an AT M network.
T he MCLR appli es to cells i n the CBR (Constant Bit Rate) and VBR
(Variable Bit Rate) traffi c classes whose CLP (Cell-Loss Priority) bi t
i s set to zero. See also CBR, CLP, UBR, and VBR.
MCP (Microsoft-Certified Professional) A well-known i ndustry cer-
ti fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by M i crosoft and i ts trai ni ng
partners. T he M CP certi fi cati on i s an i n-depth learni ng track that i n-
corporates M i crosoft Networki ng products, M i crosoft Appli cati ons,
and general appli cati ons thereof. Up-to-date i nformati on regardi ng
the M CP trai ni ng program can be found through http://www.
microsoft.com.
MCR (Minimum Cell Rate) A parameter defi ned by the AT M Forum
for AT M Traffi c Management. Minimum cell rate i s defi ned only for
Available Bit Rate (ABR) transmi ssi ons and i t speci fi es the mi ni mum
value for the Allowed Cell-Rate (ACR) parameter. A mi ni mum cell rate
i s necessary when ti mi ng-sensi ti ve transmi ssi ons are made, such as voi ce
or vi deo.
MCSE (Microsoft-Certified Systems Engineer) A well-known i n-
dustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Mi crosoft and i ts trai n-
i ng partners. T he MCSE certi fi cati on i s an i n-depth study program that
i ncorporates Mi crosoft Networki ng products, such as Wi ndows NT and
Mi crosoft Exchange Server. T he learni ng track for thi s program i s ex-
tensi ve i n Mi crosoft data-base appli cati ons and, i n general, enterpri se
networki ng. I nformati on regardi ng the MCP trai ni ng program can be
found through http://www.microsoft.com.
MCU (Multipoint Control Unit) A hardware and software devi ce that
i n i ts respecti ve appli cati on, whether i t i s voi ce or vi deo, provi des a poi nt
of management and control for multi ple voi ce or vi deo data streams that
could possi bly be conferenced together. MCUs are generally propri etary
devi ces that i ncorporate thei r own features for managi ng the flow of a
vi deo or voi ce appli cati on and whi ch users can see or hear each other,
and also i n what fashi on the users are seen. For example, i f the MCU i s
desi gned for vi deoconferenci ng, i t could make four users appear i n small
boxes i n each corner of a vi deo moni tor, or make the user that i s speaki ng
be the one vi ewed by all other users. 2. Media Conference Unit per-
forms the same functi on as an MCU.
MD5 (Message Digest 5) MD5 i s the algori thm used for message au-
thenti cati on i n SNMP (Simple Network-Management Protocol). MD5
432 MCP (Microsoft-Certified Professional)
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 432
veri fi es the i ntegri ty of the communi cati on, authenti cates the ori gi n, and
checks for ti meli ness.
MDF (Main Distribution Frame) Also called a distribution frame.
T he place where all the wi re, fi ber opti c, or coax for a network i s
termi nated. T he di stri buti on frame i s usually placed as close to the
central-offi ce swi tch or PBX as possi ble. For a photo, see Distribution
Frame.
Mean Opinion Score (MOS) A voi ce quali ty measurement of Codec
operati on ( such as G.711) over I P telephony networks. M ean opi ni on
score rates voi ce quali ty on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 bei ng bad and 5 bei ng
excellent. T he M OS score i s made by a wi de range of li steners heari ng
a transmi ssi on and then rati ng i t. G.711 PCM rates at an M OS of 4.1;
G.729 CS A CELP rates at a 3.9; G.729A rates at a 3.7. T he maj or qual-
i ty i ssue to the li steners that are able to noti ce the di fference i s a sli ght
delay and nearly undetectable voi ce di storti ons. See also G.729.
Measured Rate Service Abbrevi ated 1MR for resi denti al and 1MB for
busi ness, thi s type of telephone servi ce i s offered by local telephone com-
pani es. Measured-rate servi ce means that a li ne i s bi lled on a per call
basi s. Telephone compani es i n the Southern and Western Uni ted States
have tri ed to aboli sh measured servi ce by encouragi ng customers to sub-
scri be to flat-rate servi ces, abbrevi ated 1FR for resi denti al and 1FB for
busi ness use.
Mechanical Splice An alternati ve fi ber-opti c spli ce to fusi on spli ci ng.
Fusi on spli ci ng equi pment i s very expensi ve ( $40, 000 i s typi cal for a
fusi on spli cer) . M echani cal spli ces come as a ki t, whi ch connectori zes
the ends of the fi bers ( Fi g. M .6) . A tool ki t i s requi red for mechani cal
spli ci ng. I t consi sts of a mi croscope, poli shi ng puck, cleavers, epoxy,
and poli shi ng compound. T hey cost about $1, 200. An oven used to hot
cure the epoxy i s also avai lable. Wi th a mechani cal spli ce, you cleave
or cut the end of the fi ber as square and smooth as possi ble, then epoxy
the fi ber end i nto a connector. T he epoxy takes about 12 hours to cure
wi thout an oven and about 20 mi nutes wi th an oven. After the epoxy
has cured, the ti p of the connector ( whi ch should be flush wi th the
end of the fi ber opti c) i s poli shed by holdi ng i t wi th a devi ce called a
puck ( i t i s shaped li ke a hockey puck) . T he puck holds the fi ber con-
nector whi le i t i s gently rubbed agai nst a pad coated wi th poli shi ng
compound. When the poli shi ng i s done, the connector i s ready to be
mated wi th another connector and the spli ce i s complete. M echani cal
spli ce ki ts cost about $15.00 per spli ce and are avai lable i n SC- and ST -
style connectors.
Mechanical Splice 433
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Mechanized Line Testing (MLT) Also called DATU (Direct Access Test
Unit). MLT and DAT U equi pment i s ei ther added on or bui lt i nto a
central-offi ce swi tch. DAT U allows a techni ci an or customer-servi ce
agent to di al the phone number of the DAT U or MLT equi pment and ex-
ecute a test for shorts, opens and grounds remotely. I n response to a
di gi tal voi ce, the techni ci an enters a password and a choi ce of opti ons.
T he results of the test can be read back to the techni ci an by a di gi tal
recordi ng or sent to them vi a an alpha-numeri c pager. DAT U uni ts can
also send a locati ng tone on the techni ci ans choi ce of T I P, RI NG, or both
T I P and RI NG. T he test uni t can also short li nes and remove battery
voltage for testi ng.
Media-Access Control (MAC) T he protocol ( there are several types,
e.g., Ethernet MAC) that determi nes the transmi ssi on of i nformati on on
a local-area network. T he MAC i s a part of the OSI (Open Systems In-
terconnect model) data-li nk layer that i nterfaces wi th the physi cal layer.
T he MAC i s referred to as a sublayer of the data-li nk layer. I ts purpose
i s to manage the transfer of data to the wi re or fi ber opti c, as re-
qui red by the used protocol. See also Data-Link Layer and LLC.
Media-Access Control Address (MAC Address) A standardi zed OSI
(Open Systems Architecture model) data-li nk layer i denti fi er that i s
manufactured ( burned i nto ROM) i nto every port or devi ce that con-
nects to a LAN. Network-control devi ces use MAC addresses to create
434 Mechanized Line Testing (MLT)
Figure M.6 Fiber-Optic Kit for Mechanical Splices
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 434
and update routi ng tables and network data structures. MAC addresses
are si x bytes long ( 48 bi ts) . T he fi rst 24 bi ts of the address are a
vendor/manufacturer code, and the next 24 bi ts are the i nterface seri al
number. T he I EEE delegates MAC address number ranges to manufac-
turi ng compani es worldwi de. MAC addresses are also called hardware
addresses, MAC-layer addresses, or physical addresses. See also
Network Address.
Media Attachment Unit (MAU) Generi cally referred to as a trans-
ceiver, thi s devi ce connects to a computer or other devi ces BNC
network-i nterface card port and permi ts a conveni ent connecti on to an
RJ45 twi sted-pai r medi a. Transcei vers have also been called AUIs
(Access Unit Interface) and Media-Access Units ( wi th the same
acronym, MAU) . I n token-ri ng networks, a MAU i s known as a multi-
station access unit and i s abbrevi ated MSAU to avoi d confusi on.
Media Conference Unit ( Also called a Multi poi nt Control Uni t, MCU.)
A hardware and software devi ce that i n i ts respecti ve appli cati on, whether
i t i s voi ce or vi deo, provi des a poi nt of management and control for multi ple
voi ce or vi deo data streams that could possi bly be conferenced together.
MCUs are generally propri etary devi ces that i ncorporate thei r own features
for managi ng the flow of a vi deo or voi ce appli cati on and whi ch users can
see or hear each other, and also i n what fashi on the users are seen. For
example, i f the MCU i s desi gned for vi deoconferenci ng, i t could make four
users appear i n small boxes i n each corner of a vi deo moni tor, or make
the user that i s speaki ng be the one vi ewed by all other users.
Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP) I n I P telephony, the
procedure for converti ng Ethernet/connecti onless communi cati on to
voi ce/connecti on-ori ented communi cati on. MGCP i s a feature i ncorpo-
rated i nto routers that gi ves them the abi li ty to transfer/translate si g-
nali ng i nformati on, such as off-hook/on-hook and di aled di gi ts, to an I P
telephony server, whi ch can communi cate the same types of si gnali ng to
I P telephones. MGCP supports common channel si gnali ng ( CCS, out-of-
band si gnali ng) but not channel-associ ated si gnali ng ( CAS, i n band
si gnali ng) .
Media Interface Connector A fi ber-opti c connector.
Media Rate Adoption A feature of LAN swi tches that enables them
to compensate for speed di fferences when communi cati ons between
ports/segments are di fferent. For example, i f a server that i s connected to
a 100 Mbps Ethernet port i s communi cati ng between a computer con-
nected to a 10 Mbps port, medi a rate adopti on ensures that the 100 Mbps
Media Rate Adoption 435
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 435
port does not overwhelm the 10 Mbps port. Medi a rate adopti on also allows
a faster port/devi ce to communi cate wi th multi ple slower ports/devi ces.
See also Backpressure and Aggressive Back-Off Algorithm.
Media Termination Point (MTP) I n I P telephony, a reference to a poi nt
where an RT P Ethernet packet stream i s termi nated whi le system features
are executed. H.323 si gnali ng i nvokes the MT P functi on when i t i s needed;
however, MT P resources must be made avai lable. For example, i f a call i s
placed on hold or parked, the call that i s on hold must temporari ly termi -
nate at some hardware poi nt. T hi s hardware poi nt i s known as an MT P. T he
hardware that makes up MT Ps i s usually a gateway or router port. T hi s i s
i nherent i n hardware for calls connecti ng to the PST N; however, for in-
ternal calls put on hold that would otherwi se not route through a gate-
way, an MT P must be allocated. I f there are no MT P resources avai lable
when a feature i s executed, the feature wi ll not work. Some MT P functi ons
are handled through software i n smaller I P telephony deployments.
Medium Frequency T he range of radi o frequenci es from 300 to 3000 kHz.
Medium-Independent Interface (MII) I n Ethernet, the MI I layer de-
fi nes the electri cal and mechani cal i nterfaces between the 100BaseT
MAC and the physi cal sublayer. T hi s setup enables users to connect
medi a-i ndependent products to the physi cal cabli ng usi ng Medi a At-
tachment Uni ts ( MAUs) .
Mega (M) T he prefi x for mi lli on. Si xteen megabytes i s equal to
16, 000, 000 bytes, and would be abbrevi ated 16 MB.
Megabyte One mi lli on bytes. Mega i s abbrevi ated M and bytes are ab-
brevi ated B. Si xteen megabytes i s equal to 16, 000, 000 bytes and would
be abbrevi ated 16 MB.
Megacop ( Slang) . Short for MGCP. See, MGCP.
Megahertz One mi lli on hertz. Mega i s abbrevi ated M and hertz i s ab-
brevi ated H. Si xteen MHz i s equal to 16, 000, 000 Hz ( hertz i s another
word for cycles i n radi o frequency) .
Megohm One mi lli on ohm. Mega i s abbrevi ated M, and the symbol for
ohms i s . Si xteen megabytes i s equal to 16, 000, 000 ohms ( ohms are
a measure of resi stance to electri ci ty) and would be abbrevi ated 16 M.
Member Nortels name for a trunk. For example, a T 1 would contai n 24
members. See also Route.
436 Media Termination Point (MTP)
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 436
Memory Electroni c memory comes i n two fami li es, ROM (Read-Only
Memory) and RAM (Random-Access Memory). Memory devi ces are
made from two di fferent technologi es, bi polar ( T T L) and MOS (Metal-
Oxide Semiconductor). Memory i s stored by a techni que called writ-
ing and retri eved by a techni que called reading ( Fi g. M.7) . ROM devi ces
can only be read and are programmed duri ng manufacture. PROM (Pro-
grammable Read-Only Memory) devi ces can be programmed at a later
date by an electroni cs reseller or electroni c assembler for a speci al ap-
pli cati on usi ng speci al equi pment. Speci al ROM devi ces called EPROMs
(Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be electroni cally
erased and reused. RAM has read and wri te capabi li ty. T he term ran-
dom access means that any memory address can be read i n any order
at any ti me. T he two types of RAM are stati c and dynami c. Static RAM
can hold i ts memory even when power i s removed. Dynamic RAMneeds
constant power to refresh i ts memory. T he followi ng fami ly di agram
i llustrates the memory types and the technology wi th whi ch they are
made. See also SD RAM and EDO RAM.
Mesh 437
ROM FAMILY
MOS BIPOLAR
EPROM PROM PROMS MASK
ROMS
MASK
ROMS
RAM FAMILY
BIPOLAR MOS
Dynamic
RAM
Static
RAM
Static RAM
Figure M.7 Memory
Meridian 1 A large-scale PBX (Private Branch Exchange System)
manufactured by Northern Telecom. For a photo, see Private Branch
Exchange.
Meridian Administration Tools (MAT) See MAT.
Mesh A WAN (Wide-Area Network) physi cal or logi cal network topol-
ogy i n whi ch devi ces are organi zed i n a manageable, segmented manner
wi th many, often redundant, i nterconnecti ons strategi cally placed be-
tween network nodes ( Fi g. M.8) . Mesh topologi es provi de effi ci ent data
transport. Many mesh appli cati ons are created through vi rtual pri vate
networks. Havi ng many connecti ons through a VPN i s cost effecti ve i n
compari son to a pri vate-li ne network. A full mesh i s when all nodes i n
the network have a connecti on to all other nodes. A partial mesh topol-
ogy i s when some nodes are connected to all other nodes.
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 437
438 Message Transfer Part
Router A
New York City
DLCI 20
Router E
Dallas
DLCI 21
Router D
Los Angeles
DLCI 22
Router C
Chicago
DLCI 23
Router B
Miami
DLCI 24
FRAME-RELAY
NETWORK
FULL-MESH LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
Router A
New York City
DLCI 20
Router E
Dallas
DLCI 21
Router D
Los Angeles
DLCI 22
Router C
Chicago
DLCI 23
Router B
Miami
DLCI 24
FRAME-RELAY
NETWORK
PARTIAL-MESH LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
Figure M.8A Full-Mesh Topology
Figure M.8B Partial-Mesh Topology
Message Transfer Part T he functi on i n SS7 networki ng that packeti zes
and depacketi zes si gnal data.
Message Waiting Usually a li ght on a telephone that i ndi cates that the
user of that phone has a voi ce mai l or a wri tten message left wi th a ho-
tel clerk or admi ni strati ve person.
Meters-to-Feet Conversion One meter equals 3.28 feet. One ki lometer
equals 3280 feet.
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 438
Metric (Routing Measure) A method by whi ch a routi ng algori thm/
protocol determi nes that one route i s better than another. T hi s i nforma-
ti on i s stored i n routi ng tables. Metri cs i nclude bandwi dth, communi cati on
cost, delay, hop count, load, best packet si ze, path cost, and reli abi li ty.
Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN) A computer network that i ncor-
porates the local telephone companys faci li ti es to communi cate ( Fi g. M.9) .
MAN networks connect other LANs or computers i n a ci ty together. T 1
pri vate li nes are popular for MAN appli cati ons.
MFJ (Modified Final Judgment) 439
ETHERNET LAN ETHERNET LAN
Telephone
Company Private
Line Service
router router
A MAN NETWORK USING TELEPHONE
COMPANY PRIVATE LINES
CSU/DSU CSU/DSU
SOUTH PRECINCT
LAN
NORTH PRECINCT
LAN
Figure M.9 Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) A term that refers to the 306
metropoli tan areas that the FCC manages cellular and PCS (Personal
Communications Service) communi cati ons i n. T here are also RSA
(Rural Statistical Area) markets that the FCC determi ned as separate
from each other. 428 RSA markets are i n the Uni ted States. Each sta-
ti sti cal area, 734 i n all, has at least two li censed servi ce provi ders.
MFD A less-common abbrevi ati on for mi crofarad ( F) . See Microfarad.
MFJ (Modified Final Judgment) T he j udgment that ruled agai nst
AT & T a telecommuni cati ons monopoly. AT & T was di vi ded i nto long-
di stance, and local telephone servi ce. T he local telephone servi ce part
of the company ( actually 22 compani es) were formed i nto seven RBOCs
(Regional Bell Operating Companies). T he MFJ also i ncluded rules
governi ng the busi ness of the telephone compani es i nvolved and set
tari ffs/pri ci ng li mi tati ons on telecommuni cati ons servi ces nati onwi de.
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 439
MGCP (Media Gateway Control Protocol) I n I P telephony, the
procedure for converti ng Ethernet/connecti onless communi cati on to
voi ce/connecti on-ori ented communi cati on. MGCP i s a feature i ncorporated
i nto routers that gi ves them the abi li ty to transfer/translate si gnali ng
i nformati on, such as off-hook/on-hook and di aled di gi ts, to an I P telephony
server, whi ch can communi cate the same types of si gnali ng to I P
telephones. MGCP supports common channel si gnali ng ( CCS, out-of-band
si gnali ng) but not channel-associ ated si gnali ng ( CAS, i n-band si gnali ng) .
Mho Slang for Si emens, conductance. Conductance i s often confused wi th
bei ng the opposi te of resi stance, whi ch i s not the case. Conductance i s
the reci procal of resi stance. To get the reci procal of a resi stance, si mply
take one di vi ded by that number, or the resi stance. I f the resi stance of
a ci rcui t or component i s 500 ohms, then the conductance i s equal to
1/500, whi ch i s 0.002, 2 mi lli si emens ( 2 mS) . T he hi gher the number i n
si emens, the hi gher the conductance and the lower the resi stance.
MHz (Megahertz) See Megahertz.
MIB (Management Information Base) A data fi le wi thi n a T CP/I P-
loaded network devi ce, such as a PC or router that contai ns i nformati on
about that devi ce. T he i nformati on that i s contai ned i n the MI B i nclude
hardware addresses ( MAC address) , counters, stati sti cs, and routi ng tables.
Each software/i nformati on category i s referred to as an object. MI B works
i n conjuncti on wi th SNMP (Simple Network-Management Protocol).
Micro T he prefi x for one tri lli onth. Abbrevi ated , the Greek letter mu.
One mi crofarad i s equal to one tri lli onth of one farad and would be wri t-
ten 0.000, 000, 000, 001 Farad, and abbrevi ated 1F.
Microchip A reference to a VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) elec-
troni c devi ce ( Fi g. M.10) . For more i nformati on on mi crochi ps, see Very
Large-Scale Integration.
Microfarad Usually represented as F. Farad i s the standard uni t of ca-
paci tance. A capaci tor i s an electroni c devi ce that has two speci al prop-
erti es. I t only allows alternati ng current to pass through i t, and i t can store
an electri c charge. One of the many appli cati ons of capaci tors i s to fi lter
alternati ng current ( AC) out of DC power suppli es and recti fi ers. T hi s i s
done by placi ng a capaci tor from the DC output to ground. T he capaci tor
appears as an easi er path to voltage fluctuati ons and RFI , and as an i m-
possi ble path to di rect current ( DC) . Physi cally, a capaci tor i s two plates
of metal, separated by an i nsulator ( mylar i s common) . T he physi cal si ze
of a 1-F capaci tor would be two sheets of ti n foi l the si ze of a football fi eld,
i nsulated ( or separated) by a thi n sheet of mylar. T he farad i s a huge uni t
440 MGCP (Media Gateway Control Protocol)
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 440
of capaci tance. T hi s i s why most capaci tors are mi crofarads ( F) i n value.
For a schemati c symbol of a capaci tor, see Capacitance.
Micron A standard uni t of measurement that i s equal to
1
1000 of one mi l-
li meter or
1
25, 000 of an i nch. T he core and claddi ng of fi ber opti c i s meas-
ured i n mi crons.
Microprocessor Also called a CPU (Central Processing Unit). T he de-
vi ce wi thi n a computer ( or swi tch or other machi ne that performs com-
plex tasks) that controls the transfer of the i ndi vi dual i nstructi ons from
one devi ce connected to i ts bus ( the data or I /O bus) to another, such
as ROM, RAM, subcontrollers, decoders, and I /O ports. Some communi -
cati ons equi pment manufacturers actually call a certai n card or porti on
of the system the CPU. T hat i s because they i nclude all of the RAM, sub-
processors, buffers, clocki ng ci rcui try, and ROM as a part of the CPU.
Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP) A well-known i ndustry
certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Mi crosoft and i ts trai ni ng part-
ners. T he MCP certi fi cati on i s an i n-depth learni ng track that i ncorpo-
rates Mi crosoft Networki ng products, Mi crosoft Appli cati ons, and gen-
eral appli cati ons thereof. Up-to-date i nformati on regardi ng the MCP
trai ni ng program can be found through http://www.microsoft.com.
Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer (MCSE) A well-known i n-
dustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by Mi crosoft and i ts trai n-
i ng partners. T he MCSE certi fi cati on i s an i n-depth study program that
i ncorporates Mi crosoft Networki ng products, such as Wi ndows NT and
Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer (MCSE) 441
Figure M.10 Microchip
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 441
Mi crosoft Exchange Server. T he learni ng track for thi s program i s
extensi ve i n Mi crosoft data-base appli cati ons and, i n general, enterpri se
networki ng. I nformati on regardi ng the MCP trai ni ng program can be
found through http://www.microsoft.com.
Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS) A feature of Wi ndows NT that
enables two NT servers that are connected on a network to logi cally
functi on as one. Mi crosoft Cluster Server software also provi des fai lure
detecti on and the abi li ty of one server to take over all functi ons i f the
other stops operati ng.
Microwave I n telecommuni cati ons, thi s i s usually a reference to a terres-
tri al mi crowave li nk. T he li nk i s made by two radi o transcei vers equi pped
wi th paraboli c di sh antennas poi nted di rectly at each other ( Fi g. M.11) .
442 Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS)
Figure M.11 Microwave
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 442
Radi o can carry poi nt-to-poi nt transmi ssi ons of many bandwi dths, i n-
cludi ng DS1, DS2, DS3, ST S1, and OC1. T hei r range can vary, depend-
i ng on the si ze of the antenna ( di sh) , weather i n the regi on, and the
amount of power emi tted. I ncludi ng all of the previ ous factors, a li nk can
range from 0 to 50 mi les. For a di agram of a mi crowave system, see
Terrestrial Microwave.
Mid-Span A telephone servi ce wi re that runs from a pole to a hook at-
tached to a cable strand, then to a house or bui ldi ng.
Midspan Power I n Ethernet networks, DC power provi ded to desktop
devi ces on ethernet networks vi a spare wi res wi thi n the Ethernet cable.
T hi s i s not as favorable as i nli ne power ( whi ch deli vers the same DC
power component over the same conductors that the transmi t and re-
cei ve are sent over) . See also Inline Power and CDP.
Mileage of Circuit T he mi leage of a pri vate-li ne ci rcui t i s calculated usi ng
V and H coordi nates. For a table of V& H coordi nates, see Airline Mileage.
AT & T developed a gri d-coordi nate system that gi ves every telephone cen-
tral offi ce i n the Uni ted States a verti cal and hori zontal gri d number. To
calculate the mi leage between two ci ti es, the Pythagorean theorem i s used.
For an example of calculati ng ai rli ne mi leage, see Airline Mileage.
Milli Mi lli i s the prefi x for one-thousandth, abbrevi ated m. Fi ve mA i s
equal to fi ve thousandths of an amp and i s wri tten as 0.005 A or 5 mA.
Million Packets per Second (Mpps) I n LAN and WAN archi tectures,
a standard measure of swi tched traffi c throughput based on a 64-byte
packet. T hi s i s not an offi ci al standard as of thi s wri ti ng ( early 2001) .
T he si ze of the packet vari es by several bytes, dependi ng on the man-
ufacturer and type of equi pment. Some use packets as small as 60 bytes
on networks speci fi cally confi gured to carry such traffi c. T he mi ni mum
si ze for an Ethernet packet i s 64 bytes. See also Runt and Giant.
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) T hi s standard al-
lows I nternet mai l users to attach nontext fi les, such as graphi cs ( JPG) ,
spreadsheets ( XLS) , and formatted documents ( DOC) to thei r e-mai l
messages. T he fi les can be bi nary, text, or multi medi a. T hi s standard i s
an enhancement to SMTP (Simple Mail-Transfer Protocol). T he other
i mportant protocol wi th regard to I nternet e-mai l i s POP (Post Office
Protocol), whi ch enables users to retri eve mai l from outsi de networks.
See also S/MIME.
Mini Connector A physi cal connector used for PC appli cati ons and
telecommuni cati on hardware-i nterface appli cati ons ( Fi g. M.12) .
Mini Connector 443
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 443
444 Mini-T1
Figure M.12 Mini 50-Pin and Mini 68-Pin Connectors
Mini-T1 Also called a Mini-T. A means of connecti ng a T 1 ci rcui t from
one si de of a bui ldi ng, to another. A T 1 cross-connect that runs between
two DSX (Digital Cross-Connect Panels) wi thi n a central offi ce or other
telecommuni cati ons envi ronment. I n central telecommuni cati ons envi -
ronments, there are so many ci rcui ts and connecti ons that i t i s neces-
sary to create a ci rcui t-tracki ng system j ust to get a connecti on made.
T hese Mi ni -Ts commonly i ncorporate a bui ldi ngs hori zontal and verti cal
wi ri ng system as well.
Minimum Cell Rate (MCR) A parameter defi ned by the AT M forum for
AT M traffi c management. Mi ni mum cell rate i s defi ned only for Avail-
able Bit-Rate (ABR) transmi ssi ons and speci fi es the mi ni mum value for
the Allowed Cell Rate (ACR) parameter.
MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second) A measurement of how
fast a mi croprocessor or central processor can execute program i structi ons.
MIS (Management Information System) Also called IS (Informa-
tion Systems). T he part of a company that cares for data and voi ce
communi cati ons/processi ng. T he two have been mergi ng together over
the past decade and are becomi ng one enti ty as communi cati ons
technology advances. T he latest craze i n MI S i s CTI (Computer Tele-
phone Integration), whi ch enables users to track telecommuni cati ons
events and operate telecommuni cati ons equi pment on a computer, wi th
a GUI ( Graphical User Interface, such as Wi ndows) . IVR (Integrated
Voice Response) i s a form of CT I .
MLT (Mechanized Line Testing) Also called DATU (Direct-Access Test
Unit). MLT and DAT U i s equi pment that i s ei ther added on or bui lt i n
to a central-offi ce swi tch. DAT U allows a techni ci an or customer-servi ce
agent to di al the phone number of the DAT U or MLT equi pment and
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 444
execute a test for shorts, opens, and grounds remotely. I n response to a
di gi tal voi ce, the techni ci an enters a password and a choi ce of opti ons.
T he results of the test can be read back to the techni ci an by a di gi tal
recordi ng or sent to them vi a an alphanumeri c pager. DAT U uni ts can
also send a locati ng tone on the techni ci ans choi ce of T I P, RI NG, or both
T I P and RI NG. T he test uni t can also short li nes and remove battery volt-
age for testi ng.
Mm-Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between
110 GHz and 300 GHz. For a table, see IEEE Radar Band Designation.
Mnemonic A computer programmi ng command that i s an abbrevi ati on
or shortened versi on of what the command does. PRT i s a mnemoni c i n
Nortel Networks appli cati ons software that makes a swi tch pri nt a
speci fi ed li st of i nformati on. LOGI i s a mnemoni c for log i n.
MNS (Master of Network Science) A well-known i ndustry certi fi ca-
ti on/trai ni ng program offered by 3COM. T hi s program i s actually referred
to as a credential, rather than a certification by 3COM. Several hard-
ware and admi ni strati on i ntensi ve programs are avai lable under the MNS
fami ly of certi fi cati ons. T he fi rst i s the MNS LAN Solutions track, whi ch
i ncludes trai ni ng on hi gh-performance 3COM LAN swi tchi ng equi pment,
seven exams, and a lab test. Another i s the MNS LAN Solutions Plus
track, whi ch requi res completi on of the LAN Soluti ons requi rements,
and extends the trai nees knowledge i nto the AT M products offered by
3COM. Another example track i s the MNS Network Architecture, whi ch
provi des a rounded study of enterpri se networki ng. Other MNS tracks
i nclude the MNS Network Management, MNS WAN Solutions, and MNS
Remote-Access Solutions. I nformati on regardi ng the 3COM MNS trai i ng
programs can be found at http://www.3com.com.
Mobile A communi cati ons li nk made by portable radi o.
Modal Dispersion As li ght travels down a fi ber opti c, each i ndi vi dual
li ght ray/parti cle takes a di fferent path ( Fi g. M.13) . I magi ne that a bunch
of small rubber balls are shot down a long tube at the same ti me. Each
ball wi ll bounce di fferently as they make thei r way around curves. At the
Modal Dispersion 445
EFFECT OF MODAL DISPERSION
Input light pulse Output light pulse
Fiber optic
Figure M.13 Modal Dispersion
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 445
446 Modal Loss
end of the tube, the balls wi ll come out at di fferent ti mes. Li ght behaves
the same way. A sudden pulse of li ght on one si de of a fi ber opti c wi ll
di sperse i tself as i t traverses down the fi ber, causi ng the pulse of li ght
at the far end to be more of a bli p.
Modal Loss T he attenuati on of a li ght si gnal as i t travels through a fi ber
opti c because of ti ght bends. See Modal Dispersion.
Modem (Modulate/Demodulate) A devi ce that transmi ts di gi tal i n-
formati on over a telephone li ne ( standard POT S li ne) or a pri vate
ci rcui t ( 56 K li ne) . M odems modulate the di gi tal i nformati on before
transmi tti ng i t. One standard of modulati on i s FSK (Frequency-Shift
Keying). Each posi ti ve ( 1) bi t i s sent as a frequency or pi tch of sound
and each ( 0) bi t i s transmi tted as a di fferent frequency or pi tch of
sound.
Modem Eliminator A devi ce si mi lar to the baseband modem i n that i t
does not do any actual modulati on, and allows connecti on of two DT E
devi ces. I t i s i ntended for very short di stances, for example, from one
devi ce to another ri ght next to i t. Modem eli mi nators connect at the
I T U/T V.24 and V.28 ( or EI A 232-D, where only the names of the pi ns
are di fferent) i nterface-level standard. Some modem eli mi nators are si m-
ply a null/modem cable. Some have thei r own clock source added for
condi ti oni ng or bufferi ng the transmi ssi on.
Modem Standards
Standard XFR rate Modulati on Duplex
V.21 / Bell 103 300 FSK Full duplex
V.22 1200 DPSK Full duplex
V.22 bi s 2400 QAM Full duplex
V.23 / Bell 202 1200/75 FSK Half duplex
Bell 212A 1200 DPSK Full duplex
V.32 9600 QAM Full duplex EC
V.32 bi s 14, 400 T CM Full duplex EC
V.32 ter 19, 200 T CM Full duplex EC
V.34 28, 800 T CM FULL DUPLEX EC
V.90 56, 600 T CM EC Error Correcti on
Modified Cut-Through Switching T here are three ways that frames/
packets transverse through a LAN swi tch, bri dge or router. T he fi rst i s
store and forward, where the enti re frame and i ts contents are accepted
and stored i n the swi tch. Error detecti on i s calculated ( CRC) , and i f the
frame i s good, the address i s looked up i n the routi ng table. When the
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 446
associ ated desti nati on port/segment i s found, the frame i s sent on to i ts
desti nati on. T hi s i s a good method for routi ng traffi c because damaged
frames, runt frames, and gi ant frames are di scarded before they are trans-
mi tted. T hi s method i s used where the network i nfrastructure or medi a
i s prone to damagi ng frames, such as RFI envi ronments, or a poor WAN
network servi ce. T he di sadvantage of the store and forward method i s
latency. Stori ng the enti re frame whi le the desti nati on port i s retri eved
causes a delay, and i n multi ple-hop networks, thi s can cause slow net-
work performance even when there i s very li ttle traffi c.
swi tch/router/bri dge i s the cut-through switching method, where only
the address of an i ncomi ng frame i s processed by memory. T he address
i s associ ated wi th i ts desti nati on port/segment i n the routi ng table, and
the enti re frame i s sent di rectly through. T hi s process happens i f the
frame i s good or not, as long as there i s a nondamaged address i n the
frame. Cut-through swi tchi ng greatly reduces latency delays through a
network, but sti ll transmi ts bad frames. I f an NI C card or host devi ce be-
gi ns sendi ng lots of bad erroneous frames, the network performance
could be slowed greatly. Some LAN swi tches have safeguards i n place to
detect and suppress error storms from defecti ve equi pment.
T he thi rd method of forwardi ng frames i s modified cut-through,whi ch
works si mi lar to store and forward, except that i t uses a li mi ted number
of bytes to check for errors rather than the enti re frame. T hi s method
helps prevent the retransmi ssi on of defecti ve frames and also provi des
an acceptable level of latency delay through the network.
Modular A reference to equi pment that i s equi pped wi th plug-i n type i n-
terfaces, rather than bei ng hard wi red.
Modular Adapter A devi ce used to i nterconnect one wi re/cable type
wi th another, wi thout the use of termi nati on blocks ( Fi g. M.14) . Also
called harmonica adapters. See also 258A Adapter.
Modular Adapter 447
Figure M.14 Modular Adapter: 50-Pin AMP to RJ11
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 447
448 Modular Jack
Modular Jack A j ack that i s equi pped wi th a plug so that devi ces can be
easi ly attached and detached. Old j acks, sti ll found i n old homes, are
hard wi red, whi ch means that the telephone cord had to be permanently
affi xed to the termi nals i nsi de the j ack wi th screws. T he same went for
nonmodular or hard-wi red telephones. I f you wanted to have a longer
cord, you couldnt buy one at the store and j ust plug i t i n. You had to
call the phone company and they would send a telephone techni ci an out
to i nstall a longer cord for you.
Modulation A method of varyi ng a radi o carri er frequency so that a si g-
nal ( the vari ati ons) can ri de on i t. After the carri er si gnal has the vari -
ati ons i mposed on i t, i t i s ampli fi ed and transmi tted. T he vari ati ons i n
the si gnal are then detected by the recei ver. T he vari ati ons i n the car-
ri er si gnal are actually voi ces, musi c, or whatever i s to be transmi tted.
T he di fferent methods of modulati ng a carri er frequency are AM (Am-
plitude Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), and PM (Phase
Modulation).
MOH (Music On Hold) A feature of PBX and key systems that allows
an audi o si gnal from a tape recorder, radi o, or other audi o devi ce to be
fed to callers that are on hold. T he PBX or key system user manual des-
i gnates how to cross connect the audi o si gnal i nto the system.
Monopole Antenna An antenna mast of one pole extendi ng from the
ground. T hese are popular wi th cellular and PCS wi reless servi ces
( Fi g. M.15) .
MOP (Method Of Procedure) When network engi neers desi gn an ad-
di ti on to a network ( a new node i n a SONET ri ng i s a good example) ,
they wri te a MOP. T he MOP i nstructs techni ci ans step by step whi ch
ci rcui ts to reroute, whi ch ci rcui t cards to swap and when, and when to
acti vate the new node. MOPs are a cruci al communi cati on tool between
engi neers and techni ci ans.
Morse Code I n 1836, Samuel F.B. Morse bui lt the fi rst worki ng telegraph.
He also deri ved a code that enabled people to exchange i nformati on
( Fi g. M.16) . T he Morse Code i s sti ll i n use today. I t i s used by amateur
radi o operators, shi ps at sea, etc.
MOS Another reference to CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor). T he reason why many computer and other hi gh-
speed components are stati c sensi ti ve. CM OS largest advantage over
T T L i s thei r low power consumpti on ( less than
1
10 of T T L) ; they swi tch
on wi thout drawi ng very much current i n contrast to T T L technology.
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 448
MOSPF (Multicast OSPF) 449
Figure M.15 Monopole Antenna With PCS/Cellular Antenna Array
Because very li ttle current i s drawn, very li ttle power i s consumed
and very li ttle heat i s gi ven off. T hi s allows the devi ces to be much
smaller.
MOS (Mean Opinion Score) A voi ce quali ty measurement of Codec
operati on ( such as G.711) over I P telephony networks. M ean opi ni on
score rates voi ce quali ty on a scale of 1 to 5, 1 bei ng bad and 5 bei ng
excellent. T he M OS score i s made by a wi de range of li steners hear-
i ng a transmi ssi on and then rati ng i t. G.711 PCM rates at an M OS of
4.1; G.729 CS A CELP rates at a 3.9; and G.729A rates at a 3.7. T he
maj or quali ty i ssue to the li steners that are able to noti ce the di ffer-
ence i s a sli ght delay and nearly undetectable voi ce di storti ons. See
also G.729.
MOSPF (Multicast OSPF) A multi cast addressi ng and transmi ssi on
method that uses OSPF ( Open Shortest Path Fi rst) to develop a multi -
cast tree, then MOSPF to i mplement a broadcast. See also PIM Dense
Mode and PIM Sparse Mode.
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450 Mouse
MORSE CODE
A N 1
B O 2
C P 3
D Q 4
E R 5
F S 6
G T 7
H U 8
I V 9
J W 0
K X .
L Y ?
M Z -
Figure M.16 Morse Code
Mouse A seri al-bus I /O devi ce used to poi nt and select obj ects on a com-
puter moni tor screen. T here are many manufacturers of mouse hard-
ware and many vari ati ons thereof. Some mi ce have fi xed roller balls,
some are used wi th the thumb, others wi th the forefi nger. T he three ma-
j or types of mi ce i nterfaces are: USB, seri al, and PS2. T hey are di sti n-
gui shable by thei r connector i nterface.
MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group) A wi dely used menu of stan-
dards for compressi ng vi deo. MPEG1 i s a bi t-stream standard for
compressed vi deo and audi o opti mi zed to fi t i nto a maxi mum bandwi dth
of 1.5 Mbps and wi th less resoluti on, MPEG2 i s i ntended for hi gher-
quali ty vi deo-on-demand appli cati ons and runs at data rates between
four and ni ne Mbps. MPEG4 i s a low-bi t-rate compressi on algori thm
i ntended for 64 K bps connecti ons.
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MPLS (MultiProtocol Label Switching) A method used to carry I P
over WAN AT M. MPLS evolved from the Ci sco Systems propri etary com-
muni cati ons method called tag switching, whi ch was submi tted to the
I ET F i n 1997. T hi s packet-to-cell loadi ng and unloadi ng method enables
telecommuni cati ons servi ce provi ders to furni sh I P WAN transport serv-
i ces to customers. T hi s method i s favorable by servi ce provi ders because
customer traffi c can be less expensi vely i nserted di rectly i nto backbone
archi tecture wi thout havi ng to use an i ntermedi ate servi ce, such as frame
relay.
MPOA (Multiprotocol Over ATM) An AT M Forum standardi zati on ef-
fort that speci fi es how exi sti ng and future network-layer protocols, such
as I P, I Pv6, AppleTalk, and I PX run over an AT M network wi th di rectly
attached hosts, routers, and multi layer LAN swi tches. See also Local-
Area Network Emulation.
MPPS (Million Packets per Second) I n LAN and WAN archi tectures,
a standard measure of swi tched traffi c throughput based on a 64-byte
packet. T hi s i s not an offi ci al standard as of thi s wri ti ng ( early 2001) .
T he si ze of the packet vari es by several bytes, dependi ng on the manu-
facturer and type of equi pment. Some use packets as small as 60 bytes
on networks speci fi cally confi gured to carry such traffi c. T he mi ni mum
si ze for an Ethernet packet i s 64 bytes. See also Runt and Giant.
MQA (Multiple Queue Assignment) A reference to the abi li ty of an
ACD system to allow agents to log i nto multi ple queues. A Northern Tele-
com Meri di an PBX wi th MQA software i s capable of allowi ng agents to
log i nto and recei ve calls from fi ve separate queues. When properly used,
MQA makes call centers more effi ci ent by allowi ng agents to share the
i ncomi ng call load more effecti vely. See also Skills Based Routing.
MRP (Multi-Service Route Processor) I n Ci sco Systems I P telephony,
a card that fi ts i nto an I CS7750 cabi net. T he MRP gi ves the system layer 3
capabi li ty and has two WI C/VI C slots. T hi s enables the MRP card to act
as an end stati on i nterface for a FAX machi ne, 2500 telephone, or mo-
dem. Wi th a WI C card on board, the MRP can act as an i nterface to a
telephone company through T 1, or si ngle loop start, E& M, or ground
start trunk. T he I CS7750 i s a mi dsi zed I P telephony system.
MSA (Metropolitan Statistical Area) A term that refers to the
306 metropoli tan areas where the FCC manages cellular and PCS
communi cati ons i n the Uni ted States. T he FCC has determi ned 428 RSA
(Rural Statistical Area) markets as bei ng separate from each other.
Each stati sti cal area, 734 i n all, has at least two li censed servi ce
provi ders.
MSA (Metropolitan Statistical Area) 451
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MSB (Most Significant Bit) T he bi t i n an octet that carri es the most
value. You can better understand thi s by compari ng i t to our base 10
numberi ng system. I magi ne a most si gni fi cant number. I f you are
43 years old, the 4 i s the most si gni fi cant number and the three i s the
least si gni fi cant number. I f the 4 were lost, then you would only be three
( a very si gni fi cant di fference) . I f the 3 were lost, you would sti ll be 40
( not so si gni fi cant) .
MSC (Mobile Switching Center) A place where cellular telephone call
traffi c i s controlled. A cellular swi tch i s used to perform the functi ons of
the MSC. Bandwi dth and cells are swi tched between users, and trunks
that i nterface to landli nes are also managed here.
MSCS (Microsoft Cluster Server) A feature of Wi ndows NT that
enables two NT servers that are connected on a network to logi cally
functi on as one. Mi crosoft Cluster Server software also provi des fai lure
detecti on and the abi li ty of one server to take over all functi ons i f the
other stops operati ng.
MTP (Media Termination Point) I n I P telephony, a reference to a poi nt
where an RT P Ethernet packet stream i s termi nated whi le system features
are executed. H.323 si gnali ng i nvokes the MT P functi on when i t i s needed;
however, MT P resources must be made avai lable. For example, i f a call i s
placed on hold or parked, the call that i s on hold must temporari ly termi -
nate at some hardware poi nt. T hi s hardware poi nt i s known as an MT P. T he
hardware that makes up MT Ps i s usually a gateway or router port. T hi s i s
i nherent i n hardware for calls connecti ng to the PST N; however, for in-
ternal calls put on hold that would otherwi se not route through a gate-
way, an MT P must be allocated. I f there are no MT P resources avai lable
when a feature i s executed, the feature wi ll not work. Some MT P functi ons
are handled through software i n smaller I P telephony deployments.
MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Office) T hi s i s where all con-
trol i s done for a cellular swi tchi ng network wi thi n a LATA. Smaller MSCs
hand off calls to the MT SO. T he MT SO i s where the bi lli ng, traffi cki ng,
mai ntenance moni tori ng, and hand-offs to long di stance and local land-
based carri ers happens.
Mu Law T he I T U-T compandi ng standard used i n conversi on between
analog and di gi tal si gnals i n cellular radi o systems. T he Mu-Law standard
i s used i n North Ameri ca; the maj ori ty of the world uti li zes the European
A-Law standard. Also see Companding.
Muldem (Multiplexer Demultiplexer) Another name for a multi plexer.
452 MSB (Most Significant Bit)
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Multicast I n Ethernet, packets are classi fi ed by routers i nto three
categori es: uni cast, broadcast and multi cast. A uni cast address i s uni que
to a si ngle host ( a computer, I P phone, or other network appli ance) . A
broadcast packet floods a network, whi ch means i t i s sent to every host,
and every host processes the packet. Broadcast packets are not forwarded
by routers, so they are li mi ted to the domai n that they are sent i n. To
meet the needs of busi ness appli cati ons such as vi deoconferenci ng, where
more than one user must recei ve the data yet not all hosts are forced to
recei ve and process the packets and packets must be forwarded beyond
a router, multi cast techni ques were developed. Multi cast enables select
groups of users to recei ve the same data transmi ssi on on a network.
Multi cast i s made possi ble by PI M ( Protocol I ndependent Multi cast) . A
network can be confi gured to uti li ze PI M as one of two features: PI M
Dense Mode and PI M Sparse Mode. PI M Dense Mode floods a network,
sendi ng the packets that make up the transmi ssi on to every devi ce on
a network. Routers on the network then i denti fy whi ch users respond
to the Multi cast flood, and then prune ( di sconti nue) packet transmi s-
si ons from devi ces that do not respond. T he advantage of PI M Dense
Mode i s that i ts operati on i s si mple to end users. T here i s no need for
an advance request to start recei vi ng the transmi ssi on. I t appears to be
automati c to the end user because i t i s. PI M Sparse Mode i ncorporates
I GMP, whi ch i s a si gnal for end users to request a multi cast packet
stream. T he advantage of thi s method i s that i n large networks, the i ni -
ti al flood i n PI M Dense Mode never happens. T he transmi ssi on i s sent
to a si ngle router called a rendezvous point. T he rendezvous poi nt
router then dupli cates the packets to the necessary segments that have
requested them. PI M Sparse Mode i s a more effi ci ent use of a networks
resources. T he drawback i s the need for requests to refresh the trans-
mi ssi on.
T here are many multi cast protocols that add features to PI M; how-
ever, they are almost always propri etary to one vendor and desi gned to
sui t a very speci fi c traffi c soluti on.
Multicast Address A si ngle address that transmi ts to multi ple network
devi ces. I P multi cast addresses range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
Multi cast addresses are also called group addresses. See also Multicast
and Broadcast.
Multicast, Protocol Independent (PIM Dense Mode/Sparse Mode)
I n Ethernet-type networks such as 802.3, multi cast i s made possi ble by
a set of communi cati ons procedures called PI M ( Protocol I ndependent
Multi cast) . A network can be confi gured to uti li ze PI M as one of two fea-
tures: PI M Dense Mode and PI M Sparse Mode. PI M Dense Mode floods a
network, sendi ng the packets that make up the transmi ssi on to every
Multicast, Protocol Independent 453
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devi ce on a network. Routers on the network then i denti fy whi ch users
respond to the Multi cast flood, and then prune ( di sconti nue) packet trans-
mi ssi ons from devi ces that do not respond. T he advantage of PI M Dense
Mode i s that i ts operati on i s si mple to end users. T here i s no need for an
advance request to start recei vi ng the transmi ssi on. I t appears to be au-
tomati c to the end user because i t i s. PI M Sparse Mode i ncorporates I GMP,
whi ch i s a si gnal for end users to request a multi cast packet stream. T he
advantage of thi s method i s that i n large networks, the i ni ti al flood i n PI M
Dense Mode never happens. T he transmi ssi on i s sent to a si ngle router
called a rendezvous point. T he rendezvous poi nt router then dupli cates
the packets to the necessary segments that have requested them. PI M
Sparse Mode i s a more effi ci ent use of a networks resources. T he draw-
back i s the need for requests to refresh the transmi ssi on.
Multihop A reference to mi crowave li nks that requi re two or more li nks
to get to a desti nati on. Multi hop li nks can extend di stance and enable a
more flexi ble path to go around bui ldi ngs or mountai ns.
Multilayer LAN Switch A LAN swi tch that i s capable of bri dgi ng frames
at the OSI layer 2 ( MAC address) level and/or forward ( route) packets
at the OSI layer 3 ( i .e., I P address) level. Some multi layer swi tches are
capable of swi tchi ng or routi ng traffi c at layer 4 and above, i denti fyi ng
the appli cati on of the data i nsi de the packet so i t can be pri ori ti zed as
voi ce, vi deo, and data. See also LAN Switch and Layer 3 Switch.
Multi-Layered Switching ( Also known as hi erarchi cal swi tchi ng.) A
method of LAN network desi gn where there are three layers of swi tches:
a core layer, a di stri buti on layer, and an access layer. T hi s model i s used
when desi gni ng LAN networks because i t allows for methodi cal scala-
bi li ty and easy deployment of redundancy where needed.
Multimeter An electroni c test devi ce used to measure voltage levels,
electri c current, and ci rcui t resi stance. Some multi meters are analog and
some are di gi tal. For a photo of a di gi tal multi meter, see Voltmeter. For
a photo of an analog cable test meter, see 145A.
Multimode T he alternati ve to Single-Mode fi ber opti c. Multi mode has a
larger core ( 50 to 100 mi cron) . T herefore, i t accepts more li ght and more
frequenci es of li ght. Multi mode i s used for shorter-di stance appli cati ons,
such as LANs. Si nglemode fi ber opti c has a smaller core ( 5 to 15 mi cron) ,
but i s capable of longer-di stance transmi ssi ons. I t i s used i n the publi c
network more often and i s the choi ce for SONET appli cati ons. Multi mode
fi ber opti c i s made wi th an orange-colored tube or i nsulati on, and si ngle
mode i s made wi th yellow.
454 Multihop
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MultiNAM A cellular phone that i s programmed to have multi ple phone
numbers, usually two. Multi NAM cell phones can have numbers that are
subscri bed to from di fferent cellular compani es.
Multiple Domain Network SNA network wi th multi ple SSCPs. See also
SSCP.
Multiple Queue Assignment (MQA) A reference to the abi li ty of an
ACD system to allow agents to log i nto multi ple queues. A Northern
Telecom M eri di an PBX wi th M QA software i s capable of allowi ng
agents to log i nto and recei ve calls from fi ve separate queues. When
properly used, M QA makes call centers more effi ci ent by allowi ng
agents to share the i ncomi ng call load more effecti vely. See also Skills
Based Routing.
Multiplex Multi plexi ng i s the process of encodi ng two or more di gi tal
si gnals or channels on to one. Channels are multi plexed together to save
money. When we use all of the wi res i n a cable and need more, i t costs
less to add electroni cs on the ends of a cable than to i nstall a new one
( i magi ne the expense from LA to NY) . A T 1 encodes 24 channels i nto 1
by usi ng frequency-di vi si on multi plexi ng. I n a si mpler explanati on, a T 1
makes i t possi ble to place 24 li nes that once needed 24 pai rs on only 2
pai rs. When a group of si gnals are multi plexed together, they are all sam-
pled at a hi gh rate of speed, faster than the combi ned speed of all the
channels bei ng multi plexed. For a di agram on the multi plexi ng process,
see Time-Division Multiplexing.
Multiplexer An electroni c devi ce that encodes several di gi tal si gnals i nto
a si ngle di gi tal si gnal for transmi ssi on on a si ngle medi um ( such as a pai r
of wi res) . For a di agram on the multi plexi ng process, see Time-Division
Multiplexing. Fi gure M.17 shows an Alcatel DS3 to DS1 multi plexer. For
another photo, see Mux.
Multipoint Control Unit (MCU) 1. A hardware and software devi ce
that i n i ts respecti ve appli cati on, be i t voi ce or vi deo, provi des a poi nt
of management and control for multi ple voi ce or vi deo data streams that
could possi bly be conferenced together. MCUs are generally propri etary
devi ces that i ncorporate thei r own features for managi ng the flow of a
vi deo or voi ce appli cati on and whi ch users can see or hear each other,
and also i n what fashi on the users are seen. For example, i f the MCU i s
desi gned for vi deo conferenci ng, i t could make four users appear i n small
boxes i n each corner of a vi deo moni tor, or make the user that i s speak-
i ng be the one vi ewed by all other users. 2. Media Conference Unit
Performs the same functi on as an MCU.
Multipoint Control Unit (MCU) 455
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Multipoint Line An older name for a bus physical topology. I n Ethernet, a
bus is a communications line, twisted pair or coax, with multiple points of
connection. I n bus physical topology, all points of connection must be ter-
minated to a workstation ( host) or a line terminator. See also Bus Topology.
MultiProtocol Label Switching (MPLS) A method used to carry I P over
WAN AT M. MPLS evolved from the Ci sco Systems propri etary communi -
cati ons method called tag switching, whi ch was submi tted to the I ET F i n
1997. T hi s packet-to-cell loadi ng and unloadi ng method enables telecom-
muni cati ons servi ce provi ders to furni sh I P WAN transport servi ces to cus-
tomers. T hi s method i s favorable by servi ce provi ders because customer
traffi c can be less expensi vely i nserted di rectly i nto backbone archi tecture
wi thout havi ng to use an i ntermedi ate servi ce, such as frame relay.
MultiProtocol Over ATM (MPOA) An AT M Forum standardi zati on ef-
fort speci fyi ng how exi sti ng and future network-layer protocols, such as
I P, I Pv6, AppleTalk, and I PX, run over an AT M network wi th di rectly at-
tached hosts, routers, and multi layer LAN swi tches. See also Local-Area
Network Emulation.
Mushroom Board Also called a white board or peg board. I t i s placed
between termi nati on blocks ( such as 66M150 blocks) to provi de a means
of support for routi ng cross-connect wi re. For a photo, see White Board.
456 Multipoint Line
Figure M.17 Multiplexer: DS3 to DS1
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 456
Music on Hold (MOH) See MOH.
Mute A feature of PBX and key telephones that turns off the mi crophone.
Mute i s also used i n conj uncti on wi th handsfree to prevent the other
partys voi ce from cutti ng i n and out duri ng a call.
Mux A shortened name for multi plexer ( Fi g. M.18) . For a di agram of the
multi plexi ng concept, see Time-Division Multiplexing. For an addi -
ti onal photo, see Fig. M.17.
Mux 457
Figure M.18 Mux (Multiplexer): DS3 to DS1
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 457
PQ104-5056F-PM.qxd 2/9/01 2:11 PM Page 458
N-Type Connector A connector used to fi t RG-8 coax. N-type connectors
are used i n mi crowave radi o appli cati ons where the i ndoor radi o uni t con-
nects to an outdoor di sh uni t vi a a coaxi al cable feed. T hese connectors
are also very popular i n cellular/PCS/pagi ng radi o appli cati ons ( Fi g. N.1) .
459
N
Figure N.1 N-Type Connector Used in Cellular and Microwave Radio Applications
N2 A parameter setti ng of mechani cal cycles ( usually 10 or 20) i n the
X.25 protocol that determi nes how many ti mes a sendi ng devi ce ( DCE
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 459
devi ce) wi ll poll a recei vi ng devi ce ( DT E devi ce) . T he poll i s sent because
the far equi pment i s not respondi ng. After the N2 i s reached, a Set Asyn-
chronous Balanced Mode (SABM) wi ll be transmi tted by the polli ng
devi ce, whi ch wi ll ulti mately reset the enti re li nk.
NADN (Nearest Active Downstream Neighbor) I n token-ri ng or
I EEE 802.5 networks, the closest downstream network devi ce from any
gi ven devi ce that i s sti ll acti ve.
NAK T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for negati ve acknowledge. T he
bi nary code i s 0101001 and the hex i s 51.
Naked Call An i ncomi ng call that recei ves no greeti ng message
and no call menus or flexi ble routi ng before i t i s routed i nto an ACD
queue.
NANP (North American Number Plan) See Area Code.
NAT (Network Address Translation) An early network protocol/
feature that adverti ses address changes. T hi s has been replaced wi th
newer methods. See Layer 2,3,4 Switching.
National Access Fee A Federal tax placed on telecommuni cati ons serv-
i ces provi ded by telephone compani es.
National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) T he pre-HDT V
broadcast standard i n Canada, Japan, the Uni ted States, and Central
Ameri ca. NT SC defi nes 525 verti cal scan li nes per frame and yi elds 30
frames per second. T he scan li nes refer to the number of li nes from top
to bottom on the televi si on screen. T he frames per second refer to the
number of complete i mages that are di splayed per second. See also Tele-
vision Broadcast Standards.
Native Protocol T he format of the LAN that i s bei ng transmi tted over
a WAN. For i nstance, i f a LAN i s Ethernet and i t connects to a remote
LAN vi a a frame-relay network, the nati ve protocol i s Ethernet, and the
connecti on protocol i s frame relay.
NAUN (Nearest Active Upstream Neighbor) I n token-ri ng or I EEE
802.5 networks, the closest upstream network devi ce from any gi ven de-
vi ce that i s operati onal.
NCP (Netware Core Protocol) T he heart of the Novell NetWare
operati ng system. I t i s a set of programmed i nstructi ons that enables
460 NADN (Nearest Active Downstream Neighbor)
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communi cati on to occur between software programs on a workstati on
and a fi le servers operati ng system. I t manages the hi gh-level aspects of
communi cati on, i ncludi ng: user account authori zati on, fi le retri evals, and
remote pri nti ng servi ces. Furthermore, NCP i s a connecti on-ori ented
servi ce. I t acknowledges packets that have been recei ved and requests
retransmi ssi ons of lost or di scarded packets.
NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification) A standard data-li nk
layer ( OSI level 2) protocol wi thi n the T CP/I P fami ly that enables mul-
ti ple protocols and multi ple network ( physi cal layer) adapters to exi st
on the same computer. NDI S allows all upper layer protocols to use the
same Network Interface Card (NIC).
NDT (No Dial Tone) An abbrevi ati on frequently used on telephone com-
pany repai r orders and by servi ce personnel.
NE (Network Element) A devi ce attached to a network vi a hardware
or software that performs a servi ce or functi on to the network. A net-
work element can be a router, a host, a workstati on, a hub, a central
offi ce swi tch, a pri vate branch exchange swi tch, a voi ce-mai l system, a
fi rewall/securi ty program, or any other network-servi ci ng enti ty.
Near-End Cross Talk (NEXT) T he uncommon phenomena of si gnals
equi pment. T he near end refers to the problem occurri ng between a
swi tch and a DSLAM or other devi ce wi thi n a central offi ce/node. For a
di agram, see Far-End Cross Talk.
Neighboring Routers A reference to routers that are adj acently con-
nected wi thi n a network. I n multi ple-protocol networks, nei ghbors are
dynami cally di scovered by the OSPF Hello protocol.
NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) A set of i nstructi ons
wi thi n the Novell NetWare protocol stack that extend a PCs BI OS
i nstructi ons to i nclude those that enable communi cati ng beyond i ts own
hardware and i nto a network.
NetWare A trademark of Novell. Netware i s a wi dely uti li zed network op-
erati ng system software that was developed by Novell from the XNS
(Xerox Network Systems) archi tecture, whi ch was ori gi nally released
i n 1981. T he Netware protocol sui te i s defi ned i n the top fi ve layers of
the OSI , and can be made to run on vi rtually any data-li nk and physi cal
layer system ( Fi g. N.2) .
NetWare 461
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NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) T he heart of the Novell NetWare op-
erati ng system. I t i s a set of programmed i nstructi ons that enables
communi cati on to occur between software programs on a workstati on
and a fi le servers operati ng system. I t manages the hi gh-level aspects of
communi cati on, i ncludi ng: user account authori zati on, fi le retri evals, and
remote pri nti ng servi ces. Furthermore, NCP i s a connecti on-ori ented
servi ce. I t acknowledges packets that have been recei ved and requests
retransmi ssi ons of lost or di scarded packets.
NetWare Loadable Module (NLM) A Novell trademark. An i ndi vi dual
program or appli cati on that can be loaded i nto memory and functi on as
part of the Novell NetWare NOS (Network Operating System).
NetWare Shell A functi on i n the Novell Netware Protocol Stack. T he
NetWare Shell or requestor shell stays resi dent i n a workstati on or
servers memory. I t deci des whether or not to send data/i nstructi ons
entered by the user ( or appli cati on) to the network. Each ti me the
workstati on user executes a command, the NetWare Shell software
Figure N.2 Novell NetWare Protocol Suite
462 NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)
APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
NETWORK
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
NETWARE
SHELL
CLIENT
NETBIOS
ETHERNET
802.3
RIP
SPX
OSI LAYER
NOVELL NETWARE PROTOCOL SUITE
NOVELL LINK
STATE PROTOCOL
SAP
PROPRIETARY
SERVICE
ADVERTISEMENT
IPX
INTERNETWORK PACKET
EXCHANGE
TOKEN
RING
802.5
FAST
ETHERNET
FDDI PPP
HIGH-
SPEED
SERIAL
INTERFACE
ATM OTHERS
TRANSPORT
NCP
NETWARE
CORE
PROTOCOL
NETWARE - BASED APPLICATIONS
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 462
program determi nes whether the call/i nstructi on i s for the users PC or
for a remote server on the network.
Network A group of devi ces that communi cate back and forth usi ng a
set of rules or a set of protocols ( called a protocol stack i n data
communi cati ons) . T he medi um that the devi ces communi cate through
can be copper wi re ( UT P) , fi ber opti c, coax, fi ber opti c, ai r/vacuum
( radi o) , or li ght ( i nfrared) .
Network Architecture T he combi nati on of software and hardware type
of a network. Each network archi tecture can have one or more protocols
wi thi n i t.
Network Element (NE) A devi ce attached to a network vi a hardware
or software that performs a servi ce or functi on to the network. A network
element can be a router, a host, a workstati on, a hub, a central offi ce
swi tch, a pri vate branch exchange swi tch, a voi ce-mai l system, a
fi rewall/securi ty program, or any other network-servi ci ng enti ty.
Network File System (NFS) As commonly used, a di stri buted fi le-system
protocol sui te developed by Sun Mi crosystems that allows remote fi le access
across a network. I n actuali ty, NFS i s si mply one protocol i n the sui te. NFS
protocols i nclude NFS, RPC, XDR, and others. T hese protocols are part of
a larger archi tecture that Sun refers to as ONC. See also ONC.
Network Forwarding Rate I n bri dges or routers, the amount of data i n
packets per second that a devi ce such as a swi tch/router/bri dge can
transfer traffi c i n on one port and out on another.
Network Interface (NI) Also called a Standard Network Interface
(SNI), demarcati on poi nt, or li ghtni ng protector. T he devi ce that
contai ns carbons to protect a phone li ne from bei ng overloaded by li ght-
ni ng and acts as the separati on poi nt between the telephone companys
wi re and the customers wi re, whi ch i s also called the IW (Inside Wire).
For a photo, see Standard Network Interface.
Network Interface Card (NIC) An expansi on board that plugs i nto a
motherboard vi a an I SA or PCI expansi on socket/slot. T he network
i nterface card provi des the electroni c and the physi cal i nterface for
the network of i ts type. Network types i nclude, but are not li mi ted
to, Ethernet and token ri ng. For a photo of a PCI Ethernet NI C, see NIC.
Network Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n general,
the network layer does the j ob of swi tchi ng and routi ng of the data bei ng
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transmi tted wi thi n the protocol. A central-offi ce swi tch would be a good
example of a network layer functi on. T he latest model ( gui deli ne) for
communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect). I t
i s the best model so far because all of the layers or functi ons work
i ndependently of each other. For a di agram of the OSI model and i ts
layers, see Open Systems Interconnection.
Network Node Interface (NNI) I n the AT M world, thi s type of
connecti on provi des 4096 vi rtual paths and 65, 536 vi rtual connecti ons
wi thi n each path for a total of 268, 435, 456 channels between two AT M
networks, swi tches, or users that are physi cally connected over a UNI
(User Network Interface).
Network Operating System (NOS) A software that manages commu-
ni cati ons of devi ces. An admi ni strator sets access and securi ty pri vi leges
to users of a network and moni tors network performance vi a thi s
software. I n Novell networks, the NOS provi des sockets at OSI level 4,
whi ch provi de the li nk between software appli cati ons and lower network
layers. Network operati ng systems are di stri buted fi le systems. Examples
i nclude Novell NetWare, NFS ( Network File Systemfor UNI X) , Wi ndows
NT, and Banyan VI NES.
Network Service Access Point (NSAP) T he logi cal, software, or
vi rtual i nterface between the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)
network layer ( 3) and transport layer ( 4) . T hi s i s known as a socket i n
Novell networks.
Network Service Provider (NSP) A company that provi des telecom-
muni cati ons servi ces such as frame relay, ADSL, HDSL, AT M, I nternet
Access or other servi ces vi a thei r own swi tchi ng equi pment, or leased
swi tchi ng equi pment. NSPs usually provi de servi ces by uti li zi ng a local
telco or CAP for the last mi le ( local loop) . T hey also li nk thei r nodes vi a
hi gh capaci ty ci rcui ts, and have i nterconnecti on agreements wi th other
telecommuni cati ons compani es.
Network Termination Equipment (NTE) T he generi c term for DCE
and DTE (Data Communication Equipment and Data Termination
Equipment). Wi th newer transmi ssi on methods, such as those provi ded
i n the xDSL fami ly, DCE and DT E are replaced wi th near-end NT E and
far-end NT E. T he near end i s the central offi ce transmi ssi on i nterface
and the far end i s the xDSL router.
Network Transit-Time Delay T he amount of ti me ( i n mi lli seconds) that
i t takes for a data packet to traverse across a network. Transi t ti me delay
464 Network Node Interface (NNI)
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 464
i s often rated based on a data packet maki ng a round tri p vi a a pi ng
command. A typi cal round-tri p transi t ti me delay across a very robust
network that stretches from Tokyo to New York i s 200 ms. Transi t ti me
delay i s i ncreased by the number of routi ng or swi tchi ng devi ces that a
packet passes through. A concern for network desi gners i s to have
enough route redundancy to ensure that alternate routes can be taken
by packets when connecti ons fai l. T he di sadvantage to havi ng redun-
dancy i s that more swi tchi ng and routi ng equi pment i s requi red, whi ch
i ncreases transi t-ti me delay.
Neutral Also called common or floati ng ground. Neutral/common i s a
reference poi nt and i s ungrounded. I t i s usually a si gnal return or DC
reference coupli ng for transmi ssi on ci rcui ts.
NEXT (Near-End Cross Talk) T he uncommon phenomena of si gnals
equi pment. T he near end refers to the problem occurri ng between a
swi tch and a DSLAM or other devi ce wi thi n a central offi ce/node. For a
di agram, see Far-End Cross Talk.
Next-Hop Resolution Protocol (NHRP) A set of i nstructi ons used by
routers that enables them to automati cally di scover the physi cal-layer
address of other routers and hosts connected to a NonBroadcast Multi-
Access (NBMA) network. Data routed wi th NHRP can then di rectly
address secti ons of the network. T hi s allows users/devi ces to communi -
cate wi thout traffi c havi ng to use an i ntermedi ate hop, i ncreasi ng
performance i n AT M, frame-relay, SMDS, and X.25 envi ronments.
NFAS (Non-Facility Associated Signaling) I n I SDN PRI ( Pri mary
Rate I nterface) si gnali ng, the abi li ty of D channels to carry si gnali ng
i nformati on for multi ple 24 channel PRI s. T hi s i s an advantage for those
who would li ke to squeeze that last ( 24th) B channel out of thei r ci rcui ts.
T he only drawback i s that i f the D channel should go down, then all PRI
ci rcui ts associ ated to that PRI go down wi th i t. I t i s a feature of NFAS
si gnali ng, and very common to confi gure a back-up D channel on one of
the secondary PRI ci rcui ts.
NFS (Network File System) As commonly used, a di stri buted fi le-
system protocol sui te developed by Sun Mi crosystems that allows remote
fi le access across a network. I n actuali ty, NFS i s si mply one protocol i n
the sui te. NFS protocols i nclude NFS, RPC, XDR, and others. T hese
protocols are part of a larger archi tecture that Sun refers to as ONC. See
also ONC.
NFS (Network File System) 465
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 465
NHRP (Next Hop Resolution Protocol) A set of i nstructi ons used by
routers that enables them to automati cally di scover the physi cal-layer
address of other routers and hosts connected to a NonBroadcast Multi-
Access (NBMA) network. Data routed wi th NHRP can then di rectly
address secti ons of the network. T hi s allows users/devi ces to communi -
cate wi thout traffi c havi ng to use an i ntermedi ate hop, i ncreasi ng
performance i n AT M, frame-relay, SMDS, and X.25 envi ronments.
NI (Network Interface) See Network Interface.
Nibble Four bi ts, or 1/2 of a byte.
Nibble Coding I t takes four bi nary bi ts to make a deci mal number, so
two deci mal numbers can be fi t i nto one byte. X.25 uses a method
referred to as nibble coding, whi ch breaks overhead bytes i nto ni bbles
to help make i t easi er to understand the addressi ng of the packets.
Back when X.25 was new ( 1970s) , dynami c memory was very costly,
so compacti ng addresses i nto ni bbles was more effi ci ent and cost-
effecti ve.
NIC (Network Interface Card) An expansi on board that plugs i nto a
motherboard vi a an I SA or PCI expansi on socket/slot. T he network
i nterface card provi des the electroni c and the physi cal i nterface for the
network of i ts type. Network types i nclude, but are not li mi ted to,
Ethernet and token ri ng. A PCI Ethernet NI C i s shown i n Fi g. N.3.
Figure N.3 PCI Slot NIC Card
466 NHRP (Next Hop Resolution Protocol)
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Night Service A feature of PBX and hybri d key systems that allows the
li nes ri ngi ng i nto an offi ce to be handled di fferently duri ng certai n
ti mes of the day. T he phone system i s programmed as two di fferent
systems, usually a day system, and a ni ght, or after-hours system. I f a
user would li ke all calls that come i nto the offi ce after hours to ri ng
to a voi ce-mai l system, or be forwarded to securi ty, i t can be done wi th
the ni ght-mode feature. Some systems are equi pped wi th software that
allows the ni ght-mode feature to acti vate automati cally at certai n ti mes
of the day.
NLM (Netware Loadable Module) A Novell trademark. An i ndi vi dual
program or appli cati on that can be loaded i nto memory and functi on as
part of the Novell NetWare NOS (Network Operating System).
NMC (Network Management Center) A place where large or publi c
telephone networks are managed, moni tored, and mai ntai ned from a
central locati on.
NNCDE (Nortel Networks Certified Design Expert) A well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Nortel Net-
works. T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes an advanced level of network de-
si gn, planni ng, and opti mi zati on usi ng Nortel Networks products. I t
requi res i ndustry experi ence as well as Nortel trai ni ng. I nformati on
regardi ng Nortel Networks certi fi cati on programs can be found at
http://www.nortelnetworks.com.
NNCNA (Nortel Networks Certified Network Architect) A well-
known i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Nortel
Networks. T hi s advanced certi fi cati on not only requi res learned techni cal
knowledge, but also i ndustry experi ence. Students seeki ng thi s certi fi ca-
ti on are requi red to obtai n a requi red number of poi nts i n certi fi cati on-
related areas. A speci fi c number of poi nts are obtai ned through j ob
experi ence and a number are obtai ned by taki ng Nortel Networks courses.
I nformati on regardi ng Nortel Networks certi fi cati on programs can be
found at http://www.nortelnetworks.com.
NNCSE (Nortel Networks Certified Support Expert) A well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Nortel Networks.
T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes an advanced level of techni cal post-sales
experti se requi red to i mplement, support, troubleshoot, and opti mi ze
Nortel Networks products. T hi s certi fi cati on requi res i ndustry experi ence
poi nts as well as Nortel Networks trai ni ng. I nformati on regardi ng Nortel
Networks certi fi cati on programs can be found at http://www.nortel-
networks.com.
NNCSE (Nortel Networks Certified Support Expert) 467
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 467
(NNCSS) Nortel Networks Certified Support Specialist A well-
Networks. T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes a fundamental level of post-sales
techni cal experti se requi red to deploy, operate, and troubleshoot Nortel
Networks products. T hi s certi fi cati on requi res i ndustry experi ence
poi nts, as well as Nortel Networks trai ni ng. I nformati on regardi ng Nortel
Networks certi fi cati on programs can be found at http://www.nortel
networks.com.
NNI (Network Node Interface) I n the AT M world, thi s type of a
connecti on provi des 4096 vi rtual paths and 65, 536 vi rtual connecti ons
wi thi n each path for a total of 268, 435, 456 channels between two AT M
networks, swi tches or users that are physi cally connected over a UNI
(User Network Interface).
NOC (Network Operations Center) A place where large or publi c tele-
phone networks are managed, moni tored, and mai ntai ned.
NOD (Network Outward Dialing) See Network Outward Dialing.
Node 1. I n local-area networki ng, any enti ty or devi ce attached to a net-
work that possesses a MAC (Media-Access Control) address. 2. I n
wi de-area networki ng, a node i s a router or swi tch that serves as a con-
trol poi nt i n a network, and those control poi nts ( routers/swi tches) i n-
corporate a routi ng protocol to communi cate network i nformati on and
to route traffi c through the network. 3. I n voi ce networki ng, a node i s
a devi ce that has swi tchi ng capabi li ty, or a central offi ce. 4. I n gen-
eral, i t i s common for a node to be used as a reference for any devi ce
that i s connected to a communi cati ons network vi a a copper wi re, fi ber-
opti c, radi o li nk, or i nfrared li ght. T hese devi ces i nclude routers, bri dges,
termi nals, computers, hubs, controllers, and swi tches.
Noise Noi se i s any ki nd of di storti on or unwanted si gnal. T he two mai n
categori es of noi se are electromagneti c i nterference and ambi ent noi se.
Electromagneti c i nterference i s caused by a radi o si gnal or other mag-
neti c fi eld i nduci ng i tself onto a medi um ( twi sted-/nontwi sted-pai r wi re)
or devi ce ( telephone or other electroni cs) . T he world we li ve i n i s full
of radi o waves that are emi tted from electri c appli ances, such as
blenders, automobi le engi nes, transmi tters, and even fluorescent li ghts.
Even though we take preventati ve measures to avoi d recei vi ng these un-
wanted si gnals, they someti mes fi nd thei r way i nto places that they are
not wanted.
Electromagneti c i nterference i s usually caused by one of two thi ngs.
T he fi rst i s when a wi re connected to a devi ce acts li ke an antenna and
468 (NNCSS) Nortel Networks Certified Support Specialist
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 468
recei ves the EMI , whi ch i s then passed on to the electroni cs i nsi de the
devi ce and ampli fi ed. T he second i s when an electroni c component i nsi de
a devi ce acts li ke an antenna because of poor desi gn, poor shi eldi ng, or
because the component i s defecti ve. Ambi ent noi se i s noi se caused by
the random movement of electrons i n an electroni c ci rcui t when the
power i s off or by the random movement of ai r.
Noise Canceling Noi se canceli ng i s accompli shed by fi lteri ng a sample
of the noi se from a preamp stage of a ci rcui t, then i nverti ng the si gnal
180 degrees and addi ng the i nverted noi se si gnal to the ori gi nal si gnal
contai ni ng the noi se ( Fi g. N.4) . T he noi se combi ned wi th the i nverted
sample of the noi se cancel each other out ( electroni cally add to 0 V ) .
When the ori gi nal noi se si gnal goes posi ti ve i n i ts cycle, the noi se sam-
ple goes negati ve and the resultant output i s 0 V. A good appli cati on of
noi se canceli ng i s i n the radi o headsets that ai rcraft pi lots use. T he cock-
pi t noi se i s sampled and fed i nto the radi o system, i nverted, re-fed i nto
the ampli fi cati on system, and the surroundi ng noi se i s canceled out.
Non-Canonical ( Also known as LSB, Least Significant Bit, or Little
Endian.) A method of placi ng the least si gni fi cant bi t on the wi re or i n
the header of a frame fi rst. Ethernet i s a non-canoni cal transmi ssi on
method. Other canoni cal protocols such as FDDI and token ri ng place
the MSB ( Most Si gni fi cant Bi t) on the wi re or i n the packet header fi rst.
Non-Facility Associated Signaling (NFAS) I n I SDN PRI ( Pri mary
Rate I nterface) si gnali ng, the abi li ty of D channels to carry si gnali ng i n-
formati on for multi ple 24 channel PRI s. T hi s i s an advantage for those
who would li ke to squeeze that last ( 24th) B channel out of thei r ci rcui ts.
T he only drawback i s that i f the D channel should go down, then all PRI
ci rcui ts associ ated to that PRI go down wi th i t. I t i s a feature of NFAS
si gnali ng, and very common to confi gure a back-up D channel on one of
the secondary PRI ci rcui ts.
NonReturn To Zero Inverted (NRZI) Si gnals that mai ntai n constant
voltage levels wi th no si gnal transi ti ons ( no return to a zero-voltage level) ,
Figure N.4 Noise Canceling
NonReturn To Zero Inverted (NRZI) 469
Noise
Two signals combined
Noise canceled 0 V
Noise sample
Inverted 180
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 469
but i nterpret the presence of data at the begi nni ng of a bi t i nterval as
a si gnal transi ti on and the absence of data as no transi ti on. See also
NRZ.
Nortel Networks Certified Design Expert (NNCDE) A well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Nortel Net-
works. T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes an advanced level of network de-
si gn, planni ng, and opti mi zati on usi ng Nortel Networks products. I t
requi res i ndustry experi ence as well as Nortel trai ni ng. I nformati on
Nortel Networks Certified Network Architect (NNCNA) A well-
Networks. T hi s advanced certi fi cati on not only requi res learned techni cal
knowledge, but also i ndustry experi ence. Students seeki ng thi s certi fi ca-
ti on are requi red to obtai n a requi red number of poi nts i n certi fi cati on-
related areas. A speci fi c number of poi nts are obtai ned through j ob
experi ence and a number are obtai ned by taki ng Nortel Networks
courses. I nformati on regardi ng Nortel Networks certi fi cati on programs
can be found at http://www.nortelnetworks.com.
Nortel Networks Certified Support Expert (NNCSE) A well-known
i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program that i s offered by Nortel
Networks. T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes an advanced level of techni cal
post sales experti se requi red to i mplement, support, troubleshoot, and
opti mi ze Nortel Networks products. T hi s certi fi cati on requi res i ndustry
experi ence poi nts as well as Nortel Networks trai ni ng. I nformati on
Nortel Networks Certified Support Specialist (NNCSS) A well-
Networks. T hi s certi fi cati on recogni zes a fundamental level of post-
sales techni cal experti se requi red to deploy, operate, and troubleshoot
Nortel Networks products. T hi s certi fi cati on requi res i ndustry
experi ence poi nts, as well as Nortel Networks trai ni ng. I nformati on
North American Area Codes See Area Codes.
North American Numbering Plan See Area Codes.
470 Nortel Networks Certified Design Expert (NNCDE)
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 470
NOS (Network Operating System) A software that manages commu-
ni cati ons of devi ces. An admi ni strator sets access and securi ty pri vi leges
to users of a network, and moni tors network performance vi a thi s
software. I n Novell Networks, the NOS provi des sockets at OSI level 4,
whi ch provi de the li nk between software appli cati ons and lower network
layers. Network operati ng systems are di stri buted fi le systems. Examples
i nclude Novell NetWare, NFS ( Network File System for UNI X) , Wi n-
dows NT, and Banyan VI NES.
Notch Filter A fi lter that i s desi gned to pass or block a speci fi c band of
frequenci es. T he three types of fi lters are low pass/block, hi gh pass/block,
and notch pass block. What determi nes i f the fi lter i s a pass or block
fi lter i s how the fi lter i s arranged. I f the fi lter i s set i n seri es wi th a ci rcui t,
then i t passes the desi red frequenci es down the li ne. I f i t i s connected
to ground, i t wi ll pass the desi red frequenci es to ground, thus prevent-
i ng them from conti nui ng through the ci rcui t to block them.
NPA (Number Plan Area) Also called an Area Code. Each area code
contai ns central offi ces and each central offi ce has a set of prefi xes ( fi rst
three di gi ts of a seven-di gi t number) that i denti fy that central offi ce to
all other central offi ces wi thi n the associ ated area code. Some people
actually si t around and plan what numbers wi ll belong to whi ch central
offi ce.
NRZ (NonReturn to Zero) 1. I n a physi cal medi um, si gnals that mai n-
tai n constant voltage levels wi th no si gnal transi ti ons ( no return to a zero-
voltage level) duri ng a bi t i nterval. See also NRZI . 2. A bi nary encodi ng
method used to wri te i nformati on to hard-di sk dri ves i n computers.
NRZI (NonReturn to Zero Inverted) 1. I n a physi cal medi um, si gnals
that mai ntai n constant voltage levels wi th no si gnal transi ti ons ( no re-
turn to a zero-voltage level) , but i nterpret the presence of data at the
begi nni ng of a bi t i nterval as a si gnal transi ti on and the absence of data
as no transi ti on. See also NRZ. 2. A bi nary encodi ng scheme used to
wri te i nformati on to hard-di sk dri ves i n computers.
NSAP (Network Service Access Point) T he logi cal, software, or
vi rtual i nterface between the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)
network layer ( 3) and transport layer ( 4) . T hi s i s known as a socket i n
Novell networks.
NSP (Network Service Provider) A company that provi des telecom-
muni cati ons servi ces such as frame relay, ADSL, HDSL, AT M, I nternet
NSP (Network Service Provider) 471
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 471
Access or other servi ces vi a thei r own swi tchi ng equi pment, or leased
swi tchi ng equi pment. NSPs usually provi de servi ces by uti li zi ng a local
telco or CAP for the last mi le ( local loop) . T hey also li nk thei r nodes vi a
hi gh capaci ty ci rcui ts, and have i nterconnecti on agreements wi th other
telecommuni cati ons compani es.
NTE (Network Termination Equipment) T he generi c term for DCE
and DTE (Data Communication Equipment and Data Termination
Equipment). Wi th newer transmi ssi on methods, such as those provi ded
i n the xDSL fami ly, DCE and DT E are replaced wi th near-end NT E and
far-end NT E. T he near end i s the central offi ce transmi ssi on i nterface
and the far end i s the xDSL router.
NT1 (Network Terminal 1) Another reference for an I SDN termi nal
adapter.
NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) T he pre-HDT V
Ameri ca. NT SC defi nes 525 verti cal scan li nes per frame and yi elds
30 frames per second. T he scan li nes refer to the number of li nes from
top to bottom on the televi si on screen. T he frames per second refer to
the number of complete i mages that are di splayed per second. See also
Television Broadcast Standards.
NUL T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for null. T he bi nary code i s
Null Modem A communi cati ons cable, such as an RS-232 cable, that has
the transmi t and recei ve wi res swi tch places i n pi n-out from one end to
the other. T hese cables are used to connect DCE (Data Communica-
tions Equipment) wi th DTE (Data Termination Equipment), so the
transmi t of one reaches the recei ve of the other ( Fi g. N.5) .
Null-Modem Adapter An adapter that i s used to convert a strai ght-
through cable i nto a null-modem cable. Null-modem adapters are avai l-
able i n many di fferent pi n-outs and connector types ( Fi g. N.6) .
472 NTE (Network Termination Equipment)

