Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Steelmaking

Establishment of design parameters for large slab type ingot moulds

Report EUR 9087 EN

Blow-up from microfiche original

Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

Steelmaking

Establishment of design parameters for large slab type ingot moulds

CD. HARLE, M. J. LEADBETTER BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION 9, Albert Embankment GB-LONDON SE1 7SN

Contract No 7210-CA/813 (01.04.1981 - 31.03.1983) FINAL REPORT

Directorate-General Science, Research and Development

1984

EUR 9087 EN

Publishe.d by the COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES Directorate-General Information Market and Innovation Btiment Jean Monnet LUXEMBOURG

LEGAL NOTICE Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the following information

) ECSC-EEC-Euratom, Brussels Luxembourg

ESTABLISHMENT OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR LARGE SLAB TYPE INGOT MOULDS

F I N A L

R E P O R T

Agreement No. 7210.CA/813

C D . Harle M.J. Leadbetter British Steel Corporation Welsh Laboratory

EUR 9087 EN

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

ESTABLISHMENT OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR LARGE SLAB TYPE INGOT MOULDS British Steel Corporation ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/813 Summary: Final Technical Report

An investigation has been carried out into the development of a finite element thermal stress analysis technique for use as a design procedure for large slab type ingot moulds. As part of this study physical and mechanical properties of mould iron have been determined in the laboratory up to elevated temperatures for model calibration. A series of plant trials were carried out with four selected mould types in which temperature distributions within the mould wall thickness and surface strain levels were measured from the start of teeming to stripping of the ingot from the moulds. The finite element thermal stress analysis procedure requires a preliminary transient thermal finite element analysis to determine how the mould temperature distributions change with time after steel has been teemed into the cold ingot mould, followed by a finite element thermal stress analysis. A good agreement was obtained between plant measured and model predicted temperatures. A recommended design procedure has been formulated based on comparing stress levels generated by the model with those of a 'bench-mark' mould of known good plant performance. The essential stages of this routine include (i) preliminary, low cost, two dimensional horizontal thermal stress analysis which can give useful design guidelines,(ii) the derivation of a low cost quasi-three dimensional stress analysis routine (obtained by combining horizontal and vertical 2-D stress analyses) and comparison with the 'bench-mark' study. Three dimensional thermal stress analysis, which is very expensive, is recommended in cases where a mould design contains non-symmetrical features, for example a skirt only applied to opposite faces of the mould at the base.

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CONTENTS

Page No. 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 13

1. 2.

INTRODUCTION DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR INGOT MOULD CAST IRON 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. Introduction Preparation of Test Blocks/Samples Material Property Determinations by British Cast Iron Research Association (B.C.I.R.A.) 2.3.1. 2.3.2. Notes on Test Procedure Discussions on Properties of Test Blocks

3.

DETERMINATION OF MOULD DIMENSIONS 3.1. Conventional Measuring Techniques 3.2. Measurement of Internal Profile of Ingot Moulds using Specially Constructed Mould Profilometer Equipment

4.

INSTRUMENTATION OF INGOT MOULDS FOR PLANT TRIALS 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. Requirements for Mould Instrumentation Mould Types Chosen for Trial Temperature Measuring Equipment Strain Measuring Equipment Mould Instrumentation Details Arrangements of Trial Moulds during Casting

5.

RESULTS OF INSTRUMENTED MOULD TRIALS 5.1. 492 Bottle-Top Mould (Average mould life in service 120 heats) 5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. Mould Temperature Measurements Strain Gauge Results Mould Dimensional Checks

5.2. Ti Open Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 84 Heats) 5.2.1'. 5.2.2. 5.2.3. Mould Temperature Measurements Strain Gauge Measurements Mould Dimensional Checks

5.3. Us Bottle Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 96 Heats) 5.3.1. 5.3.2. 5.3.3. Mould Temperature Measurements Strain Gauge Measurements Mould Dimensional Checks

5.4. V3/48I Open Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 103 Heats) 5.4.1. 5.4.2. 5.4.3. Mould Temperature Measurements Strain Gauge Measurements Mould Dimensional Checks

5.5. Comments on Measured Strain Values and Mould Failure Patterns 5.5.1. 5.5.2. Measured Strains Mould Failure Patterns

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6.

FINITE ELEMENT STUDIES (Sub-Contracted work by Design Audit Limited) 6.1. 6.2. 6.3 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. Outline of Finite Element Studies Mould Selection Derivation of Temperature Distribution in the Mould Derivation of Thermal Stress Analysis 492 Mould - 3 Dimensional Model Studies Ti Mould Thermal Stress Analysis Studies 6.6.1. 6.6.2. 6.6.3. 6.7. Ti Mould Mid-Height Horizontal Section Modified Ti Mould Ti Mould Plasticity Effects

14 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 16 17

Recommended Design Procedure

7.

INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTY DATA ON THERMAL STRESS LEVELS OF THE 492 MOULD 7.1. 492 Mould 2-D Analysis using Spheroidal Graphite Properties 7.1.1. 7.1.2. 7.1.3. 7.2. Derivation of Temperature Distribution in the Mould Thermal Stress Analysis Modified 492 Mould 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 21 49 117

492 Mould 2-D Analysis - Compacted Graphite Properties

8.

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES TABLES FIGURES APPENDICES

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Page No. List of Tables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Comparison of Structure of Trial Moulds and Test Blocks Variation of Modulus of Elasticity and Thermal Conductivity for Spheroidal and Compacted G raphite Irons Details of Mould Types used for Plant Trials Depths of Holes for Insertion of Thermocouples Fixing Mode for Strain Gauges (Common to all Four Trial Moulds) Summary of Trials - Mould Type:492 Summary of Strain Gauge Results - 492 Mould Strain and Stress Values (Maximum) Summary of Strain Gauge Results - 492 Mould Strain and Stress Values (0.2 Hours) Summary of Trials - Mould Type: Ti Summary of Strain Gauge Results - Ti Mould Strain and Stress Values (Maximum) Summary of Strain Gauge Results - Ti Mould (Strain and Stress Values (0.2 Hours) Summary of Trials Mould Type - U5 Summary of Strain Gauge Results U5 Mould (Strain and Stress Values (Maximum) Summary of Strain Gauge Results - U5 Mould (Strain and Stress Values (0.2 Hours) Summary of Trials - Mould Type: V3/481 Summary of Strain Gauge Results - V3/48I Mould Strain and Stress Values (Maximum) Summary of Strain Gauge Results - V3/48I Mould Strain and Stress Values (0.2 Hours) Summary of Strain Gauge Results - Maximum Strain Values Pnysical Properties Used by Design Audit Limited for Finite Element Thermal Stress Analysis on the 492 (Bottle-top) and Ti (Open-top) Moulds Summary of Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron Physical Properties 492 Mould Horizontal Model, Stress Distribution at Nodes Mid-Height 492 Mould Horizontal Model Stress Distribution at Nodes Mid-Height Summary of Physical Properties - Compacted G raphite Case 492 Mould Horizontal Model, Stress Distribution Mid-height Calculation Sheets 1 - 4 Appendix Tables A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 492 Mould Horizontal Model, Stress Distribution at Nodes (Mid-Height) Stress Concentration at the Corner of the 492 Type Mould (Mid-Height) Heat Transfer Data for the Axisymmetric Analysis Tl Mould, 2-D Horizontal Model, Mid-Height, Stress Distribution at Nodes Stress Concentration at the Corner of the Tl Type Mould (Mid-Height) Calculation Sheets A2.1 - A2.15 152 153 154 155 156 157 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

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Page No. List of Figures 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 13. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Position where Sample Blocks were cut from the Broad Narrow Walls of a 561 Type Ingot Mould General View of Equipment for Measuring Profile of Ingot Mould Faces View of Measuring Head Arrangement of Mould Profile Measuring Equipment Relationship between Apparent Strain and Temperature Relationship between % Change in Gauge Factor and Temperature Bottle-Top Mould for Instrumentation with Thermocouples and Strain-Gauges Open-Top Mould for Instrumentation with Thermocouples and Strain Gauges General View of Instrumented Mould and Insulated Housing for Instruments Mould Type 492(2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 8 to 11) Location - Base of Narrow Wall Mould Type 492(2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 16 to 18) Location - Base of Corner 59 Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 19 to 21) Location - Mid height of Corner Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 22 to 25) Location - Base of Broad Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid-Height of Broad Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid-Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall Comparison of Methods for Surface Temperature Measurements Mould Type 492. Bottle-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 1 Horizontal) Location - Mid-Height of Narrow Viali Mould Type 492 Bottle-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 4 Horizontal) Location - Mid-Height of Corner Mould Type 492 Bottle-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 6 Horizontal) Location - Mid-Height of Broad Wall Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls: 1. North Narrow Wall - 492 2. South Narrow Wall - 492 Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls: 1. West Broad Wall - 492 2. East Broad Wall - 492 Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 8 to 11) Location - Base of Narrow Wall Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Themo<Duple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 16 to 18) Location - Base of Corner Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 19 to 21) Location - Mid Height of Corner Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 22 to 25) Location - Base of Broad Wall Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type (01) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall Mould Type Tl. Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 1 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type Tl. Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 4 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Corner 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

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33. Mould Type Tl. Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 6 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 34. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls: 1. North Narrow Wall - Ti 2. South Narrow Wall - Ti 35. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls: 1. West Broad Wall - Ti East Broad Wall - Ti 36. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 8 to 11) Location - Base of Narrow Wall 37. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall 38. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 16 to 18) Location - Base of Corner 39. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 19 to 21) Location - Mid Height of Corner 40. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 22 to 25) Location - Base of Broad Wall 41. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 42. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermcouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall 43. Mould Type (U5) Bottle. Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 44. Mould Type U5 Bottle-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 1 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall 45. Mould Type U5 Bottle-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 4 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Corner 46. Mould Type U5 Bottle. Top (Strain Gauge Channel 6 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 47. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:1. North Narrow Wall - Us 2. South Narrow Wall - U 5 48. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:1. West Broad Wall - Us 2. East Broad Wall - Us 49. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 8 to 11) Location - Base of Narrow Viali 50. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall 51. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 16 to 18) Location - Base of Corner 52. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 19 to 21) Location - Mid Height of Corner 53. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 22 to 25) Location - Base of Broad Wall 54. Mould Type 481 (V3) Open-Top (Thermocouple Channels 26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 55. Mould Type V3 Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 1 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall 56. Mould Type V3 Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 4 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Corner 57. Mould Type V3 Open-Top (Strain Gauge Channel 6 Horizontal) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall 58. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:1. North Narrow Wall - 481 (V) 2. South Narrow Wall - 481 (V) 59. Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:1. West Broad Wall - 481 (V) 2. East Broad Wall - 481 (V) 60. Comparison of Predicted and Measured Strain Values (492 Mould, Mid-Height Narrow Wall) 61. Mean Life Versus Maximum Measured Strain at Mid-Height on Broadwall Ingot Mould Types 492, V4, U5 and Tl 62. Comparison of Predicted and Measured Strain Values (Tl Mould, Mid-Height Narrow Wall)

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

v m

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63. Geometry of Mid-Height Horizontal Section for Type 492 Mould 64. 2D Mesh for Type 492 Mould 65. Computer Predicted Temperature Profile for 492 Mould after 720 Seconds 66. 492 Mould, Mid-Height Broadwall - Validation Results 67. Comparison of Predicted and Measured Strain Values (492 Mould, Mid-Height Narrow Wall) (Revised Mould Iron Thermal Properties for Spheroidal Graphite Iron) 68. Comparison of Predicted and Measured Strain Values (492 Mould, Mid-Height Narrow Wall)

111 112 113 114 115 116

Appendices Figures Specimen Preparation from Sample Taken from the Ingot Mould Iron Al.2 Stress/Strain Relationship - Broadwall Sample Al.3 Expansion and Contraction Progress - 20C - 900C 20C - Broadwall Sample Al.4 Microstructure from Broadwall Sample (x 20 Etched 4% Picral) Al.5 Stress/Strain Relationship - Narrow Wall Sample Al. 6 Expansion and Contraction Progress - 20C - 900C 20C - Narrow Wall Sample Al.7 Microstructure from Narrow Wall Sample (x 20 Etched 4% Picral) Al.l 121 122 123 124 125 126 127

A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 A2.6 A2.7 A2.8 A2.9 A2.10 A2.11 A2.12 A2.13 A2.14 A2.15 A2.16 A2.17 A2.18 A2.19 A2.20 A2.21 A2.22 A2.23 A2.24

Dimensions of the 492 Bottle Top Mould Dimensions of the 481 (V3) Open Top Mould Dimensions of the U5 Bottle Top Mould Dimensions of the Tl Open Top Mould Mould Type 492(2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 8 to 11) Location - Base of Narrow Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 12 to 15) Location - Mid Height of Narrow Wall Mould Type 492 (2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels 22 to 25) Location - Base of Broad Wall Mould Type 492(2) Bottle-Top (Thermocouple Channels26 to 29) Location - Mid Height of Broad Wall Thermal Gradients Design Procedure Schematic Diagram of a Section Through the Mould Thermal Conductivity of Air at Atmospheric Pressure Convective Heat Loss Coefficient as a Function of Wall Temperature Radiative Heat Loss Coefficient as a Function of Mould Wall Temperature Broadside Mid-Height Temperature Profiles for 0 to In 492 Mould Broadside Mid-Height Temperature Profiles for 1 to lOh Mean Mould Temperature as a Function of Time Broadside Mid-Height Mean Mould Temperature as a Function of Time Broadside - Mid-Height Specific Heat Capacity for Spheroidal Graphite and FlakeGraphite Cast Iron 492 Mould Broadside Mid-Height - Validation Results Dimensions of the Type 492 Mould Geometry of Mid-Height Horizontal Section for 492 Mould 2-D Mesh for the Type 492 Mould Computer Predicted Temperature Profile after 30 Minutes 492 Mould

172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 i88 189 190 191 192 193 194 195

