Magnetic Field of Helmholtz Coils and Magnetic Moment Alexandra Crai, Alexandru Popa

Advanced Physics A+B Laboratory Course I Jacobs University Bremen - Fall 2012 Group 4 Date of execution: September, 24-25, 2012

Abstract The magnetic eld created by Helmholtz coils was studied in this experiment. In the rst part, the value of Bz was measured for dierent radii r. The experiment was repeated for the radial ux Br . It was proven that B decreased with increasing z -position and increased as r approached R. Next, two coils were used to determine the elds distribution between them for dierent separations a. As expected, when a = R the eld inside was constant. The axial and radial components of the magnetic eld as functions of z and r when a = R were next investigated. Last, the torque due to the magnetic moment in a small conductor coil was determined as a function of strength of both the magnetic eld and magnetic moment and of the angle between them. A linear dependence was proven for all three cases.

Contents
1 Introduction and Theory 2 Experimental Set-up and Procedure 2.1 Magnetic eld of a single coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Magnetic eld of two parallel coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Magnetic moment in a eld of a Helmholtz coil arrangement . . . . . . . 3 Results and Data Analysis 3.1 Magnetic Field of a Single Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for dierent radii r . . . . . 3.1.2 Determination of Br along the r-axis for dierent z . . . . . . . . 3.2 Magnetic Field of Two Parallel Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = R/2 . 3.2.2 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = R . . 3.2.3 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = 2R . 3.2.4 Comparison between a = R/2, a = R and a = 2R . . . . . . . . . 3.2.5 Determination of Bz of a Helmholtz arrangement for 5 dierent radii 3.2.6 Determination of Br of a Helmholtz arrangement for 5 dierent radii 3.3 Magnetic moment in a eld of a Helmholtz coil arrangement . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic eld . . . . . 3.3.2 Torque as a function of the angle between the magnetic eld and magnetic moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic moment . . . Bibliography 3 5 5 6 8 9 9 9 13 19 20 22 23 26 26 30 38 38 40 44 45

Introduction and Theory

In this experiment, the magnetic eld in coils and the torque experienced by a small current loop with a magnetic moment in a magnetic eld were examined. First, a steady current was owing through a single coil and the magnetic eld along the z-axis was measured at dierent points on that axis. Then, the radial ux density, perpendicular to z-axis, was measured at dierent distances from the center of the coil. In the second part, the magnetic eld of a system of two coils was analysed. For dierent distances between the two coils, namely one half, one and double of the radius of one coil, the magnetic ux along the z-axis was measured as a function of the distance z from the center of the coil. Next, the distance between the coil was kept constant and the magnetic ux density as a function the distance z for dierent distances r from the symmetry axis was measured. This was repeated for the radial ux density along the z-axis in dependence of the distance r to the symmetry axis. In the last part, the torque experienced by a small conductor loop carrying a current in an uniform magnetic eld was measured as a function of the strength of the magnetic eld, of the angle between the magnetic eld and the magnetic moment and of the strength of the magnetic moment was recorded. The Biot-Savarts Law is one of the most used one for this experiment [1].It gives the strength of the magnetic d B eld on a certain conductor element d l due to a current I : r I0 d l (1) dB = 4 r3 Here, r is the vector that points from the point where the magnetic eld d B is measured to the conductor element d l . 0 is the magnetic permeability. From the cross product, the magnetic eld is perpendicular on both dl and dr vectors. Let R be the radius of the coil and Z the distance perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Therefore: r 2 = R2 + Z 2 The magnetic elds along the axis of symmetry will therefore be: dB = I0 dl I dl = 4r2 4 R2 + Z 2 (3) (2)

Thus, the eld lines are rotationally symmetric along the z-axis. The radial component of the magnetic eld is zero since all the contributions from the conductor elements cancel out. Hence, the magnetic eld is completely given by the z-component. It is computed by integration over all the conductor elements contributing to the eld: B (z, r = 0) = Bz (z, r = 0) = I0 R2 2 2 (R + Z 2 )3/2 (4)

The equation above gives the magnetic eld per turn of a coil [1]. For a coil with N turns, the total magnetic ux density along the symmetry axis of the system formed from two such coils at distance a apart is given by: B (z, r = 0) = 0 IN 1 1 + 2 3/2 3/2 2R (1 + A1 ) (1 + A2 2) 3 (5)

where A1 = A2 =

Z a/2 R

(6)

Z + a/2 (7) R Here, the distance Z is measured from the symmetry point of the arrangement of the two coils and the origin of the z-axis is set to the center of the coils. When the distance between two coils of radius R is a = R, the system is called Helmholtz coils [1]. It has a very important characteristic, namely that the magnetic eld is uniform along the z-axis approximately between R R <Z< 2 2 (8)

Similarly to an electric dipole experiencing a torque in an electric eld, a coil with a magnetic moment experiences a torque in a magnetic eld. The magnetic moment m of a small conductor loop C carrying a current I is dened as follows: 1 m= I 2
C

