Appendix B

Curl, Divergence, Gradient, Laplacian

In the formulation of Maxwells equations and the wave equation, some specialized notation is used to simplify the expression of derivatives. The symbol (usually pronounced del, though it is ofcially known by the name nabla, from the Greek for harp) represents a differential operator, but its meaning changes somewhat depending on its use. In particular, the same symbol is used in the symbolic representation of the curl (), the divergence (), the gradient () and the Laplacian (2). Denitions and some properties of these terms, as well as the cross and dot products of vectors, are given below.

B.1

Cross Product

In Cartesian coordinates, the cross product of two vectors U and V is given by + (U zVx U xVz ) y + (U xVy U yVx ) z U V = (U yVz U zVy ) x (B.1)

The cross product is sometimes called the vector product or the outer product. The cross product of two vectors is always perpendicular to both of those vectors its direction is given by the right-hand rule for the normal right-handed coordinate system. The magnitude of their cross product is U V = U V sin (B.2)

where q is the angle between the two vectors. Thus, if the cross product of two nonzero vectors is zero, those vectors must be parallel to each other. Lagranges formula for repeated cross products can be useful: A ( B C ) = B( A i C ) C ( A i B) (B.3)

Fundamental Principles of Optical Lithography: The Science of Microfabrication. Chris Mack. 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-01893-4

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Also note that the order of the cross product is important. U V = V U (B.4)

B.2

Dot Product

In Cartesian coordinates, the dot product of two vectors U and V is given by U i V = U V cos = U xVx + U yVy + U zVz (B.5)

where q is the angle between the two vectors. The dot product is sometimes called the scalar product or the inner product. It represents the product of the length of one vector with the portion of the length of the second vector that lies in the same direction as the rst. If the dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero, then those vectors must be perpendicular to each other.

B.3

Curl

In Cartesian coordinates, the curl of a vector eld F is dened as F Fy Fx Fz Fy Fx F= z y+ x+ z y x z z x y (B.6)

(The designation of F as a eld simply reects the notion that the value of F varies as a function of position in space.) The curl of F is sometimes expressed as curlF. The curl is often thought of as showing the vector s rate of rotation at the point of evaluation. The curl of a vector eld always points in a direction perpendicular to the vector at the point of evaluation.

B.4

Divergence

The divergence is an operator that produces a scalar measure of a vector elds tendency to originate from or converge upon a given point (the point at which the divergence is evaluated). In Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a vector eld F is dened as i F = Fx Fy Fz + + x y z (B.7)

The divergence of F is sometimes expressed as divF. Physically, the divergence is often thought of as the derivative of the net ow of the vector eld out of the point at which the divergence is evaluated. Divergence is a linear operator so that for two scalar constants a and b and two vectors U and V, i (aU + bV ) = a i U + b i V (B.8)

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B.5

Gradient

In Cartesian coordinates, the gradient of a scalar eld g is dened as g = g g g + + x y z x y z (B.9)

The gradient of g is sometimes expressed as gradg. It is interesting to note that the dot product of the gradient of a function with a unit vector gives the slope of the function in the direction of the unit vector. For example, i g = x g x (B.10)

giving what is sometimes called the directional derivative.

B.6

Laplacian

The Laplacian operator, equal to the divergence of the gradient, operating on some scalar eld g, is given in Cartesian coordinates as 2 g = i ( g ) = 2 g 2 g 2 g + + x 2 y 2 z 2 (B.11)

The Laplacian is a second-order differential operator. The Laplacian can also operate on a vector eld (such as F): + 2 Fy y + 2 Fz z 2 F = 2 Fx x (B.12)

B.7

Some Useful Identities

For any scalar eld g and any vector eld F, i F = 0 g = 0 F = ( i F ) ( F )

2

(B.13) (B.14) (B.15) (B.16) (B.17)

i ( gF ) = g i F + g i F ( gF ) = g F + g F

B.8

Spherical Coordinates

The above denitions of the curl, divergence, gradient and Laplacian were all given in Cartesian coordinates. In spherical coordinates, vectors are dened by (r,q,f), where r is

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the length of the vector, q is the angle with the positive z-axis, and f is the angle with the xz-plane. Spherical coordinates can be related to Cartesian coordinates by r = x 2 + y2 + z2

= cos 1( z/r ), 0 = tan 1( y/x ), 0 2

or inversely by x = r sin cos y = r sin sin z = r cos In spherical coordinates, the curl, divergence, gradient and Laplacian become: Curl: F= F 1 ( F sin ) r r sin 1 Fr 1 + (rF ) r sin r r 1 1 Fr (rF ) + r r r Divergence: i F = Gradient: g = Laplacian of a scalar: 2 g = 1 2 g 1 1 g 2 g sin r + 2 + 2 2 2 r r r r sin r sin 2 g 1 g 1 g + + r r r r sin 1 2 1 1 F (r Fr ) + ( F sin ) + 2 r r r sin r sin

(B.18)

(B.19)

(B.20)

(B.21)

(B.22)

(B.23)