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A2.25 The Variation of 0.2% Proof Stress with Temperature A2.26 Dimensions of the Mould and Base Plate used in the Axisymmetric Analysis - 492 Mould A2.27 Mesh for the Axisymmetric Analysis - 492 Mould A2.28 Temperature Distribution for 492 Mould Axisymmetric Analysis, Mid-Height A2.29 Comparison of Horizontal Stresses - 492 Mould at 180 Seconds A2.30 Comparison of Horizontal Stresses - 492 Mould at 720 Seconds A2.31 Comparison of Horizontal Stresses - 492 Mould at 3600 Seconds A2.32 Largest Absolute Principal Stress after 720 Seconds - 492 Mould A2.33 Geometry of the Tl Mould at Mid-Height A2.34 Finite Element Mesh for the Tl Mould, Mid-Height A2.35 Maximum Absolute Principal Stress after 720 Seconds Tl Mould Mid-Height A2.36 3-D Mesh of the 492 Mould and Base Plate A2.37 Temperature Profiles for the Broadside Mid-Height for the Type 492 Mould A2.38 Temperature Profiles for the Narrow Side Mid-Height for the Type 492 Mould A2.39 Temperature Profiles for the Broadside Mid-Point after 720 Seconds, 492 Mould A2.40 Temperature Profile through the Narrow Side Mid-Point after 720 Seconds, 492 Mould A2.41 Von Mises Stress - 492 Type Mould, Narrow Side Mid-Height, Time = 720 Seconds A2.42 Von Mises Stress - 492 Type Mould, Broadside Mid-Height, Time = 720 Seconds A2.43 Von Mises Stresses near the Top of the 492 Mould A2.44 Von Mises Stresses near the Base of the 492 Mould A2.45 Von Mises Stress at Mid-Height, Time = 720 Seconds 492 Mould A2.46 Von Mises Stress at the Base of the Mould 492 Mould A2.47 Maximum Absolute Principal Stress at the Mid-Height, Time = 720 Seconds 492 Mould A2.48 Maximum Absolute Pricipal Stress at the Base, Time = 720 Seconds 492 Mould A2.49 Variation in with Position at Mid-Height, Time = 7 20 Seconds 492 Mould A2.50 Variation in a with Position at Base, Time = 720 Seconds 492 Mould A2.51 Von Mises Stress at a Height of 2.1685M from Base of 492 Mould A2.52 Stress Contour Plot of the 492 Mould Top A2.53 Displacement of the Tl Mould Predicted by the Plasticity Analysis after 720 Seconds A2.54 Displaced Shape (Dotted) for the Tl Mould after Cooling to Ambient Temperature A2.55 Finite Element Mesh for the Modified Tl Mould (Original Profile shown Dotted) A2.56 Maximum Absolute Principal Stress Contour - Tl Mould A2.57 Tl Mould, Mid-Height, Stress and Temperature Profiles Through the Mould Wall at the Point of Maximum Stress (Node 61)

196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228

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2B.1 2B.2 2B.3 2B.4 2B.5 2B.6

Thermal Conductivity of Cast Iron Schematic Diagram of a Section Through the Mould Thermal Conductivity of Air at Atmospheric Pressure Convective Heat Loss Coefficient as a Function of Wall Temperature Radiative Heat Loss Coefficient as a Function of Mould Wall Temperature Specific Heat Capacity for Spheriodal Graphite and Flake Graphite Cast Irons

229 230 231 232 233 234

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ETABLISSEMENT DES PARAMETRES DE CONCEPTION RELATIFS AUX GRANDS MOULES A LINGOTINS DU TYPE BRAME British Steel Corporation Accord CECA n 7210.CA/813 Rsum: rapport technique final Nous avons tudi la mise au point d'une mthode; d'analyse des contraintes thermiques lments finis qui servirait de procdure de conception relative aux grands moules lingotins du type brame. Dans le cadre de ces travaux, les proprits physiques et mcaniques de moules en acier, amens des tempratures leves pour les besoins du calibrage des modles, ont t dtermines en laboratoire. Une srie d'essais en usine a t effectue sur quatre types de moules slectionns dans lesquels la distribution de la temprature l'intrieur des parois des moules, ainsi que le niveau de dformation constat sur la surface ont t dtermins, depuis le dbut du coulage jusqu'au dmoulage des lingotins. La procdure d'analyse des contraintes theimigues lments finis exige que soit effectue pour commencer une analyse thermique provisoire lments finis permettant de dterminer les modifications chronologiques de la distribution de la temprature aprs que l'acier a t coul dans le moule lingotins froid; cette analyse prliminaire est suivie d'une analyse des contraintes thermigues lments finis. La correspondance entre les tempratures obtenues en usine et celles prdites partir du modle tait satisfaisante. La procdure de conception recommande a t formule sur la base des comparaisons effectues entre les niveaux de contrainte gnrs par le modle et ceux constats dans un moule "de repre" dont la bonne performance en usine tait connue. Parmi les tapes essentielles de cette routine, citons (i) l'analyse prmiminaire bi-dimensionnelle bon march des contraintes thermigues horizontales pouvant fournir des principes utiles la conception, (ii) la drivation d'une routine d'analyse quasi tri-dimensionnelle bon march des contraintes (obtenue partir de la combinaison des analyses des contraintes verticales et horizontales) et la comparaison avec l'tude "de repre". L'analyse tri-dimensionnelle des contraintes thermiques est trs coteuse, mais recommande dans les cas o un moule a t conu de faon asymtrique, par exemple lorsqu'il n'y a un bord que sur les faces opposes du moule, la base.

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FR 95 6 831 SOMMAIRE

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Page 1. 2. INTRODUCTION DETERMINATION DES PROPRIETES MATERIELLES DE L'ACIER COULE UTILISE POUR LES MOULES A LINGOTINS 2.1 2.2 2.3 Introduction Prparation de blocs/chantillons d'essai Dtermination des proprits matrielles par la British Cast Iron Research Association (B.C.I.R.A.) 2.3.1 2.3.2 3. Notes relatives la procdure d'essai Discussion des proprits des blocs d'essai 1

2 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5

DETERMINATION DES DIMENSIONS DES MOULES 3.1 3.2 Techniques de mesure conventionnelles Mesure du profil intrieur des moules lingotins au moyen d'un profilomtre de moule spcialement construit

4.

REGLAGE DES APPAREILS DE MESURE DES MOULES A LINGOTINS POUR LES ESSAIS EN USINE 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Rglages requis des appareils de mesure des moules Types de moules choisis pour les essais Instrument de mesure de la temprature Instrument de mesure de la contrainte Dtails relatifs au rglage des appareils de mesure des moules Disposition des moules d'essai pendant le coulage

6 6 6 6 6 7 8 8

5.

RESULTATS DES ESSAIS EFFECTUES AU MOYEN DES APPAREILS DE MESURE 5.1 492 moule troite ouverture (dure de vie moyenne en service 120 chaudes) 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.2 Mesures de la temprature du moule Rsultats de la jauge de contrainte Vrifications des dimensions du moule

8 8 9 9

T1 moule large ouverture (dure de vie moyenne du moule en service 84 chaudes) 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 Mesures de la temprature du moule Mesures de la jauge de contrainte Vrifications des dimensions du moule

10 10 10 10

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5.3

U5 Moule troite ouverture (dure de vie moyenne du moule en service 96 chaudes) 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 Mesure de la temprature du moule Mesures de la jauge de contrainte Vrifications des dimensions du moule

11 11 11 11

5.4 V3/481 Moule large ouverture (dure de vie moyenne du moule en service 103 chaudes) 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5 Mesures de la temprature du moule Mesures de la jauge de contrainte Vrifications des dimensions du moule

12 12 12 12

Commentaires sur les valeurs de contrainte mesures et les modles de dfectuosit des moules 5.5.1 5.5.2 Contraintes mesures Modles de dfectuosit des moules

12 12 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 16 17

6.

ETUDES A ELEMENTS FINIS (sous-traitant: Design Audit Limited) 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Aperu des tudes lments finis Slection des moules Drivation de la distribution de la temprature dans le moule Drivation de l'analyse des contraintes thermiques Moule 492 - Etudes du modle tri-dimensionnel Moule T1 - Etudes de l'analyse des contraintes thermiques 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7 Section horizontale mi-hauteur du moule T1 Moule T1 modifi Effets de la plasticit du moule T1

Procdure de conception recommande

7.

INFLUENCE DES DONNEES RELATIVES AUX PROPRIETES PHYSIQUES SUR LES NIVEAUX DE CONTRAINTE THERMIQUE CONSTATES SUR LE MOULE 492 7.1 Moule 492 Analyse bi-dimensionnelle partir des proprits du graphite spheroidal 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.2 Drivation de la distribution de la temprature dans le moule Analyse des contraintes thermiques Moule 492 modifi

17

18 18 18 18 19

Moule 492 - Analyse bi-dimensionnelle partir des proprits du graphite compact

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95 6 831 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES TABLEAUX FIGURES APPENDICES

7210.CA/81 3 19 20 21 49 11

8.

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Liste des tableaux 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Comparaison de la structure des moules d'essai et des blocs d'essai Variation des modules d'lasticit et de conductivit thermigue des aciers-graphite compacts et sphrodes Dtails des types de moules utiliss pour les essais en usine Profondeur des trous destins l'insertion des thermocouples Mode de fixation des jauges de contrainte (commun aux quatre moules d'essai) Rsum des essais: type de moule: 492 Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule 492 valeur des contraintes et des dformations (maximum) Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule 492 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (0,2 heure) Rsum des essais - type de moule: T1 Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule T1 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (maximum) Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule T1 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (0,2 heure) Rsum des essais - type de moule: U5 Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule U5 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (maximum) Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule U5 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (0,2 heure) Rsum des essais - type de moule: V3/481 Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule V3/481 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (maximum) Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - moule V3/481 Valeur des contraintes et des dformations (0,2 heure) Rsum des rsultats de la jauge de contrainte - valeur maximum des contraintes Caractristigues physigues utilises par Design Audit Limited pour l'analyse des contraintes thermiques lments finis sur le moule 492 ( troite ouverture) et le moule T1 ( large ouverture) Rsum des caractristiques physiques de l'acier-graphite spheroidal coul Moule 492 modle horizontal, distribution des dformations mi-hauteur des noeuds Moule 492 modle horizontal, distribution des dformations mi-hauteur des noeuds Rsum des caractristigues physigues - moule 492 modle horizontal, enveloppe graphite compact, distribution des dformations - mi-hauteur Feuilles de calcul 1 -< 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

39 40 41 42 43 45

20. 21. 22. 23.

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Tables de l'appendice A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 Moule 492 modle horizontal, distribution des dformations aux noeuds (mi-hauteur) Concentration des dformations sur le coin du moule de type 492 (mi-hauteur) Donnes relatives au transfert de chaleur pour l'analyse axisymtrigue Moule T1, modle horizontal bi-dimensionnel, mi-hauteur, distribution des dformations aux noeuds Concentration des dformations sur le coin du moule de type T1 (mi-hauteur) Feuilles de calculs A2.1 - A2.15 152 153 154 155 156 157

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Liste d e s figures 1. Endroit o les blocs d'chantillonnage o n t t dcoups dans les parois larges/troites d'un moule lingotins de type 561 Vue d'ensemble d e s appareils de mesure d u profil d e s faces d u moule lingotins Vue d e la disposition avant d e s appareils d e mesure du profil d u moule Relation nfcredformations apparentes et la temprature Relation entre le changement en % d u facteur de jauge et la temprature Moule troite ouverture pour appareils de mesure munis de thermocouples e t d e jauges de contrainte Moule large ouverture pour appareils de mesure munis de thermocouples e t de jauges d e contrainte Vue d'ensemble d u moule avec appareils de mesure e t botier isol destin aux instruments Moule d e type 4 9 2 ( 2 ) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 8 11) Emplacement - base d e la paroi troite Moule de type 492 (2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectriques 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite Moule de type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 16 18) Emplacement Base d u coin Moule de type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 19 2 1 ) Emplacement - mi-hauteur d u coin Moule d e type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 22 25) Emplacement - Base d e la paroi large Moule de type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrigue 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large Moule d e type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple t h e r m o lectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur d e la paroi t r o i t e . Moule de type 492(2) troite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large Comaparaison d e s mthodes de mesure de la temprature d e la surface Moule d e type 4 9 2 . Etroite ouverture (Jauge de contrainte canal 1 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite Moule de type 4 9 2 . Etroite ouverture (Jauge d e contrainte canal 4 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur d u coin Moule de type 4 9 2 . (Jauge de contrainte canal 6 horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur d e la paroi large Dviation p a r rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures d u m o u l e : 1. paroi intrieure nord - 492 2. paroi intrieure sud - 492

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22. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1 . paroi large ouest - 492 2. paroi large est - 492 23. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 8 11) Emplacement - base de la paroi troite 24. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 25. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 16 18) Emplacement - base du coin 26. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 19 21) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin 27. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 22 25) Emplacement - base de la paroi large 28. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 29. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 30. Moule de type (01) large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 31. Moule de type T1 large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 1 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 32. Moule de type T1. Large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 4 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin 33. Moule de type T1. Large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 6 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 34. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1. Paroi troite nord - T1 2. Paroi troite sud - T1 35. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1. Paroi large ouest - T1 2. Paroi large est - T1 36. Moule de type (U5) Ouverture troite (canaux couple thermolectrique 8 11) Emplacement - base de la paroi troite 37. Moule de type (U5) Ouverture troite (canaux couple thermolectriqeu 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 38. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 16 18) Emplacement - base du coin

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83

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39. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 19 21) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin 40. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 22 25) Emplacement - Base de la paroi large 41. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 42. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 43. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 44. Moule de type (U5) Etroite ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 1 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 45. Moule de type U5 Etroite ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 4 -horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin 46. Moule de type U5 Etroite ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 6 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 47. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1. Paroi troite nord - U5 2. Parpi troite sud - U5 48 Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule: 1. Paroi large ouest - U5 2. Paroi large est - U5 49. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrigue 8 11) Emplacement - base de la paroi troite 50. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 51. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 16 18) Emplacement - base du coin 52. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 19 21) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin 53. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrigue 22 25) Emplacement - base de la paroi large 54. Moule de type 481(V3) Large ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 55. Moule de type V3 Large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 1 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi troite 56. Moule de type V3 Large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 4 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur du coin

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57. Moule de type V3 Large ouverture (jauge de contrainte canal 6 - horizontal) Emplacement - mi-hauteur de la paroi large 58. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1. Paroi troite nord - 481(V) 2. Paroi troite sud - 481(V) 59. Dviation par rapport aux dimensions standard - parois intrieures du moule : 1. Paroi large ouest - 481(V) 2. Paroi large est - 481(V) 60. Comparaison entre les valeurs de la dformation prdite et mesure (moule 492, mi-hauteur de la paroi troite) 61. Dure de vie moyenne contre dformation maximum mesure mi-hauteur sur paroi troite des moules lingotins de type 492, V4, U5 et T1 62. Comparaison des valeurs de la dformation prdite et mesure (moule T1, mi-hauteur de la paroi troite) 63. Gomtrie de la section horizontale mi-hauteur pour le moule de type 492 64. Grille bi-dimensionnelle pour moule de type 492 65. Profil de la temprature prdit par ordinateur pour le moule 492 aprs 720 secondes 66. Moule 492, mi-hauteur de la paroi large - Rsultats de la validation 67. Comparaison entre les valeurs de la dformation prdite et mesure (moule 492, mi-hauteur de la paroi troite) (caractristiques thermiques de l'acier coul rvis pour l'acier-graphite spheroidal) 68. Comparaison entre les valeurs de la dformation prdite et mesure (moule 492, mi-hauteur de la paroi troite)

105

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115 116

Figures de 1'appendice A1.1 A1.2 A1.3 A1.4 A1 .5 A1.6 A1.7 Prparation spcimen provenant d'un chantillon emprunt l'acier du moule lingotins Rapport contrainte/dformation - Echantillon de la paroi large Progression de l'expansion et de la contraction 20C - 900C - 20C- Echantillon de la paroi large Microstructure provenant de l'chantillon de la paroi large (x20 grave 4% Picral) Rapport contrainte/dformation - chantillon de la paroi troite Progression de l'expansion et de la contraction -20C - 900C - 20C Echantillon de la paroi troite Microstructure provenant de l'chantillon de la paroi troite (x20 grave 4% Picral) 121 122 123 124 125 126 127