DB Connector DB Connector
Transmit
Receive
Transmit
Receive
Figure N.5 Null Modem
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 472
Number Portability 473
Number Crunching A reference to data processi ng or data mani pulati on
done by a PC, server, or mai nframe.
Numbering Plan A plan of what numbers wi ll be used where. I n a local
phone company, each central offi ce has i ts own numberi ng plan or
range of numbers. I n a PBX or key system, numberi ng plans are
i mplemented to ease the complexi ty of accounti ng, and someti mes
they ai d i n rememberi ng what a persons extensi on number i s. For
example, sales can be extensi ons that range from 3000 to 3999,
manufacturi ng can be extensi ons that range from 4000 to 4999, off-
premi ses extensi ons can range from 5000 to 5999, etc. Numberi ng
plans can be formed any way that a user/admi ni strator li kes wi th the
followi ng excepti ons: Usually no extensi on on a PBX starts wi th 9
because 9 as a fi rst di gi t i s used to access outsi de li nes, so 9000 to
9999 i s not used i n a numberi ng plan. Zero ( 0) i s also restri cted from
a numberi ng plan because i t i s often used to di al the attendant or
operator. A good numberi ng plan wi ll make call accounti ng much
easi er. Call reports can be sorted by department i f every department
has i ts own uni que numberi ng plan.
Number Portability Number portabi li ty i s sti ll i n the legal, fi nanci al, and
archi tectural planni ng process ( Fi g. N.7) . When i t i s completed ( di fferent
Figure N.6 Null Modem Adapter
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 473
places wi ll be i mplemented at di fferent ti mes, the goal for starti ng was
1998) , there wi ll be a nati onal data base that stores every phone number
subscri bed to by every user. T he ulti mate goal i s to automate the abi li ty
of a customer to swi tch telephone compani es and take thei r phone
number to whi chever exchange area ( wi thi n an area code) they wi sh. I f
a customer deci des to swi tch compani es, thei r number must fi rst be
di sconnected by the old company, then reconnected/reacti vated by the
new. I f both numbers are acti ve at the same ti me, the telephone network
wi ll become confused and most li kely not complete calls. Wi th the
planni ng and i mplementati on of CTI (Computer Telephone Integra-
tion), i t wi ll be possi ble for a company to enter i nto a data base ( oper-
ated by a thi rd party company) , the order to di sconnect, and when
another company enters the connect, a computer wi ll make the actual
swi tch wi th no outage of servi ce. T hi s wi ll eli mi nate the possi bi li ty of
one telephone company i nterferi ng wi th a customers change-over by
fai li ng to di sconnect servi ce at the proper ti me.
Competi ti on i n the telecommuni cati ons i ndustry i s hampered by the
fact that no customer can swi tch local telephone compani es and take
thei r phone number wi th them ( 1-800/888 long-di stance servi ce i s a
di fferent story. Customers can transfer those numbers.) . T he cost to re-
adverti se phone numbers for busi ness i s too costly and too i nconveni ent
for the patrons of busi nesses. T he esti mated cost to i mplement number
portabi li ty i s 100 mi lli on dollars per LATA ( area code) . T he legal argu-
ment at the wri ti ng of thi s defi ni ti on i s that the new phone compani es
do not want to pay for the number portabi li ty upgrade because the cost
would outwei gh the profi t. T he RBOCs dont want to pay for i t because
474 Number Portability
Local phone company A
Number
Portability
database -
Government
regulated entity
Local phone company B
Telephone Customer
NUMBER
PORTABILITY
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure N.7 Number Portability
PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 474
they are regulated by the government, whi ch means that any i ncrease
i n costs of the phone network are passed on to the subscri bers/rate pay-
ers. I t seems unfai r that telephone customers would have to pay for huge
corporate i nvestments especi ally i f they are not cli ents/patrons of the
parti cular company that i s recei vi ng the benefi t of the i nvestment.
NVRAM (NonVolatile RAM) Random Access Memory that retai ns i ts
contents when a uni t i s powered off.
NYNEX (New York New England Exchange) One of the ori gi nal seven
regi onal Bell Operati ng Compani es that was di vested from AT & T.
Nyquist Theorem A theory that states that any analog si gnal to be con-
verted to a di gi tal si gnal ( ADC conversi on) must be sampled at twi ce the
frequency of the top end of the bandwi dth of the si gnal to be converted.
I f you would li ke to convert a hi gh-fi deli ty recordi ng to a compact di sc,
you would need to sample the audi o at a mi ni mum of 36 kHz ( 36, 000
ti mes per second) because the bandwi dth of hi gh-fi deli ty musi c i s 18kHz
( 18, 000 cycles per second) . T hi s sample rate would gi ve two samples
per cycle at the hi ghest frequency of human heari ng, whi ch i s 18 kHz.
A DSO channel i n a channel bank samples a voi ce at 8000 ti mes per sec-
ond ( 8 kHz) . T hi s gi ves a Nyqui st standard sample up to 4 kHz, whi ch
i s suffi ci ent to sample all sounds i n the voi ce range.
Nyquist Theorem 475
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PQ104-5056F-PN.qxd 2/9/01 2:12 PM Page 476
OAI (Open Application Interface) A means for a computer system
and a PBX to exchange i nformati on. I t i s an older name for CTI (Com-
puter Telephony Integration). I t allows a person i n the workplace
to enter i nformati on i nto a computer by usi ng thei r telephone. Some
of the i nformati on i s ti me-reporti ng i nformati on, i nventory i nforma-
ti on, etc.
OC (Optical Carrier) A prefi x for SONET carri er hi erarchi es, whi ch i s
followed by a number, such as OC-1, OC-3, etc.
OC-1 (Optical Carrier 1) T he begi nni ng of the SONET-level trans-
mi ssi on speeds. An OC-1 i s capable of carryi ng one DS-3 wi thi n i ts
payload. I ts transmi ssi on carri er speed i s 51.840 M bps. OC-1 can be
converted i nto an electri cal si gnal, whi ch i s called an STS-1 (Syn-
chronous Transport Signal-1). For more i nformati on on OC speeds,
see OC-N.
OC-12 (Optical Carrier 12) A SONET level of transmi ssi on speed.
I t i s capable of transporti ng three DS-3 si gnals, whi ch i s equal to
622.080 M bps ( Fi gs. O.1 and O.2) . For more i nformati on on OC speeds,
see OC-N.
477
O
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 477
478 OC-12 (Optical Carrier 12)
Figure O.1 OC-12 FLM SONET
Figure O.2 OC-12 TBM SONET Shelf
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 478
OC-192 (Optical Carrier 192) A SONET level of transmi ssi on speed.
I t i s capable of transporti ng three DS-3 si gnals, whi ch i s equal to 9.953
Gbps. For more i nformati on on OC speeds, see OC-N.
OC-3 (Optical Carrier 3) A SONET level of transmi ssi on speed. I t i s
capable of transporti ng three DS-3 si gnals, whi ch i s equal to 255.520 Mbps
( Fi g. O.3) . For more i nformati on on OC speeds, see OC-N.
OC-48 (Optical Carrier 48) 479
OC-48 (Optical Carrier 48) A SONET level of transmi ssi on speed. I t i s
capable of transporti ng three DS-3 si gnals, whi ch i s equal to 2.488 Gbps
( Fi g. O.4) . For more i nformati on on OC speeds, see OC-N.
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 479
OC-N (Optical Carrier N) T he Ndenotes a number i n the SONET opti cal
carri er hi erarchy, whi ch now extends from OC-1 to OC-192 ( Fi g. O.5) .
480 OC-N (Optical Carrier N)
Name/Acronym Bandwidth Equivalent DS0 Equivalent DS1 Equivalent DS3 Comments
DS0 64 Kb/s 1 * * one phone line
DS1/T1 1.544 Mb/s 24 1 * popular service
DS1C 3.152 Mb/s

48 2 * equipment
E1/CEPT1 2.048 Mb/s 32 1 * European
DS2 6.312 Mb/s 96 4 * equipment
E2 8.448 Mb/s 96 4 * European
DS3/T3 44.736 Mb/s 672 28 1 popular service
E3 34.368 Mb/s 512 16 1 European
DS4 274.176 Mb/s 4,032 168 6 long haul radio
STS-1 51.84 Mb/s 672 28 1 electrical OC1
OC-1 51.84 Mb/s 672 28 1 SONET
OC-3 255.520 Mb/s 2016 84 3 SONET
OC-12 622.080 Mb/s 8,064 336 12 SONET
OC-48 2.488 Gb/s 32,256 1,344 48 SONET
OC-192 9.953 Gb/s 129,024 5,376 192 SONET
Figure O.5 OC-N Hierarchy
Octal A numberi ng system. Base 8. T he Base 10 system has 10 di fferent
characters to represent numbers, 0 through 9. Base ei ght uses only ei ght
of those characters, 0 through 7.
Octel A company that manufactures stand-alone voi ce-mai l equi pment.
For a photo of an Octel voi ce-mai l system, see Voice Mail. Octel i s now
a part of Lucent Technologi es.
Octet Another term for byte, a stri ng of ei ght bi ts.
Octopus Cable Also called a Y or three-way cable. An octopus cable i s
used to break a larger connector ( usually from a bus) to two or more
smaller connectors. T he Nortel Meri di an uti li zes a cable wi th 50 pi ns on
one connector that breaks out i n two di fferent RS-232 connectors. Hav-
i ng the si ngle large connector plug i nto the back plane uses less space
than three smaller connectors.
ODBC (Open Data Base Connectivity) A standard software i nterface
for accessi ng data i n both relati onal and nonrelati onal data-base man-
agement systems. Usi ng thi s appli cati on programmi ng i nterface, data-
base appli cati ons can access data stored i n data-base management
systems on a vari ety of computers even i f each data-base manage-
ment system uses a di fferent data-storage format and programmi ng i n-
terface. ODBC i s based on the call-level i nterface speci fi cati on of the
X/Open SQL access group and was developed by Di gi tal Equi pment
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 480
Corporati on, Lotus, Mi crosoft, and Sybase. See also Java Database Con-
nectivity.
Odd Parity A method of bi t-stream checki ng. Pari ty i s used i n error
correcti on. T he number of logi c ones i s counted i n a bi t stream.
T here i s odd pari ty and there i s even pari ty. Whi ch i s used de-
pends on i f you li ke odd or even numbers, or i f the modem you are
tryi ng to connect wi th li kes odd or even numbers. Pari ty i s a part of
error-checki ng protocol. I t i s si mply the part of the protocol where the
two devi ces are told i f they are counti ng odd number bi ts or even num-
ber bi ts. I n odd pari ty, i f the number of ones i s odd, then a pari ty bi t
i s set to one at the end of the bi t stream. T hi s i s odd pari ty because
the pari ty bi t i s set to one when the number of ones i s odd. I n even
pari ty, the pari ty bi t i s set to one when the number of one bi ts i s
even. See Parity.
ODI (Open Data-Link Interface) A Novell speci fi cati on that provi des
a standardi zed i nterface for NICs (Network Interface Cards) that al-
lows multi ple protocols to use a si ngle NI C. See also NIC.
OE (Office Equipment) Also referred to as line equipment. Li ne equi p-
ment i s the actual i nterface port ( from a ci rcui t card) on the central-
offi ce swi tch i n a telephone-company central offi ce. I t i s the equi valent
to a stati on or IPE (Intelligent Peripheral Equipment) card i n a PBX
system ( TN for Nortel Speci fi cs) . Each telephone li ne has an associ ated
li ne equi pment or offi ce-equi pment i nterface. T hat parti cular port i s what
defi nes the telephone servi ce provi ded to the customer connected to i t
vi a the OSP network. T he CPU ( core) of the central-offi ce swi tch asso-
ci ates a phone number wi th a li ne-equi pment port ( OE) . When a cus-
tomer of the phone company calls and requests that thei r phone number
be changed, the servi ce order eventually fi nds i ts way to a central-offi ce
techni ci an or servi ce translator that reprograms the li ne equi pment wi th
a new phone number.
Off-Premises Extension (OPX) O ff-premi ses extensi on adapter, also
called a loop extender. An O PX adapter i s an add-on devi ce for a
PBX swi tch or central-offi ce swi tch that allows operati on over an
abnormally long loop or twi sted pai r, usually more than 12, 000 feet
for a central-offi ce swi tch and 1500 feet for a PBX . T he PBX or key-
system manufacturer usually offers speci al equi pment for a long-
reach appli cati on. Some O PX adapters for PBX systems can be
programmed to di al di gi ts i nto an outgoi ng trunk, whi ch wi ll auto-
mati cally ri ng a telephone somewhere else, such as the CEO of a
companys home offi ce.
Off-Premises Extension (OPX) 481
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 481
Off-Sight Night Answer A feature of PBX and some key systems that
allows a mai n li ne to be forwarded to a telephone number programmed
i n by the user/admi ni strator when the system i s put i nto ni ght mode.
OHD Opti cal hard dri ve.
Ohm T he uni t of resi stance, represented by the Greek letter Omega, .
Resi stance i s j ust what i ts name depi cts, resi stance to electri c current flow.
A 100-W, 120-V household li ght bulb has about one ohm of resi stance. T he
more resi stance i s i n a ci rcui t, the less current flows through i t.
Ohms Law A seri es of mathemati cal relati onshi ps for electroni cs. T he
relati onshi ps are based on voltage, resi stance, power, and amperage. T he
two basi c Ohms law formulas are:
P ( power i n watts) I ( current i n amps) E ( voltage i n volts)
E ( voltage i n volts) I ( current i n amps) R ( resi stance i n ohms)
Omnidirectional A reference to a mi crophone that recei ves sound from
all di recti ons.
On-Board Modem A term that refers to an i nternal modem.
ONA (Open Network Architecture) T he archi tecture of the publi c tele-
phone network. Under FCC ruli ngs, the Bell operati ng compani es must al-
low other compani es that offer value-added servi ces to connect to and
offer servi ces through the local telephone compani es network. Value-added
servi ces, under open network archi tecture, are voi ce mai l, operator serv-
i ces, and I VR telephone-shoppi ng appli cati ons. You dont have to use the
Bell compani es voi ce mai l i f another voi ce-mai l servi ce provi der i s avai l-
able. I f you order the other companys voi ce mai l, all of your voi ce-mai l con-
necti ons wi ll go through the alternati ve value-added servi ce provi der, on
thei r separate equi pment. T he problem wi th ONA i s that from a technol-
ogy sense, access i s equal, but i n competi ti on for market share, i t i s not.
One-Ten Termination Block A twi sted-pai r connecti vi ty method. See
110 Termination Block.
One-Way Trunk A reference to a DID (Direct Inward Dial) or DOD
(Direct Outward Dial) trunk used i n PBX appli cati ons.
Ones Density A reference to the maxi mum number of consecuti ve zero
bi ts can be transmi tted i n a row usi ng speci fi c transmi ssi on equi pment wi th-
out losi ng the ti mi ng of the carri er ( T 1) . To eli mi nate successi ve zeros i n
T 1 transmi ssi ons li ne/protocols, such as B8ZS, have been i mplemented.
482 Off-Sight Night Answer
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 482
ONI Opti cal Network I nterface.
ONU (Optical Network Unit) A reference to an access node that con-
verts opti cal si gnals transmi tted vi a fi ber to electri cal si gnals. ONUs are
a part of hybri d fi ber/coax/twi sted-pai r networks that are emergi ng i n lo-
cal markets. T he ONU enables mass amounts of bandwi dth to be deli v-
ered to areas that are beyond electri cal transmi ssi on range of a central
offi ce or head end. ONUs can be pole mounted or placed i n cable vaults.
See also Remote Mini Fiber Mode.
OOF (Out Of Frame) A fault condi ti on of a T 1 carri er ci rcui t. I f an OOF
condi ti on exi sts, the ci rcui t i s down and not operati onal. Many T 1 car-
ri er equi pment manufacturers i mplement recovery measures i n the op-
erati ng system to help systems come back on li ne automati cally.
Open See Open Circuit.
Open Application Interface (OAI) See OAI.
Open Architecture T he abi li ty of di fferent systems to i ntegrate wi th each
other, such as a PBX system and a Novell LAN. T he newer term for open
network archi tecture i s CTI (Computer Telephony Integration).
Open Circuit A ci rcui t fault. Many confuse an open wi th a short. An open
i s li terally an open, a di sconnecti on i n a ci rcui t. A short i s a crossed
ci rcui t, an easi er path to ground caused by a bad component, water, or
other means for electri ci ty to get to where i t i s not wanted ( Fi g. O.6) .
Open Circuit 483
Open and Short circuit faults
open
Current is stopped because of open
+
Current takes easier path through short
short
+
BATTERY
BATTERY
Figure O.6 Open Circuit/Short Circuit
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 483
Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) A Novell speci fi cati on that provi des
a standardi zed i nterface for NICs (Network Interface Cards) that allows
multi ple protocols to use a si ngle NI C. See also NIC.
Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) A standard software i nterface
for accessi ng data i n both relati onal and nonrelati onal data-base man-
agement systems. Usi ng thi s appli cati on programmi ng i nterface, data-
base appli cati ons can access data stored i n data-base management sys-
tems on a vari ety of computers even i f each data-base management
system uses a di fferent data-storage format and programmi ng i nterface.
ODBC i s based on the call-level i nterface speci fi cati on of the X/Open
SQL access group and was developed by Di gi tal Equi pment Corporati on,
Lotus, Mi crosoft, and Sybase. See also Java Database Connectivity.
Open-Ended Access A term that refers to a swi tched telephone li ne that
i s not restri cted from any calli ng prefi xes or area codes. Most resi den-
ti al customers have subscri bed to servi ce that has open-ended access,
not knowi ng what i t i s called.
Open Network Architecture (ONA) See ONA.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) 1. A standard traffi c-control pro-
gram used by routers. OSPF was developed by the I nternet Engi neeri ng
Task Force duri ng the late 1970s. Because OSPF i s one of the ori gi nal
routi ng protocols, i t i s supported by vi rtually every router manufacturer.
OSPF i s a li nk-state hi erarchi cal routi ng protocol. 2. ( Also known as
Link State Routing Protocol, Distributed Routing Protocol, Shortest
Path First, and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol.) OSPF i s a layer
3 routi ng protocol that enables routers to i denti fy other routers to use
as a path to forward packets across a network. A router that has OSPF
enabled sends a layer 3 broadcast packet called a Link State Adver-
tisement ( LSA) every n seconds ( by default i n Ci sco Systems I OS) . T he
LSA i s a li st of known routers and routes to desti nati ons wi thi n a net-
work. Only routers that are operati ng wi th the OSPF feature enabled
send and recogni ze the LSAs, and only routers that send LSAs are con-
si dered by other routers as alternate route provi ders i f there i s a fai lure.
I n addi ti on to LSAs, the OSPF features a hello message that i s gener-
ated by all routers every 5 seconds to let other routers know that all i s
well and operati ng OK . I n enterpri se LAN envi ronments, OSPF i s often
run as a layer 3 alternate routi ng mechani sm i n conj uncti on wi th ST P
( Spanni ng Tree Protocol) , whi ch provi des alternate layer 2 routi ng for
swi tches and VLANs. What makes OSPF more compli cated yet far more
expandable than RI P i s i ts desi gn based on multi ple areas. Breaki ng a
large network area i nto smaller and more manageable pi eces makes a
484 Open Data-Link Interface (ODI)
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 484
network more effi ci ent. What makes OSPF better than I S-I S i s that i t
recovers from li nk fai lures almost 20 ti mes faster. T he si gni fi cant draw-
back to OSPF i s that the larger the network gets, the more areas there
are. T hi s i nherently makes the system compli cated to manage for net-
work admi ni strators. Another consi derati on that may be a drawback i s
that i n large i mplementati ons, OSPF can push CPU uti li zati on to i ts li mi t.
T hi s means that OSPF requi res hi gher-quali ty routers. Alternati ve pro-
tocols to OSPF i nclude I S-I S and EI GRP ( Ci sco Propri etary) . See also
Autonomous System, Area Border Router, and Autonomous System
Area Border Router.
Open Shortest Path First Area (OSPF Area) I n OSPF ( Open Short-
est Path Fi rst) routi ng, a group of routers that share i denti cal li nk state
databases provi ded by a desi gnated router. I t i s recommended that no
more than 40 routers exi st wi thi n one OSPF area.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) T he latest model, or gui deli ne
for communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect).
I t i s the best model so far because all of the layers ( functi ons) work
i ndependently of each other. Older propri etary communi cati ons models
are shown i n the fi gure. T he OSI model i s a seven-layer or step process
for communi cati ons. T he di fferent functi ons are:
Application layer T he seventh and hi ghest layer of the OSI com-
muni cati ons protocol model. T he appli cati ons layer i s the functi on
of connecti ng an appli cati on fi le or program to a communi cati ons
protocol.
Presentation layer T he si xth layer i n the OSI . I n general, the pres-
entati on layer performs the functi on of encodi ng and decodi ng the
data to be transmi tted wi thi n the communi cati ons protocol.
Session layer T he fi fth layer of the OSI model. I n general, the ses-
si on layer establi shes and mai ntai ns connecti on to the communi ca-
ti ons process of the lower layers. I t also controls the di recti on of the
data transfer.
Transport layer T he fourth layer or functi on i n a communi cati ons
protocol model. I n general, the transport layer performs the functi on
of error correcti on and the di recti on of data flow ( transmi t/recei ve) .
Network layer T he thi rd layer i n the OSI model. I n general, the net-
work layer does the j ob of swi tchi ng and routi ng of the data bei ng
transmi tted wi thi n the protocol.
Data-link layer T he second layer or functi on i n the OSI model. I n
general, the data-li nk layer recei ves and transmi ts data over the phys-
i cal layer medi a ( twi sted pai r, fi ber opti c, etc.) .
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 485
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 485
Physical layer T he fi rst layer i n the OSI model. I n general, the phys-
i cal layer i s the actual medi a of the communi cati ons transmi ssi on
( twi sted-pai r wi re, coax, ai r, fi ber opti c, etc.) . I t i s also the types of
connectors used and the pi n-outs of those connectors. T he 568B wi ri ng
scheme for CAT 5 wi re i s a physi cal-layer functi on. For a basi c con-
ceptual di agram of the OSI model, see OSI Standards.
Open Wire Also called C wire. Wire that is steel strengthened for long-span
aerial-plant applications. Some C wire is uninsulated, so it is also called open
wire. Open wi re better fi ts the appli cati on because i t i s used i n wi de open
or very rural areas. T he old telegraph system was an open-wi re system.
Operating System T he computer software program that controls the
functi ons of computer hardware. Examples of operati ng systems are Mi -
crosoft Wi ndows 2000, MS-DOS, Pi ck, UNI X, and OS/2.
Operator An attendant that assi sts callers. Operators can work for tele-
phone compani es or pri vate telecommuni cati ons servi ce compani es.
Operator Console T he huge telephone used by a PBX attendant. T he
console i s di sti ngui shable by i ts large BLF (Busy Lamp Field) and many
feature keys.
Optical Attenuator A fi ber-opti c attenuator works li ke your sunglasses,
i t reduces the level of li ght enteri ng your eyes so that you can see more
effecti vely. T hey come i n vari ous connector types ( Fi g. O.7) . Typi cal
fi ber-opti c attenuator values are 5 dB, 10 dB, and 20 dB.
486 Open wire
Figure O.7 Optical Attenuators: SC Type (Left) and Fiber-Optic SC
Connector (Right)
Optical Drive A term used to refer to hardware that reads and/or wri tes
to compact di scs, i n general, i ncludi ng CD-ROM dri ves, DVD dri ves, and
CD-RW dri ves.
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 486
Optical Fiber Patch Panel A means of termi nati ng fi ber-opti c cable.
Fi ber patch panels contai n a fi ber spli ce tray equi pped wi th pi gtai ls.
T he pi gtai ls are si mply fi ber connectors wi th a pi ece of fi ber opti c con-
nected to them so that a fi ber from wi thi n a cable can be easi ly spli ced
to them. T he connectors are spaced on the front of the fi ber patch panel.
Optical Fiber Splice T he two types of fi ber-opti c spli ces are fusi on ( heat)
and mechani cal.
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) A testi ng devi ce that
measures the loss over a fi ber opti c and the di stance from the tester
( Fi g. O.8) . OT DRs look si mi lar to osci lloscopes wi th a CRT di splay tube.
OT DRs are a speci ali zed opti cal versi on of a TDR (Time-Domain Re-
flectometer) used to test copper pai rs. T he way a T DR works i s that
i t transmi ts a si gnal down a medi a ( copper or glass) , then wai ts for a
reflecti on to come back. When the reflecti on returns to the devi ce, the
ti me di fference i s used to calculate the di stance that the si gnal trav-
eled. T he si ze or power of the return si gnal i s used to calculate loss.
OPX Adapter (Off-Premises Extension Adapter) 487
Figure O.8 OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer)
Optoelectric Transducer A class of electroni c components that converts
li ght energy i nto electri cal energy and electri cal energy i nto li ght energy.
OPX Adapter (Off-Premises Extension Adapter) Also called a loop
extender. An OPX adapter i s an add-on devi ce for a PBX swi tch or
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 487
central-offi ce swi tch that allows operati on over an abnormally long loop
or twi sted pai r, usually over 12, 000 feet for a central-offi ce swi tch and
1, 500 feet for a PBX. T he PBX or key system manufacturer usually of-
fers speci al equi pment for a long-reach appli cati on. Some OPX adapters
for PBX systems can be programmed to di al di gi ts i nto an outgoi ng trunk,
whi ch wi ll automati cally ri ng a telephone somewhere else, such as the
CEO of a companys home offi ce.
Oscillator An electroni c ci rcui t that produces an AC cycle from a DC
power source. Osci llators are used as carri er references for transmi t-
ters and for the ti mi ng si gnal i n clock ci rcui ts for di gi tal i nstruments,
such as PCs and telephone systems. Quartz crystal osci llators are the
most reli able and i nexpensi ve. For a photo, see Crystal Oscillator.
Oscilloscope A testi ng devi ce that allows a user to vi ew a waveform on a
screen ( CRT ) . T he screen i s graduated to show di fferent frequenci es and
voltage levels. T he value of each graduati on ( or di vi si on) i s determi ned by
the setti ng of the frequency/di vi si on knob. T he voltage level of each di vi-
si on i s determi ned by the voltage-level selector knob. Osci lloscopes range
i n pri ce from about $400 to more than $8000. T he features that make an
osci lloscope i ncrease i n pri ce are the abi li ty to read/di splay very fast fre-
quenci es and the abi li ty to vi ew more than two waveforms at a ti me. Some
osci lloscopes are capable of bei ng connected to plotters, whi ch gi ves the
user the abi li ty to pri nt a waveform di splayed on the screen.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) See Open Systems Interconnect
( Fi g. O.9) .
488 Oscillator
IBM SNA Function layers
OSI Function layers
DEC DNA
Function layers
3. network
2. data link
4. transport
5. session
7. application
6. presentation
1. physical 1. physical
8. application
7. transaction
6. presentation
5. data flow
4. transmission
3. path control
2. data link
5. session
4. transport
3. network
2. data link
1. physical
Figure O.9 OSI Model Individual Layers Compared to SNA and DNA Models
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 488
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnect Model) See Open Systems
Interconnect.
OSI Standards An archi tecture set up by the ISO (International Stan-
dards Organization) that sets some broad standards for communi cati ons.
T he purpose of the standards i s to help manufacturers make equi pment
that i s uni versally compati ble. T he OSI i s not perfectly followed by the
telecommuni cati ons and data communi cati ons i ndustry. I t i s used as a
model i n the desi gn of communi cati ons protocols. T he basi c i dea of the
OSI i s that seven functi ons, steps, or layers are i n the successful comple-
ti on of a communi cati on transmi ssi on. T he goal of the OSI i s to make all
of these layers separate and i ndi vi dual enti ti es i n hardware and software
so that di fferent manufacturers can i ntegrate at di fferent levels. Data com-
muni cati ons i s modeled after voi ce communi cati ons. Even though humans
speak many di fferent languages ( protocols) , there i s sti ll a common ar-
chi tecture of human communi cati ons. See Open Systems Interconnect.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 1. A standard traffi c-control pro-
gram used by routers. OSPF was developed by the I nternet Engi neeri ng
Task Force duri ng the late 1970s. Because OSPF i s one of the ori gi nal
routi ng protocols, i t i s supported by vi rtually every router manufacturer.
OSPF i s a li nk-state hi erarchi cal routi ng protocol. 2. ( Also known as
Link State Routing Protocol, Distributed Routing Protocol, Shortest
Path First, and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol.) OSPF i s a layer
3 routi ng protocol that enables routers to i denti fy other routers to use as
a path to forward packets across a network. A router that has OSPF en-
abled sends a layer 3 broadcast packet called a Link State Advertisement
( LSA) every n seconds ( by default i n Ci sco Systems I OS) . T he LSA i s a
li st of known routers and routes to desti nati ons wi thi n a network. Only
routers that are operati ng wi th the OSPF feature enabled send and rec-
ogni ze the LSAs, and only routers that send LSAs are consi dered by other
routers as alternate route provi ders i f there i s a fai lure. I n addi ti on to LSAs,
the OSPF features a hello message that i s generated by all routers every
5 seconds to let other routers know that all i s well and operati ng OK . I n
enterpri se LAN envi ronments, OSPF i s often run as a layer 3 alternate
routi ng mechani sm i n conj uncti on wi th ST P ( Spanni ng Tree Protocol) ,
whi ch provi des alternate layer 2 routi ng for swi tches and VLANs. What
makes OSPF more compli cated yet far more expandable than RI P i s i ts
desi gn based on multi ple areas. Breaki ng a large network area i nto smaller
and more manageable pi eces makes a network more effi ci ent. What makes
OSPF better than I S-I S i s that i t recovers from li nk fai lures almost 20 ti mes
faster. T he si gni fi cant drawback to OSPF i s that the larger the network
gets, the more areas there are. T hi s i nherently makes the system compli-
cated to manage for network admi ni strators. Another consi derati on that
may be a drawback i s that i n large i mplementati ons OSPF can push CPU
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 489
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 489
uti li zati on to i ts li mi t. T hi s means that OSPF requi res hi gher-quali ty
routers. Alternati ve protocols to OSPF i nclude I S-I S and EI GRP ( Ci sco
Propri etary) . See also Autonomous System, Area Border Router, and
Autonomous System Area Border Router.
OSPF Area I n OSPF ( Open Shortest Path Fi rst) routi ng, a group of
routers that share i denti cal li nk state databases provi ded by a desi gnated
router. I t i s recommended that no more than 40 routers exi st wi thi n one
OSPF area.
OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer) See Optical Time-
Domain Reflectometer.
Out-of-Band Signaling I n telephone ci rcui ts ( DS1 to be speci fi c) , the two
di fferent ways to send si gnals are i n-band and out-of-band. Si gnals are di g-
i ts that you di al, di al tone, the phone bei ng off-hook, ri ngi ng, etc. An i n-
band telephone li ne i s li ke the one i n your home; the di gi ts that you di al
and the ri ngi ng are carri ed wi thi n the channel that you talk on. Out-of-
band si gnali ng i s a method that telephone compani es and busi nesses use
for larger PBX appli cati ons and data-transfer appli cati ons. I n an out-of-
band si gnaled DS1, there are 24 multi plexed channels. T he 24th channel
carri es the si gnali ng for the other 23 channels or phone li nes. T he advan-
tage of out-of-band si gnali ng i s that each channel has an i ncreased ca-
paci ty to carry data ( 8 K b/s more) and the 23 channels are not used to fi nd
out i f a li ne i s busy ( both di recti ons, i n and out) . T he off-hook sensi ng and
busy si gnali ng are performed i n the 24th channel. I f you have a system
that recei ves thousands of calls per day, thi s can reduce traffi c.
Outdoor Jack Closure Closures are avai lable that help protect tele-
phone and other j acks from moi sture and other outdoor weather condi -
ti ons ( Fi g. O.10) .
490 OSPF Area
Figure O.10 Outdoor Jack Closure
PQ104-5056F-PO.qxd 2/9/01 2:16 PM Page 490
Outside Plant A term that refers to a communi cati ons uti li tys twi sted-
pai r and/or coax network that wi nds through towns and nei ghborhoods.
I t i ncludes termi nals, pedestals, cross boxes, and vaults.
Outsource To subcontract work to other compani es, usually for thei r con-
structi on or techni cal experti se i n the i nstallati on of speci fi c electroni cs
or software.
Outward Restriction A feature of PBX (Private Branch Exchange)
telephone systems that prevents selected telephone extensi ons from di -
ali ng outsi de the offi ce/bui ldi ng. When a user of one of these extensi ons
di als 9 for an outsi de di al tone, they wi ll j ust get a fast busy si gnal.
Overhead T he part of a transmi ssi on that contai ns the i nformati on/
si gnal that controls the operati on of the transmi ssi on. I f you are trans-
porti ng yourself across town i n your car, you are the payload and your
car i s the overhead.
Overhead 491
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P Connector A 25-pai r male amp connector. For a photo of the female
versi on, called a C connector, see 25-Pair Connector.
P.530 A standard for radi o li nk planni ng. T he I nternati onal Telecommuni -
cati ons Uni on ( I T U-T ) publi shes a reference for terrestri al radi o li nk plan-
ni ng, whi ch i s avai lable at www.i tu.ch. I T U-R. I t also contai ns recommen-
dati onsfor li nk quali ty obj ecti ves. I T U-R Recommendati on P.530 contai ns
i nformati on on how to plan for hi gh-reli abi li ty i n clear, li ne-of-si ght li nks.
P1024B A mai nframe envi ronment protocol used between host comput-
ers and user termi nals/workstati ons.
P1024C A mai nframe envi ronment protocol used between host comput-
ers and user termi nals/workstati ons.
PA System See Public Address System.
PABX (Private Automatic Branch Exchange) T he old name for PBX,
Private Branch Exchange.
Pac Bell T he RBOC that operates the publi c telephone network i n the
state of Cali forni a, owned by Paci fi c Telesi s, who was recently purchased
by Southern Bell.
Pacific Telesis T he RBOC that owns PAC Bell and Nevada Bell, whi ch
was bought out by Southern Bell.
493
P
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Pacing See flow control.
Packet A uni t of data at the network layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnect) model. Packets have a header that contai ns control i n-
formati on and a payload wi th user data. T he terms, datagram, frame,
packet data uni t, message, and segment are also used to descri be logi -
cal i nformati on groupi ngs at vari ous layers of the OSI reference model
and i n vari ous arms of the networki ng i ndustry.
Packet Assembler Dissembler (PAD) See PAD.
Packet Buffer Memory allocated or dedi cated to the temporary storage
of a copy of a data packet unti l the ori gi nal has reached i ts desti nati on.
Packet Controller Another name for a packet swi tch. A packet swi tch
i s the central controlli ng devi ce i n a packet-swi tched network, such as
swi tched Ethernet, swi tched token ri ng, or I SDN packet swi tchi ng.
Packet Data Unit A uni t of data at the appli cati on, presentati on, and
sessi on layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model. Packet
data uni ts mi ght have a header contai ni ng control i nformati on. T he terms
datagram, frame, packet, message, and segment are also used to de-
scri be logi cal i nformati on groupi ngs at vari ous layers of the OSI refer-
ence model and i n vari ous networki ng ci rcles.
Packet Interleaving To place many data packets from many data packet
sources on one transmi ssi on channel.
Packet Internet Groper (PING) A command followed by an I P address
that sends an ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) echo request
to the host speci fi ed by the I P address. I f the targeted host has an ac-
ti ve I P network connecti on, i t wi ll return the message. T he length of ti me
thi s process takes i s li sted by the local user system as an i ndi cati on of
network speed.
Packet Layer T he layer i n the X.25 protocol that i s equi valent to the
network layer i n the OSI model. T he packet layer does the same func-
ti ons as the network layer, but i t i s si mply called somethi ng di fferent.
Speci fi cally to X.25, the packet layer handles the multi plexi ng of data.
I t does thi s by usi ng an address system that i s embedded i n i ts control
si gnali ng wi th the packet layer on the other end.
Packet Level T he part i n the telecommuni cati ons process of the X.25
protocol where network-layer functi ons are performed, such as ad-
dressi ng, multi plexi ng, and demulti plexi ng.
494 Pacing
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 494
Packet Loss T he total number of frames transmi tted at wi re speed, less
the number recei ved at the fi nal desti nati on node or host.
Packet-Over-SONET T he packet-over-SONET speci fi cati on i s pri mari ly
concerned wi th the use of the Poi nt-to-Poi nt Protocol ( PPP) encapsu-
lati on over SONET /SDH li nks. Because SONET /SDH i s by defi ni ti on a
poi nt-to-poi nt ci rcui t, PPP i s well sui ted for use over these li nks. PPP
was desi gned as a standard method of communi cati ng over poi nt-to-poi nt
li nks, and packet-over-SONET i s a conveni ent way for broadband serv-
i ce provi ders to carry guaranteed rate I nternet traffi c.
Packet Switching Exchange (PSE) Part of an X.25 packet-swi tchi ng
network that recei ves packets of data from a PAD (Packet Assem-
bler/Dissembler) vi a a modem. T he PSE makes and holds copi es of each
packet, then transmi ts the packets one at a ti me to the PSE that they
are addressed to. T he local PSE then di scards the copi es as the far-end
PSE acknowledges the safe recei pt of the ori gi nal.
Packet Switch Also called a data packet switch. A devi ce that routes
segmented transmi ssi ons between end users, usi ng a connecti onless pro-
tocol, such as X.25, Ethernet, frame relay, token ri ng, AT M, or T CP/I P.
Data packet swi tchi ng i s often performed i n levels, wi th one protocol car-
ryi ng another. For example, an Ethernet-based transmi ssi on from a LAN
could be routed over a frame-relay or AT M connecti on vi a a data packet
swi tch. Packet swi tches make up PDN (Public Data Networks) or PSN
(Packet Switching Networks), whi ch are the basi s of the frame-relay,
ATM, and X.25 servi ces that publi c telecommuni cati ons compani es offer.
Packet-Switching Network (PSN) A name someti mes used i n place of
Public Data Network (PDN). PSNs connect to users vi a X.25 or frame
relay. T he I nternet i s also a type of PSN usi ng T CP/I P packets.
Packets per Second (PPS) I n LAN and WAN archi tectures, a standard
measure of transported traffi c over a peri od of ti me based on a 64-byte
packet. T hi s i s not an offi ci al standard as of 2001. T he si ze of the packet
vari es by several bytes dependi ng on the manufacturer and type of equi p-
ment. Some use packets as small as 60 bytes on networks speci fi cally
confi gured to carry such traffi c. T he mi ni mum si ze for an Ethernet packet
i s 64 bytes. See also Runt and Giant.
PAD (Packet Assembler/Dissembler) T he devi ce or software program
i n an X.25 network packet-swi tchi ng network that takes a large fi le
to be transmi tted ( or small) and breaks i t down i nto smaller pi eces. I t
gi ves each pi ece an i denti fi cati on number i n relati on to the rest of the
pi eces ( e.g., 387 of 8954) and an address, along wi th error-checki ng
PAD (Packet Assembler/Dissembler) 495
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 495
i nformati on ( usually CRC) and other HDLC (High-Level Data Link Con-
trol) i nformati on. T he PAD can be a part of an end users computer or a
separate devi ce. T he PAD sends the packets to a PSE (Packet Switch-
ing Exchange) vi a a modem, where the packets are i ndi vi dually copi ed
and transmi tted. T he copi es are made by the PSE i n case a packet needs
to be retransmi tted because i t was lost or corrupted.
PAD Parameters (Packet Assembler/Disassembler Parameters)
Li sted are some common confi gurati on parameters for PADs. Packet as-
sembler/di sassemblers are based on the X.3 standard.
Recall A parameter for X.25 pads that allows an admi ni strator to set
i ndi vi dual channels to 1 ( Yes) or 0 ( No) to access command mode. I f
the devi ce connected to the channel i s a termi nal, the parameter i s
usually set to Yes. I f the devi ce connected to the channel i s a pri nter,
then the parameter i s usually set to No. I n the PAD confi gurati on, the
keystroke used to acti vate thi s parameter i s opti onal, and i s set to ^ P
( Control-P) by most admi ni strators.
Echo A setti ng that determi nes what devi ce ( DCE or DT E) i s re-
sponsi ble for di splayi ng typed data on the screen of a termi nal. I f the
echo setti ng of all of the termi nals connected to a PAD ( or host) i s On,
then the setti ng on the PAD ( or host) should be Off, or vi ce versa. I f
possi ble, echo should be performed by a host on an X.25 network be-
cause echo also controls whi ch devi ce controls edi ti ng functi ons. I t i s
an unruly task to set all of the host-emulati on parameters when echo i s
left to the PAD. I n most cases, the PAD cannot emulate them anyway.
Data Forward Signal (FWD <CR>) T he parameter that determi nes
whi ch keystroke wi ll send a data packet. I t i s most commonly set as
the carri age return key ( <CR>) . I f the parameter i s set to 0 ( Off) , then
no keystroke wi ll i ni ti ate a packet transfer. T he PAD wi ll only shi p out
a packet when the packet i s completely full or when a ti me out i s
reached ( see Idle Time Parameter 4) . Values on thi s parameter are
li mi ted to the PAD manufacturers speci fi cati ons, and the one used de-
pends on the host appli cati on programmi ng.
Idle Timer (Idle Time 1) T he parameter that determi nes the ti me
out for a packet to be shi pped out. I f a carri age return i s not entered
wi thi n thi s ti me i n 20ths of seconds ( see FWD Parameter 3) , then
the PAD shi ps out the packet automati cally. Common setti ngs are 1
( for 1/20 second) and 3 ( for 3/20 second) seconds. Setti ng thi s pa-
rameter to 0 typi cally sets the PAD to send full packets only, or to
send only on a speci fi c keystroke. Some hosts are programmed to au-
tomati cally set thi s parameter to the appli cati on that they are runni ng.
Ancillary Device Control (Flow Ctrl XON/XOFF) A parameter
that deals wi th flow control between a termi nal and a PAD. T hi s
496 PAD Parameters (Packet Assembler/Disassembler Parameters)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 496
parameter gi ves the PAD the abi li ty to pause or stop the termi nal from
communi cati ng for a moment. A value of 0 usually i s a value of No and
1 i s usually a Yes.
PAD Service Signals (Svc Sigs YES/NO) T hi s parameter sets the
PAD to deli ver X.28 servi ce si gnals to the termi nal, such as call con-
nected, cleared, error, etc.
Procedure On <Break> (Break/Reset) A parameter used i n flow
control between the PAD and host. T hi s parameter i s used to tell the
PAD how the termi nal wi ll stop the PADs data flow ( between the PAD
and the host) and wai t for further i nstructi ons. T here are several ways
to do thi s. Whi ch way i s chosen depends on the PAD, the host, and
the appli cati on. Some examples of vali d parameter setti ngs are one
or a combi nati on of the followi ng: send i nterrupt packet, reset the
call, escape to PAD command mode, and send speci al predefi ned com-
mand for break. T he si gnali ng for thi s i s done vi a an i nterrupt packet
sent through the overhead. Whether the data i n transi t i s di scarded
or saved i s determi ned by the di scard/save parameter setti ng ( Para-
meter 8) .
Discard Output (Discard/Save) When a PAD i s i n break/reset mode
( break/reset i s Parameter 7) , the di scard save parameter determi nes
what wi ll be done wi th the data that i s sti ll i n transi t.
<CR> Padding (<CR> Pad x) T he setti ng that determi nes the num-
ber of blank bi ts that wi ll be sent whi le the head of a pri nter returns
to home after a carri age return. T hi s parameter i s set to a vali d value
between 0 and 7. T he 0 setti ng i s used for termi nals, and 1 through 7
are used for pri nters.
Line Folding (ln fold 80) A pri nter setti ng for the maxi mum num-
ber of bytes ( or characters) per pri nted li ne. I f thi s parameter i s set
to hi gh, the pri nter ( or termi nal) conti nues to pri nt addi ti onal char-
acters on top of each other at the end of each li ne that does not have
a carri age return ( <CR>) . I n many cases, the host i s capable of read-
i ng thi s parameter and format the sent data to match the setti ng.
Terminal Speed (Speed 300) Termi nal-to-PAD communi cati on
speed. Some devi ce combi nati ons ( host, PAD, and termi nal) wi ll set
thi s automati cally ( referred to as autobaud) . T he speed ranges from
50 bps to 64 K bps.
Flow Control By Terminal (Pad Flow XON/XOFF) A PAD param-
eter that deals wi th flow control between a termi nal and a PAD. T hi s
parameter sets the abi li ty of the termi nal to stop or pause communi -
cati on wi th the PAD for a moment.
Line-Feed Insertion (lf CR/LF) A PAD parameter that i s used to
emulate host edi ti ng functi ons when the PAD i s responsi ble ( set to
Yes) for the echo parameter.
PAD Parameters (Packet Assembler/Disassembler Parameters) 497
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 497
Line Feed Padding (lf pad 10) A PAD parameter that i s used to
Yes) for the echo parameter. T hi s parti cular functi on i s to set how
many blank data bi ts wi ll be sent whi le the pri nter advances the pa-
per feed one li ne.
Editing (edit YES/NO) A PAD parameter that i s used to emulate
host edi ti ng functi ons when the PAD i s responsi ble ( set to Yes) for the
echo parameter, rather than the host. T hi s i s only set when delay ti mes
for screen di splay are cruci al or exaggerated ( satelli te transmi ssi on
delay, for i nstance) .
Character Delete (char del ^H) A PAD parameter that i s used to
Yes) for the echo parameter, rather than the host. T hi s i s only set when
delay ti mes for screen di splay are cruci al or exaggerated ( satelli te
transmi ssi on delay, for i nstance) .
Line Delete (ln del ^U) A PAD parameter that i s used to emulate
host edi ti ng functi ons when the PAD i s responsi ble ( set to Yes) for the
echo parameter, rather than the host. T hi s i s only set when delay ti mes
for screen di splay are cruci al or exaggerated ( take satelli te transmi s-
si on delay for i nstance) .
Line Redisplay (ln rdisp ^R) A PAD parameter that i s used to em-
ulate host edi ti ng functi ons when the PAD i s responsi ble ( set to Yes)
for the echo parameter, rather than the host. T hi s i s only set when de-
lay ti mes for screen di splay are cruci al or exaggerated ( satelli te trans-
mi ssi on delay, for i nstance) .
PAD Service Signals A packet assembler/di sassembler feature that i s
acti vated i n the PADs parameter setti ngs. T hi s parameter sets the PAD
to deli ver X.28 servi ce si gnals to the termi nal, such as call connected,
cleared, error, etc.
Page Zone When attendants use a page feature on a telephone system,
they are prompted to i nput a choi ce of zone or area they want to page.
T hi s area i s called the page zone. Most PBX systems have three sepa-
rate page zone opti ons and all zones i s an opti on to the attendant as
well.
Pager A small, portable devi ce that recei ves si mplex messages. Pagers
are small enough to be worn on a belt or wri st ( as a wri stwatch-type
pager) . Pagers come i n three types: numeri c, alphanumeri c, and PCS.
T he numeri c are the older type, recei vi ng numbers that a person desi r-
i ng a return call i nputs to the page si gnal. T he alphanumeri c pagers have
a larger LCD di splay and have the abi li ty to recei ve text messages as well
498 PAD Service Signals
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 498
as numeri c messages. PCS pagi ng i s offered as a servi ce wi th PCS cel-
lular telephones by many cellular telephone compani es.
PagP (Port Aggregation Protocol) An operati ng feature of LAN
swi tches that enables 2 or 4 Ethernet ports ( more i n some swi tches) to
be concatenated i nto one hi gh-capaci ty li nk. T he PagP subrouti ne auto-
mati cally i denti fi es ports that are confi gured as pai rs and reports them
to the Spanni ng Tree Protocol, whi ch manages traffi c over the combi ned
li nks as one large channel. T hi s i s referred to as Etherchannel i n mar-
keti ng Ci sco Systems Catalyst LAN swi tches.
Pair Two copper wi res, or two opti cal fi bers.
Pair Gain Usually a reference to a Lucent SLC96 or SLC2000 system. A
system i n the publi c network that multi plexes many conversati ons or
phone li nes i nto one or two copper pai rs. T 1 i s a pai r-gai n system used
by publi c telephone-servi ce provi ders, such as USWest, PAC Bell, Brooks,
ELI , and vi rtually every other local faci li ti es-based phone company. T he
photograph shows a pai r-gai n system outdoor closure/cabi net ( Fi g. P.1) .
PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) 499
Figure P.1 Pair-Gain System (SLC 5)
PAL (Phase Alternation Line) T he televi si on broadcast standard i n
Europe, the Mi ddle East, parts of Afri ca, and parts of South Ameri ca.
PAL defi nes 625 verti cal scan li nes and refreshes the screen 25 ti mes
per second. See also Television Broadcast Standards.
PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) See Pulse Amplitude Modula-
tion.
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 499
500 Parabola
Radio waves are reflected away from
and focused to the stinger because of
the special shape of a parabolic dish
antenna.

Figure P.2 Parabola
Parabolic Dish Antenna A di recti onal antenna. T hi s name results from
i ts paraboli c shape, whi ch means all radi ans from a si ngle poi nt are re-
flected i nto one di recti on ( Fi g. P.3) . For a photo of a paraboli c mi crowave
antenna, see Microwave.
Parabola T he curve that all proj ected obj ects travel when acted on by a
force of gravi ty ( Fi g. P.2) . I f you watch a baseball that i s hi t or thrown
through the ai r, i t curves duri ng i ts fall. T hi s oblong curve i s called a
parabola, and i t i s very speci al. Anci ent mathemati ci ans di scovered that
thi s curve can be dupli cated mathemati cally wi th tri gonometry. Radi o
communi cati ons engi neers later used i t to focus and gui de radi o si gnals
because all radi o waves from a si ngle poi nt were reflected i n exactly one
di recti on. For a di agram, see Parabolic Dish Antenna.
Figure P.3 Parabolic Dish Antenna: 3.7 Meter With C-Band LNB
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 500
Parallel Circuit A ci rcui t that has more than one path for current through
multi ple loads or devi ces ( Fi g. P.4) . T he other type of ci rcui t i s a seri es
ci rcui t, whi ch has only one path for current through multi ple loads.
Parallel Printer Cable 501
PARALLEL
+
SERIES
+
Figure P.4 Parallel Circuit Current Flow
Parallel Data T he transmi ssi on of data over a medi a wi th multi ple bi ts be-
i ng transferred at one ti me, such as a whole byte ( Fi g. P.5) . T he other type
of transmi ssi on i s seri al data, whi ch sends data one bi t at a ti me. T he i l-
lustrati on shows an example of 8 bi ts bei ng sent i n seri es and i n parallel.
Parallel Port A standard DB25 connector used to connect computer
pri nters. T he communi cati on speed of parallel ports i s about 1.5 Mbps.
Parallel Printer Cable A cable that i s desi gned for transmi tti ng multi -
ple bi ts at one ti me, used on a parallel-pri nter port. See Parallel Data.
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 SERIAL ONE WIRE
1 P
0 A
1 R
0 A
1 L
0 L
1 E
0 L
EIGHT WIRES
Figure P.5 Parallel Transmission (Bottom), in Comparison to Serial (Top)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 501
Parasite A devi ce that gets i ts power to operate from the telephone li ne.
T he telephone li ne has a 52-V battery voltage when i t i s i dle and 12 V
when i t i s i n use. Standard telephone sets ( 2500 type) are parasi ti c
telephones. Other devi ces, such as RFI fi lters and tappi ng devi ces, are
parasi ti c.
Parity A method of bi t-stream checki ng. Pari ty i s used i n error correc-
ti on. T he number of logi c ones i s counted i n a bi t stream. T here i s odd
pari ty and even pari ty. Whi ch i s used depends on i f you li ke odd or
even numbers, or i f the modem you are tryi ng to connect wi th li kes odd
or even numbers. Pari ty i s a part of error-checki ng protocol. I t i s si mply
the part of the protocol where the two devi ces are told i f they are count-
i ng odd number bi ts or even number bi ts. I n odd pari ty, i f the number
of ones i s an odd number, then a pari ty bi t i s set to one at the end of
the bi t stream. T hi s i s odd parity because the pari ty bi t i s set to one
when the number of ones i s odd. I n even parity, the pari ty bi t i s set
to one when the number of one bi ts i s even.
Odd-pari ty bi t stream: 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Subsequent pari ty bi t would be 1
because the number of ones i s odd.
Odd-pari ty bi t stream: 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 Subsequent pari ty bi t would be 0
because the number of ones i s not odd.
Even-pari ty bi t stream: 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 Subsequent pari ty bi t would be 0
because the number of ones i s not even.
Even-pari ty bi t stream: 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 Subsequent pari ty bi t would be 1
because the number of ones i s even.
Parity Bit A pari ty bi t i s a bi t added i nto a bi t stream, usually after every
seven bi ts. See Parity.
Parity Check An older and ori gi nal method of error correcti on. Newer
methods of error correcti on i nclude CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checking),
whi ch are more effi ci ent and far more accurate ( 99% CRC, 50% pari ty) .
Park A PBX system feature that allows a user to transfer a call to a ghost
extensi on. When the call i s transferred to the ghost extensi on, i t can
then be retri eved from any telephone by di ali ng that extensi on. T he
ghost extensi on i s thought of as a parki ng spot i n the network.
Part 64 A reference to the part of the MFJ (Modified Final Judgment)
handed to the RBOCs (Regional Bell Operating Companies) by Judge
Harold Greene. I t speci fi es the separati on of customer-owned equi pment
(Customer Premises Equipment, CPE) and the telephone company-
owned equi pment, and telephone company demarcati on.
502 Parasite
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 502
Part 68 See Part 64.
Part X Usually a reference to Part 64 or Part 68 of the MFJ ( Modi fi ed Fi nal
Judgment) handed to the RBOCs ( Regi onal Bell Operati ng Compani es)
by Judge Harold Greene. I t speci fi es the separati on of customer-owned
equi pment ( Customer Premi ses Equi pment, CPE) and the telephone
company-owned equi pment, and telephone company demarcati on.
Party Line A telephone li ne that i s shared by multi ple resi dences. A party
li ne i s a one-pai r ci rcui t that can have as many as ei ght i ndi vi dual resi -
dences, ( each wi th a separate phone number) share that same pai r for
servi ce ( Fi g. P.6) . I f one resi dence i s usi ng the li ne, the others cant.
Each resi dence can have i ts own phone number, wi th the use of a SRM
(Selective Ringing Module). T he SRM i s i nstalled i n the NI of each res-
i dence and contai ns electroni cs that can be confi gured to recogni ze di f-
ferent ri ngi ng formats usi ng DI P swi tches. Some di fferent ri ngi ng for-
mats that an SRM would di fferenti ate are ri ng voltage on the ri ng si de,
ri ng voltage on the ti p si de, ri ng voltage on the ri ng si de wi th the ti p si de
grounded, and ri ng on the ti p si de wi th the ri ng si de grounded. T he se-
lecti ve ri ngi ng modules are wi red to recogni ze a certai n ri ng. T he cen-
tral offi ce sends a speci fi c ri ng to reach a speci fi c number.
Pass-Band Filter 503
Residence
one
Residence
two
Residence
three
Residence
four
SRM
SRM
A 4FR Four-Party Line
From
Telephone
Company
NI (network interface) NI (network interface) NI (network interface) NI (network interface)
SRM
SRM
Figure P.6 Party Line: Shared Pair Line
Pass-Band Filter Another name for a band-pass fi lter. A band-pass fi l-
ter i s used i n frequency-di vi si on multi plexi ng as well as the equali zer i n
your stereo. I t i s usually a capaci tor/resi stor/i nductor network that has
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 503
a resonant frequency and a rati ng of how well i t passes one frequency
( or a bandwi dth of frequenci es) and blocks out others ( called the Q,
quali ty) of the ci rcui t. T he resonant frequency of the ci rcui t i s the fre-
quency that the ci rcui t wi ll pass.
Passive Hub As opposed to an acti ve hub, a passi ve hub has no abi li ty to
ampli fy ( extend si gnal transmi ssi on range) a si gnal on an Ethernet net-
work, so i t needs to be i n close proxi mi ty to the computers i t i s connected
to. Si mply stated, a hub makes a star wi ri ng confi gurati on look li ke a bus
confi gurati on to all the devi ces connected to i t. Hubs are uti li zed exten-
si vely i n Ethernet networks. For a di agram of a hub appli cati on, see Hub.
Passive Optical Network (PON) A fi ber-opti c-based transmi ssi on net-
work that contai ns no electroni c devi ces that requi re external power.
Passi ve opti cal networks use the physi cal characteri sti cs of li ght to sep-
arate di fferent carri ers or colors of li ght. T hese types of opti cal networks
are relati vely i nexpensi ve to i mplement and mai ntai n, compared to thei r
acti ve counterparts.
Passive Matrix Display A type of laptop computer di splay technology
where rows of li qui d crystal elements are connected as a gri d. T hose el-
ements are acti vated by thei r coordi nate ( hori zontal and verti cal) tran-
si stor. Passi ve matri x di splays have a sli ghtly fuzzy i mage duri ng screen
movement and screen refresh, although they are less expensi ve and con-
sume less power.
Patch Panel A panel equi pped wi th plugs, rather than termi nals, for con-
necti ng wi res or fi ber opti cs. A patch panel can be used to termi nate i n-
stalled wi re or be used as a plug-i n test access poi nt for communi ca-
ti ons ci rcui ts. DS0 and DS3 patch panels are very popular i n central
offi ces for testi ng purposes. Cat 5 patch panels are popular i n computer
LAN envi ronments for the easy connecti on of computers to a network
of pre-i nstalled wi re.
Path 1. T he process of ali gni ng a mi crowave radi o li nk. Two techni ci ans
poi nt the di shes at each other whi le taki ng AGC readi ngs from the trans-
mi ssi on equi pment, whi ch i s often located i n the di sh ( also called an
ODU, Outdoor Uni t) . 2. T he space between two mi crowave di shes that
make a mi crowave radi o li nk.
Path Cost A predetermi ned way to pri ori ti ze trunks for traffi c and
fai lover ( as i n Spantree) . T he path cost number i s used by a swi tch to
determi ne whi ch network li nk i s favorable and i s a functi on of bandwi dth.
Common path costs are shown i n the Fi g. P.7.
504 Passive Hub
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 504
PC (Personal Computer) 505
TRUNK TYPE NAME BANDWIDTH
10BaseT 10 Mbps 100
100BaseT Fast Ethernet 100 Mbps 19
100BaseT X2 2 Fast Ethernet* 200 Mbps 12
4
Pause A feature i ncorporated wi th the speed-di al feature of telephones.
When speed-di al numbers are programmed, a 1.5-second pause can be
i nserted by pressi ng the # key. I f a user wants to program a speed di al
that ri ngs i nto a PBX system where an extensi on needs to be i nput after
an auto attendant answers, the user can i nput several pauses before the
extensi on number i n the speed-di al stri ng that they program on thei r
phone. When acti vated, the speed-call feature wi ll then di al the number,
pause whi le the auto attendant answers, then di al the extensi on.
Payload A transmi ssi on si gnal or packet has two components, the pay-
load and the overhead. T he payload carri es the customer i nformati on,
li ke a B Channel i n an I SDN ci rcui t. T he overhead carri es operati onal,
mai ntenance, and synchroni zati on i nformati on that make the protocol
work. An I SDN D channel i s an overhead component of an I SDN ci rcui t.
Payphone A coi n operated telephone. Many payphones are owned and
operated by local telephone compani es, but there are pri vate payphone
compani es too. Pay or coi n-operated telephones can be purchased
at telecommuni cati ons equi pment di stri butors, such as Graybar and
Ani xter.
PBX (Private Branch Exchange) See Private Branch Exchange.
PBX, IP-Based See IP Telephony.
PC (Personal Computer) A reference to an I BM PC or an I BM clone
PC, whi ch i s a PC manufactured by some company other than I BM ( such
as Dell, Hewlett Packard, or Compaq) . T he older archi tecture for PCs i s
the AT (Advanced Technology) archi tecture. T he newer i s the AT X
archi tecture developed by I ntel. I llustrated i s the rear-panel compari son
of an AT machi ne ( Fi g. P.8) and an AT X machi ne ( Fi g. P.9) . Noti ce that
the AT X archi tecture blocks the seri al and I /O connectors ( i .e., pri nter
port) together on a backplate. See also AT, ATX, and Personal
Computer.
Figure P.7 Path Costing (Routing)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 505
506 PC (Personal Computer)
Figure P.8 Rear of AT PC
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 506
PC (Personal Computer) 507
Figure P.9 Rear of ATX PC
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 507
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) See PC Board.
PC Card A short name for a PCMCI A card most commonly made for PC
laptops. See PCMCIA.
PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) A 64-bi t bus standard de-
veloped by I ntel. PCI i s a term that i s commonly referred to by PC users
that are searchi ng for an expansi on board for thei r PC. PCI i s an i m-
provement over the ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus. As PCI
matures i n the i ndustry, i t wi ll exceed a throughput rate of 200 Mbps.
PCI slots on a personal computers motherboard are recogni zable by thei r
whi te or brown color, they are relati vely shorter than other sockets/slots,
and they have a smaller pi n si ze. Fi gure P.10 shows a PCI vi deo card.
See also ISA and AGP.
508 PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
PCL (Printer Control Language) A pri nter-i nterface communi cati on
method developed by Hewlett-Packard, and used wi dely i n the computer-
pri nter i ndustry. PCL translates page data i nto i nstructi ons for a pri nter.
PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) A concept that i s si mi lar to that of
Morse code, di gi tal si gnals are sent over a medi a ( twi sted copper pai rs,
radi o, fi ber opti c, coax, etc.) one bi t at a ti me, each bi t bei ng represented
as a pulse or the absence of a pulse. A typi cal di gi tal transmi ssi on i s PCM.
Figure P.10 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Video Card
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 508
PCMCIA (Personal-Computer Memory-Card International Associ-
ation) An organi zati on made up of about 500 compani es that devel-
oped a standard for small, credi t card-si zed PC devi ces. T hese devi ces
are desi gned especi ally for laptop or other portable computi ng devi ces,
and they are desi gned to be exchanged wi thout rebooti ng the PC ( al-
though thi s i s not always the case) . T he fi rst PCMCI A cards were made
for addi ti onal memory. Subsequent desi gns i ncluded LAN i nterface cards
and modems ( Fi g. P.11) . T here are three types of PCMCI A i nterfaces.
Type-I cards are for memory, and are the thi nnest of the three types
( 3.3-mm thi ckness) . Type-II cards are generally for LAN i nterface and
modem appli cati ons ( 5.5-mm thi ckness) . Type-III cards are the largest
i n thi ckness at 10.5 mm thi ck and are for portable di sk dri ves. All three
have the same rectangular di mensi ons ( 85.6 by 54 mi lli meters) . Because
the rectangular di mensi ons of the cards are the same, they all fi t i nto
the same slots as follows: A Type-I I I slot can hold one Type-I I I card or
one each of a Type I I and Type I . A Type-I I slot can hold one Type-I I or
two Type-I cards. A Type-I slot can hold one Type-I card.
PCR (Peak Cell Rate) 509
Figure P.11 PCMCIA Cards
PCR (Peak Cell Rate) A parameter defi ned by the AT M forum for AT M
traffi c management. I n Constant Bit Rate (CBR) transmi ssi ons, the peak
cell-rate parameter determi nes how often data samples are sent. I n
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 509
Available Bit Rate (ABR) transmi ssi ons, the peak cell-rate parameter
determi nes the maxi mum value of the avai lable cell rate. See also ACR,
MCR, and CBR.
PCS (Personal Communications Services) I n wi reless/cellular tele-
communi cati ons, an allocati on of frequency bands i n the 1900 M Hz
range that were desi gnated for the use of publi c wi reless communi ca-
ti on by the FCC. I n the Uni ted States, the maj ori ty of telephone com-
pani es that provi de PCS servi ces do so uti li zi ng CDM A ( Carri er Di vi -
si on M ulti ple Access) transmi ssi on formats, whi ch are a vari ati on of
spread spectrum radi o. Speci fi cally, CDM A i s deployed i n the PCS-1900
M Hz band ( called PCS-1900) . Usi ng CDM A technology, PCS servi ces
are able to provi de longer battery li fe, vari able speech compressi on,
data servi ces, soft-call handoff, and better recepti on when multi path
radi o reflecti ons occur. CDM A i s a second-generati on wi reless tech-
nology and i s the precursor to CDM A2000, whi ch i s an operati ng sys-
tem for 3G ( thi rd-generati on) wi reless technology. See also 3G and
CDMA.
PDN (Primary Directory Number) An I SDN telephone number.
PE (Peripheral Equipment) Devi ces that are not a part of a system,
but work wi th i t, such as a pri nter.
Peak Cell Rate (PCR) A parameter defi ned by the AT M forum for AT M
traffi c management. I n Constant Bit Rate (CBR) transmi ssi ons, the peak
cell-rate parameter determi nes how often data samples are sent. I n
Available Bit Rate (ABR) transmi ssi ons, the peak cell-rate parameter
determi nes the maxi mum value of the avai lable cell rate. See also ACR,
MCR, and CBR.
Peak Power A method of calculati ng the power consumpti on or power
output of an electroni c/electri cal devi ce. Other methods of calculati ng
power i nclude true power, transparent power, and RMS ( Root-Mean-
Square) power. Most audi o appli cati ons use ei ther peak or RMS power.
A great example to demonstrate the di fference between peak power and
RMS power i s home and car stereo ampli fi ers. Many people ask whi ch i s
better, peak power or RMS power? T he answer i s both. Some stereo man-
ufacturers put peak-power rati ngs on thei r products because i t sounds
better. Some put RMS power on thei r products because i t i s closer to
the true power of the devi ce. To convert from peak power to RMS power,
multi ply the peak-power rati ng by 0.707. T he result i s RMS power. To
convert RMS power to peak power, di vi de the RMS power rati ng by 0.707.
T he result i s the peak-power rati ng.
510 PCS (Personal Communications Services)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 510
Ped (Pedestal) See Pedestal.
Pedestal (Ped) Usually a small green box that houses telephone or
cable-T V cable spli ces or termi nals.
Peer Communication T he communi cati on of i ndi vi dual layers i n a pro-
tocol wi th each other. For i nstance, the network-layer control si gnals
from the near end are only used by the network layer on the far end.
T hey are not used by any other layer, and are defi ni tely not seen by the
user. T hese types of si gnals or control frames are referred to as peer
communications. For an example of a peer communi cati onssi gnal, see
SABM and FRMR.
Peer-to-Peer Networking A local-area network scheme that does not
use a server or host. I ndi vi dual PCs are li nked together vi a network cards
and CAT-5 wi re or coax. Wi ndows 95 has i ts own peer-to-peer network-
i ng uti li ty bui lt i n.
Peg Board Also called a white board or mushroom board. I t i s placed
of support for routi ng cross-connect wi re. For a photo, see White Board.
Performance Management One of fi ve categori es of network manage-
ment defi ned by I SO for management of OSI networks. Performance-
management subsystems are responsi ble for analyzi ng and controlli ng
network performance, i ncludi ng network throughput and error rates. See
also Accounting Management, Configuration Management, Fault
Management, and Security Management.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) A 64-bi t bus standard de-
veloped by I ntel. PCI i s a term that i s commonly referred to by PC users
that are searchi ng for an expansi on board for thei r PC. PCI i s an i m-
provement over the ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus. As PCI
matures i n the i ndustry, i t wi ll exceed a throughput rate of 200 Mbps.
PCI slots on a personal computers motherboard are recogni zable by thei r
whi te or brown color, they are relati vely shorter than other sockets/slots,
and they have a smaller pi n si ze. I llustrated i s a PCI vi deo card. See also
ISA and AGP.
Peripheral Equipment Devi ces that are not a part of a system, but work
wi th i t, such as a pri nter.
Peripheral Node A termi nal, pri nter, or other I /O devi ce on an SNA (IBM
System Network Architecture) network ( Fi g. P.12) .
Peripheral Node 511
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 511
512 Permanent Virtual Circuit
Mainframe
IBM 3745
Terminal
Terminal Terminal
Terminal PERIPHERAL NODES
Figure P.12 Peripheral Node in an SNA Environment
Permanent Virtual Circuit A dedi cated ( pri vate li ne) channel i n a mul-
ti plexed transmi ssi on or packet network used by telephone compani es.
Permanent vi rtual ci rcui ts are very common i n T 3 and SONET carri er
networks. A vi rtual ci rcui t i s a swi tched ci rcui t, li ke a plai n telephone
li ne. A permanent ci rcui t i s a dedi cated twi sted copper pai r wi th a car-
ri er, such as T 1 for a pri vate li ne.
Personal Communications Services (PCS) I n wi reless/cellular tele-
communi cati ons, an allocati on of frequency bands i n the 1900 MHz range
that were desi gnated for the use of publi c wi reless communi cati on by
the FCC. I n the Uni ted States, the maj ori ty of telephone compani es that
provi de PCS servi ces do so uti li zi ng CDMA ( Carri er Di vi si on Multi ple
Access) transmi ssi on formats, whi ch are a vari ati on of spread spectrum
radi o. Speci fi cally, CDMA i s deployed i n the PCS-1900 MHz band ( called
PCS-1900) . Usi ng CDMA technology, PCS servi ces are able to provi de
longer battery li fe, vari able speech compressi on, data servi ces, soft-call
handoff, and better recepti on when multi path radi o reflecti ons occur.
CDMA i s a second-generati on wi reless technology and i s the precursor
to CDMA2000, whi ch i s an operati ng system for 3G ( thi rd-generati on)
wi reless technology. See also 3G and CDMA.
Personal Computer A small and relati vely i nexpensi ve data-processi ng
machi ne that i s desi gned for one user. Early computers had many
termi nals and were shared among many users. Personal computers are
used for word processi ng, data-base management, desktop publi shi ng,
I nternet access, games, composi ng musi c, and many other appli cati ons.
T he two maj or types of personal computers are the Apple Maci ntosh and
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 512
the PC, whi ch i s based on the I BM PC archi tecture, and frequently re-
ferred to as an IBM clone, i f manufactured and di stri buted by one other
than I BM. Apple Maci ntosh computers are frequently referred to as Macs.
I BM PCs and I BM clones are referred to as PCs.
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCM-
CIA) An organi zati on made up of about 500 compani es that developed
a standard for small, credi t card-si zed PC devi ces. T hese devi ces are de-
si gned especi ally for laptop or other portable computi ng devi ces, and
they are desi gned to be exchanged wi thout rebooti ng the PC ( although
thi s i s not always the case) . T he fi rst PCMCI A cards were made for ad-
di ti onal memory. Subsequent desi gns i ncluded LAN i nterface cards and
modems. T here are three types of PCMCI A i nterfaces. Type-I cards are
for memory, and are the thi nnest of the three types ( 3.3-mm thi ckness) .
Type-II cards are generally for LAN i nterface and modem appli cati ons
( 5.5-mm thi ckness) . Type-III cards are the largest i n thi ckness at 10.5
mm thi ck and are for portable di sk dri ves. All three have the same rec-
tangular di mensi ons ( 85.6 by 54 mi lli meters) . Because the rectangular
di mensi ons of the cards are the same, they all fi t i nto the same slots as
follows: A Type-I I I slot can hold one Type-I I I card or one each of a Type
I I and Type I . A Type-I I slot can hold one Type-I I or two Type-I cards. A
Type-I slot can hold one Type-I card.
Peta T he prefi x for 1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000. I t would take fi ve mi lli on 1GB
( one gi gabyte) hard dri ves to have the capaci ty of one 5PB hard dri ve.
I dont thi nk we wi ll see hard dri ves i n the PB range any ti me soon.
Phantom DN (Phantom Directory Number) Also called a Vi rtual DN.
A di rectory number or extensi on on a PBX system that i s used to attach
a voi ce mai lbox. T he phantom DN does not really have a telephone set,
but the PBX system thi nks i t does, so i t transfers calls to that DN, whi ch
are confi gured to be forwarded to a voi ce-mai l system. A user of that DN
can then di al i nto the voi ce-mai l system, enter thei r extensi on, and re-
cei ve thei r messages.
Phase A reference to a si ne wave and i ts relati ve cycle to another si ne
wave or ti me source. Phase i s measured i n degrees ( 0 to 360) or radi -
ans ( Fi g. P.13) .
Phase 513
A sine wave, and a cosine wave (dashed),
which is180 out of phase with the sine
wave. The resultant output from combining
these signals would be 0 V.