R d l =I
A

d a

(9)

where A is the area enclosed by the curve C . For this experiment, the the conductor is a loop with diameter d and n number of turns, carrying a current I . Consequently, the magnetic moment is equal to [1] m =I n A (10) where A is the area vector of the current ring. Rewriting it by using the radius of the loop, it gives: | m | = I n r2 (11) The torque T exerted by the magnetic eld on the magnetic moment is [1]: T = mB (12)

The equation above implies that there is a torque only when there are components of the magnetic eld and magnetic moment perpendicular to each other. The torque is 0 if the magnetic moment and the magnetic eld lines point in the same direction: | T | = m B sin() (13)

with the angle between the magnetic moment and the magnetic eld. Taking into consideration the direct proportionality of the magnetic eld B to the current I owing in the Helmholtz coils, the torque T can be expressed as [1]: | T | = c I n sin() Here, c denotes a constant characterizing the Helmholtz coils. (14)

2
2.1

Experimental Set-up and Procedure

Magnetic eld of a single coil

In this part of the experiment, the magnetic eld generated by a single coil was measured. The coil was placed on the working table and was connected in series to a power generator and an ammeter. From the ammeter the current owing through the coil could be determined. The radius of the coil was determined by measuring the coils external and internal diameters, which were noted in the lab book. These values were then averaged to determine the radius of the coil. An axial Hall probe was used to measure the magnetic ux created by the coil. The probe was held by a support rod and was placed on a meter scale which was clamped to the working table. This way, the position of the probe relative to the meter scale could be read, which allowed for calculation of the distance between the coil and the point at which the magnetic ux measurement was done. Before the measurements could begin, the probe was placed far from conducting elements and was calibrated to a value of 0 mT such that external magnetic elds would not aect the measurements. This was done before every part of the experiment. Next, the Hall probe was placed in the center of the coil and its position on the meter scale was recorded in the lab book. A meter scale was placed next to the coil in radial direction, such that the center of the coils position relative to the position of the Hall probe could be measured and noted in the lab book. The probe was moved in the z-direction and the values for the magnetic ux and the corresponding positions of the probe relative to the coil were measured. After each set of measurements was done, the coils position was changed, such that the distance r between the probe and the coils central axis was dierent. The set-up for this part of the experiment can be observed in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Experimental set-up for determination of the magnetic eld created in z-direction by
a coil

Next, the same set-up was used, but the Hall probe was rotated 90 , such that the radial component of the magnetic eld could be measured. Again, the probe was placed at several distances on the z-axis and each set of measurements was repeated at dierent distances r from the coils axis. The set-up for this part of the experiment can be observed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Experimental set-up for determination of the magnetic eld created in radial direction
by a coil

2.2

Magnetic eld of two parallel coils

In this part of the experiment the magnetic eld created by two parallel coils was measured. The two coils were connected in series to a power generator and to an ammeter. A similar set-up as in the case of a single coil was used. Several separations a between the , a = R and a = 2R, where R was the radius of the identical coils. coils were used: a = R 2 In this case, the axial magnetic eld was measured as a function of separation between the probe and the rst coil. In the next part of the experiment the coils were placed in a Helmholtz arrangement, a = R. The magnetic ux pointing in the z-direction was measured for several distances r from the coils central axis as a function of distance from the coils. The distance z from the coils was read from the meter scale placed under the probe and the position of the Helmholtz coils was varied on the meter scale perpendicular to their central axis. The distances from the central axis were chosen in such a way that the radius of the cylinder inside the Helmholtz arrangement where the axial magnetic eld can be approximated as constant would be obvious. The set-up for this part of the experiment can be observed in Figure 3. Next, the Helmholtz coils were turned 90 such that the radial component Br of the magnetic ux could be measured for dierent distances r from the probe to the axial 6

Figure 3: Experimental set-up for determination of the magnetic eld created in the z-direction
by two coils

center of the two coils. For every set of measurements, the probe was moved in the zdirection and its position relative to the rst coil was recorded. The set-up for this part of the experiment can be observed in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Experimental set-up for determination of the magnetic eld created in radial direction
by two coils

2.3

Magnetic moment in a eld of a Helmholtz coil arrangement

In this nal part of the experiment the torque experienced by a current loop in a magnetic eld created by a Helmholtz arrangement was measured as a function of the strength of the magnetic eld, the initial angle between the magnetic eld and the magnetic moment, and the strength of the magnetic moment. The same set-up as in the previous part was used. To measure the torque, a torsion dynamometer was placed on a support rod above the Helmholtz arrangement. A wire loop with 3 turns was connected to the torsion dynamometer and in series to an ammeter and a power generator. This way, the current owing through the wire loop could be determined by the ammeter. Next, the dynamometer was calibrated to the zero point while there was no current owing through the coils and the loop. This was done by turning the knob on the top of the dynamometer to the 0 position. When there was a torque acting on the current loop, the knob changed position which allowed for the force to be read o the dynamometer. Next, the measurements could begin. First, the torque was determined as a function of the magnetic eld generated by the coils. In this case, the angle between the magnetic moment and the magnetic eld was kept constant. The strength of the magnetic moment was also kept constant. Next, the torque was determined as a function of the initial angle between the magnetic moment and the eld, while the magnetic eld and moment were kept at constant values. The angle was changed in steps of 15 and it was read from the divisions on the loop. Finally, the torque dependence on the strength of the magnetic moment was measured. The magnetic moment was varied and the torque was measured for constant values of the magnetic eld and angle between eld and moment. The experimental set-up for this part of the experiment can be observed in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Experimental set-up for determination of torque as a function of eld, angle and
magnetic moment