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FR 95 6 831 A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 A2.6 A2.7 A2.8 A2.9 A2.10 A2.11 A2.12 A2.13 A2.14 A2.15 A2.16 A2.17 A2.18 A2.19 A2.20 A2.21 A2.22 A2.23 A2.24 A2.25 A2.26 A2.27 A2.28 A2.29 A2.30

7210.CA/81 3 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201

Dimensions du moule 492 troite ouverture Dimensions du moule 481 (V3) large ouverture Dimensions du moule U5 troite ouverture Dimensions du moule T1 large ouverture Moule de type 492(2) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 8 11) Emplacement - base de la paroi troite Moule de type 492(2) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 12 15) Emplacement - mihauteur de la paroi troite Moule de type 492(2) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 22 25) Emplacement base de la paroi large Moule de type 492(2) Etroite ouverture (canaux couple thermolectrique 26 29) Emplacement mi-hauteur de la paroi large Gradients thermigues Procdure de conception Diagramme schmatigue d'une section du moule Conductivit thermique de l'air la pression atmosphrique Coefficient de perte de chaleur convective en tant que fonction de la temprature des";parois Coefficient de perte de chaleur radiative en tant que fonction de la temprature des parois du moule Profils de la temprature mi-hauteur de la paroi large entre 0 et 1h - moule 492 Profils de la temprature mi-hauteur de la paroi large entre 0 et 1h Temprature moyenne du moule en tant gue fonction du temps - mi-hauteur de la paroi large Temprature moyenne du moule en tant que fonction du temps - mi-hauteur de la paroi large Capacit thermigue spcifigue de l'acier coulgraphite spheroidal et graphite en lames Mi-hauteur de la paroi large du moule 492 - Rsultats de la validation Dimensions du moule de type 492 Gomtrie de la section horizontale mi-hauteur du moule 492 Grille bi-dimensionnelle pour le moule de type 492 Profil de la temprature prdit par ordinateur aprs 30 minutes - moule 492 La variation de 0,2% de la contrainte d'essai due la temprature Dimensions du moule et de la plaque de support utiliss lors de l'analyse axisymtrique - moule 492 Grille pour l'analyse axisymtrique - moule 492 Distribution de la temprature lors de l'analyse axisymtrique, moule 492, mi-hauteur Comparaison des contraintes horizontales - moule 492 180 secondes Comparaison des contraintes horizontales - moule 492 720 secondes

FR 95 6 831

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A2.31 A2.32 A2.33 A2.34 A2.35 A2.36 A2.37 A2.38 A2.39 A2.40 A2.41 A2.42 A2.43 A2.44 A2.45 A2.46 A2.47 A2.48 A2.49 A2.50 A2.51 A2.52 A2.53 A2.54 A2.55 A2.56 A2.57

Comparaison des contraintes horizontales - moule 492 3600 secondes Contrainte principale absolue la plus grande aprs 720 secondes G omtrie du moule T1 mi-hauteur G rille lments finis pour le moule T1, mi-hauteur Contrainte principale absolue maximum aprs 720 secondes - moule T1, mi-hauteur G rille tri-dimensionnelle du moule 492 et de la plaque de support Profils de la temprature pour la paroi large mihauteur du meule de type 492 Profils de la temprature pour la paroi troite mihauteur du moule de type 492 Profils de la temprature pour la paroi large, mi-hauteur, aprs 720 secondes - moule 492 Profils de la temprature pour la paroi troite, mi-hauteur, aprs 720 secondes - moule 492 Contrainte de Von Mises - moule de type 492, paroi troite, mi-hauteur, dure=720 secondes Contrainte de Von Mises - moule de type 492, paroi large, mi-hauteur, dure=720 secondes Contraintes de Von Mises prs du sommet du moule 492 Contraintes de Von Mises prs de la base du moule 492 Contrainte de Von Mises mi-hauteur, dure=720 sec. moule 492 Contrainte de Von Mises la base du moule - moule 492 Contrainte principale absolue maximum mi-hauteur, dure=720 secondes, moule 492 Contrainte principale absolue maximum la base, dure=720 secondes, moule 492 Variation en avec emplacement mi-hauteur, dure=720 secondes, moule 492 Variation en avec emplacement la base, dure=720 secondes, moule 492 Contrainte de Von Mises une hauteur de 2,1685 M partir de la base du moule 492 Trac du contour de la contrainte - sommet du moule 492 Dplacement du moule T1 prdit par l'analyse de plasticit aprs 720 secondes Forme (en pointills) du dplacement du moule T1 aprs refroidissement la temprature ambiante G rille lments finis pour le moule T1 modifi (profil d'origine reprsent en pointills) Contour de la contrainte principale absolue maximum - moule T1 Moule T1, mi-hauteur, Profils de la contrainte et de de la temprature travers la paroi du moule au point de contrainte maximum (noeud 61)

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Conductivit thermique de l'acier coul Diagramme schmatique d'une section transversale du moule Conductivit thermique de l'air la pression atmosphrique Coefficient de perte de chaleur convective en tant que fonction de la temprature des parois Coefficient de perte de chaleur radiative en tant que fonction de la temprature des parois Capacit thermique spcifique des aciers coulsgraphite spheroidal et graphite en lames

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Erarbeitung von Entwurfsparametern fr groe Brammenkokillen British Steel Corporation EKSG Vertrag Nr. 7210.CA/81 3 Zusammenfassung: Technischer Schlubericht

Eine Untersuchung fr die Entwicklung einer finiten Elementsmethode der thermischen Beanspruchungsanalyse fr Verwendung als ein Entwurfsverfahren fr groe Brammenkokillen ist durchgefhrt worden. Als Teil dieser Untersuchung sind die physikalischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften des Kokilleneisens im Labor bis zu erhhten Temperaturen hin fr Eichung des Modells bestimmt worden. Eine Reihe von Versuchen im Betrieb wurden mit vier ausgewhlten Kckillentypen durchgefhrt, in denen die Temperaturverteilungen innerhalb der Kokill.enwandstrke und dem Oberflchenspannungsausma vom Beginn des Vollgieens bis zum Abziehen der Brammen aus den Kokillen gemessen wurden. Fr die finite Elementsmethode der thermischen Beanspruchungsanalyse ist eine einleitende, vorbergehende, thermische, finite Elementsanalyse ntig, um zu bestimmen, wie sich die Kokillentemperaturverteilungen mit der Zeit ndern, nachdem der Stahl in die kalte Brammenkokille gegossen worden ist, und diesem mu eine finite Elementsanalyse der thermischen Beanspruchung folgen. Man konnte gute bereinstimmung zwischen den im Betrieb gemessenen Temperaturen und denen gewinnen, die mit dem Modell vorhergesagt wurden. Man hat ein Entwurfsverfahren fr Empfehlung formuliert, das sich auf den Vergleich der Beanspruchungsausmae sttzt, die vom Modell und denen einer Vergleichskokille mit einer bekannten, guten Betriebsleistung erzeugt werden. In den wesentlichen Stadien dieser Routine wurden die folgenden Punkte erfat: (i) die einleitende, rationelle, zweidimensionale, horizontale, thermische Beanspruchungsanalyse, die in ntzlichen Entwurfsrichtlinien resultieren kann, (ii) die Ableitung einer rationellen, quasidreidimensionalen Beanspruchungsanalyseroutine, (die man durch Verbindung der horizontalen und senkrechten 2-dimensionalen Analysen gewinnt) und der Vergleich mit der Untersuchung der Vergleichskokille. Die 3-dimensionale, thermische Beanspruchungsanalyse, die sehr teuer ist, wird in den Fllen empfohlen, wo ein Kokillenentwurf unsymmetrische Merkmale aufweist, das wre zum Beispiel, wenn ein Mantel nur auf den gegenberliegenden Flchen der Kokille unten angebracht wrde.

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Inhaltsverzeichnis 1. 2. Einleitung Bestimmung der Werkstoffeigenschaften der gueisernen Brammenkokillen 2.1 2.2 2.3 Einleitung Vorbereitung der Versuchsblcke/-proben Bestimmung der Werkstoffeigenschaften durch die British Cast Iron Research Association (Britische Forschungsgesellschaft fr Gueisen, B.C.I.R.A.) 2.3.1 2.3.2 3. Aufzeichnungen des Versuchsverfahrens Besprechung der Eigenschaften der Versuchsblcke

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3 4 5 5 5

Bestimmung der Kokillendimensionen 3.1 3.2 Herkmmliche Meverfahren Messung des internen Profils der Brammenkokillen mit Hilfe der speziell konstruierten Kokillenprofilmeinstrumente.

4.

Instrumentierung der Brammenkokillen fr Versuche im Betrieb 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Bedarf an Kokilleninstrumentierung Fr den Versuch gewhlte Kokillentypen Temperaturmeinstrumente Spannungsmeinstrumente Einzelheiten der Kokilleninstrumentierung Anordnung der Versuchskokillen whrend dem Gieen

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Ergebnisse der instrumentierten Kokillenversuche 5.1 492 Flaschenhalskokille (durchschnittliche Kokillenhaltbarkeit im Betrieb, 120 Erwrmungen) 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.2 Messungen der Kokillentemperaturen Dehnungsmesserergebnisse Dimensionale berprfung der Kokillen

Tj offene Kokille (durchschnittliche Kokillenhaltbarkeit im Betrieb, 84 Erwrmungen) 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 Messung der Kokillentemperaturen Dehnungsmessermessungen Dimensionale berprfung der Kokillen

5.3

U5 Flaschenhalskokille (durchschnittliche Kokillenhaltbarkeit im Betrieb, 96 Erwrmungen) 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 Messung der Kokillentemperaturen Dehnungsmessermessungen Dimensionale berprfung der Kokillen

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5.4

V3/48I offene Kokille (durchschnittliche Kokillenhalt barkeit im Betrieb, 103 Erwrmungen 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 Messung der Kokillentemperaturen Dehnungsmessermessungen Dimensionale berprfung der Kokillen

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Stellungsnahme zu den gemessenen Spannungswerten und den Versagensmustern der Kokillen 5.5.1 5.5.2 Gemessene Spannungen Versagensmuster der Kokillen

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6.

Finite Elementsuntersuchung (als Nebenvertrag an die Firma Design Audit Limited vergeben) 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 berblick der finiten Elementsuntersuchungen Kokillenauswahl Ableitung der Temperaturverteilung in der Kokille Ableitung der thermischen Beanspruchungsanalyse 492 Kokille 3dimensionale Modelluntersuchungen Ti Kokille, Untersuchung der thermischen Beanspruchungs analyse 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7 Kokille, horizontaler Querschnitt an der mittleren Hhe Modifizierte Tj Kokille Ti Kokille, Auswirkung der Plastizitt

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Empfohlenes Entwurfsverfahren

7.

Einflu der physikalischen Eigenschaftsdaten auf die thermischen Beanspruchungsausmae der 492 Kokille 7.1 492 Kokille, 2dimensionale Analyse unter Einsatz von sphroidischen Graphiteigenschaften 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.2 Ableitung der Temperaturverteilung in der Kokille Thermische Beanspruchungsanalyse Modifizierte 492 Kokille

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492 Kokille, 2dimensionale Analyse kompakt gemachte Graphiteigenschaften

8.

Schlufolgerungen Literaturverzeichnis Tabellen Abbildungen Anhnge

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Aufstellung der Tabellen 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16. 17. 18. 19.

Seite 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Vergleich zwischen dem Gefge der Versuchskokillen und den Testblcken Abweichung des Elastizittsmoduls und der thermischen Leitfhigkeit fr sphroidische und kompakt gemachte Graugueisen Einzelheiten der in den Betriebsversuchen benutzten Kokillentypen Tiefe der Lcher fr Einsatz der Thermoelemente Befestigungsmethode der Dehnungsmesser (gleich fr alle vier Versuchskokillen) Zusammenfassung der Versuche - Kokillentyp 492 Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - 492 Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (maximum) Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - 492 Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungwerte (0,2 Stunden) Zusammenfassung der Versuche - Kokillentyp Ti Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - Ti Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (maximum) Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - Ti Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (0,2 Stunden) Zusammenfassung der Versuche - Kokillentyp U5 Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - U5 Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (maximum) Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - U5 Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (0,2 Stunden) Zusammenfassung der Versuche - Kokillentyp V3/48I Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - V3/48I Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (maximum) Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - V3/48I Kokille Spannungs- und Beanspruchungswerte (0,2 Stunden) Zusammenfassung der Dehnungsmesserergebnisse - Maximale Spannungswerte Von der Firma Design Audit Limited benutzte physikalische Eigenschaften fr die finite Elementsanalyse der thermischen Beanspruchung in den 492 (Flaschenhals) und Ti (offener^ Kokillen Zusammenfassung des sphroidischen Graphitgusses physikalische Eigenschaften des Eisens 492 Kokille, horizontales Modell, Beanspruchungsverteilung an den Knoten, mittlere Hhe 492 Kokille, horizontales Modell, Beanspruchungsverteilung an den Knoten, mittlere Hhe Zusammenfassung der physikalischen Eigenschaften kompakt gemachter Graphitgu 492 Kokille, horizontales Modell, Beanspruchungsverteilung, mittlere Hhe Berechnungsbogen 1 - 4

40 41 42 43 44

45

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Anhang der Tabellen A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 492 Kokille, horizontales Modell, BeanspruchungsVerteilung an den Knoten (mittlere Hhe) Beanspruchungskonzentration am Eckpunkt der Kokille Typ 492 (mittlere Hhe) Wrmebertragungsdaten fr die axisymmetrische Analyse Ti Kokille, 2-dimensionales, horizontales Modell, mittlere Hhe, Beanspruchungsverteilung an den Knoten Beanspruchungskonzentration am Eckpunkt der Kokille Typ Ti (mittlere Hhe)

Seite 152 153 154 155 156

Berechnungsbogen A2.1 - A2.15

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Aufstellung der Abbildungen 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Seite 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68

Position, wo die Probenblcke von den breiten, schmalen Wnden der Brammenkokille Typ 561 geschnitten wurden Allgemeine Ansicht der Instrumente fr Messung des Profils der Brammenkokillenflchen Ansicht der Mekopfanordnung der Meinstrumente fr das Kokillenprofil Verhltnis zwischen der anscheinenden Spannung und der Temperatur Verhltnis zwischen der % Vernderung des Eichfaktors und der Temperatur Flaschenhalskokille, fr Instrumentierung mit Thermoelementen und Dehnungsmessern Offene Kokille fr Instrumentierung mit Thermoelementen und Dehnungsmessern Allgemeine Ansicht der instrumentierten Kokille und des isolierten Gehuses fr die Instrumente Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 8 bis 11) Lage unten an der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 16 bis 18) Lage unten am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 19 bis 21) Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 22 bis 25) Lage unten an der Breitwand Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 492 (2) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Vergleich zwischen den Memethoden der Oberflchentemperatur Kokillentyp 492, Flaschenhals (Dchnungsmcsscrkanal 1 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 492, Flaschenhals (Dehnungsmesserkanal 4 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp 492, Flaschenhals (Dehnungsmesserkanal 6 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen interne Kokillenwnde 1. schmale Nordwand 492

69 22. 2. schmale Sdwand 492 Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen interne Kokillenwnde 1. breite Westwand 492 492 23. 2. breite Ostwand Kokillentyp (Ol),offen (Thermoelementkanle 8 bis 11) 24. Lage unten an der Schmalwand Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) 25. Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 16 bis 18) 26. Lage unten am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 19 bis 21) Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt

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FR 95 6 831

C 7210. A/813 bis 25) bis 29) bis 15) bis 29 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 Kokillenwnde
QO

27. Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 22 Lage unten an der Breitwand 28. Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 26 Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand 29. Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 12 Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand 30. Kokillentyp (Ol), offen (Thermoelementkanle 26 Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand 31. Kokillentyp 1 offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 1 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand 32. Kokillentyp Tl offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 4 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt 33. Kokillentyp Tl offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 6 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand 34. Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen interne 1. schmale Nordwand Ti 35.