Figure P.13 Phase
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 513
Phase Alternation Line (PAL) T he televi si on broadcast standard i n
Europe the Mi ddle East, parts of Afri ca, and parts of South Ameri ca. PAL
defi nes 625 verti cal scan li nes and refreshes the screen 25 ti mes per sec-
ond. See also Television Broadcast Standards.
Phased Locked Loop (PLL) A very important electronic circuit in the
world of FM (Frequency Modulation) and PM (Phase Modulation).
Phase-locked loops are used as the detector circuits in FM receivers and to
create stable RF references for all types of transmitters and timing circuits.
Phase Modulation (PM) A method of varyi ng a radi o carri er frequency
so that a si gnal ( the vari ati ons) can ri de on i t. After the carri er si gnal
has the vari ati ons i mposed on i t, i t i s ampli fi ed and transmi tted. T he vari -
ati ons i n the si gnal are then detected by the recei ver. T he vari ati ons i n
the carri er si gnal are actually voi ces, musi c, or whatever i s to be trans-
mi tted. T he other methods of modulati ng a carri er frequency are AM
(Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency Modulation). Phase
modulati on makes the phase of a carri er frequency change i n conj unc-
ti on wi th a si gnal that i t i s to carry. T he color on broadcast televi si on i s
sent i n a PM format. A si mple representati on i s depi cted i n Fi g. P.14.
514 Phase Alternation Line (PAL)
Cosine Sine Cosine Sine Cosine Sine
Modulated Carrier Looks Like This:
Note Phase Changes
Figure P.15 Phase-Shift Keying
PHASE CHANGES OF A CARRIER SIGNAL FOR A TRANSMITTED SIGNAL (DASHED)
Cosine sine cosine sine cosine sine
NOTE PHASE CHANGES
Figure P.14 Phase Modulation
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) A method of modulati ng a carri er frequency
by maki ng the carri er si gnal phase shi ft i n conj uncti on wi th the di gi tal
i nput si gnal. I n Fi g. P.15, a cosi ne phase i ndi cates a 1 value and a si ne
phase i ndi cates a 0.
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 514
Phased Array Antenna A group of small antennas placed a multi ple of
a wavelength i n di stance from each other to create one larger antenna.
Phonetic Alphabet A set of audi bly di sti nct words that were chosen by
the U.S. Army to i denti fy spoken letters and numbers ( Fi g. P.16) .
Photodiode 515
A ALPHA N NOVEMBER 0 ZERO
B BRAVO O OSCAR 1 ONE
C CHARLIE P PAPA 2 TWO
D DELTA Q QUEBEC 3 THREE
E ECHO R ROMEO 4 FOUR
F FOXTROT S SIERRA 5 FIVE
G GOLF T TANGO 6 SIX
H HOTEL U UNIFORM 7 SEVEN
I INDIA V VICTOR 8 EIGHT
J JULIET W WHISKEY 9 NINER
K KILO X XRAY
L LIMA Y YANKEE
M MIKE Z ZULU
Figure P.16 Phonetic Alphabet
Figure P.17 The Schematic Symbol for a Photoconductive Cell
Photoconductive Cell Also called a photoresistor or photosensitive
cell ( Fi g. P.17) . An electroni c devi ce that conducts electri ci ty better
when i t i s exposed to li ght. Photoconducti ve cells are made from
Cadmi um Sulfi de ( CdS) and Cadmi um Seleni de ( CdSe) . T hey are most
responsi ve to green-colored li ght ( 5500 angstrom) . T hey react to almost
the enti re spectrum of li ght that i s vi si ble to the human eye.
Photo-Conductor A reference to a photoconducti ve cell.
Photodetector A photo-sensi ti ve ci rcui t whose mai n component i s usu-
ally a photo-di ode or photo-transi stor. A photo-detector converts pulses
of li ght i nto pulses of electri ci ty.
Photodiode An electroni c devi ce that acts as a li ght-acti vated swi tch
( Fi g. P.18) . I t operates si mi lar to a zener di ode, except that the re-
versecurrent effect i s controlled by li ght.
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516 Phototransistor

Figure P.18 Schematic Symbols for Photodiodes
Phototransistor A transi stor that i s forward bi ased ( conducts electri c-
i ty as a swi tch) when exposed to li ght ( Fi g. P.19) . Phototransi stors are
used the same way as swi tchi ng transi stors, except the base i s the pho-
tosensi ti ve part of the devi ce.
Figure P.19 Schematic Symbol for Phototransistor
Photonic Layer Fi ber opti c. A reference to the physi cal layer i n the
SONET protocol archi tecture, whi ch i s where the type of fi ber opti c i s
defi ned ( multi mode/si ngle mode) .
Physical Address Another name for MAC address. See MAC Address.
Physical Colocation A colocation i s an i nterconnecti on agreement
and a physi cal place where telephone compani es hand-off calls and
servi ces to each other. T hi s i s usually performed between a CLEC and
an RBOC. T he CLEC i nstalls and mai ntai ns i nterconnecti on equi pment
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 516
usually consi sti ng of opti cal carri er ( SONET ) equi pment and a di gi tal
cross-connect system. T here are other types of colocati ons. Alarm
compani es li ke to have thei r alarm-si gnali ng equi pment located i n the
local central offi ce for securi ty and conveni ence of connecti ng alarm
ci rcui ts. Long-di stance compani es colocate wi th local telephone com-
pani es as well.
Physical Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n gen-
eral, the physi cal layer i s the actual medi a of the communi cati ons
transmi ssi on ( twi sted-pai r wi re, coax, ai r, fi ber opti c, etc.) I t i s also
the types of connectors used and the pi n-outs of those connectors.
T he 568B wi ri ng scheme for CAT 5 wi re i s a physi cal-layer functi on.
T he latest gui deli ne for communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnect). I t i s the best model so far because all of the
layers ( functi ons) work i ndependently of each other. For a di agram of
the OSI , SNA, and DNA functi on layers, see Open Systems Intercon-
nection. For a conceptual di agram of the OSI model layers, see OSI
Standards.
Physical Medium-Dependent Sublayer (PMD) T he AT M physi cal
layer i s di vi ded i nto two parts ( sublayers) , the TCS (Transmission Con-
vergence Sublayer) and the PMD. T he PMD i s the lowest physi cal layer
and i t determi nes the types of connectors and the medi um used for trans-
mi ssi on. I t also i nterfaces the li ne-codi ng techni que, such as SONET OC-
1 or ST S-3c/ST M1, wi th the T CS sublayer. See also TCS.
Physical Topology A physi cal topology refers to the way a Local Area -
Network (LAN) of computers i s connected for communi cati on. T he three
di fferent types of physi cal topologi es are: ri ng, star, and bus ( Fi g. P.20) .
T he star and bus topologi es work very much the same. T he ri ng topology
i s also called a token passing topology.
PIC PI C refers to color-coded cable. I cky-PI C i s cable that i s color coded
and j elly fi lled to help protect the copper pai rs i nsi de from water.
Pico Prefi x for 1 10
9
. One pi cofarad ( a capaci tor) i s equal to
0.000, 000, 001 farads. I t i s abbrevi ated as 1 pF.
Picofarad A uni t of measurement for capaci tors. Pi co i s the prefi x for
1 10
9
. One pi cofarad ( a capaci tor) i s equal to 0.000, 000, 001 farads.
I t i s abbrevi ated as 1 pF.
Piggybacking Process of carryi ng acknowledgments wi thi n a data packet
to save network bandwi dth.
Piggybacking 517
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PIM Dense Mode/Sparse Mode I n Ethernet-type networks such as
802.3, multi cast i s made possi ble by a set of communi cati ons procedures
called PI M ( Protocol I ndependent Multi cast) . A network can be confi g-
ured to uti li ze PI M as one of two features: PI M Dense Mode and PI M
Sparse Mode. PI M Dense Mode floods a network, sendi ng the packets
that make up the transmi ssi on to every devi ce on a network. Routers on
the network then i denti fy whi ch users respond to the multi cast flood,
and then prune ( di sconti nue) packet transmi ssi ons from devi ces that do
not respond. T he advantage of PI M Dense Mode i s that i ts operati on i s
si mple to end users. T here i s no need for an advance request to start re-
cei vi ng the transmi ssi on. I t appears to be automati c to the end user be-
cause i t i s. PI M Sparse Mode i ncorporates I GMP, whi ch i s a si gnal for
end users to request a multi cast packet stream. T he advantage of thi s
method i s that i n large networks, the i ni ti al flood i n PI M Dense Mode
never happens. T he transmi ssi on i s sent to a si ngle router called a ren-
dezvous point. T he rendezvous poi nt router then dupli cates the pack-
ets to the necessary segments that have requested them. PI M Sparse
Mode i s a more effi ci ent use of a networks resources. T he drawback i s
the need for requests to refresh the transmi ssi on.
PING 1. A DOS command that sends a broadcast packet over a network
that asks for an acknowledgment from the devi ce that i s confi gured wi th
the I P address entered wi th the PI NG command. PI NG was named so
because i t i s a good mnemoni c reference that i s associ ated wi th sub-
mari nes. T he PI NG command behaves si mi lar to submari ne radar emi t-
ti ng audi ble pi ng sounds i n attempts to locate other vessels or obj ects
518 PIM Dense Mode/Sparse Mode
Token Ring
Star
Bus
LAN PHYSICAL
TOPOLOGIES
Figure P.20 Physical Topologies
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i n the sea. 2. I n some networki ng ci rcles, i t i s beli eved that PI NG i s a
mnemoni c abbrevi ati on for Packet I nternet Groper, and a reference for
the same DOS command li sted previ ously.
Plain-B Wire Connector Most commonly referred to as beans. A spli c-
i ng connector used to spli ce twi sted-pai r telephone wi re ( Fi g. P.21) . T he
connectors are cri mped onto the wi res to be spli ced. I nsi de the con-
nector are teeth, whi ch pi erce the vi nyl i nsulati on of the wi re to make a
good connecti on.
Plenum 519
Figure P.21 Plain-B Wire Connector (Beans)
Plant A reference to telephone company equi pment, poles, cable vaults,
cable, central offi ces, and transmi ssi on equi pment.
Plant Test Numbers Telephone numbers that when di aled provi de a
test tone or access to other testi ng resources, such as a qui et-li ne or
automati c-number i denti fi cati on. Plant test numbers are used by tele-
phone company personnel and are not gi ven to the publi c.
Plenum A reference to telephone, communi cati ons, or electri cal wi re that
i s i nsulated wi th polyvi nyli dene di flouri de. I t i s made wi th thi s substance
because i t does not emi t poi son gasses when i t burns, li ke PVC ( polyvi nyl
chlori de) does ( PVC produces chlori ne gas when burned) . I t gets i ts
ni ckname because i t i s permi tted to be placed i n ai r ducts or plenum
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 519
spaces i n bui ldi ngs. Plenum wi ri ng or cable i s typi cally three ti mes the
cost of PVC j acketed/i nsulated types.
Plenum Cable See Plenum.
Plesiochronous Almost i n ti me. Plesi ochronous networks are those that
the telephone compani es use to synchroni ze T 1 and T 3 carri er si gnals. T he
electroni c transport equi pment at each end of the transmi ssi on does not
get ti mi ng from the same source ( thus bei ng synchronous) , but the ti mi ng
of each i ndi vi dual devi ce i s very close. Stratum One clocks are used i n thi s
type of communi cati ons equi pment, whi ch provi de a steady ti mi ng for each
end to transmi t and recei ve si gnals by. Transmi ssi ons between SONET
networks over a long-haul ci rcui t could be consi dered plesi ochronous.
PMD (Physical Medium Dependent Sublayer) T he AT M physi cal
layer i s di vi ded i nto two parts ( sublayers) , the TCS (Transmission Con-
vergence Sublayer) and the PMD. T he PMD i s the lowest physi cal layer,
and i t determi nes the types of connectors and the medi um used for trans-
mi ssi on. I t also i nterfaces the li ne-codi ng techni que, such as SONET
OC-1 or ST S-3c/ST M1 wi th the T CS sublayer. See also TCS.
POH (Path Overhead) T he overhead that i s added to a si gnal to allow
a transport network to carry i t.
Point of Interface See Point of Presence.
Point of Presence I n I nternet terms, an access node equi pped wi th
modems that allow customers to di al i nto thei r I SP. Nati onal I nternet
servi ce provi ders try to have a poi nt of presence wi thi n every area code
that a customer could try to access thei r network through.
Point to Point Usually a reference to a pri vate-li ne ci rcui t that i s leased
from the telephone company. I t can also be a reference to a swi tched
servi ce, li ke a plai n telephone li ne where communi cati ons li nks are
swi tched from one poi nt to another, dependi ng on the number di aled.
Pointing Stick An alternati ve to the use of a mouse on portable laptop
computers. T he poi nti ng sti ck i s usually located i n the mi ddle of the lap-
tops keyboard and resembles a penci l eraser. Other laptop mouse alter-
nati ves i nclude the roller ball and the touch/track pad.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Also known as dial-up IP. PPP i s the
successor to SLI P that provi des router-to-router and host-to-network
connecti ons over synchronous and asynchronous ci rcui ts. Whereas SLI P
was desi gned to work wi th I P, PPP was desi gned to work wi th several
520 Plenum Cable
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network-layer protocols, such as I P, I PX, and ARA. PPP also has bui lt-
i n securi ty mechani sms, such as CHAP and PAP. PPP reli es on two pro-
tocols: LCP and NCP. See also CHAP, LCP, NCP, PAP, and SLIP.
Poisson Distribution A mathemati cal formula that used to be used i n
traffi c engi neeri ng for calculati ng the probabi li ty of blocked calls i n a
telephone network. Now we have computer programs ( CT I ) that provi de
graphs of trunk groups and thei r usage. T he graphs are much easi er to
use. When customers dont have expensi ve software to manage thei r tele-
phone networks, they si mply add more li nes when they get complai nts
of busy si gnals.
Poison Reverse Updates Routi ng updates that expli ci tly i ndi cate that
a network or subnet i s unreachable, rather than i mplyi ng that a network
i s unreachable by not i ncludi ng i t i n updates. Poi son reverse updates are
sent to defeat large routi ng loops.
Polarity A reference to posi ti ve or negati ve voltage potenti al, or to the
polari zati on of an antenna or di sh-type antenna.
Polarization T he poi nti ng of a mi crowave di sh antenna so that the trans-
mi ssi on di spersi on i s i n a verti cal or hori zontal pattern. T he headli ghts
on cars are polari zed i n a hori zontal manner so that the li ght di spersi on
i s spread across the hori zontal surface of the road. T he other ki nd of po-
lari zati on i s verti cal, where the transmi ssi on di spersi on i s i n an up-and-
down pattern. T he two antennas or di shes used i n a poi nt-to-poi nt
appli cati on need to be polari zed the same way.
Pole Attachment A lease from a uti li ty company ( usually power) that
permi ts a telecommuni cati ons company to attach thei r cable faci li ti es to
power poles ( Fi g. P.22) . For more photos of di fferent aeri al-attachment
hardware, see B Washer, Strand Clamp, Guy Thimble, and Johnny Ball.
Pole Attachment 521
Figure P.22 Pole-Attachment Hardware
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522 Policy-Based Routing
Policy-Based Routing A routi ng scheme that forwards packets to speci fi c
i nterfaces based on user-confi gured poli ci es. Such poli ci es mi ght speci fy
that traffi c sent from a parti cular network should be forwarded out one
i nterface, whi le all other traffi c should be forwarded out another i nterface.
Poll/Final A bi t i n the control byte of an X.25 frame. When the two de-
vi ces on the ends of an X.25 li nk lose track of where the other i s i n re-
cei vi ng the transmi ssi on, a poll bi t wi ll be sent i nsi de the control byte of
the next frame. T he devi ce on the other end wi ll send a frame wi th the
poll bi t set to one that i s followed by the number of the next frame de-
si red ( bi nary one through seven) .
Polling A LAN li ne-shari ng method where a pri mary network devi ce
asks all other devi ces attached to a network i f they have data to trans-
mi t. T hi s gi ves each devi ce a fai r chance to use the network medi a. Token
ri ng i s a polli ng-type of network protocol. I n contrast, Ethernet i s not a
polli ng protocol.
PON (Passive Optical Network) A fi ber-opti c-based transmi ssi on net-
work that contai ns no electroni c devi ces that requi re external power.
Passi ve opti cal networks use the physi cal characteri sti cs of li ght to sep-
arate di fferent carri ers or colors of li ght. T hese types of opti cal networks
are relati vely i nexpensi ve to i mplement and mai ntai n, compared to thei r
acti ve counterparts.
POP 1. Post Office Protocol. POP is a daemon program that runs on SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) servers acting as if it were a mail server
in itself. I t processes SMT P clients mail-retrieval requests. Without POP,
clients cannot receive mail unless they are online at the time it is sent to
them. POP and SMT P have been further enhanced with the MIME (Multi-
purpose Internet Mail Extensions) standard, which allows users to attach
files to their text messages. 2. Point of Presence. See Point of Presence.
Port Aggregation Protocol (PagP) An operati ng feature of LAN
swi tches that enables 2 or 4 Ethernet ports ( more i n some swi tches) to
be concatenated i nto one hi gh-capaci ty li nk. T he PagP subrouti ne auto-
mati cally i denti fi es ports that are confi gured as pai rs and reports them
to the Spanni ng Tree Protocol, whi ch manages traffi c over the combi ned
li nks as one large channel. T hi s i s referred to as Etherchannel i n mar-
keti ng Ci sco Systems Catalyst LAN swi tches.
Port Number An i denti fi cati on/reference system that T CP uses to i den-
ti fy appli cati ons that i t wi ll packeti ze and send. T he port numberi ng system
allows T CP to know how to handle the appli cati on for whi ch i t i s performi ng
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 522
communi cati ons. A fi eld of the T CP header i s dedi cated for the port num-
ber bei ng uti li zed i n the current transmi ssi on. All appli cati ons have stan-
dard port numbers assi gned to them. Standard port numbers are called
well-known port numbers. Some examples of well-known port numbers
are: 20 FT P-data, 21 FT P-control, 23 Telnet, 25 SMT P, 53
Domai n Name, 161 SNMP agent, and 162 SNMP manager. Further,
port numbers can be altered. Network admi ni strators do not always uti-
li ze the standard appli cati ons port numbers wi thi n i ntranets as a securi ty
desi gn measure. See also Socket.
Portability A reference to the abi li ty to change telephone compani es and
take your phone numbers wi th you.
POST (Power On Self Test) A set of hardware di agnosti c i nstructi ons
( usually retri eved from ROM) that operates wi thi n routers and other
traffi c-management devi ces when they are fi rst turned on.
Post Office Protocol POP i s a daemon program that runs on SMTP
(Simple Mail-Transfer Protocol) servers acti ng as i f i t were a mai l server
i n i tself. I t processes SMT P cli ents mai l-retri eval requests. Wi thout i t,
cli ents cannot recei ve mai l unless they are onli ne at the ti me i t i s sent
to them. POP and SMT P have been further enhanced wi th the MIME
(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) standard, whi ch allows users
to attach fi les to thei r text messages.
Post, Telephone, and Telegraph (PTT) T he general name for the com-
muni cati ons servi ce provi ders i n countri es that have not yet allowed thi s
servi ce to be controlled by a nongovernment agency or corporati on. PT Ts
are often extensi ons of the postal servi ce, where telecommuni cati ons
servi ce i s a branch from the ori gi nal letter-mai l and telegraphy servi ce.
South Ameri can and Afri can countri es commonly have a PT T agency,
rather than multi ple telephone compani es.
PostScript A pri nter i nterface communi cati on method developed by
Adobe. PostScri pt i ncorporates ASCI I code and translates i t to i nstruc-
ti ons for pri nter devi ces. PostScript i s also a reference to an Adobe stan-
dard i n text fonts.
POT 1. Abbrevi ati on for potenti ometer. Also known as a variable resis-
tor. Many electroni c control knobs are connected to vari able resi stors.
Vari able resi stors are usually made from carbon fi lm. For a photo and
schemati c symbol of a potenti ometer, see Variable Resistor. 2. Plain-
old telephone, a reference to standard swi tched resi denti al and busi ness
telephone li nes.
POT 523
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Potato ( slang) Another name for an aeri al servi ce-wi re spli ce. Also called
a football. For a photo, see Aerial Service-Wire Splice.
Potential A voltage di fference. Potenti al i s a voltage from one poi nt to
another. T he voltage potenti al of a POT S telephone li ne i s 52 volts from
ri ng to ti p.
Potentiometer (Pot) Also known as a variable resistor. Many control
knobs are connected to vari able resi stors. Most volume controls are vari -
able resi stors. For a photo and schemati c symbol of a potenti ometer, see
Variable Resistor.
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) A telephone li ne, wi th a tele-
phone number, li ke the standard ones subscri bed to by resi dences and
many small busi nesses.
Pound Key T he button on a telephone di al pad wi th the # on i t.
Power Current multi pli ed by voltage. Power i s measured i n watts. I f you
use a certai n amount of wattage over a certai n peri od of ti me, then you
have used energy. Energy i s equal to watts multi pli ed by ti me, and the
uni t i s j oules.
Power On Self Test (POST) A set of hardware di agnosti c i nstructi ons
( usually retri eved from ROM) that operates wi thi n routers and other
traffi c-management devi ces when they are fi rst turned on.
Power Supply A devi ce that converts 120-V or 220-V standard AC
power to a voltage that can be useful for an electroni c system.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) Also known as dial-up IP. PPP i s the
successor to SLI P that provi des router-to-router and host-to-network
connecti ons over synchronous and asynchronous ci rcui ts. Whereas
SLI P was desi gned to work wi th I P, PPP was desi gned to work wi th
several network-layer protocols, such as I P, I PX, and ARA. PPP also
has bui lt-i n securi ty mechani sms, such as CHAP and PAP. PPP reli es
on two protocols: LCP and NCP. See also CHAP, LCP, NCP, PAP, and
SLIP.
PPS (Packets per Second) I n LAN and WAN archi tectures, a standard
measure of transported traffi c over a peri od of ti me based on a 64-byte
packet. T hi s i s not an offi ci al standard as of the year 2001. T he si ze of
the packet vari es by several bytes dependi ng on the manufacturer and
type of equi pment. Some use packets as small as 60 bytes on networks
524 Potato
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speci fi cally confi gured to carry such traffi c. T he mi ni mum si ze for an
Ethernet packet i s 64 bytes. See also Runt and Giant.
PPSN (Public Packet-Switched Network) A reference to Frame
Relay.
PPSS (Public Packet-Switched Service) A reference to Frame
Relay.
PRAM (Parameter RAM) A small battery-powered uni t of RAM used
i n computers to store basi c user setti ngs, such as ti me and date.
Preamplifier An ampli fi er desi gned to ampli fy the voltage level of a very
small si gnal so that i t can be fed to a power ampli fi er, whi ch ampli fi es
the current aspect of the si gnal so that i t i s powerful enough to dri ve
the si gnal current through a loudspeaker or other devi ce.
Predictive Dialing Another term for auto di ali ng or progressi ve di ali ng.
I nstead of telemarketers di ali ng di gi ts through a li st or phone book all
day long, the numbers are entered i nto a predi cti ve di aler system. T he
system then di als the numbers; when a call i s answered the predi cti ve
di aler transfers the call and the associ ated i nformati on to the computer
screen of the appropri ate telemarketer.
Premises Equipment Also called CPE (Customer Premises Equip-
ment). Telephones, wi ri ng, answeri ng machi nes, CSU/DSUs, and any-
thi ng else you mi ght fi nd on the customer si de of the network i nter-
face.
Premises Wire T he wi ri ng on the customer si de of the communi cati ons
companys demarcati on poi nt ( NI , Network I nterface) . T he premi ses wi re
i s owned by the customer and i s the customers responsi bi li ty to mai n-
tai n ( Fi g. P.23) . Many communi cati ons compani es sell mai ntenance con-
tracts, whi ch enable them to troubleshoot and repai r the telephone wi re
wi thi n your home or busi ness, at no extra charge. Typi cal mai ntenance
contracts are about $2.00 per month.
Premises Wire 525
Telephone or CATV line Customer Owned Premises wire / IW
NI
Figure P.23 Premises Wiring is Separated from
Communications Company Wiring by a Network Interface
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 525
Prepaid Phone Card A card that comes wi th an 800/888 number that
the card owner di als to reach a network that allows them to di al any-
where they li ke ( Fi g. P.24) . T he servi ce i s good for the amount of ti me
that the prepai d phone card says on i ts face. Prepai d calli ng cards are
becomi ng bi gger and bi gger, especi ally because they dont cost much
more than thi rd-party bi lli ng to your home number when you are out of
town. Typi cal prepai d calli ng cards have a rate of 30 to 35 cents per
mi nute, flat rate, no matter when or where you call wi thi n the conti nental
U.S. T he way the system works i s that a calli ng card company sets up a
data base wi th card numbers i n i t and connects i t to a calli ng-card
platform. A calli ng-card platform i s a computer that recei ves a phone call
and prompts a caller to enter thei r calli ng-card number and the tele-
phone number that they wi sh to di al. T he calli ng-card platform then
checks the card number to see how many mi nutes i t has left on i t ( i t
someti mes tells the customer wi th a recorded message) . I f ti me left on
the card, the system then di als the number on an outgoi ng trunk to con-
nect the call. I n reali ty, two long-di stance calls are made, one to the call-
i ng card platform and one to the number bei ng di aled by the customer.
526 Prepaid Phone Card
Figure P.24 Prepaid Phone Card
Public telephone Network
Calling Card platform
Card Number
Data Base
DS1 circuits in DS1 circuits out
Customer
Called Number
Calling Card 800 Number
CALLING CARD
NETWORK
DIAGRAM
Prepay A reference to a coi n-operated telephone that requi res a coi n to
be i nserted before a number i s di aled.
Presentation Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n
general, the presentati on layer performs the functi on of encodi ng and
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 526
decodi ng the data to be transmi tted wi thi n the communi cati ons pro-
tocol. T he latest gui deli ne for communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI
(Open Systems Interconnect). I t i s the best model so far because all
of the functi ons work i ndependently of each other. For di agrams
relati ng to the OSI , see Open Systems Interconnection and OSI
Standards.
Pressure Cable Telephone cable that i s equi pped wi th ai r-pressure
equi pment. I n many cables, ni trogen i s used i nstead of ai r because i t i s
noncorrosi ve ( ai r contai ns humi di ty, whi ch corrodes copper pai rs) . Ni -
trogen i s pumped i nto the cable and the pressure i s moni tored. I f the
cable i s cut, the pressure drop noti fi es the telephone company of the ca-
ble problem and the ni trogen rushi ng out of the cable helps prevent any
water from enteri ng.
Presubscription When a customer calls a local telephone company and
orders a new phone li ne, they are asked whi ch long-di stance company
they would li ke to subscri be to. When the customer tells them, then the
telephone company sets the customers li ne up i n translati ons so that
when the customer di als 1 as a fi rst di gi t, they are connected di rectly to
the long-di stance company that they selected.
Prewire To i nstall standard wi ri ng i nto a bui ldi ng or space whi le i t i s be-
i ng constructed. Standard bui ldi ng wi ri ng i s that all wi ri ng from each
j ack termi nates to a common locati on, usually called the telephone
closet. Prewi ri ng of bui ldi ngs i s common for telephone and CAT 5 com-
puter LAN wi ri ng.
PRI (Primary Rate Interface) One of two ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) circuit sizes. I SDN fi rst evolved i n 1979. I t bri ngs the
features of PBX systems and hi gh-speed data-transfer capabi li ty to the
telephone network. T he only thi ng that compli cates I SDN i s the many
avai lable features. T he two ki nds of I SDN li nes are Pri mary Rate I nter-
face ( PRI ) and Basi c Rate I nterface ( BRI ) . I SDN has two types of chan-
nels wi thi n an I SDN ci rcui t. T he B ( bearer) channel carri es the cus-
tomers communi cati ons and the D ( data) channel provi des control and
si gnali ng for the B channels. T he BRI I SDN li ne has two B channels and
one D channel. A PRI has 23 B channels and one D channel.
T he separate control of the I SDN li ne over the D channel i s what en-
ables the broad flexi bi li ty and features avai lable wi th I SDN. When you
are talki ng or sendi ng a data transmi ssi on over an I SDN li ne, the voi ce
and/or data i s carri ed by the B channels. Whi le you are talki ng on your
I SDN li ne, you can sti ll di al di gi ts ( si gnal the central offi ce) to change
or alter the state of your servi ce because of the separate D channel. For
PRI (Primary Rate Interface) 527
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 527
example, i magi ne you want to arrange a meeti ng wi th a cli ent. You di al
the cli ents telephone number on your I SDN telephone to reach the cli ent.
Whi le you are speaki ng wi th the cli ent, you can di al up an I nternet ac-
cess on your computer and put two baseball ti ckets i n at the ti cket
counter whi le on the same BRI li ne. T hen you can fax your cli ent di -
recti ons by downloadi ng a map provi ded by the baseball ti cket offi ce,
di sconnect and redi al your cli ents fax number. All of thi s occurs whi le
talki ng to your cli ent the enti re ti me. T hrough the advanced conveni ence
and flexi bi li ty of I SDN, you can send di fferent types of data and mes-
sages to di fferent places at the stroke of a few buttons, and at a much
faster speed than a regular telephone li ne. I f you are i nterested i n I SDN,
call your local phone company. T hey can help you deci de on what ki nd
of termi nal adapter ( equi pment that connects your computer and phone
equi pment to the I SDN li ne) to buy and what ki nd of features to sub-
scri be to. I SDN i s not yet avai lable everywhere. For a di agram that com-
pares an I SDN BRI and I SDN PRI ci rcui t, see Integrated Services Dig-
ital Network.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI) See PRI.
Prime Line A key telephone system and hybri d key telephone system
feature. T he feature enables a user to select the li ne that a key system
connects to a telephone set to when the recei ver i s li fted. I f you dont
want people i n the offi ce usi ng the mai n telephone li ne i n the offi ce to
make outgoi ng calls, then dont select that li ne as a pri me li ne for any
of the telephone extensi ons.
Primitives T he I P layer i n the T CP/I P layer operates wi th the smallest
acti ons or i nstructi ons that can be i ni ti ated. T hese small-si ze acti ons are
called primitives. Some examples of standard I P pri mi ti ves are: Recei ve
Datagram, Send Datagram, Select Source Address, Fi nd Max Datagram
Si ze, Advi se on Deli very Success, Send I CMP ( I nternet Control Message
Protocol) message, and Recei ve I CMP Message.
Print Server A computer dedi cated to fi eldi ng, managi ng, and execut-
i ng ( or sendi ng for executi on) pri nt requests from other devi ces ( such
as servers or workstati ons) on i ts network.
Printed Circuit Board (PC Board) T he green- or brown-colored board
that has copper-conducti ve tracks etched onto i ts surface. Electroni c
components are soldered onto these boards by hand or by a method
called flow soldering. Some PC boards are layered or sandwi ched, wi th
conducti ve tracks i nsi de them and on both si des.
528 Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 528
Priority Ethernet Switching I n converged ( voi ce, vi deo, and data)
Ethernet envi ronments, a reference to the I EEE 802.1p standard for
pri ori ti zati on of LAN traffi c among Ethernet swi tches based on the swi tch
port, MAC address, or I P address associ ated wi th the communi cati ng end
appli ance ( be i t an I P phone, vi deo moni tor, host PC, pri nter, or server) .
Packets are tagged as belongi ng to a queue, whi ch determi nes the pri -
ori ty of the packet. By the 802.1p standard, queues 03 are normal and
47 are hi gh pri ori ty. 802.1p functi ons hand-i n-hand wi th 802.1Q or
VLANs.
Private Branch Exchange (PBX) A telephone system used to maxi -
mi ze use of telecommuni cati ons servi ces purchased from a telecommu-
ni cati ons company. A PBX si mply takes telephone li nes from the outsi de
world and makes them accessi ble to extensi ons wi thi n a certai n bui ld-
i ng, home, or offi ce. PBX systems are avai lable i n many si zes, wi th many
software and feature opti ons ( Fi gs. P.25 to P.27) . PBX features i nclude
call forwardi ng, speed di al, i nternal/external pagi ng, and call-detai l
recordi ng ( call accounti ng) . T he larger PBX manufacturers are AT & T,
Northern Telecom, Si emons, Toshi ba, I watsu, NEC, and Rolm. PBX sys-
tems have si x mai n parts: the cabi net-backplane ( also called a KSU, Key
Service Unit), the stati on/telephone connecti vi ty, the trunk/telco con-
necti vi ty, the power supply, the telephones/extensi ons, and the admi n-
i strati ve access.
Private Branch Exchange (PBX) 529
Figure P.25 A Definity G3 Private Branch Exchange,
Manufactured by Lucent Technologies
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 529
530 Private Branch Exchange (PBX)
Figure P.26 A Nortel Networks Meridian Option 81 Private Branch Exchange
Administration Terminal
PBX
Cabinet
66M150
Block
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
RJ-11
66M150
Block
66M150
Block Trunk
Interface
66M150
Block RJ21X
Telco
Demarcation
CDR Printer
SDI
66M150
Block
66M150
Block
Rectifier
Battery
Batteries
120 or 220
Volt AC
TELCO
LINES
TRUNKS
PBX SYSTEM DIAGRAM
Cross
Connects
Cross
Connects
STATION
CONNECTIVITY
EXTENSIONS
Figure P.27 Private Branch Exchange (PBX) Network Components
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 530
Private Branch Exchange (PBX) 531
Cabinet/KSU T he cabi net of the system contai ns the electroni cs that
make the PBX system work. T he backplane ( for a photo of a back-
plane see, Backplane) that i nterface cards plug i nto i s located here.
T he CPU or core processor ( for a photo, see CPU) i s located i n here
as well. Many PBX cabi nets are desi gned to allow for addi ti onal ci rcui t
cards ( trunk i nterfaces/trunk cards and telephone i nterfaces/stati on
cards) to be added or plugged i n later on as the system grows. T hese
spaces are called expansion slots.
Station-telephone connectivity T hi s wi ri ng runs from each offi ce
or telephone locati on to the locati on of the PBX cabi net. Four-pai r
wi ri ng i s most popular because i t i s i nexpensi ve and contai ns enough
wi re to add addi ti onal li nes or telephones i n the future ( or addi ti onal
wi re i f one or two should go bad) . T hi s wi ri ng i s i nstalled i n a home
run method, whi ch means that every wi re i nstalled runs di rectly
from a j ack ( usually an RJ-11) di rectly to the locati on of the PBX
cabi net. Next or near to the PBX cabi net, the i ndi vi dual pai rs are
neatly termi nated and labeled on 66M 150 or AT & T 110 ( one-ten)
blocks.
Trunk-telco connectivity T hi s i s si mi lar to the stati on connecti vi ty,
but i t needs to be separately labeled from the stati on connecti vi ty.
T hi s i s the poi nt where cross connects wi ll be run from the telephone-
company demarcati on ( or NI, Network Interface) to your PBX
system.
Power Supply T he power source for the phone system i s a very
i mportant consi derati on. I f the power i s i nterrupted, the PBX sys-
tem wi ll cease to functi on unless i ts power supply i s i ncorporated
wi th a UPS system or recti fi er/battery system. T he best way to go
for power i s the recti fi er wi th battery back-up ( a heavy-duty UPS
system especi ally desi gned for telephone equi pment) . Di fferent
PBX systems can be ordered to run on 120-V AC or 48-V DC. T he
48-V DC system i s desi gned to be powered by a recti fi er. T he
120-V AC system i s desi gned to run on standard outlet power or a
UPS system.
Telephones T he telephones for each i ndi vi dual PBX system wi ll work
only wi th that system. T hey wi ll not work i f they are plugged i nto a
regular telephone li ne. Each phone wi ll determi ne what features can
be i mplemented. T he features are enabled or di sabled by the pro-
grammi ng or admi ni strati on done on the PBX system. Some systems
have an i nterface (SDI, Serial Data Interface) for a computer or ter-
mi nal and some are si mply programmed by usi ng the telephone sta-
ti ons.
Administrative Access T he admi ni strati ve functi on of a PBX sys-
tem can be performed by the user or a telephone-equi pment servi ce
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 531
company. T he admi ni strati ve responsi bi li ti es of a PBX system i nclude
changi ng extensi on numbers, movi ng phones, changi ng name di splays,
and other programmi ng of the system. I t also i ncludes mai ntai ni ng the
Call-Detail Reports (CDR) of the system. T he call-detai l reports are
reports output by a call-accounti ng system, whi ch i s offered as an ex-
tra by vi rtually every PBX manufacturer. Call-detai l reports summa-
ri ze numbers di aled, length of calls, and i ncomi ng calls, caller I D, and
thei r durati on.
Private Carrier A telecommuni cati ons company not regulated by the
ruli ngs of the PUC; however, they are regulated by the Telecommuni ca-
ti ons Act of 1996.
Private Line Also called a leased line or leased circuit. A leased li ne
i s a telephone servi ce that i s permanently connected from one poi nt
to another ( Fi g. P.28) . Leased ci rcui ts i nclude 56 K analog and DS1.
A leased ci rcui t acts li ke a pi peli ne that carri es data from one poi nt
to another. I f you put a bi t i n one si de, the same bi t pops out on the
other si de. I t can carry data across town, across the country, or around
the world. Leased li nes are relati vely expensi ve. Because leased li nes
have been offered, new servi ces, such as frame-relay and swi tched 56
K servi ces have evolved. Frame relay does the same j ob as a pri vate
li ne, except that i t i s not i sochronous ( real ti me) , and you need a
pri vate li ne to put your frame-relay servi ce on. Frame relay i s a
cost-effecti ve soluti on for long-haul/long-di stance data-transfer appli -
cati ons.
532 Private Carrier
TELEPHONE
COMPANY
56K Analog Private-
Line Service
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
RJ45
RJ 45
Router
56K Analog Leased-Line/Private-
Line Application
Router
Figure P.28 Private Line
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 532
Private Signaling System 1 (PSS1) Better known as Q.SIG i n ci rcui t
and packet swi tched telephony ci rcles. T he Q.SI G protocol i s a vari ant
of I SDN D-channel voi ce si gnali ng. I t i s based on the I SDN Q.921 and
Q.931 standards and i s a worldwi de standard for PBX i nterconnecti on
( under ET SI and I SO) , although not all PBX systems and I P telephony
gateways support Q.SI G servi ces. PBX systems that are connected vi a
Q.SI G are able to share only the basi cs i n telephone operabi li ty. De-
pendi ng on the PBX systems that are li nked wi th Q.SI G, some advanced
features that are propri etary to the i ndi vi dual PBXs are lost when the
call connecti on departs that parti cular PBX, j ust the same as PBX fea-
tures are not supported across the PST N. Some features can be trans-
lated and retai ned, such as call forwardi ng or call transfer. Q.SI G i s most
commonly used to i ntegrate PBX systems across WAN li nks. Routers
that are Q.SI G enabled connect to the PBX on ei ther end, performi ng
I P, frame relay, T 1, among other requi red translati on servi ces. Q.SI G has
been a precursor to the newer voi ce over I P and I P telephony methods,
and the gateways used wi thi n these networks. See also IP Telephony
and Gateway.
Probe A M AC address fi ndi ng protocol developed by Hewlett-Packard
that works si mi lar to ARP. Probe i s a feature that i s compati ble wi th
and i ncorporated i nto many routers and layer 2 swi tches ( LAN
swi tches) i ncludi ng those that run CI SCO I OS. See also ARP and
RARP.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) Electroni c memory
comes i n two fami li es, ROM (Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Ran-
dom-Access Memory). M emory devi ces are made from two di fferent
technologi es: Bipolar (TTL) and MOS (Metal-Oxide Semiconduc-
tor). M emory i s stored by a techni que called wri ti ng and i s retri eved
by a techni que called readi ng. ROM devi ces can only be read and
are programmed duri ng manufacture. PROM devi ces can be pro-
grammed at a later date by an electroni cs reseller or electroni c
assembler for a speci al appli cati on usi ng speci al equi pment. Speci al
ROM devi ces called EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) can be electroni cally erased and re-used. RAM has read and
wri te capabi li ty.
T he term random access means that any memory address can be
read i n any order at any ti me. T he two types of RAM are stati c and
dynami c. Static RAM can hold i ts memory even when power i s
removed. Dynamic RAM needs constant power to refresh i ts
memory. For a di agram of the di fferent types of dynami c memory, see
Memory.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) 533
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 533
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) See Programmable
Read-Only Memory.
Prompt A message from a computer or i nteracti ve devi ce that i ndi cates
that i t i s ti me for a user to i nput a deci si on, choi ce, or other response.
Many PBX systems have software that i s a prompt response style of
programmi ng. For example, when the user i nputs extensi on 255, the
system responds wi th Hands Free? T he user then responds wi th YES
or NO.
Prompt, Response IO See Programming PBX.
Propagation Time T he ti me for an electri cal, opti cal, or radi o si gnal to
travel from one poi nt to another.
Propagation Velocity T he speed that a communi cati ons si gnal travels
from one poi nt to another. Electromagneti c waves ( radi o) , electri ci ty,
and li ght approach 300, 000, 000 meters per second, whi ch i s about
160, 000 mi les per second.
Proprietary Speci ally made. All PBX equi pment and other premi ses tele-
phone equi pment i s propri etary. Northern Telecom telephones wi ll only
work wi th Northern Telecom PBX systems. T he same goes for Lucent,
Mi tel, and other speci ali zed telephone equi pment manufacturers.
Protector Block A block that has many li ghtni ng protectors, used to
termi nate telephone cables ( Fi g. P.29) . A protector i s a devi ce used i n
telephone company network i nterfaces that provi des an easi er path for
li ghtni ng to travel to ground, compared to a telephone user or i nsi de
534 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
Figure P.29 Protector Block 2 Pair (Top) 1 Pair (Bottom)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 534
wi ri ng. Before li ghtni ng protectors, houses someti mes burned down be-
cause of li ghtni ng stri ki ng the telephone li nes. T he two types of li ght-
ni ng protectors are carbon and gas. T he carbon protectors are si mply a
pi ece of carbon that connects ti p and ri ng to ground. T he gas protectors
are the same, only they are a gas i nstead of soli d carbon. T he good thi ng
about gas li ghtni ng protectors i s that after they are hi t by li ghtni ng, they
do not need to be replaced.
Protocol T he organi zed processes and rules that communi cati ons equi p-
ment use to transfer bi ts and bytes ( data) . T he many communi cati ons
protocols and layers of protocols that carry other protocols ( called pro-
tocol stacks) , i nclude I SDN, Ethernet, token ri ng, POT S si gnali ng, DS1,
AT M, frame relay, and SONET.
Protocol Analyzer A test devi ce that can plug i nto a hub or communi -
cati ons port on a LAN and moni tor any address on that LAN at any pro-
tocol level ( Fi gs. P.30 and P.31) . Protocol analyzers are useful for veri -
fyi ng that an address i s good through a network. Most networks are not
so complex as to need a protocol analyzer to troubleshoot them.
Protocol Analyzer 535
Figure P.30 A Firebird 500 Protocol Analyzer, Manufactured by TTC
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 535
Protocol Converter A network devi ce or software that converts pack-
eted or framed data from one format to another. T hi s i s accompli shed
by recogni zi ng the i ni ti al packet or frame format, removi ng the data from
the packet or frame, and addi ng new frame or packet headers to the data
that are conformi ng to the new protocol. I n older network archi tectures,
protocol converters were an i ndi vi dual enti ty on a network that exi sted
as a devi ce or software. I n newer network archi tectures, routers and data
swi tches perform the protocol-conversi on functi on.
Protocol Data Unit Another vari ati on of the term Packet Data Unit
(PDU). See Packet Data Unit.
Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM Dense Mode/Sparse Mode)
I n Ethernet-type networks such as 802.3, multi cast i s made possi ble by
a set of communi cati ons procedures called PI M ( Protocol I ndependent
Multi cast) . A network can be confi gured to uti li ze PI M as one of two fea-
tures: PI M Dense Mode and PI M Sparse Mode. PI M Dense Mode floods a
network, sendi ng the packets that make up the transmi ssi on to every
devi ce on a network. Routers on the network then i denti fy whi ch users
respond to the multi cast flood, and then prune ( di sconti nue) packet trans-
mi ssi ons from devi ces that do not respond. T he advantage of PI M Dense
Mode i s that i ts operati on i s si mple to end users. T here i s no need for an
536 Protocol Converter
Figure P.31 A Network General Protocol Analyzer
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 536
advance request to start recei vi ng the transmi ssi on. I t appears to be au-
tomati c to the end user because i t i s. PI M Sparse Mode i ncorporates I GMP,
whi ch i s a si gnal for end users to request a multi cast packet stream. T he
advantage of thi s method i s that i n large networks, the i ni ti al flood i n PI M
Dense Mode never happens. T he transmi ssi on i s sent to a si ngle router
called a rendezvous point. T he rendezvous poi nt router then dupli cates
the packets to the necessary segments that have requested them. PI M
Sparse Mode i s a more effi ci ent use of a networks resources. T he draw-
back i s the need for requests to refresh the transmi ssi on.
Protocol Stack A set of related communi cati ons-control programs
( software) that work together and as a group. Each i ndi vi dual software
program i s called a protocol. A protocol stack can control communi -
cati on processes at some or all of the seven layers of the OSI reference
model. Not every protocol stack covers all layers of the model. Often,
a si ngle protocol i n the stack wi ll control a number of layers at once.
Some protocols wi thi n a stack exi st only to provi de servi ces or speci fi c
support functi ons for other protocols. T CP/I P i s a typi cal protocol stack
and ARP (Address-Resolution Protocol) i s one of the protocols wi thi n
that stack.
Protocol Translator A network devi ce or software that converts pack-
eted or framed data from one format to another. T hi s i s accompli shed
by recogni zi ng the i ni ti al packet or frame format, removi ng the data from
the packet or frame, and addi ng new frame or packet headers to the data
that are conformi ng to the new protocol. I n older network archi tectures,
protocol translators were an i ndi vi dual enti ty on a network that exi sted
as a devi ce or software. I n newer network archi tectures, routers and data
swi tches perform thi s functi on.
Provisioning A term that refers to the process of allocati ng copper pai rs,
central-offi ce ports/equi pment, and programmi ng of central-offi ce equi p-
ment. T hi s i s what happens before a telephone company network techni-
ci an i nstalls a telephone servi ce, such as a POT S li ne or a hi gh-capaci ty
di gi tal servi ce li ne.
Proxy An enti ty or devi ce that, i n the i nterest of effi ci ency, essenti ally
stands i n for another enti ty.
Proxy Address-Resolution Protocol A vari ati on of the Address-
Resolution Protocol (ARP) i n whi ch an i ntermedi ate devi ce ( for exam-
ple, a router) sends an ARP response on behalf of an end node to the
requesti ng host. Proxy ARP can lessen bandwi dth use on slow-speed
WAN li nks. See also Address-Resolution Protocol.
Proxy Address-Resolution Protocol 537
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 537
Proxy Server A network server that i s loaded wi th software and
equi pped wi th hardware to i nterface a LAN, MAN, or WAN to the I nter-
net. Proxy servers make up the hardware part of a fi rewall, whi ch i s soft-
ware that protects the LANs i nterworki ngs from bei ng accessed by
strangers/unwanteds/hackers on the outsi de. Although fi rewalls are ex-
pensi ve and abound everywhere, hackers sti ll manage to get through
them.
PSC (Public Service Commission) See Public Service Commission.
PSE (Packet Switch Exchange) Essenti ally, a data packet network ac-
cess or relay devi ce i n an X.25 network, such as the Nortel DPN100.
PSI 1. Pounds Per Square Inch, a uni t of ai r pressure. Telephone cables
( pulp-i nsulated cables) that are pressuri zed wi th ni trogen are kept at a
pressure of 10 to 15 PSI near the central offi ce. 2. Packet-Switching
Interface gi ves a customer a means to connect wi th a packet swi tchi ng
network, such as frame relay.
PSK (Phase-Shift Keying) See Phase-Shift Keying.
PSN (Packet Switching Network) A name someti mes used i n place of
Public Data Network (PDN). PSNs connect to users vi a X.25 or frame
relay. T he I nternet i s also a type of PSN usi ng T CP/I P packets.
PSS1 (Private Signaling System 1) Better known as Q.SIG i n ci r-
cui t and packet swi tched telephony ci rcles. T he Q.SI G protocol i s a
vari ant of I SDN D-channel voi ce si gnali ng. I t i s based on the I SDN
Q.921 and Q.931 standards and i s a worldwi de standard for PBX i n-
terconnecti on ori gi nally pi oneered by Si emens ( under ET SI and I SO) .
Not all PBX systems and I P telephony gateways support Q.SI G serv-
i ces. PBX systems that are connected vi a Q.SI G are only able to share
the basi cs i n telephone operabi li ty. Dependi ng on the PBX systems
that are li nked wi th Q.SI G, some advanced features that are propri -
etary to the i ndi vi dual PBX s are lost when the call connecti on departs
that parti cular PBX , j ust the same as PBX features are not supported
across the PST N. Some features can be translated and retai ned, such
as call forwardi ng, or call transfer. Q.SI G i s most commonly used to
i ntegrate PBX systems across WAN li nks. Routers that are Q.SI G
enabled connect to the PBX on ei ther end, performi ng I P, frame relay,
T 1, among other requi red translati on servi ces. Q.SI G has been a
precursor to the newer voi ce over I P and I P telephony methods and
the gateways used wi thi n these networks. See also IP Telephony and
Gateway.
538 Proxy Server
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 538
PTN (Public Telephone Network) Also called PSTN(Public Switched
Telephone Network) and PSN (Public Switched Network). T he tele-
phone network that we know today provi des us wi th an open-ended di al
tone, the abi li ty to di al a telephone anywhere we wi sh.
PTT (Post, Telephone, and Telegraph) T he general name for the com-
muni cati ons servi ce provi ders i n countri es that have not yet allowed thi s
servi ce to be controlled by a nongovernment agency or corporati on. PT Ts
are often extensi ons of the postal servi ce, where telecommuni cati ons
servi ce i s a branch from the ori gi nal letter-mai l and telegraphy servi ce.
South Ameri can and Afri can countri es commonly have a PT T agency,
rather than multi ple telephone compani es.
Public Address System (PA System) T here are di fferent types of PA
systems. Hi gh-fi deli ty PA systems are used i n studi o recordi ng and con-
cert producti ons and si mple systems are used for pagi ng/i ntercom and
loudspeaker systems. T he two mai n components of a PA system are the
ampli fi er and the speakers. Di fferent components can be attached to the
i nput of a PA system. T he PA ampli fi er i nput i s a hi gh-i mpedance ci rcui t
( thi s means that i t does not draw a lot of electri cal current from the
source, thus transferri ng maxi mum voltage) . Common source ( si gnal i n-
put) devi ces i nclude mi crophones, musi cal i nstruments ( electri c) , and
the pagi ng output of telephone systems ( Fi g. P.32) . I f an ampli fi er i s used
to dri ve external speakers ( rather than the ones i nsi de telephones) , then
i t i s called an external paging amplifier or PA amplifier.
T he questi on that most people have about PA ampli fi ers i s whi ch one
to buy. T he answer i s that the maj ori ty of the cost i n a pagi ng system i s
usually the wi ri ng and the speakers. Most pagi ng ampli fi ers are equi pped
wi th multi ple i nputs so that di fferent areas or zones can be paged
Public Address System (PA System) 539
COMMON PA SYSTEM
Z = 16 ohms
Signal input
16 16
16 16
paging output
for zone x
PA Amplifier
PBX
Figure P.32 Public-Address System (PA System)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 539
i ndi vi dually. T he factor that affects the pri ce of a PA ampli fi er the most
i s the power output rati ng. T he more power that an ampli fi er i s capable
of pushi ng through the speaker network, the more expensi ve i t i s. A good
general rule i s to allot 5 watts of RMS power per speaker i n an offi ce en-
vi ronment and 10 to 25 watts of RMS power per speaker i n an i ndustri al
envi ronment. T he cruci al factor i n desi gni ng the speaker network i s that
the i mpedance ( Z) of all the combi ned speakers matches ( or i s equal
to) the output i mpedance of the PA ampli fi er, whi ch i s usually 8 or 16 .
I f the i mpedance i s not matched, there i s a possi bi li ty of over worki ng
the ampli fi er and causi ng i t to fai l or havi ng a poor performance and
sound quali ty. Quali ty PA ampli fi ers/pagi ng ampli fi ers have i nstructi ons
on how to wi re and arrange the connecti ons of speakers. See the draw-
i ng for an example of how a 16- output ampli fi er i s matched wi th four
16 speakers.
Public Data Network (PDN) Also called PSDN (Packet-Switched Data
Network) or PSN (Packet-Switching Network), a reference to publi c-
network X.25 servi ces. T hi s type of servi ce, when avai lable, eli mi nates
the need for a pri vate li ne connecti on beyond the local telephone com-
pany, whi ch i s cost effi ci ent for users who send very li ttle data.
Public Service Commission (PSC) T he watchdog for the Publi c Uti l-
i ti es Commi ssi on. T he Publi c Uti li ti es Commi ssi on regulates the telecom-
muni cati ons compani es under federal j udgments ( whi ch change from
ti me to ti me) , and other uti li ty compani es. For a telecommuni cati ons
company to be regulated, i t must have a mi ni mum number of customers.
All the RBOCs are regulated by the PUCs of thei r area.
Public-Switched Digital Service A general name for swi tched 56 K
servi ce from a local or long-di stance telephone company.
Public Switched Network (PSN) Also called PTN (Public Telephone
Network) and PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network). T he tele-
phone network that provi des open-ended di al tone, the abi li ty to di al a
telephone anywhere we wi sh.
Public Utilities Commission (PUC) T he governi ng body of regulated
publi c uti li ty servi ce compani es and the Public Service Commission
(PSC) that watches over them. T he Publi c Uti li ti es Commi ssi on regu-
lates the telecommuni cati ons compani es under federal j udgments
( whi ch change from ti me to ti me) and other uti li ty compani es. For a
telecommuni cati ons company to be regulated, i t must have a mi ni mum
number of customers. All the RBOCs are regulated by the PUCs of thei r
area.
540 Public Data Network (PDN)
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 540
PUC (Public Utilities Commission) See Public Utilities Commission.
Pulling Strength A cable speci fi cati on. T he maxi mum pulli ng force that
can be appli ed to a strength member of a cable wi thout voi di ng the war-
ranty.
Pulp Cable Telephone cable used i n outsi de plant appli cati ons that uses
paper i nsulati on on the twi sted copper pai rs. T he other ki nd of wi dely
used cable i s pick cable, whi ch has color-coded plasti c-i nsulated pai rs.
For a photo of pulp-i nsulated cable, see Lead Jacket.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) See Fi g. P.33.
Punch-Down Block 541
THREE SIGNALS SAMPLED AND PLACED ON ONE CHANNEL WITH PAM
Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal One
Signal Two
Signal Three
PAM SIGNAL-
3 signals on
one channel
Figure P.33 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) See PCM.
Pulse Density See Ones Density.
Punch-Down Block A 66M150 block, AT & T 110 ( one ten) block, crone
block, or other wi re-termi nati ng devi ce. A punch-down block provi des
connecti ons to neatly connect and label wi res.
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 541
PVC 1. Permanent Virtual Circuit. A logi cal connecti on made between
two end-communi cati ng devi ces on a packet network. PVCs are set up by
usi ng Committed Information Rates (CIRs), as i n frame relay. 2. T he
substance wi th whi ch common telephone wi re i s i nsulated. PVC wi re i s
avai lable i n many colors. T he other more expensi ve opti on for telephone
wi ri ng i s Plenum. Plenum wi ri ng i s requi red i n many newer bui ldi ngs
because when i t burns, i t does not emi t poi son gasses ( PVC produces
chlori ne gas when burned) . Plenum wi ri ng i s made from polyvi nyli dene
di flouri de, and costs about three ti mes as much as PVC does.
PVDF (Polyvinyl Diflouride) Better known as plenum wi re.
PVDM (Packet Voice Data Module) I n Ci sco Systems I P telephony, a
reference to an add-on card that gi ves MRP ( Multi -servi ce Route Proces-
sor) cards more processi ng power for carryi ng voi ce, fax, and data. One
PVDM allows for four si multaneous channels. T he MRP i s an I CS7750
speci fi c card/module. T he I CS 7750 i s a compact, modular, mi dsi zed I P
telephony cabi net.
542 Punch-Down Tool
Figure P.34 Punch-Down Tool
Punch-Down Tool A tool that i s used to termi nate telephone wi res onto
punch-down blocks ( Fi g. P.34) .
PQ104-5056F-PP.qxd 2/9/01 2:22 PM Page 542
Q.920/Q.921 I T U-T speci fi cati ons for the I SDN UNI data-li nk layer. See
also UNI.
Q.922A I T U-T speci fi cati on for frame-relay encapsulati on.
Q.93B I T U-T speci fi cati on for si gnali ng to establi sh, mai ntai n, and clear
BI SDN network connecti ons. An evoluti on of I T U-T recommendati on
Q.931. See also Q.931.
Q.931 I T U-T speci fi cati on for si gnali ng to establi sh, mai ntai n, and clear
I SDN network connecti ons. See also Q.93B.
Q.SIG I n ci rcui t-based PBX telephony, Q.SI G i s also known as Pri vate
Si gnali ng System 1 ( PSS1) . T he Q.SI G protocol i s a vari ant of I SDN
D-channel voi ce si gnali ng. I t i s based on the I SDN Q.921 and Q.931 stan-
dards and i s a worldwi de standard for PBX i nterconnecti on ( under ET SI
and I SO) . Not all PBX systems and I P telephony gateways support Q.SI G
servi ces. PBX systems that are connected vi a Q.SI G are able to share
only the basi cs i n telephone operabi li ty. Dependi ng on the PBX systems
that are li nked wi th Q.SI G, some advanced features that are propri etary
to the i ndi vi dual PBXs are lost when the call connecti on departs that
parti cular PBX, j ust the same as PBX features are not supported across
the PST N. Some features can be translated and retai ned, such as call
forwardi ng or call transfer. Q.SI G i s most commonly used to i ntegrate
PBX systems across WAN li nks. Routers that are Q.SI G enabled connect
543
Q
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 543
to the PBX on ei ther end, performi ng I P, frame relay, T 1, among other
requi red translati on servi ces. Q.SI G has been a precursor to the newer
voi ce over I P and I P telephony methods, and the gateways used wi thi n
these networks. See also IP Telephony and Gateway.
Q Bit (Qualified Data Bit) A bi t i n the X.25 protocol that resi des i n
the data packet header ( wi thi n the X.25 frame) . I t i s the fi rst bi t i n the
three-byte header that i ndi cates whether or not data i s i ntended for the
end DT E ( i n whi ch case, the bi t i s set to 0) or X.29 i nstructi ons for a
PAD devi ce ( i n whi ch case, the bi t i s set to 1) .
QAM (Qaudrature Amplitude Modulation) A modulati on techni que
used for di gi tal si gnals. T he li ne format or transmi ssi on format ( for wi re-
less appli cati ons) i s analog ( Fi g. Q.1) . QAM i s a breedi ng of phase-
modulati on and ampli tude-modulati on. T he many di fferent vari ati ons of
QAM allow for extended constellati ons and formats thereof. Two si mple
QAM formats have 16 di fferent si gnals by usi ng four di fferent phase shi fts
and four di fferent ampli tudes, or ei ght di fferent phase shi fts and two di f-
ferent voltage levels. Both methods provi de four bi ts per baud. To con-
vert a di gi tal bi t stream to a QAM si gnal, the bi t stream i s accepted four
bi ts at a ti me. T hose bi ts are converted to a symbol, whi ch represents a
constellati on, or, more techni cally, a voltage level and phase shi ft. Wi th
four bi ts, there are 16 possi ble constellati ons. T hi s enables four bi ts to
be sent wi th one baud cycle. Some versi ons of QAM i ncorporate 256 con-
stellati ons, whi ch enables 16 bi ts to be transmi tted i n a si ngle baud cycle.
544 Q Bit (Qualified Data Bit)
ZERO PAD
INSERTS ZEROS
BETWEEN
SYMBOLS
ZERO PAD
INSERTS ZEROS
BETWEEN
SYMBOLS
PULSE SHAPE/
LEVEL FILTER
PULSE SHAPE/
LEVEL FILTER
SYMBOL
CONVERTER
CONVERTER/
MODULATOR
DIGITAL
SIN/COSINE
OSCILLATOR
PHASE
MODULATOR
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
+8V
-2V
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
RF
BIT STREAM IN
QAM SIGNAL OUT
BASIC QAM
MODULATOR
THE QAM PROCESS
BASE TIME
PHASES
BASE PHASE TIMING
Figure Q.1 QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 544