3
3.1
3.1.1

Results and Data Analysis

Magnetic Field of a Single Coil
Determination of Bz along the z-axis for dierent radii r

Data Collection First, the radius of the coil had to be determined. For this, the internal and external diameters of the coil were averaged using Equation 15: 1 Dout + Din (15) 2 2 where the values for the two diameters were determined to be Dout = 41.6 cm and Din = 38.0 cm. By plugging in the respective values in Equation 15, the value for the coils radius was determined: R = 19.9 cm R= Next, the initial position of the Hall probe for which the relative position to the coil was measured to be 0 was determined to be z = 26 cm. The value for the relative position of the Hall probe was determined using Equation 16: z = zmeas z (16)

where zmeas was the value read from the meter scale. For this part of the experiment, the current owing through the coil was kept at a constant value of I = 2.75 A The measurements were performed for dierent values of r and z and the gathered data is presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The values are presented along with their uncertainties which were taken from the accuracies of the measurement devices: the teslameter and the ammeter. Each set of measurements was performed for a corresponding value: r = 0 cm, r = 5 cm, r = 8 cm, r = 10 cm, r = 14 cm and r = 17 cm. z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0 z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0 z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Bz [mT ] 1.25 1.24 1.15 1.02 0.91 0.70 0.57 0.45 0.36 0.20 0.15 Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 1: Measured Bz for r = 0 cm including uncertainties

z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 1.29 1.27 1.19 1.03 0.92 0.69 0.55 0.44 0.34 0.19 0.13

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 2: Measured Bz for r = 5 cm including uncertainties z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0 z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0 z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Bz [mT ] 1.39 1.37 1.25 1.04 0.91 0.67 0.52 0.41 0.32 0.17 0.12 Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 3: Measured Bz for r = 8 cm including uncertainties z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0 z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0 z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Bz [mT ] 1.51 1.49 1.31 1.05 0.89 0.63 0.48 0.38 0.29 0.15 0.11 Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 4: Measured Bz for r = 10 cm including uncertainties 10

z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 1.99 1.91 1.45 1.02 0.80 0.53 0.41 0.31 0.24 0.13 0.08

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 5: Measured Bz for r = 14 cm including uncertainties

z [cm] 26.0 28.0 31.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 50.0 57.0 62.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 17.0 20.0 24.0 31.0 36.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 3.22 2.80 1.42 0.83 0.63 0.42 0.31 0.24 0.19 0.10 0.06

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 6: Measured Bz for r = 17 cm including uncertainties

11

Error Calculation The uncertainty in the measurement of the radius R of the coil was next calculated. The errors in the measurements of Dout and Din were taken from the accuracy of the meter scale as follows: Din = Dout = 0.1 cm The uncertainty in R was calculated using the propagated error formula: R = R Dout Dout
2

R Din Din

1 4

2 2 Dout + Din

(17)

After plugging in the respective values in Equation 17, the uncertainty in R was determined: R = 0.1 cm The nal value for the coils radius was then determined: R = (19.9 0.1) cm The errors in the measurement of the probe and coils positions, magnetic ux and current owing through the coil were also taken from the accuracies of the measurement instruments: z = z = zmeas = r = 0.1 cm I = 0.01 A B = 0.01 mT Data evaluation The data gathered for this part of the experiment was next plotted in Figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. The respective uncertainties were also included on the plots. From the results, a qualitative description of the magnetic eld generated by a single coil with respect to distance could be made. Discussion and Conclusion From the plots it can be observed that the value for the axial component of the magnetic eld increases as one approaches the coil, as expected. This increase is smaller when the measurement takes place along the central axis of the coil and larger when the measurement is done at a certain distance from the axis. This is due to the fact that only the magnetic eld in the axial direction was measured; when the probe was placed at a certain distance r, the eld components in the radial direction no longer cancelled each other out, fact that meant that the axial component of the eld had to be smaller in order to maintain the total magnitude of the magnetic eld at that position constant.