36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

2. schmale Sdwand Ti Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen interne Kokillenwnde 1. breite Westwand Ti 2. breite Ostwand Ti Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 8 bis 11) 84 Lage unten an der Schmalwand Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) 85 Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 16 bis 18) 86 Lage unten am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 19 bis 21) 87 Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 22 bis 25) 88 Lage unten an der Breitwand Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) 89 Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) 90 Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp (U5) Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) 91 Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Kokillentyp U5, Flaschenhals (Dehnungsmesserkanal 1 92 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp U5, Flaschenhals (Dehnungsmesserkanal 4 93 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe am Eckpunkt Kokillentyp U5, Flaschenhals (Dehnungsmesserkanal 6 94 horizontal) Lage mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Abweichungen von den normalen Dimensionen interne Kokillenwnde 1. schmale Nordwand U5 2. schmale Sdwand U5 95 Abweichungen von den normalen Dimensionen interne Kokillenwnde 1. breite Westwand Us 96 2. breite Ostwand U5 Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 8 bis 11) 97 Lage unten an der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) 98 Lage mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 16 bis 18) 99 Lage unten am Eckpunkt. Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 19 bis 21) 100 Lage mittlere Hhe des Eckpunktes Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 22 bis 25) 101 Lage unten an der Breitwand xxxvi

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54. Kokillentyp 481 (V3), offen (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) 102 Lage - mittlere Hhe der Breitwand 55. Kokillentyp V3, offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 1 103 horizontal) Lage - mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand 56. Kokillentyp V3, offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 4 104 horizontal) Lage - mittlere Hhe des Eckpunktes 57. Kokillentyp V3, offen (Dehnungsmesserkanal 6 105 horizontal) Lage - mittlere Hhe der Breitwand 58. Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen - interne Kokillenwnde 1. schmale Nordwand - 481 (V) 2. schmale Sdwand - 481 (V) 59. Abweichung von den normalen Dimensionen - interne Kokillenwnde 1. breite Westwand - 481 (V) 107 2. breite Ostwand - 481 (V) 60. Vergleich zwischen den vorhergesagten und gemessenen 108 Spannungswerten (492 Kokille, mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand) 61. Durchschnittliche Haltbarkeit gegen die maximal gemessene 109 Spannung an der mittleren Hhe der Breitwand der Brammenkokillen Typ 492, V4, U5 und Tl 62. Vergleich der vorhergesagten und gemessenen Spannungswerte 110 (Tl Kokille, mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand) 63. Geometrie des horizontalen Querschnittes an der mittleren 111 Hhe fr die Kokille Typ 492 64. 2-dimensionales Gradnetz fr die Kokille Typ 492 112 65. Mit dem Rechner vorhergesagtes Temperaturprofil fr die 492 113 Kokille nach 720 Sekunden 66. 492 Kokille, mittlere Hhe der Breitwand - Gltigkeits114 ergebnisse 67. Vergleich der vorhergesagten und gemessenen Spannungswerte 115 (492 Kokille, mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand - revidierte thermische Eigenschaften des Kokilleneisens fr sphroidische Graphiteisen) 68. Vergleich der vorhergesagten und gemessenen Spannungswerte 116 (492 Kokille, mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand) Anhang der Abbildungen Al.l Al.2 AI.3 AI.4 AI.5 AI.6 AI.7 A2.1 A2.2 A2.3 A2.4 A2.5 A2.6 Vorbereitung der aus dem Brammenkokilleneisen abgenommenen Probe Beanspruchungs/Spannungsverhltnis - Breitwandprobe Ausdehnungs-und Kontraktionsweiterentwicklung - 20C 900C - 2O 0 C, Breitwandprobe Mikrogefge der Breitwandprobe (x 20 getzt, 4% Pikral) Beanspruchungs/Spannungsverhltnis - Schmalwandprobe Ausdehnungs-und Kontraktionsweiterentwicklung - 20C 9OO 0 C - 20C, Schmalwandprobe Mikrogefge der Schmalwandprobe (x 20 getzt, 4% Pikral) Dimensionen der 492 Flaschenhalskokille Dimensionen der offenen 481 (V3) Kokille Dimensionen der U5 Flaschenhalskokille Dimensionen der offenen Tl Kokille Kokillentyp 492(2) - Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 8 bis 11) Lage - unten an der Schmalwand Kokillentyp 492(2) - Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 12 bis 15) Lage - mittlere Hhe der Schmalwand xxxvii 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 172 173 174 175 176 177

FR 95 6 831 A2.7 A2.8 A2.9 A2.10 A2.11 A2.12 A2.13 A2.14 A2.15 A2.16 A2.17 A2.18 A2.19 A2.20 A2.21 A2.22 A2.23 A2.24 A2.25 A2.26 A2.27 A2.28 A2.29 A2.30 A2.31 A2.32 A2.33 A2.34 A2.35 A2.36 A2.37

7210.CA/813 178 179 ISO 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 19 3 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208

Kokillentyp 492(2) - Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 22 bis 25) Lage - unten an der Breitwand Kokillentyp 492(2) - Flaschenhals (Thermoelementkanle 26 bis 29) Lage - mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Thermische Geflle Entwurfsverfahren Schematisches Diagramm eines Querschnittes durch die Kokille Thermische Leitfhigkeit der Luft bei lOOO bar Konvektiver Wrmeverlustkoeffizient als eine Funktion der Wandtemperatur Strahlungswrmeverlustkoeffizient als eine Funktion der Wandtemperatur Temperaturprofile der Breitwand an der mittleren Hhe fr 0 - 1st, 492 Kokille Temperaturprofile der Breitwand an der mittleren Hhe fr 1 - lOst, 492 Kokille Durchschnittliche Kokillentemperatur als eine Funktion der Zeit - mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Durchschnittliche Kokillentemperatur als eine Funktion der Zeit - mittlere Hhe der Breitwand Spezifisches Wrmevermgen fr sphroidisches Graphit und Flockenrisse - Graphitgueisen Kokille 492, mittlere Hhe der Breitwand - Gltigkeitsergebnisse Dimensionen der Kokille Typ 492 Geometrie des horizontalen Querschnittes an der mittleren Hhe fr die Kokille 492 2-dimensionales Gradnetz fr die Kokille Typ 492 Mit dem Rechner vorhergesagtes Temperaturprofil nach 30 Minuten, 492 Kokille Abweichung der 0,2%. Elastizittsgrenze durch die Temperatur Dimensionen der in der axisymmetrischen Analyse benutzten Kokille und Grundplatte, 492 Kokille Gradnetz fr die axisymmetrische Analyse, 492 Kokille Temperaturverteilung fr die axisymmetrische Analyse der 492 Kokille, mittlere Hhe Vergleich der horizontalen Beanspruchungen - 492 Kokille bei 180 Sekunden Vergleich der horizontalen Beanspruchungen - 492 Kokille bei 720 Sekunden Vergleich der horizontalen Beanspruchungen - 492 Kokille bei 3600 Sekunden Grte, absolute Hauptbeanspruchung nach 720 Sekunden 492 Kokille Geometrie der Tl Kokille an der mittleren Hhe Fintes Elementsgradnetz fr die Tl Kokille, mittlere Hhe Maximale, absolute Hauptbeanspruchung nach 720 Sekunden, Tl Kokille, mittlere Hhe 3-dimensionales Gradnetz fr die 492 Kokille und Grundplatte Temperaturprofile der Breitwand an der mittleren Hhe fr die Kokille Typ 492

xxxvm

FR 95 6 831 A2.38 Temperaturprofile der Schmalwand an der mittleren Hhe fr die Kokille Typ 492 A2.39 Temperaturprofile der Breitwand am Mittelpunkt fr die Kokille Typ 492 nach 720 Sekunden A2.40 Temperaturprofile der Schmalwand am Mittelpunkt fr die Kokille Typ 492 nach 720 Sekunden A2.41 Von Mises Beanspruchung 492 Kokillentyp, Schmalwand, mittlere Hhe, Zeit = 720 Sekunden A2.42 Von Mises Beanspruchung 492 Kokillentyp, Breitwand, mittlere Hhe, Zeit = 720 Sekunden A2.43 Von Mises Beanspruchungen dicht am Hals der 492 Kokille A2.44 Von Mises Beanspruchungen dicht am Fu der 492 Kokille A2.45 Von Mises Beanspruchung an der mittleren Hhe, Zeit = 720 Sekunden, 492 Kokille A2.46 Von Mises Beanspruchung unten an der 492 Kokille A2.47 Maximale, absolute Hauptbeanspruchung an der mittleren Hhe, Zeit = 720 Sekunden, 492 Kokille A2.48 Maximale, absolute Hauptbeanspruchung unten, Zeit = 720 Sekunden, 492 Kokille A2.49 Abweichung des durch die Position an der mittleren Hhe, Zeit = 720ZSekunden, 492 Kokille A2.50 Abweichung des durch die Position unten, Zeit = 720

7210.CA/813 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228

Sekunden, 492 Konille

A2.51 Von Mises Beanspruchung bei einer Hhe von 2.168m vom Fu der 492 Kokille A2.52 Beanspruchungskonturdiagramm des 492 Kokillenhalses A2.53 Verlagerung der Tl Kokille mit der Plastizittsanalyse nach 720 Sekunden vorhergesagt A2.54 Verlagerte Form (gepunktet) der Tl Kokille nach Abkhlung in Raumtemperatur A2.55 Finites Elementsgradnetz fr die modifizierte Tl Kokille (Originalprofil wird als gepunktet gezeigt) A2.56 Maximale, absolute Hauptbeanspruchungskontur Tl Kokille A2.57 Tl Kokille, mittlere Hhe, Beanspruchungs und Tempera profile durch die Kokillenwand zur Zeit der maximalen Beanspruchung (Knoten 61) 2B.1 2B.2 2B.3 2B.4 2B.5 2B.6 Thermische Leitfhigkeit des Gueisens Schematisches Diagramm eines Querschnittes durch die Kokille Thermische Leitfhigkeit der Luft bei 1000 bar Konvektiver Wrmeverlustkoeffizient als eine Funktion der Wandtemperatur Strahlungswrmeverlustkoeffizient als eine Funktion der Kokillenwandtemperatur Spezifisches Wrmevermgen fr sphroidisches Graphit und Flockenrisse Graphitgueisen

229 230 231 232 233 234

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ESTABLISHMENT OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR LARGE SLAB TYPE INGOT MOULDS British Steel Corporation ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/813 Final Technical Report.

1.

INTRODUCTION

When considering the performance of ingot moulds, it has become increasingly apparent over the recent years that there are significant benefits to be gained in using iron types other than the conventional flake graphite iron. In addition to a large amount of experience with the use of flake graphite iron moulds, the British Steel Corporation has also had considerable experience with the use of compacted graphite irons, mainly for medium and large slab type ingot moulds and with spheroidal graphite iron, mainly for small square section moulds. Plant trials have shown that ingot mould designs developed for flake graphite iron are in many cases not suitable to take maximum advantage of the improved material properties of the other types of iron and there is great scope for increases in average mould life and reductions in mould iron costs per tonne of steel produced. Studies carried out previously in BSC have been concerned with specific mould designs in flake graphite iron. The advantages of compacted graphite irons, in terms of mould life, have already been established in a trial with 500 moulds of several types conducted within the Corporation. However, it is evident that the relationship between mould design, microstructure and usage conditions is important in designing moulds for a specific application and that scope exists for the further improvement of mould iron consumption by establishing the correct design criteria for such irons. The objective of this research programme was to establish design parameters for large slab type ingot moulds, primarily for moulds made from compacted graphite iron, by means of plant and laboratory studies, with the aim of calibrating and adapting a finite element stress analysis package to establish a design procedure. The work programme carried out for this project was as follows:(i) Determination of Properties (Section 2)

Laboratory measurements of physical and mechanical properties of mould iron up to elevated temperatures were carried out by the British Cast Iron Research Association and their results are detailed in Appendix 1. (ii) Determination of Mould Dimensions (Section 3)

The main dimensions were derived from the foundry engineering drawings and further checks were made on trial moulds prior to plant usage. Additional mould profile measurements were made during the course of the trials. (iii) Instrumentation of Moulds for Trials (Section 4) The four mould types chosen for the trials, the selection of temperature and strain measuring equipment, mould instrumentation procedures and the arrangements for carrying out the trials in the steelworks teeming and stripping bays are described.

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(iv)

Results of Instrumented Mould Trials

(Sections 5) Details of mould

Thirty-three instrumented mould plant trials were carried out. temperature and strain measurements are given. (v) Finite Element- Studies (Sections 6 and 7)

Design Audit Limited were sub-contracted to interpret the practical results of the mould trials and the material properties data using finite element computer packages to establish mould thermal stresses and develop a procedure for the design/modification of ingot moulds. The results of this work are discussed in Section 6 of this report, and the derivation of the design procedure is given in detail in Appendix 2. Additional Welsh Laboratory studies are given in Section 7. The original Technical Annex for this research programme included the following additional items which have not been studied. (a) (b) (c) The extension of a 2-D finite difference thermal model for the prediction of temperature gradients through the mould wall. The feasibility of including fracture mechanics calculations in the finite element model, for prediction of failure mechanisms. Metallographic examinations of trial moulds after failure to establish changes in microstructure.

It was not possible to include the above in the work programme due to the reduced funding and time scale allocated to this project. 2. 2.1. DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR INGOT MOULD CAST IRON Introduction

Literature surveys established that there was little published data on properties for compacted graphite irons so it was decided to obtain test blocks of that material and have property determinations carried out by "The British Cast Iron Research Association" on a sub-contract basis. The material properties required were:(i) Tensile tests, including stress/strain curves. (ii) Modulus of elasticity (iii)Density (iv) Poissons Ratio (v) Thermal conductivity (vi) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (vii)Specific heat The test blocks were to be obtained from a mould which had been scrapped at the foundry. Occasionally a newly cast mould is scrapped due to a partial run-out of metal from the sand mould or a shortage of liquid iron to complete the casting. In this situation the mould material is of good quality, but the dimensional requirements are not achieved. Other methods of obtaining test blocks, e.g.casting them at the foundry were considered to be unsatisfactory as there would be little chance that they would be representative of the structure and properties of an actual mould. 2.2. Preparation of Test Blocks/Samples

The mould that the samples were obtained from was a 561 type, scrapped because of a short-fall in the amount of liquid iron required to complete the casting. This mould had been allowed to cool normally in its box and sand jacket so the iron structure would be expected to be as for a normal ingot mould.