QCIF (Quarter Common Intermediate Format) A vi deo playback
format that speci fi es 144 li nes of lumi nance ( wi th 180 pi xels per li ne)
and 72 li nes of chromi nance i nformati on ( wi th 90 pi xels per li ne) . QCI F
provi des a better vi deo quali ty than CI F ( Common I ntermedi ate Format)
when the number of frames per second i s less than 3. T hi s format falls
under the operati on of H.261. See also H.261.
QLLC (Qualified Logical Link Control) A data-li nk layer protocol de-
fi ned by I BM that allows SNA data to be transported across X.25 networks.
QoS Enabled Switch ( Also called a Voi ce Enabled Swi tch.) A reference
to an Ethernet swi tchi ng devi ce that i s 802.1Q as well as 802.1p com-
pli ant that enables the devi ce to carry I P telephony traffi c. I P telephony
and VoI P are not compati ble wi th token ri ng networks.
QoS/Voice Enabled Router A router that i s QoS, MGCP, and H.323 en-
abled at mi ni mum that enables i t to carry voi ce traffi c i n an I P network
and/or translate i t to the PST N ( Publi c Telephone Network) . See also
MGCP, Gateway, H.323, WIC, and RTP.
Quad IW (Quad Inside Wire) Older standard telephone wi re used by
telephone compani es. Quad has four wi res, the colors are red, green,
black, and yellow. Some quad wi ri ng i s not twi sted, so i t i s suscepti ble
to RFI . T he colors for li ne one are green and red, and the colors for li ne
two are yellow and black.
Quad Lock Conduit Condui t that i s desi gned to be di rect buri ed
( Fi g. Q.2) . T he four i ndi vi dual condui ts allow communi cati ons compani es
Quad Lock Conduit 545
Figure Q.2 Quadlock Fiber-Optic Conduit
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 545
to lease condui t space to each other i n a way that i s easy to track for
fi ber-opti c cable i nstallers/spli cers, etc.
Quad Word I n computer memory, a word i s 16 bi ts, whi ch i s one data
uni t processed by the bus. Newer computers and other processi ng sys-
tems are bui lt wi th 32- and 64-bi t busses, whi ch gi ves them the abi li ty
to process double words ( 32 bi ts) and quad words ( 64 bi ts) .
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) A li ne-code method pri -
mari ly used i n twi sted-pai r telephony appli cati ons that i ncreases the
number of bi ts sent per baud ( li ne state) by representi ng multi ple bi ts
as a combi nati on of phase and ampli tude levels ( Fi g. Q.3) . See also QAM.
546 Quad Word
Figure Q.3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Quantizing Distortion A form of di storti on that can occur i n telecom-
muni cati on ci rcui try at the physi cal, data-li nk, or network level. I t i s a
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 546
result of a di gi tal si gnal bei ng corrupted to some degree, thus causi ng
an i mproper reproducti on of the ori gi nal audi o i n the di gi tal-to-analog
conversi on process. Quanti zi ng di storti on can cause a persons voi ce to
sound roboti c, delayed, or choppy duri ng a wi reless phone conversati on.
Quarter Common Intermediate Format (QCIF) A vi deo playback
format that speci fi es 144 li nes of lumi nance ( wi th 180 pi xels per li ne)
and 72 li nes of chromi nance i nformati on ( wi th 90 pi xels per li ne) . QCI F
provi des a better vi deo quali ty than CI F ( Common I ntermedi ate Format)
when the number of frames per second i s less than 3. T hi s format falls
under the operati on of H.261. See also H.261.
Query A name gi ven to a programmi ng stri ng that asks a questi on about
data i n a relati onal data base. Queri es are common i n call-accounti ng ap-
pli cati ons.
Query Language A programmi ng language desi gned for mani pulati ng
data i n data bases.
Queue 1. Queue i s a way of sayi ng waiting line i n telephony. T he two
types of queues are li ne queues ( very uncommon) and ACD (Automatic
Call Distribution System) call queues. Some telephone systems have a
feature called line queuing. I f you try to di al out and you cannot get an
outsi de li ne, you are put i n queue, or i n a wai ti ng li ne for the next avai l-
able trunk. Some systems can provi de musi c, as i f you were on hold for
the li ne and some can ri ng your phone back. T he other queui ng i s ACD
speci fi c. ACD systems place i ncomi ng calls i n queue for the next avai l-
able agent and evenly di stri bute calls among the agents so that the work-
load i s not unbalanced and sales opportuni ti es are fai r. 2. Generally, an
ordered li st of elements wai ti ng to be processed. 3. I n LAN and WAN
routi ng, a backlog of packets wai ti ng to be forwarded over a router i n-
terface. 4. I n a call center envi ronment, a vi rtual extensi on on a PBX
wi th condi ti onal treatments for calls routed to i t. 5. I n Ethernet swi tch-
i ng, a level of pri ori ty set for packets. See also Layer 4 Switching and
802.1p.
Queuing Delay I n LAN and WAN data transfers over X.25 and frame re-
lay, the amount of ti me that data must wai t before i t can be transmi tted
onto a stati sti cally multi plexed physi cal ci rcui t.
Quick Connect A name gi ven to 66M150 block and AT & T 110 ( one-ten)
block connecti vi ty.
Quick Connect 547
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 547
PQ104-5056F-PQ.qxd 2/9/01 2:24 PM Page 548
RA (Return Authorization) Also known as RMA (Return Material Au-
thorization) or RAN (Return Authorization Number). A reference
number i n the advance-replacement process. I f you recei ve a shi pment
from a di stri butor or manufacturer and a part i s defecti ve, you call the
di stri butor/manufacturer and they gi ve you an RA or RMA number to
place on the package when you send i t back to them. T hey, i n turn, send
you a replacement i mmedi ately.
Race Server A method of layer 7 networki ng. I n WAN networki ng or I n-
ternet appli cati ons, a router that i s equi pped wi th speci al software that
enables i t to measure the network di stance between two network servers
that provi de the same appli cati on. To provi de a user wi th the qui ckest
response ti me whi le usi ng an appli cati on, i t makes sense to have them
connect wi th the closest server. T he race server recei ves the i ni ti al re-
quest for connecti on and then creates a race request among multi ple
servers. T he server that responds the qui ckest i s the closest by factual
network performance, and gets the request packet forwarded to i t. T he
transacti on between end user and appropri ate server then takes place.
T he race server i s also called a boomerang server i n many networki ng
ci rcles because the packet request i ni ti ally starts out from the user i n
one di recti on, but comes back through the network from another di rec-
ti on.
Raceway A trough desi gnated for wi ri ng. Raceways can be i n cei li ngs, at-
tached to walls, or bui lt i nto floors.
549
R
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 549
Rack Also called relay rack. T he two standard di mensi ons of racks used
i n telephony and rack-mountable computer equi pment are 19 and 22
wi de. T he hei ght ranges from one to seven feet. Some racks can be at-
tached to walls ( wall mount) . Most racks are rated as zone 4, whi ch means
that they are desi gned to wi thstand earthquakes to a certai n degree.
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) Radar i s a means of detecti ng
obj ects wi thi n the vi ci ni ty of a radi o si gnal. Di fferent types of obj ects can
be detected, dependi ng on the frequency of radi o used. Radar works by
sendi ng a pulse from a transmi tter: the pulse travels outward, bounces
off obj ects, and i s returned to a recei ver. T he ti me di fference between
the pulses departure and arri val determi nes the di stance of the obj ect.
Any Doppler effect on the pulse determi nes the speed of the obj ect to-
ward ( or away from) the transmi tter.
Radar Detector Radar detectors are famous for thei r use i n speed-li mi t
enforcement i n the Uni ted States. Radar detectors use radar technology
to measure the Doppler effect of radi o si gnals that are sent from a trans-
mi tter, bounced off of a movi ng obj ect, then returned at a di fferent fre-
quency. T he movement of the obj ect compresses the radi o si gnal as the
two come i nto contact, thus i ncreasi ng the frequency.
Radio T he emi ssi on of electromagneti c radi ati on i nto the ai r, then pi ck-
i ng i t up wi th a recei ver. Electromagneti c radi ati on occurs when a mag-
neti c fi eld changes at the rate of a carri er frequency. T he magneti c fi eld
then traverses through the farthest reach of the magneti c fi eld, whi ch
could be many mi les. One determi ni ng factor i n the di stance that the
si gnal wi ll reach i s the transmi tti ng power. Broadcast radi o has a typi cal
output power of 15 to 100 kW ( 15, 000 to 100, 000 watts) and CB radi os
have an output power of 4 w. What makes the radi o si gnal carry a voi ce
or musi c i s called modulation. Modulati on i s the act of varyi ng a car-
ri er si gnal i n a way that can be sensed or detected by a radi o recei ver.
T hose vari ati ons are then ampli fi ed and run through a speaker so that
people can hear them.
Radio Common Carrier (RCC) A cellular/PCS servi ce provi der or pag-
i ng company. A company that provi des one-way ( pagi ng) or two-way
( mobi le phone) radi o servi ces to i ndi vi duals, rather than communi ti es.
Broadcast T V or radi o stati ons are not radi o common carri ers.
Radio Frequency (RF) Any electromagneti c frequency that i s above the
range of human heari ng. Most li censed radi o transmi ssi ons range from
500 kHz ( 500, 000 Hz) to 300 GHz ( 300, 000, 000, 000 Hz) .
550 Rack
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 550
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) Also called EMI (Electromag-
netic Interference). I nterference caused by a radi o si gnal or other mag-
neti c fi eld i nduci ng i tself onto a medi um ( twi sted/nontwi sted pai r wi re)
or devi ce ( telephone or other electroni cs) . T he world we li ve i n i s full
of radi o waves that are emi tted from electri c appli ances, such as
blenders, automobi le engi nes, transmi tters, and even fluorescent li ghts.
Even though we take preventati ve measures to avoi d recei vi ng these un-
wanted si gnals, they someti mes get i nto places they are not wanted. Elec-
tromagneti c i nterference i s usually caused by one of two thi ngs. T he fi rst
i s when a wi re connected to a devi ce acts li ke an antenna and pi cks up
the EMI , whi ch i s then passed on to the electroni cs i nsi de the devi ce
and ampli fi ed. T he second i s when an electroni c component i nsi de a de-
vi ce acts li ke an antenna because of poor desi gn, poor shi eldi ng, or the
component i s defecti ve.
Radio Modem A type of data-transmi ssi on devi ce that i s used where
leased telephone li nes are of ei ther poor quali ty, are unavai lable, or are
very expensi ve. T hey operate at frequenci es that range from 400 Hz to
2.4 GHz. T hey have a poi nt-to-poi nt range of three to 30 mi les, depend-
i ng on the weather of the regi on, the operati ng frequency, and the de-
si gn of the radi o ci rcui try. T hese types of modems have a net through-
put that ranges from 300 bps to more than 2 Mbps. More recently, thi s
communi cati ons soluti on has evolved to terrestri al mi crowave radi o,
whi ch also requi res li censi ng to operate. For more i nfo and an i llustra-
ti on, see Terrestrial Microwave.
Radome A cover for a radi o antenna, typi cally used i n publi c broadcast
appli cati ons.
RADSL (Rate-Adaptive DSL) A versi on of asymmetri cal di gi tal sub-
scri ber loop, where the modems test the li ne at start up and adapt thei r
operati ng speed to the fastest the li ne can handle. RADSL has a maxi -
mum downstream transfer rate of 9 Mbps and a maxi mum upstream rate
of 1 Mbps.
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) A hard-dri ve control
technology that i s i ntended for servers. RAI D li nks i ndi vi dual dri ves to-
gether, enabli ng them to act as one storage devi ce, or back each other
up vi a several di fferent storage schemes. One storage scheme i s di sk
stri pi ng, whi ch shares data among di sks, but does not provi de di sk-fai lure
protecti on. RAI D provi des fai lure and back-up through di sk mi rrori ng,
and multi ple stri pi ng dupli cate data to two of many di sks. T he four most
popular types of RAI D confi gurati ons are: RAI D Level 0, whi ch provi des
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) 551
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 551
data stri pi ng only; RAI D Level 1, whi ch provi des di sk Mi rrori ng; RAI D
Level 3, whi ch stri pes data and uses one di sk for error correcti on should
one of the others fai l; and RAI D Level 5, whi ch provi des for data stri pi ng
and stri pe error correcti on. T hus, RAI D Level 5 i s the best-performi ng
RAI D confi gurati on.
Rain Attenuation 1. T he degradati on of a radi o si gnal ( parti cularly i n
the mi crowave regi on) because of rai n. T he rai nfall average and densi ty
of the rai nfall i s the determi ni ng factor ( along wi th fog, whi ch attenu-
ates radi o much more severely) i n the di stance that a radi o ( mi crowave
li nk) can send a si gnal. Typi cal ranges for the dry cli mate regi ons of the
Uni ted States are as much as 6 mi les, and as li ttle as one mi le for the
wetter regi ons ( for a 7-watt transmi tter) . 2. A reference to the amount
a si gnal i s di mi ni shed or di storted by rai n. Except i n extreme condi ti ons,
attenuati on ( weakeni ng of the si gnal) due to rai n does not requi re seri -
ous consi derati on for frequenci es up to the range of 6 or 8 GHz. When
mi crowave frequenci es are at 9 GHz or hi gher, attenuati on due to rai n
becomes much more of a concern, especi ally i n areas where rai nfall i s
of hi gh densi ty and long durati on. I n cases where hi gher ranges of the
GHz spectrum i s i mplemented, shorter paths may be requi red. Wi reless
LAN equi pment desi gned for 802.11b poi nt-to-poi nt operates at fre-
quenci es lower than 6 GHz, so rai n i s not a concern. I n thi s frequency
range, fog i s generally consi dered to be the same as rai n. However, fog
can adversely effect the radi o li nk when i t i s accompani ed by atmos-
pheri c condi ti ons such as temperature i nversi on ( i .e., refracti on) . I t i s
always a good i dea to gai n the most clearance possi ble from the ground
and from other radi o paths.
Raised Floor Many computer and telecommuni cati ons rooms have a
rai sed floor. T he rai sed floor i s a very sturdy framework of i ron, wi th
heavy 1 i n. ti les placed i nto the framework. T he ti les are easi ly removed
and replaced wi th a sucti on cup. T he rai sed floor i s used as a gi ant duct
to move and run connecti ng cables through, and i t i s also used as an ai r-
way to pump cool ai r through the equi pment. I nstead of cooli ng a room,
cool ai r i s blown under the floor, where i t fi nds i ts way i nto the equi p-
ment through holes i n the floor. T he holes are cut i nto the floor when
the equi pment i s i nstalled.
RAM (Random-Access Memory) See Random-Access Memory.
Ram Hook/Ram Horn A hardware attachment used to hold ASW (Aer-
ial Service Wire) drop clamps i n aeri al-span appli cati ons ( Fi g. R.1) Ram
Horn ( left) Mast Clamp ( ri ght) .
552 Rain Attenuation
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Rambus D RAM (RDRAM) A newer dynami c random-access memory
technology that allows for far greater access speeds than the previ ously
popular SDRAM. At 600 MHz, RDRAM i s about si x ti mes faster than
SDRAM. T he package that RDRAM comes i n i s a small PC board li ke
SDRAM, only i t i s called a RIMM (Rambus In-Line Memory Module).
Rambus In-Line Memory Module (RIMM) T he package that RDRAM
comes i n. See Rambus D RAM.
RAMDAC (Random-Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter)
An i ntegrated ci rcui t that i s commonly i ncorporated i nto vi deo cards for
personal computers. T he RAMDAC converts di gi tal i mages i nto analog
vi deo si gnals that a moni tor can di splay.
RAN 1. Recorded Announcement, a term used i n I VR and ACD call-flow
analysi s. I f you li ke, you can call the recorded greeti ng on your answer-
i ng machi ne a RAN. For a photo of a di gi tal announcer that stores RAN
messages, see Digital Announcer. 2. Return Authorization Number,
also called RA (Return Authorization), or RMA (Return Material Au-
thorization). A reference number i n the advance-replacement process.
I f you recei ve a shi pment from a di stri butor or manufacturer and a part
i s defecti ve, you call the di stri butor/manufacturer and they gi ve you an
RA or RMA number to place on the package when you send i t back to
them. T hey, i n turn, send you a replacement i mmedi ately.
Random-Access Memory (RAM) Electroni c memory i s avai lable i n
two fami li es, ROM (Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Random-Access
Memory). Memory devi ces are made from two di fferent technologi es,
Bipolar (TTL) and MOS (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor). Memory i s
Random-Access Memory (RAM) 553
Figure R.1 Ram Hook/Ram Horn
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 553
stored by a techni que called writing and retri eved by a techni que called
reading. ROM devi ces can only be read and are programmed duri ng
manufacture. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) devi ces can
be programmed at a later date by an electroni cs reseller or electroni c
assembler for a speci al appli cati on usi ng speci al equi pment. Speci al ROM
devi ces called EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
can be electroni cally erased and reused. RAM has read and wri te capa-
bi li ty. T he term random access means that any memory address can be
read i n any order at any ti me. T he two types of RAM are stati c and dy-
nami c. Stati c RAM can hold i ts memory even when power i s removed.
Dynami c RAM needs constant power to refresh i ts memory. For a di a-
gram of the di fferent types of dynami c memory, see Memory.
RAS (Registration Admission and Status Protocol) I n I P telephony,
the protocol used between end poi nts and the gatekeeper to perform
network management functi ons, parti cularly i n bandwi dth management.
T he RAS si gnali ng functi on performs regi strati on, admi ssi ons, bandwi dth
changes, status, and di sengage procedures between the VoI P gateway
and the gatekeeper, whi ch i s often a router dedi cated to gatheri ng sta-
tus i nformati on from other routers i n a network.
Rate Adaptive A type of data protocol that i s capable of testi ng the tele-
phone ci rcui t for the fastest possi ble transmi ssi on rate, then transmi tti ng
at that rate. T hi s test i s done usi ng a pi ng packet si mi lar to that used
i n DSL ( Di gi tal Subscri ber Loop) . DSL i s a rate adapti ve protocol.
Rate-Adaptive ADSL (RADSL) A versi on of asymmetri cal di gi tal sub-
scri ber loop, where the modems test the li ne at start up and adapt thei r
operati ng speed to the fastest the li ne can handle. RADSL has a maxi -
mum downstream transfer rate of 9 Mbps and a maxi mum upstream rate
of 1 Mbps.
Rate Design A term that refers to the way uti li ty compani es fi gure a way
to charge money for thei r servi ces. Rates are desi gned to be affordable
for everyone ( PUC/PSC requi rement) . A good example of rate desi gn i s
the way that the telephone compani es charge extra money for busi ness
li nes to offset the costs of resi denti al li nes. How far the offset i s and how
much one rate i s subsi di zed for the other i s the rate desi gn.
Rate Elements T he i ndi vi dual charges and fees for a servi ce. For
i nstance, all of the rate elements are li sted on your phone bi ll: the local
servi ce charge, di al tone, 911 servi ce, etc. All of these parts of the
telephone company have been separated by the FCC and bi lled for sep-
arately by law.
554 RAS (Registration Admission and Status Protocol)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 554
Rate Queue I n AT M, a value associ ated wi th one or more vi rtual ci rcui ts
that defi nes the speed at whi ch an i ndi vi dual vi rtual ci rcui t transmi ts data
to the remote end. Each rate queue represents a porti on of the overall
bandwi dth avai lable on an AT M li nk. T he combi ned bandwi dth of all con-
fi gured rate queues should not exceed the total avai lable bandwi dth.
Rayleigh Fading Raylei gh Fadi ng i s a form of si gnal reducti on or loss
because of a recei ver pi cki ng up the same si gnal from multi ple di rec-
ti ons. T he si gnal commonly arri ves from multi ple di recti ons because of
reflecti ons from bui ldi ngs when there i s no li ne-of-si te path ( recei vi ng
reflecti ons of the same si gnal i s also referred to as multipath recep-
tion) . When the si gnals meet, they add or subtract each other, causi ng
an i rregular si gnal strength. Raylei gh fadi ng i s a common reason for
geographi cal dead spots i n cellular servi ce networks.
Rayleigh Scattering T he scatteri ng of li ght i n a fi ber-opti c cable because
of i mpuri ti es i n the glass of the fi ber. I t has a si mi lar effect to what a
lamp shade has on a li ght bulb, j ust not as drasti c.
RBOC (Regional Bell Operating Company) At the ti me of di vesti ture,
there were 22 BOCs, grouped i nto seven Regional Bell Operating Com-
panies (RBOCs). For a li sti ng of the BOCs and RBOCs, see Regional
Bell Operating Company.
RCA (Regional Calling Area) T he geographi cal area that a telephone
company serves.
RCA Connector A plug fi rst developed and used by RCA (Radio Corpo-
ration of America). T hese plugs are very common i n audi o- and vi deo-
patch appli cati ons. I f you have a CD player and a separate tuner/ampli fi er,
the cord that connects the two most li kely has RCA connectors ( Fi g. R.2) .
RCA Connector 555
Figure R.2 RCA Connector
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 555
RCC (Radio Common Carrier) A cellular/PCS servi ce provi der or pag-
i ng company. A company that i s i n the busi ness of provi di ng one-way
( pagi ng) or two-way ( mobi le phone) radi o servi ces to i ndi vi duals, rather
than communi ti es. Broadcast T V or radi o stati ons are not radi o common
carri ers.
RCDD (Registered Communications Distribution Designer) A well-
known i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by BICSI (Building
Industry Consulting Service International). T he RCDD certi fi cati on
i s desi gned to educate professi onals i n the area of physi cal network
di stri buti on, i ncludi ng twi sted pai r and opti cal medi a. T he RCDD i s
someti mes referred to as a BICSI ( pronounced bi k-see) certification.
More i nformati on can be found regardi ng BI CSI certi fi cati ons at
http://www.bicsi.org.
RCP (Remote Copy Protocol) A protocol that allows users to copy fi les
to and from a fi le system resi di ng on a remote host or server on the
network. T he RCP protocol uses T CP to ensure the reli able deli very of
data.
RDRAM (Rambus D RAM) A newer dynami c random-access mem-
ory technology that allows for far greater access speeds than the previ -
ously popular SDRAM. At 600 MHz, RDRAM i s about si x ti mes faster
than SDRAM. T he package that RDRAM comes i n i s a small PC board
li ke SDRAM, only i t i s called a RIMM (Rambus In-Line Memory
Module).
Reactance Reactance i s the resi stance that a component gi ves to an AC
or fluctuati ng DC current. T he two components that cause reactance are
i nductors ( coi ls) and capaci tors. ( Reactance i s also caused by other elec-
troni c condi ti ons where i t i s not useful. All wi re and electroni c compo-
nents possess a small amount of reacti ve properti es, e.g., twi sted-pai r
wi re causes si gnal attenuati on because of the i nductance of the copper
wi re and the capaci tance of the two adj acent wi res.) T he di fference be-
tween resi stance and reactance i s that resi stance i s always the same, re-
gardless of the voltage ampli tude or frequency appli ed to the resi sti ve
devi ce. T he reactance of a component changes along wi th frequency
changes, the speed at whi ch an AC current changes di recti on. T he hi gher
the frequency appli ed to an i nductor, the hi gher the reactance or re-
si stance to that frequency. T he reason that coi ls of wi re cause reactance
i s that as electri ci ty flows through them, they force the electri ci ty to cre-
ate a magneti c fi eld every ti me i t changes di recti on. A perfect i nductor
has zero reactance to a DC current, and has a speci fi c reactance or re-
si stance to every frequency of AC current. Each coi l ( i nductor) has a
556 RCC (Radio Common Carrier)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 556
value i n henri es. T he hi gher the number of henri es, the more i t wi ll re-
si st AC or fluctuati ng DC. Coi ls are used to fi lter out ( choke out) DC
fluctuati ons i n power suppli es. T hey are also used to help tune i n radi o
or other frequenci es.
Read-Only Memory (ROM) See Random-Access Memory.
Real Time A reference to the relati onshi p of events i n a communi cati ons
channel, machi ne, or PC. Real time means that the i nsi de of the ma-
chi ne i s synchroni zed wi th real-world ti me that you and I li ve i n.
Another word for thi s i s isochronous, whi ch means i n ti me. Newer
technology has changed thi s.
Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) An appli cati on-level protocol
desi gned to uti li ze T CP/I P to enable real-ti me communi cati ons over the
I nternet, such as voi ce over I P.
Rebiller A telephone company that buys a telephone servi ce from a fa-
ci li ti es based telephone company and resells i t. A rebi ller attempts to
add value to the ori gi nal long-di stance companys servi ce by provi di ng
better customer servi ce and customi zed techni cal experti se. T he rebi ller
gets a di scount from the ori gi nal long-di stance company, typi cally about
10% . Rebi lli ng i s also known as Type-III service, where all ci rcui ts ( tele-
phone li nes) are type I I I .
Rebooting To restart a computer by turni ng i t off and turni ng i t on agai n.
T he two ways to re-boot a computer are a hard boot and a soft boot.
Hard booti ng i s manually turni ng off the computer to force the mi cro-
processor to reset. Soft booti ng i s done by pressi ng Ctrl-Alt-Del at the
same ti me. T hi s di rect code sends a posi ti ve pulse to the reset of the
computer. However, i t wi ll someti mes not work i f the computers key-
board i s locked up wi th the rest of the components.
Receiver 1. T he part of a telephone handset that you talk i nto. T he
recei ver has a mi crophone i nsi de i t. 2. A radi o devi ce that i s con-
nected to an antenna and fi lters and detects carri er frequenci es and
si gnals modulated on them. For more i nformati on, see Modulation
and AGC.
Receiver Off Hook (ROH) T he condi ti on of a telephone set bei ng left
off the hook, wi th no numbers di aled, or left off the hook after a con-
versati on has been completed. T hi s causes the central offi ce to di scon-
nect the voltage from the telephone li ne, whi ch saves electri ci ty. When
the recei ver i s placed back on the hook, the telephone li ne does not
Receiver Off Hook (ROH) 557
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 557
become acti vated i nstantaneously. T he di al tone can take one to two mi n-
utes to return. ROH i s a common test result i n telephone company mech-
ani zed loop testi ng.
Recorded Announcement (RAN) 1. Recorded Announcement, a term
used i n I VR and ACD call-flow analysi s. I f you li ke, you can call the
recorded greeti ng on your answeri ng machi ne a RAN. 2. Return Au-
thorization Number, also called RMA (Return Material Authori-
zation) or RA (Return Authorization). A reference number i n the
advance-replacement process. I f you recei ve a shi pment from a di s-
tri butor or manufacturer and a part i s defecti ve, call the di stri butor/
manufacturer and they wi ll gi ve you an RA or RMA number to place on
the package when you send i t back. T hey, i n turn, send you a replace-
ment i mmedi ately.
Rectifier 1. A devi ce to convert AC power to DC power, also called a diode.
An electroni c semi conductor devi ce that, si mply put, only conducts elec-
tri ci ty i n one di recti on. Whether or not the devi ce conducts depends on
whi ch di recti on the devi ce i s bi ased. Di odes are used to change Alter-
nating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC). I f a more posi ti ve volt-
age i s appli ed to the anode lead of the di ode, then the di ode si mply acts
li ke a wi re. I f the more posi ti ve voltage i s appli ed to the cathode lead,
then i t acts li ke there i s no connecti on. T he followi ng i llustrati on shows
the schemati c symbols of the fi rst di ode, whi ch was a vacuum tube, and
a soli d-state si li con di ode. Fi gure R.3 i s a pai r of di odes converti ng AC
to DC. 2. A DC power source ( Fi g. R.4) .
558 Recorded Announcement (RAN)
A Vacuum Tube diode A Solid State diode
Anode
Anode Cathode
Heater Cathode
A simple one diode rectifier circuit, with a filter capacitor to eliminate DC fluctuations.
+55V DC output
rectifier diode
110V AC filter
peak to capacitor
peak
input
Figure R.3 Rectifier Schematic Diagrams
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 558
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) 559
Figure R.4 Rectifiers
Redundancy To have one mai n and one back-up. SONET equi pment i s
capable of bei ng confi gured i n a redundant manner, wi th two fi ber-opti c
routes ( i n a ri ng) and dupli cates of the electroni c cards that control the
communi cati ons transmi ssi on. Many PBX systems are capable of bei ng
confi gured wi th redundant CPU and memory cards. T he i dea behi nd re-
dundancy i s that i f one devi ce fai ls, the other wi ll take over, wi thout a
loss of servi ce.
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) A hard-dri ve control
technology that i s i ntended for servers. RAI D li nks i ndi vi dual dri ves to-
gether, enabli ng them to act as one storage devi ce, or back each other
up vi a several di fferent storage schemes. One storage scheme i s di sk
stri pi ng, whi ch shares data among di sks, but does not provi de di sk-fai lure
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 559
protecti on. RAI D provi des fai lure and back-up through di sk mi rrori ng, and
multi ple stri pi ng dupli cate data to two of many di sks. T he four most pop-
ular types of RAI D confi gurati ons are: RAI D Level 0, whi ch provi des data
stri pi ng only; RAI D Level 1, whi ch provi des di sk Mi rrori ng; RAI D Level
3, whi ch stri pes data and uses one di sk for error correcti on should one
of the others fai l; and RAI D Level 5, whi ch provi des for data stri pi ng and
stri pe error correcti on. T hus, RAI D Level 5 i s the best-performi ng RAI D
confi gurati on.
Reference Clock Also called a bits clock. A devi ce that provi des a ti m-
i ng pulse i n the form of a 1-0-1-0-1-0-1-0 bi t stream. Bi ts clocks are used
extensi vely i n SONET networks. T he bi ts clock provi des the ti mi ng pulse
that everythi ng i n the network synchroni zes i tself to.
Reflexive Access List An access li st desi gned to allow return traffi c
from the I nternet to pass a fi rewall to a server. T hi s prevents multi ple
securi ty log-i ns for every user data transacti on made i n a sessi on.
Refraction Refraction refers to the waveli ke nature of li ght. When li ght
travels from one medi a, such as ai r, i nto another medi a, such as water,
i t bends. T hi s i s why when you look i nto a swi mmi ng pool, the bottom
looks very di storted. Fi ber-opti c technology i s based on the fact that li ght
refracts ( or bends) as i t travels from one medi a to the next. A si ngle
fi ber-opti c strand consi sts of many di fferent ki nds of glass. T he core i s
one ki nd and the claddi ng consi sts of many layers of glass that have di f-
ferent levels of refracti on and cause li ght to gradually refract or bend
back to the center as i t travels down the fi ber. A ray of li ght refracti ng
as i t passes through materi als of di fferent refracti ve i ndexes i s i llustrated
i n Fi g. R.5.
560 Reference Clock
Light Ray
Refracted Light Ray
Figure R.5 A Light Beam Refracted by Materials of Different Refractive Indexes
Refractive Index T he refracti ve i ndex of a materi al refers to how much
li ght refracts ( bends) when i t travels from a vacuum i nto the materi al at
an angle. For a di agram and more detai ls, see Refraction.
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 560
Refurbished Electroni c equi pment that has been repai red and cleaned,
or remanufactured.
Regenerator Also known as a repeater. A devi ce that i s used to take a
si gnal that has traveled a long di stance and make i t new agai n. Repeaters
can be coi ls of wi re, whi ch are used i n the publi c telephone network for
voi ce ( POT S) li nes, or they can be electroni c, taki ng an electroni c si g-
nal that has been attenuated over a long di stance, reproduci ng i t, then
retransmi tti ng i t.
Regional Bell Operating Company (RBOC) At the ti me of di vesti ture,
the 22 BOCs were grouped i nto seven Regional Bell Operating Com-
panies (RBOCs):
BOCs: Bell Telephone Company of Nevada, I lli noi s Bell Telephone
Company, I ndi ana Bell Telephone Company, Mi chi gan Bell Telephone
Company, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, US West
Communi cati ons Company, South Central Bell Telephone Company,
Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company, Ci nci nnati Bell Com-
pany, Mountai n Bell Telephone Company, Mountai n States Telephone and
Telegraph Company, Southwestern Bell Telephone Company, T he Chesa-
peake and Potomac Telephone Company of Maryland, T he Bell Tele-
phone Company of Pennsylvani a, T he Chesapeake and Potomac Tele-
phone Company of Vi rgi ni a, T he Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone
Company of West Vi rgi ni a, T he Di amond State Telephone Company, T he
Ohi o Bell Telephone Company, T he Paci fi c Telephone and Telegraph
Company, New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, Wi sconsi n Telephone
Company
RBOCs: Ameri tech, Bell Atlanti c, Bell South, NYNEX, Paci fi c Telesi s,
Southwestern Bell, US West
Register Also called a shift register. An electroni c ci rcui t used for tem-
porari ly stori ng memory i n a seri al format ( Fi g. R.6) . Shi ft regi sters are
commonly used i n the seri al-to-parallel conversi on for data transmi ssi on.
Bi ts are clocked i nto the regi ster one at a ti me, then clocked out to thei r
desti nati on when they are needed. Each memory segment of a regi ster
i s typi cally an RS ( Reset-Set) fli p-flop.
Registered Communications Distribution Designer (RCDD) A well-
known i ndustry certi fi cati on/trai ni ng program offered by BICSI (Building
Industry Consulting Service International). T he RCDD certi fi cati on i s
desi gned to educate professi onals i n the area of physi cal network di stri bu-
ti on, i ncludi ng twi sted pai r and opti cal medi a. T he RCDD i s someti mes re-
ferred to as a BICSI ( pronounced bi k-see) certification. More i nforma-
ti on can be found regardi ng BI CSI certi fi cati ons at http://www.bicsi.org.
Registered Communications Distribution Designer (RCDD) 561
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 561
Registered Terminal Equipment Any li ne or telephone servi ce that i s
i nstalled by a telephone company i s termi nated to regi stered termi nal
equi pment. T he di fferent levels of regi stered equi pment are as si mple as
an RJ45 ( Regi stered Jack 45) or as compli cated as a DSX hand-off poi nt
i n a colocati on.
Registration Admission and Status Protocol (RAS) I n I P tele-
phony, the protocol used between end poi nts and the gatekeeper to
perform network management functi ons, parti cularly i n bandwi dth
management. T he RAS si gnali ng functi on performs regi strati on, ad-
mi ssi ons, bandwi dth changes, status, and di sengage procedures be-
tween the VoI P gateway and the gatekeeper, whi ch i s often a router
dedi cated to gatheri ng status i nformati on from other routers i n a net-
work.
Registration Jack (RJ) T he prefi x to many telephone company con-
necti on and i nterface standards.
Regulation, Power A devi ce that takes an unstable power source, such
as publi c uti li ty power, and reproduces the voltage/amperage wi th elec-
troni cs. T he electroni cs i n a power regulator are a controlled envi ron-
ment that produces the desi red power si gnal. T he street power provi des
the energy for the devi ce ( power regulator) to do thi s.
562 Registered Terminal Equipment
Bits to be stored
1 1 0 1
1
st
clock pulse
2
nd
clock pulse
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0
1 1
3
rd
clock pulse
1 0 1 0 1
4
th
clock pulse
1 1 0 1
Retrieved When Needed, or
Used for Serial to Parallel
Conversion
Parallel to Serial Conversion
Figure R.6 Functional Diagram of a Shift Register
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 562
Regulation, Telco T he RBOCs, CLECs, long-di stance compani es, and
competi ti ve-access provi ders are all regulated by the Public Utilities
Commissions (PUC) of thei r respecti ve areas i n some fashi on. T he Bell
compani es are heavi ly regulated to a di sadvantage to enable new
telephone compani es to become establi shed. One of those di sadvantages
i s that they are forced to charge hi gher rates for thei r servi ces i n
competi ti ve areas. T hi s allows the new compani es to attract customers
wi th a pri ce advantage. Many new compani es do not take advantage of
the pri ce regulati on, because thei r networki ng equi pment i s of latest
technology ( SONET 100% , i n many cases) , whi ch therefore carri es a
hi gher value to customers. Competitive Local Exchange Carriers
(CLECs) become regulated for pri ci ng when they reach a certai n num-
ber of customers or percentage of market share. All communi cati ons
compani es, new and old, must demonstrate to the PUC that they are ca-
pable and wi lli ng to provi de acceptable servi ce to the publi c.
Relational Data Base A data-base appli cati on ( software program) that
tracks data, based on relati onshi ps. I t works very si mi lar to a manual
paper-fi li ng system, wi th di fferent categori es and cross references. A
good example i s: T here are many houses. Each house has many ( one or
more) resi dents. I f a data base were created for thi s, each house would
be li sted and people would be related to the house. People make many
telephone calls. T he calls people make can be related to the people that
make them. T he way that a computer program would thi nk, i f queri ed,
to fi nd every person that di aled the phone number 1-602-555-1212, i s as
follows. I t would scan through the data base and, as i t found the phone
number, i t would li st the relati onal i tems to i t. More si mply stated, i t
would li st every person and house that di aled that phone number.
Relay An electromechani cal swi tch ( Fi g. R.7) . Relays are used i n electroni c
and electri cal ci rcui ts as swi tches. A relay consi sts of a coi l of wi re wrapped
around a thi n cyli ndri cal-shaped pi ece of i ron, called a core. When elec-
tri ci ty flows through the coi l, i t magneti zes the core, whi ch i s close to a
pai r of electri cal contacts. T he magneti c fi eld attracts one of the contacts
to move and make a connecti on. A popular appli cati on for relays i s be-
tween a small voltage to run a swi tch that connects a very large voltage.
T hi s i s why you can start the motor i n a large truck wi th a small keyed
swi tch. T he key appli es voltage to a relay, whi ch, i n turn, connects a large
contact from the battery to the starter of the motor. Relays were used i n
old central offi ces ( some sti ll i n servi ce) , called stepper switches. By di -
ali ng a rotary phone, you mani pulated a vast network of relays and logi c
ci rcui ts to connect your call. Today, relays have been replaced wi th tran-
si stors; i n large or heavi er appli cati ons, they have been replaced wi th semi-
conductor devi ces called SCRs (Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers). However,
Relay 563
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 563
564 Relay Rack
Figure R.7 Mechanical Relay Switch
electromechani cal relays sti ll have the speci al abi li ty to physi cally i solate
one voltage or devi ce from another. T hey are sti ll used i n hi gher-end home-
audi o equi pment, where i f you turn down the volume, then turn on your
stereo, after a short pause, you wi ll hear a cli ck. T hat cli ck i s a relay
connecti ng the output si gnal voltage to your speakers.
Relay Rack Large racks that got thei r names from a ti me when they were
used as a mounti ng platform for electromechani cal relay ci rcui ts i n tele-
phone central offi ces. T hei r standard si ze i s 7 feet tall by 22 i nches wi de
( Fi g. R.8) . Relay racks are avai lable i n a 19-i nch wi de si ze as well.
Remote Call Forward A feature of PBX systems that enables users/
subscri bers to make calls di aled to thei r telephone ri ng to a di fferent tele-
phone of thei r choi ce and acti vate the feature from a di fferent phone. When
a user wants to acti vate the feature, they can di al a feature code, di al thei r
extensi on, then di al the extensi on that they would li ke thei r calls to ri ng
on. T he great thi ng about thi s feature i s that i f you are i n a meeti ng, you
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 564
can pi ck up a phone and forward the phone i n your offi ce to another co-
worker or anywhere else wi thi n the PBX system. Some systems allow you
to forward your extensi on to an off-premi ses telephone number, such as
your home. I n thi s case, you can work out of your home, and not mi ss any
calls comi ng to your extensi on because they wi ll ri ng di rectly to you.
Remote Call Forward 565
Figure R.8 Relay Rack (22 Inches by 7 Feet)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 565
Remote Mini-Fiber Node A devi ce used i n the outsi de plant porti on of
cable telephony networks to convert li ght si gnals to RF electri cal si gnals
( Fi g. R.9) . Mi ni -fi ber nodes can be made to be pole mounted or can be
placed i n hand holes/cable vaults. Because cable-T V networks are far
spread and rural, fi ber opti c i s a necessi ty i n extendi ng the bandwi dth
requi red to areas di stant from head ends. T he mi ni -fi ber node provi des
the means for thi s extensi on.
566 Remote Mini-Fiber Node
Figure R.9 Remote Mini-Fiber Node
Remote Order Wire A telephone li ne that i s used to moni tor an elec-
troni c system. A di al-up mai ntenance li ne for a server or mai nframe i s
an order wi re.
Remote Shell (RSH) 1. A UNI X operati ng system level of access. See
also C-Shell and Root. 2. Remote Shell Protocol. I t i s referred to as
R-shell from the si mi lari ti es i n the UNI X command set. An appli cati on
or subprotocol that allows a user to execute commands on a remote sys-
tem wi thout havi ng to log i nto the system. For example, rsh, along wi th
a password ( i f the network OS supports passwords) , can be used to re-
motely exami ne the status of network devi ces wi thout connecti ng to each
communi cati on server, executi ng the command, and then di sconnecti ng
from the communi cati on server.
REPACCS (Remote Cable-Pair Cross-Connect System) A remote-
controlled/automated cross box. A less-sophi sti cated DCS (Digital
Cross-Connect System). I n certai n areas of ci ti es that are hazardous for
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 566
telco workers, REPACCS systems are i mplemented so that F1 and F2
cable pai rs can be cross connected remotely.
Repeater Also known as a regenerator. A devi ce that i s used to take a
si gnal that has traveled a long di stance and make i t new agai n. Repeaters
can be coi ls of wi re, whi ch are used i n the publi c telephone network for
voi ce ( POT S) li nes or they can be electroni c, taki ng an electroni c si gnal
that has been attenuated over a long di stance, reproduci ng i t, then re-
transmi tti ng i t. T he repeater closure i llustrated i n Fi g. R.10 i s an elec-
troni c ( acti ve) repeater ( ri ght) .
Repeater 567
Figure R.10 Repeater Closure (Left) and Splice Pedestal (Right)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 567
Repeater Coil A radi o-type transformer that i s used to ampli fy voi ce si g-
nals on copper twi sted-pai r telephone wi res. Repeater coi ls have a typ-
i cal i nductance value of 33 mH and are placed every 3000 to 5000
feet.
Request To Send (RTS) 1. After a modem recei ves a CD (Carrier De-
tect) si gnal from another modem, the next step i s to send some data.
Before i t sends data, i t sends an RTS (Request To Send). After i t re-
cei ves a CTS (Clear To Send) from the far-end modem, i t begi ns send-
i ng data. 2. A control si gnal that has a dedi cated wi re i n the RS-232
protocol. When the far devi ce places a logi c one or 5-V voltage on thi s
wi re, i t enables the near modem to i ni ti ate a transmi ssi on.
Rerouting To change the physi cal path or medi um of a communi cati ons
si gnal. Rerouti ng i s a part of SHARP (Self-Healing Alternate-Route Pro-
tection) servi ce from telephone compani es over thei r SONET networks.
I f a cable i s cut, the electroni c equi pment reroutes the transmi ssi on wi th
very li ttle or no i nterrupti on i n servi ce. I f you are talki ng on a voi ce li ne
whi le a fi ber i s cut on a SONET ri ng network that i s very busy and fully
uti li zed, you mi ght hear a very li ght cli ck sound.
Resale Carrier A long-di stance company that leases long-di stance faci l-
i ti es and sells servi ce on them. Spri nt and MCI are resellers i n some ar-
eas; i n some areas, they have thei r own swi tches, fi ber-opti c li nes, and
mi crowave equi pment. I n those areas, they are faci li ti es-based carri ers.
Reseller Also called an aggregator. A long-di stance or cellular/PCS re-
seller. T hey si gn up wi th a long-di stance company as a reseller and all
thei r customers are aggregated together for a bulk di scount. T he long-
di stance or cellular company provi des the servi ce and does the bi lli ng.
T he advantage to the long-di stance company i s that they have more peo-
ple pushi ng thei r long di stance. T he advantage to the customer i s the
value-added servi ce and personal consulti ng of the aggregator.
Reset See Rebooting.
Resistance T he uni t of resi stance i s the ohm, abbrevi ated/represented
by the Greek letter omega ( ) . Resi stance i s j ust what i ts name depi cts,
resi stance to electri c current flow. A 100-W 120-V household li ght bulb
has about one ohm of resi stance. T he more resi stance i n a ci rcui t, the
less current i s allowed to pass through i t.
Resistor An electroni c component/semi conductor usually made from
carbon ( Fi g. R.11) . Resi stors are usually used to li mi t current flow
568 Repeater Coil
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 568
through a ci rcui t or create RC/RL ( resi stor-capaci tor/resi stor-i nductor)
frequency fi lters.
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 569
Figure R.11 Carbon Resistors
Resistor Color Code See Appendix F. Resi stors have four color bands.
T hey are regarded to as the fi rst, second, thi rd, and fourth bands. T he
fi rst band i s the closest to one si de of the resi stor and the followi ng bands
count to the i nsi de. T he fi rst band i ndi cates the fi rst i nteger of the value
of resi stance. T he second band i ndi cates the second i nteger of the value
of resi stance. T he thi rd band i ndi cates a multi pli er or number of zeros
to be placed after the fi rst two band numbers.
Resonance A ci rcui t i s resonant i f the i nducti ve reactance and capaci -
ti ve reactance are equal. T hi s condi ti on occurs for all i nductor/capaci tor
ci rcui ts. T he frequency at whi ch the resonance happens i s determi ned
by the value i n mH of the coi l and the value of the capaci tor i n F.
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 1. A transport-layer protocol
that i s i ntended to provi de quali ty-of-servi ce transmi ssi on levels i n con-
j uncti on wi th T CP/I P over the I nternet. T he RSVP protocol makes the
sender of data responsi ble for noti fyi ng the recei ver that a call i s to be
made ( or data to be sent) and what QOS (Quality of Service) wi ll be
needed. T he responsi bi li ty of selecti ng the resources or path by whi ch
the transmi ssi on wi ll take i s gi ven to the recei ver or called party. RSVP
i s modeled to work wi th I Pv6 and I Pv4. 2. I n I P telephony and I P vi deo,
a protocol that enables QoS features to provi de a reserved amount of
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 569
throughput to meet the requi rements of a real-ti me appli cati on, such as
a li ve voi ce or vi deo stream.
Retrofit To make older equi pment work wi th newer equi pment. Retro-
fit i s a term commonly used among telephone company network tech-
ni ci ans i n reference to upgradi ng telephone equi pment.
Return Authorization Number (RAN) See RAN.
Return to Zero (RZ) A transmi ssi on format where each posi ti ve bi t re-
turns or drops to a zero value duri ng i ts ti mi ng peri od. T he drop-to-zero
format assi sts i n ti mi ng/synchroni zi ng of the transmi ssi on si gnal.
Reverse Battery Supervision A form of answer supervi si on. An i n-band
si gnali ng method, i f a telephone call goes from one central offi ce to an-
other ( or PBX) , the ori gi nati ng central offi ce needs to know when the
call has been answered so that a bi lli ng cycle can begi n. T he termi nat-
i ng central offi ce bri efly reverses the voltage on the connecti ng trunk
li ne as a si gnal.
Reverse Channel Also called a backward channel. T he channel that
flows upstream i n an asymmetri cal ( uneven) transmi ssi on. An asym-
metri cal communi cati ons transmi ssi on that i s characteri zed by one di -
recti on bei ng very fast, compared to the other. Cable-T V i s an example
of asymmetri cal communi cati on. T he cable-T V head end sends massi ve
amounts of vi deo and audi o i nformati on down a coax one way and the
cable-T V set-top decoder boxes send small amounts of I D and status i n-
formati on the other way back to the head end over the same coaxi al con-
necti on. Someti mes asymmetri cal channels are referred to as upstream
for the slow channel and downstream for the fast channel, or forward
for the fast channel and backward for the slow channel.
RF (Radio Frequency) Any electromagneti c frequency that i s above the
range of human heari ng. Most li censed radi o frequency transmi ssi ons
range from 500 kHz ( 500, 000 Hz) to 300 GHz ( 300, 000, 000, 000 Hz) .
RF Choke A coi l of wi re that fi lters out hi gh frequenci es ( Fi g. R.12) .
RF Splitter Used to make a j uncti on poi nt or spli t a si gnal so that i t wi ll
travel down multi ple paths over coax. Also called a splitter and UHF/VHF
splitter. Fi gure R.13 shows a four-way spli tter.
RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) See Radio Frequency Inter-
ference.
570 Retrofit
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 570
RFI (Radio Frequency Interference) 571
Figure R.13 UHF/VHF Four-Way RF Splitter
Figure R.12 Radio Frequency (RF) Suppressor
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 571
RFP (Request For Proposal) Also called RFQ (Request For Quota-
tion). A formal i nvi tati on that a company or i ndi vi dual gi ves to other i n-
di vi duals or compani es, to bi d or pri ce a servi ce.
RFQ (Request For Quotation) See RFP.
RG-8 A type of coaxi al cable that has a transmi ssi on i mpedance of 50 ohms.
For more i nformati on on di fferent types of coaxi al cable, see Coax and
Characteristic Impedance. For a photo of RG-8, see DIN Connector.
RG-58 A type of coaxi al cable that has a transmi ssi on i mpedance of 50 .
I t i s used pri mari ly i n LAN appli cati ons and wi red i n a bus physi cal topol-
ogy. For more i nformati on on di fferent types of coaxi al cable, see Coax
and Characteristic Impedance.
RG-59 A type of coaxi al cable desi gned for televi si on antenna use that
has an i mpedance of 75 ohms. For more i nformati on on di fferent types
of coaxi al cable, see Coax and Characteristic Impedance.
RG-62 A type of coaxi al cable wi th a transmi ssi on i mpedance of 93 ohms.
I t i s pri mari ly used i n LAN appli cati ons and wi red i n a bus physi cal topol-
ogy. ARCnet uti li zes RG-62 as i ts transmi ssi on medi a. For more i nfor-
mati on on di fferent types of coaxi al cable, see Coax and Characteris-
tic Impedance.
RG-U T he mi li tary desi gnati on for general-use coaxi al cable.
RI (Ring Indicator) An i ndi cator on a modem that i ndi cates that a ri ng
voltage ( 90 volts AC) i s present on the telephone li ne to whi ch i t i s con-
nected.
RIF (Routing Information Field) I n token ri ng LAN bri dgi ng, a part
of the token ri ng frame header ( I EEE 802.5) that contai ns ri ng number
and bri dge/router number.
RIMM (Rambus In-Line Memory Module) T he package that RDRAM
comes i n. See Rambus D RAM.
Ring One wi re i n a POT S telephone li ne. T he ri ng si de of the li ne i s usu-
ally marked red when termi nated and carri es the 90V AC ri ng-voltage
si gnal that makes the telephone ri ng.
Ring Banding Some pi c cable comes wi th no ri ng bandi ng, whi ch means
that the color code i s determi ned by two wi res twi sted together ( e.g., a
572 RFP (Request For Proposal)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 572
whi te and a blue) . Ri ng-banded cable comes wi th color ri ngs pai nted
around each wi re, and the same twi sted pai r li sted before would be
whi te/blue bands and blue/whi te bands.
Ring Cycle T he ri ng cycle for a North Ameri can POT S telephone li ne i s
two seconds of ri ngi ng, then four of qui et. Ri ngi ng cycles vary through-
out the world.
Ring-Down Box Used i n bui ldi ng ri ng-down ci rcui ts. A devi ce that you
put on each end of a copper twi sted pai r that provi des battery and ri ng
voltages that a central offi ce would. However, no di ali ng i s i nvolved. When
you pi ck up one phone, the one on the other end automati cally ri ngs.
When the ri ngi ng phone i s pi cked up, the li nes are connected together
wi th a talk battery and people can talk on both ends, j ust li ke a normal
telephone call. Tellabs manufactures a wi de vari ety of ri ng-down devi ces.
Ring-Down Circuit A si mple telephone li ne that i s made usi ng ri ng down
boxes. See Ring-Down Box.
Ring Generator A ri ng generator i s the part of a PBX or central-offi ce
swi tch that provi des the source of the ri ng voltage that ri ngs telephones.
Ri ng generators are an i ndi vi dual ci rcui t card i n many PBX systems. I n
some systems, the ri ng-generati on capabi li ty i s bui lt i nto the stati on/
telephone i nterface cards.
Ring Latency I n a token-ri ng network, ri ng latency i s the ti me requi red
for a transmi ssi on packet to go all the way around the ri ng.
Ring Topology A LAN topology ( a MAN topology i n SONET ) that con-
nects all devi ces on a network i n a ri ng confi gurati on ( Fi g. R.14) . T he
data transmi tted through the network goes through each devi ce. As the
devi ces recei ve the data, they check to see i f i t i s i ntended for them. I f
i t i s, then they keep i t; i f i t i s not, then they pass i t along. Unli ke Eth-
ernet star and bus topologi es, the ri ng topology i s not contenti on based;
each devi ce gets a speci fi ed turn i n sendi ng and recei vi ng data.
Ring Voltage Ri ng voltage on a POT S telephone li ne i s 90V AC.
Ringer Equivalency Number (REN) A number that references a de-
vi ces load on a telephone li ne when the li ne ri ngs. Telephones, modems,
answeri ng machi nes, and other devi ces connected to telephone li nes are
requi red to have thi s number pri nted or stamped somewhere on the de-
vi ce, or placed i n the devi ces li terature. A telephone li ne i n North Amer-
i ca i s capable of dri vi ng 5 bells, or 5 devi ces wi th a ri nger equi valency
Ringer Equivalency Number (REN) 573
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 573
number of 1. I f a telephone li ne has more than 5 such devi ces plugged
i nto i t, i t may fai l to ri ng when called.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) A traffi c-control method used by
routers. RI P was ori gi nally developed by Xerox Corporati on i n the early
1980s for use i n Xerox Network Systems (XNS) networks. Ci sco Sys-
tems has developed thei r own versi on of RI P that works well as a stan-
dard wi th other manufacturers routers and has addi ti onal propri etary
features that work only on Ci sco products. I n general, RI P works well i n
small envi ronments, but has seri ous li mi tati ons when used i n larger i n-
ternetworks. For example, RI P li mi ts the number of router hops between
any two hosts i n an I nternet to 16. RI P i s also slow to converge, mean-
i ng that i t takes a relati vely long ti me for network changes to become
known to all routers. RI P determi nes the best path through an I nternet
by looki ng only at the number of hops between the two end nodes. T hi s
techni que i gnores other routi ng metri cs, such as di fferences i n li ne
speed, li ne uti li zati on, and other metri cs, many of whi ch can be i mpor-
tant factors i n choosi ng the best path between two nodes. See also Rout-
ing Protocol.
574 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
Server
TOKEN RING
Figure R.14 Ring Topology
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Rip Cord An ai d i n stri ppi ng the j acket off of bundled pai r cable. I t i s a
nylon stri ng that i s put i n telephone wi re and cables when i t i s manu-
factured. T he stri ng i s used by i nstallers to ri p the j acket or i nsulati on
when i t i s bei ng i nstalled.
RIPv2 (Router Information Protocol Version 2) An enhanced ver-
si on of the ori gi nal RI P that allows the abi li ty to i ncorporate subnetti ng
abi li ty i nto networks. T he ori gi nal RI P was developed before the I nter-
ent protocol standard had the subnet mask provi si on, whi ch gi ves a net-
work address user opti ons on how a local router reads network addresses.
RI Pv2 allows for 256 router hops rather than 16, and converges sli ghtly
faster than the ori gi nal RI P. See also the more complex and feature-ri ch
protocols EIGRP, BGP, and OSPF.
Riser A telephone cable feed i nsi de a bui ldi ng that runs verti cally from
floor to floor. I t i s called a riser because i t i s usually placed i n a place
that archi tects call risers. We call them elevator shafts, plenums, or
airways, whi chever the ri ser i s used for. Typi cal copper pai r ri ser ca-
bles are i n the hundreds of pai rs i n si ze ( 100, 200, 300 pai r, etc.) .
Riser Cable A twi sted-pai r cable ( usually several hundred pai rs) di stri -
buti on system that progresses from the telephone company Demarc or
poi nt of entrance i n a bui ldi ng to each floor of that bui ldi ng.
RJ (Registration Jack) T he prefi x to many telephone company con-
necti on and i nterface standards.
RJ11 T he telephone j ack that most of us have come to know. I t has a 6
plug wi th four conductors. Handset cords are a smaller plug, a 4 plug
wi th four conductors. I f you look at the two of them si de by si de, you
wi ll noti ce the di fference. For a photo, see Jack.
RJ21 Also known as RJ21X. See RJ21X.
RJ21X An RJ21X i s a 66M150 block that i s desi gnated as the demarca-
ti on poi nt for telephone company-provi ded communi cati ons li nes
( Fi g. R.15) . Most RJ21X blocks have an orange cover where the tele-
phone numbers of the li nes are wri tten.
RJ45 An 8-posi ti on, 8-conductor modular j ack. RJ45 i s used i n many com-
puter LAN appli cati ons.
RJ48 An 8-posi ti on, 8-conductor modular j ack. Used to termi nate T 1
servi ce.
RJ48 575
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RJ48X An 8-posi ti on, 8-conductor modular j ack. T hey are used to ter-
mi nate T 1 servi ce and they have a shorti ng bar that i s bui lt-i n for mak-
i ng manual loop-backs.
576 RJ48X
Figure R.15 RJ21X Network Interface
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 576
RMA (Return Material Authorization) See Return Material
Authorization.
RMON (Remote Monitor) A network management protocol that has an
MIB (Management Information Base) extended beyond what SNMP
(Simple Network-Management Protocol) provi ded. RMON enables a
network manager to moni tor, confi gure, and troubleshoot a network.
RMON2 i s a newer versi on of the ori gi nal RMON that enables vi si bi li ty
for a system admi ni strator to vi ew the network and physi cal layers by
protocol. See also SNMP.
RMS See Root Mean Square.
Roaming When a cellular/PCS telephone travels outsi de of i ts calli ng area,
i t i s roami ng. When a cellular/PCS telephone roams, i t conti nues to send
a si gnal out that tells any cellular si te i t can reach ( regardless of com-
pany) that I am here. I f i t can communi cate wi th a cellular si te, then
the roam i ndi cator i s di splayed on your phone. I f you have a roami ng
servi ce wi th your cellular/PCS company, then you can sti ll recei ve calls
even though you are out of your calli ng area. I f you dont pay extra for
roami ng servi ce, you can sti ll make outgoi ng calls; however, they cost
extra.
Robbed-Bit Signaling Also called bit robbing, but usually known as i n-
band si gnali ng. T he practi ce of taki ng a bi t here and there i n the begi n-
ni ng and end of a di gi tal transmi ssi on for use i n the overhead of the
transmi ssi on equi pment. Bi t robbi ng i s bad news when the si gnals bei ng
multi plexed i nto the transmi ssi on are data. Robbi ng a bi t from a data
stream severely corrupts i t. Bi t robbi ng i s reserved for multi plexi ng mul-
ti ple voi ce ci rcui ts onto a T 1. Ci rcui ts i ntended to transmi t data use out-
of-band si gnali ng or clear-channel si gnali ng.
Robust A term that i s synonymous wi th fast, flexi ble, and reli able.
ROH (Ringer Off Hook) See Receiver Off Hook.
Rolled Cable A reference to a null modem cable, where the transmi t and
recei ve pai rs roll wi thi n the cable, thus reversi ng the connecti on to
match transmi t to recei ve and vi ce versa i n relati on to connected de-
vi ces.
Rolm (Siemons-Rolm) A telephone equi pment manufacturer.
ROM (Read-Only Memory) See Read-Only Memory.
ROM (Read-Only Memory) 577
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 577
Root Account A type of log-on account that allows access to UNI X sub-
systems software used exclusi vely by network or system admi ni strators.
Root-account logi ns commonly gi ve the user a # as a prompt, si mi lar
to the way that MS-DOS would gi ve a C>. Programmi ng changes are gen-
erally unrestri cted when logged i nto a system as a root user. See also C
Shell and V Shell.
Root Mean Square (RMS) A method of calculati ng the power con-
sumpti on or power output of an electroni c/electri cal devi ce. RM S
power i s ulti mately the average of an AC waveform, whi ch i s the peak
voltage, multi pli ed by 0.707. T he other methods of calculati ng power
i nclude true power, peak power, and transparent power. M ost
electroni c/audi o appli cati ons use ei ther peak or RM S power. To con-
vert from peak power to RM S power, multi ply the peak power rati ng
by 0.707. T he result i s RM S power. To convert RM S power to peak
power, di vi de the RM S power rati ng by 0.707. T he result i s the peak
power rati ng.
Round-Trip Time (RTT) T he ti me ( usually measured i n mi lli seconds)
requi red for a network communi cati on to travel from the source to the
desti nati on and back. RT T i ncludes the ti me requi red for the desti na-
ti on to process the message from the source and generate a reply. RT T
i s used by some routi ng algori thms to ai d i n calculati ng opti mal routes.
See also Network Transit Time Delay.
Route Nortels name for a trunk group. See also Member.
Route Map How routes are selected i n BGP.
Routed Protocol A network communi cati ons language that i s supported
or encapsulated and transmi tted by routers. Examples of routed pro-
tocols are Ethernet, Appletalk, T CP/I P, frame relay, and X.25. Routed
protocols are encapsulated by routi ng protocols, such as Intermediate
System to Intermediate System (IS-IS), Ci sco Systems Enhanced
IGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), and RIP (Rout-
ing Information Protocol). See also Routing Protocol.
Router A network layer devi ce that uses one or more measures ( cost, num-
ber of hops, etc.) to determi ne the opti mal path along whi ch communi ca-
ti ons traffi c should be forwarded ( Fi gs. R.16 and R.17) . Routers forward
packets from one network to another, based on address i nformati on. T hey
are also capable of translati ng ( or repackagi ng) data i nto di ssi mi lar routed
protocols, such as Ethernet, token ri ng, RS-232, etc. Routers were once
called gateways. See also Routing Protocol.
578 Root Account
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Router 579
Router
Router
HUB
Server
HUB
Telephone company 56K
private-line service
SALES OFFICE
MANUFACTURING
PLANT
Figure R.17 Router
Figure R.16 Router Application
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 579
Router on a Stick A router connected to a swi tch that provi des con-
necti vi ty among di fferent Vi rtual LAN ( VLAN) segments wi thi n a si ngle
Ethernet swi tch. More advanced LAN swi tches have on-board routers
bui lt i nto them so that the traffi c does not actually have to leave the
swi tch vi a a li nk. See also Layer 3 Switching and VLAN.
Router, Voice Enabled A router that i s QoS, MGCP, and H.323 enabled
at mi ni mum that enables i t to carry voi ce traffi c i n an I P network and/or
translate i t to the PST N ( Publi c Telephone Network) . See also MGCP,
Gateway, H.323, WIC, and RTP.
Routing Domain A group of routers and hosts operati ng under the same
set of routi ng protocols. Wi thi n each routi ng domai n i s one or more ar-
eas. Each i s uni quely i denti fi ed by an area address.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) A traffi c-control method used by
routers. RI P was ori gi nally developed by Xerox Corporati on i n the early
1980s for use i n Xerox Network Systems (XNS) networks. Ci sco Sys-
tems has developed thei r own versi on of RI P that works well as a stan-
dard wi th other manufacturers routers and has addi ti onal propri etary
features that work only on Ci sco products. I n general, RI P works well i n
small envi ronments, but has seri ous li mi tati ons when used i n larger i n-
ternetworks. For example, RI P li mi ts the number of router hops between
any two hosts i n an I nternet to 16. RI P i s also slow to converge, mean-
i ng that i t takes a relati vely long ti me for network changes to become
known to all routers. RI P determi nes the best path through an I nternet
by looki ng only at the number of hops between the two end nodes. T hi s
techni que i gnores other routi ng metri cs, such as di fferences i n li ne
speed, li ne uti li zati on, and other metri cs, many of whi ch can be i mpor-
tant factors i n choosi ng the best path between two nodes. See also Rout-
ing Protocol.
Routing Metric (Routing Measure) A method by whi ch a routi ng
algori thm determi nes that one route i s better than another. T hi s i nfor-
mati on i s stored i n routi ng tables. Metri cs i nclude bandwi dth, commu-
ni cati on cost, delay, hop count, load, best packet si ze, path cost, and re-
li abi li ty.
Routing Protocol T he functi onal part of a routers operati ng system that
works wi th other routers wi thi n a network to transport data from one
locati on to another. T he three classes of routi ng protocols are: di stance
vector, li nk-state, and hybri d. Routi ng protocols work by i ncorporati ng
algori thms that help the router know whi ch port to relay data from and
to. T hi s i s accompli shed through routi ng tables that can be created
580 Router on a Stick
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 580
stati cally ( by a user) or dynami cally ( automati cally by the routi ng pro-
tocol) . Routi ng protocols carry data of other protocols ( such as Ether-
net, X.25, or T CP/I P) by placi ng an address i n front of the packet to be
routed. T hi s address i s translated by the routi ng protocol i n routi ng ta-
bles to correspond to a MAC (Media-Access Control) address and/or a
router port. Each ti me a packet passes through a router, the routi ng pro-
tocol header i s read, stri pped off, and a new header i s added. Examples
of routi ng protocols i nclude Ci sco Systems Enhanced IGRP (Enhanced
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), IS-IS (Intermediate System to
Intermediate System), and RIP (Routing Information Protocol). See
also Routed Protocol.
Routing Table A reference to call-handli ng i nstructi ons i nput to an ACD
( Automati c Call Di stri buti on) system. T he routi ng table li sts each i n-
comi ng trunk and the steps that the call goes through. T he steps the
call goes through are also called a call treatment or a scri pt. A routi ng
table could li st trunk number 1 and the treatment that calls recei ve when
they come i n on that trunk. 2. An i ncomi ng di gi t translati on fi le i n a
PBX systems memory that i nstructs the system on whi ch extensi on to
route a call based on DNI SI or D10 di gi ts. 3. A li st of paths or con-
necti ons through a network that i s kept i n a routers memory. See also
OSPF. 4. A data fi le stored i n a router or other i nternetworki ng devi ce
that keeps track of routes to parti cular network desti nati on addresses
and thei r associ ated ci rcui t i nterface port on the router. Many routi ng
protocols store metri c data wi thi n routi ng tables as well. See also Rout-
ing Protocol and Routing Metric.
Sample Meridian 1 CCR Script
GOT O CLOSED I F LOGGED AGENT S QUEUE 1234= 0
QUEUE T O 1234
GI VE RAN 105
GI VE MUSI C 100
SECT I ON LOOP
WAI T 60
GI VE RAN 106
GOT O DI FFI CULT I ES I F LOGGED AGENT S QUEUE 1234= 0
GOT O LOOP
SECT I ON DI FFI CULT I ES
GI VE RAN 107
FORCE DI SCONNECT
SECT I ON CLOSED
GI VE RAN 108
FORCE DI SCONNECT
Routing Table 581
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 581
RAN 105 T hank you for calli ng abc company, your call wi ll be an-
swered by the next avai lable agent.
RAN 106 Please conti nue to hold
RAN 107 We are currently experi enci ng techni cal di ffi culti es, please
call alternate number xxx-xxxx
RAN 108 We are closed, our busi ness hours are . . . please call back
duri ng these ti mes.
RP Redirecting Forward Party. Another name for a phone that i s call
forwarded.
RS 1. T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for record separator. T he bi -
nary code i s 1110001 and the hex i s E1. 2. RS Connectors, Recom-
mended Standard, the prefi x i n RS-232, RS-328, etc.
RS-232 A popular physi cal-layer i nterface now known as EIA/TIA-232.
See EIA/TIA-232.
RS-232C A communi cati ons protocol that was developed by the EI A so
that data devi ces could communi cate. T he standard i ncludes the di f-
ferent functi ons and si gnals for two devi ces to communi cate. T he si g-
nals are physi cally i nterfaced to a cable vi a a 25-pi n or 9-pi n connector.
Each pi n havi ng a si gnal functi on. I n order for an RS-232 connecti on
to work, the cable and pi n-outs must match ( Fi g. R.18) . Even though
582 RP
1 2 3 12 4 5 6 7 9 11
15 16 18 24 21 22 23
8 10
14 25 17 19 20
1-PG 2-TD 3-RD 4-RTS 5-CTS 6-DSR 7-SG 8-CD 9-tst 10-tst 11- 12-SCD 13-SCS
14-STD 15-TC 16-SRD 17-RC 18- 20-SRS 21-SQD 22-RI 23-DRS 24-XTC 25-unused 19-SRS
PIN DESCRIPTIONS
1 Protective Ground
2 Transmitted Data
3 Received data
4 Request To Send
5 Clear To Send
6 Data Set ready
7 Signal Ground
8 Received Line Signal Detector
9 Reserved for Data Set Testing
10 Reserved for Data Set Testing
11 Unassigned
12 Secondary Received Line Signal Detector
13 Secondary Clear to Send
14 Secondary Transmitted Data
15 Transmit Signal Element Timing
16 Secondary Received Data
17 Receiver Signal Element Timing
18 Unassigned
19 Secondary Request to Send
20 Data Terminal ready
21 Signal Quality Detector
22 Ring Indicator
23 Data Signal Rate Selector
24 Transmit Signal Element Timing
25 Unassigned
Figure R.18 A Common RS-232C Pinout Diagram for DB25
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 582
most modem and DCE/DT E manufacturers use the RS-232 protocol, not
all use the same pi n-outs. To complete a connecti on, a cable must be a
null cable ( null-modem cable) , whi ch means that transmi t and recei ve
are reversed i nsi de the cable from one end to the other.
RS-328 T he fi rst EI A facsi mi le standard ( 1966) .
RS-366 EI A standard for auto-di ali ng.
RS-422 Balanced electri cal i mplementati on of EI A/T I A-449 for hi gh-
speed data transmi ssi on. Now referred to collecti vely wi th RS-423 as
EIA-530. See also EIA-530 and RS-423.
RS-423 Unbalanced electri cal i mplementati on of EI A/T I A-449 for
EI A/T I A-232 compati bi li ty. Now referred to collecti vely wi th RS-422 as
EIA-530. See also EIA-530 and RS-422.
RS-449 1. EI A standard that i s the newer versi on of RS-232. RS-449 uses
a 37-pi n connector and each of multi ple transmi t and recei ve pai rs are
balanced. RS-449 i s faster and able to transmi t longer di stances ( 300
feet) than RS-232 ( li mi ted to 50 feet) . 2. Popular physi cal-layer i nter-
face. Now known as EIA/TIA-449. See EI A/T I A-449.
RSA (Rural Service Area) T he counterpart to MSA (Metropolitan
Service Area). A term that refers to the 306 metropoli tan areas where
the FCC manages cellular and PCS communi cati ons. T here are also
RSA (Rural Statistical Area) markets that the FCC determi ned as
separate from each other. 428 RSA markets are i n the Uni ted States.
Each stati sti cal area, 734 i n all, has at least two li censed servi ce
provi ders.
RSC (Remote Switching Center) A common term for a long di stance
carri ers central offi ce, or relay poi nt. Many long di stance carri ers have
offi ces that are not occupi ed by personnel, only equi pment.
RSH 1. Remote Shell. A UNI X operati ng system level of access. See also
C Shell and Root. 2. Remote Shell Protocol. Referred to as R Shell
from the si mi lari ti es i n the UNI X command set. An appli cati on or sub-
protocol that allows a user to execute commands on a remote system
wi thout havi ng to log i nto the system. For example, rsh, along wi th a
password ( i f the network OS supports passwords) , can be used to re-
motely exami ne the status of network devi ces wi thout connecti ng to each
communi cati on server, executi ng the command, and then di sconnecti ng
from the communi cati on server.
RSH 583
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 583
RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol) 1. A transport-layer protocol
that i s i ntended to provi de quali ty-of-servi ce transmi ssi on levels i n con-
j uncti on wi th T CP/I P over the I nternet. T he RSVP protocol makes the
sender of data responsi ble for noti fyi ng the recei ver that a call i s to be
made ( or data to be sent) and what QOS (Quality of Service) wi ll be
needed. T he responsi bi li ty of selecti ng the resources or path by whi ch
the transmi ssi on wi ll take i s gi ven to the recei ver or called party. RSVP
i s modeled to work wi th I Pv6 and I Pv4. 2. ( Also known as Resource
Reservation Setup Protocol.) For the sake of I P telephony and I P vi deo,
a networki ng feature that supports the reservati on of packet transfer re-
sources across an I P network for real-ti me servi ces. Appli cati ons run-
ni ng on I P end systems can use RSVP to i ndi cate to other nodes the na-
ture ( bandwi dth, j i tter, maxi mum burst, etc.) of the packet streams they
want to recei ve. RSVP depends on I Pv6; however, i t i s backward-
compati ble for I Pv4.
RTE (Registered Terminal Equipment) See Registered Terminal
Equipment.
RTMP (Routing Table Maintenance Protocol) T he Maci ntosh/Apple
Computers propri etary routi ng protocol that was deri ved from RI P.
RT MP establi shes and mai ntai ns the routi ng i nformati on that i s requi red
to route datagrams from any source socket ( logi cal channel) to any des-
ti nati on socket ( logi cal channel) i n an AppleTalk network. Usi ng RT MP,
routers dynami cally mai ntai n routi ng tables to reflect changes i n topol-
ogy. See also RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
RTP 1. Realti me Transport Protocol: An I ET F standard used to enable
end-to-end network transport functi ons for appli cati ons transmi tti ng
real-ti me data, such as I P voi ce messagi ng; audi o, vi deo, or si mulati on
data, over multi cast or uni cast network servi ces. RT P i s a layer 4 pro-
tocol and provi des servi ces such as payload type i denti fi cati on, sequence
numberi ng, ti mestampi ng, and deli very moni tori ng to real-ti me appli ca-
ti ons. RT P i s one of the I Pv6 protocols. 2. Rapi d Transport Protocol:
I n an I BM SNA envi ronment network feature that provi des paci ng and
error recovery for APPN ( Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networki ng) data as
i t crosses the APPN network. Wi th RT P, error recovery and flow control
are done end-to-end rather than at every node. RT P prevents conges-
ti on rather than reacts to i t.
RTS (Request To Send) After a modem recei ves a CD (Carrier Detect)
si gnal from another modem, the next step i s to send some data.
Before i t sends data, i t sends an RTS (Request To Send). After i t recei ves
a CTS (Clear To Send) from the far-end modem, i t begi ns sendi ng data.
584 RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol)
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 584
RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol) T he I ET F standards-based
protocol for control over the deli very of data wi th real-ti me properti es
such as audi o and vi deo streams. I t i s useful for large-scale broadcasts
and audi o or vi deo on-demand streami ng, and i s supported by a vari ety
of layer 7 vendors of streami ng audi o and vi deo multi medi a, i ncludi ng
Ci sco I P/T V, RealNetworks RealAudi o G2 Player, and Apple Qui ckT i me
4 software. T he RFC allows for RT SP to run over ei ther UDP or T CP,
although not all I P telephony or I P vi deo systems support both. RT SP
establi shes a T CP-based ( the more popular) control connecti on, or chan-
nel, between the multi medi a cli ent and server. RT SP uses thi s channel
to control commands such as play and pause between the cli ent and
server. T hese requests and responses are text-based and are si mi lar to
HT T P. RT SP does not typi cally deli ver conti nuous data streams over the
control channel, usually relyi ng on a UDP-based data transport protocol
such as standard Real-T i me Transport Protocol ( RT P) to open separate
channels for data and for RT P Control Protocol ( RT CP) messages. Typ-
i cally, RT P and RT CP channels occur i n pai rs, wi th RT P bei ng an even-
numbered port and RT CP channel bei ng the next consecuti ve port.
RTT (Round Trip Time) T he ti me ( usually measured i n mi lli seconds)
requi red for a network communi cati on to travel from the source to the
desti nati on and back. RT T i ncludes the ti me requi red for the desti na-
ti on to process the message from the source and generate a reply. RT T
i s used by some routi ng algori thms to ai d i n calculati ng opti mal routes.
See also Network Transit Time Delay.
Runt I n LAN networki ng, an i nvali d Ethernet frame that i s less than 64
bytes long. T hese frames are di scarded when detected by LAN
swi tches/router devi ces.
RZ (Return to Zero) A transmi ssi on format where each posi ti ve bi t re-
turns or drops to a zero value duri ng i ts ti mi ng peri od. T he drop-to-zero
format assi sts i n ti mi ng/synchroni zi ng the transmi ssi on si gnal.
RZ (Return to Zero) 585
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 585
PQ104-5056F-PR.qxd 2/9/01 2:25 PM Page 586
S Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 2 GHz
and 4 GHz ( 15 cm to 7.5 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band
Designation.
S/MIME (Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) MI ME i s
the standard format for attachi ng nontext fi les, such as graphi cs ( JPG) ,
spreadsheets ( XLS) , and formatted documents ( DOC) to text-based
e-mai l messages. S/MI ME enhances the MI ME standard by encrypti ng or
addi ng di gi tal si gnatures to MI ME-formatted messages. Di gi tal si gna-
tures ensure the reci pi ent that the message i s from who i t says and that
i t i s pri vate, thus preventi ng forgeri es.
SAA (Supplemental Alert Adapter) An AT & T term that i s speci fi c to
the Merli n telephone system. I t i s the equi valent to a loud ri nger.
SABM (Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode) I t i s the command
defi ned by the last three bi ts i n the control byte of an unnumbered or
control type frame i n the X.25 protocol bei ng 100. I t i s a code that an
X.25 devi ce sends when i t has come i nto servi ce and i s ready to recei ve
packets. I t i s also referred to as set or reset. T hi s command resets all
ti mers to zero and clears all buffers on all of the devi ces communi cati ng
on an X.25 li nk.
SABME (Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode Extended) I t i s the
extended versi on SABM command. I t i s defi ned by the last three bi ts i n
587
S
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 587
the control byte of an unnumbered or control-type frame i n the X.25 pro-
tocol bei ng 100. I t i s a code that a devi ce sends when i t has come i nto
servi ce and i s ready to recei ve frames. I t i s also referred to as set or reset.
T hi s command resets all ti mers to zero and clears all buffers on all of the
devi ces communi cati ng on an X.25 li nk.
SAC (Single Attached Concentrator) A FDDI or CDDI concentrator
that connects to the network by bei ng cascaded from the master port of
another FDDI or CDDI concentrator.
Safety Belt Used by communi cati ons/power/constructi on personnel to
harness themselves to telephone/power poles or tower structures ( Fi g.
S.1) . Also called a body belt and climbing belt.
588 SAC (Single Attached Concentrator)
Figure S.1 A Safety Belt (Also Called a Body Belt or Climbing Belt)
Sag I f an outsi de plant engi neer refers to sag, i t i s the amount that an aer-
i al span di ps down between telephone poles. Di fferent cable needs to
have a di fferent sag, dependi ng on the cli mate, the wei ght of the cable,
the type of poles bei ng used, etc.
SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) A program wi thi n the Novell
NetWare protocol stack that allows nodes on a network to noti fy devi ces
on that network what servi ces they are desi gned to deli ver. Devi ces per-
form thei r adverti si ng through SAP packets. T he SAP packets communi -
cate wi th fi les that resi de i n servers and routers that track whi ch devi ces
i n a network provi de requi red servi ces. T he routers and servers return
SAP packets wi th requested i nformati on.
SARM (Set Asynchronous Response Mode) An old ( 1970s) X .25
LAP-vi ntage command defi ned by the last three bi ts i n the control
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 588
byte of an unnumbered or control-type frame i n the X .25 protocol. A
devi ce sends thi s command to noti fy that i t i s now ready to recei ve
frames.
Satellite A self-sustai ned electroni c devi ce/platform that orbi ts the
earth at an alti tude of about 22, 000 mi les. Communi cati ons satelli tes
transmi t and recei ve si gnals i n the mi crowave range and are used for
broadcast T V, telecommuni cati ons, global posi ti oni ng, and many other
appli cati ons.
Satellite Antenna A reference to a paraboli c di sh that has an LNB
(Low-Noise Block Converter) attached to the end of a protrudi ng arm
i n front of the di sh. T he actual antenna element i s very small and i s
i nsi de the LNB. For a photo, see LNB Converter.
Satellite Link A communi cati ons path that i ncludes a satelli te.
Satellite Receiver T he electroni cs that the output from a satelli te
antennas LNB converter feeds to. T he satelli te recei ver demodulates the
communi cati ons i nformati on i nto audi o, vi deo, and data. I t i s the equi v-
alent of a tuner i n a T V set or a radi o. T he satelli te di sh recei ves and
sends a band of RF frequenci es to the satelli te recei ver, whi ch, i n turn,
tunes to a desi red stati on.
SBC Communications One of the RBOCs, formerly ( but more common-
ly) known as Southwestern Bell.
SC Connector A square-shaped snap-on fi ber-opti c plasti c connector.
SC connectors come i n si ngle or dual. For a photo of a si ngle SC con-
nector, see Fiber-Optic Connector.
Scattering Attenuati on of li ght i n a fi ber opti c because of the li ght
changi ng di recti on i n the fi ber.
SCC (Specialized Common Carrier) An old term for an IXC (interex-
change carrier) other than AT & T.
Schematic A di agram of an electroni c ci rcui t. Schemati cs can be drawn at
many di fferent levels from block di agrams to the di screte component
level.
Scotchlok A fami ly of spli ci ng connectors that are manufactured by 3M.
Scotchloks are used i n spli ci ng copper twi sted pai rs i n outsi de and i nsi de
plant appli cati ons ( Fi g. S.2) .
Scotchlok 589
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 589
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) An electroni c component that
works li ke a transi stor, but much better i n power swi tchi ng appli cati ons.
An SCR has three leads, one for the anode, gate, and cathode ( Fi g. S.3) .
When a negati ve bi as pulse i s appli ed to the gate, the SCR acts li ke a
swi tch, turns on and stays on, even though the pulse i s gone.
590 SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
Figure S.2 A Scotchlok Twisted-Pair Crimp Splice
Schematic Symbol for an SCR
Gate
Anode Cathode
Figure S.3 SCR (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier)
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) Pronounced as scuzzy. A
parallel i nterface standard for li nki ng i nternal computer components
( such as hard dri ves) and peri pheral devi ces ( such as pri nters) . T he
good thi ng about SCSI i nterfaces i s that they are faster than others ( such
as I DE/ATA) . T he drawbacks are the hi gher cost and that many of the
SCSI formats that are on the market are not compati ble wi th each other
( Fi g. S.4) . I f you upgrade your PC, you mi ght end up replaci ng the SCSI
i nterface i n your pri nter as well. Some examples of the SCSI formats and
thei r transfer speeds are: Fast SCSI , 8-bi t bus 10 Mbps; Fast Wi de SCSI ,
16-bi t bus 20 Mbps; Ultra Wi de SCSI , 16-bi t bus 40 Mbps; and Wi de
Ultra2 SCSI , 16-bi t bus 80 Mbps. See also IDE.
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 590
Scuzzy See SCSI.
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) A European fami ly of di gi tal
carri er rates. SDH defi nes a set of rate and format standards that are
transmi tted usi ng opti cal si gnals over fi ber. SDH i s the term used by the
I T U to refer to SONET OC rates referred to i n the Uni ted States. I ts basi c
bui ldi ng block i s a rate of 155.52 Mbps, desi gnated at ST M-1 ( OC-3) . See
also SONET and STM-1.
SDI (Serial Data Interface) A connecti on desi gned for transmi ssi on of
data over a medi a one bi t at a ti me. T he other type of transmi ssi on i s par-
allel, whi ch sends multi ple bi ts at a ti me, over multi ple wi res. Many pri nt-
ers run i n a parallel manner, modems work i n a seri al manner. For a di a-
gram, see Serial Interface.
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory) SDRAM
i s a newer type of RAM used i n personal computers. I t i s capable of run-
ni ng at speeds greater than 100 MHz, and i t synchroni zes i tself wi th the
CPU clock. SDRAM was made obsolete by RDRAM (Rambus D RAM),
whi ch can run at speeds of 600 MHz. Fi gure S.5 shows a 128-pi n 32-MB
SDRAM dual-i nli ne memory module.
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory) 591
Figure S.4 SCSI Host Adapter Card Interface
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 591
SDLC (Synchronous Data-Link Control) A revi sed revi si on of the
I BM Bi sync protocol that was submi tted by i ts creator ( I BM) to the I SO
and ANSI i n hopes that i t would become a standard. I nstead, i t was
evolved by the I SO i nto HDLC (High-level Data-Link Control) and
evolved by the ANSI i nto ADCCP (Advanced Data Communication
Control Procedure). T he CCI T T revi ewed and modi fi ed HDLC and
called i t LAP (Link-Access Procedure), whi ch became the basi s for the
frame or network layer of the X.25 standard i n 1976. T he LAP protocol
was further modi fi ed by the CCI T T to become LAPB (Link-Access
Procedure Balanced mode) i n 1978.
SDSL (Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) A physi cal-layer
telecommuni cati ons protocol that deli vers hi gh-speed data networki ng
over a si ngle pai r of copper phone li nes. SDSL i s symmetri cal, whi ch
means that upstream and downstream data-transfer rates are the same.
Speeds range from 160 K bps to 1.544 Mbps. T he base transmi ssi on di s-
tance i s 24, 000 feet ( about 4.5 mi les) , and i t can be extended to greater
than 30, 000 feet wi th repeaters. SDSL can be extended to any di stance
over fi ber opti c. SDSL i s i deal for busi ness appli cati ons that requi re i den-
ti cal downstream and upstream speeds, such as vi deo conferenci ng or
592 SDLC (Synchronous Data-Link Control)
Figure S.5 SDRAM
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 592
collaborati ve computi ng, as well as si mi lar appli cati ons that are appro-
pri ate for ADSL technology. SDSL uses the same ki nd of li ne-modulati on
techni que used i n I SDN, known as 2B1Q.
SECAM (Systme Electronique pour Couleur Avec Mmoire) T he
analog televi si on broadcast standard i n France, Russi a, and regi ons of
Afri ca. SECAM i s a vari ant of PAL, but i t deli vers the same number of
verti cal scan li nes as PAL and uses the same refresh rate. See also
Television Broadcast Standards.
Second Dial Tone T he di al tone that you get after di ali ng 9 on a PBX
system. When you fi rst pi ck up the handset, you hear a di al tone, whi ch
i s the PBX i nternal di al tone, then you di al 9 to get an outsi de di al tone.
Secondary Ring T he redundant and nontraffi c carryi ng of the two ri ngs
maki ng up an FDDI or CDDI ri ng. T he secondary ri ng i s usually reserved
for use i n the event of a fai lure of the pri mary ri ng, whi ch i s acti ve and
carri es traffi c.
Secondary Winding A reference to the output of an electroni c trans-
former. T ransformers have at least one pri mary and at least one sec-
ondary wi ndi ng ( Fi g. S.6) . T ransformers are made to work wi th AC
voltages. I f you connect a transformer to a DC voltage wi th no fi lteri ng
electroni cs, the transformer wi ll overheat and be destroyed.
T ransformers are used to step-up or step-down AC voltage levels.
T ransformers are rated wi th a rati o of the pri mary to secondary wi nd-
i ng. A common transformer i s a 10:1. T hi s means that for every 10
wi ndi ngs of wi re on the pri mary si de of the transformer, only one wi nd-
i ng i s on the secondary si de. T ransformers have the same rati o to volt-
age as they do wi ndi ngs, so i f a transformer wi th a 10:1 rati o that has
120 volts i s appli ed to the pri mary wi ndi ng, then 12 volts wi ll be the
output on the secondary wi ndi ng.
Secondary Winding 593
Schematic Symbol for an iron core Transformer
(iron core is designated by two lines between coils)
120V
AC
Primary
12V
AC
Secondary
10:1
Figure S.6 Secondary Winding
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 593
Seed Router A master router wi thi n an AppleTalk network that has the
network number or cable range entered i nto i ts port descri ptor. T he seed
router automati cally responds to confi gurati on queri es from nonseed
routers on i ts connected AppleTalk network, allowi ng those routers to
confi rm or modi fy thei r confi gurati ons accordi ngly. All AppleTalk net-
works need to have at least one seed router.
Segment 1. A physi cal li nk i n a network between two devi ces. 2. I n
data-encapsulati on termi nology, the name of a PDU (Packet Data Unit)
when i t reaches the transport layer i n the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnect). After becomi ng a data segment, the PDU becomes a
packet at the network layer, and then a frame at the data-li nk layer.
Selective Ringing Module (SRM) A devi ce that i s attached to each i ndi -
vi dual network i nterface for customers that are shari ng a party li ne. T he
SRM contai ns electroni cs that can be confi gured to recogni ze di fferent
ri ngi ng formats usi ng DI P swi tches. Some di fferent ri ngi ng formats that
an SRM would di fferenti ate are ri ng voltage on the ri ng si de, ri ng voltage
on the ti p si de, ri ng voltage on the ri ng si de wi th the ti p si de grounded,
and ri ng on the ti p si de wi th the ri ng si de grounded. See also Party Line.
Selectivity T he measure i n dB of a radi o recei ver or tuner to select or
pass a wanted si gnal carri er and rej ect all others. T he hi gher the selec-
ti vi ty i n dB, the better the recei ver/transmi tter/tuner. Selecti vi ty i s some-
ti mes called the Q ( quali ty) of a tuner, but the Q rati ng i s usually used i n
reference to speci fi c fi xed-frequency fi lters.
Self Diagnostics A feature of many telecommuni cati ons testi ng and
transmi tti ng equi pment. PBX swi tches, mi crowave radi o equi pment,
SONET equi pment, and central-offi ce swi tches are equi pped wi th trou-
bleshooti ng ai ds that i ndi cate where trouble i s. T hey are not always
accurate, but they are of great assi stance i n the di agnosi s of faulty equi p-
ment or transmi ssi on paths.
Self Test T he abi li ty of telecommuni cati ons test, transmi ssi on equi p-
ment, or swi tchi ng equi pment to run a test on i ts hardware components
and software. Most telecommuni cati ons equi pment, as well as personal
computer equi pment, run a self test when they are fi rst turned on. I f
there i s a problem, then an error of some ki nd i s di splayed, whi ch can be
cross referenced i n a users or admi ni strators manual.
Semiconductor Germani um, si li con, and carbon are all semi conductors.
T hey are not great conductors ( li ke copper wi re) and they are not
i nsulators ( li ke plasti c or rubber) . T hey have speci al properti es that
594 Seed Router
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 594
allow a controlled amount of current to flow through them, gi ven a cer-
tai n amount of voltage, under certai n condi ti ons. Transi stors, di odes, and
other acti ve components ( devi ces that requi re power to do thei r j ob)
are made from si li con or germani um. Passi ve devi ces ( such as resi stors)
are made from carbon.
Sensitivity A reference to the abi li ty of a radi o recei ver or tuner to
recei ve a ti ny electroni c si gnal from an antenna and ampli fy i t. A sensi -
ti vi ty rati ng i s gi ven i n mi crovolts ( V) . I f a sensi ti vi ty rati ng i s better,
the sensi ti vi ty for the same gi ven output i s lower.
SEPT (Signaling End-Point Translator) T he part of the SS7
( Si gnali ng System 7) network that recei ves coded si gnals from anoth-
er central offi ce and translates those codes i nto a number plan or set of
codes used i n the central-offi ce exchange. For more i nformati on, see
Translations.
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) A part of the Novell NetWare pro-
tocol stack. SPX i s used for very speci fi c appli cati ons. SPX ensures com-
plete deli very of messages. Appli cati ons that use SPX usually i nclude
i nterserver or other devi ce communi cati ons, such as pri nti ng reports
done by servers. An appli cati on that would use SPX i s for the remote
control/admi ni strati on ( RCONSOLE) of servers.
Serial Bus A bus that transmi ts one bi t at a ti me. Seri al busses are usu-
ally one pai r of wi res: one used for transmi t/recei ve and the other i s
ground ( or common, for a balanced li ne) . A modem li ne to your comput-
er can be thought of as a ki nd of seri al bus. See Parallel Bus.
Serial Data Interface A connecti on desi gned for transmi ssi on of data
over a medi a one bi t at a ti me. T he other type of transmi ssi on i s parallel,
whi ch sends multi ple bi ts at a ti me, over multi ple wi res. Many pri nters
run i n a parallel manner; modems work i n a seri al manner. For a di agram,
see Serial Interface.
Serial Data Transmission T he transmi ssi on of data over a medi a one bi t
at a ti me. T he other type of transmi ssi on i s parallel, whi ch sends multi ple
bi ts at a ti me, over multi ple wi res. Many pri nters run i n a parallel manner,
modems work i n a seri al manner. For a di agram, see Serial Interface.
Serial Interface T he transmi ssi on of data over a medi a, one bi t at a ti me
( Fi g. S.7) . T he other type of transmi ssi on i s parallel, whi ch sends multi -
ple bi ts at a ti me, over multi ple wi res. Many pri nters run i n a parallel
manner; modems work i n a seri al manner.
Serial Interface 595
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 595
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) A protocol that enables I P data-
grams to be transmi tted over di al-up telephone li nes. T he successor to
SLI P i s PPP, whi ch provi des error detecti on and automati c confi gurati on.
Serial Port A computer i nterface that i s used to connect such devi ces as
mi ce or modems. Seri al port i nterfaces are commonly RS-232 ( for
modems) , USB, or DI N ( for keyboards) .
Series Circuit A ci rcui t that has only one path for current through mul-
ti ple loads. T he other type of ci rcui t i s a parallel ci rcui t, whi ch has more
than one path for current through multi ple loads, or devi ces. For a di a-
gram of a parallel and seri es ci rcui t, see Parallel Circuit.
Server A computer that i s dedi cated to provi di ng servi ces to other com-
puters. Fi le servers store common data for other computers to access vi a
a LAN (Local-Area Network), and there are appli cati on servi cers, whi ch
other computers access to run large or compli cated tasks. T he whole
i dea behi nd a LAN, or any other network, i s to share i nformati on and/or
processi ng power.
Server-Based PBX See IP Telephony.
Service Access Code (SAC) Servi ce access codes are three-di gi t num-
bers that are used li ke an area code, but they are not an area code. T hese
codes are used for speci al servi ces, such as 800/888 or 900 numbers. Fi ve
SACs are i n use at the ti me of thi s wri ti ng: 600, 700, 800, 888, and 900.
Service Advertising Protocol (SAP) A program wi thi n the Novell
NetWare protocol stack that allows nodes on a network to noti fy devi ces
596 Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 SERIAL ONE WIRE
1 P
0 A
1 R
0 A
1 L
0 L
1 E
0 L
EIGHT WIRES, or
one wire for each bit
Figure S.7 Serial Interface
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 596
on that network what servi ces they are desi gned to deli ver. Devi ces per-
form thei r adverti si ng through SAP packets. T he SAP packets communi -
cate wi th fi les that resi de i n servers and routers that track whi ch devi ces
i n a network provi de requi red servi ces. T he routers and servers return
SAP packets wi th requested i nformati on.
Service Affecting A reference to a problem that i s cri ti cal and i s i nter-
feri ng wi th the operati on or abi li ty of a network to meet i ts transmi ssi on
obj ecti ves.
Service Area T he geographi c area of a telecommuni cati ons servi ce
provi der. T he local servi ce area for USWest i s Washi ngton, Oregon,
I daho, Montana, Wyomi ng, Utah, Ari zona, New Mexi co, Colorado, North
Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, I owa, and Mi nnesota.
Service Code A three-di gi t code or shortened phone number that has a
speci fi c purpose, such as 911.
Service Entrance Also called a bui ldi ng entrance. T he place where com-
muni cati ons cables enter a bui ldi ng.
Service Profile Identifier (SPID) An ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) telephone number. T he number that some telephone
compani es use to defi ne the servi ces to whi ch an I SDN devi ce sub-
scri bes. I SDN devi ces use SPI D numbers when accessi ng the telephone
companys swi tch to i denti fy the devi ce i t would li ke to be connected to.
I n the Uni ted States, SPI D numbers can look li ke ordi nary publi c-servi ce
telephone numbers wi th an extensi on, such as 972-555-1212 4455. T here
i s one SPI D for each B Channel. See also ISDN.
Session A related set of communi cati ons transacti ons between two or
more network devi ces.
Session Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n general,
the sessi on layer does the j ob of establi shi ng and mai ntai ni ng connecti on
to the communi cati ons process of the lower layers. I t also controls the
di recti on of the data transfer. T he latest model or gui deli ne for commu-
ni cati ons protocols i s the OSI ( Open Systems I nterconnect) . I t i s the best
model so far because all of the layers or functi ons work i ndependently of
each other. For a di agram of the OSI and older propri etary communi ca-
ti ons models, see Open Systems Interconnection.
Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM) I t i s the command
defi ned by the last three bi ts i n the control byte of an unnumbered or
Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM) 597
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 597
control type frame i n the X.25 protocol bei ng 100. I t i s a code that an
X.25 devi ce sends when i t has come i nto servi ce and i s ready to recei ve
packets. I t i s also referred to as set or reset. T hi s command resets all
ti mers to zero and clears all buffers on all of the devi ces communi cati ng
on an X.25 li nk.
Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode Extended (SABME) I t i s the
extended versi on SABM command. I t i s defi ned by the last three bi ts i n
the control byte of an unnumbered or control-type frame i n the X.25 pro-
tocol bei ng 100. I t i s a code that a devi ce sends when i t has come i nto
servi ce and i s ready to recei ve frames. I t i s also referred to as set or reset.
T hi s command resets all ti mers to zero and clears all buffers on all of the
devi ces communi cati ng on an X.25 li nk.
Set Asynchronous Response Mode (SARM) An old ( 1970s) X.25
LAP-vi ntage command defi ned by the last three bi ts i n the control byte
of an unnumbered or control-type frame i n the X.25 protocol. A devi ce
sends thi s command to noti fy that i t i s now ready to recei ve frames.
SF 1. Single frequency, a method of i n-band si gnali ng i n swi tched tele-
phone networks. A si ngle 2600-Hz frequency tone i s used for si gnali ng.
2. Superframe. A common frami ng type used on T 1 ci rcui ts. SF consi sts
of 12 frames of 192 bi ts each, wi th the 193rd bi t provi di ng clocki ng. SF
i s superseded by ESF, but i s sti ll wi dely used. SF i s also called D4 fram-
ing. See also ESF.
SFC (Switch Fabric Controller) An i nterface between the CPU/core
and multi ple networks of telecommuni cati ons swi tches.
SGRAM (Synchronous Graphics RAM) A type of dynami c random-
access memory used as a buffer/temporary storage i n computers that
enhances the performance of the graphi cs accelerator and vi deo adapters.
SHARP (Self-Healing Alternate Route Protection) A servi ce offered
from Local Telephone Compani es over SONET networks. Sharp servi ce
i s made possi ble by the SONET ri ng technology, whi ch i ncorporates i ts
network on a ri ng of fi ber-opti c cable. I f the fi ber i s cut, all traffi c i s
rerouted the other way around the ri ng. I f you are talki ng on a telephone
over a SONET sharp-based servi ce and a fi ber i s cut, you mi ght hear a
very fai nt cli ck sound. Other than that, you would never know there
was a problem.
Shift Register An electroni c ci rcui t used to temporari ly store memory i n
a seri al format. Shi ft regi sters are commonly used i n the seri al-to-parallel
598 Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode Extended (SABME)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 598
conversi on for data transmi ssi on. Bi ts are clocked i nto the regi ster one
at a ti me, then clocked out to thei r desti nati on when they are needed.
Each memory segment of a regi ster i s typi cally an RS fli p-flop. For a
functi onal di agram, see Register.
Shiner A common defect found i n twi sted-pai r copper plant, where the
plasti c i nsulati on on the copper conductors i n termi nals li terally turns to
dust and exposes the sheen of the copper conductor to other copper
conductors and moi sture.
Short Circuit A ci rcui t fault. A short i s a short ci rcui t, or an easi er path
to ground caused by a bad component, water, or other means for elec-
tri ci ty to get to where i t i s not wanted. Many confuse an open wi th a
short. An open i s li terally a di sconnecti on i n a ci rcui t. For a di agram of
open- and short-ci rcui t faults, see Open Circuit.
Short-Haul Modem Also called a li mi ted-di stance modem or li ne dri v-
er. Short-haul modems are commonly used to extend the di stance of a
pri nter or other DTE (Data-Termination Equipment) devi ce from i ts
host. One example i s to extend the pri nter dedi cated to pri nti ng call-
accounti ng records from a PBX to an accountants offi ce. For a network
di agram and photo of a li mi ted-di stance modem, see Limited-Distance
Modem.
Short-Tone DTMF A reference to a telephone or other di ali ng equi p-
ment that sends a short pulse of touch-tone DT MF ( 100 to 300 ms) ,
regardless of how long you hold the button down. Some telephony equi p-
ment cannot hear a tone that i s that short, so equi pment manufactur-
ers have i mplemented adj ustable short-tone lengths, and opti ons to
remove the short tone altogether.
Shortest Path First (SPF) ( Also known as Link State Routing
Protocol, Distributed Routing Protocol, and Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol.) An SPF routi ng protocol i s a methodology used i n
router protocol desi gn that enables routers wi thi n an autonomous net-
work ( i .e., corporate LAN) to i denti fy each other and the status of thei r
port connecti ons. SPF protocols create three databases wi thi n a routers
memory: a nei ghbori ng router database, a li nk database, and a routi ng
table. T he routi ng table i s created by applyi ng Dykstras algori thm to the
fi rst two databases. T he most wi dely used SPF Protocol i s Open Shortest
Path Fi rst ( OSPF) . See also OSPF.
Shortest-Path-First Algorithm (SPF) SPF i s also referred to as a link-
state or Dijkstras Algorithm. A class of router-operati ng software that
Shortest-Path-First Algorithm (SPF) 599
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 599
enables routers to bui ld thei r own complex address routi ng tables that
detai l every router and node wi thi n thei r network. T he routi ng table-
bui ldi ng process i s accompli shed through i nformati on multi casts. T he
routi ng-table multi casts are referred to as LSPs (Link-State Packets)
and they consume payload bandwi dth to transmi t thi s i nformati on. T he
process of sendi ng and recei vi ng LSPs i s called the discovery process.
Multi casts are only sent when there i s a change i n the network, such as
a ci rcui t connecti on goi ng down, or a new router or connecti on bei ng
added. Li nk-state algori thms use tremendous amounts of router system
memory ( 20 MB to 30 MB i n a 30-node network) , and consume si gni fi -
cant processor resources wi thi n a routers ci rcui try. Duri ng the startup of
a li nk-start network, the di scovery process can take hours. T he great
advantage to thi s complex operati ng method i s that routi ng loops are not
created. See also Distance Vector Routing Algorithm and Hybrid
Routing Algorithm.
SI T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for shi ft i n. T he bi nary code i s
1111000 and the hex i s F0.
Sideband A si deband i s a harmoni c radi o frequency that i s a result of
modulati on on an AM carri er, and i s a transmi ssi on characteri sti c of an
FM carri er. I n AM radi o transmi ssi ons, one si deband above the carri er
frequency and one si deband below the carri er frequency are created. I n
FM, the modulati on of the carri er i tself i s an i nfi ni te number of si de-
bands.
Side Tone When you talk on a telephone, you can hear a li ttle bi t of your
voi ce bei ng sent back i nto the earpi ece. T hi s i s called a sidetone and i t
lets you know that the li ne i s li ve.
Signal Strength Si gnal strength i s measured i n dB, dBrn, or DB.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Si gnal-to-noi se rati o i s the amount of desi red si g-
nal, i n compari son to the amount of unwanted si gnal, expressed as a
rati o.
Signaling System 7 A method of out-of-band i nter-offi ce si gnali ng for
telephone ci rcui ts. Si mply stated, out of band means that a speci al sep-
arate li ne i s used to carry si gnali ng, such as di aled touch tones, ri ngi ng
si gnals, busy tones, ( everythi ng, but the actual voi ces/conversati on) , etc.
Remember that the two di fferent ways to send si gnals i n telephone
transmi ssi ons are: i n-band and out-of-band. Si gnals are di gi ts that you
di al, di al tone, the phone bei ng off-hook, ri ngi ng, etc. An i n-band tele-
phone li ne i s li ke the one i n your home; the di gi ts that you di al and the
600 SI
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 600
ri ngi ng are carri ed wi thi n the channel you talk on. Out-of-band si gnali ng
i s a method that telephone compani es and busi nesses use for larger PBX
appli cati ons and data-transfer appli cati ons. An out-of-band si gnaled DS1
has 24 multi plexed channels. T he 24th channel carri es the si gnali ng for
the other 23 channels ( phone li nes) . T he advantage of out-of-band si g-
nali ng i s that each channel has an i ncreased capaci ty to carry data ( 8 K b/s
more) and the 23 channels are not used to fi nd out i f a li ne i s busy ( both
di recti ons, i n and out) . T he off-hook sensi ng busy si gnali ng and other
si gnali ng previ ously menti oned i s done i n the 24th channel. I f your sys-
tem recei ves thousands of calls per day, thi s can reduce traffi c. SS7
makes i t easy for long-di stance compani es to let us di al a phone number,
get a busy si gnal, and not be bi lled for i t because we are not really usi ng
a call channel to do thi s.
Silicon T he i mportant thi ng to know about si li con i s that i t i s an element
used to make electroni c components. I t i s used because i t has speci al
atomi c properti es that enable i t to conduct or not conduct electri ci ty,
dependi ng on the way i t i s doped. Dopi ng i s the i mplantati on of i mpuri -
ti es i nto the si li con, addi ti onal electrons to be speci fi c. When a transi s-
tor, di ode, or any other si li con acti ve devi ce i s made, at least two types
( two types of si li con doped di fferently) of si li con are used to form a
junction. T he fi rst type of si li con i s called a P-type ( for posi ti ve) and the
second type i s called an N-type ( for negati ve) . T he two ( very small)
pi eces of si li con are placed together to form a P-N j uncti on. A si ngle PN
j uncti on i s used to make a di ode and three pi eces of si li con are used to
make a PNP or NPN j uncti on transi stor. Another element that i s not as
frequently used, but used i n the same manner, i s Germani um.
SIM (Single Interface Module) An NEC trademark, thi s i s a smaller
PBX i n the NEC telephone equi pment fami ly. Larger PBXs i nclude the
I MG and the MMG.
SIMM (Single-Inline Memory Module) A small ci rcui t board, about 1''
by 3'', that contai ns memory components for PCs and other memory-
usi ng devi ces. T he edge of the SI MM ci rcui t board has a si ngle row of
contacts so that i t can be plugged i nto a socket or slot. T he SI MM gets i ts
name from the type of socket i t plugs i nto. See also SDRAM.
Simple Mail-Transfer Protocol (SMTP) A standard i nterchange for-
mat used by e-mai l appli cati ons to exchange messages wi th each other.
SMT P does not provi de a user i nterface or method for a user to create a
message. I t only provi des a way for the message to be transferred. For
example, Lotus Notes can be confi gured to use SMT P when i t sends
an outgoi ng message to an I nternet e-mai l address. SMT P i s used i n
Simple Mail-Transfer Protocol (SMTP) 601
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 601
conj uncti on wi th POP (Post Office Protocol) and MIME (Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions) to provi de T CP/I P I nternet e-mai l.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) A standard protocol
for managi ng di verse i nternetworks. SNMP i s an appli cati on-layer proto-
col standard desi gned to faci li tate the exchange of management i nfor-
mati on between network devi ces and i s used almost exclusi vely i n
Transmi ssi on Control Protocol/I nternet Protocol ( T CP/I P) networks.
SNMP i s a relati vely si mple protocol, yet i ts feature set i s suffi ci ently
powerful to handle the di ffi cult problems presented i n tryi ng to manage
todays heterogeneous networks. By usi ng SNMP-transported data ( such
as packets per second and network error rates) , network admi ni strators
can more easi ly manage network performance, fi nd and solve network
problems, and plan for network growth. SNMP has two versi ons: Versi on
1 and Versi on 2. Most of the changes i ntroduced i n Versi on 2 i ncrease the
securi ty capabi li ti es of SNMP. Other changes i ncrease i nteroperabi li ty by
more ri gorously defi ni ng the speci fi cati ons for SNMP i mplementati on.
T he creators of SNMP beli eve that after a relati vely bri ef peri od of coex-
i stence, SNMP Versi on 2 ( SNMPv2) wi ll largely replace SNMP Versi on 1
( SNMPv1) .
Simplex Communi cati ons i n one di recti on. FM radi o and broadcast T V
are forms of si mplex communi cati on. Other methods are half duplex and
full duplex.
Single-Frequency Signaling (SF) Mostly referred to as single fre-
quency, a method of i n-band si gnali ng i n swi tched telephone networks.
A si ngle 2600-Hz frequency tone i s used for si gnali ng.
Single-Mode Fiber T he alternati ve to multi -mode fi ber opti c. Si ngle-
mode fi ber opti c has a smaller core, but i s capable of longer-di stance
transmi ssi ons. I t i s used i n the publi c network more often and i s the
choi ce for SONET appli cati ons. Multi -mode has a larger core, and there-
fore accepts more li ght and more frequenci es of li ght. Multi -mode i s used
for shorter-di stance appli cati ons, such as LANs. Multi -mode fi ber opti c i s
made wi th an orange-colored tube or j acket, and si ngle-mode fi ber i s
made wi th yellow.
Six Ones Si mple termi nology for a flag i n the X.25 protocol. Flags are
bytes that are i nserted and deleted by the frame layer ( or network layer,
i f you refer to OSI termi nology) i n between each frame. T he rules for the
X.25 frame layer are defi ned by the LAPB (Link-Access Procedure
Balanced mode) protocol. An X.25 flag bi t i s as follows: 01111110. See
also Bit Stuffing.
602 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 602
Six-Pack Coax A type of bundled coax that i s used i n ST S/SONET envi -
ronments. Bundled coax comes i n many si zes, i ncludi ng 6 pack, 10 pack,
12 pack, and 24 pack. Bundled coax i s generally used to i nterconnect
SONET equi pment, di gi tal cross-connect systems, and routers. See also
12-Pack Coax.
Six-Pair Can See 6-Pair Can ( Fi g. S.8) .
Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) 603
Figure S.8 A Six-Pair Can Outdoor Enclosure With Lightning Protection
Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) I n I P telephony- or server-
based PBX envi ronments, an appli cati on layer program that replaces lega-
cy ci rcui t based PBX and Publi c Telephone Network si gnali ng such as off-
hook, on-hook, and di aled di gi ts for Common Channel Si gnaled ( CCS or
out-of-band si gnali ng) T 1/E1 communi cati ons ci rcui ts ( Fi g. S.9) .
Although a propri etary Ci sco Systems protocol i ni ti ally, SCCP i s offered
vi a OEM to any telecommuni cati ons manufacturer that would li ke to
i mplement i t, and has been submi tted to standards bodi es to become a
standard. T here i s a need for ski nny protocol because wi thout i t or anoth-
er si gnali ng protocol li ke i t, all I P telephones would requi re an
on board PC to di gest the protocol soup servi ced i n I P and 7 layer
OSI communi cati on. Ski nny protocol enables a devi ce ( such as an I P
telephone) wi th mi ni mal i ntelli gence to be managed by a central server or
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 603
cluster of servers. T hi s i s si mi lar to the I BM SNA archi tecture where
there i s one central computer and many user termi nals attached to i t, only
i n thi s case there are telephones i nstead of dumb termi nals. Wi thi n I P
telephony envi ronments, multi ple vendors ( such as voi ce mai l, I VR, ACD,
and other telephone manufacturers) can bui ld SCCP support i nto thei r
products to manage si gnali ng between an I P telephony server, I P tele-
phones, and I P telephony gateways. T he Ski nny Gateway Program pro-
vi des si gnal translati on i nformati on from I P telephones to layer two
I P telephony gateways. I say layer 2 because gateways do not provi de
layer 3 ( I P network) layer servi ces; therefore, Ski nny Protocol does not
servi ce routers that functi on as gateways. ( Currently, routers currently
use MGCP and H.323v2 to perform PST N to I P Network translati on.) T he
si gnal translati on i nformati on i s a go-between from di aled di gi ts and off-
hook i nformati on to I P addressi ng through translati on tables i n a server-
based PBX ( or an I P telephony server) . Si mply stated, Ski nny Protocol i s
to the I P telephony envi ronment what a 24th out-of-band si gnaled T 1 and
the I SDN D-channel found i s to a ci rcui t-based PBX T DM envi ronment.
Slamming T he i llegal practi ce of changi ng a customers telecommuni ca-
ti ons carri er ( long-di stance or local) wi thout thei r consent. To i denti fy
the pri mary long-di stance carri er for a telephone ci rcui t i n the Uni ted
States, di al 1-700-555-4141. To i denti fy the local toll carri er for a ci rcui t
( li ne) , di al 1 ( the ci rcui t area code) 700-4141.
SLC96 Also known as Slick 96. A Lucent Technologi es pai r-gai n system
that multi plexes 96 telephone li nes onto ei ght pai rs of twi sted-pai r wi re.
I t i s used extensi vely i n the publi c telephone network to provi de tele-
phone servi ce to areas that do not have enough twi sted pai rs to meet cus-
tomer needs. T he SLC 96 actually uses four T 1 ci rcui ts ( 24 li nes per T 1)
to achi eve the 96-li ne transport. T he SLC 96 i s confi gured i n a cabi net,
one for i nsi de rack-mount central-offi ce use and the other ( far end) as an
outdoor cabi net. T he ci rcui t cards that are i ncorporated i nto the SLC 96
desi gn are separate and redundant power cards, battery back-up for the
remote end, common equi pment ( control) cards, and a separate card for
every two li nes that are multi plexed ( 48-li ne cards for a full system) .
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) A protocol that enables I P
datagrams to be transmi tted over di al-up telephone li nes. T he succes-
sor to SLI P i s PPP, whi ch provi des error detecti on and automati c con-
fi gurati on.
Sloppy Floppy Copy To copy data to a floppy di sk, then load i t onto
another computers hard dri ve when you cant get the LAN to work ri ght
or i f you dont have a LAN. Also called Sneaker Net.
604 Slamming
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Slot 1 A package that CPUs for personal computers come i n ( Fi g. S.9) .
Slot-1 packages provi de users wi th easi er i nterchangeabi li ty and a lower
producti on cost to manufacturers, as opposed to the older Socket-7 pack-
ages. Slot-1 CPUs can only be i nstalled i n Slot-1 motherboards, whi ch are
equi pped wi th the proper slot i nterface, whi ch the CPU plugs i nto.
Smart Card 605
Figure S.9 Slot-1 Package 500-MHz CPU
Slots A reference to expansi on capabi li ty of a PBX system, PC, or other
electroni c equi pment. PBX manufacturers make extra slots for electron-
i c ci rcui t cards to plug i nto the backplane of a K SU or cabi net for future
network expansi on.
Slotted Ring A LAN topology that i s, for all practi cal purposes, a
swi tched token ri ng.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) Pronounced as scuzzy. A
parallel i nterface standard for li nki ng i nternal computer components
( such as hard dri ves) and peri pheral devi ces ( such as pri nters) . T he
good thi ng about SCSI i nterfaces i s that they are faster than others ( such
as I DE/ATA) . T he drawbacks are the hi gher cost and that many of the
SCSI formats that are on the market are not compati ble wi th each other
( Fi g. S.10) . I f you upgrade your PC, you mi ght end up replaci ng the SCSI
i nterface i n your pri nter as well. Some examples of the SCSI formats and
thei r transfer speeds are: Fast SCSI , 8-bi t bus 10 Mbps; Fast Wi de SCSI ,
16-bi t bus 20 Mbps; Ultra Wi de SCSI , 16-bi t bus 40 Mbps; and Wi de
Ultra2 SCSI , 16-bi t bus 80 Mbps. See also IDE.
Smart Card A credi t card that not only has a magneti c stri p ( ROM) li ke
all tradi ti onal credi t cards, but also has a RAM component. Smart cards
are bei ng i mplemented i n places where i t i s i nconveni ent to carry cash,
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 605
li ke on battleshi ps at sea or i n amusement parks. To buy somethi ng, you
si mply place your card i nto a machi ne, the machi ne deducts the balance
from your account ( whi ch i s di rectly on the card) and the transacti on i s
completed.
Smart Jack Also known as an RJ68. A smart j ack i s an RJ45 ( 8-pi n modu-
lar j ack) that has some si mple electroni c components i nsi de i t that enables
i t to be remotely placed i n a loop-back mode for testi ng purposes.
SMDR (Station Message Detail Reporting) Another term for call
accounting. A call-accounti ng system i s a computer ( usually a dedi cat-
ed PC) that connects to a PBX swi tch vi a a seri al data port and moni tors
the detai ls of every phone call made through that swi tch. T he call detai ls
are stored as call records; wi th the appropri ate software, they can be
retri eved, sorted, processed, and queri ed to almost any speci fi c nature
that the call-accounti ng system admi ni strator desi res. T hese systems are
used by hotels to track all the calls you make from your room so that they
can bi ll you for them. T hey are also used by compani es to do bi ll back
reports for i ndi vi dual departments wi thi n the company.
SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service) A servi ce offered by
local telephone compani es that i s i ntended for the transport of large
amounts of data at hi gh speed from poi nt to poi nt over a swi tched type
of network. Enter i n the address or number that you would li ke your data
to be sent and the SMDSU ( SMDS Uni t) packeti zes the data and the
SMDS network transports i t. SMDS i s a packet- or frame-type technolo-
gy that i s avai lable i n fi ve transmi ssi on rates. Class 1 i s 4 Mb/s, Class 2 i s
10 Mb/s, Class 3 i s 16 Mb/s, Class 4 i s 25 Mb/s, and Class 5 i s 44.7 Mb/s.
606 Smart Jack
Figure S.10 SCSI 58-Pin Adapter
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 606
SMF Si ngle Mode Fi ber.
SMSA (Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area) An area that the
FCC manages ri ghts to provi de cellular servi ce. Most SMSAs have two
cellular servi ce provi ders.
SMTP (Simple Mail-Transfer Protocol) A standard i nterchange for-
mat used by e-mai l appli cati ons to exchange messages wi th each other.
SMT P does not provi de a user i nterface or method for a user to create a
message. I t only provi des a way for the message to be transferred. For
example, Lotus Notes can be confi gured to use SMT P when i t sends an
outgoi ng message to an I nternet e-mai l address. SMT P i s used i n con-
j uncti on wi th POP (Post Office Protocol) and MIME (Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions) to provi de T CP/I P I nternet e-mai l.
S/N Ratio (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) T he amount of desi red transmi ssi on
recei ved i n compari son to the amount of i nterference or di storti on
recei ved wi th i t. Expressed as a rati o.
SNA (Systems Network Architecture) I BM protocol and archi tecture
for mai nframe/termi nal computi ng envi ronments. See Fig. S.11.
SNA (Systems Network Architecture) 607
Mainframe
cluster controller
cluster controller
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Workstation
Figure S.11 SNA Network Architecture
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 607
608 SNADS (SNA, System Network Architecture, Distribution Services)
SNADS (SNA, System Network Architecture, Distribution Services)
A data-transacti on protocol that i s capable of bei ng encapsulated wi thi n
frame relay and X.25. A software set of SNA programs that work togeth-
er to provi de asynchronous i nformati on transacti ons between end users.
SNADS i s one of three SNA transacti on servi ces. See also Distributed
Data Management and Document Interchange Architecture.
Sneaker Net See Sloppy Floppy Copy.
SNI (Standard Network Interface) Also called TNI (Telephone Net-
work Interface) and NI (Network Interface). I t i s a devi ce used to
termi nate telephone servi ce at the customers locati on and provi de li ght-
ni ng protecti on. One si de of the SNI i s for telephone company use only
and the other si de provi des a place for customers to access thei r tele-
phone li nes ( Fi g. S.12) . For other photos of SNI s, see Standard Network
Interface and Lightning Protector.
Snips Sci ssors that telephone cable spli cers and cable i nstallati on techni -
ci ans use when i nstalli ng/spli ci ng cable. Sni ps have serrated blades, are
very sturdy, and are capable of cutti ng copper that i s as thi ck as a penny.
For a photo, see Cable Knife.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) A status and moni tor
subprogram that i s used almost exclusi vely i n T CP/I P networks. SNMP
provi des a means to moni tor and control network devi ces, such as hosts
and routers, on a LAN or WAN. I t enables the user to troubleshoot,
manage confi gurati ons, change/assi gn port addresses, collect stati sti cs,
Figure S.12 SNI (Standard Network Interface)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 608
performance, and securi ty. I n regard to SNMP, each devi ce wi th an I P
address on a T CP/I P network i s called an agent. T he stati on, host or ter-
mi nal that an admi ni strator uses to moni tor the agents on the network i s
called the SNMP manager. I nformati on and stati sti cs gathered by SNMP
i nclude: the number of I P packets that have been sent and recei ved, the
number of errors encountered at the MAC layer, and the number of T CP
retransmi ts.
Snowshoe A devi ce that i s used to mai ntai n a mi ni mum bend radi us for
i nstalled fi ber-opti c cable ( Fi g. S.13) . T he cable shown i n the photo has
a slack length to allow for future spli ci ng. T he slack i s run along the
strand and looped around snowshoes.
Socket 7 609
Figure S.13 Snowshoe
SO T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for shi ft out. T he bi nary code i s
1110000 and the hex i s E0.
Socket 1. I n T CP/I P, a socket i s a combi nati on of a T CP port number and
an I P address ( Fi g. S.14) . Sockets uni quely i denti fy all connecti ons wi thi n
an i nternet. 2. An AppleTalk socket i s si mi lar i n concept to a T CP/I P port.
Socket 7 A 321-pi n ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) flat package
that 586 CPUs for personal computers are manufactured i n. Only Socket-
7 CPUs can be used on Socket-7 motherboards ( Fi g. S.15) .
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 609
610 Socket 8
Socket 8 Also called a zero insertion-force socket. A combi nati on 387-
pi n package and matchi ng socket for advanced 586 CPUs for personal
computers. Socket-8 plugs ( or sockets) have a lever that holds
the CPU i n place. Only Socket-8 CPUs can be used wi th Socket-8
TCP
IP
IP ADDRESS
IP
IP ADDRESS
TCP
socket socket
CONNECTION = (PORT NUMBER, IP ADDRESS) - (PORT NUMBER, IP ADDRESS)
APPLICATION PROGRAM APPLICATION PROGRAM
PORT
PORT
NETWORK/PHYSICAL NETWORK/PHYSICAL
Figure S.14 Socket for TCP Logical Connections to Higher OSI Layers
Figure S.15 Socket-7 CPU
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 610
motherboards. T he Socket-8 archi tecture was outdated by the Slot-1
physi cal format.
Soft Call Forward A type of call transfer where an i ncomi ng call i s sent
to another locati on after i t has not been answered. A soft call forward
i s usually set by a voi ce-mai l admi ni strator or by a voi ce-mai l user. I n
contrast, a hard call forward i s a type of call transfer where an i ncom-
i ng call i s i mmedi ately routed to an alternate desti nati on wi th no ri ng-
i ng. A hard call forward i s usually set on a phone or phone li ne by a
user.
Software Also referred to as application. Software i s the programmi ng
i nstructi ons that are loaded i nto a computers memory that tells i t how
to functi on. Mi crosoft Word i s a software appli cati on and so i s Lotus
Notes.
SOH T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for start of headi ng. T he bi -
nary code i s 0001000 and the hex i s 10.
Solid State T he term solid state came about when the transi stor was
i nvented. Before the transi stor, vacuum-tube ampli fi ers were i n wi de use.
For a long ti me, many appli ances you bought sai d soli d state on them
because they had been made wi th transi stors and other si li con devi ces
i nstead of tubes.
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) SONET i s stri ctly a broad-
band transport system. I t i s i mplemented over fi ber opti c and i s able
to be confi gured i n a ri ng, whi ch allows i t to reroute traffi c wi th no
i nterrupti on of servi ce i f a fi ber i s cut ( Fi g. S.16) . CLECs are i mple-
menti ng SONET as the mai nstay of thei r network constructi on. SONET
i s based on a hi erarchy of STS (Synchronous Transport Signals),
whi ch i s the electri cal versi on of an OC-1 (Optical Carrier Level 1).
An OC 1 has a transmi ssi on speed of 51.84 M bs. T he hi erarchy of tele-
phone communi cati ons servi ces and thei r speeds i s shown i n the table.
SONET permi ts a vi rtual tri butary to be created from one node to an-
other on a network. Vi rtual tri butari es can be equal to a DS1, DS3,
ST S-1, or any of the OC levels. T he i mportant thi ng to know about a
SONET network i s that i t si mply replaces the older telecommuni ca-
ti ons technology copper twi sted-pai r outsi de plant wi th fi ber opti c and
electroni cs.
Sound Card An expansi on board/card that i s requi red by personal com-
puters to process di gi tal audi o i nformati on and produce sound through
speakers that are connected to i t.
Sound Card 611
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612 Source Route Bridging (SRB)
Figure S.16 SONET and Other Physical-Layer Transmission Rates
Source Route Bridging (SRB) I n token ri ng LAN networks, a bri dge/
router operati ng protocol that bui lds a table of ri ng numbers wi th
associ ated network connecti ons ( ports) on a bri dge devi ce. Source route
bri dgi ng uses the RI Fs ( Routi ng I nformati on Fi elds) from the headers of
frames to route them, as opposed to MAC addresses as i n transparent
bri dgi ng. Bri dges operati ng under source route bri dgi ng rules use the
All-Routes Explorer and Spanning Explorer frames sent by cli ents or
servers attached to the token network to bui ld thei r routi ng tables.
I n modern networks, routers are i mplemented to perform bri dge func-
ti ons ( and frequently called bridges even though they are routers) wi th
the appropri ate operati ng protocol enabled ( i .e., source route bri dgi ng)
to sui t the networki ng task at hand. Bri dges are used to i solate traffi c
between common users on a shared bandwi dth network, thus maki ng
communi cati on between devi ces more effi ci ent. I n large-scale networks,
LAN swi tches are i mplemented, wi th bri dges/routers connecti ng or
bri dgi ng the swi tches. See also Source Route Bridging, Source Route
Transparent Bridging, Spanning Tree, and Source Route Switching.
Source Route Transparent Bridging (SRT) I n mi xed networks usi ng
Ethernet and token ri ng, SRT uses RI Fs ( Routi ng I nformati on Frames)
and MAC addresses to accompli sh packet transfer between separate and
unli ke LANs. SRT i s a combi nati on of transparent bri dgi ng, whi ch uses
MAC addresses to route frames, and Source Route Bri dgi ng, whi ch uses
RI Fs ( Routi ng I nformati on Fi elds) to route frames. No standards group
has adopted SRT. T here are some compli cated i ssues i n accompli shi ng
the protocol conversi on from Ethernet to token ri ng that make i t chal-
lengi ng for the compani es that create products to sui t the task. Some of
those challenges i nclude a di fferent maxi mum packet si ze ( li mi ted to
1500 bytes by Ethernet) , i ncompati ble spanni ng tree algori thms, and
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 612
unli ke bi t orderi ng ( i n Ethernet, the least si gni fi cant address bi t i s put
on the wi re fi rst; i n token ri ng, the most si gni fi cant i s fi rst) . When SRT
i s i mplemented, all i ncompati bi li ty i ssues need to be addressed on a case-
by-case basi s by the end users.
Source Routing Bridge A type of network bri dge that reli es on routi ng
i nformati on provi ded by an external sendi ng system. See also Bridge.
Southwestern Bell Corp. Merged wi th SBC (Southern Bell Communi-
cations).
Spade Lug A connector wi th two flat surfaces shaped li ke a two-prong
fork that cri mps onto a wi re so that the wi re can be mounted wi th screws.
SPAM (SPecialized Automated Mail) T he electroni c versi on of j unk
mai l, unrequested e-mai l messages that adverti se products to users that
have I nternet e-mai l boxes.
Span One secti on of aeri al wi re.
Spanning Tree A term gi ven to routi ng translati on tables that are cre-
ated automati cally by network operati ng software algori thms.
Spantree (STP) I n Ethernet swi tchi ng, the I EEE 802.1d standard for
Spanni ng Tree Algori thm that prevents layer 2 loops i n redundantly con-
nected LAN swi tches. Spantree i s automati cally enabled when redundant
bri dges are connected. I f redundant bri dges were connected to a network
wi thout Spantree enabled, the dual connected bri dges would forward the
same frames to each other i n an endless loop. T hi s condi ti on saturates
bandwi dth i mmedi ately and renders all devi ces associ ated wi th the loop
useless. T he way that Spantree works i s that when bri dges are i ni ti ali zed
( powered on) , they send a si gnal to other networked devi ces called a
Bri dge Protocol Data Uni t ( BDPU) . When bri dges/swi tches recei ve these
BDPUs from other devi ces, they become aware that other bri dges are
connected to the network and whether any are connected i n redundancy
to them. Usi ng BDPU i nformati on, bri dges on the network elect a root
bri dge and a desi gnated bri dge. Dependi ng on the way the bri dges are
physi cally connected, all ports are blocked or parti ally di sabled except
for root ports and desi gnated ports, whi ch are bri dge ports closest ( by
number of hops) to a desi gnated or root bri dge. I f a li nk i s lost, an alter-
nate port then becomes the root port. New BDPU messages are sent to
noti fy other bri dges of the status change. Most makers of bri dgi ng hard-
ware set the default to automati cally send BDPUs and enable Spantree to
On. T hi s i s so that i f a network i s unknowi ngly connected wi th bri dges i n
Spantree (STP) 613
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 613
parallel, i t wi ll not bri ng the network down. T he 802.1d standard evolved
from Di gi tal Equi pment Corporati ons ( DEC) Spantree algori thm. 802.1d
and the ori gi nal DEC Spantree are not i nteroperable ( Fi g. S.17) . Further,
when i ncorporated wi th 802.1Q ( VLANs) , one i nstance of spanni ng tree
must be set up for each and every VLAN. See also STP Bomb.
614 Spark Gap
Figure S.17 Path Cost for Spantree
Spark Gap Two wi res, one hot, and one ground that are separated by a
gap of ai r. Spark gaps are used for li ghtni ng protecti on. I f the hot lead, or
anythi ng connected to i t, i s struck by li ghtni ng, the li ghtni ng wi ll arc across
the spark gap because i t i s engi neered to be the easi est path to ground.
Spatial Redundancy Havi ng multi ple fai l-over devi ces i n multi ple loca-
ti ons. Often, especi ally i n non-server-based PBX ( I P telephony) envi -
ronments, the enti re PBX wi th all of i ts redundant electroni cs resi de
wi thi n one room. Spati al redundancy means havi ng redundant electron-
i cs resi de i n di fferent rooms or bui ldi ngs. T hi s i s advantageous i n areas
where there i s threat of di sasters such as tornadoes, explosi ons, earth-
quakes, floods, and the li ke. Spati al redundancy i s one of the i nherent
and easy to i mplement features of I P telephony.
Spatial Reuse Protocol (SRP) A soluti on for reli ably and economi cally
transporti ng I P over fi ber networks. As bandwi dth requi rements and de-
mand for I P i n metropoli tan markets i ncrease, servi ce provi ders need
equi pment that i s opti mi zed for transporti ng and managi ng I P traffi c over
an opti cal i nfrastructure. SRP allows I P-based metropoli tan networks to
offer the same protecti on and restorati on benefi ts as SONET-based net-
works whi le doubli ng bandwi dth effi ci ency.
Speakerphone A feature of telephones. Speaker phone allows a user to
talk on the phone as i f i t were an open i ntercom system i n the room,
wi thout usi ng a handset.
Spectrum Analyzer A type of test equi pment used to evaluate the sta-
tus of a broadband transmi ssi on. Spectrum analyzers are commonly used
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 614
by cable-T V head-end techni ci ans to troubleshoot and i solate noi se and
other troubles on cable-T V networks ( Fi g. S.18) .
Spectrum, Frequency 615
Figure S.18 Spectrum Analyzer
Spectrum, Frequency All electromagneti c radi ati on i s categori zed by i ts
frequency i n Hz. I f some of the frequenci es were vi brati ons, rather than
electromagneti c waves, people could hear them. Some electromagneti c
radi ati on ( theoreti cally) i s vi si ble as li ght. T he full spectrum of electro-
magneti c radi ati on i s li sted i n Fi g. S.19, along wi th a bri ef descri pti on of
i ts use or what types of transmi ssi ons are broadcast over those fre-
quenci es. See also IEEE Radar Band Designation.
Frequency Range US designator ITU designator use
30 Hz to 300 Hz ELF (extremely low freq) 2 Submarine/power
300 Hz to 3 KHz ULF (ultra low freq) 3 Human audio
3 KHz to 30 KHz VLF (very low freq) 4 Human audio
30 KHz to 300 KHz LF (low freq) 5
300 KHz to 3 MHz MF (medium freq) 6 AM radio
3 MHz to 30 MHz HF (high freq) 7
30 MHz to 300 MHz VHF (very high freq) 8 FM radio Broadcast TV
300 MHz to 3 GHz UHF (ultra high freq) 9 Broadcast TV
3 GHz to 30 GHz SHF (super high freq) 10 Terrestrial microwave/satellite
30 GHz to 300 GHz EHF (extremely high freq) 11 Terrestrial microwave/satellite
300 GHz to 3 THz THF (tremendously high freq) 12 Heat infrared
3 THz to 30 THz 13 Infra-red light
30 THz to 300 THz 14
300 THz to 3 PHz 15 Visible light
3 PHz to 30 PHz 16 Ultra violet light
30 PHz to 300 PHz 17
300 PHz to 3 EHz 18
3 EHz to 30 EHz 19
30 EHz to 300 EHz 20
300 EHz to 3000 EHz 21
Figure S.19 Spectrum Frequency
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 615
Speed Dial A feature of telephone sets that enables a user to i nput a fre-
quently di aled telephone number and assi gn that number a speed-di al
code. To i ni ti ate the speed di al, the user di als the code i nstead of the
enti re number.
Speed of Light T he approxi mate speed of li ght i n a vacuum i s
300, 000, 000 m/s.
SPF (Shortest Path First Algorithm) SPF i s also referred to as a link-
state or Dijkstras Algorithm. A class of router-operati ng software that
enables routers to bui ld thei r own complex address routi ng tables that
detai l every router and node wi thi n thei r network. T he routi ng table-
bui ldi ng process i s accompli shed through i nformati on multi casts. T he
routi ng-table multi casts are referred to as LSPs (Link-State Packets)
and they consume payload bandwi dth to transmi t thi s i nformati on. T he
process of sendi ng and recei vi ng LSPs i s called the discovery process.
Multi casts are only sent when there i s a change i n the network, such as
a ci rcui t connecti on goi ng down, or a new router or connecti on bei ng
added. Li nk-state algori thms use tremendous amounts of router system
memory ( 20 MB to 30 MB i n a 30-node network) , and consume si gni fi -
cant processor resources wi thi n a routers ci rcui try. Duri ng the startup
of a li nk-start network, the di scovery process can take hours. T he great
advantage to thi s complex operati ng method i s that routi ng loops are not
created. See also Distance Vector Routing Algorithm and Hybrid Rout-
ing Algorithm.
SPF (Shortest Path First) ( Also known as Link State Routing Pro-
tocol, Distributed Routing Protocol and Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol.) An SPF routi ng protocol i s a methodology used i n router
protocol desi gn. T hi s methodology enables routers wi thi n an au-
tonomous network ( i .e., corporate LAN) to i denti fy each other and
the status of thei r port connecti ons. SPF protocols create three
databases wi thi n a routers memory: a nei ghbori ng router database, a
li nk database, and a routi ng table. T he routi ng table i s created by
applyi ng Dykstras algori thm to the fi rst two databases. T he most
wi dely used SPF protocol i s Open Shortest Path Fi rst ( OSPF) . See
also OSPF.
SPID (Service Profile Identifier) An ISDN (Integrated Services Dig-
ital Network) telephone number. T he number that some telephone com-
pani es use to defi ne the servi ces to whi ch an I SDN devi ce subscri bes.
I SDN devi ces use SPI D numbers when accessi ng the telephone
companys swi tch to i denti fy the devi ce i t would li ke to be connected to.
I n the Uni ted States, SPI D numbers can look li ke ordi nary publi c-servi ce
616 Speed Dial
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 616
telephone numbers wi th an extensi on, such as 972-555-1212 4455. T here
i s one SPI D for each B Channel. See also ISDN.
Splice T he connecti ng of two wi res, cables, coax cables, or cable pai rs
together. A spli ce i s shown on an engi neeri ng di agram as an arrow. T he
actual spli ces of twi sted-pai r telephone cable are done wi th modular-type
spli ces, plai n B wi re connectors, or 3M Scotchloks. For photos, see Plain
B Wire Connector, Modular Splice Tool, and Scotchlok. Fi ber-opti c ca-
ble i s spli ced vi a mechani cal or fusi on spli ci ng, and coaxi al cable i s spli ced
wi th barrel connectors. For a photo of a barrel connector, see Barrel
Connector.
Splice Tray A place wi thi n a fi ber-opti c patch panel or other fi ber-opti c
spli ce closure that holds fusi on spli ces. I n Fi g. S.20, the fi ber opti c can be
seen below the patch panel. I t i s wrapped i n a ci rcle i n the two spli ce trays.
Split Horizon Update 617
Figure S.20 Fiber-Optic Splice Tray
Split T he Lucent Technologi es name for a queue. I t was named so be-
cause i t evenly spli ts i ncomi ng calls among agents logged i nto an ACD
system. See Queue.
Split Horizon Update A routi ng techni que i n whi ch i nformati on about
routes i s prevented from exi ti ng the router i nterface through whi ch that
i nformati on was recei ved. Spli t-hori zon updates are useful i n preventi ng
routi ng loops that count to i nfi ni ty. T hey are i ncorporated i nto newer
router operati ng systems, such as li nk-state, di stance vector, and hybri d.
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 617
Split Pair T he use of one wi re from two pai rs to make a pai r. Someti mes
spli t pai rs are done by mi stake, but the maj ori ty of the ti me, i t i s done
as a desperate measure to deli ver a telephone servi ce to a customer. I f
there are two bad pai rs, but each pai r has one good wi re i n i t, the good
wi re i s taken from each pai r to make one good pai r. Spli t pai rs often
cause i nducti ve cross talk and pi ck up RFI . After RFI fi lters are placed
on the spli t pai r, i t wi ll work unti l new/more telephone wi re can be i n-
stalled or unti l the old wi re can be fi xed.
Splitter Used to make a j uncti on poi nt or spli t a si gnal so that i t wi ll
travel down multi ple paths over coax. Also called an RF splitter and a
UHF/VHF Splitter. For a photo, see RF Splitter.
Spoofing 1. A method used by routers to cause a host to beli eve an i n-
terface i s up and supporti ng a communi cati ons sessi on. T he router
accompli shes thi s by respondi ng to keep-ali ve messages sent from the
host. T hi s convi nces the host that the communi cati ons sessi on i s sti ll
runni ng. Spoofi ng i s useful to routers i n di al-on-demand envi ronments,
i n whi ch a router wi ll di sconnect a call when a transmi ssi on i s complete,
but keep i ts connecti on to a workstati on acti ve. By doi ng thi s, the router
wi ll know when the workstati on needs to send packets agai n and i ni ti -
ate a call. T hi s provi des the abi li ty to have effecti ve routi ng and save on
toll charges. 2. T he i llegal act of sendi ng a data packet that clai ms to
be from an address from whi ch i t was not actually sent. Spoofi ng i s de-
si gned to foi l network securi ty mechani sms, such as fi lters and access
li sts.
Spread Spectrum T he radi o type used i n PCS cellular transmi ssi ons.
Spread-spectrum radi o transmi ts and recei ves carri er si gnals over a wi de
spectrum of frequenci es ( channels) . Several technology platforms i n
wi reless communi cati ons are consi dered to be spread spectrum. A
spread-spectrum system i s any system that occupi es more bandwi dth
than the mi ni mum requi red for data si gnal transfer. Two data formats
transmi tted on spread-spectrum platforms i nclude CDMA ( Code-Di vi si on
Multi ple Access) and T DMA ( T i me-Di vi si on Multi ple Access) .
SPS (Standard Positioning Service) T he GPS (Global-Positioning
System) servi ce that ci vi li ans get, but does not correct si gnal di theri ng.
Spud A hand shovel especi ally made for di ggi ng holes for telephone poles.
Spudger A devi ce that i s shaped and si zed li ke a penci l that telephone
techni ci ans use to poke thei r way through telephone cable when they
are looki ng for a certai n pai r of wi res. See Fig. S.21.
618 Split Pair
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SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory) 619
Figure S.21 Spudger
Spurs What telecommuni cati ons and power company personnel wear to
cli mb wooden telephone and power poles. T he offi ci al name for these
devi ces are linemans climbers. T hey are also called climbers, hooks,
and gaffs. T hey consi st of a steel shank that has straps on i t so that i t
can be strapped to a persons leg. On the i nsi de of the shank i s a spi ke
that i s used to stab i nto the pole. For a photo, see Climbers.
SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) A part of the Novell NetWare pro-
tocol stack. SPX i s used for very speci fi c appli cati ons. Usually they i n-
clude i nterserver or other devi ce communi cati ons, such as pri nti ng re-
ports, done by servers. An appli cati on that would use SPX i s for remote
control/admi ni strati on ( RCONSOLE) of servers.
SQL (Structured Query Language) An i nternati onal standard lan-
guage for defi ni ng and accessi ng relati onal data bases.
Squelch An electroni c ci rcui t or fi lter that i s i ncorporated i nto mi cro-
phone ci rcui ts that makes them have an adj ustable sensi ti vi ty to the loud-
ness of a sound the mi crophone wi ll pi ck up. Squelch ci rcui ts are used
i n speakerphones to cut out background and transi ent noi se.
SRAM (Static Random-Access Memory) Electronic memory is avail-
able in two families, ROM (Read-Only Memory) and RAM (Random-Access
Memory). Memory devices are made from two different technologies:
bipolar (TTL) and MOS (Metal-Oxide Semi-conductor). Memory i s
stored by a techni que called writing and retri eved by a techni que called
reading. ROM devi ces can only be read, and are programmed duri ng
manufacture. PROM devices (Programmable Read-Only Memory) can
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 619
be programmed at a later date by an electroni cs reseller or electroni c as-
sembler for a speci al appli cati on usi ng speci al equi pment. Speci al ROM
devi ces called EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
can be electroni cally erased and re-used. RAM has read and wri te capa-
bi li ty. T he term random access means that any memory address can be
read i n any order at any ti me. T he two types of RAM are stati c and dy-
nami c. Stati c RAM can hold i ts memory even when power i s removed.
Dynami c RAM needs constant power to refresh i ts memory. For a di a-
gram that depi cts the types of memory, see Memory.
SRB (Source Route Bridging) I n token ri ng LAN networks, a
bri dge/router operati ng protocol that bui lds a table of ri ng numbers wi th
associ ated network connecti ons ( ports) on a bri dge devi ce. SRB uses the
RI Fs ( Routi ng I nformati on Fi elds) from the headers of frames to route
them, as opposed to MAC addresses as i n transparent bri dgi ng. Bri dges
operati ng under Source Route Bri dgi ng rules use the All-Routes
Explorer and Spanning Explorer frames sent by cli ents or servers
attached to the token network to bui ld thei r routi ng tables.
ti ons ( and frequently called bri dges even though they are routers) wi th
the appropri ate operati ng protocol enabled ( i .e., Source Route Bri dgi ng)
SRP (Spatial Reuse Protocol) A soluti on for reli ably and economi cally
transporti ng I P over fi ber networks. As bandwi dth requi rements and de-
mand for I P i n metropoli tan markets i ncrease, servi ce provi ders need
equi pment that i s opti mi zed for transporti ng and managi ng I P traffi c over
an opti cal i nfrastructure. SRP allows I P-based metropoli tan networks to
offer the same protecti on and restorati on benefi ts as SONET-based net-
works whi le doubli ng bandwi dth effi ci ency.
SS7 (Signaling System 7) A method of out-of-band i nteroffi ce si gnal-
i ng for telephone ci rcui ts. Si mply stated, out-of-band means that there
i s a speci al separate li ne used to carry si gnali ng, such as di aled touch
tones, ri ngi ng si gnals, busy tones, ( everythi ng but the actual voi ces/
conversati on) etc.
T he two di fferent ways to send si gnals i n telephone transmi ssi ons are
i n-band and out-of-band. Si gnals are di gi ts that you di al, di al tone, the
phone bei ng off-hook, ri ngi ng, etc. An i n-band telephone li ne i s li ke the
620 SRB (Source Route Bridging)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 620
one i n your home, the di gi ts that you di al, and the ri ngi ng are carri ed
wi thi n the channel you talk on. Out-of-band si gnali ng i s a method that tele-
phone compani es and busi nesses use for larger PBX appli cati ons and data-
transfer appli cati ons. An out-of-band si gnaled DS1 has 24 multi plexed
channels. T he 24th channel carri es the si gnali ng for the other 23 channels
or phone li nes. T he advantage of out-of-band si gnali ng i s that each chan-
nel has an i ncreased capaci ty to carry data ( 8 K b/s more) and the 23 chan-
nels are not used to fi nd out i f a li ne i s busy ( both di recti ons, i n and out) .
T he off-hook sensi ng, busy si gnali ng, and other si gnali ng previ ously men-
ti oned i s performed i n the 24th channel. I f your system recei ves thousands
of calls per day, thi s can reduce traffi c. SS7 makes i t easy for long-di stance
compani es to let us di al a phone number, get a busy si gnal, and not be
bi lled for i t because we are not really usi ng a call channel.
ST Connector (Straight Tip Connector) An older type of fi ber-opti c
connector. T he newer i s the SC connector, whi ch i s constructed of plasti c
i nstead of metal. For a photo of an ST connector, See Fiber-Optic Con-
nector.
Standard Network Interface (SNI) T he devi ce used to termi nate tele-
phone servi ce at the customers locati on and provi de li ghtni ng protec-
ti on ( Fi g. S.22) . One si de of the SNI i s for telephone company use only,
the other si de provi des a place for customers to access thei r telephone
li nes. For photos of other types of network i nterfaces, see Two-Line Net-
work Interface.
Standard Network Interface (SNI) 621
Figure S.22 Standard Network Interface
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 621
Standby Processor A second ( redundant) CPU that takes over i f the
pri mary one fai ls.
Standing Wave I n radi o transmi ssi on, a standi ng wave occurs when volt-
age and current form uneven poi nts along a transmi tters antenna or trans-
mi ssi on li ne. T hi s i s caused by a mi smatch of load ( antenna) i mpedance
to transmi ssi on-li ne i mpedance, and causes an i neffi ci ent transmi ssi on.
T he term relati ng to standi ng waves i s the SWR (Standing-Wave Ratio),
whi ch i s the rati o of maxi mum current poi nts on the li ne to the mi ni mum
current poi nts on the li ne. To pi cture a standi ng wave, i magi ne you make
waves i n a bathtub so that waves reflecti ng from the si des of the tub col-
li de i n perfect ti mi ng wi th new waves made from your hand. T he waves
would appear to stand sti ll and thus be called standing waves.
Star LAN Network See Star Topology.
Star Topology A topology or type of LAN (Local-Area Network). T he
star topology i s used i n Ethernet appli cati ons ( Fi g. S.23) . Ethernet i s one
of the oldest communi cati on protocols for personal computers. When a
LAN i s menti oned, the two thi ngs that should i mmedi ately come to mi nd
are physi cal topology and the protocol that the LAN uses to manage com-
muni cati ons between devi ces. Ethernet can be i mplemented i n a bus or
star physi cal topology. T he alternati ve fami ly of LAN protocols i s the token-
passi ng type, whi ch i s confi gured as a ri ng topology ( see token ri ng) .
I n an Ethernet LAN, computers are gi ven a means to communi cate
wi th each other called a protocol. A protocol i s a set of rules and i n-
structi ons for communi cati ng. Wi thi n the protocol i s a logi cal topology.
Even though a network mi ght be connected as a star, i t can sti ll look li ke
a bus to the communi cati ons equi pment because all of the computers/
devi ces are connected to the same wi re ( i n the star di agram, the hub i s
a devi ce that connects all the wi res together) . Ethernet works si mi lar to
the way that people talk i n a group. I nstead of usi ng wi re to carry the bi-
nary coded i nformati on as Ethernet does, people use ai r to carry sound
i nformati on. When there i s a si lence, then one of the persons i n the group
i s able to speak. When the people speak, they say Johnny, do you know
the answer for 55? Even though all the people i n the group hear thi s
message, they know i t i s for Johnny because the message was addressed
to hi m. Only Johnny wi ll respond 10. T hen i magi ne Dawn and Vi cki both
acknowledge a si lence and try to speak at the same ti me. T hi s i s confus-
i ng and no one understands the i nformati on. Ethernet has the same prob-
lem and i t i s called a collision. Colli si on i s the di sadvantage of Ethernet.
Because of the possi bi li ty of colli si ons ( whi ch happen very frequently) ,
Ethernet i s called a contenti on-based protocol because all of the con-
nected devi ces are contendi ng for use of the network. Manufacturers have
622 Standby Processor
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 622
come out wi th new ways to avoi d colli si ons, called CSMA/CD and
CSMA/CA. Ethernet has many di fferent types of wi ri ng to connect de-
vi ces and many di fferent NICs (Network Interface Cards) to select from
that need to be i nstalled i n each computer or devi ce on the network. T he
li st shows Ethernet protocols and the type of wi ri ng used for each.
Start of Heading (SOH) T he ASCI I control code for start of headi ng.
T he bi nary code i s 0001000 and the hex i s 10.
Static RAM (SRAM, Static Random-Access Memory) Electroni c
memory i s avai lable i n two fami li es, ROM (Read-Only Memory) and
RAM (Random-Access Memory). Memory devi ces are made from two
di fferent technologi es: bipolar (TTL) and MOS (Metal-Oxide Semi-
conductor). Memory i s stored by a techni que called writing and
retri eved by a techni que called reading. ROM devices can only be read,
and are programmed duri ng manufacture. PROM devices (Program-
mable Read-Only Memory) can be programmed at a later date by an
electroni cs reseller or electroni c assembler for a speci al appli cati on
usi ngspeci al equi pment. Speci al ROM devi ces called EPROMs (Erasable
Static RAM (SRAM, Static Random-Access Memory) 623
ETHERNET TYPES
PROTOCOL PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY WIRING USED
10 BASE 2 BUS RG 58 COAX (50 ohm)
10 BASE 5 BUS RG 8 COAX (50 ohm)
10 BASE T STAR CAT 4 or 5 UTP/STP*
100 BASE T STAR CAT 5 UTP/STP*
* unshielded twisted pair / shielded twisted pair
Figure S.23 Star Topology
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 623
Programmable Read Only Memory) can be electroni cally erased and
re-used. RAM has read and wri te capabi li ty. T he term random access
means that any memory address can be read i n any order at any ti me.
T he two types of RAM are stati c and dynami c. Stati c RAM can hold i ts
memory even when power i s removed. Dynami c RAM needs constant
power to refresh i ts memory. For a di agram that depi cts the types of
memory, see Memory.
Static Route I n network routi ng, a path that i s expli ci tly confi gured and
entered i nto the routi ng table by a network admi ni strator. Stati c routes
take precedence over routes chosen by dynami c routi ng protocols.
Static VLAN I n Ethernet ( 802.3) , there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c
and dynami c. Stati c VLANs are associ ated wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c
VLANs are associ ated wi th the MAC addresses of devi ces attached to
the swi tch. Dynami c VLANs allow users to move to another offi ce that
could have a data connecti on i nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the
same VLAN as the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also VLAN
and Frame Tagging.
Station Message-Detail Reporting (SMDR) Another term for call
accounti ng. A call-accounting system i s a computer ( usually a ded-
i cated PC) that connects to a PBX swi tch vi a a seri al data port and
moni tors the detai ls of every phone call made through that swi tch.
T he call detai ls are stored as call records. Wi th the appropri ate soft-
ware, they can be retri eved, sorted, processed, and queri ed to almost
any speci fi c nature that the call-accounti ng system admi ni strator de-
si res. T hese systems are used by hotels to track all the calls that you
make from your room so that you can be bi lled. T hey are also used by
compani es to bi ll back reports for i ndi vi dual departments wi thi n the
company.
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing A multi plexi ng technology
that gi ves users automati c adj ustable bandwi dth.
STDM (Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing) A multi plexi ng tech-
nology that gi ves users automati c adj ustable bandwi dth.
Step-Down Transformer A transformer that i s wi red i n a fashi on to re-
cei ve an AC voltage on i ts pri mary wi ndi ng and reduce that voltage
through electromagneti c i nducti on i nto the secondary wi ndi ng ( Fi g. S.24) .
Reversi ng the way a transformer i s wi red changes i t from a step-down to
a step-up and vi ce versa.
624 Static Route
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Stepped-Index Fiber Optic 625