12

Figure 6: Bz for r = 0 cm

Figure 7: Bz for r = 5 cm 3.1.2 Determination of Br along the r-axis for dierent z

Data Collection Next, the radial ux density Br of the single coil was determined for several distances z = 0 cm, z = 3.5 cm, z = 5.5 cm and z = 7.5 cm from the plane containing the coil. The measurements were done at dierent distances r from the axial center of the coil. The current in the coil was kept at a constant value: I = 2.75 A 13

Figure 8: Bz for r = 8 cm

Figure 9: Bz for r = 10 cm Next, the initial position of the Hall probe for which the relative position to the coil was measured to be 0 was determined to be r = 23.5 cm. The value for the relative position of the Hall probe was determined using Equation 18. r = rmeas r (18)

The position on the z-axis of the coil was measured to be z = 19.5 cm. The actual position of the coil relative to the Hall probe was computed using Equation 16. Next, the four sets of measurements were done. The acquired data is presented in 14

Figure 10: Bz for r = 14 cm

Figure 11: Bz for r = 17 cm Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10. Error Calculation The errors in the measurement of the probe and coils positions, magnetic ux and current owing through the coil were also taken from the accuracies of the measurement instruments.

15

rmeas [cm] 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.0 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.0 41.5 42.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 48.0

r [cm] 0.0 2.5 4.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.5 20.5 22.5 24.5

r [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.23 0.47 1.56 2.24 3.36 6.08 4.62 0.89 0.35

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 7: Measured Br for z = 0 cm including uncertainties

rmeas [cm] 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.0 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.0 41.5 42.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 48.0

r [cm] 0.0 2.5 4.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.5 20.5 22.5 24.5

r [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 0.00 0.03 0.07 0.13 0.19 0.29 0.49 0.89 1.85 2.23 2.61 3.06 2.68 1.22 0.53

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 8: Measured Br for z = 3.5 cm including uncertainties

16

rmeas [cm] 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.0 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.0 41.5 42.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 48.0

r [cm] 0.0 2.5 4.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.5 20.5 22.5 24.5

r [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 0.00 0.06 0.09 0.18 0.27 0.41 0.62 0.96 1.37 1.46 1.53 1.58 1.48 1.03 0.62

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 9: Measured Br for z = 5.5 cm including uncertainties

rmeas [cm] 23.5 26.0 28.0 31.0 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.0 41.5 42.0 43.0 44.0 46.0 48.0

r [cm] 0.0 2.5 4.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 19.5 20.5 22.5 24.5

r [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 0.00 0.06 0.12 0.22 0.32 0.44 0.61 0.81 0.99 1.02 1.04 1.05 0.99 0.80 0.56

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 10: Measured Br for z = 7.5 cm including uncertainties

17

z = z = zmeas = r = r = rmeas = 0.1 cm I = 0.01 A B = 0.01 mT Data Evaluation The data gathered for this part of the experiment was next plotted in Figures 12, 13, 14 and 15. The respective uncertainties were also included on the plots.

Figure 12: Br for z = 0 cm

Discussion and Conclusion As expected from the Introduction and Theory section, the radial component of the magnetic eld Br was measured to be 0 at the center of the coil. Due to symmetry at the center of the coil, the eld created by innitesimally small parts of the coil placed on opposite sides cancelled each other out. From the plots it was also observed that the maximum value for the radial component of the magnetic ux occurred when r = 20 cm. Because the radius of the coil was determined to be R = (19.9 0.1) cm, these two values coincide. As expected, the maximum values of the magnetic eld at the point that corresponds to the coils edge decreased as the distance between the coil and the probe increased.

18

Figure 13: Br for r = 3.5 cm

Figure 14: Br for r = 5.5 cm

3.2

Magnetic Field of Two Parallel Coils

Two coils were connected in series and sets of measurements were done at dierent distances between the coils : a = R , a = R and a = 2R. The current in the coils was kept 2 19

Figure 15: Br for r = 7.5 cm at a constant value of I = 2.75 A while every set of measurements was done. 3.2.1 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = R/2

Data Collection and Error Calculation The value of z at which the Hall probe was in the center of the rst coil was determined to be z = 16 cm. By using Equation 16 the relative position of the probe to the rst coil was determined. The gathered data including uncertainties is presented in Table 11. The uncertainties of the gathered data were taken from the accuracies of the measuring instruments. Because distances were measured with a meter scale and the magnetic ux with a teslameter, the uncertainties in the measurements of z and Bz became zmeas = z = 0.1 cm Bz = 0.1 mT Data Evaluation The gathered data for this section was plotted in Figure 16. Since the coils were placed at a distance of a = R/2, by plugging in the value for R into the aforementioned formula, the value at which the second coil was computed: a = (10.0 0.1) cm The uncertainty for a was taken from the accuracy of the meter scale. 20

zmeas [cm] 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0 26.0 27.0 28.0 29.0 30.0

z [cm] 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 2.09 2.16 2.20 2.23 2.26 2.26 2.25 2.22 2.18 2.13 2.08 2.01 1.93 1.85

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 11: Measured Bz for a = R/2 including uncertainties The black vertical line in Figure 16 represents the position of the second coil relative to the rst coil.