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Using a special oxy-acetylene burner at 'Gabelin' Works, Ebbw Vale, suitable test blocks were obtained about 400mm 400mm the mould wall thickness. The blocks were cut from the centre area of one broad face and one narrow face of the mould, see Fig.l. These positions should be representative for this mould as a whole as regards structure and properties. The blocks were reduced by milling and cutting on a mechanical saw to 300mm 300mm mould wall thickness which ensured that the heat affected zone due to the burning process was completely removed. The test blocks were then despatched to the British Cast Iron Research Association for cutting up and testing. Table 1 gives a comparison of the structures of the four moulds used for the plant trials and the test blocks. The ultra-sonic velocity test resultsi1) indicated that the test block material and one of the trial moulds were largely spheroidal graphite and the other three trial moulds were largely compacted graphite. The ultra-sonic velocity test is a non-destructive testing method for the determination of the graphite form in cast iron. Typical velocity figures (km/s) for different iron types are as follows: Flake graphite iron Compacted graphite iron Spheroidal graphite iron less than 4.9 4.9 to 5.2 5.3 or greater

These figures are approximate as they can vary slightly with section thickness. Although it was intended to measure properties for compacted graphite test blocks the spheroidal graphite blocks were used because it was considered unlikely at that time that further material would be obtainable due to the depressed state of the UK Iron and Steel Industry. This was borne out by events. The properties of spheroidal graphite iron are nearer to those for compacted graphite than to those for flake graphite iron and even though a lot of information is available on the properties of spheroidal graphite iron in general, little data exists on the properties of spheroidal graphite ingot mould irons. 2.3. Material Property Determinations by British Cast Iron Research Association (B.C.I.R.A.)

The results of material properties from the two test blocks are detailed in Appendix 1. 2.3.1. (i) Notes on Test Procedures

Tensile Tests

The tests were carried out on standard test bars of 0.798 inches diameter (20.296mm) to British Standards specification BS.1452/1961 - Testing of grey iron castings. The maximum test temperature was limited to 800C. Above this temperature the plasticity of the test specimen is too high for the test to proceed. Due to the coarse graphite structure the results show a fairly low tensile strength and elongation for this type of iron. (ii) Modulus of Elasticity

The two results, at 20C, were calculated from stress/strain data and sonic resonance data, the latter method, developed by BCIRA, gives the most accurate results. After subsequent discussions with BCIRA, recommended values were also obtained for the likely variation of Modulus of Elasticity with temperature, for spheroidal graphite iron. Additional information on the variation of modulus of elasticity with temperature for compacted graphite iron was obtained from a British Steel Corporation source (see Table 2).

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(iii)

Density

This was determined at 20C by direct measurement using standard apparatus. (iv) Ultrasonic Velocity

This test, developed by BCIRA, gives an indication of the graphite form in the cast iron. The quoted values confirmed that the graphite form of the two test blocks was largely spheroidal. (v) Poisson's Ratio

This was an estimated value (at 20C) from a search of published data. (vi) Thermal Conductivity

The values were determined by the BCIRA standard test employing the guard tube method. The maximum temperature was limited to 500C to avoid significant structural changes due to heating of the test pieces. Additional information on the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for compacted graphite iron was obtained from recently published work by BCIRA and is shown together with the mean values for the test blocks in Table 2. (vii) Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion The BCIRA standard method was employed based on the use of a dilatometer. The maximum test temperature was restricted to 600C due to limitations of the equipment used. (viii) Specific Heat The BCIRA standard method was used employing the guard tube technique. Further details of this test are given in Appendix 1. The maximum test temperature was 900C. 2.3.2. Discussions on Properties of Test Blocks

Since the test block iron structure was largely spheroidal graphite the test results only represent the structure of the Us trial mould. The structures of the 492, Ti and V3/481 trial moulds were largely compacted graphite. The implications of this are discussed below. The properties which would be expected to be significantly different for the two iron types are tensile properties, modulus of elasticity and thermal conductivity. (i) Tensile Tests

The tensile test results for the spheroidal graphite test pieces were relatively low for this type of material. The test block samples showed a tensile strength of 305 N/mm2 with 2% elongation, however, the range of properties for ingot mould spheroidal graphite cast iron can extend to about 425 N/mm2 tensile strength and 8% elongation depending upon the composition and structure of the iron. The tensile properties of the test blocks can be regarded as being more typical of compacted graphite than spheroidal graphite iron. (ii) Modulus of Elasticity Values for compacted graphite iron are lower than those for spheroidal graphite iron and are given in Table 2. (iii) Density Density would be expected to be very similar for both types of iron.

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(iv) Ultrasonic Velocity The ultrasonic velocity would be expected to be lower for compacted graphite iron. (v) Poisson's Ratio

This would be expected to be similar for both types of iron. (vi) Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity values for compacted graphite iron are higher than those of spheroidal graphite iron due to the interconnection of the graphite flakes. Values are given in Table 2. (vii) Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion This would be expected to be very similar for both types of iron. (viii) Specific Heat This would be expected to be very similar for both types of iron. 3. 3.1. DETERMINATION OF MOULD DIMENSIONS Conventional Measuring Techniques

The nominal mould dimensions were obtained from the foundry engineering drawings. The inner and outer dimensions at the base and top of trial moulds, height, wall and corner thicknesses were checked using a steel measuring tape. A simple caliper device was used to obtain wall thickness measurements at 450 mm from the base. In the case of bottle top moulds, expanding steel measuring rods were used to check the inside dimensions near the top of the mould at a point where the cross-section changes to the bottle-top shape. Results are given in Section 5 of the report. 3.2. (i) Measurement of Internal Profile of Ingot Moulds using Specially Constructed Mould Profilometer Equipment Description of Equipment

This equipment was manufactured in the Welsh Laboratory Workshop specifically for use on this project, to measure profiles during the mould life cycle. The equipment comprises a 2.75 m long rigid beam along which is traversed (by chain and sprocket drive) a block to which is clamped a 20 mm diameter displacement transducer fitted with a wheel type follower. The beam is levelled by means of jacks and positioned by adjustable bracing arms. The transducer is then traversed along the mould wall and the signal passed to a pen recorder which records the surface profile. Fig. 2 shows a general view of the equipment and Fig. 3 the measuring head. The equipment is electrically operated via a motor and gearbox and requires a 240v supply. The equipment is capable of measuring the mould profile to within 0.1mm. ( i i) Method for Measuring Mould Profile

The mould to be measured is laid down on its side (normally broad wall down for stability reasons) and the profilometer is positioned and suitably braced on the centre line of the wall facing the ground. The aim is for the transducer to traverse along a measured distance from as near to one end as possible (the open end in the case of a bottle top mould) to as near as possible to the other end of the mould (in the case of a bottle top the end of the straight portion). A suitable speed and sensitivity is selected and after a dummy run the transducer is traversed over the measured distance, starting the pen chart when it reaches the start point and stopping the pen when it reaches the end point. By

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disconnecting the transducer and mounting it in the opposite direction the same procedure can be used to obtain a profile of the face above. The profilometer is then re-positioned to enable a trace to be carried out on each of the narrow faces in turn. Results are discussed in Section 5 of this report. 4. 4.1. INSTRUMENTATION.OF INGOT MOULDS FOR PLANT TRIALS Requirements for Mould Instrumentation

The aim of the plant trial work was to attach thermocouples and strain gauges to ingot moulds and to continually measure temperatures and strains developed during plant usage cycles. Trials would be conducted where the ingot was left in the mould to cool to low temperature and where the mould was stripped from the ingot as in normal practice. These measurements would be supplemented by further temperature measurement of the outer mould surfaces using "AGA" Thermovision and Thermoprofile cameras and 'Land' Gold Cup thermometers and pyrometers. The measured values of temperature and strain would be used to calibrate mathematical models for deriving temperature and stress and profiles which could then be used to establish design parameters for ingot moulds. 4.2. Mould Types Chosen for Trial

Four different mould types were chosen for the trial, two open top moulds and two bottle top moulds. Details of mould dimensions, mould life and modes of failure are shown in Table 3. Note the difference in aspect ratio for these moulds. The 492 mould gives the best plant performance (Aspect ratio 1.32) with the major mode of failure being crazing of the inner walls. The Ti mould gives the poorest performance (Aspect ratio 1.70), the major modes of failure being horizontal cracking on the broad walls associated with inwards distortion of the broad walls in many cases. All four mould types have the lifting lugs on the broad walls and the broad walls face outwards on the casting bogies. 4.3. (i) Temperature Measuring Equipment Thermocouples

The aim was to have thermocouples sited on the outside surface of the mould, in the mid-thickness of the wall and 6mm from the inner face. The thermocouples used were 3mm diameter type "K" (nickel chromium versus nickel aluminium) 25/20 stainless steel sheathed, magnesium oxide insulated, with insulated junctions and h glazed seals to BS 4937, Part 4, and BS1041. The surface mounted thermocouples were 1.5mm diameter. Holes of 4.5mm diameter were drilled in the moulds to allow the insertion of the thermocouples at depths from the outer face of approximately 25mm, 110mm and in the case of the broad and narrow wall positions to within about 6mm of the inner face, see Table 4. (i i) Additional Temperature Measuring Equipment 'Land' Gold Cup Thermometers and Pyrometers were used for external temperature measurements on the trial moulds. An AGA Thermovision camera was used to obtain a thermal picture of the outside surfaces of the trial mould. Two different lenses were used a 10angle and a 25angle of view. Instant thermograms were obtained using an autocolour attachment with Polaroid colour film packs. An AGA Thermoprofile camera was used to obtain reference temperatures for calibration of the thermograms. Both of these cameras could be operated using a mains supply or with portable generators. 4.4. Strain Measuring Equipment

As a pre-requisite to the use of strain gauges, particularly for high temperature applications it is essential to obtain as much information as possible on the performance of the gauges and the correct method of application of the gauges to structural surfaces. The choice of high temperature strain gauges which are

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commercially available is limited. The full bridge gauge selected was supplied by Baldwin, Lima, & Hamilton Electronics, U.S.A. The gauge is of the electrical resistance type on a weldable steel shim with an operating range of up to 650C. Tests have been conducted to determine temperature compensation required under transient heating conditions (with gauges attached to test pieces of cast iron) i.e. apparent strain induced by the differential thermal expansion between the gauge and the structure to which it is attached and the change in resistivity of the strain gauge grid conductor with temperature. Strain gauges were spot welded to a test block of compacted graphite iron (dimensions 50 100 x 25mm). The assembly was subjected to three repeated heating and cooling cycles (temperature range ambient to 565C) in a laboratory electrical resistance furnace. The relationship established between apparent strain and temperature is shown in Fig. 4. Correction factors for apparent strain variation with temperature and gauge factor variation with temperature are applied to the total strain measured by the strain gauge, to give the true strain. The gauge factor at ambient temperature was established by using a four point bending beam. This value was lower than the manufacturer's quoted figure. The gauge factor (K) is defined as the relationship between the resistance change and the change in strain in a resistance strain gauge and is expressed as:
K

-R

'

where R is the initial resistance of the installed gauge and L is the initial length of the installed gauge. The change in gauge factor with temperature was by reference to the manufacturer's specification and confirmed via communication with other users (Central Electricity Generating Board, Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories and International Research and Development, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne). The relationship between percentage change in gauge factor with temperature is illustrated in Fig.5. 4.5. Mould Instrumentation Details

The number of thermocouples and strain gauges that can be used for plant trials is limited by the type of data logger used. A Solartron compact logger 3430A was selected. The unit is small, robust, and easily transportable and has the advantage of being powered by internal re-chargeable batteries or mains supply. The logger can accept 30 analogue inputs and can accommodate seven different types of standard thermocouples. Cold junction compensation is automatically applied to the linearisation calculation. The logger can accept any combination of thermocouple or strain gauge inputs. Thermocouple outputs are in degrees centigrade and strain gauge outputs in volts. Measured data is recorded on a computer compatible magnetic tape cassette. It was decided that the best system would be to have 22 thermocouples and 8 strain gauges at three positions near the base of the mould and three positions at the mid-height of the mould (see Figures 6 and 7). The strain gauges were to be attached near to the positions of the thermocouples. To obviate the effect of variable residual stresses which may be present in the moulds as delivered from the foundry, the four trial moulds were subjected to one normal usage cycle before being instrumented. Each strain gauge was given a laboratory stabilization cycle prior to plant installation. This involved tack welding each gauge to a cast iron block and heating to 565C with a 24 hour soak. The strain gauges were then spot welded at the six different locations in the horizontal plane of the mould and two additional gauges were mounted in the vertical plane at the broad and narrow wall mid height positions, see Table 5. The orientation of the gauges was based upon the knowledge that when moulds fail by cracking it is predominantly for vertical cracking at mid-wall position at the base or top and in some cases horizontal cracks form at mid height on the broad walls.

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4.6.

Arrangements of Trial Moulds during Casting

Trials were carried out at two steelplants, Llanwern and Port Talbot. The cast weight at Port Talbot is 320 tonnes and 180 tonnes at Llanwern. The layout of the mould on the ingot bogie and the method of carrying out the trials was similar for both plants. Fig.8 being typical, shows the layout for the 492 mould at Port Talbot. The trial mould was placed at one end of the bogie on its base plate. The rest of the bogie was taken up by a bottle top mould laid on its side. This mould was used to house the instruments which had to be kept at a temperature below 25C and was covered with a thick layer of mineral insulating blanket with an outer covering of stainless steel sheeting secured by steel bands. The multicore high temperature insulated leads from the instruments were threaded through flexible galvanised steel conduit and connected at the mould end via an insulated junction box with ceramic connectors to the thermocouples and strain gauges. The flexible umbilical lead was 20m in length to allow for the mould to be stripped from the ingot and placed on the ground until the ingot had been removed. This arrangement worked satisfactorily as long as reasonable care was taken and meant that there was no interruption to data recording at stripping. The trial bogie was always placed at the end of a casting train to avoid exposing the open end of the instrument containing mould to higher than ambient temperatures and the next mould to the trial mould was always left empty to ensure that the heat loss from the adjacent side of the trial mould was not affected. The trial ingots were usually teemed either 3rd or 4th in the casting sequence to minimise any troubles with stopper control or short ingots or presence of slag. For the bottle top moulds rimming grades only were teemed and no water was sprayed on the caps before removal (possible damamge to strain gauges could result). With the open top moulds aluminium killed steels only were cast, again to avoid water damaging the strain gauges and leads. During and after stripping,the trial moulds were kept separate from other moulds to avoid any effect on their cooling cycle. 5. RESULTS OF INSTRUMENTED MOULD TRIALS 492 Bottle-Top Mould (Average mould life in service 120 heats)

5.1.