output
10:1
Schematic Symbol for an iron core step-down Transformer

primary

secondary
120V
AC
12V
AC

input
Figure S.24 Step-Down Transformer
Step-Up Transformer See Step-Down Transformer ( Fi g. S.25) .

output
10:1
Schematic Symbol for an iron core step-down Transformer

primary

secondary
120V
AC
12V
AC

input
Figure S.25 Step-Up Transformer
Stepped-Index Fiber Optic A fi ber opti c that has a core made of glass
consi sti ng of one refracti ve i ndex. Stepped i ndex fi ber i s avai lable i n
multi -mode and si ngle-mode. T he alternati ve to stepped-i ndex fi ber op-
ti c i s graded-i ndex fi ber opti c ( Fi g. S.26) . T he core of graded-i ndex fi ber
opti c consi sts of many layers of glass wi th di fferent refracti ve i ndexes
that cause the li ght to gradually bend as i t approaches the outsi de of the
fi ber. Graded-i ndex fi ber ( li ke stepped i ndex fi ber) i s avai lable i n multi -
mode or si ngle-mode, and i t i s more expensi ve.
LIGHT AS IT TRAVERSES THROUGH THE CORE OF A FIBER OPTIC
Stepped index fiber Graded index fiber
Figure S.26 Stepped-Index Fiber vs. Graded-Index Fiber
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 625
Stepper Switch Also called a crossbar switch. T he old analog telephone
swi tch had mechani cal relays that connected telephone calls. T hi s i s
where the term swi tch comes from. Old central-offi ce swi tches contai ned
li terally thousands of mechani cal swi tches.
STM (Synchronous Transfer Mode) New technologi es, such as
SONET, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), and ISDN (Integrated-
Services Digital Network), are leadi ng up to ST M . I t i s also referred
to as BISDN (Broadband Integrated-Services Digital Network).
I t wi ll enable the user to have a DS3 pri vate li ne, a POT S li ne, or an
ISDN BRI (Basic-Rate Interface) automati cally, dependi ng on the de-
vi ce they use to access the li ne, a hi gh-defi ni ti on T V set, a telephone,
or a PC.
STM-1 T he basi c bandwi dth bui ldi ng block for SDH (Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy). T he ST M-1 si gnal has a bandwi dth of 155.52 Mbps.
Furthermore, the ST M-1 format i s i denti cal to the electri cal ST S-1 and
the opti cal OC-1 formats. See also SDH and SONET.
Stop Bit I n seri al data transmi ssi on, the stop bi t i s a logi cal one ( 1) af-
ter the transmi ssi on of each character ( each character i s seven or ei ght
bi ts long) .
Store and Forward A packet-swi tchi ng process i n whi ch frames are
completely recei ved and thei r headers read before they are forwarded
out the appropri ate port. T hi s processi ng i ncludes calculati ng the CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) and veri fyi ng the desti nati on address. I n
addi ti on, frames mi ght be temporari ly stored i n memory unti l an avai l-
able li nk ( or channel) i s avai lable to carry the message. T hi s method
has advantages and di sadvantages compared to cut-through packet
swi tchi ng.
Store and Forward Switching T here are three ways that frames/
packets transverse through a LAN swi tch, bri dge or router. T he fi rst
i s store and forward, where the enti re frame and i ts contents are ac-
cepted and stored i n the swi tch. Error detecti on i s calculated ( CRC)
and i f the frame i s good, the address i s looked up i n the routi ng table.
When the associ ated desti nati on port/segment i s found, the frame i s
sent on to i ts desti nati on. T hi s i s a good method for routi ng traffi c be-
cause damaged frames, runt frames, and gi ant frames are di scarded
before they are transmi tted. T hi s method i s used where the network
i nfrastructure or medi a i s prone to damagi ng frames, such as RFI en-
vi ronments or a poor WAN network servi ce. T he di sadvantage of the
store and forward method i s latency. Stori ng the enti re frame whi le
626 Stepper Switch
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 626
the desti nati on port i s retri eved causes a delay, and i n multi ple-hop
networks, thi s can cause slow network performance even when there
i s very li ttle traffi c.
swi tch/router/bri dge i s the cut-through switching method, where
only the address of an i ncomi ng frame i s processed by memory. T he
address i s associ ated wi th i ts desti nati on port/segment i n the routi ng
table, and the enti re frame sent di rectly through. T hi s process hap-
pens i f the frame i s good or not, as long as there i s a nondamaged ad-
dress i n the frame. Cut-through swi tchi ng greatly reduces latency
delays through a network, but sti ll transmi ts bad frames. I f a NI C card
or host devi ce begi ns sendi ng lots of bad erroneous frames, the net-
work performance could be slowed greatly. Some LAN swi tches have
safeguards i n place to detect and suppress error storms from defec-
ti ve equi pment.
T he thi rd method of forwardi ng frames i s modified cut-through,
whi ch works si mi lar to store and forward, except that i t uses a li m-
i ted number of bytes to check for errors rather than the enti re frame.
T hi s method helps prevent the retransmi ssi on of defecti ve frames
and also provi des an acceptable level of latency delay through the net-
work.
STP (Spantree) I n Ethernet swi tchi ng, the I EEE 802.1d standard for
Spanni ng Tree Algori thm, whi ch prevents layer 2 loops i n redundantly
connected LAN swi tches. Spantree i s automati cally enabled when re-
dundant bri dges are connected. I f redundant bri dges were connected
to a network wi thout Spantree enabled, the dual connected bri dges
would forward the same frames to each other i n an endless loop. T hi s
condi ti on saturates bandwi dth i mmedi ately, and renders all devi ces as-
soci ated wi th the loop useless. T he way that Spantree works i s that
when bri dges are i ni ti ali zed ( powered on) , they send a si gnal to other
networked devi ces called a Bri dge Protocol Data Uni t ( BDPU) . When
bri dges/swi tches recei ve these BDPUs from other devi ces, they become
aware that other bri dges are connected to the network and whether
any are connected i n redundancy to them. Usi ng BDPU i nformati on,
bri dges on the network elect a root bri dge and a desi gnated bri dge.
Dependi ng on the way the bri dges are physi cally connected, all ports
are blocked or parti ally di sabled except for root ports and desi g-
nated ports, whi ch are bri dge ports closest ( by number of hops) to a
desi gnated or root bri dge. I f a li nk i s lost, an alternate port then be-
comes the root port. New BDPU messages are sent to noti fy other
bri dges of the status change. Most makers of bri dgi ng hardware set
the default to automati cally send BDPUs and enable Spantree to On.
T hi s i s so that i f a network i s unknowi ngly connected wi th bri dges i n
STP (Spantree) 627
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 627
parallel, i t wi ll not bri ng the network down. T he 802.1d standard evolved
from Di gi tal Equi pment Corporati ons ( DEC) Spantree algori thm.
802.1d and the ori gi nal DEC Spantree are not i nteroperable. Further,
when i ncorporated wi th 802.1Q ( VLANs) , one i nstance of spanni ng tree
must be set up for each and every VLAN. See also STP Bomb.
Straight-Tip Connector A type of round, metal fi ber-opti c connector,
usually called an ST connector. T he newer connector ( and rapi dly be-
comi ng more popular) i s the SC connector, whi ch i s square i n shape and
made of plasti c.
Strand Clamp A pole-attachment devi ce that i s used to hold steel strand
to uti li ty poles ( Fi g. S.27 ) .
628 Straight-Tip Connector
Figure S.27 Strand Clamps with 14-inch Mounting Bolts
Stranded Copper See Stranded Wire.
Stranded Wire A wi re that i s made up of many small wi res, rather than
one bi g soli d one. Stranded wi re i s not used i n telephony appli cati ons be-
cause i t doesnt stay connected to 66M150 or AT & T 110 termi nati on blocks.
Strand, Steel T he support for telephone cable, cable-T V coax, and fi ber-
opti c cable when i nstalled i n aeri al appli cati ons. See also Pole Attachment.
Strap An electri cal connecti on ( usually a wi re or metal j umper) from one
poi nt to another. Strap i s a common term used i n reference to the con-
fi gurati on of recti fi ers, power suppli es, and ci rcui t cards.
Stripe Pitch A measurement ( i n mi lli meters) of the di stance between
dots along the verti cal wi res i n a moni tor that i ncorporates aperture gri ll
technology. T he smaller the stri pe pi tch, the hi gher the resoluti on ca-
pabi li ty of the moni tor.
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 628
STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1) 629
STS (Synchronous Transport Signal) I n SONET networks, the opti cal
si gnal must be converted to electri ci ty at one ti me so i t can be de-mul-
ti plexed and further processed. T hi s electri cal versi on of the SONET OC-
1 level si gnal i s called a synchronous transport signal 1 (STS-1), and
i s transported from node to node or node to di gi tal cross-connect sys-
tem, or to DSX cross-connect panels vi a 50-ohm coax.
STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal 1) See STS ( Fi g. S.28) .
Figure S.28 STS-1 BNC Interface on a Cisco Switch/Router
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 629
STS-3 (Synchronous Transport Signal 3) Referred to by some as a
level 2. T he electri cal equi valent of an OC-3 (Optical Carrier Level 3).
155 Mbps.
STS-3c (Synchronous Transport Signal 3c) A physi cal-layer trans-
mi ssi on format that i s known as an STM1 outsi de of the Uni ted States
and Japan. T he ST S-3c i s the electri cal equi valent of the SONET OC-3.
T he transfer rate i s 155 Mbps, i ncludi ng overhead and payload. T he net
payload on an ST S-3c i s 149.76 Mbps. See Fig. S.29.
630 STS-3 (Synchronous Transport Signal 3)
SONET
MAINTENANCE
OPERATIONS
OVERHEAD
SONET 155 Mbps STS-3c / STM1 FRAME STRUCTURE
1 BYTE SYNCHRONOUS PAYLOAD ENVELOPE OVERHEAD
SYNCHRONOUS PAYLOAD ENVELOPE
149.76 Mbps
2340 BYTES
270 BYTES
260 BYTES 9 BYTES
9 ROWS
Figure S.29 SONET STM1 Frame
Stub Area I n network routi ng, a router at the bottom of a hi erarchi cal
desi gn or on the end of a hub-and-spoke desi gn. I t i s a router wi th only
one exi t poi nt from i ts local network, so a default gateway address i s
used for packets to be routed out of the local network. I n Ci sco Sys-
tems routers, routers that are i n an OSPF network can be confi gured to
be totally stubby, whi ch prevents them from recei vi ng database up-
dates from area border routers. T hi s feature enables i nexpensi ve routers
to be placed on the edge of OSPF networks.
Studio-Transmitter Link (STL) A studi o-transmi tter li nk i s basi cally a
remote control for a di stant transmi tter. I t i s a separate radi o channel
from the broadcast radi o stati on i tself and i t i s used to adj ust the amount
of power that the transmi tter emi ts, performance moni tori ng, and pro-
vi de remote access for testi ng and troubleshooti ng.
Stutter Dial Tone A di al tone that bli nks on and off when a telephone
li ne i ni ti ally goes i nto an off-hook state. A stutter di al tone i s used to si g-
nal a user that a new voi ce message i s i n thei r voi ce mai lbox, whi ch i s
also known as voice-mail notification.
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 630
STX T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for start text. T he bi nary code
i s 0010000 and the hex i s 20.
SUB T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for substi tute. T he bi nary code
i s 1010001 and the hex i s A1.
Subarea Network A group of devi ces that communi cate through the
same control node on an SNA (IBM System Network Architecture) net-
work. Two types of nodes are Type-4 communi cati ons controller nodes
and Type-5 host nodes. All devi ces i n a subarea share the same subarea
address and have uni que element addresses.
Subnet A method to more effi ci ently use I nternet I P addresses. I n 1985,
RFC 950 was wri tten to standardi ze a procedure for di vi di ng Class A, B,
and C networks i nto smaller, more manageable secti ons. Subnetti ng
i ncorporates a subnet mask i nto an I P address as a gui de to networki ng
devi ces i n i denti fyi ng whi ch bi ts to use when i denti fyi ng a network. A
subnet mask extends the bi ts processed by a router beyond the stan-
dard classful addressi ng scheme. Rather than use the fi rst three bi ts to
i denti fy the si ze ( or number of bi ts for) of the network I P address, the
subnet mask i s used. T he addi ti onal bi ts beyond the classful method
i denti fy the network. Subnetworks are networks arbi trari ly segmented
by a network admi ni strator i n order to provi de a multi level, hi erarchi cal
routi ng structure whi le shi eldi ng the subnetwork from the addressi ng
complexi ty of attached networks.
Subnet Zero I n I P addressi ng, a network address of zero. When an I P
address i s broken i nto subnets usi ng a subnet mask, the hi ghest subnet
i s all ones ( i .e., 11111111) , and the lowest i s all zeros ( i .e., 00000000) .
I ncorporati ng the all-zeros address i nto the I P address plan i s done only
by network admi ni strators as a last resort when all other possi ble ad-
dress numbers have been used. Usi ng the subnet zero i mproperly can
cause data to be mi srouted, whi ch causes poor network performance and
network fai lure. For example, i f network 131.108.0.0 i s subnetted as
255.255.255.0, subnet zero would be wri tten as 131.108.0.0, whi ch i s
equal to the network address. T hi s scenari o would cause a complete net-
work fai lure i n many cases.
Subscriber A telecommuni cati ons customer. T hi s i ncludes telephone,
cable T V, and cellular ( PCS and wi reless) .
Subscriber Loop T he pai r of wi res that runs from a telephone company
central offi ce ( or from extended transmi ssi on equi pment) to the cus-
tomers network i nterface. A loop i s a pai r of wi res.
Subscriber Loop 631
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 631
Subscriber Loop Carrier (Another term for SLC 96) See SLC 96.
Super Server A server that has multi ple mi croprocessors.
Superframe Format A frami ng format for T 1 that consi sts of 12 T 1
frames, 193 bi ts each, transmi tted i n successi on. T he superframe format
allows for mai ntenance and moni tori ng i nformati on to be sent along wi th
the 24 DS0 channels. ESF (Extended Super Frame) i s the newer ver-
si on of T 1 frami ng format.
Supernetting 1. T he opposi te of subnetti ng. Subnetting i s the process
of taki ng a network and dividing it into smaller subnetworks usi ng a
subnet mask. Supernetting i s the process of taki ng several discrete net-
works and advertising them in one routing update; for example, i f
an organi zati on had been assi gned a full block of Class C addresses, say
192.10.1.0/24 to 192.10.254.0/24. I nstead of adverti si ng 254 separate net-
works to the I nternet, the organi zati on may adverti se only the si ngle
route to 192.10.0.0 /16 to the I nternet. Full connecti vi ty i s possi ble be-
cause any datagram desti ned for a 192.10.x network i s bound for the
same organi zati on. When the packet gets to the organi zati on, i t i s the
responsi bi li ty of the routers of the organi zati ons to get the datagram to
the proper network. 2. I n I P addressi ng, a method used to li nk two or
more Class C addresses together so they functi on as one si ngle network
or I nternet si te.
Supervisory Signal A way that telephone electroni cs communi cates
wi th each other to i ni ti ate a command. I f you have call wai ti ng on your
home telephone, when you get another call ( hear the beep or cli ck i n-
di cati ng another call) , you momentari ly press the hook swi tch ( flash but-
ton) to si gnal the central offi ce to gi ve you the other li ne. T hi s i s an ex-
ample of a supervi sory si gnal. I t i s called a supervi sory si gnal because i t
relates to the connect and di sconnect of a phone li ne. T he general term
for the abi li ty for a central offi ce or PBX swi tch to recogni ze that a tele-
phone conversati on has ended i s disconnect supervision. When the
telephone i s hung-up, the central offi ce or PBX recogni zes the decrease
i n current flow and di sconnects the call. PBX (Private Branch Ex-
change) phone systems have di sconnect supervi si on, whi ch means that
when a call i s ended, i t recogni zes a hook-flash from the central offi ce
and di sconnects the call, or vi ce versa. I f the PBX di d not have thi s fea-
ture, i t would not release ( hang up) telephone calls.
Surface Mount 1. A reference to a modular j ack that i s shaped li ke
a box, and can be fastened to the surface of a wall, baseboard, or
632 Subscriber Loop Carrier (Another term for SLC 96)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 632
anywhere else you do not have prewi red outlets. Surface-mount j acks
are also called biscuit jacks and baseboard jacks. 2. A reference to
an electroni c component package where the devi ce i s soldered to the
surface of a PC board, rather than have leads that extend through the
board.
Surge Protector A power-fi lteri ng devi ce. Most surge protectors come
i n the form of an extensi on cord wi th si x to ei ght outlets box attached
to the end. Not all surge protectors are created equal. Most surge
protectors are more useful as an extensi on cord than any ki nd of pro-
tecti on from a voltage surge or spi ke. Some good surge protectors use
fast-swi tchi ng components to sense overvoltage and spi kes on the power
source. T hese good surge protectors cost about $50. I f you are truly con-
cerned about protecti on from all of the evi l electrophysi cal characteri s-
ti cs of publi c power, a small UPS system i s the best protecti on. A good
UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) costs about $150.
SVC (Switched Virtual Circuit) Any ci rcui t that can be connected for
a temporary amount of ti me wi th the use of electroni c ci rcui t swi tch-
i ng equi pment. T hi s i ncludes a plai n-old telephone call. When the phone
i s on the hook and no one i s usi ng i t, the telephone wi re runs to the
central offi ce and ends. When you pi ck up the recei ver and di al a num-
ber, the central offi ce makes a connecti on through i ts electroni cs from
one phone li ne to another that lasts only as long as the recei vers are
off hook. I t i s a swi tched ci rcui t because i t can be swi tched to any
telephone wi th a number that you di al. I t i s vi rtual because the actual
path through the electroni cs i s multi plexed, as opposed to a physi cal
pai r of wi res.
SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) T he suggested moni tor for the
PC that i s used for call-accounti ng appli cati ons, and other computer-
telephony i ntegrati on appli cati ons. T he SVGA moni tor i s capable of res-
oluti on to 1024 by 768 pi xels ( dots of li ght on the computer screen)
per i nch. SVGA i s the newer versi on of VGA (Variable Graphics
Array).
Switch 1. Another name for a PBX ( phone system) or central offi ce.
2. A reference to a ci rcui t connecti ng devi ce, as i n the circuit-ori ented
PBX/central offi ce swi tch i n a telephone envi ronment, or a packet-
forwardi ng swi tch as i n a LAN envi ronment ( Fi g. S.30) . I n both envi -
ronments, a swi tch i s a devi ce that forwards traffi c through the uti li za-
ti on of layer 2 ( Li nk/MAC layer) si li con hardware devi ces. See also LAN
Switch, PBX, and Transparent Bridging.
Switch 633
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 633
Switch Clustering Some manufacturers of Ethernet swi tchi ng equi pment
bui lt i n the abi li ty to li nk thei r swi tches together logi cally, maki ng them
appear as one easi ly manageable swi tch to an end user. T he swi tches may
be physi cally stacked on top of each other or located i n di fferent bui ld-
i ngs. Ei ther way, they appear as one swi tch to the system admi ni strator.
T hi s enables QoS and traffi c poli ci es to be confi gured an a global basi s.
T hi s feature i s commonly referred to as Switch Clustering.
Switch Room A room that i s dedi cated for swi tchi ng equi pment. Swi tch
rooms are usually kept at a temperature of 65 degrees F and a humi d-
i ty of 50% to reduce ESD.
Switched 56 A servi ce offered by local and long-di stance telephone com-
pani es that works li ke a regular telephone li ne except, that i t i s i ntended
for data/modem use. Swi tched 56K li nes have 7-di gi t telephone numbers
( plus area code) and they are avai lable i n di gi tal or analog. When the
telephone company i nstalls the li ne, they condi ti on the copper pai r ( re-
move bri dge taps and coi ls) and i nstall a DSU (Digital Service Unit),
whi ch i s a li ne/si gnal ampli fi er. Connect i t to your 56K modem; i t wi ll
transmi t at a rate of 56, 000 bi ts per second as long as you are talki ng to
another 56K modem on another 56K li ne.
Switched Ethernet An effi ci ency enhancement to the ori gi nal Ethernet
speci fi cati on. Swi tched Ethernet i ncorporates modi fi ed layer 2 ( Data Li nk
Layer) electroni cs i n hubs and repeaters. T hi s desi gn provi des an i ndi-
vi dual 100 Mbps ( for fast Ethernet) to each far end segment ( Fi g. S.31) .
Switched Ethernet Priority I n converged ( voi ce, vi deo, and data) Eth-
ernet envi ronments, a reference to the I EEE 802.1p standard for pri -
ori ti zati on of LAN traffi c among Ethernet swi tches based on the swi tch
port, MAC address, or I P address associ ated wi th the communi cati ng
end appli ance ( be i t an I P phone, vi deo moni tor, host PC, pri nter, or
server) . Packets are tagged as belongi ng to a queue, whi ch determi nes
634 Switch Clustering
Figure S.30 Ethernet Switch
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 634
the pri ori ty of the packet. By the 802.1p standard, queues 03 normal
and 47 are hi gh pri ori ty. 802.1p functi ons hand-i n-hand wi th 802.1Q
or VLANs.
Switched Multimegabit Digital Service (SMDS) A servi ce offered by
local telephone compani es that i s i ntended for the transport of large
amounts of data at hi gh speed from poi nt to poi nt over a swi tched type
of network. You enter i n the address or number that you would li ke
your data to be sent and the SM DSU ( SM DS Uni t) packeti zes the data
and the SM DS network transports i t. SM DS i s a packet- or frame-type
technology that i s avai lable i n fi ve transmi ssi on rates. Class 1 i s 4 M b/s,
Class 2 i s 10 M b/s, Class 3 i s 16 M b/s, Class 4 i s 25 M b/s, and Class 5
i s 44.7 M b/s.
Switched Private Line A reference to swi tched 56K servi ce.
Switched Service Basi c voi ce telephone li nes ( POT S li nes) are swi tched
servi ces.
Switched Virtual Circuit A telephone li ne i s a swi tched vi rtual ci rcui t.
T he ci rcui t only exi sts whi le the conversati on i s happeni ng. After
the conversati on i s over, the ci rcui t, whi ch acts li ke a pai r of wi res
from poi nt A to poi nt B, i s gone. Another form of a swi tched vi rtual
ci rcui t i s li ke those i n swi tched Ethernet or swi tched token-ri ng
technology.
Switched Virtual Circuit 635
Figure S.31 Ethernet Switched Hub
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 635
Switching Center Another name for a telecommuni cati ons companys
central offi ce. A locati on for swi tchi ng equi pment/electroni cs and trans-
port equi pment/electroni cs.
Switching Hub Also called a concentrator. A LAN (Local-Area Net-
work) element that li nks a devi ce to a network wi th a speci fi c amount
of bandwi dth or exchange rate of data, regardless of the number of users
on the network ( Fi g. S.32) . A swi tchi ng hub performs the same functi on
as a nonswi tchi ng hub, except that the nonswi tchi ng hub only connects
many users i nto the same channel, where they all share the same band-
wi dth. For a photo of a swi tched Ethernet hub, see Switched Ethernet.
636 Switching Center
switching
hub
passive/
active
hub
one virtual channel
for each user, sent
over two fibers or
two twisted pairs
all users share one
channel, over two
twisted pairs
The switching hub vs. the
passive/active hub
Figure S.32 Switching Hub
Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) A physi cal-layer tele-
communi cati ons protocol that deli vers hi gh-speed data networki ng over
a si ngle pai r of copper phone li nes. SDSL i s symmetri cal, whi ch means
that upstream and downstream data-transfer rates are the same. Speeds
range from 160 K bps to 1.544 Mbps. T he base transmi ssi on di stance i s
24, 000 feet ( about 4.5 mi les) , and i t can be extended to greater than
30, 000 feet wi th repeaters. SDSL can be extended to any di stance over
fi ber opti c. SDSL i s i deal for busi ness appli cati ons that requi re i denti cal
downstream and upstream speeds, such as vi deo conferenci ng or col-
laborati ve computi ng, as well as si mi lar appli cati ons that are appropri -
ate for ADSL technology. SDSL uses the same ki nd of li ne-modulati on
techni que used i n I SDN, known as 2B1Q.
SYN T he ASCI I control code abbrevi ati on for synchronous i dle. T he bi -
nary code i s 0110001 and the hex i s 61.
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 636
Synchro Daemon A background program or subrouti ne that i s used for
a ti mi ng reference i n telecommuni cati ons platforms.
Synchronize See Synchronous.
Synchronous Wi th ti me. A reference to communi cati ons equi pment
that i s ti med from a common ti mi ng source, such as a bi ts clock. SONET
networks are synchronous and modem transmi ssi ons are asynchronous.
Asynchronous means wi thout ti mi ng. People talk asynchronously. Even
though one person talks very fast and another very slowly, they both ex-
change i nformati on and process i t i n thei r brai ns.
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) A revi sed revi si on of the I BM
Bi sync protocol that was submi tted by i ts creator ( I BM) to the I SO and
ANSI i n hopes that i t would become a standard. I nstead, i t was evolved
by the I SO i nto HDLC (High-level Data-Link Control) and evolved by
the ANSI i nto ADCCP (Advanced Data Communication Control Pro-
cedure). T he CCI T T revi ewed and modi fi ed HDLC and called i t LAP
(Link-Access Procedure), whi ch became the basi s for the frame or net-
work layer of the X.25 standard i n 1976. T he LAP protocol was further
modi fi ed by the CCI T T to become LAPB (Link-Access Procedure Bal-
anced mode) i n 1978.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) A European fami ly of di gi tal
carri er rates. SDH defi nes a set of rate and format standards that are
transmi tted usi ng opti cal si gnals over fi ber. SDH i s the term used by the
I T U to refer to SONET OC rates referred to i n the Uni ted States. I ts ba-
si c bui ldi ng block i s a rate of 155.52 Mbps, desi gnated at ST M-1 ( OC-3) .
See also SONET and STM-1.
Synchronous Graphics RAM (SGRAM) A type of dynami c random-
access memory used as a buffer/temporary storage i n computers that en-
hances the performance of the graphi cs accelerator and vi deo adapters.
Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM) See STM.
Synchronous Transport Module Level-1 (STM-1) T he basi c band-
wi dth bui ldi ng block for SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy). T he
ST M-1 si gnal has a bandwi dth of 155.52 Mbps. Furthermore, the ST M-1
format i s i denti cal to the electri cal ST S-1 and the opti cal OC-1 formats.
See also SDH and SONET.
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS 1) See STS 1.
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS 1) 637
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 637
Synchronous Transport Signal 3c (STS-3c) A physi cal-layer trans-
mi ssi on format that i s known as an STM1 outsi de of the Uni ted States
and Japan. T he ST S-3c i s the electri cal equi valent of the SONET
OC-3. T he transfer rate i s 155 M bps, i ncludi ng overhead and payload.
T he net payload on an ST S-3c i s 149.76 M bps. See the di agram under
ST S-3c.
SyncLink Dynamic RAM (SLDRAM) A class of random-access mem-
ory used for personal computers that i s half as fast as RDRAM (Ram-
bus Dynamic RAM) at 400 MHz, but less costly ( at i ni ti al i ncepti on to
the market) . I t i s sti ll faster than SDRAM, whi ch exchanges data wi th
central computer components at a rate of 100 MHz.
System Speed Dial A feature of PBX (Private Branch Exchange) and
key telephone systems. Unli ke standard speed di al, where each i ndi vi d-
ual user programs a speed di al under a button on thei r own phone, sys-
tem speed di al programs a speed-di al number under a code. T he tele-
phone number programmed i n the system speed di al can be di aled by
enteri ng the code from any telephone on the system ( that has the fea-
ture) . T he Northern Telecom Meri di an 1 PBX system i s capable of hav-
i ng 1000 system speed-di al numbers.
Systme Electronique pour Couleur Avec Mmoire (SECAM) T he
analog televi si on broadcast standard i n France, Russi a, and regi ons of
Afri ca. SECAM i s a vari ant of PAL, but i t deli vers the same number of
verti cal scan li nes as PAL and uses the same refresh rate. See also Tele-
vision Broadcast Standards.
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) See SNA.
638 Synchronous Transport Signal 3c (STS-3c)
PQ104-5056F-PS.qxd 2/9/01 2:27 PM Page 638
T Carrier A reference to T 1 or T 3 transmi ssi on systems. A T 1 has 24 voi ce
channels ( standard telephone li nes) on one 4-wi re ci rcui t, and a T 3 has 28
T 1 channels ( also called tributaries) on one 4-wi re ci rcui t. For a di agram
of a T 1 and a chart showi ng T 1 si gnali ng and frami ng appli cati ons, see T1.
T Connector A coax connector used i n LAN (Local-Area Networks)
that has a male BNC on one end and two female BNC connectors on the
other. I ts shaped li ke a T.
T Interface An I SDN-compati ble di gi tal i nterface. For example, a T i n-
terface fi ts between an I SDN telephone and an I SDN li ne.
T PAD (Terminal Packet Assembler/Dissembler) A PAD that i s
speci fi cally located on the host end of a communi cati ons li nk. Even though
PADs are the same on each end, someti mes techni ci ans refer to them i n
a speci fi c manner. T he T PAD i s a devi ce that i s located at the termi nal
or user end ( as opposed to the host end) of a vi rtual communi cati ons li nk
i n a frame protocol envi ronment that reassembles and di sassembles large
fi les of data. T he HPAD (Host Packet Assembler Dissembler) also adds
and removes address, envelope, and HDLC i nformati on.
T Span Another name for a T 1 or T 3. See T1.
T.38 Phase 2 A Ci sco Systems developed fax gateway protocol that i s
now an I T U-T standard, I T U-T T.38. A fax gateway i s a devi ce that allows
639
T
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 639
640 T1
a si ngle telephone li ne to recei ve both faxes and voi ce calls. T he fax
gateway answers all i ncomi ng calls. I t li stens for a fax handshake tone
and i f i t does not hear one, i t ri ngs the telephone connected to i t. T.38
i s a feature that can be enabled on i ndi vi dual router FXS ports.
T1 A T 1 ( T one) i s a standard 1.544-Mbps carri er system used to trans-
port 24 telephone li nes or vari ous broadband servi ces from one poi nt to
another ( also called a DS1, but a DS1 i s the servi ce gi ven to a customer
wi thout the 135-V carri er) . T 1 i s the standard carri er for the Uni ted States,
Canada, Japan, and Si ngapore. All other countri es use the E1 standard
( 30 channels on four wi res) . T he T 1 i s a four-wi re ci rcui t, two wi res for
24
telephone
lines
24 DSO voice channels
multiplexed on a T1
Telco
Central
Office
Channel
Bank
24
telephone
lines
Customer
Premises
Channel
Bank
transmit
receive
multiplexers
DAC-
digital to analog
converters
Figure T.1 T1/DS1 for 24 DS0 Channels
customer
equipment
customer
equipment
receive
transmit
CSU/DSU CSU/DSU
DS1 DS1 T1
Figure T.2 T1/DS1 for a Private-Line Data Communications Channel
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 640
T1 Test Set 641
DS1/T1circuit/line types and applications
Line format/coding framing format signaling Application
AMI SF/D4 in-band 24 voice/modem channels
AMI ESF in-band 24 voice/modem channels
AMI ESF out-of-band 23 voice/modem or digital/data channels
B8ZS SF/D4 in-band 24 voice/modem channels
B8ZS ESF in-band 24 voice/modem channels
B8ZS ESF out-of-band 23 voice/modem or digital/data channels
Figure T.3 T1/DS1 Frame and Code Types
transmi t and two wi res for recei ve. T he T 1 li ne voltage i s 135 V. T he T 1
ci rcui t can carry voi ce or data. I ts use determi nes the vari ables of T 1 serv-
i ce, frami ng format, and li ne format ( Fi gs. T.1 to T.3) . See also DS1.
T1 CAS (T1 Channel Associated Signaling) A reference to the tradi-
tional circuit-switched method of signaling T 1 ESF ( Extended Super Frame)
of 24 individual 64 K bps channels, where 8 K bps is robbed from each
channel for signaling purposes, such as off-hook, ring, and so on. T 1 CAS
is usually a term used in I P telephony gateway consideration when there is
a need to connect to the telephone company with non-I SDN PRI signaling.
I SDN PRI is preferred in I P telephony implementations. See also T1.
T1 Test Set Many i nstruments are manufactured for testi ng T 1 trans-
mi ssi on ci rcui ts. See Fig. T.4.
Figure T.4 T1 Test Sets
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 641
642 T1C
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
green/white
white/brown
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
Pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Jack
Internal
Wire Color
Pair 1 Pair 2
Pair 3
Pair 4
Horizontal
Wire Color
Figure T.5 568A Wiring Diagram
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
green/white
white/brown
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
Pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Jack
Internal
Wire Color
Pair 1
Pair 2
Pair 3
Pair 4
Horizontal
Wire Color
Figure T.6 T568B Wiring Diagram
T1C A 3.152 M bps multi plexed si gnal that carri es the equi valent of
two T 1 si gnals. T he T 1C si gnal i s not a wi dely embraced form of trans-
port; however, i t does exi st wi thi n the stages of some multi plexi ng
equi pment.
T568A A standard for Ethernet wi ri ng. T he j ack pi nouts are shown i n
Fi g. T.5. See Appendi x G for di agrams of other LAN wi ri ng standards.
T568B A standard for Ethernet wi ri ng. T he j ack pi n-outs are shown i n
Fi g. T.6. See Appendi x G for di agrams of other LAN wi ri ng standards.
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 642
Talk Path 643
TA (Terminal Adapter) A devi ce that converts an ISDN (Integrated
Services Digital Network) li ne i nto regular POT (Plain-Old Tele-
phone) servi ce so that you can connect a standard telephone and/or mo-
dem to an I SDN li ne. For a di agram, see Terminal Adapter.
Tag Switching 1. A Ci sco Systems propri etary protocol that was sub-
mi tted to the I ET F ( I nternet Engi neeri ng Task Force) i n 1997 as a so-
luti on for i ntegrati ng I P and AT M. Tag swi tchi ng evolved i nto MPLS ( Mul-
ti Protocol Label Swi tchi ng) . T hi s I P over AT M standard i s used worldwi de
by telecommuni cati ons servi ce provi ders i n I P network swi tchi ng equi p-
ment. 2. Tag swi tchi ng i s also used as a reference to VLAN, or I EEE
802.1Q. I t i s a feature on many post-1998 LAN swi tches that makes se-
lected ports behave as i f they were attached to the same segment, or
hub. Another good name for thi s feature would be V-segment or virtual
segment. Devi ces/users that exchange a large amount of i nformati on are
usually placed wi thi n the same VLAN segment. T hi s helps make the op-
nonrelated traffi c si multaneously. VLANs are confi gured by a network
engi neer, network analyst, or network admi ni strator. When I P telephony
i s i mplemented over an Ethernet-swi tched network, the telephone de-
vi ces connected to the network are best placed i nto thei r own VLAN.
Most swi tches that are 802.1Q compati ble can recogni ze more than 1, 000
VLANs. Further, there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c and dynami c. Sta-
swi tch port connecti on prei nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the
same VLAN as the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also Frame
Tagging. Eventually, tag swi tchi ng became the 802.1p and 802.1q stan-
dard for Ethernet VLANs.
Talk Battery Typi cally 10 V on the publi c telephone network. When a
telephone li ne i s i dle, a 52-V central-offi ce battery i s on the li ne. When
the recei ver i s pi cked up, the voltage drops to 10 V ( talk battery) . T he
ri ngi ng voltage on a telephone li ne i s 90V AC.
Talk Path Two wi res wi th a battery voltage that can be used to connect
two telephones to provi de a si mple talk path. Someti mes when telephone
company employees are worki ng on telephone li nes, they connect a bat-
tery to a pai r of wi res, connect a test set ( butt-set/goat/test telephone)
to each end, and talk to each other. T hey call thi s arrangement a talk
path.
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644 Tandem
Tandem 1. A classi fi cati on of telephone company central offi ce or node
that contai ns a swi tch i n whi ch all i nter and outer area-code traffi c i s
handled. T he mai n LEC central offi ce i s i n an area code where the hand-
off for long-di stance servi ce happens. For a di agram, see Access Tan-
dem. 2. A central offi ce that carri es a call, but does not connect i t wi th
the end customer, i t swi tches ( sends) the call to the central offi ce from
whi ch the called customer i s served.
Tandem Office See Tandem.
Tandem PBX A PBX (Private Branch Exchange) swi tch that carri es
telephone calls, but does not termi nate them to a telephone ( Fi g. T.7) .
I t swi tches the calls to another PBX. See also Tie Trunks.
Tandem PBX
PBX
TANDEM TRUNKS/
TIE LINES
Central Office
Trunks
A Tandem, or "Series"
application of PBX systems
Figure T.7 Tandem PBX
Tandem Switch A central offi ce that carri es ( li nks) a call, but does not
connect i t wi th the end customer, i t swi tches ( sends) the call to the
central offi ce from whi ch the customer i s fed. See also Tandem.
Tandem Trunks Trunk li nes that connect central offi ces/swi tchi ng
equi pment. See Tandem PBX.
Tap A devi ce used to moni tor telephone li nes. Wi th newer technology, the
telephone company i s capable of tappi ng ( moni tori ng) a telephone li ne wi th
a stroke of a few keys. T hey can even set the telephone li ne to be moni -
tored by a di fferent telephone li ne, anywhere they want. Telephone com-
pani es ( especi ally the Bell Compani es) have extremely stri ct securi ty
gui deli nes regardi ng the moni tori ng of telephone conversati ons. T hey wi ll
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 644
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) 645
not set up a tap or a moni tor servi ce wi thout legal procedures bei ng fol-
lowed accordi ng to the laws of the area where they are operati ng. Watch
dogs are i n place to ensure that telephone company employees do not
moni tor telephone li nes when they are not supposed to. Some spy shops
sell telephone li ne tappi ng and recordi ng devi ces, but thei r use i s not rec-
ommended because of stri ct laws regardi ng telephone pri vacy.
Tap Button Key A button on some PBX (Private Branch Exchange)
telephones. Most PBX systems are purchased wi th electroni c/di gi tal tele-
phone sets. T hose that are not, are purchased wi th standard si ngle-li ne
telephones that have an extra button, called a flash or tap key ( most
PBX systems can be confi gured for ei ther) . T he flash/tap key sends a
hook-flash si gnal to the PBX system to tell i t that i t i s goi ng to recei ve
a command ( e.g., more di aled di gi ts) to acti vate a feature, such as trans-
fer, hold, or conference.
Tape Drive A RAM storage devi ce that uti li zes magneti c tape for data
storage. T he magneti c tape i s si mi lar to that of the magneti c tape used
i n a typi cal audi o cassette. T he di sadvantage of tape-dri ve memory stor-
age i s the long amounts of ti me requi red to retri eve data.
TAPI (Telephone Application Program Interface) A software pro-
gram standard that allows PC support for a broad range of communi ca-
ti ons devi ces, i ncludi ng telephone swi tch ( PBX, ACD, I VR, and central
offi ce) equi pment.
Tariff A pri ci ng structure of telecommuni cati ons servi ces that i s offered
by a communi cati ons servi ces company and accepted by the Public Util-
ities Commission (PUC).
TBM (Transport Bandwidth Manager) Northern Telecoms name for
thei r SONET-operati ng platform.
TBOS (Telemetry Byte-Oriented Serial) An alarm or mai ntenance
protocol for communi cati ng wi th di stant or remote equi pment.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) T he part of the T CP/I P pro-
tocol sui te that ensures that data i s deli vered i n the proper sequence
to the upper appli cati on layer wi thout errors, mi ssi ng data, or dupli -
cati on. T CP i s a connecti on-ori ented protocol, si mi lar to a voi ce tele-
phone conversati on i n the way that a number ( address) i s di aled and
a connecti on i s made. T he T CP layer secti ons data i nto segments and
gi ves each segment a header and sequence number. T he T CP segment
i s then gi ven an I P header, whi ch makes the handoff to lower layers
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 645
646 TCP Header
and the remote host connecti onless. T he T CP segment and I P header
together are called an IP datagram. All parts of the T CP/I P sui te ( such
as I CM P, T CP, and I P) are needed to completely transfer a fi le or mes-
sage across a network.
TCP Header T he datagram ( packet) header i n a T CP/I P transmi ssi on. I t
i s of vari able length and carri es many elements of i nformati on. T hey are
li sted i n the followi ng secti on and i llustrated i n Fi g. T.8:
Source and Destination Ports I denti fy the sendi ng and recei vi ng
appli cati ons at each end of the T CP/I P connecti on. Both fi elds are 16
bi ts i n length.
Sequence Number Allows for the recei ver to i denti fy the order of
sequence for thi s segment.
Acknowledgement Provi des an acknowledgment of recei pt from the
opposi te end for recei ved T CP segments. T hi s fi eld i s only vali d i f the
ACK bi t ( i n the code fi eld) i s set to 1.
HLEN Header length. T he 4-bi t fi eld that contai ns the number of 32-
bi t words i n the T CP header, whi ch helps the recei vi ng devi ce know
how to read the frame.
Reserved T hese si x bi ts are reserved and not used at the ti me of
thi s wri ti ng.
Code A si x-bi t fi eld also referred to as the control bits field. Each
bi t has i ts own meani ng. T he fi rst i s the URG/Urgent Poi nter Fi eld.
Source application port
HLEN Code Window
Sequence number
Reserved
Acknowledgment number
Destination application port
Urgent pointer
Options
Checksum
4 bits
16 bits
16 bits
16 bits
32 bits
6 bits
16 bits
Padding
6 bits 16 bits
Data - amount defined by window and HLEN
Figure T.8 TCP Header
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 646
TCS (Transmission Convergence Sublayer) 647
When i t i s set to one, then the data i n thi s packet i s a pri ori ty. T he
second bi t i s the ACK bi t. T hi s bi t bei ng set to one i s an i ndi cati on
to the recei vi ng devi ce that the acknowledgment number fi eld i s
vali d. T he thi rd i s the PSH/Push bi t. I ts functi on i s to noti fy the
buffer to go ahead and send i ts data, regardless of whether i t i s full
or not. T he fourth i s the RST ; i t i s used to termi nate the connec-
ti on ( i n case a close functi on wi ll not work) . T he fi fth i s the
SYN/synchroni ze bi t. When i t i s set to one, i t i s an i ndi cati on to the
recei ver that the Sequence Number Fi eld contai ns the i ni ti al se-
quence number to be used for the connecti on. T he si xth i s the
FI N/Fi nal bi t. When i t i s set to one, i t i s an i ndi cati on to the devi ce
recei vi ng i t, that the sender wi ll not be sendi ng any more data i n
thi s T CP connecti on.
Window Size Used to communi cate the largest amount of data that
can be recei ved i n the next packet. Here i s your data, now send me
thi s quanti ty or less data back.
Checksum T hi s 16-bi t fi eld i s used to carry the checksum compu-
tati on result made by the sender.
Urgent Pointer T hi s 16-bi t fi eld contai ns the posi ti on i n the wi ndow
where urgent data ends. Urgent data i s to be processed before any
other data i n transi t.
Options A fi eld used to carry other opti onal data about the trans-
mi ssi on or the way that i t i s executed.
Padding Bi ts are added here to ensure that the header ends on a
factor of 32 bi ts.
TCP/IP (Telecommunications Protocol Internet Protocol) T he
standard communi cati ons protocol used for fi le exchange over the I n-
ternet ( Fi g. T.9) . T CP/I P was developed by ARPA/DARPA (Advanced
Research Projects Agency/Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency) of the Uni ted States Federal Government.
TCP Segment T he T CP header and i ts associ ated ( or carri ed) appli cati on
data. For a di agram of a T CP segment and i ts parts, see IP Datagram.
TCR (Transaction Confirmation Report) T he report that a fax ma-
chi ne pri nts. I t detai ls all of the faxes that were sent and recei ved for a
speci fi ed durati on of ti me.
TCS (Transmission Convergence Sublayer) T he AT M physi cal layer
i s di vi ded i nto two parts ( sublayers) , the T CS and the PMD (Physical
Layer Medium Dependent). T he T CS sublayer determi nes where cells
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648 TDD (Telecommunications Device for the Deaf)
begi n and end. I t also performs blank-cell i nserti on functi ons when no
data i s bei ng transmi tted. See also PMD.
TDD (Telecommunications Device for the Deaf) A reference to de-
vi ces that attach to telephone handsets and allow deaf people to type
messages to each other. Most of the devi ces look li ke Wyse termi nals
wi th an acousti c coupler attached. ( An acousti c coupler i s a pad that a
telephone handset rests on so that data transmi tted over the li ne can be
recei ved through the mouthpi ece and earpi ece. T he transmi ssi on rate i s
a very slow 300 baud.)
TDM (Time-Division Multiplex) For an explanati on and di agram, see
Multiplex.
TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access) Also called FDMA (Frequency-
Division Multiple Access). Another name for ti me-di vi si on multi plexi ng.
Only T DMA and FDMA band can multi plex si gnals together over a trans-
mi ssi on frequency. I t i s commonly used i n spread-spectrum cellular radi os
( transmi tters) that the cellular telephone i ndustry uses.
TDR (Time-Domain Reflectometer) A testi ng devi ce that measures
the di stance of a copper twi sted pai r. T he Dynatel 965T i s a popular
APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
NETWORK
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
NetBios
WinSock
Layer 4
Application
ETHERNET
802.3
ICMP
OSI LAYER
IP
TOKEN
RING
802.5
PPP ATM OTHERS
TRANSPORT
Layer 1
Network Interface
Layer 2
Internet Layer
Layer 3
Transport Layer
TCP
UDP
TCP/IP LAYER
Figure T.9 TCP/IP Protocols in Contrast to the OSI Model
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 648
Telephone 649
T DR. A T DR works by transmi tti ng a si gnal down a copper twi sted pai r,
then i t wai ts for a reflecti on to come back. When the reflecti on returns
to the devi ce, the ti me di fference i s used to calculate the di stance that
the si gnal traveled. For a photo of a T DR, see 965T.
TE (Terminal Equipment) T he equi pment at the end ( customer si de)
of an I SDN li ne. I t i s classi fi ed i n two categori es: Type 1 ( T E1) for equi p-
ment that i s di rectly I SDN compati ble and Type 2 ( T E2) for equi pment
that requi res a converter to convert the I SDN BRI (Basic Rate Inter-
face) i nto two separate phone li nes so that analog modems and tele-
phones can be used.
TE 1 (Terminal Equipment Type 1) Equi pment that i s di rectly I SDN
compati ble or i s capable of pluggi ng di rectly i nto an I SDN li ne.
TE 2 (Terminal Equipment Type 2) Regular telephones and termi nal
adapters that convert the di gi tal I SDN si gnal i nto an analog si gnal so
that normal POT S ( Plai n Old Telephone Servi ce) equi pment can be
used.
Technology Without An Interesting Name (TWAIN) An i nterface
standard for i mage scanners. Most scanners are sold wi th a T WAI N dri ver.
T hese dri vers allow a graphi cs program to automati cally control a scan-
ni ng devi ce through i ts GUI i nterface.
Telco Abbrevi ati on for telephone company.
Telco Connector A reference to a 50-pai r amphenol connector. See also
Amphenol Connector, P-Cable, and C-Cable.
Tele Greek for far.
Telecaster T he marketed name for the Ci sco Systems, I nc. I P telephones
( model CP-79xx) . T hese are di sti ngui shed by thei r charcoal gray color
and rounded style handset.
Telecommunications To exchange i nformati on across a di stance.
Telemetry A reference to the remote moni tori ng of communi cati ons
equi pment, and i ts envi ronment. Popular protocols for thi s are T-BOS
and T L1.
Telephone A devi ce that consi sts of si x maj or parts. A swi tch-hook, a di -
ali ng ci rcui t ( DT MF tone or Rotary) , a ri nger, a mi crophone, a speaker
( for the ear-pi ece) , and a hybri d coi l.
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650 Telephone Application Program Interface (TAPI)
Telephone Application Program Interface (TAPI) A software pro-
gram standard that allows PC support for a broad range of communi ca-
ti ons devi ces, i ncludi ng telephone swi tch ( PBX, ACD, I VR, and central
offi ce) equi pment.
Telephone Server See IP Telephony.
Telephony Server Also known as a FEP (Front-End Processor). A com-
muni cati ons front end devi ce that can be loaded wi th a fi rewall to
prevent unwanted users from accessi ng the communi cati ons network.
An FEP can also perform routi ng, and di fferenti ate between di fferent
communi cati ons protocols, dependi ng on the software that runs on i t.
For a di agram, see Front End Processor.
Teletext Data that comes over a televi si on transmi ssi on i n the form of
text at the bottom of the screen.
Teletypewriter (TTY) A devi ce that used to work li ke a telegraph ( i ts
almost as old) , except that i t would send typewri tten messages over
phone li nes i nstead of Morse Code. I t had a keyboard and a pri nter.
Television (TV) T he current name for vi deo broadcasti ng and the re-
cei ver used to pi ck i t up. Currently, the standard for terrestri al broad-
cast televi si on i n North Ameri ca i s NT SC, whi ch offers a vi deo resolu-
ti on of 525 495 li nes and FM stereo audi o. Di fferent standards, such
as PAL and SECAM, are used i n other parts of the world. T he FCC i s
now i mplementi ng new HDT V standards, whi ch should offer a hi gher-
resoluti on si gnal vi a a di gi tal transmi ssi on process. Fi gure T.10 shows
the di fferent blocks of a televi si on recei ver.