Figure 16: Bz for a = R/2 including uncertainties

21

Discussion and Conclusion Measurements were also done at distances larger than the separation of the two coils. As expected, the value of the magnetic eld in the z-direction starts dropping for distances larger than a. Also, it can be seen that the magnetic eld between the two coils was not constant, since the coils were not placed in a Helmholtz arrangement. This case was investigated in the next subsection. 3.2.2 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = R

Data Collection and Error Calculation The value of z at which the Hall probe was in the center of the rst coil was determined to be z = 6 cm. By using Equation 16 the relative position of the probe to the rst coil was determined. The gathered data including uncertainties is presented in Table 12. z [cm] 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 z [cm] 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Bz [mT ] 1.67 1.74 1.77 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.80 1.79 1.79 1.76 1.70 1.62 1.51 1.38 1.26 Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 12: Measured Bz for a = R including uncertainties The uncertainties of the gathered data were taken from the accuracies of the measuring instruments. Because distances were measured with a meter scale and the magnetic ux with a teslameter, the uncertainties in the measurements of z and Bz became zmeas = z = 0.1 cm Bz = 0.1 mT Data Evaluation The gathered data for this section was plotted in Figure 17. Since the coils were placed at a distance of a = R, by plugging in the value for R into the aforementioned formula, the value at which the second coil was placed: a = (19.9 0.1) cm 22

The uncertainty for a was taken from the accuracy of the meter scale. The black vertical line in Figure 17 represents the position of the second coil relative to the rst coil.

Figure 17: Bz for a = R including uncertainties

Discussion and Conclusion From Figure 17 it can be seen that the eld between the two coils in a Helmholtz arrangement was quite constant when it was measured along the axial center of the two coils. It can be concluded that Helmholtz coils can be used to create constant magnetic elds between them. By increasing the radius of the coils, the area in which the eld is constant is also increased. 3.2.3 Determination of Bz along the z-axis for a separation of a = 2R

Data Collection and Error Calculation Due to limitations created by the set-up(i.e. the Hall probe not being long enough), the z-direction eld created by the two coils could not be measured along the full distance between the coils. The 0-point on the z-axis was chosen as the middle point between the coils, because, by using symmetry relative to the middle point , the behaviour of the magnetic eld on the whole length between the coils could be described by measuring the eld on only one half of the distance between coils. As a consequence, the value of z at which the Hall probe was in the middle point was determined to be z = 7 cm. By using Equation 16 the relative position of the probe to the middle point was determined. The gathered data including uncertainties is presented in Table 13. 23

z [cm] 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 32.0 35.0 38.0

z [cm] -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 16.0 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.98 1.06 1.13 1.20 1.31 1.35 1.31 1.21 1.05 0.89

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 13: Measured Bz for a = 2R including uncertainties

24

The uncertainties of the gathered data were taken from the accuracies of the measuring instruments. Because distances were measured with a meter scale and the magnetic ux with a teslameter, the uncertainties in the measurements of z and Bz became zmeas = z = 0.1 cm Bz = 0.1 mT Data Evaluation The gathered data for this section was plotted in Figure 18. The black vertical line in Figure 18 represents the position of the second coil relative to the middle point between the coils, which was taken as the origin on the z-axis.

Figure 18: Bz for a = 2R including uncertainties

Discussion and Conclusion Again, since the coils were no longer placed in a Helmholtz arrangement, the magnetic eld between them was no longer constant. This can be observed in Figure 18, where the lowest value for the z-direction eld was registered in the middle point between the coils. As the probe approached the coils, the value for the eld began increasing. As a conclusion, the eld could be approximated as constant only on short distances, a few centimetres to both sides of the middle point between the coils.

25

3.2.4

Comparison between a = R/2, a = R and a = 2R

The data points gathered from the three cases investigated were all plotted in Figure 19, fact that facilitated the nal comparison between the three dierent arrangements.

Figure 19: Comparison between cases a = R/2, a = R and a = 2R Consequently, by analysing Figure 19, it can be observed that the magnetic eld between the coils can be assumed to be constant only when the coils were in a Helmholtz arrangement. This is explained by the superposition of the elds generated by each coil. 3.2.5 Determination of Bz of a Helmholtz arrangement for 5 dierent radii

The same set-up as in the previous section was used. The coils were placed in a Helmholtz arrangement, with a distance between them of a = R = (19.9 0.1) cm. Sets of measurements were done at dierent distances r from the axial center of the coils. The current in the coils was kept at a constant value of I = 2.75 A while every set of measurements was done. The position at which z = 0 was taken as the position of the rst coil in the arrangement. Data Collection and Error Calculation As in the previous section, the position at which r was 0 cm was measured with a meter scale to be r = (17.0 0.1) cm. The values of r for which each set of measurements was done were computed using Equation 18. The position at which z was 0 cm was determined to be z = (6.0 0.1) cm. The values of z were determined using Equation 16. The uncertainties in the measurements of r, r , rmeas , z , z , zmeas were taken from 26

the accuracies of the meter scales used. The errors in the measurements of I and Bz were taken from the accuracies of the ammeter and the teslameter, respectively. Thus: z = z = zmeas = 0.1 cm r = r = rmeas = 0.1 cm I = 0.1 A Bz = 0.01 mT The gathered data including their uncertainties is presented in Tables 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18. z [cm] 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 z [cm] 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Bz [mT ] 1.66 1.72 1.76 1.79 1.79 1.79 1.80 1.79 1.80 1.77 1.74 1.67 1.57 1.45 1.32 Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 14: Measured Bz for r = 0 cm and a = R including uncertainties