Twelve plant trials were carried out at Port Talbot works. In seven cases the mould was stripped at the normal time (minimum of 1.75 hrs) and the remaining five were allowed to cool in the mould before stripping. Rimming steel was teemed into the mould for all casts, with teeming temperatures varying from 1560C to 1575C. Table 6 gives brief details of the trials. The data logger was faulty for three of the trials and an incomplete ingot was teemed for one cast because of metal breakout between the mould and the base plate. 5.1.1. Mould Temperature Measurement

In general the thermocouple temperature measuring system performed well. The data, stored on cassette tape, was transferred to the Welsh Laboratory PDP 11/45 computer via a Texas Silent 700 reader. Appropriate software was developed to provide temperature versus time listings for each thermocouple and a graphical output of temperature versus time. A typical example of trial results from a cast in which the ingot was allowed to cool before stripping is illustrated in Figs 9 to 14. The mould temperature at start of casting was 13C. The temperature curves as expected indicate that the maximum temperature gradients occur at the mid height position of the narrow and broad walls. The temporary slight arrest in temperature after about 6 to 9 minutes at the position near the inside wall for both narrow wall (Fig.9) and broad wall (Fig.13) at the base positions is probably associated with the formation of the air gap between mould and ingot. There is also a marked change in the rate of temperature rise after 9 minutes at the inside

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faces for both narrow and broad walls at the mid height position (Figs. 10 & 14) which must be as a result of the air gap formation. The maximum mould temperatures achieved for this cast were at the mid-height position for the broad, wall and were 861C and 530C at 2.50 and 3.80 hours for the inner and outer faces respectively. Figs.15 and 16 show mid-height narrow and mid-height broad wall results from a trial in which the mould was stripped at the normal time (after 2.12 hours). As expected the temperature of the inner surface falls off very rapidly to a level approaching that of the thermocouple inserted at mid wall thickness. At approximately 24 hrs after stripping, the mould temperature dropped to about 50C; a suitable temperature for recycling the mould. It is interesting to note that in the case where the ingot is allowed to cool in the mould the time taken to achieve a temperature of about 50C is 75 hours. In addition to thermocouple measurements, checks were made on the outside surface of the mould using a gold cup pyrometer or thermometer. An AGA Thermovision unit was also used to check the thermal pattern on the mould outer surface in conjunction with an AGA Thermoprofile camera to give the hottest spot reference temperature. The Gold Cup pyrometer would be expected to give the best agreement with the thermocouples but it must be noted that it gives the mean temperature of an area 51mm in diameter. A statistical comparison was made between temperatures measured by the thermocouples and by Gold Cup Pyrometer, Thermovision and Thermoprofile. The results are shown in Fig.17. A table is included showing for each comparison the mean difference, the standard deviation of the mean difference and the significance of the mean difference. The graph in Fig.17 shows a line through the origin representing an exact agreement between comparisons. The actual differences measured are plotted about the line. A statistical analysis (that is a paired comparison 't' test) was carried out for each set of results. For the Gold cup and Thermovision comparison with thermocouple measurements the differences were not statistically significant but for the Thermoprofile comparison the difference was significant at the 0.1% level. 5.1.2. Strain Gauge Results

Strain gauge data was transferred to the PDP 11/45 computer via cassette tape and appropriate software was developed to provide gauge output in millivolts and subsequently to convert to true strain (micro strain). Some variability in results was experienced during the trials mainly due to the particularly hostile environment of liquid steel casting operations. Table 7 shows the mean maximum strain and calculated stress values for each of the eight gauges. Table 8 shows the mean strain and calculated stress values for 0.2 hours after casting. The latter table is to allow a comparison of measured stresses with those calculated by use of the finite element thermal stress analysis (see Section 6). Examples of typical measurements are illustrated in Figs.18-20 for the mid-height positions for a time period of 0 to 0.5 hrs after casting. Surface strain levels increase rapidly after casting, then begin to decrease. The pattern is different for each of the three figures with the peak strain occurring first for the corner position followed by the narrow wall and at a later interval by the broad wall. The strain falls off fairly sharply for the corner, to a lesser degree for the narrow wall and much more slowly for the broad wall. 5.1.3. Mould Dimensional Checks

The measured dimensions of the mould showed some variation from the nominal values due to casting tolerances, the main difference of any real consequence being that the broad wall thickness was 9.0mm greater for the instrumented face and less by an equivalent amount for the opposite face. This was caused by misalignment of the mould core before casting at the foundry during manufacture and could result in the mould giving a poorer than normal performance. The results of the mould internal profile checks taken when the mould was new and then repeated after ten casts indicated that the change in dimensions was very small, a maximum of 0.25mm, and could not be regarded as being significant. (See Figures 21 and 22).

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5.2.

Ti Open Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 84 Heats)

Six plant trials were carried out with the Ti mould at Llanwern Works. With four of the casts the ingots were stripped at the normal time (a minimum of 4.8 hours for killed steel and 2.3 hours for rimming steel) and for the remaining two casts the ingots were allowed to cool in the mould before stripping. Killed steel was teemed into the mould for the first five casts and rimming steel for the final cast. Teeming temperatures varied from 1555 to 1575C. Details for the trials are shown in Table 9. A lot of data was lost on the last cast because of damage due to water ingress into the flexible cabling and metal boil-over. 5.2.1. Mould Temperature Measurement

In general the thermocouple measuring system performed well. A good example of trial results for a cast in which the ingot was allowed to cool in the mould before stripping is shown in Figs. 23-28. The mould temperature at the start of casting was 30C. The maximum temperature gradients occurred at the centre mid-height positions of the narrow and broad walls. Slight arrests in temperature occurred for the thermocouple positions near the inside face at the base of the narrow wall (Fig.23) and the base of the broad wall (Fig.27) and at mid height of the narrow wall, at 6 to 9 minutes after teem (Fig. 24). A change in the rate of temperature rise for the broad wall mid-height position occurred at 9 minutes (Fig. 28). These changes are again assumed to be as a consequence of the air gap formation between ingot and mould. The maximum mould temperatures recorded for this cast were at the broad wall mid-height position and were 888C and 628C at 3.22 and 4.7 hours for the inner and outer faces respectively. Figures 29 and 30 show the results for mid-height narrow and broad walls for a trial in which the mould was stripped at the normal time (after 4.68 hours). The rapid drop in temperature of the inside faces after stripping can be observed. At approximately 20 hours after stripping the mould temperature had dropped to about 50C. Where the ingot was allowed to cool in the mould the time taken to cool to a temperature of around 50C was greater than 71 hours. Additional temperature measurements taken on the outside surfaces of the mould using a Gold Cup Pyrometer and thermovision and thermoprofile cameras gave good agreement with the thermocouple measurements. 5.2.2. Strain Gauge Measurements

As with the 492 mould there was some variability in the results obtained from the strain gauges. Table 10 shows the mean maximum strain and calculated stress values each of the eight gauges. Table 11 shows the mean strain and calculated stress values for 0.2 hours after casting. Examples of typical measurements are shown in Figs. 31-33 for the mid height positions for a time interval of 0.5 hours after casting. Strain levels increase rapidly after casting to a maximum value then start to decrease. The peak strain occurs first for the corner gauge then a little later for both the narrow and broad walls. For this mould type the curves for narrow and broad walls are similar in shape. 5.2.3. Mould Dimensional Checks

The measured dimensions of the mould again showed some variation from the nominal values, the main difference of real importance being that the instrumented narrow wall thickness was 8mm less than the nominal dimension and 5mm greater than nominal for the opposite face. This was most likely caused by misalignment of the mould core before casting the mould during manufacture at the foundry and could result in the mould giving a poorer than normal performance. The results of the mould internal profile checks taken when the mould was new and then repeated after six casts indicated that the change in dimensions was very small, Figs. 34 and 35. The main difference occurred on the broad faces where an inward movement was indicated of 0.55mm for the instrumented wall and 0.7mm for

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the opposite face. This is discussed further in Section 6 of this report in relation to the finite element plasticity study carried out for the Ti mould. 5.3. Us Bottle Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 96 Heats)

Ten plant trials were carried out with the Us mould at Llanwern Works. Five casts were stripped at the normal time (aimed for minimum of 2.33 hours) and the remaining five casts were allowed to cool in the mould before stripping. In all cases rimming steel was teemed into the mould with teeming temperatures varying from 1552 to 1576C. A summary of the Us mould trials is shown in Table 12. 5.3.1. Mould Temperature Measurement

Due to a combination of unusual circumstances the temperature measurements for the first six trials were not satisfactory, i.e. the data logger was recording temperatures which were lower than actual. The main cause of the problems was cold damp weather and water getting into the umbilical lead assembly. The problem was eventually solved data logger with the junction box the lead and the data logger were cause problems with water or with by replacing the main umbilical cord linking the on the mould and ensuring that subsequently suitably protected from conditions which could moisture condensation.

Following this experience no further problems with temperature measurement were experienced. A typical example of trial results for a cast where the ingot was allowed to cool in the mould before stripping is shown in Figs. 36-41. The mould temperature at the start of casting was 17C. As expected the maximum temperature gradients occurred at the centre mid height positions of the narrow and broad walls. It was again apparent that there was a reduction in the rate of temperature rise at the base and mid height positions for the broad and narrow walls from 6 minutes to 10 minutes after teeming (Figs.36, 37,40 and 41). It will be noticed that the temperature curve for the thermocouple near the inner surface of the mould for the mid height of the narrow wall is different to the 492, Ti and V3/48I moulds in that it shows a temporary increase in temperature at about 2.75 hours after casting. The reason for this is not apparent. The maximum mould temperatures experienced for this cast were at the broad wall mid height position and were 877 and 566C at 2.83 and 3.17 hours for the inner and outer faces respectively. Figures 42 and 43 show results for mid height narrow and broad walls for a trial in which the mould was stripped at the normal time (1.77 hours). At approximately 17 hours after stripping for this cast the mould temperature had dropped to 90C and it was calculated that after a further 7.0 hours the temperature would have dropped to around 50C. Where the ingot was cooled in the mould the time taken to achieve a temperature of 50C was estimated to have been about 74 hours. Additional temperature measurements were taken on the outside surface of the mould using a Gold Cup Pyrometer and an AGA Thermovision unit. These measurements were in good agreement with the thermocouple values after resolution of the problems associated with temperature measurement for the first six trials. 5.3.2. Strain Gauge Measurements

Again variability was experienced in the results obtained from the strain gauges. Table 13 shows the mean maximum strain and calculated stress values for each of the eight gauges. Table 14 shows the mean strain and calculated stress values for 0.2 hours after casting. Examples of typical measurements are given in Figs.44 to 46 for the mid height positions for a time interval of 0.5 hours after casting. The strain values increased after casting fairly quickly for the corner and broad wall positions but less so for the narrow wall. The curve for the narrow wall is not similar to that for the other moulds, and may suggest that the gauge at that particular location was faulty. 5.3.3. Mould Dimensional Checks

The measured dimensions of the mould showed some variation from the nominal values the most important difference being that the non-instrumented narrow face was 11

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7.0mm less than the nominal thickness. The internal profile checks carried out when the mould was new and then repeated after eleven casts indicated very little change in dimensions, Figs. 47 and 48. The main difference was for the narrow walls where a change of 0.15mm was recorded. These differences were too small to be significant. 5.4. V3/481 Open Top Mould (Average Mould Life in Service 103 Heats)

Five plant trials were conducted with the V3/48I mould at Port Talbot Works. One mould was stripped at the normal time (a minimum time of 4.33 hours but th cast was actually stripped late at 8.6 hours) and the remaining four ingots were allowed to cool in the mould before stripping. Killed steel was teemed into the mould on all casts and the teeming temperatures varied from 1560 to 1575C . A piece of mould iron was torn from the inside centre of the base of the instrumented broad face when the ingot was stripped on the first cast. A summary of the V3/481 mould trials is shown in Table 15. 5.4.1. Mould Temperature Measurements

In general the thermocouples worked satisfactorily except for the penultimate cast when slag erruption destroyed most of the thermocouples and strain gauges and for the final cast where some of the readings were low due to problems with ingress of water into the main umbilical cord between the data logger and the mould junction box. A typical example of trial results for a cast where the ingot was allowed to cool down in the mould is given in Figures 49 to 54. The mould temperature at the start of casting was 7C. As with the other moulds the maximum temperature gradients occurred at the centre mid-height position of the narrow and broad walls (Figs 50, 54) and there was a drop in the rate of temperature rise near the inner surface at the base and mid height positions for the narrow and broad walls of from 6 to 10 minutes after teeming (Figs. 49, 50,53 & 54). The maximum mould temperatures recorded for this cast were at the broad wall mid-height position and were 832C and 564C at 2.75 hours and 4.15 hours for the inner and outer walls respectively. Temperature measurements taken on the outside surface of the mould by Gold Cup Pyrometer and AGA Thermovision were in good agreement with temperatures measured by the thermocouples. 5.4.2. Strain Gauge Measurements

Some variability was again found in the strain gauge performance. Table 16 gives the mean maximum strain and calculated stress values for each of the eight gauges. Table 17 gives the mean strain and calculated stress value for 0.2 hours after casting. Examples of typical measurements are shown in Figs. 55-57 for the mid height positions for a time interval of 0.5 hours after casting. The strain values indicated a maximum soon after casting for the narrow wall and corner positions but at a later stage for the broad wall position. The graphs were similar in shape to those for the 492 mould and Ti mould. 5.4.3. Mould Dimensional Checks

Some variation was shown between measured and nominal dimensions, the most important difference being that the non-instrumented narrow wall thickness was 6.5mm less than the nominal value. The internal profile checks carried out when the mould was new and then repeated after six casts indicated very little change in dimensions, see Figs. 58 and 59. The non-instrumented narrow and broad faces showed a maximum increase of 0.20mm and 0.15mm respectively which cannot be regarded as being significant. 5.5. 5.5.1. Comments on Measured Strain Values and Mould Failure Patterns Measured Strains

Table 18 summarises the mean measured strain values at the mid-height and base

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positions for the four trial moulds. made.

The following general observations can be

(i) Maximum strains occurred at times from 0.09 to 0.5 hours after teeming and ranged between 345 and 2318 (60 to 349 N/mm2 stress values). (ii) Maximum strains occurred most quickly at the corners (0.09 to 0.22 hours). (iii)The highest strains were recorded at the base for all four moulds and the pattern of strain was the same, that is, highest for the broad wall followed by the narrow wall and lowest for the corner. At mid height the pattern of strain was similar to the base for the Ti, Us and V3/48I moulds, but for the 492 mould the strain was highest for the narrow wall followed by the broad wall and lowest for the corner. (iv) At the mid height position the vertical strain recorded was higher than the horizontal strain on the broad wall for the 492 mould and was higher on the narrow wall for the Ti and V3/48I moulds. 5.5.2. (i) Mould Failure Patterns

492 Mould - Bottle Top - Aspect Ratio 1.32

This mould has the highest mean life (120) and of the four trial moulds showed the lowest horizontal strains at the base and the mid height of the mould. This could be the reason why the majority of these moulds fail for inner surface crazing/fire cracking but the fairly low aspect ratio for this mould could also be a contributory factor. Only 30% of the moulds fail by cracking (vertical cracking from the base of the narrow and broad walls) and this could be attributable to variable mould quality and steelplant usage conditions rather than to poor mould design. (ii) Ti Mould - Open Top - Aspect Ratio 1.70 The Ti mould has the lowest mean life (84) and showed the second highest horizontal strains for the mid-height and base of the mould, except for the narrow wall base where the strain was next to the lowest. The main reason for failure for this mould (60%) is inwards distortion and horizontal cracking of the broad walls and this is most likely due to the combination of high thermal stresses and the relatively high aspect ratio for this mould. It can be assumed that the other cause of failure (cracking vertically mainly from the top for the narrow and the broad walls) is due to unacceptable stress levels at these positions combined with variable mould quality and plant usage conditions. (iii) U 5 - Bottle Top - Aspect Ratio 1.68 This mould has a mean life of 96 and showed next to the lowest strains at the mid-height and base of the mould; except for the narrow wall base where the strain was next to the highest. The majority of the moulds (95%) fail because of vertical cracks from the top and horizontal cracks, on the broad walls. This would indicate that high thermal stresses combined with the fairly high aspect ratio are the cause of this mode of failure. (iv) V3/481 Mould - Open Top - Aspect Ratio 1.43 The V3/48I mould has a mean life of 103 and out of the four mould types showed the highest horizontal strains for the broad and narrow walls at mid height and at the base. The main cause of failure (55%) is horizontal cracking on the broad walls associated with inwards distortion in some cases. The remainder of the moulds fail by vertical cracking mainly of the narrow walls from the top. The failure reasons indicate that a re-design to reduce stresses could result in improved mould performance.