Speaker
Antenna
Picture Tube
Channel Selector
TO ALL
CIRCUITS
120-VAC Power
Tuner
Video
Detector
Video
Amplifiers
IF
Amplifiers
Deflection
Horiz/Vert
Color
Demodulator
Sound
Detector
Audio
Amplifier
Power
Supply
Figure T.10 Television Receiver Basic Block Diagram
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 650
Terminal Adapter 651
Television Broadcast Standards T here are three pri nci pal standards
i n the world for analog televi si on broadcast transmi ssi on for vi deo. T he
fi rst i s Nati onal Televi si on Standards Commi ttee ( NT SC) , whi ch i s the
Ameri ca. NT SC defi nes 525 verti cal scan li nes per frame and yi elds
30 frames per second. T he scan li nes refer to the number of li nes from
top to bottom on the televi si on screen. T he frames per second refer to the
number of complete i mages that are di splayed per second. T he second
standard i s PAL ( Phase Alternati on Li ne) , the broadcast standard i n
Europe, the Mi ddle East, parts of Afri ca, and parts of South Ameri ca.
PAL defi nes 625 verti cal scan li nes and refreshes the screen 25 ti mes
per second. T he thi rd i s SECAM. I t i s the broadcast standard i n France,
Russi a, and regi ons of Afri ca. SECAM i s a vari ant of PAL but i t deli vers
the same number of verti cal scan li nes as PAL and uses the same re-
fresh rate.
Telex An older i nternati onal swi tched message servi ce that i s bei ng
replaced by fax machi nes and the I nternet/publi c packet-swi tched
network.
Telnet A connecti on between an admi ni strators user workstati on and a
remote network devi ce, such as a router, swi tch, hub, host, or server.
Telnet enables an admi ni strator or techni ci an to remotely confi gure or
mai ntai n network equi pment. Many UNI X-based operati ng systems have
a bui lt-i n Telnet software package.
Ten/One Hundred A reference to the newer fami ly of Ethernet as a
whole. 10BaseT i s 10 Mbps and 100BaseT i s 100 Mbps. I t i s also referred
to as 802, 10/100. Because the 10BaseT and 100BaseT can i ntercon-
nect, the network as a whole i s frequently called a ten/one-hundred net-
work.
Tera T he prefi x for Tri lli on. Fi ve T Hz means 5, 000, 000, 000, 000 hertz.
Terabyte (Tb) 1, 000, 000, 000, 000 bytes.
Terminal A closure where a telephone cable i s termi nated. I t i s usually
a green box i f i t termi nates buri ed cable or a si lver box i f pole mounted.
2. A vi deo I /O devi ce wi th a keyboard that i s used to enter and retri eve
i nformati on ( data) from computers.
Terminal Adapter A devi ce that converts an ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) li ne i nto regular POT (Plain Old Telephone) service
so that you can connect a standard telephone or modem to an I SDN li ne
( Fi g. T.11) .
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652 Terminal Block
Standard Telephone
ISDN TERMINAL ADAPTER
ISDN LINE FROM
TELEPHONE
COMPANY
Terminal Block A reference to a 66M150, AT & T 110, Crone, or some
other block that i s desi gned to termi nate ( permanently affi x) wi re.
Terminal Emulation T he use of a PC to act or communi cate as a dumb
I /O termi nal. To use a PC i n thi s appli cati on ( such as to plug i nto a
mi crowave li nk and boost i ts power) , i t must be equi pped wi th termi nal-
emulati on software. T he mi crowave-li nk devi ce has i ts own mi croproces-
sor and only needs a devi ce ( usually a VT 100 termi nal) to communi cate
wi th. Termi nal emulati on software allows your PC to look li ke a VT 100
termi nal to the mi crowave radi o equi pment.
Terminal Equipment T he equi pment at the end of a communi cati ons
ci rcui t or the equi pment that i s on the recei ve end of the transmi ssi on,
such as a pri nter or telephone.
Terminals 1. A workstati on, as i n an I BM SNA network. 2. A reference
used to i denti fy where copper twi sted pai rs are termi nated i n access
poi nts, cross boxes, and termi nals. Physi cally, a bi ndi ng post i s a pai r of
teeth on a 66M150 block or a pai r of
9
16
lugs. Each bi ndi ng post has a
number. When a techni ci an looks for a speci fi c pai r i n a cable ( called a
cable pair) , they refer to documents that li st the pai rs and bi ndi ng posts
on whi ch they are spli ced. 3. A box on a telephone pole or on the
ground where the telephone cable i s termi nated. From the termi nal, the
servi ce wi re i s run to the house or bui ldi ng. For a photo of a buri ed ca-
ble termi nal, see Pedestal.
Terminate 1. To complete a communi cati ons path. 2. To fasten wi re to
some form of connecti vi ty, such as an RJ45 j ack, 66M150 block, AT & T
110 block, etc.
Figure T.11 ISDN Terminal Adapter
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 652
Terrestrial Microwave 653
Terminator, Ethernet A 50-ohm BNC dead end connector that i s used
at the end of a coax run i n Ethernet LANs (Local-Area Networks).
Terrestrial Data Service A reference to data si gnal transport servi ce
vi a terrestri al mi crowave. Terrestri al Mi crowave can be used for voi ce or
data transport. See also Terrestrial Microwave.
Terrestrial Facilities Communi cati ons faci li ti es that are on the ground,
such as transmi tters, telephone li nes and poles, central offi ces, etc. Any-
thi ng but satelli tes.
Terrestrial Microwave Mi crowave radi o has become a very economi cal
way to bypass constructi on costs of broadband pri vate-li ne servi ces.
Many CAPs (Competitive-Access Providers) have access to mi crowave
radi o resources, such as li censi ng, equi pment, and i nstallati on ( Fi g. T.12) .
Di gi tal mi crowave i s also called an eyeball shot, 38 Gig, or j ust radio.
Most of the mi crowave bei ng i nstalled for pri vate-li ne servi ce today i s i n
the 33- to 39-GHz frequency range. T hese mi crowave uni ts use an FM-
FSK over two si debands for transmi tti ng at full duplex. T hey are avai l-
able i n T 1, DS3, and ST S-1 ( whi ch i s a DS3 formatted for SONET ) .
38-GHz mi crowave has a range that depends on the si ze of the antenna
( di sh) placed on the outdoor radi o uni t. T he choi ces i n antenna si ze are
one or two feet i n di ameter. T he one-foot antenna has a maxi mum range
of one to three mi les, dependi ng on the regi onal weather condi ti ons ( rai n-
fall, snow, and especi ally fog, drasti cally attenuate mi crowave trans-
mi ssi ons) . T he two-foot di sh has a range of two to seven mi les, also
PBX
LAN Server
router
PBX
LAN Server
router
4 T1 Radio
IDU
4 T1 Radio
IDU
Hub
Hub
outdoor radio unit outdoor radio unit
38 GHz radio signal
T1 tie
lines
RG 8
T1 tie lines
T1 data
link
CSU/DSU
CSU/DSU
T1 data
link
Figure T.12 Terrestrial Microwave Network Diagram
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654 Test Set
Test Set Also called a goat or butt set. A test telephone set used by
telephone i nstallati on and repai r personnel. I nstead of a plug on the end
of the cord, i t has a pai r of alli gator/bed-of-nai ls cli ps.
Test Shoe A testi ng devi ce ai d that connects to di stri buti on frame blocks
or other cable-termi nati ng blocks that helps prevent shorts and crosses
whi le techni ci ans work on or test the cable.
Test Tone Also called an i nstallers tone. A small box that runs on bat-
teri es and i s used to put an RF (Radio Frequency) tone on a pai r of
wi res. I f a telephone techni ci an cant fi nd a pai r of wi res by color or bi nd-
i ng post, they attach a tone to one end, then go to the other end and
use an i nducti ve ampli fi er ( also called a banana or probe) to fi nd the
beepi ng tone.
TFT (Thin-Film Transistor) A transi stor used i n PC laptop di splays.
Each pi xel i s controlled by an i ndi vi dual transi stor.
Figure T.13 A 38-GHz IDU (Indoor Unit) Terrestrial Microwave System
dependi ng on the weather i n the regi on. Below i s a mi crowave appli ca-
ti on. For a photo of a mi crowave antenna, see Microwave. Fi gure T.13
i llustrates an IDU ( Indoor Unit. T he di sh i s referred to as the ODU,
Outdoor Unit) .
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 654
Thin Ethernet (Thinnet) 655
Thermal Noise Also referred to as ambient current. T he result of heat
that causes random movement of electrons i n a ci rcui t when the power
i s off. T he current/movement of electrons causes ambi ent voltage. Am-
bi ent current/voltage i s why osci llator ci rcui ts start osci llati ng when the
power i s turned on. T he natural osci llati ons of the electrons become fi l-
tered and ampli fi ed when the power i s appli ed to the ci rcui t. As elec-
troni c ci rcui ts become warmer, thermal noi se becomes more prevalent.
I f i t i s ampli fi ed so that you can hear i t, i t sounds li ke whi te noi se or a
radi o that i s not tuned to a stati on.
THF (Tremendously High Frequency) T he Ameri can standard name
for frequenci es wi thi n the spectrum of 300 to 3000 GHz. For more i n-
formati on, see Spectrum, Frequency.
Thin Client A network-attached workstati on that reli es on a shared
server to handle the bulk of appli cati on processi ng. Dependi ng on the
appli cati on and i n a true thi n computi ng envi ronment, workstati ons
do not need, and usually do not have, a hard dri ve. T he thi n-cli ent
computi ng strategy i s si mi lar to that of the mai nframe/dumb termi -
nal envi ronment, yet i s more expandable and flexi ble. See also Fat
Client.
Thin Ethernet (Thinnet) A popular Ethernet LAN (Local-Area Net-
work) that uti li zes thi n RG-58 coax ( Fi g. T.14) . T he less-popular thi ck
Ethernet cable i s sli ghtly better for di stance, but harder to work wi th
and i nstall. Whether you are usi ng RG-58 thi ck or thi n coax i s not so
Ethernet Network
for thicknet and thinnet
COAX:
Solid = inner
conductor
Dotted = shield
T Adapter T Adapter T Adapter T Adapter
Figure T.14 Thin Ethernet Over Coax
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 655
656 Third-Generation Network (3G)
much of an i ssue because the network i nterface cards i nsi de the com-
puters dont know the di fference.
Third-Generation Network (3G) I n wi reless communi cati ons, a con-
vergence of voi ce, data, and multi medi a servi ces at i ni ti al bandwi dths of
144 K bps, wi th a future bandwi dth maturi ty to 1 Mbps and beyond. A
si mple i denti fi cati on of wi reless communi cati ons technology evolvement
i s defi ned i n generati ons. T he fi rst generati on was AMPS, whi ch uti li zed
FDM technology to carry one call on each analog channel. T he second
generati on i s CDMA/T DMA/GSM, and placed multi ple di gi tal calls wi thi n
PCS bandwi dths as well as provi ded enhanced servi ces. T he thi rd
generati on, 3G, i s i ntended to uni fy not only voi ce, data, and multi me-
di a, but also appli cati on formats. T he standard appli cati on i nterface for
whatever radi o i s used i s I P. I n the Uni ted States and Japan, among other
countri es that have deployed both GSM and CDMA for wi reless tech-
nology, CDMA2000 i s the ( OSI layer 2) G3 mi grati on path. For countri es
that use the European T DMA and GSM formats, GPRS ( General Packet
Radi o Servi ce, or W-CDMA) i s the mi grati on path. Regardless of the wi re-
less li nk between end users, the appli cati ons that are accessed are done
through I P. T herefore, end users are able to exchange appli cati on i nfor-
mati on vi a open standards. For multi nati onal users, handset manufac-
turers are planni ng to produce devi ces that are compati ble wi th both
technologi es by i ncorporati ng both types of radi o technology i n them.
Third-Party Call Not a di rect call and not a collect call. A thi rd-party
telephone call i s charged to a telephone number other than the one
that i s bei ng di aled or used to make the call. Calli ng cards have been
offered by many phone compani es to make thi rd-party calls easi er.
Wi thout a calli ng card, you need an operator to di al a thi rd-party call.
Typi cal charges for thi rd-party calls are about 30 cents per mi nute.
T he expensi ve rate has brought on competi ti on from prepai d calli ng-
card compani es.
Three Command Set A reference to Ci sco Systems method of i nter-
acti ng wi th a router or swi tch, parti cularly the 5000 seri es li ne of swi tches
and many router models. T he three commands used to mani pulate and
vi ew the I OS setti ngs are SET, CLEAR, and SHOW.
THz (Terahertz) Tera i s the prefi x for tri lli on. For example, 5 T Hz means
5, 000, 000, 000, 000 Hertz.
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) An organi zati on
that hosts great communi cati ons trade/product shows. For more i nfor-
mati on, see http://www.tiaonline.com.
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 656
Time-Division Multiplex (TDM) 657
TIE Communications (Telephone Interconnect Equipment Commu-
nications) An older telecommuni cati ons equi pment manufacturer/
di stri butor that had thei r name stamped on PBX (Private Branch Ex-
change) and key telephone systems, li ke the BK 2464, Delphi 6/16, and
the VDS (Visual Display System). T i e Communi cati ons old products
can sti ll be purchased i n catalogs and from telephone equi pment com-
pani es, but i t i s now Ni tsuko.
Tie Line A ti e trunk that i s dedi cated to one phone. T i e trunks are tele-
phone li nes that connect PBX systems together.
Tie Trunk A telephone li ne that connects two PBX (Private Branch Ex-
change) telephone systems together so that calls can be transferred be-
tween them.
Tight Jacket Buffer T he alternati ve to loose tube buffer i n fi ber-opti c
cable manufacturi ng. T i ght j acket buffer cable has i nsulati on around the
cable that i s ti ght agai nst the fi ber opti c. Loose tube buffer allows the
fi ber to move freely wi thi n the cable.
Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) See TDMA.
Time-Division Multiplex (TDM) T he process of encodi ng two or more
di gi tal si gnals or channels onto one through ti meshari ng the medi a
( wi re, ai r, fi ber, etc.) . T he reason that we multi plex channels together
i n communi cati ons i s because i t saves money. When we use all of the
wi res i n a cable and need more, i t costs less to add electroni cs on the
ends of a cable than to i nstall a new one ( i magi ne the expense from LA
to NY) . A T 1 encodes 24 channels i nto one by usi ng frequency-di vi si on
Individual 4 channels to multiplexed. The dotted vertical lines are timing segments. This multiplexed output
signal is four times faster than a single input signal.
CH1
CH2
CH3
CH4
mux out
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
The 4 channel multiplexed output.
Figure T.15 Time-Division Multiplex
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 657
658 Time-Domain Reflectometer (TDR)
multi plexi ng. I n a si mpler explanati on, a T 1 makes i t possi ble to place
24 li nes that once needed 24 li nes on only two pai rs. When a group of
si gnals are multi plexed together, they are all sampled at a hi gh rate of
speed, faster than the combi ned speed of all the channels bei ng multi -
plexed. Fi gure T.15 i llustrates the concept of Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (FDM).
Time-Domain Reflectometer (TDR) A testi ng devi ce that measures
the di stance of a copper twi sted pai r. T he Dynatel 965T i s a popular
T DR. T he T DR works by transmi tti ng a si gnal down a copper twi sted
pai r, then i t wai ts for a reflecti on to come back. When the reflecti on re-
turns to the devi ce, the ti me di fference i s used to calculate the di stance
that the si gnal traveled. For a photo of a T DR, see 965T.
Time-of-Day Routing A call-forwardi ng feature offered by telecommu-
ni cati ons compani es and featured i n large PBX swi tches that call for-
wards i ncomi ng traffi c to di fferent target parti es, dependi ng on the ti me
of day.
Time Out 1. Refers to a system ti me-out test result on an MLT (Mech-
anized Loop Test) from a telephone company central offi ce. When the
MLT system i s busy, i t holds the test request i n queue for several mi n-
utes unti l the testi ng system i s avai lable. I f i t does not become avai lable,
then the MLT system returns a system ti me-out result to the
user/tester, meani ng that the li ne was not tested. 2. A condi ti on of a
central-offi ce li ne or trunk that occurs when a telephone i s left off hook
or the pai r ( faci li ty) , i t i s on i s shorted. T he central offi ce sends a mes-
sage that says please hang-up and try your call agai n followed by some
harsh, loud beepi ng tones ( also called an off-hook indicator/warning
tone) . I f the li ne i s not returned to an on-hook state, the central-offi ce
equi pment wi ll automati cally ti me-out the li ne. When the li ne i s ti med-
out, the 52-V battery i s di sconnected to save power. T he central-offi ce
equi pment wi ll restore the 52-V battery voltage when the ri nger i s
placed back on hook or the short i s repai red.
Time Sharing A reference to the shared use of a computers processi ng
power by many appli cati ons or many users on a LAN (Local-Area
Network).
Time Slot A channel on a ti me-di vi si on multi plexed ci rcui t ( a T 1, for
example) i s also referred to as a time slot. For more detai ls, see Multi-
plex.
Time To Live A fi eld i n an I P header that i ndi cates how long a packet i s
consi dered vali d. When the ti me to li ve expi res, the packet i s di scarded.
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 658
Token 659
Tinsel Wire T he stranded copper wi re that many base cords and hand-
set cords are made wi th. I t i s used i n these appli cati ons because of i ts
abi li ty to wi thstand lots of bendi ng wi thout breaki ng.
Tip 1. T he posi ti ve si de of a two-wi re telephone ci rcui t, whi ch i s supposed
to be termi nated to black ( top posi ti on) . T he other si de of a two-wi re
telephone ci rcui t ( or the other wi re) i s called ring and i t i s desi gnated
red ( bottom posi ti on) when termi nated ( connected to somethi ng) .
2. T he ti p of a phono-type plug, whi ch i s used for si gnal patchi ng and
for consumer headphones. T he other part of a phono plug i s the ri ng,
whi ch i s the lower part of the phono plug.
Tip and Ring T he more electri cally posi ti ve si de of a POTS (Plain Old
Telephone Service) telephone li ne ( 0 V) i s ti p. I t i s desi gnated i nterna-
ti onally as black, but i n the U.S., i t i s often desi gnated green ( Fi g. T.16) .
I ts counterpart i s ri ng ( the more negati ve si de, 52 V) , whi ch i s desi g-
nated red i nternati onally and i n the U.S. When ti p and ri ng are termi nated
on a connecti ng block, ti p usually goes on top ( left) , and ri ng usually goes
on the ri ght ( bottom) .
TIP
TIP
RING
RING
Figure T.16 Tip and Ring Positioning on Blocks and Terminals.
Tip is on Top (Left) and Ring is on Bottom (Right)
T-Load (Technology Load) A reference to a test versi on of software or
a versi on of software that has been modi fi ed from the ori gi nal versi on
wi th patches to allevi ate techni cal problems or bugs.
TN I n Nortel PBX admi ni strati on, a Termi nal Number. T he termi nals are
hardware i nterfaces for telephones, and there are 16 per stati on ( or
telephone) i nterface card. Telephone pai rs are connected to T Ns. Each
T N i denti fi es a telephone set, and each button wi thi n that telephone
set can have an associ ated feature functi on, or DN ( extensi on number) .
See also DN.
TNC (Threaded Naval Connector) A threaded versi on of the twi st
on BNC connector, whi ch makes the two ends attach i n a nut and bolt
fashi on. See also BNC Connector.
Token T he bi t message i n a token-ri ng network that i s passed from one
node ( computer or other devi ce) to the next that grants the ri ght to
transmi t to the other nodes on the ri ng archi tecture.
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660 Token Bus
Token Bus T he physi cal ri ng of wi re or fi ber opti c that i nterconnects
computers and other devi ces ( pri nters) on a token-ri ng physi cal LAN
(Local Area Network) topology. T he physi cal topology i s the way that
the LAN i s wi red ( ri ng or star) and the logi cal topology i s the way that
the devi ces communi cate ( the protocol) .
Token Passing A reference to a token-ri ng logi cal topology. T he token-
ri ng topology i s a type of LAN (Local-Area Network). What makes a
token-ri ng network uni que from other topologi es i s that each devi ce on
the network takes turns usi ng the ri ng ( the wi ri ng, or fi ber) i n an or-
gani zed, systemati c way. T he organi zati on i s achi eved by havi ng a vi r-
tual token that the devi ces hand off to each other. Whi le a devi ce pos-
sesses the token, i t i s allowed to transmi t over the network. T he other
popular type of network i s called Ethernet, whi ch i ncludes 10-BaseT,
T hi cknet, T hi nnet, and 100-Base-T ( the newer) . I n Ethernet protocols,
there i s no token and no taki ng turns. Devi ces si mply li sten to the net-
work; i f i t i s clear, they transmi t. T he problem wi th thi s i s that many de-
vi ces attempt to communi cate at close to the same ti me. T he transmi t-
ted data colli des on the network, becomes corrupted, and must be
retransmi tted. Ethernet i s referred to as a contention-based protocol
because the devi ces ( computers) are always contendi ng for the use of
the network.
Token Ring A physi cal and logi cal LAN (Local-Area Network) topology.
T he physi cal topology i s the way that the computers and other devi ces
are wi red together. For a token-ri ng physi cal topology, the devi ces are
wi red i n a ri ng. T he logi cal topology i s the protocol, the rules for com-
muni cati on. I n a ri ng logi cal topology, each devi ce li stens to everythi ng
transmi tted on the network and only processes what i s i ntended for i t
to recei ve ( devi ces know what i s meant for them by readi ng the address
i nformati on) . T he devi ces connected to the network only transmi t when
they have possessi on of the token. T he token i s a message that each of
the computers pass to each other that allows them to transmi t data. T hi s
organi zed method of network uti li zati on prevents more than one devi ce
from communi cati ng at one ti me ( a colli si on) . I f two devi ces try to com-
muni cate at the same ti me, the data that they both send becomes cor-
rupted. Token ri ng networkers are free of thi s problem. We cant talk to
two people at the same ti me because the words we hear become mi xed
up and we become confused. T he same goes for computers on Local Area
Networks. For a di agram, see Ring. For more i nformati on, see Token
Passing.
Token Ring LAN Switch A hardware devi ce that provi des 4 or 16 Mbps
of communi cati ons bandwi dth to each user. Each users host ( computer)
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 660
Trace 661
i s connected di rectly to the swi tch, rather than i n the tradi ti onal dai sy
chai n ( nonswi tched) topology. Although token ri ng does not have the
bandwi dth of 100BaseT Ethernet ( Ethernet has a 1518-byte maxi mum
frame si ze) , i ts 4500-byte frame si ze makes up for the di fference i n
carefully engi neered networks. Token ri ng i s not recommended for I P
telephony networks because of i ts low bandwi dth and large packet
si ze.
Toll Restriction A PBX (Private Branch Exchange) and key telephone
system feature that enables an admi ni strator to make a telephone ex-
tensi on unable to make long-di stance ( toll) telephone calls. Toll restri c-
ti on can be made to restri ct the di ali ng of a speci fi c area code, a speci fi c
group of area codes, or all area codes.
Tone Generator T he part of a PBX (Private Branch Exchange) sys-
tem that creates di al tone. T he tone generator i n a telephone system
i s usually an i ndi vi dual ci rcui t card, wi th i ts own slot i n the system
cabi net.
Tone Probe Also called a banana. Telephone li ne i nstallers use test tones
( also called installers tones) to place an RF (Radio Frequency) si g-
nal on a pai r of wi res so that they can locate that pai r on the other end
of a feed. For a pi cture, see Installers Tone.
Topology T he two types of topology are physi cal and logi cal. T he logi cal
topology defi nes the way that a LAN communi cates. T he physi cal topol-
ogy defi nes the way that a LAN i s physi cally wi red. For example, even
though an Ethernet network mi ght be physi cally wi red i nto the forma-
ti on of a star, i t really works as though i t were a bus. T he wi re i s j ust
physi cally lai d out and connected di fferently, and the electroni cs are a
li ttle di fferent.
Touch Pad/Track Pad An alternati ve to the use of a mouse on laptop
computers. T he track pad i s usually located di rectly below the keyboard.
Other mouse alternati ves for laptop computers i nclude the poi nti ng sti ck
and roller ball.
TouchTone (DTMF, Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency) T he tones that
you hear when you di al a si ngle-li ne push-button phone. T he tones are
a mi xture of two frequenci es. For a di agram of DT MF frequenci es, see
Dual-Tone Multiple Frequency.
Trace Also called a trap. When the telephone company tracks the calls
made to a customers telephone number to catch a mali ci ous caller. T he
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 661
662 Trac Splice Closure
Figure T.17 Trac Splice Closure
standard for mali ci ous call trace i s to di al *57 after recei vi ng a mali ci ous
call. T he telephone company wi ll charge anywhere from $1 to $4 to i n-
vesti gate the call. By usi ng the servi ce, you agree to press charges. T he
only di sturbi ng thi ng i s that you never fi nd out who made the calls un-
ti l the court heari ng.
Trac Splice Closure An aeri al spli ce closure desi gned to resi st con-
densati on ( Fi g. T.17) . Trac Spli ce Closure i s a regi stered trademark of
RayChem.
Traffic A measure of the amount of call attempts and acti ve calls on a
telephone swi tch. T raffi c i s measured i n centum call seconds ( CCS,
one phone call for one second) or Erlangs. M any larger PBX (Private
Branch Exchange) telephone systems and central-offi ce swi tches now
have CTI (Computer Telephony Integration) appli cati ons that wi ll
calculate traffi c, CPU % uti li zati on, busy hours, and other useful i n-
formati on.
Traffic Engineering T he process of fi guri ng out how much equi pment
and what equi pment wi ll be needed and how to allocate the resources
of that equi pment to prevent call blocki ng, or keep call blocki ng to a mi n-
i mum. Telephone swi tches and PBX (Private Branch Exchange) sys-
tems are engi neered accordi ng to the busy hour of the network, whi ch
i s the ti me when the network has the most traffi c. T he busy hour can
be for the day, month, or year. Traffi c i s measured i n centum call sec-
onds ( CCS, one phone call for one second) , or Erlangs. Many larger PBX
(Private Branch Exchange) telephone systems and central-offi ce
swi tches now have CTI (Computer Telephony Integration) appli cati ons
that wi ll calculate traffi c, CPU % uti li zati on, busy hours, and other use-
ful i nformati on.
Transceiver A transmi tter and recei ver bui lt i nto the same devi ce ( Fi g.
T.18) . A CB radi o i s a type of transcei ver.
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Transfer 663
Transcoder A devi ce capable of converti ng Codec formats such as G.711
to G.729, and vi ce versa. Transcoders are si li con devi ces that resi de
wi thi n I P telephonyenabled gateways/routers. I n the older methods of
voi ce communi cati on, all calls requi red the same bandwi dth, whi ch was
64 K bps. I n the server-based PBX communi cati ons envi ronment, there
are many vari ati ons of devi ces that may be uti li zi ng many vari ati ons of
Codec compressi on. For example, a user that makes a telephone call
from an I P telephony system that i ncorporates G.711 ( 24 K bps) encod-
i ng to another user on an I P telephony system that i ncorporates G.729
( 8 K bps) encodi ng would need to pass through a gateway that has
transcodi ng abi li ty bui lt i n. T hi s i s usually the G.729-based devi ce, whi ch
transcodes to the older Codec method of G.711. Gateways/routers that
have transcodi ng abi li ti es are referred to as bei ng voi ce-enabled or hav-
i ng DSP ( Di gi tal Si gnal Processi ng) abi li ty.
Transducer An electroni c component that converts one form of energy
to electri cal energy or vi ce versa. Some examples of transducers are:
Photocell Li ght to electri ci ty
Speaker Electri ci ty to sound
Mi crophone Sound to electri ci ty
Li ght bulb Electri ci ty to li ght
Coi l wi ndi ng/motor Electri ci ty to moti on
Coi l wi ndi ng/generator Moti on to electri ci ty
Transfer A feature of PBX (Private Branch Exchange) telephone sys-
tems and key telephone systems. T he transfer feature allows users
to send a phone call to another extensi on by pressi ng a transfer button
whi le on the call, enteri ng the extensi on they want to transfer to, then
pressi ng the transfer key agai n ( thi s i s true for Northern Telecom Systems) .
Figure T.18 Transceiver: Ethernet Category 5 UTP to Single-Mode Fiber Optic
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 663
664 Transfer Rate
Secondary Primary
120 VAC 12 VAC
10:1
Figure T.19 The Schematic Symbol for an Iron-Core Transformer
(Iron Core is Designated by Two Lines Between the Cores)
Figure T.20 An Iron-Core Transformer for Power Supply Applications
Transfer Rate How fast a data transmi ssi on can send data i n Bits Per
Second (bps, b/s), e.g., T 1 has a transfer rate of 1.544 Mb/s i ncludi ng
payload and overhead.
Transformer An electroni c or electri cal component used to step-up
or step-down AC voltage. A transformer wi red i n a fashi on to recei ve an
AC voltage on i ts pri mary wi ndi ng and i ncrease that voltage through elec-
tromagneti c i nducti on i nto the secondary wi ndi ng. I ncreasi ng voltage
through a transformer does the opposi te for current. Reversi ng the way
that a transformer i s wi red, changes i t from a step-up to a step-down trans-
former and vi ce versa ( Fi g. T.19) . T he amount the voltage i s stepped up or
down i s equal to the rati o of wi re wi ndi ngs of the pri mary and secondary.
Fi gure T.20 shows a step-down transformer that has a 10:1 wi ndi ng rati o.
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 664
Transit Time Delay 665
Transit Delay T he ti me requi red for a transmi ssi on to get from one poi nt
on a network to another.
Transit Time Delay T he amount of ti me ( i n mi lli seconds) requi red for
a data packet to cross a network. Transi t ti me delay i s often rated based
on a data packet maki ng a round tri p. A typi cal round-tri p transi t ti me
Bipolar NPN DE MOSFET (CMOS) N-Channel
Figure T.21 Transistor Schematic Symbols
Transistor A devi ce that i s used as a swi tch ( for logi c) or ampli fi er ( si g-
nal) . T he great thi ng about transi stors i s that they use far less power
than vacuum tubes, they are much smaller, they are much faster, and
they cost less ( Fi gs. T.21 and T.22) . T he only di sadvantage of transi stors
to tubes i s that transi stors cannot ampli fy odd-order harmoni cs ( natural
sounds/musi c) and they are much more suscepti ble to cosmi c radi ati on
( outer-space/nuclear-fallout appli cati ons) .
Figure T.22 Transistor Packages
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666 Transitional Voltage
+24 Volts
+3 Volts
-3 Volts
-24 Volts
0 Volts
Transitional Voltage
Digital Transmission
Figure T.23 Transitional Voltage
delay across a very robust network that stretches from Tokyo to New
York i s 200 ms. Transi t ti me delay i s i ncreased by the number of
routi ng or swi tchi ng devi ces that a packet passes through. A concern for
network desi gners i s to have enough route redundancy to ensure that
alternate routes can be taken by packets when connecti ons fai l. T he di s-
advantage to havi ng redundancy i s that more swi tchi ng and routi ng
equi pment i s requi red, whi ch i ncreases transi t ti me delay.
Transitional Voltage On an RS-232 connecti on, or V.24, V.28, EI A 232-
D as i t i s also called, the voltage on transmi t and recei ve when i t i s some-
where between 3 V and 3 V ( Fi g. T.23) . I n the RS-232-C speci fi ca-
ti on, any voltage between 3 and 24 volts i s consi dered hi gh ( or On)
and any voltage between 3 and 24 volts i s consi dered low ( or Off) .
Token Ring
TRANSLATING
BRIDGE
ETHERNET - 10
BASE T
Hub
Server
Figure T.24 Translating Bridge/Router
Translating Bridge Also called a protocol converter or router ( Fi g.
T.24) . A devi ce that i s usually i n the form of a PC that i s loaded wi th
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Transmitter, Radio 667
software that converts protocols, such as Ethernet and token ri ng. T he
PC has a network card i nstalled for each of the di fferent network con-
necti ons.
Translational Bridging T he transfer of data frames between two net-
works that have di ssi mi lar MAC (Media-Access Control) sublayer pro-
tocols, such as T CP/I P and Novell I PX. T he MAC address i nformati on i s
converted i nto the format of the desti nati on network at the bri dge. An-
other bri dgi ng method i s encapsulati on bri dgi ng, whi ch does not remove
or modi fy the ori gi nal data packet; i t only adds addi ti onal header i nfor-
mati on. Both bri dgi ng methods are accompli shed by Ci sco and Nortel
router/routi ng equi pment.
Translator A devi ce that recei ves a transmi ssi on, converts i t, and re-
transmi ts i t on a di fferent format or frequency. Translators are used to
rebroadcast radi o programmi ng. Translators i n data networks are called
translating bridges.
Translations T he part of swi tchi ng or swi tch set-up that converts si g-
nali ng messages from other swi tches. Translati ons are very i mportant
and are probably the most cruci al part of the swi tch set up. When a tele-
phone call i s handed from one swi tch to another or from one central of-
fi ce to another, di gi ts ( addressi ng i nformati on) are sent wi th i t. Each
swi tch has i ts own defi ni ti ons for number set up and confi gurati on. T he
swi tch converts these numbers for every call processed and the process
i s called translating.
Transmission T he sendi ng of a si gnal, analog, di gi tal, or li ght-wave,
across a medi a.
Transmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) T he AT M physi cal layer
i s di vi ded i nto two parts ( sublayers) , the T CS and the PMD (Physical
Layer Medium Dependent). T he T CS sublayer determi nes where cells
begi n and end. I t also performs blank-cell i nserti on functi ons when no
data i s bei ng transmi tted. See also PMD.
Transmitter, Radio A radi o transmi tter emi ts an electromagneti c fi eld.
T he electromagneti c radi ati on i s si mply an antenna bei ng made to change
i ts magneti c fi eld at the rate of a carri er frequency. T he magneti c fi eld
then traverses through the farthest reach of the magneti c fi eld, whi ch
could be many mi les. T he di stance that the si gnal wi ll reach i s deter-
mi ned by the transmi tti ng power, weather, sunspot cycle, ti me of day,
i onospheri c condi ti ons, and surroundi ng terrai n. What makes the radi o
si gnal carry a voi ce or musi c i s called modulation.
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668 Transparent Bridge
Transparent Bridge A type of network bri dge that learns whi ch systems
are on each network by li steni ng to traffi c and bui ldi ng i ts own refer-
ence tables.
Transparent Bridging 1. A routi ng method used i n Ethernet and I EEE
802.3 networks i n whi ch routers pass frames along one hop at a ti me, based
on tables that associ ate end nodes wi th router ports. Transparent bri dgi ng
i s so named because routers were once called bridges, and the presence
of routers i s transparent to network end nodes. See also Source Route
Bridging. 2. I n Ethernet LAN networks, a bri dge/router operati ng pro-
tocol that bui lds a table of MAC addresses that contai ns all connected net-
work devi ces i n i ts memory. A transparent bri dge bui lds i ts reference
table by recei vi ng data frames from i ts network connecti ons and keepi ng
track of the MAC addresses, sendi ng and recei vi ng on each connecti on.
Transparent bri dgi ng operates on the logi c that i f a message or frame re-
cei ved on port 1 contai ns a sender MAC address of 0555.3d05.1111, then
the devi ce wi th MAC address 0555.3d05.1111 i s connected to the network
i n the di recti on of port 1. T herefore, any frame recei ved wi th thi s address
as the desti nati on i s transmi tted on that port connecti on and no other.
Si nce Bri dges use MAC addresses to forward frames, they are referred to
as a layer 2 device, i n conjuncti on wi th the OSI layer 2. Bri dges that op-
erate wi th transparent bri dge rules are called transparent bridges or
learning bridges.
Two i mportant detai ls of transparent bri dgi ng are that parallel ( redun-
dant) paths are not supported unless Spanni ng Tree Protocol i s used i n
conjuncti on, and frames contai ni ng Router I nformati on Fi elds ( RI Fs) are
not forwarded ( RI Fs are for token ri ng envi ronments) .
ti ons ( and frequently called bridges even though they are routers) wi th
the appropri ate operati ng protocol enabled ( i .e., transparent bri dgi ng)
Transparent Network A network connecti on that i s made through more
than one network, but appears to be only one network to the end user.
Many Local-Area Networks (LANs) wi thi n compani es are connected to
the I nternet so that users can access the I nternet or I nternet e-mai l by
cli cki ng on a desktop i con. T hi s i s a form of transparent networki ng. A
nontransparent versi on of thi s would be to open your communi cati ons
appli cati on, di al out on your modem, enter your e-mai l address, then
read your e-mai l.
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Triode 669
Transparent Routing To send data across more than one network wi th-
out any addi ti onal coaxi ng from the user. T he network does all of the
protocol conversi on and gi ves the i llusi on that there i s only one network.
Transponder An electroni c devi ce that recei ves a radi o si gnal, then emi ts
a response to the si gnal that i t has recei ved.
Transport Layer A layer i n a communi cati ons protocol model. I n gen-
eral, the transport layer performs the functi on of error correcti on and
the di recti on of data flow ( transmi t/recei ve) . T he latest gui deli ne for
communi cati ons protocols i s the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect). I t
i s the best model so far because all of the layers ( functi ons) work i nde-
pendently of each other. For a di agram of the OSI , DNA, and SNA func-
ti on layers, see Open Systems Interconnection. For a functi onal/
conceptual di agram of the OSI layers, see OSI Standards.
Transport Medium A reference to the physi cal component of what a
transmi ssi on si gnal i s bei ng sent over; i t can be fi ber opti c, coax, copper
twi sted pai r, or ai r.
Transport Protocol A reference to how data should be presented to a
devi ce or layer i n a transmi ssi on process. I n general telecommuni cati ons
transport, protocols i nclude SONET, T 1, ST S-1, and OC-N. Transport
protocols can become very compli cated, but i f you understand the four
li sted, you are i n good shape.
Trap 1. A di agnosti c software tool used to moni tor network events and
report them to a system user/admi ni strator. Traps can be used to mon-
i tor T 1 li nes for errors or they can be used to i denti fy the calli ng parti es
on a subscri bers telephone li ne. Each manufacturer of network equi p-
ment produces i ts own propri etary trap software. 2. See Trace.
Trellis Coding An error detecti on method used i n hi gh-speed modems.
Tremendously High Frequency (THF) T he Ameri can standard name
for frequenci es wi thi n the spectrum of 300 to 3000 GHz.
Tributary Circuit A lower-level multi plexed channel that exi sts wi thi n
a larger multi plexed channel. For example, a T 1 channel ri di ng i nsi de or
on an OC-3 SONET ( an OC-3 can carry 84 T 1 ci rcui ts) carri er i s con-
si dered to be a tri butary. T hi s term i s frequently used wi thi n the realm
of SONET networki ng.
Triode An electroni c vacuum tube that works i n si mi lar appli cati ons
as a transi stor ( Fi g. T.25) . Li ke a di ode vacuum tube, i t has a heater
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 669
670 Triple DES (3DES)
fi lament, anode, and cathode; the tri ode has a thi rd added element,
called a grid.
Plate
Signal input