Data Evaluation The gathered data along with the uncertainties were plotted in Figures 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24. Discussion and Conclusion The specic values for r were chosen in such a way that the radius of the cylinder inside the Helmholtz arrangement where the magnetic eld was constant could be observed. As it can be seen from Figures 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24, once the radius r had a value larger than 5 cm the magnetic eld inside the coils could no longer be approximated as constant. As a consequence, a cylinder of radius r = 5 cm centred with the coils z-axis could be imagined inside the Helmholtz arrangement. Inside this cylinder the magnetic eld in z-direction can safely be assumed to be constant.

27

z [cm] 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 1.70 1.77 1.82 1.83 1.82 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.83 1.84 1.81 1.74 1.64 1.51 1.36

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 15: Measured Bz for r = 5 cm and a = R including uncertainties

z [cm] 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 1.88 1.97 1.98 1.91 1.83 1.78 1.77 1.81 1.89 1.96 1.99 1.95 1.82 1.63 1.40

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 16: Measured Bz for r = 10 cm and a = R including uncertainties

28

z [cm] 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0

z [cm] 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 2.54 2.73 2.38 1.94 1.63 1.49 1.45 1.56 1.80 2.23 2.76 2.81 2.27 1.71 1.31

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 17: Measured Bz for r = 15 cm and a = R including uncertainties

z [cm] 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34

z [cm] 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Bz [mT ] 3.04 3.61 2.67 1.85 1.43 1.25 1.2 1.25 1.49 2.1 3.57 4.08 2.47 1.55 1.1

Bz [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 18: Measured Bz for r = 17 cm and a = R including uncertainties

29

Figure 20: Bz for r = 0 cm

Figure 21: Bz for r = 5 cm 3.2.6 Determination of Br of a Helmholtz arrangement for 5 dierent radii

The same set-up as in the previous section was used. The coils were placed in a Helmholtz arrangement, with a distance between them of a = R = (19.9 0.1) cm. This time, the 30

Figure 22: Bz for r = 10 cm

Figure 23: Bz for r = 15 cm radial component Br of the magnetic eld was measured as a function of distance on the z-axis and distance r from the coils central axis. The current in the coils was kept at a

31

Figure 24: Bz for r = 17 cm constant value of I = 2.75 A while every set of measurements was done. The position at which z = 0 was taken as the position of the rst coil in the arrangement. Data Collection and Error Calculation The position at which r was 0 cm was measured with a meter scale to be r = (46.7 0.1) cm. The values of r for which each set of measurements was done were computed using Equation 18. The position at which z was 0 cm was determined to be z = (5.5 0.1) cm. The values of z were determined using Equation 16. The uncertainties in the measurements of r, r , rmeas , z , z , zmeas were taken from the accuracies of the meter scales used. The errors in the measurements of I and Bz were taken from the accuracies of the ammeter and the teslameter, respectively. Thus: z = z = zmeas = 0.1 cm r = r = rmeas = 0.1 cm I = 0.1 A Bz = 0.01 mT The values of r for which the radial component of the magnetic eld was measured were chosen as r = 0 cm, r = 5 cm, r = 10 cm, r = 15 cm and r = 17 cm. The gathered data including their uncertainties is presented in Tables 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23.

32

z [cm] 5.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.0 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] -0.08 -0.09 -0.08 -0.08 -0.09 -0.07 -0.08 -0.08 -0.09 -0.07 -0.05 -0.03 -0.02 -0.02

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 19: Measured Br for r = 0 cm and a = R including uncertainties

z [cm] 5.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.0 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

z [cm] 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] -0.11 -0.11 -0.07 -0.06 -0.07 -0.07 -0.08 -0.07 -0.05 -0.01 0.06 0.12 0.15 0.17

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 20: Measured Br for r = 5 cm and a = R including uncertainties

33

z [cm] 5.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.0 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

z 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] -0.11 -0.08 -0.01 0.01 -0.03 -0.09 -0.14 -0.17 -0.13 -0.02 0.22 0.35 0.42 0.43

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 21: Measured Br for r = 10 cm and a = R including uncertainties

z [cm] 5.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.0 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

z 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 0.27 0.38 0.49 0.37 0.12 -0.11 -0.34 -0.60 -0.74 -0.50 0.71 1.03 0.97 0.82

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 22: Measured Br for r = 15 cm and a = R including uncertainties

34

z [cm] 5.5 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 25.0 27.0 29.0 31.0

z [cm] 0.0 0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14.5 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5

z 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br [mT ] 1.06 1.14 0.93 0.54 0.22 -0.09 -0.43 -0.85 -1.41 -1.68 1.83 1.72 1.28 0.98

Br [mT ] 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table 23: Measured Br for r = 17 cm and a = R including uncertainties Data Evaluation The gathered data along with the uncertainties were plotted in Figures 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29.