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6. 6.1.

FINITE ELEMENT STUDIES (Sub-Contracted work by Design Audit Limited) Outline of Finite Element Studies

The objective is to interpret the practical results of the mould trials using finite element stress analysis computer packages to establish thermal stress patterns through the mould walls at time intervals during the usage cycles, and hence develop a system for assessing the effects of mould design changes. Available options for the finite element stress analysis studies were reviewed and an outside specialist in this field (Design Audit Limited) was subcontracted to assist in this work using the PAFEC (Nottingham) computing facilities. The Design Audit approach was to apply three dimensional elastic thermal stress analysis to an existing mould with known good plant performance to provide a 'bench-mark' for comparison with other moulds. 3-D analysis is however extremely expensive for re-design/modification procedures. Preliminary low cost, 2-D horizontal elastic analysis can usefully be used as design guides in comparison with 'bench-mark' studies. A quasi 3-D method was developed (combining 2-D horizontal and 2-D vertical stress analysis) as a cheaper alternative to full 3-D analysis. A plasticity analysis to investigate mould displacement was also run using the horizontal 2-D section of one mould type. The Design Audit study is reported in detail in Appendix 2. A recommended design procedure is given (Section 3.4 and Appendix 2A) and encorporates 2-D, quasi 3-D and full 3-D thermal stress analysis. Additional studies were carried out by the Welsh Laboratory to investigate the influence of physical property data on thermal stress levels. This work is detailed in Section 7 of this report. 6.2. Mould Selection

Of the four trial moulds the 492 bottle-top mould has the best plant performance and the Tj open-top mould the worst (Table 3). The 492 mould was therefore selected for the full 'bench-mark' study for comparison with the poorer performance Ti mould. 6.3. Derivation of Temperature Distribution in the Mould

Initially the transient temperature distribution in the walls was derived in the horizontal and vertical planes for the 492 (bottle-top) mould and in the horizontal plane only for the Ti (open-top) mould. The procedure for both moulds was as follows. For the horizontal section actual temperature measurements obtained from the instrumented mould at different depths into the mould wall at mid-height (see Section 5) were used to calculate the heating rates. The actual cross-section of the mould was divided into a mesh - as required by the finite element model - using principles dictated by heating rates and engineering experience concerning likely stress patterns. Fig. A2.23 shows this mesh for the 492 mould. With knowledge of the heat transfer coefficients and other thermal properties of the mould material (see Appendix 2B and Table 19) the temperature distribution was derived. In the case of the 492 mould vertical section the heat input to the mould wall for the axisymmetric analysis was taken as the average of the broad side and narrow side values used in the 2-D analysis (see Appendix 2, Section 7.0). An example of the temperature profile derived for the 492 mid height cross-section after thirty minutes is shown in Figure A2.24. The apparent cyclic variation in the lower (outermost) temperature contours shown in Figure A2.24, is a feature of the plotting routine which occurs when interpolation is necessary over large finite elements - such as those at the outside of the mould walls. The quoted temperature is correct at the bottom of each trough since these are the physical points which coincide with the nodes and element boundaries. These are the temperatures which are used in the finite element calculations. The predicted temperature distributions within the mould wall over a range of time steps are compared with plant trial results obtained from the 492 mould in Figure A2.20. Agreement between the two sets of temperature distributions is good.

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6.4.

Derivation of Thermal Stress Analysis

The next stage of the analysis carried out on the 492 and Ti moulds was to use the temperature distribution and knowledge of the physical characteristics of the mould material (see Appendix 2, Section 6 and Table 19) to derive the thermal stress distribution using the fin ite element method. The maximum tensile stresses occurred in the outside surface o f the mould after 12 minutes. The stress distributions for the inside and outside surfaces of the 492 mould are shown in Table A2.1 for times up to 30 min utes. Node positions are shown in Figure A2.23. The maximum outer surface stresse s occur at two points, on each side of the corner (node 125 and node 139). The 0.2 % proof tensile stress values (see Figure A2.25) are of a similar level to the pre dieted outer surface tensile stresses. Some plastic deformation can be expect ed which should reduce the peak calculated stresses. The maximum absolute rincipal stresses at the outside surface predicted by the model at 12 minu tes for the 492 mould midheight horizontal section are compared with the hor izontal stresses measured using strain gauges as follows : 492 Mould (time = 12 minutes) 1. 2. Model predicted stresses (N/mm2) Measured horizontal stresses (N/mm2) Midheight broad wall 185 97 ' Mid Height C orner 140 71 | Midheight narrow wall 228 146

The model and measured stresses follow the same pattern i.e. highest at the midheight narrow wall and lowest at the corner. The difference between the practical and theoretical results is further illustrated in Figure 60. Here variation of microstrain levels with time is compared for the midheight narrow wall position of the model and plant trial results. The predicted peak strain is 85% higher than the measured value. The thermal stress model approach does not take account of stress relaxation at elevated temperatures. This particular point was noted during discussions with C.S.M 2 ). True stresses should be less but by how much is not known. A study in this field was precluded because of time limitations. The mean mould lives for the four mould types are plotted against maximum measured strain for the broad wall midheight position in Figure 61. As expected the trend indicates a decrease in mould life with increasing maximum measured strain. A similar plot for calculated strain cannot be given since only two mould types were used for the model studies. Another potential factor which could possibly contribute to an explanation of the difference between calculated and measured stress levels is in the strain gauge measuring technique itself. The gauges are spot welded to a cast iron surface which will contain outcrops of graphite. The effect of a weld being made in a graphite outcrop region on the strain values measured is again not known. However, it should be emphasised at this point that the Design Audit approach to mould design/ modification is based on comparison of stress levels and hence does not require the derivation of absolute stress levels. 6.5. 492 Mould 3 Dimensional Model Studies

A full three dimensional elastic finite element thermal stress study was applied to the 492 'benchmark' mould (see Appendix 2, S ection 9). The 3D mesh is illustrated in Figure A2 36. The full 3D study is compared with the cheaper quasi 3D approach deriv ed from the 2D horizont al and vertical analyses. In order to relate two and three dimensional proble ms to the one dimension or uniaxial case it is conv enient to work with equi valent stress. The equivalent or Von Mises stress is defi ned in Appendix 2D. The combined 2D approach gave similar stress levels to the full 3D analysis a t the midheight section of the mould (see Figures A2.41 and A2.42). However th e combined 2D stress is consistently lower than the 3D results by betwe en 12 and 20% (see calculation sheet A2.14). At the ba se of the mould the full 3D analysis shows a different situation to that at mid height. The maximum Vo Mises stresses which occur as a 15

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result of tensile forces are 536 N/mm2 (broad side mid face) and 494 N/mm2 (narrow side mid face) (see Figure A2.46). These are significantly higher than those at mid-height (Figure A2.45). The difference in behaviour at the base and mid-height is influenced by the fact that the narrowside has been thickened by 38mm at the base. This skirt has considerably stiffened the narrowside and corner. The high stress levels at the mid-faces of the base of the mould are consistent with observed plant failures caused by vertical cracking from the base of the mid-faces of the mould. 6.6. 6.6.1. Mould Thermal Stress Analysis Studies Mould Mid-Height Horizontal Section

The maximum tensile stresses predicted by the 2-D model again occur after 12 minutes. The finite element mesh is shown in Figure A2.34, and the stress distributions for the Ti mould are given in Table 2.4. As with the 492 mould the calculated maximum absolute principal stresses are higher than those measured for strain gauges for the mid-height narrow wall and corner. In the case of the mid-height broad wall position the measured stress is higher than the model prediction as follows. Ti Mould (time = 12 minutes) 1. 2. Model predicted stresses (N/mm2) Measured horizontal stresses (N/mm2) Mid-height broad wall 184 194 Mid Height Corner 223 122 Mid-height narrow wall 235 156

The measured and predicted stresses do not follow the same pattern as in the case of the 492 mould. However the Ti stress levels are well above the 492 levels as would be expected from the poorer plant performance of the Ti mould. The exception is the predicted mid-height broad wall stress level which is similar to the 492 value. The difference between the practical and theoretical results for the mid-height narrow wall is further illustrated in Figure 62 which shows the variation in micro-strain levels with time for the two cases. The predicted peak strain is 78% higher than the measured value. 6.6.2. Modified Ti Mould

Practical experience in the use of the 492 and Ti moulds has shown that an acceptable mould life (120 heats) c an be achieved with the 492 mould. A much shorter life (84 heats) is reported for the Ti mould. Analysis of the stresses in the 492 mould indicate that the hig hest outer surface stresses at the mid height occur at two points, on each side o f the corner, see Table A2.1. A similar situation occurs with the Ti mould but at higher stress levels (see Table A2.4 node 53 and node 61). The maximum stress on the outside surface of the 492 mould is 261 N/mm2. This is used as a ' bench-mark' to assess the Ti mould which has a maximum level of 301 N/mm2 (see Sec tion 11, Appendix 2). The region adjacent to the corner of the Ti mould was thic kened by 18mm (see Calculation Sheet A2.15 and Figure A2.55). The effect of this corner strengthening was to move the highly corner and increase stressed region on the outside surf ace further away from the 2 2 the magnitude of the highest tensil e stress from 301 N/mm to 336 N/mm (see was not therefore entirely successful. It Figure A2.56). This modified desig does however illustrate the adverse effect that sudden changes is cross section may have on mould stresses. These w ould be reduced by blending the thickened corners carefully into the profile of the broad and narrow walls. 6.6.3. Ti Mould Plasticity Effects

The results of the 2-D horizontal analyses for both the 492 and Ti moulds indicate that the yield stress of cast iron is exceeded in each case. The moulds will 16

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therefore deform plastically in operation. The effects of plasticity were examined with reference to the Ti mould since this is subject to the highest stresses. A plasticity analysis was run using the 2-D horizontal section of the Ti mould. The largest tensile stresses in the horizontal section occur after 720 seconds. The plasticity analysis was therefore run to predict the displacement of the mould at this time. In the plasticity analysis the cast iron was assumed to yield at a stress of 197 N/mm2. This represents the 0.2% proof stress from the cast iron at the mean mould temperature of 400C. The mould deforms plastically along the inside and outside surfaces where the stress exceeds 197 N/mm 2 . The displacement of the mould predicted by the plasticity analysis after 720 seconds is shown in Figure A2.53. The displacements are identical to those predicted for the linear elastic analysis (Figure A2.34). The displaced shape of the mould was also predicted after the mould had cooled back to ambient temperature. The displaced shape plot is given in Figure A2.54. The results predict that the mould will contract on both sides by up to 0.62mm. This should be compared with the mould dimensional checks carried out on the Ti mould (see Section 5.2.3.) where an inward displacement of between 0.55mm to 0.7mm was measured after six casts had been teemed into the mould (Figure 3 5 ) . The predicted mould inward displacement at the middle of the broad wall is of the order of six times the practical result per mould casting cycle. This difference must be related to the much higher model predicted strain compared with the plant trial results. A small proportion of the difference may possibly be attributable to mechanical/abrasive wear of the mould during strippping. 6.7. Recommended Design Procedure

The design procedure recommended by Design Audit Limited is described in detail in Appendix 2 (Section 3.4), and Appendix 2A. The steps in the procedure are summarized below. (i) Define mould geometry and data for creating finite element network. (ii) Define heat inputs to the mould. (iii) Define heat losses from the mould. (iv) Set-up 2-D horizontal model and run. (v) Determine horizontal stresses. (vi) Convert rectangular cross section to relevant diameter. (vii) Set up and run vertical model for vertical stresses. (viii)Combine stresses for desired position. (ix) Compare with acceptable values. (x) Set-up and run a partial 3-D analysis if necessary. The procedure outlined above is essentially a comparative technique. Preliminary lower cost 2-D analysis can usefully be used in comparison with the 'bench-mark' study. The quasi 3-D method (combining 2-D horizontal and 2-D vertical stress analysis) is a very much cheaper alternative to full 3-D analysis. Care must however be taken in selecting its application particularly where a mould has non-symmetrical features, e.g. a skirt applied to only one pair of opposite faces at the mould bottom. In this type of situation a full or partial 3-D analysis may still be required. 7. INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTY DATA ON THERMAL STRESS LEVELS OF THE 492 MOULD

The physical properties of mould material used in the derivation of the temperature distribution and thermal stress analysis for the 492 mould described in Sections 6.3 and 6.4, were essentially for flake graphite iron. The variation of properties with temperature was not included (see Table 1 9 ) . Additional work was therefore carried out by the Welsh Laboratory using the PAFEC computing packages which had been purchased by the B.S.C. Teesside Laboratory. The aim was to study the influence of using (a) spheroidal graphite and (b) compacted graphite temperature dependent properties on calculated stress levels.

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7.1.