Signal output

Grid
Heater Cathode
Figure T.25 Vacuum-Tube Triode
Triple DES (3DES) Data encrypti on standard. A 168-bi t encrypti on
method that i ncorporates an algori thm developed by the Uni ted States
Nati onal Bureau of Standards.
TRL (Transistor/Resistor Logic) Logi c ci rcui ts that consi st of bi polar
transi stors, rather than CMOS (Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semicon-
ductor) transi stors. T RL i s used i n envi ronments wi th lots of stati c elec-
tri ci ty.
Tromboning A method of regenerati ng trunk si gnali ng, such as DNI S di g-
i ts, by routi ng calls out of a swi tch on a trunk group ( whi ch provi des the
desi red si gnal) and then di rectly back i n on a di fferent trunk group.
Trunk T here are vari ous types of trunks. A trunk i n all cases i s a link be-
tween switches that carri es traffi c between vari ous swi tch end ports.
T hi s i s true i n packet swi tches and ci rcui t swi tches. Trunk types for ci r-
cui t swi tches ( voi ce) i nclude Loop Start, Ground Start, I SDN, and E& M.
For more i nformati on about LAN trunki ng between swi tches, see STP
and EtherChannel.
Trunk Group A group of telephone li nes that connect a PBX (Private
Branch Exchange) or key telephone system to the phone company, and
are used for a speci fi c appli cati on, such as i ncomi ng customer-servi ce
li nes, sales li nes, or i nformati on li nes. A speci fi c group of trunks can also
be confi gured for outgoi ng calls only.
Truth Table A di agram used to portray a logi c statement ( Fi g. T.26) .
Logi c i s a mathemati cal process fi rst developed by the I ri sh mathe-
mati ci an George Boole i n the 1850s. T he premi ses of logi c i s to tell i f a
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 670
Tube (Vacuum Tube) 671
certai n statement i s true or false. An example i s the li ght i s ON. T hi s
statement can only be true or false. Logi c couples thi s statement wi th
others li ke the swi tch i s ON, the power i s ON; therefore, the li ght must
be ON. I f the swi tch i s OFF and the power i s ON, then the li ght i s OFF.
I f the swi tch i s ON and the power i s OFF, then the li ght i s OFF. T hese
statements depi ct the truth table for an AND electroni c logi c gate, whi ch
i s a pri mary bui ldi ng block of mi croprocessors. I n the table depi cted,
the li ght swi tch would be A, the power would be B, and the li ght bulb
would be C. Truth tables are wri tten i n ones and zeros, rather than ONs
and OFFs. T he sci ence of thi s math i s called Boolean Algebra. I t i s a
book i n i tself and i s usually covered well i n textbooks that cover di gi -
tal electroni cs.
TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) 1. Di gi tal devi ces that consi st of
many bi polar transi stors ( the ori gi nal transi stor as we know i t) . T T L i s
not as stati c sensi ti ve as i ts newer and more commonly used competi tor,
CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) transi stor, but
i t uses much more power. 2. Time To Live. A fi eld i n an I P header that
i ndi cates how long a packet i s consi dered vali d. When the ti me to li ve
expi res, the packet i s di scarded.
TTR (Touch-Tone Receiver) An electroni c devi ce that converts DTMF
(Dual Tone Multi-Frequency) tones di aled by telephones and other
communi cati ons equi pment to di gi ts.
TTY (Teletypewriter) See Teletypewriter.
Tube (Vacuum Tube) An acti ve electroni c devi ce that i s li terally a
tube, wi th no ai r or other gasses i n i t. Tubes were the predecessors
to transi stors and other soli d-state devi ces. Tubes have four mai n
parts: the plate, the cathode, the fi lament ( or heater) , and the gri d.
T he tube works when electri ci ty flows through the tube, from the cath-
ode to the plate. T he electri ci ty flows when the fi lament i s heated,
TRUTH TABLE
A
C
B
AND GATE
A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Figure T.26 Truth Table: For an AND Gate, If A and B Conditions Exist,
then the Resultant Output is C
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 671
672 Tunneling
whi ch i s actually the source of the electron flow. T he si gnal to be am-
pli fi ed i s fed to the gri d, whi ch mani pulates the amount of current
flowi ng through the tube. T he resultant i s an ampli fi ed output on the
plate. T ubes are sti ll used i n many appli cati ons. Todays vacuum tube
appli cati ons i nclude hi gh-power appli cati ons ( such as radi o transmi t-
ters) , hi gh-end consumer audi o equi pment ( where i t i s necessary
to have odd-order harmoni cs accurately reproduced, transi stors do not
ampli fy odd-order harmoni cs, tubes do) , and hi gh radi ati on-ri sk ap-
pli cati ons ( such as outer space because transi stors are sensi ti ve
to cosmi c radi ati on) . For a schemati c symbol of a vacuum tube, see
Triode.
Tunneling To encapsulate data from one appli cati on or protocol i nto an-
other. Tunneli ng i s used to transport multi ple protocols over a si ngle con-
necti on, and i t i s also used as a measure of network securi ty.
Turnkey A method of network i nstallati on. Also referred to as EF&I (En-
gineer, Furnish, and Install). Many compani es have equi pment or en-
ti re networks bui lt i n thi s manner, so that when i t i s ready, all they need
to do i s use i t.
TV (Television) See Television.
TWAIN (Technology Without An Interesting Name) An i nterface
standard for i mage scanners. Most scanners are sold wi th a T WAI N dri ver.
T hese dri vers allow a graphi cs program to automati cally control a scan-
ni ng devi ce through i ts GUI i nterface.
Twisted Pair Communi cati ons wi ri ng consi sts of 19 to 26-AWG soli d and
i nsulated wi res. Twi sted-pai r wi re consi sts of pai rs of color-coded wi res.
Common si zes of twi sted-pai r wi re are 2 pai r, 3 pai r, 4 pai r, 25 pai r, 50
pai r, and 100 pai r. Twi sted-pai r wi re i s commonly used for telephone and
computer networks. I t comes i n rati ngs of CAT 3 ( for voi ce) , CAT 4 ( voi ce
and 10-base-T ) , and CAT 5 ( for 100-base-T and token ri ng) .
Two Binary One Quarternary (2B1Q) A type of Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM), where two bi ts presented at di fferent possi ble volt-
age levels represent four bi ts at one voltage level. T hi s li ne code i s a mai n-
stay for I SDN, and i s also used i n some ADSL and I DSL i mplementati ons.
Two-Wire Circuit A ci rcui t that uti li zes two wi res to work. A plai n tele-
phone li ne, such as the one i n your house, i s a two-wi re ci rcui t, and the
two wi res are called a subscriber loop.
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Type-6 Cable 673
Type-0 Supervisory Frame An X.25 S-frame that has the control bi ts
set to Recei ve Ready RR. T he actual format i s 00, whi ch i s zero i n bi -
nary. For more detai ls on X.25 frame-level control, see X.25 S Frame.
Type-1 Cable 3 I BM two-pai r 22 AWG shi elded data cable desi gned for
swi tched token ri ng. Characteri sti c i mpedance i s 150 ohms. I t i s usually
termi nated to genderless I BM data connectors.
Type-1 Operation I EEE 802.2 ( LLC) connecti onless operati on.
Type-1 Supervisory Frame An X.25 S frame that has the control bi ts set
to Rej ect REJ. T he actual bi t format i s 01, whi ch i s 1 i n bi nary. For more
detai ls on X.25 frame-level control, see X.25 S Frame.
Type-2 Cable 3 I BM two-pai r 22 AWG shi elded data cable desi gned for
Type-2 Operation An I EEE 802.2 ( LLC) connecti on-ori ented operati on.
Type-2 Supervisory Frame An X.25 S frame that has the control bi ts
set to Recei ve Not Ready RNR. T he actual bi t format i s 11, whi ch i s two
i n bi nary. For more detai ls on X.25 frame-level control, see X.25 S Frame.
Type-3 Cable 3 I BM 24-AWG nonshi elded four-pai r data cable desi gned
for swi tched token ri ng. Characteri sti c i mpedance i s 150 ohms. I t i s usu-
ally termi nated to genderless I BM data connectors.
Type-4 Cable Presently, no type-4 cable exi sts.
Type-4 Node A communi cati ons controller i n an SNA (IBM System Net-
work Architecture) network. See also Subarea Network.
Type-5 Cable 3 I BM 2 opti cal fi ber-data cable desi gned for swi tched to-
ken ri ng. Characteri sti c i mpedance i s 850 ohm. I t i s usually termi nated
to genderless I BM data connectors.
Type-5 Node A host i n an SNA (IBM System Network Architecture)
network. See also Subarea Network.
Type-6 Cable 3 I BM two-pai r 26-AWG shi elded data cable desi gned for
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 673
674 Type-7 Cable
Type-7 Cable Presently, no type-7 cable exi sts.
Type-8 Cable 3 I BM 2-pai r flat 23-AWG shi elded data cable desi gned for
Type-9 Cable 3 I BM 2-pai r 26-AWG shi elded data cable desi gned for
PQ104-5056F-PT.qxd 2/9/01 2:28 PM Page 674
U Interface A two-wi re ( one pai r) ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) BRI (Basic Rate Interface) telephone li ne. T hi s popular type
of di gi tal telephone li ne has two B ( bearer channels) and one D chan-
nel. For more i nformati on, see ISDN.
U Frame (Unnumbered Frame) One of three SDLC frame formats. See
also I Frame and S Frame.
U-mm Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between
U Plane (User Plane) One of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network
management. T he three planes are: The User Plane ( the U Plane de-
fi nes the transfer of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane
defi nes the LMI , Local Management I nterface) , and the Control Plane
( the C Plane i s delegated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) .
T he U Plane i s based on the ANSI T I .602 ( LAPD) core aspect standard.
I t provi des the i nterface between the end user and the network, bi -
di recti onal transfer of frames, frame-order preservati on, congesti on
avoi dance, and determi nes the pri ori ty of PVCs (Permanent Virtual
Circuits).
UA (Unnumbered Acknowledgement) A command defi ned by the last
three bi ts i n the control byte of an unnumbered or control frame i n
the X.25 protocol bei ng 110. T he UA control frame i s a response to a Set
675
U
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 675
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM) frame, whi ch resets the enti re
li nk. See U Frame.
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) An inte-
grated circuit, attached to the parallel bus of a computer, used for serial com-
munications. T he UART translates between serial and parallel signals, pro-
vides transmission clocking, and buffers data sent to or from the computer.
UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by
the AT M Forum for AT M Networks that allows any amount of data up to
a speci fi ed maxi mum to be sent across the network. A connecti on would
be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as an UBR connecti on i f i t carri ed nonti me
sensi ti ve data that could be retransmi tted wi thout a large i nconveni ence.
T he UBR quali ty of servi ce does not guarantee freedom from cell loss or
delay. Other QOSs defi ned by the AT M Forum for AT M connecti ons i n-
clude CBR (Constant Bit Rate), ABR (Available Bit Rate), and VBR
(Variable Bit Rate).
UCD (Uniform Call Distributor) A less-expensi ve and less-smart ver-
si on of an ACD ( Automati c Call Di stri butor) . T he UCD recei ves i ncom-
i ng calls and equally di stri butes them among agents i n a call center. For
more detai ls, see ACD.
UDC (Universal Digital Carrier) Also referred to as DLC (Digital Loop
Carrier). A method of placi ng two analog telephone li nes onto one di gi tal
copper pai r ( Fi g. U.1) . I n areas where a telephone customer has requested
676 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter)
Figure U.1 UDC (Universal Digital Carrier) Central Office Interface
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 676
an addi ti onal li ne and there are no addi ti onal copper pai rs avai lable, many
telephone compani es di gi ti ze the exi sti ng li ne to carry two. T he central of-
fi ce routes the two telephone li nes to a UDC trunk, whi ch i s then connected
to the copper pai r that carri es the di gi tal transmi ssi on to the customers
premi ses. T he telephone company i nstalls a UDC adapter at the demarca-
ti on poi nt, whi ch converts the di gi tal UDC transmi ssi on i nto two analog
li nes. T he UDC carri er i s DSL (Digital Subscriber Loop) based. UDC i s a
2B1Q (Two Binary One Quarternary) li ne format that ri des on a 137-
volt battery. I f the UDC carri er fai ls, i t wi ll go i nto an overri de/bypass mode
and swi tch the pai r to a 52-volt battery to provi de the ori gi nal POTs ser-
vi ce. T he telephone number that wi ll conti nue to work i s li ne one, and li ne
two can be set to call forward to li ne one. For a di agram, see DLC.
UDC Remote Unit T he electroni c equi pment placed at the customer end
of the UDC pai r that converts the di gi tal transmi ssi on to analog tele-
phone servi ce ( Fi g. U.2) . See UDC for operati onal detai ls.
UDC Remote Unit 677
Figure U.2 UDC (Universal Digital Carrier) Remote Unit
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 677
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) A connecti onless transport-layer
protocol that helps make up the T CP/I P protocol stack. UDP i s a si mple
protocol that exchanges datagrams/packets wi thout acknowledgments or
guaranteed deli very, requi ri ng that error processi ng and retransmi ssi on
be handled by other protocols. UDP i s defi ned i n RFC 768. An IP (In-
ternet Protocol) transport-layer protocol that i s someti mes used i n place
of T CP when transacti on-based appli cati on programs are communi cat-
i ng ( i .e., SNMP, Simple Network Management Protocol) .
UHF (Ultra-High Frequency) T he part of the radi o-frequency spec-
trum that ranges from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. I t i s used for broadcast T V
and other radi o communi cati ons.
UHF/VHF Splitter Used to make a j uncti on poi nt or spli t a si gnal so that
i t wi ll travel down multi ple paths over coax. I t i s also called an RF split-
ter or splitter. For a photo, see RF splitter.
UL (Underwriters Laboratories) A pri vate company that certi fi es
manufacturers products for safety.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) T he part of the radi o-frequency spec-
trum that ranges from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. I t i s used for broadcast T V
and other radi o communi cati ons.
Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) A classi fi cati on of mi crochi ps
that have more than 100, 000 devi ces i ncorporated i nto thei r ci rcui try.
Under-Floor Raceways Wi re ducts that are desi gned to be used under
rai sed-floor systems, li ke those i n computer rooms.
UNI (User Network Interface) 1. An AT M Forum speci fi cati on that
defi nes an i nteroperabi li ty standard for the i nterface between AT M-based
products ( a router or an AT M swi tch) located i n a pri vate network and
the AT M swi tches located wi thi n the publi c carri er networks. An AT M
physi cal-layer i nterface ( DS3, OC-N, ST S-N, or ST M-N) that provi des
physi cal-layer servi ces to an NNI . I t i s also used to descri be si mi lar con-
necti ons i n frame-relay networks. See also NNI, Q.920/Q.921, and SNI
(Subscriber Network Interface). 2. UNI (User Network Interface).
Also called a cable voice port or voice port. I n cable-T V networks, a de-
vi ce located at the telephone subscri bers premi ses that modulates and
demodulates the DS0 voi ce upstream and downstream channels. T he
modulated DS0 voi ce si gnal i s sent by the HDT (Host Digital Terminal)
located at the cable-T V head end. T he voi ce port provi des connecti on
to the customer premi ses telephone wi ri ng. Channel control between
678 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 678
the head end and the customer si te voi ce port can be mai ntai ned re-
motely, from the head end or other offi ce. Because the voi ce servi ce i n
cable telephony i s provi ded vi a radi o channels, the channels can be
swi tched when a subscri ber i s experi enci ng stati c or radi o i nterference
on li ne. T hi s would be equi valent to a pai r change i n a twi sted-pai r-based
telephone network. A pai r change cannot be performed by remote con-
trol and requi res a techni ci an on si te. For a photo, see Voice Port.
Unicast I n Ethernet-swi tched networks, a fi le/packet transfer between
two enti ti es. A uni cast can be i ni ti ated by a server to a workstati on, a
workstati on to a server, workstati on to network pri nter, or any other si n-
gle enti ty to si ngle enti ty. Uni cast transmi ssi ons are seen by all other
users connected to a subnet i n a hub envi ronment or users on the same
VLAN, but only at the layer 2 ( datali nk/MAC layer) . Packets wi th ad-
dresses not perti nent to the recei vi ng devi ce are di scarded by the NI C
card. I n contrast, packets contai ni ng multi cast and broadcast addresses
are passed by the NI C through layer 3 up to layer 7.
Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) A battery back-up system. When
the power goes out, the UPS converts the DC battery power to AC power
to run the system.
Unity Gain 1. Gai n ( another word for ampli fi cati on) i n an electroni c ci r-
cui t that i s equal to 1. I n osci llator ci rcui ts, and some other radi o re-
cei ver ci rcui ts that have a feed back ( generate thei r own i nput) , the am-
pli fi cati on between the output and the i nput must be one. I f the gai n i s
not one, the si gnal wi ll ei ther di mi ni sh to nothi ng or be ampli fi ed beyond
the saturati on poi nt of the acti ve component ( e.g., transi stor) i n the ci r-
cui t. 2. I n broadband networks, the balance between si gnal loss and
si gnal gai n through ampli fi ers.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) An i nte-
grated ci rcui t, attached to the parallel bus of a computer, used for seri al
communi cati ons. T he UART translates between seri al and parallel si g-
nals, provi des transmi ssi on clocki ng, and buffers data sent to or from the
computer.
Universal Call Distributor (UCD) A less expensi ve and less smart ver-
si on of an ACD (Automatic Call Distributor). T he UCD recei ves i n-
comi ng calls and equally di stri butes them among agents i n a call center.
For more detai ls, see ACD.
Universal Digital Carrier (UDC) Also referred to as DLC (Digital Loop
Carrier). A method of placi ng two analog telephone li nes onto one di gi tal
Universal Digital Carrier (UDC) 679
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 679
copper pai r. I n areas where a telephone customer has requested an addi-
ti onal li ne and there are no addi ti onal copper pai rs avai lable, many tele-
phone compani es di gi ti ze the exi sti ng li ne to carry two. T he central offi ce
routes the two telephone li nes to a UDC trunk, whi ch i s then connected to
the copper pai r that carri es the di gi tal transmi ssi on to the customers prem-
i ses. T he telephone company i nstalls a UDC adapter at the demarcati on
poi nt, whi ch converts the di gi tal UDC transmi ssi on i nto two analog li nes.
T he UDC carri er i s DSL (Digital Subscriber Loop) based. UDC i s a 2B1Q
(Two Binary One Quarternary) li ne format that ri des on a 137-volt
battery. I f the UDC carri er fai ls, i t wi ll go i nto an overri de/bypass mode
and swi tch the pai r to a 52-volt battery to provi de the ori gi nal POTs serv-
i ce. T he telephone number that wi ll conti nue to work i s li ne one, and li ne
two can be set to call forward to li ne one. For a di agram, see DLC.
Universal Resource Locator (URL) An I nternet address. URLs consi st
of two parts. T he fi rst part i s the protocol i denti fi er and the second
i s the domai n i denti fi er. For example, i n the address http://www.
mcgrawhill.com, the http:// speci fi es a request to fetch a Web page
usi ng the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and the mcgraw-
hi ll.com speci fi es a domai n name ( whi ch converts di rectly i nto an I P
address) on the World Wide Web (WWW).
Universal Serial Bus (USB) A latter external bus standard that emerged
i n 1996. I t supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps, and can connect as
many as 127 peri pheral devi ces ( mi ce, pri nters, vi deo equi pment,
modems, and keyboards) si multaneously. USB i s also able to support Plug
and Play and can be hot pluggable. For a photo of a USB connector,
see USB.
UNIX An operati ng system si mi lar to M S Wi ndows, only i t i s desi gned
to operate on RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computers), li ke those
made by Sun M i crosystems. ( I t can work on I ntel Penti um and other
586-based PCs, too.) UNI X performs all the functi ons that M S Wi ndows
does, only the i cons look di fferent and have di fferent names. UNI X and
RI SC computers are used i n conj uncti on wi th CTI (Computer Tele-
phony Integration) appli cati ons, such as front-end processors and i n-
tegrated voi ce-response systems, because of thei r abi li ty to execute
small i nstructi ons and tasks very qui ckly, and on a real-ti me basi s.
Unlisted Number A phone number that i s not li sted i n a telephone book,
but can be found by calli ng di rectory assi stance and gi vi ng the persons
name. T he other type of pri vate li sti ng i s an unpubli shed number, whi ch
i s not li sted i n a telephone book and cannot be found by calli ng di rec-
tory assi stance.
680 Universal Resource Locator (URL)
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 680
Unpublished Number See Unlisted Number.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Twi sted-pai r wi ri ng that i s unshi elded,
meani ng i t does not have a foi l wrappi ng around the group of conduc-
tors wi thi n the j acket. Unshi elded twi sted pai r i s the most commonly
used wi ri ng for voi ce and data networks. Twi sted-pai r wi re consi sts of
pai rs of color-coded wi res. Common si zes of twi sted-pai r wi re are 2 pai r,
3 pai r, 4 pai r, 25 pai r, 50 pai r, and 100 pai r. Twi sted-pai r wi re i s com-
monly used for telephone and computer networks. I t comes i n rati ngs of
CAT 3 ( for voi ce) , CAT 4 ( voi ce and 10-base-T ) , and CAT 5 ( for 100-
base-T and token ri ng) . See also Plenum and PVC.
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by
the AT M Forum for AT M Networks that allows any amount of data up to
a speci fi ed maxi mum to be sent across the network. A connecti on would
be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as an UBR connecti on i f i t carri ed nonti me
sensi ti ve data that could be retransmi tted wi thout a large i nconveni ence.
T he UBR quali ty of servi ce does not guarantee freedom from cell loss or
delay. Other QOSs defi ned by the AT M Forum for AT M connecti ons i n-
clude CBR (Constant Bit Rate), ABR (Available Bit Rate), and VBR
(Variable Bit Rate).
Uplink Fast A very popular feature of Ci sco Systems multi layer LAN
swi tches that i s a modi fi cati on for Spantree protocol. I f a li nk i n a net-
work fai ls, VLANs must reconfi gure traffi c paths between swi tches un-
der spantree. T hi s can take from 30 to 50 seconds. Upli nk Fast i s a
method of Spantree rerouti ng where the enti re Spantree tables are not
recalculated; therefore, traffi c begi ns to flow 1 to 5 seconds after a li nk
fai lure.
UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) A battery back-up system.
When the power goes out, the UPS converts the DC battery power to
AC power to run the system.
Upstream I n asymmetri cal broadband transmi ssi ons, a reference to
the bandwi dth or i nformati on flow toward the servi ce provi der and
away from the customer/subscri ber. ADSL and cable-modem I nternet
servi ces are asymmetri cal. T hey consi st of a larger downstream and
smaller upstream component. Asymmetri cal transmi ssi ons are best
sui ted for end-user I nternet servi ces. See also ADSL and Cable Tele-
phony.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) An I nternet address. URLs consi st
of two parts. T he fi rst part i s the protocol i denti fi er and the second
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) 681
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 681
i s the domai n i denti fi er. For example, i n the address http://www.
mcgrawhill.com, the http:// speci fi es a request to fetch a Web page us-
i ng the HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and the mcgraw-hi ll.com
speci fi es a domai n name ( whi ch converts di rectly i nto an I P address) on
the World Wide Web (WWW).
US T he ASCI I control-code abbrevi ati on for uni t separator. T he bi nary
code i s 1111001 and the hex i s F1.
US Security A reference to the 3DES securi ty standard. Called triple DES
( Data Encrypti on Standard) , i t i s a 168-bi t encrypti on method that i ncor-
porates an algori thm developed by the Uni ted States Nati onal Bureau of
Standards.
USART (Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter)
T he part of a computers seri al communi cati ons port ( most PCs have
two) that converts the parallel data from the data bus i nto seri al data to
be sent to a devi ce connected to the port, li ke a modem.
USB (Universal Serial Bus) A latter external bus standard that
emerged i n 1996. I t supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps, and can
connect as many as 127 peri pheral devi ces ( mi ce, pri nters, vi deo equi p-
ment, modems, and keyboards) si multaneously. USB i s also able to sup-
port Plug and Play and can be hot pluggable ( Fi g. U.3) .
682 US
Figure U.3 USB (Universal Serial Bus) Connectors
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 682
User Network Interface (UNI) 683
PBX tie lines
ATM Service
Video
LAN
Host
UNI
Figure U.4 User Network Interface (UNI) for ATM
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) A connecti onless transport-layer pro-
tocol that helps make up the T CP/I P protocol stack. UDP i s a si mple pro-
tocol that exchanges datagrams/packets wi thout acknowledgments or
guaranteed deli very, requi ri ng that error processi ng and retransmi ssi on
be handled by other protocols. UDP i s defi ned i n RFC 768. An IP (In-
ternet Protocol) transport-layer protocol that i s someti mes used i n place
of T CP when transacti on-based appli cati on programs are communi cat-
i ng ( i .e., SNMP, Simple Network Management Protocol) . UDP usually
carri es noncruci al network i nformati on.
User Network Interface (UNI) 1. An AT M Forum speci fi cati on that
defi nes an i nteroperabi li ty standard for the i nterface between AT M-based
products ( a router or an AT M swi tch) located i n a pri vate network and
the AT M swi tches located wi thi n the publi c carri er networks. An AT M
physi cal-layer i nterface ( DS3, OC-N, ST S-N, or ST M-N) that provi des
physi cal-layer servi ces to an UNI ( Fi g. U.4) . I t i s also used to descri be
si mi lar connecti ons i n frame-relay networks. See also NNI, Q.920/Q.921,
and SNI (Subscriber Network Interface). 2. UNI (User Network In-
terface). Also called a cable voice port or voice port. I n cable-T V net-
works, a devi ce located at the telephone subscri bers premi ses that mod-
ulates and demodulates the DS0 voi ce upstream and downstream
channels. T he modulated DS0 voi ce si gnal i s sent by the HDT (Host Dig-
ital Terminal) located at the cable-T V head end. T he voi ce port pro-
vi des connecti on to the customer premi ses telephone wi ri ng. Channel
control between the head end and the customer si te voi ce port can be
mai ntai ned remotely, from the head end or other offi ce. Because the
voi ce servi ce i n cable telephony i s provi ded vi a radi o channels, the chan-
nels can be swi tched when a subscri ber i s experi enci ng stati c or radi o
i nterference on li ne. T hi s would be equi valent to a pai r change i n a
twi sted-pai r-based telephone network. A pai r change cannot be per-
formed by remote control and requi res a techni ci an on si te. For a photo,
see Voice Port.
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 683
User Plane One of the three enti ti es of frame-relay network manage-
ment. T he three planes are: The User Plane ( the U Plane defi nes the
transfer of i nformati on) , the Management Plane ( the M Plane defi nes
the LMI , Local Management I nterface) , and the Control Plane ( the C
Plane i s delegated for si gnali ng and swi tched vi rtual ci rcui ts) . T he U
Plane i s based on the ANSI T I .602 ( LAPD) core aspect standard. I t pro-
vi des the i nterface between the end user and the network, bi -di recti onal
transfer of frames, frame-order preservati on, congesti on avoi dance, and
determi nes the pri ori ty of PVCs (Permanent Virtual Circuits).
USOC (Universal Service Order Code) A code that defi nes di fferent
equi pment and servi ces wi thi n Regi onal Bell Operati ng Compani es
( RBOCs) . Di fferent RBOCs have di fferent meani ngs for each code, as far
as servi ces, but the USOC codes for equi pment has remai ned the same
si nce the old Bell System ( pre-1984) .
USRT (Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitter) T he part of a
computers seri al communi cati ons port ( most PCs have two) that con-
verts the parallel data from the data bus i nto seri al data to be sent to a
devi ce connected to the port, li ke a modem.
USWest A Regional Bell Operating Company (RBOC). T hei r terri tory
i ncludes the States of Washi ngton, Oregon, I daho, Montana, Wyomi ng,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Mi nnesota, I owa, Nebraska, Utah, Colorado,
Ari zona, and New Mexi co.
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Twi sted-pai r wi ri ng that i s unshi elded,
meani ng i t does not have a foi l wrappi ng around the group of conduc-
tors wi thi n the j acket. Unshi elded twi sted pai r i s the most commonly
used wi ri ng for voi ce and data networks. Twi sted-pai r wi re consi sts of
pai rs of color-coded wi res. Common si zes of twi sted-pai r wi re are
2 pai r, 3 pai r, 4 pai r, 25 pai r, 50 pai r, and 100 pai r. Twi sted-pai r wi re i s
commonly used for telephone and computer networks. I t comes i n rat-
i ngs of CAT 3 ( for voi ce) , CAT 4 ( voi ce and 10-base-T ) , and CAT 5 ( for
100-base-T and token ri ng) . See also Plenum and PVC.
684 User Plane
PQ104-5056F-PU.qxd 2/9/01 2:30 PM Page 684
V (Volt) T he basi c uni t of electri c force, pressure, or EMF (Electromo-
tive Force). I n Ohms Law formulas, EMF i s used as the desi gnator for
voltage, E. T he two mai n components of electri ci ty are current ( amper-
age) and voltage. Voltage i s also referred to as the potenti al energy be-
tween two poi nts i n a ci rcui t.
V.13 An older modem standard that enabled full-duplex modems to act
as half-duplex modems when necessary.
V.14 An older modem protocol that enables modems equi pped wi th error
correcti on to talk to modems that dont have error correcti on.
V.17 A data-transfer protocol for one-way facsi mi le ( fax machi nes) .
V.21 A modem protocol that i s now used more outsi de the U.S. and Canada
than wi thi n. Modems that are made i n the U.S. and Canada are capable
of recei vi ng or sendi ng transmi ssi ons to these modems.
V.22 Bell 212A. An older modem protocol for transfer rates of 1200 bp/s.
V.22bis An older modem protocol that allows for automati c i ncrease/
decrease i n speed of the V.22 protocol to 2400 bp/s. T he bi s i s an
i ndi cator of the I T U-T that means second edi ti on, or second i n fami ly.
V.23 An older modem protocol that provi des up to 1200 bp/s i n a forward
channel and 75 bp/s i n a reverse or backward channel.
V.24 An I T U-T standard for a physi cal-layer i nterface between DT E and
DCE. V.24 i s essenti ally the same as the EI A/T I A-232 standard.
685
V
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 685
V.25bis An I T U-T speci fi cati on descri bi ng procedures for call setup and
tear down over the DT E-DCE i nterface i n a packet-swi tched data network.
V.26 An older four-wi re ci rcui t protocol for 1200 baud modems. T he two
pai rs ( four wi res) were transmi t and recei ve.
V.27 An older modem standard that was capable of bei ng confi gured for
two-wi re half-duplex operati on or four-wi re full-duplex operati on.
V.29 A modem standard for transmi ssi on rates of 9.6 K bps on pri vate li nes
( no di ali ng, j ust wi re) .
V.32 An I T U-T standard di al-up seri al-li ne protocol for bi di recti onal data
transmi ssi ons at speeds of 4.8 or 9.6 K bps. See also V.32bis.
V.32bis An I T U-T standard that extends V.32 to speeds up to 14.4 K bps.
See also V.32.
V.34 An I T U-T standard that speci fi es a seri al li ne di al-up protocol. V.34
offers i mprovements to the V.32 standard, i ncludi ng hi gher transmi ssi on
rates ( 28.8 K bps) and enhanced data compressi on. Compare wi th V.32.
V.34bis A newer versi on of the V.34 standard that i ncorporates leaner
compressi on techni ques to achi eve speeds that extend beyond the ori g-
i nal 19.2 K bps to 31.2 K bps and 33.6 K bps.
V.35 An I T U-T standard descri bi ng a synchronous, physi cal-layer proto-
col used for communi cati ons between a network access devi ce, such as
a router and a packet network. V.35 i s recommended for speeds up to
48 K bps, but i t i s commonly used for 56-/64-K bps connecti ons ( Fi g. V.1) .
686 V.25bis
Figure V.1 V.35 Connector
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 686
V.42 An I T U-T fami ly of protocols that i nclude standards for bi t trans-
mi ssi on and error correcti on usi ng LAPM (Link-Access Procedure for
Modems). T he recei vi ng devi ce detects errors and requests a repeat
transmi ssi on. LAPM i s an older pre-X.25 protocol. Where these proto-
cols sti ll exi st ( usually i n mai nframe/termi nal envi ronments) , they are
converted by PADS before they are carri ed by X.25 packet networks. See
also LAPB (Link-Access Procedure level B).
V.54 T he I T U-T standard for loop-back test capabi li ty i n modems. A loop-
back test i s when you send data to a far-end modem, and the modem
si mply sends your own data back to you. I f you recei ve your own data
i n a loop back, then you know that your modem and the li ne are OK .
V.110 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) two-wi re BRI (Ba-
sic Rate Interface) protocol standard for data transfer over the B
( Bearer) channel.
V.120 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) two-wi re BRI
(Basic Rate Interface) protocol standard for data transfer over the B
( Bearer) channel.
V Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 40 GHz
and 75 GHz. For a table, see IEEE Radar Band Designation.
V Fast Also called V.34. A modem standard/compressi on protocol that
transfers data at speeds up to 19.2 K p/s.
V&H Coordinates A method for calculati ng ai rli ne mi leage between
ci ti es. For a li sti ng of ci ti es and thei r respecti ve V& H coordi nates, see
Airline Mileage.
V Shell One of the UNI X program operator access levels. T he other levels
are C Shell and Root. To access C Shell or V Shell, a password must be
entered. To work i n a UNI X program under the root command set, an ad-
di ti onal password must be used. T he di fferent shells permi t di fferent op-
erati ons, whi ch have di fferent command sets. T hi s allows a root user to
allow li mi ted access to C-Shell and V-Shell users. Many telecommuni ca-
ti ons manufacturers i ncorporate the UNI X operati ng system i nto thei r
equi pment.
V. Standards ITU/T (International Telecommunications Union/
Telegraphy) formerly known as CCITT (Consultative Committee
International Telephony and Telegraphy) standards for modems,
analog data communi cati ons, and methods of compressi on.
V. Standards 687
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 687
Vacant Code A central-offi ce prefi x ( the fi rst three di gi ts i n a seven-di gi t
phone number) or area code that i s not i n use or not assi gned yet.
Vacuum Tube An acti ve electroni c devi ce that i s li terally a tube, wi th
no ai r or other gasses i n i t. T ubes were the predecessors to transi stors
and other soli d-state devi ces ( Fi g. V.2) . T ubes have four mai n parts:
the plate, the cathode, the fi lament ( or heater) , and the gri d. T he way
that the tube works i s that electri ci ty flows through the tube from the
cathode to the plate. T he electri ci ty flows when the fi lament i s heated.
T hi s i s actually the source of the electron flow. T he si gnal to be am-
pli fi ed i s fed to the gri d, whi ch mani pulates the amount of current flow-
i ng through the tube. T he resultant i s an ampli fi ed output on the plate.
T ubes are sti ll used i n many appli cati ons. Todays vacuum tube appli -
cati ons i nclude: hi gh-power appli cati ons ( such as radi o transmi tters) ,
hi gh-end consumer audi o equi pment where i t i s necessary to have odd-
order harmoni cs accurately reproduced ( transi stors do not ampli fy odd-
order harmoni cs, but tubes do) , and i n appli cati ons i n outer space where
radi ati on damage i s a hi gh ri sk ( transi stors are sensi ti ve to cosmi c radi -
ati on) . For a schemati c symbol of a tri ode vacuum tube, see Triode.
688 Vacant Code
Figure V.2 Vacuum Tubes: Triode (Left) and Pentode (Right)
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 688
Vampire Tap A LAN (Local Area Network) connector that cri mps onto
the outsi de of a coax cable. T he tap connector i s equi pped wi th teeth
that penetrate through the j acket, shi eld and di electri c of the coax to
make a soli d connecti on wi th the i nner conductor. T he i nner conductor
of a coax i s used as the bus i n Ethernet networks.
Variable Bit Rate (VBR) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M Networks that has two subcategori es. T he fi rst i s
VBR-RT (Variable Bit Rate Real Time). I t i s used for connecti ons that
are ti mi ng sensi ti ve. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as
an ABR RT connecti on i f i t carri ed vi deo or voi ce. T he second subcate-
gory i s VBR-NRT (Variable Bit Rate NonReal Time). I t i s used for
bursty or other nonti me-sensi ti ve data transmi ssi ons. Both categori es of
the VBR quali ty of servi ce provi de a guaranteed mi ni mum cell loss and
delay. Other QOSs defi ned by the AT M Forum for AT M Networks i nclude
CBR (Constant Bit Rate), UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate), and ABR
(Available Bit Rate).
Variable Resistor Also called a potentiometer (pot). A resi stor that i s
usually made of carbon fi lm and has a control knob or sli de connected
to i t. Many electroni c control knobs are connected to vari able resi stors
( Fi gs. V.3 and V.4) .
Variable Resistor 689
Figure V.3 Variable Resistors: Slide (Top) and Rotary (Bottom Left and Right)
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 689
690 VBR (Variable Bit Rate)
Figure V.4 Variable Resistor Schematic
VBR (Variable Bit Rate) A Quality of Service (QOS) defi ned by the
AT M Forum for AT M Networks that has two subcategori es. T he fi rst i s
VBR-RT (Variable Bit Rate Real Time). I t i s used for connecti ons that
are ti mi ng sensi ti ve. A connecti on would be ri ghtfully commi ssi oned as
an ABR RT connecti on i f i t carri ed vi deo or voi ce. T he second subcate-
gory i s VBR-NRT (Variable Bit Rate NonReal Time). I t i s used for
bursty or other nonti me-sensi ti ve data transmi ssi ons. Both categori es of
the VBR quali ty of servi ce provi de a guaranteed mi ni mum cell loss and
delay. Other QOSs defi ned by the AT M Forum for AT M Networks i n-
clude CBR (Constant Bit Rate), UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate), and ABR
(Available Bit Rate).
VCI (Virtual Channel Identifier) T he AT M transport method over a
physi cal connecti on i s di vi ded i nto paths and channels. Paths and chan-
nels can be admi ni strated by subscri bers of AT M servi ce. Over one phys-
i cal connecti on ( i .e., OC-3 or DS3) are a possi ble 4096 VPI s. For each
VPI i s a possi ble 65, 536 VCI s ( Fi g. V.5) .
Virtual Path 0
.
.
.
.
SONET OC3, DS3, or STS-1
Virtual Path 2
Virtual Path 4,094
Virtual Path 4,095
VCI 0 TO 65,536
VCI 0 TO 65,536
VCI 0 TO 65,536
VCI 0 TO 65,536
Figure V.5 VCI ATM Virtual Channel Interface
VDSL (Very High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line) A physi cal-layer
protocol that i s the fastest of the DSL technologi es. VDSL downloads
up to 1352 Mbps and uploads at 1.5 to 2.3 Mbps over a si ngle pai r of
copper wi res. VDSL i s li mi ted to a maxi mum range of 1000 to 4500 feet
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 690
Video IP 691
( 1.6 to 7.2 km) from the central offi ce, dependi ng on the speed. VDSL
can be extended from central offi ces to remote communi ti es usi ng fi ber
opti c. For a table that compares DSL formats, see xDSL.
Vertical and Horizontal Coordinates See Airline Mileage.
Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) A part of Longitudinal Redun-
dancy Checking (LRC). A method of checki ng for errors i n communi ca-
ti ons/modem transmi ssi ons by combi ni ng verti cal error checki ng and lon-
gi tudi nal error checki ng. A transmi ssi on devi ce sends data i n bytes, whi ch
are logi cally stacked on top of each other. T he stack forms a block. T he
last bi t of each li ne i s used to form a check sequence. LRC i s about 85%
accurate i n detecti ng and re-transmi tti ng blocks that contai n errors. T he
newer method of error checki ng i s CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checking).
Very High Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line See VDSL.
Very High Frequency (VHF) Radi o frequenci es i n the range of 30 to
300 MHz. VHF i s uti li zed for broadcast televi si on and FM radi o.
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Radi o frequenci es i n the range of 3 kHz to
300 kHz.
VHF (Very High Frequency) Radi o frequenci es i n the range of 30 MHz
to 300 MHz. VHF i s uti li zed for broadcast televi si on and FM radi o.
VIC (Voice Interface Card) I n Ci sco Systems product li ne, a module
that provi des POT S I P voi ce connecti vi ty through a gateway or router.
VI Cs come i n stati on ( FXS to plug a telephone i nto) or offi ce ( FXO to
connect to the telephone company or PBX) opti ons, and can be Loop
Start, Ground Start, or E& M.
Video Conferencing A vi deo phone. A televi si on connected to a tele-
phone li ne that carri es vi deo and audi o i nformati on. Some compani es
speci ali ze i n thi s servi ce. Some even have offi ces that contai n vi deo con-
ferenci ng equi pment that can be rented for meeti ngs wi th people at
other far away vi deo-conferenci ng locati ons. Pi ctureTel i s a popular man-
ufacturer of vi deo-conferenci ng equi pment.
Video IP T here are three categori es of vi deo, be they i n a publi c broad-
cast, satelli te, cable T V, or I P or analog radi o format. I n I P, or packeti zed
vi deo, the same demands for vi deo exi st as i n legacy technologi es. T he
fi rst category i s broadcast vi deo, where there i s one source and many
desti nati ons. T he broadcast i s scheduled, and then broadcast vi a I P
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multicast to network users; thi s can be li ve or previ ously recorded. T he
second category i s vi deo on demand, where there i s one end user that
desi res to vi ew a previ ously stored vi deo fi le as an I P uni cast transmi s-
si on. T hi s i s a prerecorded vi deo that i s streamed from a storage server
fi le. T he thi rd category of vi deo i s the i nteracti ve two-or-more way vi deo
conference, where both ends are li ve and not prerecorded. T hi s i s the
most complex type of vi deo and requi res both an I P uni cast transmi s-
si on and i n some cases an i ntegrated multi cast, dependi ng on each i n-
di vi dual scenari o. See also H.323, H.320, Unicast, and Multicast.
Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) T he AT M transport method over a
physi cal connecti on i s di vi ded i nto paths and channels. Paths and chan-
nels can be admi ni strated by subscri bers of AT M servi ce. Over one phys-
i cal connecti on ( i .e., OC-3 or DS3) are a possi ble 4096 VPI s. For each
VPI i s a possi ble 65, 536 VCI s.
Virtual Channel Link (VCL) A connecti on between two AT M devi ces.
A VCC consi sts of one or more VCLs. See also VCC.
Virtual Circuit Number (VCN) A 12-bi t fi eld i n an X.25 PLP header
that i denti fi es an X.25 vi rtual ci rcui t. I t allows DCE to determi ne how to
route a packet through the X.25 network. See also LCI and LCN.
Virtual Colocation T he two types of colocati ons ( also spelled colloca-
tion) are vi rtual and physi cal. A colocati on i s an i nterconnecti on agreement
and a physi cal place where telephone compani es hand-off calls and serv-
i ces to each other. T hi s i s usually done between a CLEC (Competitive Lo-
cal Exchange Carrier) and an RBOC (Regional Bell Operating Com-
pany). A vi rtual colocati on i s when telephone company A ( the CLEC)
requests that thei r phone companys network be connected to telephone
company Bs ( the RBOCs) network. Telephone company B charges com-
pany A lots of money. Company B owns, i nstalls and mai ntai ns the equi p-
ment. To company A the i nterconnecti on i s vi rtual, because they never
physi cally do anythi ng to i t when and after i t i s i nstalled. Company B li kes
thi s because company A does not get free access to thei r premi ses.
Virtual DN (Virtual Directory Number) 1. Also called a phantom
directory number. A di rectory number or extensi on on a PBX system
that i s used to attach a voi ce mai lbox to. T he vi rtual DN does not really
have a telephone set, but the PBX system thi nks i t does, so i t transfers
calls to that DN, whi ch are confi gured to be forwarded to a voi ce-mai l
system. A user of that DN can then di al i nto the voi ce-mai l system, en-
ter thei r extensi on, and recei ve thei r messages. 2. DNI S numbers are
also referred to as vi rtual DNs.
692 Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI)
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Virtual LAN (VLAN) ( Pronounced vee-LAN.) I n LAN swi tchi ng, the
feature that was brought about by the 802.1Q standard. I t i s feature on a
LAN swi tch that makes selected ports behave as i f they were attached to
the same segment. Another good name for thi s feature would be V seg-
ment or vi rtual segment. Devi ces/users that exchange a large amount of
i nformati on are usually placed wi thi n the same VLAN segment. T hi s helps
make the operati on of the LAN swi tch more effi ci ent, keepi ng traffi c con-
tai ned wi thi n speci fi ed ports. T hi s allows other ports on separate VLANs
to carry other nonrelated traffi c si multaneously. Further, i t also prevents
devi ces i n one VLAN from havi ng access to devi ces on another. VLANs are
confi gured by a network engi neer, network analyst, or network admi ni s-
trator. When I P telephony i s i mplemented over an Ethernet-swi tched net-
work, the telephone devi ces connected to the network are best placed i nto
thei r own VLANs. Most swi tches that are 802.1Q compati ble can recog-
ni ze more than 1,000 VLANs and up to 500 hosts per VLAN. Further, there
are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c and dynami c. Stati c VLANs are associ ated
wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c VLANs are associ ated wi th the MAC ad-
dresses of devi ces attached to the swi tch. Dynami c VLANs allow users to
move to another offi ce that could have a data connecti on i nstalled. T he
swi tch would recogni ze the MAC address of the devi ce and automati cally
i nclude i ts traffi c i n the same VLAN as the previ ously connected swi tch
port. See also Frame Tagging.
Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) T he AT M transport method over a phys-
i cal connecti on i s di vi ded i nto paths and channels. Paths and channels
can be admi ni strated by subscri bers. Over one physi cal connecti on
( i .e., OC-3 or DS3) are a possi ble 4096 VPI s. For each VPI i s a possi -
ble 65, 536 VCIs (Virtual Channel Identifier). For a di agram, see VCI.
Virtual PBX A reference to I P telephony as an end user product, or Cen-
tron servi ces from a PST N servi ces provi der. I P telephony i s replaci ng
Centron servi ces due to i ts cost effecti veness and abi li ty to be remotely
admi ni stered by an admi ni strator or servi ce provi der. See also IP Tele-
phony and Centron/Centrex.
Virtual Tributary (VT) A vi rtual tri butary i s a communi cati ons channel
or ci rcui t that exi sts wi thi n another ( larger) multi plexed communi ca-
ti ons channel. For example, a DS1 wi thi n a DS3 i s a vi rtual tri butary.
Someti mes channels wi thi n an AT & T SLC96 carri er system ( pai r gai n
system for carryi ng 96 phone conversati ons on 8 pai rs of wi re) are re-
ferred to as virtual pairs.
Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP) I n swi tched Ethernet LAN networks, a
communi cati ons method that swi tches use to share VLAN i nformati on
Virtual Trunk Protocol (VTP) 693
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and whi ch connecti ons between swi tches are to carry traffi c for speci -
fi ed VLANs. See also 802.1Q and Spanning Tree.
Virtual Trunk Protocol Bomb (VTP Bomb) ( Slang) An event where
an enti re network poli cy area loses VT P trunki ng and VLAN confi gura-
ti on due to a swi tch bei ng connected to the network that has a hi gher
revi si on number i n i ts VT P trunk revi si on table. T hi s can cause a cor-
porate network to go completely out of servi ce. Swi tches update the ver-
si on of VT P confi gurati on every ti me a network change or VLAN change
i s made. T hey track these changes by gi vi ng them a VT P versi on num-
ber. T he VT P revi si on number i s used by LAN swi tches to determi ne
whi ch has the most up-to-date network i nformati on. Before a LAN swi tch
i s added to a network that has previ ously been commi ssi oned i n another
network, i ts VT P and other VLAN i nformati on should always be confi g-
ured to zero. T hi s ensures i t does not have a hi gher revi si on number
from i ts old network that could overri de all VT P confi gurati ons i n i ts new
network surroundi ngs. See also 802.1Q (VLAN) and Spanning Tree.
VLAN (Virtual LAN) ( Pronounced vee-LAN.) I n LAN swi tchi ng, the
feature that was brought about by the 802.1Q standard. I t i s featured on
a LAN swi tch that makes selected ports behave as i f they were attached
to the same segment. Another good name for thi s feature would be V
segment, or virtual segment. Devi ces/users that exchange a large
amount of i nformati on are usually placed wi thi n the same VLAN
segment. T hi s helps make the operati on of the LAN swi tch more effi -
ci ent, keepi ng traffi c contai ned wi thi n speci fi ed ports. T hi s allows other
ports on separate VLANs to carry other nonrelated traffi c si multaneously.
VLANs are confi gured by a network engi neer, network analyst, or net-
work admi ni strator. When I P telephony i s i mplemented over an Ethernet-
swi tched network, the telephone devi ces connected to the network are
best placed i nto thei r own VLANs. Most swi tches that are 802.1Q com-
pati ble can recogni ze more than 1, 000 VLANs and up to 500 hosts per
VLAN. Further, there are two ki nds of VLANs: stati c and dynami c. Stati c
VLANs are associ ated wi th swi tch ports, and dynami c VLANs are asso-
ci ated wi th the MAC addresses of devi ces attached to the swi tch. Dy-
data connecti on i nstalled. T he swi tch would recogni ze the MAC address
of the devi ce and automati cally i nclude i ts traffi c i n the same VLAN as
the previ ously connected swi tch port. See also Frame Tagging.
VLF (Very Low Frequency) Radio frequencies in the range of 3 to 300 kHz.
VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet Mask) A feature of a routi ng operat-
i ng system to speci fy/i denti fy a di fferent subnet mask for the same
network number on di fferent subnets. VLSM can help opti mi ze avai lable
694 Virtual Trunk Protocol Bomb (VTP Bomb)
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address space. I n order to use VLSM, a network admi ni strator must use
a routi ng protocol that supports i t. For example, Ci sco routers support
VLSM wi th Open Shortest Path Fi rst ( OSPF) , I ntegrated I ntermedi ate
System-to-I ntermedi ate System ( I ntegrated I S-I S) , Enhanced I GRP
( EI GRP) , and stati c routi ng.
Voice Band A reference to the frequency range of a human voi ce that i s
transferred on a telephone li ne. T he range of the human voi ce i s about
200 Hz to 12 kHz. T he range of the voi ce transmi tted over a POT S phone
li ne i s flat ( an even reproducti on) from 500 Hz to 3, 500 Hz ( 3 kHz i n
bandwi dth) .
Voice Enabled Router A router that i s QoS, MGCP, and H.323 enabled
at mi ni mum that would enable i t to carry voi ce traffi c i n an I P network
and/or translate i t to the PST N ( Publi c Servi ce Telephone Network) . See
also MGCP, Gateway, H.323, WIC, and RTP.
Voice Enabled Switch A reference to an Ethernet swi tchi ng devi ce that
i s 802.1Q as well as 802.1p compli ant that would enable the devi ce to
carry I P telephony traffi c. I P telephony and VoI P are not compati ble wi th
token ri ng networks.
Voice eXtensible Markup Language (VXML) VXML i s si mi lar to
HT ML. When a user calls a speci al phone number, the call i s routed to
a devi ce called a Voi ce Response Uni t ( VRU) . T he VRU launches a web
browser that fi nds and i nterprets a document wri tten i n VXML and then
responds to the caller. Users can i nteract wi th the web ei ther by voi ce
or touch tones.
Voice Grade A reference to a POT S ( Plai n Old Telephone Servi ce) tele-
phone li ne, li ke the ones that are subscri bed to by resi denti al telephone
company customers. Local telephone compani es do not guarantee any
transfer rate of data over these li nes. So, i f you cant transmi t data at
28.8 K b/s wi th your new modem, the phone company wi ll probably ask
you to subscri be to a swi tched 56K data li ne ( whi ch i s more costly than
a POT S li ne) .
Voice Mail An answeri ng machi ne system that i ntegrates wi th a PBX
(Private Branch Exchange) or key telephone system. Octel ( now a part
of Lucent Technologi es) i s a manufacturer of voi ce-mai l systems that are
used i n busi ness-offi ce appli cati ons and i n central-offi ce appli cati ons for
telephone compani es to offer voi ce mai l/voi ce messagi ng as a servi ce to
subscri bers. Voi ce mai l can also be purchased as a network i nterface card
wi th software that runs on a PC. Fi gure V.6 shows an Octel/Lucent stand-
alone voi ce-mai l system.
Voice Mail 695
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696 Voice-Mail Notification
Figure V.6 An Aspen Voice-Mail System
Voice-Mail Notification A di al tone that bli nks on and off when a tele-
phone li ne i ni ti ally goes i nto an off-hook state. A stutter di al tone i s used
to si gnal a user that a new voi ce message i s i n thei r voi ce mai lbox.
Voice Over ATM A method of transporti ng voi ce conversati ons over
AT M. T he AT M transport protocol has an i nterface speci fi cally desi gned
for real-ti me transmi ssi ons, such as voi ce and vi deo. I t i s commonly
known as the AAL1 (ATM Adaptation Layer 1). See also AAL1 and
AAL.
Voice Over Frame Relay A method of transporti ng ti me-sensi ti ve data,
such as di gi tal voi ce over frame-relay connecti ons. T hi s can be accom-
pli shed by routi ng the voi ce through a DLCI (Digital Link Connection
Identifier) that has appropri ate classes of servi ce on the end equi pment,
whi ch i s a router or a swi tch. See also DLCI and Bandwidth Control
Elements.
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 696
Voice Over IP (VoIP) A method of connecti ng voi ce conversati ons over
controlled I P envi ronments, such as pri vate data networks. T he pri vate
networks used are predomi nately compri sed of frame relay, and AT M,
whi ch have commi tted i nformati on rates and QOS (Quality of Service)
measures i ncorporated i nto them. Work i s bei ng done to make large-scale
quali ty VoI P i n publi c envi ronments, such as the I nternet, commonplace.
See also RTSP.
VoIP See Voice Over IP.
Voice Port Also called a cable voice port or a UNI (User Network
Interface). I n cable-T V networks, a devi ce i s located at the telephone
subscri bers premi ses that modulates and demodulates the DS0 voi ce up-
stream and downstream channels ( Fi g. V.7) . T he modulated DS0 voi ce
Voice Port 697
Figure V.7 Voice Port. In This Cable Voice Network Interface, the Cable TV
Drop Connects at the Left and the Customer Premises Inside Telephone Wire
Connects at Right (This Voice Port Interfaces Four Telephone Lines)
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698 Voice Recognition
si gnal i s sent by the HDT (Host Digital Terminal) located at the cable-
T V head end. T he voi ce port provi des connecti on to the customer prem-
i ses telephone wi ri ng. Channel control between the head end and the
customer-si te voi ce port can be mai ntai ned remotely, from the head end
or other offi ce. Because the voi ce servi ce i n cable telephony i s provi ded
vi a radi o channels, the channels can be swi tched when a subscri ber i s
experi enci ng stati c or radi o i nterference on the li ne. T hi s would be equi v-
alent to a pai r change i n a twi sted-pai r-based telephone network. A pai r
change cannot be performed by remote control and requi res a techni -
ci an on si te.
Voice Recognition A reference to a computer or machi nes abi li ty to rec-
ogni ze a speci fi c i ndi vi duals voi ce, li ke a fi ngerpri nt. T hi s technology i s
frequently confused wi th speech recogni ti on, whi ch recogni zes words,
not di sti nct voi ces.
Voice Response Unit (VRU) Better known as IVR (Interactive Voice
Response). A telecommuni cati ons and data processi ng technology that
i nterfaces a person to i nformati on held i n a computer by usi ng a phone
li ne. I f you have ever called your bank and entered your account num-
ber, a password, and a prompt so that a computeri zed voi ce can read
back your bank-account balance, then you have used I VR.
Voice-Grade Private Line (VGPL) T here are two grades of pri vate li ne
servi ce, voi ce grade and data grade. Both can be analog ( vi a modem) or
di gi tal. A pri vate li ne i s a communi cati ons path from one poi nt to another
that i s not swi tched, or di al-up, i t i s a physi cal pai r of wi res or a vi rtual
connecti on through a transport network ( such as SONET or T 1 carri er) .
Volt (V) T he basi c uni t of electri c force, pressure, or EMF (Electromo-
tive Force). I n Ohms Law formulas, EMF i s used as the desi gnator for
voltage, E. T he two mai n components of electri ci ty are current ( amper-
age) and voltage. Voltage i s also referred to as the potential energy
between two poi nts i n a ci rcui t.
Voltage A reference to the amount of electri c force, pressure, or EMF
(Electromotive Force). See Volt.
Voltage Drop A reference to the amount of voltage di fference from one
poi nt i n a ci rcui t to another. A voltage drop i s usually i n reference to one
component and i s useful to know when troubleshooti ng electroni c ci rcui try.
Voltmeter A meter used to veri fy the amount of voltage at a si ngle poi nt
i n a ci rcui t ( referenced to ground) or the amount of voltage potenti al
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Volume Unit Meter (VU Meter) See VU Meter.
VPI (Virtual Path Identifier) T he AT M transport method over a phys-
i cal connecti on i s di vi ded i nto paths and channels. Paths and channels
can be admi ni strated by subscri bers. Over one physi cal connecti on ( i .e.,
OC-3 or DS3) are a possi ble 4096 VPI s. For each VPI i s a possi ble 65, 536
VCIs (Virtual Channel Identifier). For a di agram, see VCI.
VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check) A part of Longitudinal Redun-
dancy Checking (LRC). A method of checki ng for errors i n communi -
cati ons/modem transmi ssi ons by combi ni ng verti cal error checki ng and
longi tudi nal error checki ng. A transmi ssi on devi ce sends data i n bytes,
whi ch are logi cally stacked on top of each other. T he stack forms a block.
T he last bi t of each li ne i s used to form a check sequence. LRC i s about
VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check) 699
Figure V.8 Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
between two di fferent poi nts i n a ci rcui t. Most meters for measuri ng
voltage come i n the form of a multi meter, whi ch has a volt, ohm, and
current ( amp) meter i ncorporated i nto i ts desi gn ( Fi g. V.8) .
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 699
85% accurate i n detecti ng and re-transmi tti ng blocks contai ni ng errors.
T he newer method of error checki ng i s CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Checking). For a di agram, see Vertical Redundancy Check.
VT 1. Vi deo termi nal. 2. Vi rtual tri butary. A vi rtual tri butary i s a com-
muni cati ons channel or ci rcui t that exi sts wi thi n another ( larger) mul-
ti plexed communi cati ons channel. For example, a DS1 wi thi n a DS3 i s a
vi rtual tri butary. Someti mes channels wi thi n an AT & T SLC96 carri er sys-
tem ( a pai r-gai n system for carryi ng 96 phone conversati ons on ei ght
pai rs of wi re) are referred to as virtual pairs.
VT 100 A DEC devi ce that consi sts of a moni tor and a keyboard. I t has
no memory or programmi ng, so i t i s called a dumb terminal. I t i s now
possi ble to use a PC to act or communi cate as a dumb I /O termi nal. To
use a PC i n thi s appli cati on ( such as to plug i nto a mi crowave li nk and
boost i ts power) , i t must be equi pped wi th termi nal-emulati on software.
T he mi crowave li nk devi ce has i ts own mi croprocessor and only needs
a devi ce to communi cate wi th; that devi ce i s usually a VT 100 termi nal.
Termi nal-emulati on software allows your PC to look li ke a VT 100 ter-
mi nal to the mi crowave radi o equi pment.
VTA (Video Terminal Adapter) A devi ce that converts 4.320 ( I SDN)
vi deo to 4.323 ( Ethernet) vi deo.
VTP (Virtual Trunk Protocol) I n swi tched Ethernet LAN networks, a
communi cati ons method that swi tches use to share VLAN i nformati on
and whi ch connecti ons between swi tches are to carry traffi c for speci -
fi ed VLANs. See also 802.1Q and Spanning Tree.
VTP Bomb (Virtual Trunk Protocol Bomb) ( Slang) An event where
an enti re network poli cy area loses VT P trunki ng and VLAN confi gura-
ti on due to a swi tch bei ng connected to the network that has a hi gher
revi si on number i n i ts VT P trunk revi si on table. T hi s can cause a cor-
porate network to go completely out of servi ce. Swi tches update the ver-
si on of VT P confi gurati on every ti me a network change or VLAN change
i s made. T hey track these changes by gi vi ng them a VT P versi on num-
ber. T he VT P revi si on number i s used by LAN swi tches to determi ne
whi ch has the most up-to-date network i nformati on. Before a LAN swi tch
i s added to a network that has previ ously been commi ssi oned i n another
network, i ts VT P and other VLAN i nformati on should always be con-
fi gured to zero. T hi s ensures i t does not have a hi gher revi si on number
from i ts old network that could overri de all VT P confi gurati ons i n i ts
new network surroundi ngs. See also 802.1Q (VLAN) and Spanning
Tree.
700 VT
PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 700
VU Meter (Volume Unit Meter) T he meter on tape recorders that
moves whi le recordi ngs are bei ng made. T he meter i s used as a refer-
ence to make adj ustments of the recordi ng level ( the strength of the
si gnal that i s sent to the tape) . I f the si gnal fed to the tape i s strong
enough to push the meter i nto the red, then the recordi ng wi ll be di s-
torted. I f the si gnal i s not strong enough to push the meter, then the
si gnal i s not bei ng recorded. Many cassette tape recorders today have
LED VU meters. When recordi ng messages for an IVR (Integrated Voice
Response) system or other devi ce, i t i s useful to watch the VU meter
whi le recordi ng.
VU Meter (Volume Unit Meter) 701
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PQ104-5056F-PV.qxd 2/9/01 2:31 PM Page 702
W Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) An i nternati onal partnershi p of
compani es that are i nvolved wi th I nternet and the World Wi de Web that
was founded i n 1994 by T i m Berners-Lee. T he purpose of W3C i s to over-
see the development of open standards to evolve the Web i n a uni form
manner that i s usable by everyone and to prevent competi ng facti ons
from i mplementi ng propri etary browser formats. T he W3C i s the chi ef
standards organi zati on for HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
Waffle Splice Closure A cable spli ce closure that i s commonly used i n
ai r-pressure appli cati ons or shallow trenches where a strong casi ng i s
needed to protect the spli ce ( Fi g. W.1) . See also Air Pressure.
703
W
Figure W.1 Waffle Splice Closure
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 703
WAN (Wide-Area Network) A network of computers or computi ng de-
vi ces connected by telephone li nes that extend beyond an area codes
servi ce area. An example of a WAN appli cati on i s a computer that ac-
cesses another computer i n another state to access i nformati on. Popu-
lar ways for computers to connect over long di stances are by usi ng a
di al-up modem, a frame relay ci rcui t, an AT M ci rcui t, an I SDN ci rcui t, or
a 56K leased li ne. T here are advantages and di sadvantages to each of
these servi ces ( whi ch are offered by long-di stance telephone compa-
ni es) . T he faster and more reli able the servi ce, the more expensi ve i t i s.
Frame relay i s rapi dly becomi ng the most economi cal WAN protocol for
appli cati ons that transfer data over long di stances frequently ( Fi g. W.2) .
704 WAN (Wide-Area Network)
Ethernet
Ethernet
Public Telephone
Company WAN
Service
ROUTER
Server
ROUTER
NEW YORK OFFICE
DALLAS OFFICE
Figure W.2 A WAN (Wide-Area Network) Application
Watchdog Timer 1. A hardware or software mechani sm that i s used to
tri gger an event or an escape from a process unless the ti mer i s peri od-
i cally reset. 2. I n NetWare, a ti mer that i ndi cates the maxi mum peri od
of ti me that a server wi ll wai t for a cli ent to respond to a watchdog packet.
I f the ti mer expi res, the server sends another watchdog packet ( up to a
set maxi mum) .
WATS (Wide-Area Telephone Service) A toll-free di ali ng servi ce
( 800/888 li nes) offered by telephone compani es. I n-WAT S li nes are
pri ced and set up for i ncomi ng only calls, and someti mes calls from a
certai n area. You can also subscri be to Out-WAT S servi ce as well. WAT S
can be for i nterstate and i ntrastate long di stance. I f you call an 800 num-
ber, you are most li kely calli ng an i n-WAT S servi ce li ne that a company
has set up for customers. T he ti me to start checki ng i nto WAT S ser-
vi ce i s when your long di stance to or from a speci fi c area exceeds $200.00
per month.
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 704
Watt (W) T he uni t of electri cal power, represented as P i n Ohms Law
formulas. Wattage i s calculated by P I E, where P i s power i n watts,
I i s current i n amps, and E i s voltage i n volts. For example, i f you have
a li ght bulb that draws 1 amp at 100 volts, i t would be a 100-watt li ght
bulb. T he power consumed by the li ght bulb i s radi ated as heat and
li ght. Just because a li ght bulb has a hi gher wattage rati ng does not
mean that i t i s bri ghter, i t could be hotter as well. Techni cally, one watt
i s equal to one j oule per second. Another way to grasp the concept of
a watt i s to use the compari son that 746 watts i s equal to one horse-
power.
Waveguide A devi ce used to di rect radi o-frequency transmi ssi ons or li ght
waves. Wavegui des i n radi o transmi tters look li ke hi gh-tech plumbi ng. I n
li ghtwave appli cati ons, they are a small pri sm or opti cal fi ber.
Wavelength T he wavelength of a radi o si gnal i n meters i s equal to
300, 000, 000 m/s ( the speed of li ght) di vi ded by the frequency i n
hertz. For example, the wavelength for an FM radi o stati ons si gnal
i f they are at 96.3 MHz on the radi o di al i s equal to ( 300, 000, 000 m/s
96, 300, 000 Hz 3.115 meters) . I t i s useful to know wavelength i n the
desi gn of radi o antennas, whi ch are made to be the same length or a
fracti on of the length of a radi o si gnals wavelength.
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) A way of i ncreasi ng a fi ber
opti cs capaci ty by usi ng multi ple colors of li ght. Each color of li ght has
i ts own wavelength ( and i ts own frequency) . T he electroni c equi pment
on each end of the fi ber can di sti ngui sh the di fferent si gnals by thei r
color ( frequency/wavelength) . I n most appli cati ons today, each fi ber op-
ti c i n a communi cati ons network carri es one li ght si gnal that i s one pure
color. I n the future, fi ber opti c wi ll be wavelength-di vi si on multi plexed
to carry many transmi ssi on si gnals.
WDCS (Wide-Band Digital Cross-Connect System) Another name
for DCS (Digital Cross-Connect System).
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) See Wavelength Divi-
sion Multiplexing.
Web Browser Also called a browser or an Internet browser. A computer
program that allows users to download World Wi de Web pages for vi ew-
i ng on thei r computers. Two popular browser programs are Netscape
Navi gator and Mi crosoft I nternet Explorer. T he fi rst browser program
was called Mosaic, and i t was a text browser, as opposed to the newer
graphi cal browsers.
Web Browser 705
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 705
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) I n wi reless 802.11 LAN networks, a
DSSS encrypti on standard that can have di fferent magni tudes of secu-
ri ty. T he most popular are 40 bi t and 128 bi t. T hese encrypti on stan-
dards provi de securi ty that i s theoreti cally equal to a wi red ci rcui t that
cannot be tapped, sni ffed, or moni tored i n any other way.
Wet Circuit A T 1 ci rcui t i s a wet ci rcui t when i ts 135V DC battery volt-
age i s present. When the T 1 has the battery voltage removed vi a a
CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit) i t i s a dry T 1
ci rcui t or more commonly known as a DS1 (Digital Service Level 1).
Wet T1 See Wet Circuit.
White Board Also called a mushroom board or peg board. I t i s placed
of support for routi ng cross-connect wi re. See Fig. W.3.
706 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
Figure W.3 White Board/Mushroom Board
White Noise Random electri cal noi se, also called ambient noise. Whi te
noi se i s the sound you get from a T V or radi o when i t i s not tuned to a
stati on.
WIC (WAN Interface Card) I n Ci sco Systems router and gateway prod-
ucts, an add-on module, or card that enables connecti vi ty to the li nk
method of customer choi ce. WI Cs come i n a vari ety of i nterface opti ons,
i ncludi ng T 1, I SDN, and 56K di gi tal. See also VIC (Voice Interface Card).
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 706
Wide-Area Network (WAN) See WAN.
Wide Band Another name for Broadband. I ncorporati ng more than one
channel i nto a communi cati ons transmi ssi on. T 1 i s a broadband com-
muni cati ons protocol because i t carri es 24 conversati ons over four wi res.
Cable-T V i s also broadband because i t carri es many T V channels over
one coax.
Wide-Band Division Multiplexing T he transmi ssi on of multi ple SONET
transmi ssi ons over a si ngle fi ber-opti c pai r. Each SONET transmi ssi on
i s sent vi a a di fferent frequency ( or color) of li ght. T hi s method i s used
to obtai n an OC-768 wi th four OC-192 transmi ssi ons of di fferent fre-
quenci es.
Wildcard Mask A 32-bi t quanti ty used i n conj uncti on wi th I P addresses
to determi ne whi ch bi ts i n an I P address should be i gnored when com-
pari ng that address wi th another I P address. A wi ldcard mask i s speci -
fi ed when setti ng up access li sts.
Wind Loading I n wi reless communi cati ons, a reference to the amount of
wi nd an antenna structure can wi thstand. For defi ni ti ons of wi nd load-
i ng speci fi cati ons for antennas and towers, i t i s best to check manufac-
turer speci fi cati ons. For general engi neeri ng i nformati on, refer to the fol-
lowi ng speci fi cati ons: T I A/EI A-195 ( for antennas) or T I A/EI A-222 ( for
towers) .
Wink Another name for a hookflash that i s sent by PBX systems to tele-
phone company central-offi ce swi tches that si gnals a request for di al tone
or other servi ces.
Wink Start A reference to E& M si gnali ng for analog voi ce ci rcui ts. E& M
technology dates back to the ti me telegraphs were used and i s an out-
dated servi ce no longer offered as a servi ce by most telephone com-
pani es, however, E& M trunki ng sti ll has speci al uses because of i ts si m-
pli sti c nature. E& M i nterfaces come i n handy i n the PBX envi ronment
when there i s a need to connect to an analog audi o devi ce such as an
overhead pagi ng system, or tape recorder. T here are 5 types of E& M
i nterfaces that can have ei ther two or si x wi res i n the loop. T he most
common type of E& M si gnali ng i s the Four Wi re Wi nk Start E& M , and
the next most used i s the Four Wi re I mmedi ate Start E& M . T he Wi nk
Start E& M operates as follows: T he call ori gi nati ng swi tch goes off-
hook and then wai ts for a wi nk from the termi nati ng or desti nati on
swi tch. When the desti nati on swi tch provi des the 200ms off-hook
wi nk, then the ori gi nati ng swi tch sends di aled di gi ts. After the di aled
Wink Start 707
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 707
di gi ts are recei ved and a connecti on i s made to the termi nati ng loop
by a handset bei ng taken off hook, the same off hook condi ti on i s
gi ven over the E& M trunk connecti ng the termi nati ng swi tch to the
desti nati on swi tch. When one swi tch goes on-hook or hangs up, the
other does as well. T he most si mple E& M si gnali ng method i s the I m-
medi ate Start E& M , where the ori gi nati ng end goes off-hook, or pro-
vi des a 1000 ohm short on the li ne and sends di gi ts wi thout regard to
the other end. T he ori gi nati ng swi tch stays off-hook unti l the recei v-
i ng swi tch goes off-hook and then back on-hook, or the call ori gi na-
tor goes back on-hook or hangs up. T he E& M i mmedi ate start i s the
better choi ce for i nterfaci ng external audi o devi ces to PBX systems,
and i s the less appropri ate choi ce for PBX trunki ng because i f the ter-
mi nati ng swi tch does not answer the call, and the ori gi nati ng swi tch
does not manually hang-up or go back on-hook, then the loop i s left
connected. T hi s problem wi th I mmedi ate Start E& M i s the reason that
Wi nk Start E& M was brought about. Wi nk Start E& M i s also called E& M
wi th Answer Supervi si on.
Wink Start Signal Another name for a hookflash that i s sent by PBX
systems to telephone company central-offi ce swi tches that si gnals a re-
quest for di al tone or other servi ces. Wi nk start si gnali ng i s slowly bei ng
replaced by T 1 out-of-band si gnali ng, whi ch i s much faster, offers many
more servi ces, i s less expensi ve, and i s, of course, di gi tal.
Wire Center A reference to a telephone company central offi ces geo-
graphi cal servi ce area. T he central offi ce serves the area that i ts tele-
phone wi res ( outsi de plant) reach to.
Wire Pair A reference to two soli d wi res, twi sted together, usually j ust
called a pair. For more i nformati on, see UTP.
Wire Tap A devi ce used to moni tor telephone li nes. Wi th newer tech-
nology, the telephone company i s capable of tappi ng or moni tori ng a tele-
phone li ne wi th a stroke of a few keys. T hey can even set the telephone
li ne to be moni tored by a di fferent telephone li ne, anywhere they want.
Telephone compani es ( especi ally the Bell Compani es) have extremely
stri ct securi ty gui deli nes regardi ng the moni tori ng of telephone conver-
sati ons. T hey wi ll not set up a tap or a moni tor servi ce wi thout legal pro-
cedures bei ng followed accordi ng to the laws of the area they are oper-
ati ng i n. Watch-dogs are i n place to be sure that telephone company
employees do not moni tor telephone li nes when they are not supposed
to. Some spy shops sell telephone li ne-tappi ng and recordi ng devi ces,
but I would not recommend the use of them because of stri ct laws
regardi ng telephone pri vacy.
708 Wink Start Signal
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Wire-Wrap Termination 709
Wireless LAN 1. A local-area network of computers and peri pheral de-
vi ces that communi cates vi a radi o si gnals or li ght waves ( low-power laser
beams) . T hese systems are useful i n si tuati ons where the cost of i n-
stalli ng wi ri ng between the devi ces i s very expensi ve or for temporary/
mobi le appli cati ons. 2. A method of havi ng PC or other network I P ap-
pli ances communi cate over a network wi thout the use of wi re or fi ber
opti c. T he 802.11 speci fi cati on uti li zes two methods of radi o modulati on:
DSSS ( Di rect Sequence Spread Spectrum) and FHSS ( Frequency Hop-
pi ng Spread Spectrum) . DSSS i s the faster and longer range of the two,
deli veri ng up to 11 Mbps of throughput, i ncludi ng overhead. Methods
of operati on vary among manufacturers, enabli ng di fferent combi nati ons
of 802.11 features to be used. Some of the features i nclude WEP ( Wi re
Equi valent Pri vacy) , roami ng, poi nt-to-poi nt MAN i mplementati on, and
load shari ng ( among multi ple radi os) . Under 802.11, radi os are allowed
to transmi t up to 50 mW, whi ch can transmi t up to 25 mi les i n perfect
condi ti ons at a 1 Mbps throughput, and up to 12 mi les i n perfect condi -
ti ons at an 11 Mbps throughput. Typi cal i ndoor 30 mW radi o deploy-
ments provi de a range of 150 feet at throughput of 11 Mbps. See also
Free Space Path Loss, Link Budget, Rain Attenuation, Antenna Gain,
802.11b, DSSS, and FHSS.
Wire-Wrap Termination A type of twi sted-pai r wi re termi nati on used
on DSX panels and other di gi tal telecommuni cati ons servi ces processi ng
equi pment ( Fi g. W.4) . Wi re-wrap termi nati on i s used because i t requi res
very li ttle space, compared to 110 blocks or 66M150 blocks.
Figure W.4 Wire-Wrap Termination Block
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 709
WLAN A reference to the wi reless LAN, 802.11 Ethernet wi reless LAN
standard. Wi reless radi os manufactured under the descri pti on of thi s
standard are i ntended for use i n unli censed LAN, poi nt-to-poi nt WAN,
and poi nt-to-multi poi nt WAN. T hi s standard provi des for standard tech-
nologi es that provi de reli ef i n the bulgi ng pri vate li ne market. See also
RF, DSSS, Earth Bulge, Free Space Path Loss, Link Budget, Azimuth,
Rain Attenuation, Co-Channel, and Antenna Gain.
WLAN (Wireless LAN) A method of havi ng PC or other network I P ap-
pli ances communi cate over a network wi thout the use of wi re or fi ber
opti c. T he 802.11 speci fi cati on uti li zes two methods of radi o modulati on,
DSSS ( Di rect Sequence Spread Spectrum) and FHSS ( Frequency Hop-
pi ng Spread Spectrum) . DSSS i s the faster and longer range of the two,
deli veri ng up to 11 Mbps of throughput i ncludi ng overhead. Methods of
operati on vary among manufacturers, enabli ng di fferent combi nati ons of
802.11 features to be used. Some of the features i nclude WEP ( Wi re
Equi valent Pri vacy) , roami ng, poi nt-to-poi nt MAN i mplementati on, and
load shari ng ( among multi ple radi os) . Under 802.11, radi os are allowed
to transmi t up to 50 mW, whi ch can transmi t up to 25 mi les i n perfect
condi ti ons at a 1 Mbps throughput, and up to 12 mi les i n perfect condi -
ti ons at an 11 Mbps throughput. Typi cal i ndoor 30 mW radi o deploy-
ments provi de a range of 150 feet at throughput of 11 Mbps. See also
802.11, DSSS, and FHSS.
Word I n computer memory, a word i s 16 bi ts, whi ch i s one data uni t
processed by the bus. Newer computers and other processi ng systems
are bui lt wi th 32- and 64-bi t busses, whi ch gi ves them the abi li ty to
process double words ( 32 bi ts) and quad words ( 64 bi ts) .