Figure 25: Br for r = 0 cm

35

Figure 26: Br for r = 5 cm

Figure 27: Br for r = 10 cm Discussion and Conclusion As expected, due to symmetry, the radial component Br of the magnetic eld is close to 0 when the measurements are taken on the central axis of the Helmholtz arrangement. 36

Figure 28: Br for r = 15 cm

Figure 29: Br for r = 17 cm Also from the plots it can be seen that when there is an increase in r, a deviation from the expected constance of the magnetic eld occurs. This conrms the values obtained in

37

the previous section. Again, a cylinder with radius r = 5 cm can be imagined inside the Helmholtz arrangement. Inside this cylinder, the magnetic eld can be assumed constant.

3.3

Magnetic moment in a eld of a Helmholtz coil arrangement

For the nal part of the experiment, the torque experienced by a current loop in the magnetic eld created by the Helmholtz coils was examined as a function of the magnetic eld strength, the angle between the magnetic eld and the magnetic moment and as a function of magnetic moment. The magnetic eld created by the Helmholtz coil was not directly measured, but, using the fact that B is directly dependent on the current owing through the coils (Equation 5), the current Icoil has been analysed instead. The small conductor loop used for the experiment had n = 3 turns and the measured diameter was: d = (12.0 0.1) cm The error is given by the uncertainty of the measuring instrument. Therefore, the total area of the coil was computed using the formula: A= Numerically, A = 113.0 cm2 The error in the area was next computed using the averaged error formula [2]: A = The obtained value was: A = 1.9 cm Therefore, the total area of the conductor loop was: A = (113.0 1.9) cm 3.3.1 Torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic eld A d d
2

2 d 4

(19)

= A =

d d 2

(20)

Data collection For the rst set of measurements, the torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic eld was measured. The angle between the conductor loop from between the coils and the magnetic eld lines created by the Helmholtz coils was kept constant at 90 : = 90 The magnetic moment of the test coil was also kept constant during the measurements. According to equation Equation 10, the magnetic moment is proportional to the current Itest passing through the conduction loop and, thus, in order to keep m constant, it was enough to induce a constant current Itest = 1 A to the loop. In addition, as stated before, instead of directly measuring the magnetic eld of the Helmholtz coils, the current 38

Icoil owing through them was recorded. Moreover, from the denition of the torque Equation 21, it is obvious that the torque is directly proportional to the force acting on each side of the test coil. T =rF (21) Consequently, in order to measure the requested dependency, the force F was measured as a function of the current Icoil . The collected data is presented in Table 24: [ ] 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 Icoil [A] 0.51 0.83 1.04 1.32 1.72 2.01 2.3 2.65 2.96 Itest [A] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 F [mN ] 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Table 24: Force F as a function of the current inside the Helmholtz coils Icoil

Error calculation The error of the measured force was chosen to be the smallest division of the dynamometer, determining the numerical value of: F = 0.1 mN The same procedure was applied for determining the error in the current Icoil passing through the Helmholtz coils, resulting in a numerical value of: Icoil = 0.01 A On the other hand, during the measurements, a variation larger than the last digit of the measuring instrument in the current passing through the test coil was noticed. Therefore, the error in Itest was determined to be: Itest = 0.05 A In addition, the system through which the angle was measured was quite imprecise and thus, the error was estimated to be: = 1 Data evaluation Using the data gathered in Table 24, the force was plotted as a function of the current passing through the Helmholtz coil. The resulting plot, including the error bars, is presented in Figure 30. 39

Figure 30: Force as a function of current passing through the Helmholtz coils (including uncertainties)

Discussion and conclusion It can be seen from Figure 30 that the force is proportional to the current in the Helmholtz coil. The coecient of linear regression obtained using Excel c tools assured that there is a dependency between the two quantities: R2 = 0.9875 In addition, from Equation 21, the torque is proportional to the force exerted on the test coil. Thereby, the dependence of the force on the current Icoil is equivalent to the dependence of the torque on the strength of the magnetic eld. The only dierence is a proportionality constant, represented here by the diameter of the conductor loop d as well as the proportionality constant between the magnetic eld and the varied current. Consequently, this dierence would be reected only on the slope of the graph. Therefore, the force increases linearly with the current passing through the Helmholtz coils. 3.3.2 Torque as a function of the angle between the magnetic eld and magnetic moment

Data collection The same reasoning from Section 3.3.1 is applied here for the relation between torque and force, as well as between magnetic led and the current through the coil and magnetic moment and the current through the test coil. Moreover, for this part of the experiment, 40

both currents Icoil and Itest have been kept constant: Icoil = 2.75 A Itest = 3 A The collected data is presented in Table 25 [ ] 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 -15 -30 -45 -60 -75 -90
moment

[rad] 1.571 1.309 1.047 0.785 0.524 0.262 0 -0.262 -0.524 -0.785 -1.047 -1.309 -1.571

Icoil [A] 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75

Itest [A] 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

F [mN ] 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.2 0.7 0.3 0 -0.6 -0.8 -1.2 -1.2 -1.5 -1.5

Table 25: Force F as a function of the angle between the magnetic eld and the magnetic

In Table 25, the conversion of the value of angle from degrees to radians have been made using the formula: (22) [rad] = [ ] 180 Error calculation The errors of the quantities presented in Table 25 are the same as those determined in Section 3.3.1. Therefore, the numerical value of the uncertainties are: Icoil = 0.01 A, Itest = 0.05 A, F = 0.1 mN and = 1 = 0.018 rad Next, the error of sin was computed using the averaged error formula and the result is presented in Equation 23: sin = sin
2

= cos

(23)

Here, is expressed in radians in order to give a correct result. Also, the formula above has the disadvantage that the error vanishes for = . 2 Data evaluation Using the data contained in Table 25, the dependence of the force on the angle (in radians) between B and m has been plotted and the result in presented in Figure 31. 41

Figure 31: Force as a function of the angle between the magnetic moment and the magnetic
eld (including uncertainties)

As theoretically predicted in Equation 14, the dependence is sinusoidal. In order to obtain a more relevant result, further investigation was necessary. Thus, the force was plotted against sin in order to prove that the two quantities are linearly dependent. Data needed for the plot is shown in Table 26. The resulting plot, including the error bars, is presented in Figure 32: Using Excel c plotting tools, the coecient of linear regression R2 was determined to be: R2 = 0.9933 which assures that the absolute value of the force on the test coil increases linearly with increasing the angle between the magnetic eld and magnetic moment. Discussion and conclusion According to Equation 14, the torque is directly proportional to sin or, equivalently, the torque varies sinusoidally with the angle . In addition, restating the proportionality between the torque and the force F acting on the coil (Equation 21), one can see that the experimental results displayed in Figure 32 and 31 full these prediction. Therefore, the linear relation between the force and sin sustained by the coecient of linear regression from the t in Figure 32: R2 = 0.9933 42

F [mN ] 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.2 0.7 0.3 0 -0.6 -0.8 -1.2 -1.2 -1.5 -1.5

sin 1 0.966 0.866 0.707 0.500 0.259 0 -0.259 -0.500 -0.707 -0.866 -0.966 -1

sin 0 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.015 0.012 0.009 0.005 0

Table 26: Force F as a function of sin (including uncertainties)

Figure 32: Force as a function of sin (including uncertainties) is equivalent to a linear dependence between the torque and sin. The only dierence is the proportionality constant. Thus, the slope of the obtained graph would be dierent.

43

3.3.3

Torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic moment

Data collection For this part of the experiment, the torque as a function of the strength of the magnetic moment was investigated. Since the magnetic moment could not be directly measured, the same argument as in Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 was followed. Hence, as the magnetic moment is directly proportional to the current Itest in the test coil(Equation 10), the latter was recorded. Also, since the dynamometer was recording the force, the nal diagram was the dependency of F vs Itest . Moreover, during the experiment, the magnetic eld created by the Helmholtz arrangement was kept constant by delivering a constant current Icoil = 2.75 A to the coils and the angle was xed to 90 . The gathered data is presented in Table 27: [ ] 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 Icoil [A] 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 Itest [A] 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 F [mN ] 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.5

Table 27: Force F as a function of the current inside the test coil Itest

Error calculation The errors in this section are the same as the one determined in the Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. Thus, the numerical values of the uncertainties are: Icoil = 0.01 A, Itest = 0.05 A, F = 0.1 mN and = 1 = 0.018 rad

Data evaluation Using the data provided in Table 27, a plot of F as a function of the current Itest was created and the result is presented in Figure 33: Using Excel c tools, the coecient of linear regression was determined to be: R2 = 0.9959 Discussion and conclusion Equation 14 states that the current through a conducting coil is proportional to the torque acting on it. Analysing Figure 33, one can see that the theoretical prediction 44

Figure 33: Force as a function of sin (including uncertainties) is fullled by the experimental results. The linear dependence is also proved by the coecient of linear regression R2 = 0.9959 In addition, as stated before, the magnetic moment is proportional to the current passing through the test coil Itest (Equation 10) and, from denition (Equation 21), the torque is proportional to the force acting on loop. Therefore, the analysed dependence between F and Itest is equivalent to the dependence between the torque and magnetic moment. The only dierence is the proportionality constant which implies a dierent slope for the T vs m graph. Therefore, the torque increases linearly with the magnetic moment.

References
[1] Prof. Dr. Veit Wagner, Dr. Torsten Balster - Advanced Physics A+B Laboratory Course I, Fall 2012 [2] Prof. Dr. J urgen Fritz, Frank Rosenk otter - Error Analysis Booklet for Physics Teaching Labs , 2011 Young, Freeman -University Physics, 11th Edition

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