World Wide Web (WWW) T he Graphical User Interface (GUI) system
that makes fi ndi ng i nformati on on the I nternet easi er by organi zi ng i t
i nto pages. WWW also provi des hyperli nks, whi ch, when cli cked on wi th
a mouse, take you to the correspondi ng page ( i t i s actually another ad-
dress) that contai ns the i mpli ed i nformati on.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) An i nternati onal partnershi p of
compani es that are i nvolved wi th I nternet and the World Wi de Web that
was founded i n 1994 by T i m Berners-Lee. T he purpose of W3C i s to over-
see the development of open standards to evolve the Web i n a uni form
manner that i s usable by everyone and to prevent competi ng facti ons
from i mplementi ng propri etary browser formats. T he W3C i s the chi ef
standards organi zati on for HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
710 WLAN
PQ104-5056F-PW.qxd 2/9/01 2:32 PM Page 710
WWW (World Wide Web) T he Graphical User Interface (GUI) system
that makes fi ndi ng i nformati on on the I nternet easi er by organi zi ng i t
i nto pages. WWW also provi des hyperli nks, whi ch, when cli cked on wi th
a mouse, take you to the correspondi ng page ( i t i s actually another ad-
dress) that contai ns the i mpli ed i nformati on.
WWW (World Wide Web) 711
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X Band T he band of frequenci es desi gnated by the I EEE between 8 GHz
and 12 GHz ( 3.75 cm to 2.5 cm) . For a table, see IEEE Radar Band
Designation.
X.3 A standard that defi nes a PADs (Packet Assembler/Disassembler)
operati ng parameters i n an X.25 network. After X.25 became a stan-
dard, i t was modi fi ed to be more effi ci ent wi th the use of PAD devi ces.
X.3 defi nes the way PAD overhead setti ngs are communi cated between
the termi nal equi pment and the host. How the PAD gets the setti ngs
over the network i s defi ned i n X.28 and X.29. For X.3 speci fi cs, see PAD
Parameters.
X.20 T he recommended standard by the ITU (International Telecom-
munications Union) for asynchronous communi cati ons between
modems on publi c-swi tched telephone networks ( di al-up li nes) .
X.21 X.25 wi thout analog. An X.25 appli cati on for di rect di gi tal i nterface
to I SDN or another nonanalog protocol.
X.25 A wi dely i mplemented packet servi ce provi ded by telecommuni ca-
ti ons compani es that runs at speeds up to 56/64 K bps ( Fi gs. X.1 and
X.2) . X.25 data-packet transfer servi ces are named after the protocol
that they are provi ded through. T hi s servi ce i s usually bi lled by the byte
( i .e., x dollars per mi lli on bytes transferred) . T hi s i s good for short and
bursty transmi ssi ons, such as those made by automated teller machi nes,
713
X
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 713
credi t-card transacti ons, termi nal-to-host, or other si mi lar traffi c-
produci ng appli cati ons. X.25 i s also capable of reli ably transporti ng
T CP/I P and other protocols. Regardi ng operabi li ty, X.25 i s a thi rd-layer
connecti on-ori ented protocol. Error detecti on i s performed at level two
( LAPB) and three ( X.25) . T hi s gi ves X.25 an advantage i n areas where
telephone faci li ti es are of poor i ntegri ty. Because X.25 i s responsi ble for
detecti ng and di scardi ng damaged packets, the customer only pays for
packets recei ved, rather than payi ng for a bandwi dth, as i n frame relay
( Commi tted I nformati on Rate) . X.25 was developed from the LAPB
(Link-Access Procedure Balanced mode) protocol. X.25 has remai ned
a vi able servi ce for many because of modi fi cati ons and addi ti ons to the
protocol fami ly, such as LAPBE, X.28, and X.75. Frame relay i s com-
monly used as a hi gher-speed backbone enhancement to X.25 networks.
Several i llustrati ons of the X.25 frame structure are wi thi n thi s book un-
der X.25 Data Packet, X.25 Control Field, and X.25 Packet Control
Header.
Figure X.1 X.25 Functional Layers
714 X.25
APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
NETWORK
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
OSI LAYER
X.25 LAYER STRUCTURE
TRANSPORT
PACKET LAYER
FRAME LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER
LAPB and LAPB Extended
X.224
X.225
X.226, X.208, X.209
X.227, X.228, X.229
And other X specifications
X.25
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 714
X.25 Call-Request Packet Also called a call set-up packet. T hi s i s an
i mportant Level-3 ( data-li nk layer) control frame ( Fi g. X.3) . T hi s par-
ti cular header, along wi th other headers that are sent i n response to i t,
negoti ate the rules that wi ll be used to transfer data across the packet
Figure X.3 X.25 Call-Request/Call Set-Up Packet
X.25 Call-Request Packet 715
PACKET/DATA
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER
01111110 01111110
Flag Flag
Figure X.2 X.25 Basic Frame Structure
Call Request Packet
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER
01111110 01111110
General Format Identifier GFI
Calling DTEs DNA Length
flag flag
Called DTEs DNA
Facilities Request Length in Bytes
Protocol Identifier
For Host/Pad
Facility Request Codes**
Optional User Data - up to 16 Bytes or 128 Bytes for Fast Select Protocol
Control Packet Type
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 + control bit 1
Channel Group
Group + Channel = LCN Logical Channel number
Called DTEs DNA Length
Calling DTEs DNA
Padding if
Necessary
*Facility Class Types
00 = single parameter
01 = 2 octet parameter
*Facility Class Types
00 = single parameter
Facility Class*
2 bits
**Sample Facility Request Codes (ITU-T)
000001 Fast Select/Reverse Charges
000010 Speed 75 bps tp 56 Kbps
000010 Max packet size
000011 Local window size
111111 Facility extension
**Sample Facility Request Codes (ITU-T)
000001 Fast Select/Reverse Charges
000010 Speed 75 bps tp 56 Kbps
000010 Max packet size
000011 Local window size
111111 Facility extension
***Sample Facility Parameters
for speed
9.6Kbs = 1010
19.2Kbs = 1011
56Kbs = 1100
***Sample Facility Parameters
for speed
9.6 Kbps = 1010
19.2 Kbps = 1011
56 Kbps = 1100
Facility Parameter***
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 715
layer ( data-li nk layer, i n OSI terms) . Parameter negoti ati on that i s i ni ti -
ated by thi s packet i nclude the DNA (Data Network Address) length,
the wi ndow si ze ( modulo 8 or 128) , who wi ll pay for the call, the DNA
(Data Network Address) length, the maxi mum packet si ze, and also who
wi ll pay for the call. T he previ ous parameters li sted are referred to as
facilities i n X.25. Fourteen di fferent packet-level control frames are de-
fi ned by the I T U-T. T hey are li sted under the X.25 Packet-Control
Header Structure di agram.
X.25 Control Field or Control Byte A reference to the 8-bi t control
fi eld i n an X.25 frame. At Level 2 of the X.25 protocol, the uni ts of data
are called frames. T he frames are headers for packets and are, there-
fore, seen by network devi ces before Layer-3 packet i nformati on i s
seen. T he frame layer i s Level 2 of the OSI and the control frames per-
form operati ng functi ons for Level-2 OSI operati on. T he di fferent three
types of control frames are: i nformati on, supervi sory, and unnumbered.
T he explanati ons are as follows:
I Frame (Information Frame) I f the fi rst bi t of a control fi eld
i s a 0, then the data i nsi de the Layer-3 packet i s user i nforma-
ti on. T he next three bi ts defi ne whi ch wi ndow number the parti c-
ular frame i s based on ei ght frames ( i f LAPB) . T he last three bi ts
of the I -type control byte are for noti fi cati on of the next wi ndow
comi ng.
S Frame (Supervisory) I f the fi rst two bi ts of the control byte are
10, then the frame i s a supervi sory frame. T he S frame i s used to
start and stop traffi c.
U Frame T he U frame i s someti mes called a control frame i n i tself.
T he si x di fferent control frames are defi ned i n X.25 ( the maxi mum i s
32 because fi ve bi ts are used for control si gnali ng) . T hey are: DI SC,
DM, SARM, SABM, FRMR, and UA. T hey are used to negoti ate con-
necti on parameters, request transfer/retransfer of packets, li nk mai n-
tenance, and li nk reset. All three types of control frames are di a-
grammed under thei r respecti ve name. See X.25 I Frame, X.25 S
Frame, and X.25 U Frame.
X.25 Data Packet T he Level-3 packet type that carri es end-user i nfor-
mati on i n X.25 connecti ons. After all connecti on agreements are made
by end devi ces, the header that i s i llustrated i n Fi g. X.4 comes i nto op-
erati on. T he data packet header carri es wi ndow i nformati on for Level 3,
up to 256 bytes of user data, and other header i nformati on that i s i llus-
trated.
716 X.25 Control Field or Control Byte
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 716
X.25 I Frame A type of frame used for transmission control in the frame
layer of X.25 ( data-link layer, in OSI terms) . When the control header is
an I frame, the frame layer is up and running, and data is able to be trans-
ferred between the packet layers ( network layer, in OSI terms) . T he con-
trol header tells the receiver of data the window number of the packet it
has received and the window number of the next packet ( Fig. X.5) . T he win-
dow can be one of eight packets that are in transit for modulo 8, or one of
128 packets that are in transit for modulo 128 ( also called LAPB extended) .
For more information regarding control bytes, see X.25 Control Field.
X.25 I Frame 717
Packet
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER I-Frame
01111110 01111110
Channel Q Modulo
flag flag
Piggyback
This Window
Number
D Group
M S E Q 0
Q Bit - Indicates Qualified data
for X.29 Pad when set to "1"
and carries straight data when
set to "0".
D-Bit - Acknowledge Request.
Set to one if an ACK is
requested from the end DTE.
Modulo - Identifies the length of
the sequence numbers for this
packet - 01 is for three binary
digits (window 8 LAPB)
10 is for seven binary digit
(window 128 LAPBE)
Control Bit -
Set to "0" for
Data Packet
Macro Bit
Used for Long Message
Indicator
Next Window
Number
Upper Layer Data to 256 Bytes
Figure X.4 X.25 Data Packet
PACKET/DATA 0-256 bytes
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER
01111110 01111110
0
I - Frame
Identifier
Sequence
Number of
This Frame
Sequence
Number of
This Frame
Sequence
Number of
This Frame
Sequence
Number of
Next Frame
PF
Poll/final
Not Used
Sequence
Number of
Next Frame
Sequence
Number of
Next Frame
Information Control Frame - window size 7
received window number 0-7 next window ack number 0-7
Figure X.5 X.25 I Frame (Information Frame) Types
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 717
X.25 Packet-Control Header Structure T hi s i s the format for com-
muni cati ng Level-3 ( data li nk layer) DT E and DCE call control for X.25
( Fi g. X.6) . I n X.25, thi s i s where the negoti ati on for data transfer begi ns.
T he end devi ces negoti ate communi cati ons parameters. T he i ni ti al packet-
level control frame used to set up a call i s the Call Request packet. T hi s
packet and the Level-3 header are i llustrated under X.25 Call Set-Up
Packet. When the call set up has been negoti ated, the two ends begi n send-
i ng data packets, whi ch contai n Level-4 i nformati on. A sample data packet
and i ts header structure are shown under the defi ni ti on X.25 Data Packet.
718 X.25 Packet-Control Header Structure
Packet
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER I-Frame
01111110 01111110
Channel Q Modulo
flag flag
Piggyback
This Window
Number
D Group
M S E Q 0
Q Bit - Indicates Qualified data
for X.29 Pad when set to "1"
and carries straight data when
set to "0".
D-Bit - Acknowledge Request.
Set to one if an ACK is
requested from the end DTE.
Modulo - Identifies the length of
the sequence numbers for this
packet - 01 is for three binary
digits (window 8 LAPB)
10 is for seven binary digit
(window 128 LAPBE)
Control Bit -
Set to "0" for
Data Packet
Macro Bit
Used for Long Message
Indicator
Next Window
Number
Upper Layer Data to 256 Bytes
Figure X.6 X.25 Control Packet (for Call Request)
X.25 S Frame For an explanati on, see X.25 Control Field ( Fi g. X.7) .
No Data Sent
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER
01111110 01111110
1
S Frame
Identifier
0
S Frame
Identifier
0
S Frame-type
Identifier Bit
1
S Frame-type
Identifier Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
PF
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
REJ Reject S Frame
1
S Frame
Identifier
0
S Frame
Identifier
0
S Frame-type
Identifier Bit
0
S Frame-type
Identifier Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
PF
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
RR Receive Ready S Frame
1
S Frame
Identifier
0
S Frame
Identifier
1
S Frame type
Identifier Bit
0
S Frame type
Identifier Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
PF
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
Next Frame
Requestor
Bit
RNR Receive Not Ready S Frame
X.25 HDLC Supervisory Frame Structure: modulo 8
Figure X.7 X.25 S Frame Types
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 718
X.25 U Frame 719
Router Dial Modem
v.34
Dial Modem
v.34
PAD
X.25 Packet
Switch
CSU/DSU CSU/DSU
56K
Private Line
IBM AS/400
Public-Switched
Telephone
Network
X.29 X.3 X.28
DIAL-UP X.25
PROTOCOL
X.25 PAD TO SWITCH
PROTOCOL
X.25 SWITCH TO HOST
PROTOCOL
Figure X.8 Triple-X Protocols for X.25, X.3, and X.28
X.25 Triple X Protocol (XXX) A term that refers to the three proto-
cols used for X.25 transmi ssi on over a di al-up telephone li ne ( Fi g. X.8) .
Speci fi cally, the protocols are X.25, X.28, and X.3.
No Data Sent
X.25 HDLC Unnumbered Frame Types - modulo 7
FRAME CHECK
SEQUENCE
ADDRESS
CONTROL
HEADER
01111110 01111110
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
0
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame
identifier
SARM Set Asynchronous Response Mode U Frame
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
1
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame
identifier
DISC Disconnect U Frame
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
1
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
0
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame
identifier
SABM Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode U Frame
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
0
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
1
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
0
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
1
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame type
identifier bit
0
U Frame type
identifier bit
1
U Frame
identifier
Poll-Final
1= responce
requested
1
U Frame
identifier
0
U Frame
identifier
UA Unnumbered Acknowledgment U Frame
Used for going offline
Used for back in service announcement LAP
Resets communication link and all buffers LAPB
DM Disconnect Mode U Frame Back in service announcement without resetting link - send SABM
FRMR Frame Reject U Frame Request for SABM to reset link and retransmit
Used for U Frame receipt acknowledgment
8 BITS Flag Flag
Figure X.9 X.25 U Frame Types
X.25 U Frame For an explanati on, see X.25 Control Field ( Fi g. X.9) .
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 719
X.28 After the X.25 protocol standard came out, i t was modi fi ed by mak-
i ng i t able to connect over di al-up telephone li nes and to manage STDM
(Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing). T he rules and methods that
defi ne how thi s i s done are defi ned wi thi n the X.28 and the X.29 stan-
dard. X.29 speci fi cally allows the host to remotely change parameters of
a PADs communi cati on parameters wi th a termi nal.
X.29 A protocol that defi nes the connecti on of an X.25 network between
a packet swi tch and a host computer.
munications Union) for the data-user secti on of Si gnali ng System 7
( SS7) .
X.75 A modi fi ed versi on of the X.25 protocol that i s used for call transi -
ti on over i nternati onal boundari es. I t has an addi ti onal faci li ti es fi eld i n
the call-request packet called the utilities field. T he uti li ti es fi eld
records the DNI Cs used i n data transfers.
X.121 T he i nternati onal addressi ng scheme for X.75.
munications Union) for ci rcui t set-up and tear-down ti mes.
munications Union) for the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model, and the functi ons and protocols of each layer.
X.400 An X-seri es standard publi shed by the I T U-T that defi nes a uni -
versal e-mai l protocol that can transmi t messages between vi rtually all
e-mai l appli cati ons. I n X.400, the senders name i s not i ncluded wi th the
address.
X.500 A newer revi si on of the X.400 e-mai l standard publi shed by the
I T U-T that extends the data-i nterchange protocol to i nclude address
formats, i ncludi ng the senders.
X. Standards ITU/T (International Telecommunications Union/
Telegraphy), formerly known as CCITT (Consultative Committee
International Telephony and Telegraphy) standards for di gi tal
communi cati ons.
X Windows A protocol that connects GUI (Graphical User Interface)
workstati ons wi th appli cati on programs/servers usi ng T CP/I P.
720 X.28
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 720
Xaga A type of hot, buri ed spli ce enclosure for telephone cable that re-
qui res heati ng a speci al wrap that i s placed around the spli ce ( Fi g. X.10) .
When the wrappi ng i s heated, i t shri nks i nto a sturdy casi ng. I f i t i s i n-
stalled properly, i t i s waterproof. Xaga i s a regi stered trademark of
Raychem.
xDSL (x Digital Subscriber Loop) 721
Figure X.10 XAGA Splice Apparatus
XC Cross Connect.
xDSL (x Digital Subscriber Loop) A collecti ve term used to refer to
ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, I DSL, and VDSL. DSL i s a fami ly of telecommuni -
cati ons servi ces that can provi de over 50 Mbps of downstream bandwi dth
and 2.3 Mbps of upstream bandwi dth ( Fi g. X.11) . Furthermore, the xDSL
formats can be transmi tted over a copper pai r that i s provi di ng POTs
di al tone. DSL technology i ncorporates DMT (Discrete Multi Tone) li ne
codi ng. T hi s enables telephone compani es to provi de si multaneous hi gh-
speed I nternet access, vi deo on demand, telephone, and vi deophone on
the same li ne. xDSL i s an advancement of ISDN (Integrated Services
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 721
Digital Network), whi ch i ncorporates a QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation) as a li ne-codi ng techni que. QAM i s the bui ldi ng block for
DMT. Ori gi nally, I SDN was i ntended as a flexi ble and feature-ri ch serv-
i ce. T he I SDN transmi ssi on techni que has now been i ncorporated i nto
xDSL as a workhorse to carry other exi sti ng and future servi ces, rather
than be a servi ce i n i tself. T hi s i mprovement, along wi th vari ous com-
pressi on techni ques, provi des the large i ncrease i n speed. For speci fi c
i nformati on regardi ng DSL protocols, see ADSL, RADSL, SDSL, IDSL,
and VDSL. See the chart for a compari son among them.
722 Xmit
Figure X.11 DSL Family Comparison
TYPE Symmetry Xmission range # of pairs Downstream rate Upstream rate
ADSL asymmetrical 18,000 feet 1 9 Mbps 1 Mbps
SDSL symmetrical 24,000 feet 1 1.544 Mbps 1.544 Mbps
HDSL symmetrical 20,000 feet 2 or 3 1.544 Mbps 1.544 Mbps
IDSL symmetrical 18,000 feet 1 64 to 144 Kbps 64 to 144 Kbps
RADSL asymmetrical 18,000 feet 1 9 Mbps 1 Mbps
VDSL asymmetrical 4500 feet 1 52 Mbps 2.3 Mbps
Xmit Abbrevi ati on for transmit.
XML (Extensible Markup Language) A database format that i s i n-
tended to enhance the capabi li ti es of content servi ces and deli very over
the I nternet. XML i s more flexi ble than HT ML because i t allows for data-
base formats to be self-defi ni ng. What makes XML able to work thi s way
i s that i t does not have a fi xed tag set or fi xed semanti cs, whi ch means
that the semanti cs and tag sets are defi ned by the appli cati on programs
that uti li ze the XML. XML could be thought of as a translati on book where
users can place a word, whatever word i t may be i n any language wi th
any pronunci ati on or sound, and then place a pi cture or meani ng next
to the word, and further, order the pages of the book i n any way they
li ke. However, some connecti on to another book and page needs to be
made for reference ( thi s would be one of the other databases, such as
a banki ng record) . When the book i s completed, i t i s, of course, a data-
base i n i tself. XML also features a si mpler method of set-up than HT ML,
and i s wi dely avai lable. I t i s commonplace for XML to be used to access
a porti on of data from an I nternet web page and transfer i t to another
di splay method, such as a stock ti cker di splay, a pager or cellular phone
di splay, or telephone di splay.
XXX (Triple X Protocol) A term that refers to the three protocols used
for X.25 transmi ssi on over a di al-up telephone li ne. Speci fi cally, the pro-
tocols are X.25, X.28, and X.3.
PQ104-5056F-PX.qxd 2/9/01 2:34 PM Page 722
Yagi Antenna A di recti onal transmi tti ng antenna ( Fi g. Y.1) . T he Yagi an-
tenna uti li zes one or more di rector elements to focus a radi ated si gnal
i n one di recti on or plane, and a reflector element that i s placed at a wave-
length di stance 180 degrees from the dri ven element to null the trans-
mi tted si gnal i n the backward di recti on.
723
Y
YAGI ANTENNA
Driven element
Director element reflector element
Transmission
Signal input
Figure Y.1 Yagi Antenna
PQ104-5056F-PY.qxd 2/9/01 2:36 PM Page 723
PQ104-5056F-PY.qxd 2/9/01 2:36 PM Page 724
Zener Diode A di ode that operates i n the reversed bi ased/avalanche mode.
When a zener di ode i s i n thi s mode, i t has a constant voltage from i ts an-
ode to cathode ( Fi g. Z.1) . Zener di odes are used to regulate voltage, and
they are avai lable i n many voltage values, such as 5 V, 12 V, 24 V, etc.
725
Z
Figure Z.1 Zener Diode Schematic Symbol
Zero-Byte Time-Slot Interchange A method of li ne codi ng, where the
quanti ty of zeros transmi tted i s reduced. T he reducti on i s accompli shed by
recogni zi ng bytes that are all zeros ( ei ght consecuti ve bi ts) and replaci ng
them wi th an alternate byte ( or flag) that does not contai n all zeros.
Zero Suppression To omi t zeros from a number fi eld.
Zulu Time Formerly known as Greenwich Mean Time. T i me that i s kept
on an atomi c 24-hour clock i n France. T he Zulu ti me standard i s now
more accurate by i nnovati on of the cesi um ti mi ng reference standard,
whi ch i s the ti me-keepi ng element i n bi ts clocks ( ti mi ng devi ces used
i n central offi ce nodes to synchroni ze SONET equi pment) . Zulu ti me i s
slang for Universal Time Coordinated.
PQ104-5056F-PZ.qxd 2/9/01 2:37 PM Page 725
PQ104-5056F-PZ.qxd 2/9/01 2:37 PM Page 726
Vertical Horizontal Coordinates
Table for United States Cities
City V coordinate H coordinate
Aberdeen, SD 5992 5308
Akron, OH 5637 2472
Albany, NY 4639 1629
Albuquerque, NM 8549 5887
Allentown, PA 5166 1585
Altoona, PA 5460 1972
Amari llo, T X 8266 5076
Anahei m, CA 9250 7810
Appleton, WI 5589 3776
Ashevi lle, NC 6749 2001
Atlanta, GA 7260 2083
Atlanti c Ci ty, NJ 5284 1284
Augusta, GA 7089 1674
Augusta, ME 3961 1870
Austi n, T X 9005 3996
Bakersfi eld, CA 8947 8060
Balti more, MD 5510 1575
Baton Rouge, LA 8476 2874
Belli ngham, WA 6087 8933
Bi lli ngs, MT 6391 6790
Bi loxi , MS 8296 2481
Bi nghamton, NY 4943 1837
727
A
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 727
Bi rmi ngham, AL 7518 2304
Bi smarck, ND 5840 5736
Blacksburg, VA 6247 1687
Bloomi ngton, I N 6417 2984
Boi se, I D 7096 7869
Boston, MA 4422 1249
Bri dgeport, CT 4841 1360
Buffalo, NY 5076 2326
Burli ngton, I A 6417 2984
Burli ngton, VT 4270 1808
Camden, NJ 5249 1453
Canton, OH 5676 2419
Carson Ci ty, NV 8139 8306
Casper, WY 6918 6297
Cedar Rapi ds, I A 6261 4021
Charleston, SC 7021 1281
Charlotte, NC 6657 1698
Chattanooga, T N 7098 2366
Cheyenne, WY 7203 5958
Chi cago, I L 5986 3426
Ci nci nnati , OH 6263 2679
Clarksburg, WV 5865 2095
Clearwater, FL 8203 1206
Cleveland, OH 5574 2543
Columbi a, SC 6901 1589
Columbus, OH 5872 2555
Concord, NH 4326 1426
Corpus Chri sti , T X 9475 3739
Dallas, T X 8436 4034
Danvi lle, K Y 6558 2561
Dayton, OH 6113 2705
Daytona Beach, FL 7791 1052
Denver, CO 7501 5899
Des Moi nes, I A 6471 4275
Detroi t, MI 5536 2828
Dodge Ci ty, K S 7640 4958
Dubuque, I A 6088 3925
Duluth, MN 5352 4530
Eau Clai re, WI 5698 4261
El Paso, T X 9231 5655
Fargo, ND 5615 5182
Farmi ngham, MA 4472 1249
728 Appendix A
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 728
Fayettevi lle, AR 7600 3872
Fayettevi lle, NC 6501 1385
Flagstaff, AZ 8746 2367
Fli nt, MI 5461 2993
Fort Colli ns, CO 7331 5965
Fort Lauderdale, FL 8282 1557
Fort Wayne, I N 5942 2982
Fort Worth, T X 8479 4122
Frankfort, K Y 6462 2634
Fresno, CA 8669 8239
Grand Forks, ND 5420 5300
Grand I sland, NE 6901 4936
Grand Juncti on, CO 7804 6438
Grand Rapi ds, MI 5628 3261
Greeley, CO 7345 5895
Green Bay, WI 5512 3747
Hackensack, NJ 4976 1432
Harri sburg, PA 5363 1733
Hartford, CT 4687 1373
Helena, MT 6336 7348
Hot Spri ngs, AR 7827 3554
Houston, T X 8938 3563
Huntsvi lle, AL 7267 2535
Huron, SD 6201 5183
I ndi anapoli s, I N 6272 2992
I owa Ci ty, I A 6313 3972
Jackson, MS 8035 2880
Jacksonvi lle, FL 7649 1276
Johnson Ci ty, T N 6595 2050
Joli et, I L 6088 3454
Jopli n, MO 7421 4015
K alamazoo, MI 5749 3177
K ansas Ci ty, MO 7027 4203
K ennewi ck, WA 6595 8391
K noxvi lle, T N 6801 2251
La Crosse, WI 5874 4133
Lansi ng, MI 5584 3081
Laredo, T X 9681 4099
Las Cruces, NM 9132 5742
Las Vegas, NV 8665 7411
Lawton, OK 8178 4451
Leesburg, VA 5634 1685
Vertical Horizontal Coordinates Table for United States Cities 729
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 729
Lewi ston, ME 4042 1391
Logan, UT 7367 7102
Long Beach, CA 9217 7856
Los Angeles, CA 9213 7878
Lubbock, T X 8596 4962
Lynchburg, VA 6093 1703
Macon, GA 7364 1865
Madi son, WI 5887 3796
Madi sonvi lle, K Y 6845 2942
Manchester, NH 4354 1388
Medford, OR 7503 8892
Memphi s, T N 7471 3125
Meri di an, MS 7899 2639
Mi ami , FL 8351 1527
Mi lwaukee, WI 5788 3589
Mi nneapoli s, MN 5777 4513
Mi ssoula, MT 6336 7650
Mobi le, AL 8167 2367
Montgomery, AL 7692 2247
Morgantown, WV 5764 2083
Morri stown, NJ 5035 1478
Munci e, I N 6130 2925
Nashua, NH 4394 1356
Nashvi lle, T N 7010 2710
Nassau, NY 4961 1355
New Brunswi ck, NJ 5085 1434
New Haven, CT 4792 1342
New London, CT 4700 1242
New Orleans, LA 8483 2638
New York Ci ty, NY 4977 1406
Newark, NJ 5015 1430
Norfolk, VA 5918 1223
North Bend, WA 6354 8815
Oakland, CA 8486 8695
Ogden, UT 7480 7100
Oklahoma Ci ty, OK 7947 4373
Omaha, NE 6687 4595
Orlando, FL 7954 1031
Paduca, K Y 6982 3088
Pendleton, OR 6707 8326
Peori a, I L 6362 3592
Phi ladelphi a, PA 5257 1501
730 Appendix A
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 730
Phoeni x, AZ 9135 6748
Pi ne Bluff, AR 7803 3358
Pi ttsburgh, PA 5621 2185
Pocatello, I D 7146 7250
Portland, ME 4121 1384
Portland, OR 6799 8914
Poughkeepsi e, NY 4821 1526
Provi dence, RI 4550 1219
Provo, UT 7680 7006
Pueblo, CO 7787 5742
Raci ne, WI 5837 3535
Ralei gh, NC 6344 1436
Readi ng, PA 5258 1612
Redwood Ci ty, CA 8556 8682
Reno, NV 8064 8323
Ri chmond, VA 5906 1472
Roanoke, VA 6196 1801
Rochester, NY 4913 2195
Rock I sland, I l 6276 3816
Sacramento, CA 8304 8580
Salt Lake Ci ty, UT 7576 7065
San Antoni o, T X 9225 4062
San Bernardi no, CA 9172 7710
San Di ego, CA 9468 7629
San Franci sco, CA 8492 8719
San Jose, CA 8583 8619
Santa Fe, NM 8389 5804
Santa Moni ca, CA 9227 7920
Santa Rosa, CA 8354 8787
Savannah, GA 7266 1379
Scranton, PA 5042 1715
Seattle, WA 6336 8896
Shreveport, LA 8272 3495
Si oux Ci ty, I A 6468 4768
Si oux Falls, SD 6279 4900
South Bend, I N 5918 3206
Spartanburg, SC 6811 1833
Spokane, WA 6247 8180
Spri ngfi eld, I L 6539 3518
Spri ngfi eld, MA 4620 1408
Spri ngfi eld, MO 7310 3836
St. Joseph, MO 6913 4301
Vertical Horizontal Coordinates Table for United States Cities 731
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 731
St. Paul, MN 5776 4498
Stamford, CT 4897 1388
Sunnyvale, CA 8576 8643
Syracuse, NY 4798 1990
Tallahassee, FL 7877 1716
Tampa, FL 8173 1147
Terre Haute, I N 6428 3145
Toledo, OH 5704 2820
Topeka, K S 7110 4369
Trenton, NJ 5164 1440
Troy, NY 4616 1633
Tulsa, OK 7707 4173
Tucson, AZ 9345 6485
Van Nuys, CA 9197 7919
Washi ngton, DC 5622 1583
Westchester, NY 4912 1330
Wheeli ng, WV 5755 2241
Wi chi ta, K S 7489 4520
Wi lmi ngton, DE 5326 1485
Wi nchester, K Y 6441 2509
Wi nston-Salem, NC 6440 1710
Worchester, MA 4513 1330
Yaki ma, WA 6533 8607
Yuma, AZ 9385 7171
732 Appendix A
PQ104_Appen_A 2/9/01 2:46 PM Page 732
Calling Countries from the United
States: Country and City Codes
Country Code City Code
ALGERI A 213 ci ty code not used
AMERI CAN SAMOA 684 ci ty code not used
ANDORRA 33 ALL CI T I ES 628
ARGENT I NA 54 BUENOS ARI ES 1
ARGENT I NA 54 CORDOBA 1
ARGENT I NA 54 LA PLATA 21
ARGENT I NA 54 ROSARI O 41
ARUBA 297 ALL CI T I ES 8
ASCENSI ON I SL. 247 ci ty code not used
AUST RALI A 61 ADELAI DE 8
AUST RALI A 61 BRI SBANE 7
AUST RALI A 61 MELBOURNE 3
AUST RALI A 61 SYDNEY 2
AUST RI A 43 GRAZ 316
AUST RI A 43 LI NZ DONAU 732
AUST RI A 43 VI ENNA 1
BAHRAI N 973 ci ty code not used
BANGLEDESH 880 BARI SAL 431
BANGLEDESH 880 CHI T TAGONG 31
BANGLEDESH 880 DHAK A 2
BANGLEDESH 880 K HULNA 41
BELGI UM 32 ANT WERP 3
733
B
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 733
BELGI UM 32 BRUSSELS 2
BELGI UM 32 GHENT 91
BELGI UM 32 LI EGE 41
BELI ZE 501 BELI ZE CI T Y di rect
BELI ZE 501 COROZAL T OWN 04
BELI ZE 501 PUNTA GORDA 07
BENI N 229 ci ty code not used
BOLI VI A 591 COCHABAMBA 42
BOLI VI A 591 LA PAZ 2
BOLI VI A 591 SANTA CRUZ 33
BRAZI L 55 BELE HORI ZONT E 31
BRAZI L 55 RI O DE JANEI RO 21
BRAZI L 55 SAO PAULO 11
BRUNEI 673 BANDER SERI BEGAWAN 2
BRUNEI 673 K UALA BELAI T 3
BRUNEI 673 T UT ONG 4
BULGARI A 359 PLOVDI V 32
BULGARI A 359 ROUSSE 82
BULGARI A 359 SOFI A 2
BULGARI A 359 VARNA 52
CAMEROON 237 ci ty code not used
CHI LE 56 CONCEPCI ON 41
CHI LE 56 SANT I AGO 2
CHI LE 56 VALPARAI SO 32
CHI NA 86 BEJI ENG ( PEK I NG) 1
CHI NA 86 FUZHOU 591
CHI NA 86 GHUANGZHOU ( CANT ON) 20
CHI NA 86 SHANGHAI 21
COLUMBI A 57 BARRANQUI LLA 5
COLUMBI A 57 BOGATA 1
COLUMBI A 57 CALI 23
COLUMBI A 57 MEDELLI N 4
COSTA RI CA 506 ci ty code not used
CYPRUS 357 LI MASSOL 51
CYPRUS 357 NI COSI A 2
CYPRUS 357 PAPHOS 61
CZECHOSLOVAK I A 42 BRAT I SLAVA 7
CZECHOSLOVAK I A 42 BRNO 5
CZECHOSLOVAK I A 42 HAVI ROV 6994
CZECHOSLOVAK I A 42 OST RAVA 69
CZECHOSLOVAK I A 42 PRAGUE 2
DENMARK 45 AALBORG 8
734 Appendix B
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 734
DENMARK 45 AARHUS 6
DENMARK 45 COPENHAGEN 1
DENMARK 45 ODDENSE 7
ECUADOR 593 AMBAT O 2
ECUADOR 593 CUENCA 7
ECUADOR 593 GUAYAQUI L 4
ECUADOR 593 QUI T O 2
EGYPT 20 ALEXANDRI A 3
EGYPT 20 ASWAN 97
EGYPT 20 ASYUT 88
EGYPT 20 BENHA 13
EGYPT 20 CAI RO 2
EL SALVADOR 503 ci ty code not used
ET HI OPI A 251 ADDI S ABABA 1
ET HI OPI A 251 AK AK I 1
ET HI OPI A 251 ASMARA 4
ET HI OPI A 251 ASSAB 3
ET HI OPI A 251 AWASSA 6
FAEROE I SLANDS 298 ci ty code not used
FI JI I SLANDS 679 ci ty code not used
FI NLAND 358 EPPO EBBO 15
FI NLAND 358 HELSI NK I 0
FI NLAND 358 TAMMEFORS-TAMPERE 31
FI NLAND 358 T URK U 21
FRANCE 33 LYON 7
FRANCE 358 MARSEI LLE 91
FRANCE 358 NI CE 93
FRANCE 358 PARI S 1
FRENCH ANT I LLES 596 ci ty code not used
FRENCH GUI ANA 594 ci ty code not used
FRENCH POLYNESI A 689 ci ty code not used
GABON 241 ci ty code not used
GAMBI A 220 ci ty code not used
GERMAN DEM. REP. 37 BERLI N 2
GERMAN DEM. REP. 37 DRESDEN 51
GERMAN DEM. REP. 37 LEI PZI G 41
GERMAN DEM. REP. 37 MAGDEBURG 91
GERMANY FED. REP 49 BERLI N 30
GERMANY FED. REP 49 BONN 228
GERMANY FED. REP 49 FRANK FURT 69
GERMANY FED. REP 49 MUNI CH 89
GI BRALTAR 350 ci ty code not used
Calling Countries from the United States: Country and City Codes 735
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 735
GREECE 30 AT HENS 1
GREECE 30 I RAK LI ON 81
GREECE 30 LARI SSA 41
GREECE 30 PI RAEUS PI REEFS 1
GREENLAND 299 GODT HAB 2
GREENLAND 299 SONDRE ST ROMFJORD 11
GREENLAND 299 T HULE 50
GUADELOUPE 590 ci ty code not used
GUAM 671 ci ty code not used
GUANTANAMO BAY USN 5399 ci ty code not used
GUAT EMALA 502 ANT I GUA 9
GUAT EMALA 502 GUAT EMALA CI T Y 2
GUAT EMALA 502 QUEZALT ENANGO 9
GUYANA 592 BART I CA 5
GUYANA 592 GEORGET OWN 2
GUYANA 592 NEW AMST ERDAM 3
HAI T I 509 CAP-HAI T I EN 3
HAI T I 509 CAYES 5
HAI T I 509 GONAI VE 2
HAI T I 509 PORT AU PRI NCE 1
HONDURAS 504 ci ty code not used
HONG K ONG 852 HONG K ONG 5
HONG K ONG 852 K OWLOON 3
HONG K ONG 852 NEW T ERRI T ORI ES 0
HUNGARY 36 BUDAPEST 1
HUNGARY 36 DERBRECEN 52
HUNGARY 36 GYOR 96
HUNGARY 36 MI SK OLC 46
I CELAND 354 AK UREYRI 6
I CELAND 354 K EFLAVI C 2
I CELAND 354 REYK JAVI K 1
I NDI A 91 BOMBAY 22
I NDI A 91 CALCUT TA 33
I NDI A 91 MADRAS 44
I NDI A 91 NEW DELHI 11
I NDONESI A 62 JAK ARTA 21
I NDONESI A 62 MEDAN 61
I NDONESI A 62 SEMARANG 24
I RAN 98 ESFAHAN 31
I RAN 98 MASHAD 51
I RAN 98 TABRI Z 41
I RAN 98 T EHRAN 21
736 Appendix B
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 736
I RELAND 353 CORK 21
I RELAND 353 DUBLI N 1
I RELAND 353 GALWAY 91
I RELAND 353 LI MERI CK 61
I SRAEL 972 HAI FA 4
I SRAEL 972 JERUSALEM 2
I SRAEL 972 RAMAT GAN 3
I SRAEL 972 T EL AVI V 3
I TALY 39 FLORENCE 55
I TALY 39 GENOA 10
I TALY 39 MI LAN 2
I TALY 39 NAPLES 81
I TALY 39 ROME 6
I VORY COAST 255 ci ty code not used
JAPAN 81 K YOT O 75
JAPAN 81 OSAK A 6
JAPAN 81 SAPORRO 11
JAPAN 81 T OK YO 3
JAPAN 81 YOK OHAMA 45
JORDAN 962 AMMAN 6
JORDAN 962 I RBI D 2
JORDAN 962 JERASH 4
JORDAN 962 K ARAK 3
JORDAN 962 MAAN 3
K ENYA 254 K I SUMU 35
K ENYA 254 MOMBASA 11
K ENYA 254 NAI ROBI 2
K ENYA 254 NAK URU 37
K OREA 82 I NCHEON 32
K OREA 82 PUSAN 51
K OREA 82 SEOUL 2
K OREA 82 TAEGU 53
K UWAI T 965 ci ty code not used
LESOT HO 266 ci ty code not used
LI BERI A 231 ci ty code not used
LI BYA 218 BENGHAZI 61
LI BYA 218 MI SURAT HA 51
LI BYA 218 T RI POLI 21
LI BYA 218 ZAWAI 23
LEI CHT ENST I EN 41 ALL CI T I ES 75
LUXEMBOURG 352 ci ty code not used
MACAO 853 ci ty code not used
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 737
MALAWI 265 DOMASI 531
MALAWI 265 MAK WASA 474
MALAWI 265 ZOMBA 50
MALAYSI A 60 I POH 5
MALAYSI A 60 JOHOR BAHRU 7
MALAYSI A 60 K AJANG 3
MALAYSI A 60 K UALA LUMPUR 3
MALTA 356 ci ty code not used
MARSHALL I SLANDS 692 EBEYE 871
MARSHALL I SLANDS 692 MAJURO 9
MI CRONESI A 691 K OSREA 851
MI CRONESI A 691 PONAPE 9
MI CRONESI A 691 T RUK 8319
MI CRONESI A 691 YAP 841
MI QUELON 508 ci ty code not used
MONACO 33 ALL CI T I ES 93
MOROCCO 212 AGADI R 8
MOROCCO 212 BENI -MELLAL 48
MOROCCO 212 CASABLANCA di rect
MOROCCO 212 EL JADI DA 34
NAMBI A 264 GROOT FONT EI N 673
NAMBI A 264 K EET MANSHOOP 631
NAMBI A 264 MARI ENTAL 661
NET HERLANDS 31 AMST ERDAM 20
NET HERLANDS 31 ROT T ERDAM 10
NET HERLANDS 31 T HE HAGUE 70
NET HERLANDS ANT I LLES 599 BONAI RE 7
NET HERLANDS ANT I LLES 599 CURACAO 9
NET HERLANDS ANT I LLES 599 ST. EUSTAT I US 3
NET HERLANDS ANT I LLES 599 ST. MAART EN 5
NEW CALEDONI A 687 ci ty code not used
NEW ZEALAND 64 AUK LAND 9
NEW ZEALAND 64 CHRI ST CHURCH 3
NEW ZEALAND 64 DUNEDI N 24
NEW ZEALAND 64 HAMI LT ON 71
NI CARAGUA 505 CHI NANDEGA 341
NI CARAGUA 505 DI RI AMBA 42
NI CARAGUA 505 LEON 311
NI CARAGUA 505 MANAGUA 2
NI GERI A 234 LAGOS 1
NORWAY 47 BERGEN 5
NORWAY 47 OSLO 2
738 Appendix B
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 738
NORWAY 47 STAVANGER 4
NORWAY 47 T RONDHEI M 7
OMAN 968 ci ty code not used
PAK I STAN 92 I SLAMABAD 51
PAK I STAN 92 K ARI CHI 21
PAK I STAN 92 LAHORE 42
PANAMA 507 ci ty code not used
PAPUA NEW GUI NEA 675 ci ty code not used
PARAGUAY 595 ASUNCI ON 21
PARAGUAY 595 CONCEPCI ON 31
PERU 51 AREQUI PA 54
PERU 51 CALLAO 14
PERU 51 LI MA 14
PERU 51 T RUJI LLO 44
PHI LLI PI NES 63 CEBU 32
PHI LLI PI NES 63 DAVAO 35
PHI LLI PI NES 63 MANI LLA 2
POLAND 48 CRAK OW 12
POLAND 48 GDANSK 58
POLAND 48 WARSAW 22
PORT UGAL 351 COI MBRA 39
PORT UGAL 351 LI SBON 1
PORT UGAL 351 PORT O 2
PORT UGAL 351 SET UBAL 65
QATAR 974 ci ty code not used
ROMANI A 40 BUCHAREST 0
ROMANI A 40 CLUJ-NAPOCA 51
ROMANI A 40 CONSTANTA 16
SAI PAN 670 ROTA I SL. 532
SAI PAN 670 SUSUPE CI T Y 234
SAI PAN 670 T I NI AN I SL. 433
SAN MARI NO 39 ALL CI T I ES 541
SAUDI ARABI A 966 HOFUF 3
SAUDI ARABI A 966 JEDDAH 2
SAUDI ARABI A 966 MAK K AH 2
SAUDI ARABI A 966 RI YADH 1
SENEGAL 221 ci ty code not used
SI NGAPORE 65 ci ty code not used
SOUT H AFRI CA 27 CAPE T OWN 21
SOUT H AFRI CA 27 DURBAN 31
SOUT H AFRI CA 27 JOHANNESBURG 11
SPAI N 34 BARCELONA 3
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 739
SPAI N 34 MADRI D 1
SPAI N 34 SEVI LLE 54
SPAI N 34 VALENCI A 6
SRI LANK A 94 COLOMBO CENT RAL 1
SRI LANK A 94 K ANDY 8
SRI LANK A 94 K OT T E 1
ST. PI ERRE 508 ci ty code not used
SURI NAME 597 ci ty code not used
SWAI ZLAND 268 ci ty code not used
SWEDEN 46 GOT EBORG 31
SWEDEN 46 MALMO 40
SWEDEN 46 ST OCK HOLM 8
SWEDEN 46 VAST ERAS 21
SWI T ZERLAND 41 BASEL 61
SWI T ZERLAND 41 BERNE 31
SWI T ZERLAND 41 GENEVA 22
SWI T ZERLAND 41 ZURI CH 1
TAI WAN 886 K AOHSI UNG 7
TAI WAN 886 TAI NAN 6
TAI WAN 886 TAI PEI 2
TANZANI A 255 DAR ES SALAAM 51
TANZANI A 255 DODOMA 61
TANZANI A 255 MWANZA 68
TANZANI A 255 TANGA 53
T HAI LAND 66 BANGK OK 2
T HAI LAND 66 BURI RUM 44
T HAI LAND 66 CHANT HABURI 39
T OGO 228 ci ty code not used
T UNSI A 216 BI ZERT E 2
T UNSI A 216 K AI ROUAN 7
T UNSI A 216 MSEL BOURGUI BA 2
T UNSI A 216 T UNI S 1
T URK EY 90 ADANA 711
T URK EY 90 ANK ARA 41
T URK EY 90 I STANBUL 1
T URK EY 90 I ZMI R 51
UGANDA 256 ENT EBBE 42
UGANDA 256 JI NJA 43
UGANDA 256 K AMPALA 41
UGANDA 256 K YAMBOGO 41
UNI T ED ARAB EMI RAT ES 971 ABU DHABI 2
UNI T ED ARAB EMI RAT ES 971 AJMAN 6
740 Appendix B
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 740
UNI T ED ARAB EMI RAT ES 971 AL AI N 3
UNI T ED ARAB EMI RAT ES 971 DUBAI 4
UNI T ED ARAB EMI RAT ES 971 SHARJAH 6
UNI T ED K I NGDOM 44 BELFAST 232
UNI T ED K I NGDOM 44 BI RMI NGHAM 21
UNI T ED K I NGDOM 44 GLASGOW 41
UNI T ED K I NGDOM 44 LONDON 1
URAGUAY 598 CANELONES 332
URAGUAY 598 MERCEDES 532
URAGUAY 598 MONT EVI DEO 2
VAT I CAN CI T Y 39 ALL OF VAT I CAN CI T Y 6
VENEZUELA 58 BARQUI SI MET O 51
VENEZUELA 58 CARACAS 2
VENEZUELA 58 MARACAI BO 61
VENEZUELA 58 VALENCI A 41
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLI C 967 AMRAN 2
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLI C 967 SANAA 2
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLI C 967 TAI Z 4
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLI C 967 YARI M 4
YEMEN ARAB REPUBLI C 967 ZABI D 3
YUGOSLAVI A 38 BELGRADE 11
YUGOSLAVI A 38 SARAJEVO 71
YUGOSLAVI A 38 ZAGREB 41
ZAI RE 243 K I NSHASA 12
ZAI RE 243 LUBUMBASHI 222
ZAMBI A 260 CHI NGOLA 2
ZAMBI A 260 K I T WE 2
ZAMBI A 260 LUANSHYA 2
ZAMBI A 260 LUSAK A 1
ZAMBI A 260 NDOLA 26
ZI MBABWE 263 BULAWAYO 9
ZI MBABWE 263 HARARE 4
ZI MBABWE 263 MUTARE 20
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 741
PQ104_Appen_B 2/9/01 2:48 PM Page 742
Area Codes of the
NANP Listed by Location
Area
State/Province/Country City Code
ALABAMA AUBURN 334
ALABAMA BI RMI NGHAM 205
ALABAMA DECAT UR 256
ALABAMA GADSDEN 256
ALABAMA HUNT SVI LLE 256
ALABAMA MOBI LE 334
ALABAMA MONT GOMERY 334
ALABAMA SELMA 334
ALABAMA T USCALOOSA 205
ALASK A ALL LOCAT I ONS 907
ALBERTA CALGARY 403
ALBERTA EDMONT ON 780
ALBERTA GRANDE PRAI RI E 780
ANGUI LLA ALL LOCAT I ONS 264
ANT I GUA/BARBUDA ALL LOCAT I ONS 268
ARI ZONA FLAGSTAFF 520
ARI ZONA PHOENI X 602
ARI ZONA PRESCOT T 520
ARI ZONA SUBURBAN EAST PHOENI X 480
ARI ZONA SUBURBAN WEST PHOENI X 623
743
C
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 743
Area
ARI ZONA T UCSON 520
ARI ZONA YUMA 520
ARK ANSAS ALL LOCAT I ONS 501
ARK ANSAS JONESBORO 870
ARK ANSAS PI NE BLUFF 870
ARK ANSAS T EXARK ANA 870
BAHAMAS ALL LOCAT I ONS 242
BARBADOS ALL LOCAT I ONS 246
BERMUDA ALL LOCAT I ONS 441
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A K AMLOOPS 250
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A K ELOWNA 250
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A VANCOUVER 604
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A VI CT ORI A 250
BRI T I SH VI RGI N I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 284
CALI FORNI A ALHAMBRA 626
CALI FORNI A ANAHEI M 657
CALI FORNI A BAK ERSFI ELD 661
CALI FORNI A BEVERLY HI LLS 310
CALI FORNI A BI SHOP 760
CALI FORNI A BURBANK 818
CALI FORNI A CHI CO 530
CALI FORNI A CHULA VI STA 935
CALI FORNI A CORONA 951
CALI FORNI A COSTA MESA 949
CALI FORNI A EL CAJON 935
CALI FORNI A FRESNO 559
CALI FORNI A GARDENA 310
CALI FORNI A I RVI NE 949
CALI FORNI A LA MESA 935
CALI FORNI A LA PUENT E 626
CALI FORNI A LANCAST ER 661
CALI FORNI A LONG BEACH 562
CALI FORNI A LOS ANGELES 323
CALI FORNI A MET RO LOS ANGELES 213
CALI FORNI A MODEST O 209
CALI FORNI A MONT EREY 831
CALI FORNI A MOUNTAI N VI EW 650
744 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 744
Area
CALI FORNI A NAPA 707
CALI FORNI A NEEDLES 760
CALI FORNI A NEWPORT BEACH 949
CALI FORNI A OAK LAND 341
CALI FORNI A ONTARI O 752
CALI FORNI A PALM SPRI NGS 760
CALI FORNI A PALMDALE 661
CALI FORNI A PASADENA 818
CALI FORNI A PETALUMA 707
CALI FORNI A PLEASANT ON 925
CALI FORNI A POMONA 752
CALI FORNI A REDDI NG 530
CALI FORNI A RI VERSI DE 951
CALI FORNI A SACRAMENT O 916
CALI FORNI A SALI NAS 831
CALI FORNI A SAN DI EGO 619
CALI FORNI A SAN FRANCI SCO 628
CALI FORNI A SAN JOSE 408
CALI FORNI A SAN MAT EO 764
CALI FORNI A SANTA BARBARA 805
CALI FORNI A SANTA MONI CA 562
CALI FORNI A ST OCK T ON 209
CALI FORNI A UPLAND 752
CALI FORNI A VAN NUYS 818
CALI FORNI A VI SALI A 559
CALI FORNI A WALNUT CREEK 925
CALI FORNI A WHI T T I ER 562
CALI FORNI A YREK A 530
CANADA ( SERVI CES) 600
CAYMAN I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 345
CNMI ALL LOCAT I ONS 670
Area Codes of the NANP Listed by Location 745
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 745
Area
COLORADO ASPEN 970
COLORADO COLORADO SPRI NGS 719
COLORADO DENVER 303
COLORADO DENVER 720
COLORADO PUEBLO 719
COLORADO VAI L 970
CONNECT I CUT BLOOMFI ELD 860
CONNECT I CUT CANAAN 860
CONNECT I CUT FAI RFI ELD 203
CONNECT I CUT HART FORD 860
CONNECT I CUT NEW HAVEN 475
CONNECT I CUT NORWI CH 860
CONNECT I CUT SOUT HERN COUNT I ES 203
DELAWARE ALL LOCAT I ONS 302
DI ST RI CT OF COLUMBI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 202
DOMI NI CA ALL LOCAT I ONS 767
DOMI NI CAN REPUBLI C ALL LOCAT I ONS 809
FLORI DA ARCADI A 863
FLORI DA BOCA RAT ON 561
FLORI DA BRADENT ON 941
FLORI DA BROWARD COUNT Y 954
FLORI DA CAPE CANAVERAL 321
FLORI DA CLEARWAT ER 727
FLORI DA DAYT ONA BEACH 904
FLORI DA FT. LAUDERDALE 954
FLORI DA FT. MYERS 941
FLORI DA GAI NESVI LLE 352
FLORI DA JACK SONVI LLE 904
FLORI DA K EY WEST 305
FLORI DA K I SSI MMEE 407
FLORI DA LAK ELAND 863
FLORI DA MI AMI 305
FLORI DA MI AMI 786
FLORI DA NAPLES 941
746 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 746
Area
FLORI DA NORT H DADE 786
FLORI DA ORLANDO 407
FLORI DA SARASOTA 941
FLORI DA SEBRI NG 863
FLORI DA ST. PET ERSBURG 727
FLORI DA ST UART 561
FLORI DA TAMPA 813
FLORI DA WEST PALM BEACH 561
FLORI DA TALLAHASSEE 850
GEORGI A AT LANTA 404
GEORGI A AT LANTA AND 678
SUBURBAN AREAS
GEORGI A AUGUSTA 706
GEORGI A COLUMBUS 706
GEORGI A MACON 478
GEORGI A SAVANNAH 912
GEORGI A SUBURBAN AT LANTA 770
( T HE AREA OUT SI DE
T HE I NT ERSTAT E 285
BELT WAY)
GEORGI A ALBANY 229
GRENADA ALL LOCAT I ONS 473
GUAM ALL LOCAT I ONS 671
HAWAI I ALL LOCAT I ONS 808
I DAHO ALL LOCAT I ONS 208
I LLI NOI S BLOOMI NGT ON 309
I LLI NOI S CHAMPAI GN 217
I LLI NOI S CHI CAGO 312
I LLI NOI S COLLI NSVI LLE 618
I LLI NOI S DES PLAI NES 708
I LLI NOI S GRANI T E CI T Y 618
I LLI NOI S JOLI ET 815
I LLI NOI S PALAT I NE 708
I LLI NOI S PEORI A 309
I LLI NOI S ROCK FORD 815
I LLI NOI S SPRI NGFI ELD 217
I LLI NOI S SUBURBAN CHI CAGO 331
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 747
Area
I LLI NOI S WAUK EGAN 708
I LLI NOI S ELGI N 847
I NDI ANA BLOOMI NGT ON 812
I NDI ANA EVANSVI LLE 812
I NDI ANA GARY 219
I NDI ANA HAMMOND 219
I NDI ANA I NDI ANAPOLI S 317
I NDI ANA K OK OMO 765
I NDI ANA LAFAYET T E 765
I NDI ANA RI CHMOND 765
I NDI ANA SOUT H BEND 219
I NDI ANA T ERRA HAUT E 812
I NDI ANA WARSAW 219
I OWA COUNCI L BLUFFS 712
I OWA DES MOI NES 515
I OWA DUBUQUE 319
I OWA SI OUX CI T Y 712
JAMAI CA ALL LOCAT I ONS 876
K ANSAS DODGE CI T Y 316
K ANSAS JUNCT I ON 785
K ANSAS K ANSAS CI T Y 913
K ANSAS LAWRENCE 785
K ANSAS T OPEK A 785
K ANSAS WI CHI TA 316
K ENT UCK Y ASHLAND 606
K ENT UCK Y BOWLI NG GREEN 270
K ENT UCK Y LOUI SVI LLE 502
K ENT UCK Y PADUCAH 270
LOUI SI ANA ALEXANDRI A 318
LOUI SI ANA BAT ON ROUGE 225
LOUI SI ANA LAFAYET T E 337
LOUI SI ANA LAK E CHARLES 337
LOUI SI ANA MONROE 318
LOUI SI ANA NEW ORLEANS 504
LOUI SI ANA PLAQUEMI NE 225
MAI NE ALL LOCAT I ONS 207
MANI T OBA ALL LOCAT I ONS 204
MARYLAND BALT I MORE 410
748 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 748
Area
MARYLAND BET HESDA 240
MARYLAND ROCK VI LLE 240
MARYLAND SI LVER SPRI NG 240
MARYLAND T OWSON 410
MASSACHUSET T S ACT ON 978
MASSACHUSET T S BOST ON 617
MASSACHUSET T S BURLI NGT ON 781
MASSACHUSET T S FRAMI NGHAM 508
MASSACHUSET T S LOWELL 978
MASSACHUSET T S NEW BEDFORD 508
MASSACHUSET T S NORT H READI NG 978
MASSACHUSET T S PLYMOUT H 508
MASSACHUSET T S READI NG 781
MASSACHUSET T S SPRI NGFI ELD 413
MASSACHUSET T S WALT HAM 781
MEXI CO ROAMI NG-T EMP 521
MI CHI GAN ANN ARBOR 278
MI CHI GAN BAT T LE CREEK 616
MI CHI GAN BI RMI NGHAM 586
MI CHI GAN DET ROI T 313
MI CHI GAN FLI NT 586
MI CHI GAN GRAND RAPI DS 616
MI CHI GAN K ALAMAZOO 616
MI CHI GAN LANSI NG 517
MI CHI GAN LI VONI A 278
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 749
Area
MI CHI GAN MARI E 906
MI CHI GAN MARQUET T E 906
MI CHI GAN MUSK EGON 231
MI CHI GAN OAK LAND COUNT Y 248
MI CHI GAN PONT I AC 586
MI CHI GAN SAULT ST E. MARI E 906
MI CHI GAN T RAVERSE CI T Y 231
MI CHI GAN YPSI LANT I 278
MI CHI GAN ALPENA 989
MI CHI GAN MI DLAND 989
MI CHI GAN SAGI NAW 989
MI NNESOTA DULUT H 218
MI NNESOTA MI NNEAPOLI S 952
MI NNESOTA ROCHEST ER 507
MI NNESOTA ST. CLOUD 320
MI NNESOTA ST. PAUL 651
MI NNESOTA WI LLMAR 320
MI SSI SSI PPI BI LOXI 228
MI SSI SSI PPI GREENVI LLE 662
MI SSI SSI PPI GULFPORT 228
MI SSI SSI PPI HAT T I ESBURG 601
MI SSI SSI PPI JACK SON 601
MI SSI SSI PPI OXFORD 662
MI SSI SSI PPI PASCAGOULA 228
MI SSI SSI PPI T UPELO 662
MI SSOURI CHEST ERFI ELD 636
MI SSOURI GRAY SUMMI T 636
MI SSOURI JEFFERSON CI T Y 573
MI SSOURI JOPLI N 417
MI SSOURI K ANSAS CI T Y 816
MI SSOURI K I RK SVI LLE 660
MI SSOURI MARYVI LLE 660
MI SSOURI OFALLON 636
MI SSOURI OUT SI DE ST. LOUI S 573
MI SSOURI SPRI NGFI ELD 417
750 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 750
Area
MI SSOURI ST. LOUI S 314
MI SSOURI T RENT ON 660
MONTANA ALL LOCAT I ONS 406
MONT SERRAT ALL LOCAT I ONS 664
NEBRASK A LI NCOLN 402
NEBRASK A NORT H PLAT T E 308
NEBRASK A OMAHA 402
NEVADA CARSON CI T Y 775
NEVADA LAS VEGAS 702
NEVADA RENO 775
NEW BRUNSWI CK ALL LOCAT I ONS 506
NEW HAMPSHI RE ALL LOCAT I ONS 603
NEW JERSEY ASBURY PARK 908
NEW JERSEY AT LANT I C CI T Y 609
NEW JERSEY ELI ZABET H 908
NEW JERSEY ESSEX COUNT I ES 973
NEW JERSEY HACK ENSACK 201
NEW JERSEY JERSEY CI T Y 201
NEW JERSEY MI DDLESEX 732
NEW JERSEY MONMOUT H 732
NEW JERSEY MORRI S 973
NEW JERSEY MORRI ST OWN 201
NEW JERSEY NEW BRUNSWI CK 908
NEW JERSEY NEWARK 201
NEW JERSEY OCEAN COUNT I ES 732
NEW JERSEY PASSAI C 973
NEW JERSEY PRI NCET ON 609
NEW JERSEY T RENT ON 609
NEW JERSEY WEST FI ELD 908
NEW JERSEY CHERRY HI LL 856
NEW MEXI CO ALL LOCAT I ONS 505
NEW YORK ALBANY 518
NEW YORK BI NGHAMT ON 607
NEW YORK BRONX 347
NEW YORK BROOK LYN 347
NEW YORK BUFFALO 716
NEW YORK ELMI RA 607
NEW YORK MANHAT TAN 646
NEW YORK NASSAU COUNT Y 516
NEW YORK NEW YORK CI T Y 212
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 751
Area
NEW YORK NEWBURGH 914
NEW YORK NI AGARA FALLS 716
NEW YORK OSSI NI NG 914
NEW YORK POUGHK EEPSI E 914
NEW YORK QUEENS 347
NEW YORK QUEENS 718
NEW YORK QUEENS 917
NEW YORK ROCHEST ER 716
NEW YORK SCHENECTADY 518
NEW YORK STAT EN I SLAND 347
NEW YORK SUFFOLK COUNT Y 631
NEW YORK SYRACUSE 315
NEWFOUNDLAND ALL LOCAT I ONS 709
NORT H CAROLI NA ASHEBORO 336
NORT H CAROLI NA ASHEVI LLE 828
NORT H CAROLI NA BURLI NGT ON 336
NORT H CAROLI NA CHARLOT T E 704
NORT H CAROLI NA DURHAM 919
NORT H CAROLI NA FAYET T EVI LLE 910
NORT H CAROLI NA GREENSBORO 336
NORT H CAROLI NA GREENVI LLE 252
NORT H CAROLI NA HENDERSONVI LLE 828
NORT H CAROLI NA MOREHEAD CI T Y 252
NORT H CAROLI NA RALEI GH 919
NORT H CAROLI NA ROCK Y MOUNT 252
NORT H CAROLI NA WI NST ON-SALEM 910
NORT H DAK OTA ALL LOCAT I ONS 701
NOVA SCOT I A ALL LOCAT I ONS 902
OHI O AK RON 330
OHI O ASHTABULA 440
OHI O AT HENS 740
OHI O CI NCI NNAT I 513
OHI O CLEVELAND 216
OHI O COLUMBUS 614
OHI O DAYT ON 937
OHI O HAMI LT ON 937
OHI O LANCAST ER 740
752 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 752
Area
OHI O LORAI N 440
OHI O MARI ET TA 740
OHI O T OLEDO 419
OHI O WEST LAK E 440
OHI O YOUNGST OWN 330
OK LAHOMA ARDMORE 580
OK LAHOMA BROK EN ARROW 918
OK LAHOMA ENI D 580
OK LAHOMA LAWT ON 580
OK LAHOMA MUSK OGEE 918
OK LAHOMA NORMAN 405
OK LAHOMA T ULSA 918
ONTARI O HAMI LT ON 905
ONTARI O LONDON 519
ONTARI O OT TAWA 613
ONTARI O SAULT ST E. MARI E 705
ONTARI O T HUNDER BAY 807
ONTARI O T ORONT O 416
ONTARI O UNI ONVI LLE 905
ONTARI O WI NDSOR 519
ONTARI O WOODBRI DGE 905
OREGON EUGENE 541
OREGON MEDFORD 541
OREGON PORT LAND 503
OREGON SALEM 971
PENNSYLVANI A ALLENT OWN 610
PENNSYLVANI A ALT OONA 814
PENNSYLVANI A BET HLEHEM 610
PENNSYLVANI A ERI E 814
PENNSYLVANI A HARRI SBURG 717
PENNSYLVANI A HERSHEY 717
PENNSYLVANI A LAT ROBE 724
PENNSYLVANI A NEW CAST LE 724
PENNSYLVANI A PHI LADELPHI A 215
PENNSYLVANI A PI T T SBURGH 412
PENNSYLVANI A READI NG 610
PENNSYLVANI A SCRANT ON 570
PENNSYLVANI A WEST CHEST ER 610
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 753
Area
PENNSYLVANI A WI LK ES-BARRE 570
PENNSYLVANI A WI LLI AMSPORT 570
PENNSYLVANI A YORK 717
PUERT O RI CO ALL LOCAT I ONS 787
QUEBEC AREA OUT SI DE MONT REAL 450
QUEBEC MONT REAL 514
QUEBEC QUEBEC 418
QUEBEC SHERBROOK E 819
QUEBEC T ROI S RI VI ERES 819
RHODE I SLAND ALL LOCAT I ONS 401
SASK AT CHEWAN ALL LOCAT I ONS 306
SOUT H CAROLI NA CHARLEST ON 843
SOUT H CAROLI NA COLUMBI A 803
SOUT H CAROLI NA GREENVI LLE 864
SOUT H CAROLI NA LEXI NGT ON 843
SOUT H CAROLI NA SPARTANBURG 864
SOUT H CAROLI NA WI NNSBORO 803
SOUT H DAK OTA ALL LOCAT I ONS 605
ST. K I T T S & NEVI S ALL LOCAT I ONS 869
ST. LUCI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 758
ST. VI NCENT & GRENADI NES ALL LOCAT I ONS 784
T ENNESSEE CHAT TANOOGA 423
T ENNESSEE CLARK SVI LLE 931
T ENNESSEE K NOXVI LLE 865
T ENNESSEE MEMPHI S 901
T ENNESSEE NASHVI LLE 615
T EXAS ABI LENE 915
T EXAS AMARI LLO 806
T EXAS ARLI NGT ON 817
T EXAS AUST I N 512
T EXAS BROWNSVI LLE 956
T EXAS CONROE 936
T EXAS CORPUS CHRI ST I 361
T EXAS DALLAS 469
T EXAS DALLAS 972
T EXAS DALLAS 214
T EXAS DENT ON 940
T EXAS EL PASO 915
T EXAS FORT WORT H 817
T EXAS FREDERI CK SBURG 830
754 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 754
Area
T EXAS GALVEST ON 409
T EXAS HOUST ON 281
T EXAS HOUST ON 832
T EXAS HOUST ON 713
T EXAS LAREDO 956
T EXAS LONGVI EW 903
T EXAS LUBBOCK 806
T EXAS MCALLEN 956
T EXAS NACOGDOCHES 936
T EXAS NEW BRAUNFELS 830
T EXAS SAN ANGELO 915
T EXAS SAN ANT ONI O 210
T EXAS T EXARK ANA 903
T EXAS T YLER 903
T EXAS UVALDE 830
T EXAS WACO 254
T EXAS WI CHI TA FALLS 940
T EXAS BRYAN-COLLEGE STAT I ON 979
T EXAS FREEPORT 979
T RI NI DAD AND T OBAGO ALL LOCAT I ONS 868
T URK S & CAI COS I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 649
US VI RGI N I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 340
UTAH CEDAR CI T Y 435
UTAH OGDEN 801
UTAH PROVO 801
UTAH SALT LAK E CI T Y 801
UTAH ST. GEORGE 435
VERMONT ALL LOCAT I ONS 802
VI RGI NI A ALEXANDRI A 703
VI RGI NI A ARLI NGT ON 571
VI RGI NI A COVI NGT ON 540
VI RGI NI A FAI RFAX 571
VI RGI NI A FALLS CHURCH 703
VI RGI NI A NEWPORT NEWS 757
VI RGI NI A NORFOLK 757
VI RGI NI A RI CHMOND 804
VI RGI NI A ROANOK E 540
VI RGI NI A VI ENNA 571
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 755
Area
VI RGI NI A VI RGI NI A BEACH 757
VI RGI NI A WI NCHEST ER 540
WASHI NGT ON AUBURN 253
WASHI NGT ON BAI NBRI DGE I SLAND 206
WASHI NGT ON BELLI NGHAM 360
WASHI NGT ON EVERET T 425
WASHI NGT ON GI G HARBOR 253
WASHI NGT ON K ENT 425
WASHI NGT ON OLYMPI A 360
WASHI NGT ON SEAT T LE 206
WASHI NGT ON SPOK ANE 509
WASHI NGT ON TACOMA 253
WASHI NGT ON VANCOUVER 360
WEST VI RGI NI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 304
WI SCONSI N APPLET ON 920
WI SCONSI N EAU CLAI RE 715
WI SCONSI N GREEN BAY 920
WI SCONSI N K ENOSHA 262
WI SCONSI N MADI SON 608
WI SCONSI N MI LWAUK EE 414
WI SCONSI N RACI NE 262
WI SCONSI N SHEBOYGAN 920
WI SCONSI N WAUK ESHA 262
WI SCONSI N WAUSAU 715
WYOMI NG ALL LOCAT I ONS 307
YUK ON & NW T ERRI T ORI ES ALL LOCAT I ONS 867
756 Appendix C
PQ104_Appen_C 2/9/01 2:50 PM Page 756
Area Codes of the
NANP Listed by Number
Area
EASI LY RECOGNI ZABLE CODE 200
NEW JERSEY HACK ENSACK 201
NEW JERSEY MORRI ST OWN 201
NEW JERSEY NEWARK 201
NEW JERSEY JERSEY CI T Y 201
DI ST RI CT OF COLUMBI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 202
CONNECT I CUT SOUT HERN COUNT I ES 203
MANI T OBA ALL LOCAT I ONS 204
ALABAMA BI RMI NGHAM 205
ALABAMA T USCALOOSA 205
WASHI NGT ON SEAT T LE 206
WASHI NGT ON BAI NBRI DGE I SLAND 206
MAI NE ALL LOCAT I ONS 207
I DAHO ALL LOCAT I ONS 208
CALI FORNI A MODEST O 209
CALI FORNI A ST OCK T ON 209
T EXAS SAN ANT ONI O 210
NOT AVAI LABLE 211
CALI FORNI A MET RO LOS ANGELES 213
757
D
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 757
Area
T EXAS DALLAS 214
OHI O CLEVELAND 216
I LLI NOI S CHAMPAI GN 217
I LLI NOI S SPRI NGFI ELD 217
MI NNESOTA DULUT H 218
I NDI ANA GARY 219
I NDI ANA HAMMOND 219
I NDI ANA SOUT H BEND 219
I NDI ANA WARSAW 219
GENERAL PURPOSE CODE 220
GEOGRAPHI C RELI EF CODE 221
LOUI SI ANA BAT ON ROUGE 225
LOUI SI ANA PLAQUEMI NE 225
MI SSI SSI PPI BI LOXI 228
MI SSI SSI PPI GULFPORT 228
MI SSI SSI PPI PASCAGOULA 228
GEORGI A ALBANY 229
MI CHI GAN MUSK EGON 231
MI CHI GAN T RAVERSE CI T Y 231
BAHAMAS ALL LOCAT I ONS 242
758 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 758
Area
BARBADOS ALL LOCAT I ONS 246
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A K AMLOOPS 250
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A K ELOWNA 250
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A VI CT ORI A 250
NORT H CAROLI NA GREENVI LLE 252
NORT H CAROLI NA MOREHEAD CI T Y 252
NORT H CAROLI NA ROCK Y MOUNT 252
WASHI NGT ON AUBURN 253
WASHI NGT ON GI G HARBOR 253
WASHI NGT ON TACOMA 253
T EXAS WACO 254
ALABAMA DECAT UR 256
ALABAMA GADSDEN 256
ALABAMA HUNT SVI LLE 256
WI SCONSI N K ENOSHA 262
WI SCONSI N RACI NE 262
WI SCONSI N WAUK ESHA 262
ANGUI LLA ALL LOCAT I ONS 264
ANT I GUA/BARBUDA ALL LOCAT I ONS 268
K ENT UCK Y BOWLI NG GREEN 270
K ENT UCK Y PADUCAH 270
Area Codes of the NANP Listed by Number 759
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 759
Area
T EXAS HOUST ON 281
BRI T I SH VI RGI N I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 284
EXPANSI ON CODE 290
EXPANSI ON CODE 291
EXPANSI ON CODE 292
EXPANSI ON CODE 293
EXPANSI ON CODE 294
EXPANSI ON CODE 295
EXPANSI ON CODE 296
EXPANSI ON CODE 297
EXPANSI ON CODE 298
EXPANSI ON CODE 299
DELAWARE ALL LOCAT I ONS 302
COLORADO DENVER 303
WEST VI RGI NI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 304
FLORI DA MI AMI 305
FLORI DA K EY WEST 305
SASK AT CHEWAN ALL LOCAT I ONS 306
WYOMI NG ALL LOCAT I ONS 307
NEBRASK A NORT H PLAT T E 308
I LLI NOI S BLOOMI NGT ON 309
I LLI NOI S PEORI A 309
760 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 760
Area
NON-EMERGENCY ACCESS 311
MI SSOURI ST. LOUI S 314
NEW YORK SYRACUSE 315
K ANSAS DODGE CI T Y 316
K ANSAS WI CHI TA 316
I NDI ANA I NDI ANAPOLI S 317
LOUI SI ANA ALEXANDRI A 318
LOUI SI ANA MONROE 318
I OWA DUBUQUE 319
MI NNESOTA ST. CLOUD 320
MI NNESOTA WI LLMAR 320
FLORI DA CAPE CANAVERAL 321
CALI FORNI A LOS ANGELES 323
OHI O AK RON 330
OHI O YOUNGST OWN 330
ALABAMA AUBURN 334
ALABAMA MOBI LE 334
ALABAMA MONT GOMERY 334
ALABAMA SELMA 334
NORT H CAROLI NA ASHEBORO 336
NORT H CAROLI NA BURLI NGT ON 336
NORT H CAROLI NA GREENSBORO 336
LOUI SI ANA LAFAYET T E 337
LOUI SI ANA LAK E CHARLES 337
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 761
Area
US VI RGI N I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 340
CAYMAN I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 345
NEW YORK BRONX 347
NEW YORK QUEENS 347
FLORI DA GAI NESVI LLE 352
T EXAS CORPUS CHRI ST I 361
RESERVED 370
RESERVED 371
RESERVED 372
RESERVED 373
RESERVED 374
762 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 762
Area
RESERVED 375
RESERVED 376
RESERVED 377
RESERVED 378
RESERVED 379
EXPANSI ON CODE 390
EXPANSI ON CODE 391
EXPANSI ON CODE 392
EXPANSI ON CODE 393
EXPANSI ON CODE 394
EXPANSI ON CODE 395
EXPANSI ON CODE 396
EXPANSI ON CODE 397
EXPANSI ON CODE 398
EXPANSI ON CODE 399
RHODE I SLAND ALL LOCAT I ONS 401
NEBRASK A LI NCOLN 402
NEBRASK A OMAHA 402
ALBERTA CALGARY 403
GEORGI A AT LANTA 404
OK LAHOMA NORMAN 405
MONTANA ALL LOCAT I ONS 406
FLORI DA ORLANDO 407
FLORI DA K I SSI MMEE 407
T EXAS GALVEST ON 409
LOCAL DI RECT ORY ASSI STANCE 411
PENNSYLVANI A PI T T SBURGH 412
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 763
Area
MASSACHUSET T S SPRI NGFI ELD 413
WI SCONSI N MI LWAUK EE 414
MI SSOURI JOPLI N 417
MI SSOURI SPRI NGFI ELD 417
QUEBEC QUEBEC 418
OHI O T OLEDO 419
T ENNESSEE CHAT TANOOGA 423
EXPANSI ON CODE BEVERLY HI LLS 424
WASHI NGT ON EVERET T 425
WASHI NGT ON K ENT 425
UTAH CEDAR CI T Y 435
UTAH ST. GEORGE 435
OHI O ASHTABULA 440
OHI O LORAI N 440
OHI O WEST LAK E 440
BERMUDA ALL LOCAT I ONS 441
CALI FORNI A 442
764 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 764
Area
QUEBEC AREA OUT SI DE MONT REAL 450
I NBOUND I NT ERNAT I ONAL 456
GRENADA ALL LOCAT I ONS 473
GEORGI A MACON 478
ARI ZONA SUBURBAN EAST PHOENI X 480
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 765
Area
EXPANSI ON CODE 490
EXPANSI ON CODE 491
EXPANSI ON CODE 492
EXPANSI ON CODE 493
EXPANSI ON CODE 494
EXPANSI ON CODE 495
EXPANSI ON CODE 496
EXPANSI ON CODE 497
EXPANSI ON CODE 498
EXPANSI ON CODE 499
PCS 500
ARK ANSAS ALL LOCAT I ONS 501
K ENT UCK Y LOUI SVI LLE 502
LOUI SI ANA NEW ORLEANS 504
NEW MEXI CO ALL LOCAT I ONS 505
NEW BRUNSWI CK ALL LOCAT I ONS 506
MI NNESOTA ROCHEST ER 507
MASSACHUSET T S FRAMI NGHAM 508
MASSACHUSET T S NEW BEDFORD 508
MASSACHUSET T S PLYMOUT H 508
WASHI NGT ON SPOK ANE 509
NOT AVAI LABLE 511
T EXAS AUST I N 512
OHI O CI NCI NNAT I 513
QUEBEC MONT REAL 514
I OWA DES MOI NES 515
NEW YORK NASSAU COUNT Y 516
MI CHI GAN LANSI NG 517
NEW YORK ALBANY 518
NEW YORK SCHENECTADY 518
ONTARI O LONDON 519
ONTARI O WI NDSOR 519
ARI ZONA T UCSON 520
ARI ZONA FLAGSTAFF 520
ARI ZONA PRESCOT T 520
ARI ZONA YUMA 520
766 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 766
Area
FUT URE PCS 522
CALI FORNI A CHI CO 530
CALI FORNI A REDDI NG 530
CALI FORNI A YREK A 530
FUT URE PCS 533
VI RGI NI A COVI NGT ON 540
VI RGI NI A ROANOK E 540
VI RGI NI A WI NCHEST ER 540
OREGON EUGENE 541
OREGON MEDFORD 541
FUT URE PCS 544
NOT AVAI LABLE 555
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 767
Area
CALI FORNI A FRESNO 559
CALI FORNI A VI SALI A 559
FLORI DA BOCA RAT ON 561
FLORI DA ST UART 561
FLORI DA WEST PALM BEACH 561
CALI FORNI A SANTA MONI CA 562
CALI FORNI A LONG BEACH 562
CALI FORNI A WHI T T I ER 562
FUT URE PCS 566
PENNSYLVANI A SCRANT ON 570
PENNSYLVANI A WI LK ES-BARRE 570
PENNSYLVANI A WI LLI AMSPORT 570
VI RGI NI A VI ENNA 571
MI SSOURI JEFFERSON CI T Y 573
MI SSOURI OUT SI DE ST. LOUI S 573
FUT URE PCS 577
OK LAHOMA ARDMORE 580
OK LAHOMA ENI D 580
OK LAHOMA LAWT ON 580
768 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 768
Area
FUT URE PCS 588
EXPANSI ON CODE 590
EXPANSI ON CODE 591
EXPANSI ON CODE 592
EXPANSI ON CODE 593
EXPANSI ON CODE 594
EXPANSI ON CODE 595
EXPANSI ON CODE 596
EXPANSI ON CODE 597
EXPANSI ON CODE 598
EXPANSI ON CODE 599
CANADA ( SERVI CES) 600
MI SSI SSI PPI HAT T I ESBURG 601
MI SSI SSI PPI JACK SON 601
ARI ZONA PHOENI X 602
NEW HAMPSHI RE ALL LOCAT I ONS 603
BRI T I SH COLUMBI A VANCOUVER 604
SOUT H DAK OTA ALL LOCAT I ONS 605
K ENT UCK Y ASHLAND 606
NEW YORK BI NGHAMT ON 607
NEW YORK ELMI RA 607
WI SCONSI N MADI SON 608
NEW JERSEY AT LANT I C CI T Y 609
NEW JERSEY PRI NCET ON 609
NEW JERSEY T RENT ON 609
PENNSYLVANI A ALLENT OWN 610
PENNSYLVANI A BET HLEHEM 610
PENNSYLVANI A READI NG 610
PENNSYLVANI A WEST CHEST ER 610
REPAI R SERVI CE 611
ONTARI O OT TAWA 613
OHI O COLUMBUS 614
T ENNESSEE NASHVI LLE 615
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 769
Area
MI CHI GAN BAT T LE CREEK 616
MI CHI GAN GRAND RAPI DS 616
MI CHI GAN K ALAMAZOO 616
MASSACHUSET T S BOST ON 617
I LLI NOI S COLLI NSVI LLE 618
I LLI NOI S GRANI T E CI T Y 618
ARI ZONA SUBURBAN WEST PHOENI X 623
CALI FORNI A ALHAMBRA 626
CALI FORNI A LA PUENT E 626
NEW YORK SUFFOLK COUNT Y 631
MI SSOURI CHEST ERFI ELD 636
MI SSOURI OFALLON 636
MI SSOURI GRAY SUMMI T 636
NEW YORK MANHAT TAN 646
T URK S & CAI COS I SLANDS ALL LOCAT I ONS 649
770 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 770
Area
MI NNESOTA ST. PAUL 651
MI SSOURI K I RK SVI LLE 660
MI SSOURI MARYVI LLE 660
MI SSOURI T RENT ON 660
CALI FORNI A LANCAST ER 661
CALI FORNI A PALMDALE 661
MI SSI SSI PPI GREENVI LLE 662
MI SSI SSI PPI OXFORD 662
MI SSI SSI PPI T UPELO 662
MONT SERRAT ALL LOCAT I ONS 664
CNMI ALL LOCAT I ONS 670
GUAM ALL LOCAT I ONS 671
GEORGI A AT LANTA AND 678
SUBURBAN AREAS
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 771
Area
RESERVED FOR NANP COUNT RY 684
EXPANSI ON CODE 690
EXPANSI ON CODE 691
EXPANSI ON CODE 692
EXPANSI ON CODE 693
EXPANSI ON CODE 694
EXPANSI ON CODE 695
EXPANSI ON CODE 696
EXPANSI ON CODE 697
EXPANSI ON CODE 698
EXPANSI ON CODE 699
I C SERVI CES ALL LOCAT I ONS 700
NORT H DAK OTA ALL LOCAT I ONS 701
NEVADA LAS VEGAS 702
VI RGI NI A ALEXANDRI A 703
VI RGI NI A FALLS CHURCH 703
ONTARI O SAULT ST E. MARI E 705
GEORGI A AUGUSTA 706
GEORGI A COLUMBUS 706
CALI FORNI A PETALUMA 707
CALI FORNI A NAPA 707
I LLI NOI S DES PLAI NES 708
I LLI NOI S PALAT I NE 708
I LLI NOI S WAUK EGAN 708
NEWFOUNDLAND ALL LOCAT I ONS 709
U.S. GOVERNMENT 710
T RS ACCESS 711
I OWA COUNCI L BLUFFS 712
I OWA SI OUX CI T Y 712
T EXAS HOUST ON 713
WI SCONSI N EAU CLAI RE 715
772 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 772
Area
WI SCONSI N WAUSAU 715
NEW YORK BUFFALO 716
NEW YORK NI AGARA FALLS 716
NEW YORK ROCHEST ER 716
PENNSYLVANI A HARRI SBURG 717
PENNSYLVANI A HERSHEY 717
PENNSYLVANI A YORK 717
NEW YORK QUEENS 718
COLORADO COLORADO SPRI NGS 719
COLORADO PUEBLO 719
COLORADO DENVER 720
PENNSYLVANI A LAT ROBE 724
PENNSYLVANI A NEW CAST LE 724
NEW JERSEY MI DDLESEX 732
NEW JERSEY MONMOUT H 732
NEW JERSEY OCEAN COUNT I ES 732
OHI O AT HENS 740
OHI O LANCAST ER 740
OHI O MARI ET TA 740
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 773
Area
VI RGI NI A NEWPORT NEWS 757
VI RGI NI A VI RGI NI A BEACH 757
ST. LUCI A ALL LOCAT I ONS 758
CALI FORNI A BI SHOP 760
CALI FORNI A NEEDLES 760
CALI FORNI A PALM SPRI NGS 760
MI NNESOTA EXPANSI ON 763
I NDI ANA K OK OMO 765
I NDI ANA LAFAYET T E 765
I NDI ANA RI CHMOND 765
DOMI NI CA ALL LOCAT I ONS 767
GEORGI A SUBURBAN AT LANTA 770
( T HE AREA OUT SI DE T HE
I NT ERSTAT E 285 BELT WAY)
774 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 774
Area
NEVADA CARSON CI T Y 775
NEVADA RENO 775
ALBERTA EDMONT ON 780
ALBERTA GRANDE PRAI RI E 780
MASSACHUSET T S BURLI NGT ON 781
MASSACHUSET T S READI NG 781
MASSACHUSET T S WALT HAM 781
ST. VI NCENT & GRENADI NES ALL LOCAT I ONS 784
K ANSAS JUNCT I ON 785
K ANSAS LAWRENCE 785
FLORI DA MI AMI 786
FLORI DA NORT H DADE 786
PUERT O RI CO ALL LOCAT I ONS 787
EXPANSI ON CODE 790
EXPANSI ON CODE 791
EXPANSI ON CODE 792
EXPANSI ON CODE 793
EXPANSI ON CODE 794
EXPANSI ON CODE 795
EXPANSI ON CODE 796
EXPANSI ON CODE 797
EXPANSI ON CODE 798
EXPANSI ON CODE 799
SERVI CE 800
UTAH SALT LAK E CI T Y 801
UTAH OGDEN 801
UTAH PROVO 801
VERMONT ALL LOCAT I ONS 802
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 775
Area
SOUT H CAROLI NA COLUMBI A 803
SOUT H CAROLI NA WI NNSBORO 803
VI RGI NI A RI CHMOND 804
CALI FORNI A SANTA BARBARA 805
T EXAS AMARI LLO 806
T EXAS LUBBOCK 806
ONTARI O T HUNDER BAY 807
HAWAI I ALL LOCAT I ONS 808
DOMI NI CAN REPUBLI C 809
BUSI NESS OFFI CE 811
I NDI ANA BLOOMI NGT ON 812
I NDI ANA EVANSVI LLE 812
I NDI ANA T ERRA HAUT E 812
FLORI DA TAMPA 813
PENNSYLVANI A ALT OONA 814
PENNSYLVANI A ERI E 814
I LLI NOI S JOLI ET 815
I LLI NOI S ROCK FORD 815
MI SSOURI K ANSAS CI T Y 816
T EXAS ARLI NGT ON 817
T EXAS FORT WORT H 817
CALI FORNI A BURBANK 818
CALI FORNI A VAN NUYS 818
QUEBEC SHERBROOK E 819
QUEBEC T ROI S RI VI ERES 819
FUT URE 800 SERVI CE 822
776 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 776
Area
NORT H CAROLI NA ASHEVI LLE 828
NORT H CAROLI NA HENDERSONVI LLE 828
T EXAS FREDERI CK SBURG 830
T EXAS NEW BRAUNFELS 830
T EXAS UVALDE 830
CALI FORNI A MONT EREY 831
CALI FORNI A SALI NAS 831
T EXAS HOUST ON 832
SOUT H CAROLI NA CHARLEST ON 843
SOUT H CAROLI NA LEXI NGT ON 843
I LLI NOI S 847
FLORI DA TALLAHASSEE 850
NEW JERSEY CHERRY HI LL 856
CALI FORNI A 858
EXPANSI ON CODE 859
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 777
Area
FLORI DA ARCADI A 863
FLORI DA LAK ELAND 863
FLORI DA SEBRI NG 863
SOUT H CAROLI NA GREENVI LLE 864
SOUT H CAROLI NA SPARTANBURG 864
T ENNESSEE K NOXVI LLE 865
YUK ON & NW T ERRI T ORI ES ALL LOCAT I ONS 867
T RI NI DAD AND T OBAGO ALL LOCAT I ONS 868
ST. K I T T S & NEVI S ALL LOCAT I ONS 869
ARK ANSAS JONESBORO 870
ARK ANSAS PI NE BLUFF 870
ARK ANSAS T EXARK ANA 870
JAMAI CA ALL LOCAT I ONS 876
T OLL FREE 877
PAI D-800 SERVI CE 880
NDT P CODE ( T EMPORARY) 886
T OLL FREE 888
T OLL FREE 800
NDT P CODE ( T EMPORARY) 889
EXPANSI ON CODE 890
EXPANSI ON CODE 891
EXPANSI ON CODE 892
EXPANSI ON CODE 893
EXPANSI ON CODE 894
EXPANSI ON CODE 895
778 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 778
Area
EXPANSI ON CODE 896
EXPANSI ON CODE 897
EXPANSI ON CODE 898
EXPANSI ON CODE 899
SERVI CE 900
T ENNESSEE MEMPHI S 901
NOVA SCOT I A ALL LOCAT I ONS 902
T EXAS LONGVI EW 903
T EXAS T EXARK ANA 903
T EXAS T YLER 903
FLORI DA DAYT ONA BEACH 904
FLORI DA JACK SONVI LLE 904
ONTARI O HAMI LT ON 905
ONTARI O UNI ONVI LLE 905
ONTARI O WOODBRI DGE 905
MI CHI GAN MARQUET T E 906
MI CHI GAN SAULT ST E. MARI E 906
ALASK A ALL LOCAT I ONS 907
NEW JERSEY ASBURY PARK 908
NEW JERSEY ELI ZABET H 908
NEW JERSEY NEW BRUNSWI CK 908
NEW JERSEY WEST FI ELD 908
NORT H CAROLI NA FAYET T EVI LLE 910
NORT H CAROLI NA WI NST ON-SALEM 910
EMERGENCY 911
GEORGI A SAVANNAH 912
K ANSAS K ANSAS CI T Y 913
NEW YORK NEWBURGH 914
NEW YORK OSSI NI NG 914
NEW YORK POUGHK EEPSI E 914
T EXAS ABI LENE 915
T EXAS EL PASO 915
T EXAS SAN ANGELO 915
CALI FORNI A SACRAMENT O 916
NEW YORK QUEENS 917
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 779
Area
OK LAHOMA BROK EN ARROW 918
OK LAHOMA MUSK OGEE 918
OK LAHOMA T ULSA 918
NORT H CAROLI NA DURHAM 919
NORT H CAROLI NA RALEI GH 919
WI SCONSI N APPLET ON 920
WI SCONSI N GREEN BAY 920
WI SCONSI N SHEBOYGAN 920
CALI FORNI A PLEASANT ON 925
CALI FORNI A WALNUT CREEK 925
T ENNESSEE CLARK SVI LLE 931
CALI FORNI A CHULA VI STA 935
CALI FORNI A EL CAJON 935
CALI FORNI A LA MESA 935
T EXAS CONROE 936
T EXAS NACOGDOCHES 936
OHI O DAYT ON 937
OHI O HAMI LT ON 937
T EXAS DENT ON 940
T EXAS WI CHI TA FALLS 940
FLORI DA BRADENT ON 941
FLORI DA FT. MYERS 941
FLORI DA NAPLES 941
FLORI DA SARASOTA 941
780 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 780
Area
CALI FORNI A COSTA MESA 949
CALI FORNI A I RVI NE 949
CALI FORNI A NEWPORT BEACH 949
NOT AVAI LABLE 950
CALI FORNI A CORONA 951
CALI FORNI A RI VERSI DE 951
FLORI DA FT. LAUDERDALE 954
FLORI DA BROWARD COUNT Y 954
T EXAS BROWNSVI LLE 956
T EXAS LAREDO 956
T EXAS MCALLEN 956
RESERVED 960
RESERVED 961
RESERVED 962
RESERVED 963
RESERVED 964
RESERVED 965
RESERVED 966
RESERVED 967
RESERVED 968
RESERVED 969
COLORADO ASPEN 970
COLORADO VAI L 970
OREGON SALEM 971
T EXAS DALLAS 972
NEW JERSEY MORRI S 973
NEW JERSEY PASSAI C 973
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 781
Area
NEW JERSEY ESSEX COUNT I ES 973
MASSACHUSET T S ACT ON 978
MASSACHUSET T S LOWELL 978
MASSACHUSET T S NORT H READI NG 978
T EXAS BRYAN-COLLEGE STAT I ON 979
T EXAS FREEPORT 979
MI CHI GAN ALPENA 989
MI CHI GAN MI DLAND 989
MI CHI GAN SAGI NAW 989
EXPANSI ON CODE 990
EXPANSI ON CODE 991
EXPANSI ON CODE 992
EXPANSI ON CODE 993
EXPANSI ON CODE 994
EXPANSI ON CODE 995
EXPANSI ON CODE 996
EXPANSI ON CODE 997
EXPANSI ON CODE 998
EXPANSI ON CODE 999
782 Appendix D
PQ104_Appen_D 2/9/01 2:51 PM Page 782
Binary, Decimal, and
Hexadecimal Conversions
b2 bi nary, b10 deci mal, b16 hexadeci mal
b10 b2 b16
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 10 2
3 11 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
16 10000 10
17 10001 11
18 10010 12
19 10011 13
783
E
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 783
b10 b2 b16
20 10100 14
21 10101 15
22 10110 16
23 10111 17
24 11000 18
25 11001 19
26 11010 1A
27 11011 1B
28 11100 1C
29 11101 1D
30 11110 1E
31 11111 1F
32 100000 20
33 100001 21
34 100010 22
35 100011 23
36 100100 24
37 100101 25
38 100110 26
39 100111 27
40 101000 28
41 101001 29
42 101010 2A
43 101011 2B
44 101100 2C
45 101101 2D
46 101110 2E
47 101111 2F
48 110000 30
49 110001 31
50 110010 32
51 110011 33
52 110100 34
53 110101 35
54 110110 36
55 110111 37
56 111000 38
57 111001 39
58 111010 3A
59 111011 3B
60 111100 3C
61 111101 3D
784 Appendix E
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 784
Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Conversions 785
b10 b2 b16
62 111110 3E
63 111111 3F
64 1000000 40
65 1000001 41
66 1000010 42
67 1000011 43
68 1000100 44
69 1000101 45
70 1000110 46
71 1000111 47
72 1001000 48
73 1001001 49
74 1001010 4A
75 1001011 4B
76 1001100 4C
77 1001101 4D
78 1001110 4E
79 1001111 4F
80 1010000 50
81 1010001 51
82 1010010 52
83 1010011 53
84 1010100 54
85 1010101 55
86 1010110 56
87 1010111 57
88 1011000 58
89 1011001 59
90 1011010 5A
91 1011011 5B
92 1011100 5C
93 1011101 5D
94 1011110 5E
95 1011111 5F
96 1100000 60
97 1100001 61
98 1100010 62
99 1100011 63
100 1100100 64
101 1100101 65
102 1100110 66
103 1100111 67
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 785
b10 b2 b16
104 1101000 68
105 1101001 69
106 1101010 6A
107 1101011 6B
108 1101100 6C
109 1101101 6D
110 1101110 6E
111 1101111 6F
112 1110000 70
113 1110001 71
114 1110010 72
115 1110011 73
116 1110100 74
117 1110101 75
118 1110110 76
119 1110111 77
120 1111000 78
121 1111001 79
122 1111010 7A
123 1111011 7B
124 1111100 7C
125 1111101 7D
126 1111110 7E
127 1111111 7F
128 10000000 80
129 10000001 81
130 10000010 82
131 10000011 83
132 10000100 84
133 10000101 85
134 10000110 86
135 10000111 87
136 10001000 88
137 10001001 89
138 10001010 8A
139 10001011 8B
140 10001100 8C
141 10001101 8D
142 10001110 8E
143 10001111 8F
144 10010000 90
145 10010001 91
786 Appendix E
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 786
b10 b2 b16
146 10010010 92
147 10010011 93
148 10010100 94
149 10010101 95
150 10010110 96
151 10010111 97
152 10011000 98
153 10011001 99
154 10011010 9A
155 10011011 9B
156 10011100 9C
157 10011101 9D
158 10011110 9E
159 10011111 9F
160 10100000 A0
161 10100001 A1
162 10100010 A2
163 10100011 A3
164 10100100 A4
165 10100101 A5
166 10100110 A6
167 10100111 A7
168 10101000 A8
169 10101001 A9
170 10101010 AA
171 10101011 AB
172 10101100 AC
173 10101101 AD
174 10101110 AE
175 10101111 AF
176 10110000 B0
177 10110001 B1
178 10110010 B2
179 10110011 B3
180 10110100 B4
181 10110101 B5
182 10110110 B6
183 10110111 B7
184 10111000 B8
185 10111001 B9
186 10111010 BA
187 10111011 BB
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 787
b10 b2 b16
188 10111100 BC
189 10111101 BD
190 10111110 BE
191 10111111 BF
192 11000000 C0
193 11000001 C1
194 11000010 C2
195 11000011 C3
196 11000100 C4
197 11000101 C5
198 11000110 C6
199 11000111 C7
200 11001000 C8
201 11001001 C9
202 11001010 CA
203 11001011 CB
204 11001100 CC
205 11001101 CD
206 11001110 CE
207 11001111 CF
208 11010000 D0
209 11010001 D1
210 11010010 D2
211 11010011 D3
212 11010100 D4
213 11010101 D5
214 11010110 D6
215 11010111 D7
216 11011000 D8
217 11011001 D9
218 11011010 DA
219 11011011 DB
220 11011100 DC
221 11011101 DD
222 11011110 DE
223 11011111 DF
224 11100000 E0
225 11100001 E1
226 11100010 E2
227 11100011 E3
228 11100100 E4
229 11100101 E5
788 Appendix E
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 788
b10 b2 b16
230 11100110 E6
231 11100111 E7
232 11101000 E8
233 11101001 E9
234 11101010 EA
235 11101011 EB
236 11101100 EC
237 11101101 ED
238 11101110 EE
239 11101111 EF
240 11110000 F0
241 11110001 F1
242 11110010 F2
243 11110011 F3
244 11110100 F4
245 11110101 F5
246 11110110 F6
247 11110111 F7
248 11111000 F8
249 11111001 F9
250 11111010 FA
251 11111011 FB
252 11111100 FC
253 11111101 FD
254 11111110 FE
255 11111111 FF
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 789
PQ104_Appen_E 2/9/01 2:52 PM Page 790
Color Codes
The twisted-pair cable color code
T hi s system has ti p colors, ri ng colors, group colors, and bi nder colors. T he
twi sted-pai r color code i s used to i denti fy the number of a pai r wi thi n a ca-
ble. For example, a pai r i n the Orange-Yellow bi nder group that i s Yellow-
Green i s pai r 418 ( O-Y+Y-G) . T he twi sted-pai r color code i n our telephone
network i s:
Pair codes for pairs 1 to 25 within binders.
Pair # Tip color Ring color Abbreviation
1 whi te blue W-BL
2 whi te orange W-O
3 whi te green W-G
4 whi te brown W-BR
5 whi te slate W-S
6 red blue R-BL
7 red orange R-O
8 red green R-G
9 red brown R-BR
10 red slate R-S
11 black blue BK -BL
12 black orange BK -O
13 black green BK -G
14 black brown BK -BR
15 black slate BK -S
16 yellow blue Y-BL
17 yellow orange Y-O
18 yellow green Y-G
19 yellow brown Y-BR
20 yellow slate Y-S
21 vi olet blue V-BL
791
F
Appendix
PQ104_Appen_F 2/9/01 2:53 PM Page 791
22 vi olet orange V-O
23 vi olet green V-G
24 vi olet brown V-BR
25 vi olet slate V-SL
A binder i s a plasti c ri bbon wrapped around 25 pai rs of wi re or 600 pai rs
of wi re. Bi nder codes are for i denti fyi ng groups of 25 or 600. T he bi nder
code i s the same as the pai r code, only the group colors and the pai r colors
are reversed ( e.g., whi te-blue becomes blue-whi te) , so when the abbrevi -
ated colors are put together, they are easi er to understand. Bi nder codes
are good for 600 pai rs of wi re. After that, each group of 600 pai rs gets an
addi ti onal plasti c bi nder.
Binder color code
Binder# Binder color Abbreviation Pairs in binder
1 blue whi te BL-W 125
2 orange whi te O-W 2650
3 green whi te G-W 5175
4 brown whi te BR-W 76100
5 slate whi te S-W 101125
6 blue red BL-R 126150
7 orange red O-R 151175
8 green red G-R 176200
9 brown red BR-R 201225
10 slate red S-R 226250
11 blue black BL-BK 251275
12 orange black O-BK 276300
13 green black G-BK 301325
14 brown black BR-BK 326350
15 slate black S-BK 351375
16 blue yellow BL-Y 376400
17 orange yellow O-Y 401425
18 green yellow G-Y 426450
19 brown yellow BR-Y 451475
20 slate yellow S-Y 476500
21 blue vi olet BL-V 501525
22 orange vi olet O-V 526550
23 green vi olet G-V 551575
24 brown vi olet BR-V 576600
Large cable binders:
Pai r 1 to 600, surrounded by a whi te bi nder
Pai r 601 to 1200, surrounded by a red bi nder
Pai r 1201 to 1800, surrounded by a whi te bi nder
792 Appendix F
PQ104_Appen_F 2/9/01 2:53 PM Page 792
Fiber-optic color code
Groups of 12 fi bers are placed i n loose tube buffers:
The resistor color code
Resi stors have four color bands on them. T hey are regarded to as the fi rst,
second, thi rd, and fourth bands. T he fi rst band i s the closest to one si de of
the resi stor and the followi ng bands count to the i nsi de. T he fi rst band i n-
di cates the fi rst i nteger of the value of resi stance. T he second band i ndi -
cates the second i nteger of the value of resi stance. T he thi rd band i ndi cates
a multi pli er or number of zeros to be placed after the fi rst two band num-
bers. A di agram i s the easi est way to demonstrate thi s code.
Color band 1 band 2 band 3
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 10
Red 2 2 100
Orange 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 10, 000
Green 5 5 100, 000
Blue 6 6 1, 000, 000
Vi olet 7 7 10, 000, 000
Gray 8 8 100, 000, 000
Whi te 9 9 none
Color Codes 793
PQ104_Appen_F 2/9/01 2:53 PM Page 793
PQ104_Appen_F 2/9/01 2:53 PM Page 794
Wiring Standards
Arcnet 2 Used wi th Arcnetworks.
795
G
Appendix
black
red
green
yellow
white/blue
blue/white
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
jack
internal
wire color
horizontal
wire color
pair 1
*internal jack colors vary
among manufacturers.
Those shown are by Suttle
Arcnet 2
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1
pair 2
horizontal
wire color
Ethernet 10/100 BaseT
Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Used i n 10BaseT-100BaseT appli cati ons.
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 795
796 Appendix G
1 2 3 12 4 5 6 7 9 11
15 16 18 24 21 22 23
8 10
14 25 17 19 20
1-PG 2-TD 3-RD 4-RTS 5-CTS 6-DSR 7-SG 8-CD 9-tst 10-tst 11- 12-SCD 13-SCS
14-STD 15-TC 16-SRD 17-RC 18- 20-SRS 21-SQD 22-RI 23-DRS 24-XTC 25-unused 19-SRS
PIN DESCRIPTIONS
1- Protective Ground
2- Transmitted Data
3-Received data
4-Request To Send
5- Clear To Send
6 - Data Set ready
7 - Signal Ground
8 - Received Line Signal Detector
9 - Reserved for Data Set Testing
10 - Reserved for Data Set Testing
11 - Unassigned
12 - Secondary Recieved Line Signal Detector
13 - Secondary Clear to Send
14 - Secondary Transmitted Data
15 - Transmit Signal Element Timing
16 - Secondary Received Data
17 - Reciever Signal Element Timing
18 - Unassigned
19 - Secondary Request to Send
20 - Data Terminal ready
21 - Signal Quality Detector
22 - Ring Indicator
23 - Data Signal Rate Selector
24 - Transmit Signal Element Timing
25 - Unassigned
RS-232C Used i n seri al data appli cati ons.
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
green/white
white/brown
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1 pair 2
pair 3
pair 4
horizontal
wire color
T568A
T568A Used i n Ethernet wi ri ng appli cati ons.
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
green/white
white/brown
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1
pair 2
pair 3
pair 4
horizontal
wire color
T568B
T568B Used i n Ethernet wi ri ng appli cati ons.
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 796
Wiring Standards 797
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
horizontal
wire color
pair 1 pair 2
Token Ring
Token Ring Used i n token-ri ng networks.
black
red
green
yellow
white/blue
blue/white
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
jack
internal
wire color
horizontal
wire color
pair 1
RJ11C - USOC -
POTS
RJ11C USOC POTs Used for plai n old telephone servi ce. Si ngle-pai r di al
tone servi ce.
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
green/white
white/brown
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1 pair 2 pair 3 pair 4
horizontal
wire color
RJ61 USOC
RJ61 USOC Used for di al-modem and pri vate-li ne modem connecti ons.
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 797
798 Appendix G
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/green
brown/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1
pair 2
pair 3
program
resistor
horizontal
wire color
RJ45S USOC
RJ45S USOC Used for di al-modem and pri vate-li ne modem connecti ons.
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1
pair 2
horizontal
wire color
RJ48S USOC
RJ48S USOC Used for di al-modem and pri vate-li ne modem connecti ons.
TP-PMD Used for di al-modem and pri vate-li ne modem connecti ons.
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 798
Wiring Standards 799
blue
orange
black
red
green
yellow
grey/white
brown
orange/white
white/blue
blue/white
white/orange
pin #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
jack
internal
wire color
pair 1
pair 2
horizontal
wire color
TP-PMD
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 799
PQ104_Appen_G 2/9/01 2:54 PM Page 800

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0 T he i n fact standard number to di al for reachi ng a local phone com-

pany operator or answeri ng servi ce.

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