492 Mould 2-D Analysis using Spheroidal Graphite Properties

The physical properties employed are essentially those provided by the British Cast Iron Research Association (Appendix 1 and Table 2) and relate to spheroidal graphite iron. The properties are summarized in Table 20. The geometry of the 492 horizontal mid-height section was re-evaluated, see Figure 63. The values for Ri- R i + in Figure 63 are given below. Ri R2 R3 4116mm 4760mm 4344mm
4976mm

Ri+

The p o i n t s were the broad wall and narrow wall blend with the corner radius a r e : -

P2 P3 Pi,

Pl

is (608.3, 364.3)mm from centre is (572.3, 660.6)mm from centre is (822.3, 397.3)mm from centre

is (542.3, 434.0)mm from centre

The mesh for the finite element analysis together with mould displacements is shown in Figure 64. 7.1.1. Derivation of Temperature Distribution in the Mould

The temperature prof iles predicted by the computer were calculated using the heat input from the ingot, and heat loss from the outside walls on Calculation Sheets 1-4. The computer predicted temperature profile after six minutes is shown in Figure 65. The predicted temperature distributions in the mould wall compared with the measured temperature distribution over a range of time steps are shown in Figure 66. Agreement between the two sets of data is good. 7.1.2. Thermal Stress Analysis

The thermal stress distributions at the mid-height cross-section for time intervals 6, 12, 24 and 30 minutes are given in Table 21. The maximum tensile stresses again occur after twelve minutes. However, the stress levels are about 40% above the values derived by Design Audit (see Table A2.1). The difference between the practical and calculated results for the mid-height narrow wall is illustrated in Figure 67 which shows the variation in micro-strain levels with time for the two cases. The predicted peak strain is 90% higher than the measured value. However, it should be noted that the structure of the 492 mould used on the plant trials was essentially compacted graphite (see Table 1). Hence a further run was carried out with compacted graphite properties and is reported under section 7.2. 7.1.3. Modified 492 Mould Port Talbot works had some time ago purchased a batch of 492 moulds which were incorrectly designed in terms of additional thickening (20mm) at the corners. This set of moulds failed prematurely after about 80 heats (normal life 120) mainly by vertical cracking at the mid-position of the bottom of the narrow face. It was decided to examine this poorer design and compare it with the 2-D horizontal thermal stress analysis for the 492 mould described in Section 7.1.2. The mid-height outside surface stresses for the two versions of the mould are given in Table 22. It is interesting to note that the thickening of the corners on the poor performing version of the 492 mould has reduced stresses in the corner zone markedly, but gives increased stresses towards the mid-position of the walls. The increase in stress levels tends to be higher on the narrow wall. It should be noted that mould failure was by vertical cracking from the mid-position of the base of the narrow wall. The change in stress levels and position induced by

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thickening of the corners follows a similar pattern to that reported for the modified Ti mould (section 6.6.2.) and again illustrates the dangerous effect sudden changes in cross-section can have on mould stresses and performance. 7.2. 492 Mould 2-D Analysis - Compacted Graphite Properties

Since the 492 mould used for plant trials had an iron structure which was essentially compacted graphite it was decided to carry out a further 492 2-D thermal stress analysis run using properties more representative of the mould structure. The properties used are shown in Table 23 and are based on the recommendations given in Section 2.3.2. of this report. The main differences in properties are the substitution of compacted graphite values for Modulus of Elasticity and Thermal Conductivity (see Table 2 ) . In this exercise the thermal stress levels at the mid-height cross-section are given for a time interval of 12 minutes. The maximum tensile stresses at the surface are given in Table 24. The stress levels are in this case about 18% above the values calculated by Design Audit for the 492 mould (see Table A 2 . 1 ) . The inclusion of compacted graphite properties has reduced the stress levels compared with the results of Section 7.1.2. in which spheroidal graphite properties were employed (Table 2 1 ) . The difference between the practical and calculated results for the compacted graphite property case for the mid-height narrow wall is illustrated in Figure 68. This shows the variation in micro-strain levels with time for the practical work and the calculated strain at 12 minutes. The predicted peak strain is 77% higher than the measured value. Using the compacted graphite physical data the difference between predicted and actual strain levels is less that the original Design Audit value of 85% (Section 6.4 and Figure 6 0 ) . To fully explain the difference would require further investigation into stress relaxation at elevated temperature and possibly the strain gauge measuring technique itself as discussed in Section 6.4. 8. CONCLUSIONS

The objective of this research programme was to establish design parameters for large slab type ingot moulds by plant and laboratory studies with the aim of calibrating and adapting a finite element thermal stress analysis package to establish a design procedure. The following conclusion are made: 8.1. A recommended design procedure has been established using a finite element thermal stress analysis approach. The components of the procedure are as follows: (i) Define mould geometry and data for creating the finite element network. (ii) Define heat inputs to the mould. (iii) Define heat losses from the mould. (iv) Set-up 2-D horizontal model and run. (v) Determine horizontal stresses. (vi) Convert rectangular cross section of the mould to the relevant diameter. (vii) Set-up and run the vertical model for vertical stresses. (viii)Combine horizontal and vertical stresses for the desired position. (ix) Compare with acceptable values related to a 'bench-mark' study. (x) Set-up and run a partial 3-D analysis if necessary. 8.2. The design procedure incorporates a preliminary transient thermal finite element analysis to determine how the mould temperature distributions change with time after steel has been teemed into the cold mould, followed by a finite element thermal stress analysis. A good match was obtained between measured and model predicted temperature profiles. 8.3. Thermal stress (and strain) values derived from the model were generally much higher than practical measurements. The difference is only partly explained by the selection of the appropriate physical properties of cast iron to match the mould structure. Predicted stress levels were often greater than the yield point. The thermal stress model does not take account of stress relaxation at elevated temperatures. True stresses should be less, but by how much is not known. 8.4. Although agreement was not obtained between predicted and measured stress levels, the Design Procedure recommended is valid since the approach to mould

19

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design/modification is based on a comparison of stress levels with a'bench-mark' study, and does not require the derivation of absolute stress levels. 8.5. Preliminary lower cost 2-D finite element thermal stress analysis can usefully be used as design guides in comparison with a 'bench-mark' study. 8.6. The quasi 3-D finite element thermal stress analysis method is a very much cheaper alternative to full 3-D analysis. Care must however be taken in its selection, particularly where a mould has non-symmetrical features, e.g. a skirt applied to only one pair of opposite faces at the mould bottom. In this situation a full or partial 3-D analysis may still be required. 8.7. Further work is required to account for the difference in stress/strain levels between the predicted and measured values. The possibilities of residual stresses remaining in the mould wall after each plant usage cycle needs further study. Two approaches can be taken:(i) Further development of elasto-plastic thermal stress finite element analysis using both elastic and plastic moduli in the derivation of stress levels over a plant usage cycle. (ii) A study of stress relaxation incorporated into a finite element analysis. REFERENCES 1. Trans, of American Foundrymen Society 1980, Vol 88. Fuller, Emerson and Sergeant. Report on the affects on mechanical properties on variation in graphite form in iron and the use of a non destructive test in the assessment of mechanical properties of such irons. Private Communication - I.D. Massey (Welsh Laboratory) and C.S.M. 1980.

2.

20

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TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF STRUCTURE OF TRIAL MOULDS AND TEST BLOCKS Trial Mould Type Approximate Percentage of Constituents Graphite Form Matrix CG SG Pearlite Ferrite U.S.V. Value km/s

492

80

20

25

75

5.15

Tl

95

15

85

5.03

Us

Nil

100

80

20

5.36

V3/481

85

15

40

60

5.22

Test Blocks

25

75

40

60

5.47
1

CG SG USV

Compacted Graphite Spheroidal Graphite Ultra-sonic Velocity in kilometres/second (km/s)

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TABLE 2 VARIATION OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FORSPHEROIDAL AND COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRONS Modulus of Elasticity Thermal Conductivity ' (W/mK) (GN/m 2 ) l 2 Spheroidal( ' Compacted( ) Spheroidal I 3) Compacted I4J J Graphite Graphite Graphite Graphite

Temperature

20 50

172

153

36.1 38.2 40.9 38.5 36.0 33.4 40.2 42.5 44.2 41.2 38.1 35.1 ! I
1

169 164 159 153 145 133

151 148 142 136 129 118

100 200 300 400 500 600

Notes : 1) 2) 3) 4) Values taken after consultation with the British Cast Iron Research Association Values from British Steel Corporation (internal report by A.P. Banks) Values supplied by British Cast Iron Research Association (mean of values from test block, see Appendix 1) Values supplied by British Cast Iron Research Association (recently internally published data)

22

TABLE 3 DETAILS OF MOULD TYPES USED FOR PLANT TRIALS

co

Mould Type

Mould Mould M/I Ingot Ingot Height Weight Ratio Height Dimensions (tonnes) (tonnes) (mm) Mid Height (mm) 21.04 18.39 1.14 2,575 939 1244

Aspect Average Ratio Mould Life 1.32 120

Mould Failure Mode

492 Bottle Top

70% due to crazing (firecracking) 30% for vertical cracking on narrow and broad walls mainly from the base 60% due to horizontal cracking of broad walls with inwards distortion, remainder vertical cracks on narrow and broad walls, mainly from the top. 95% due to vertical cracks of broad wall from the top associated with horizontal cracks in most cases 55% due to horizontal cracking of broad walls with some inwards distortion, remainder vertical cracking of narrow and broad walls, mainly from top.

Ti Open Top

20.90

19.81

1.05

2,565

845 1435

1.70

84

Us Bottle Top

22.74

19.30

1.1

2,565

!45 1422

1.65

96

UI

V3/48I Open Toe 19.01

17.07

1.11

2,565

851 1219

1.43

103

M/I Ratio is mould weight ingot weight Aspect Ratio is length of broad face of ingot crosssection length of narrow face of ingot crosssection measured at midheight of ingot.

J )

> \
CD

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TABLE 4 DEPTHS OF HOLES FOR INSERTION OF THERMOCOUPLES

Thermocouple No. 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Location Narrow Wall (Base)

Distance from Outer Surface (mn ) 492 Mould Mould Us Mould V/481 Mould 23 110 247 Surface 24.5 108.5 204.5 Surface 25 108 Surface 23.5 108.5 Surface 23.5 96 225.5 Surface 21 106.5 216 Surface 24 107 264.5 Surface 25 111.5 205.5 Surface 25.5 103 Surface 26 112 Surface 25 112 280 Surface 26 112 230 Surface 16 111 282.5 Surface 28.5 114.5 231.5 Surface 20 107 Surface 27 113.5 Surface 23 112 298 Surface 24.5 113.5 234 Surface 26 113.5 264 Surface 27 115.5 213.5 Surface 30.5 115.5 Surface 27.5 115.5 Surface 24 110 276.5 Surface 26 114.5 230 Surface

Narrow Wall (Mid Height)

Corner (Base)

Corner (Mid Height)

Broad Wall (Base)

Broad Wall (Mid Height)

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TABLE 5 FIXING MODE FOR STRAIN GAUGES (Common to all Four Trial Moulds) Location on Mould

Gauge No.

Fixing Mode

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
L _

Narrow Wall (Base) Narrow Wall (Mid Height) Narrow Wall (Mid Height) Corner (Base) Corner (Mid Height) Broad Wall (Base) Broad Wall (Mid Height) Broad Wall (Mid Height)

Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Vertical

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TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF TRIALS - MOULD TYPE: 49 2 Trial No. Teeming to Stripping Time (Hrs) DS Data Collection Period (Hrs) 41.9

Remarks

All SG readings faulty because of problems with power supplies. T/C No. 14, 16 18 and 29 faulty due to bad connections T/C 24 and 29 faulty SG 02 and 04 faulty SG 04, 06 and 07 faulty SG 03, 04 and 07 faulty Data logger faulty for 0.7 hours around stripping stage SG 06 faulty Data logger faulty for 0.96 hours at stripping stage SG 01, 02, 06 and 07 faulty Mould teemed half full only due to breakout of metal between mould and baseplate SG 04, 05 and 07 faulty Data logger still faulty sent off for repair SG 07 faulty Data logger working correctly SG 00, 01, 03 and 07 faulty. SG 06 and 07 replaced after this cast 1st Cycle for SG 06 and 07 SG 00 faulty No data for first 1.23 hours because of faulty magnetic tape

2 3 4

DS DS 2.12

24.25 22.73 9.38

2.50

5.87

DS

1.53

2.88

3.45

8 9

3.58 2.75

7.05 7.57

10 15 16

DS 1.90 4.05

80.47 25.5 22.0

DS = Stripping delayed until after end of data recording period. SG = Strain gauge T/C = Thermocouple

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TABLE 7 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - 492 MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (MAXIMUM)
Gauge Number and Position NW 00 Base Mean Time (Hours) 0.28 Mean Strain () 1043 Mean Stress (N/mm 2 ) # 157

NW

01 - Mid Height

0.19

1037

158

NW

02*

Mid Height

0.40

1000

152

03 Corner Base

0.14

740

113

04 Corner - Mid Height

0.10

643

98

05 BW - Base

0.18

1273

193

06 BW - Mid Height 07 * BW - Mid Height

0.42

787

116

0.48

962

140

* Strain guages 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally i t Stresses calculated from formulae = _ e NW BW = = Narrow wall Broad Wall NOTE: E = modulus of elasticity = stress = strain The value of the modulus of elasticity was corrected for the surface temperature at the point of measurement.

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TABLE 8 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - 492 MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (0.2 HOURS) Gauge Number and Position 00 NW - Base 01 NW - Mid Height 02 * NW - Mid Height 03 Corner - Base 04 Corner - Mid Height 05 BW - Base 06 BW - Mid Height 07 * BW - Mid height Mean Time (Hours) 0.2 Mean Str ain
()

Me an Stress (N/mm2) 139

918

0.2

972

146

0.2

810

122

0.2

683

104

0.2

465

71

0.2

1262

191

0.2

640

97

0.2

686

104

* Strain Gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally t t Stresses calculated from formulae E = J J e NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

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TABLE 9 SUMMARY OF TRIALS - MOULD TYPE:

Trial No.

Teeming to Stripping Time (Hrs) DS

Data Collection Period (Hrs) 47.58

Remarks

11

Some faulty SG readings because of variation in power supply. Data missing 5.0 to 5.25 hours No. 1 SG faulty No. 27 T/C faulty after 24 hours Data missing from 1.4 to 2.4 hours Tape fault No power supply to SG Nos.04,05,06 & 07 for first 1.5 hours

12

DS

70.95

13

4.36

22.92

14

4.78

27.58

17 18

4.68 2.68

26.58 24.13 Rimming steel cast T/C 12, 13, 14 and 15 destroyed after 0.5 hours by metal boilover. Most of SG's faulty due to damage by water. i

SG T/C DS -

Strain Gauge Thermocouple Stripping delayed until after end of data recording period.

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TABLE 10 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - ! MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (MAXIMUM)
Gauge Number and Position 00 NW - Base 01 NW - Mid Height 02 * NW - Mid Height 03 Corner - Base 04 Corner - Mid Height 05 BW - Base 06 BW - Mid Height 07 * BW - Mid Height Mean Time (Hours) Mean Strain () Mean Stress (N/mm2)#

0.22

1174

177

0.28

1119

163

0.15

1422

214

0.15

1036

157

0.09

1055

160

0.41

1783

263

0.23

1313

198

0.42

635

91

* Strain gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally ft Stresses calculated from formulae = _ e NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

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TABLE 11 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (0.2 HOURS)
1 Gauge Number and Position 00 i NW - Base 01 NW - Mid Height 02 * NW - Mid Height 03 Corner - Base 04 Corner - Mid height 05 BW - Base 06 BW - Mid Height 07 * BW - Mid height Mean Time (Hours) Mean Strain () Mean Stress (N/mm2)#

0.20

1166

177

0.20

1045

156

0.20

1368

205

0.20

979

149

0.20

810

122

0.20

1389

211

0.20

1292

194

0.20

369

56

Strain Gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically the rest horizontally Stresses calculated from formulae = _ NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

* a

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TABLE 12 SUMMARY OF TRIALS MOULD TYPE - U s Trial No. Teeming to Stripping Time (Hrs) DS DS Data Collection Period (Hrs) 47.35 47.87

Remarks

19 20

Difficulties with SG signals for 3.5 hours after teem. SG No. 05 faulty. All T/C faulty for 1st 3.5 hours Damage to junction box on mould SG Nos. 00, 01, 02 and 03 faulty T/C 18, 22 and 24 faulty Difficulties with data logger at start of cast

21
22 23 25 28 29 30 31

3.48
1.90 2.66 DS DS 1.77 2.00 DS

23.20
20 23 23 55 23 92 45 77 18 45 21 22

SG 00,05,06 and 07 faulty

SG 00, 01 and 04 faulty SG 00, 01 and 04 faulty

Metal errupted over narrow and broad walls . No data obtained.

SG T/C DS

Strain Gauge Thermocouple Stripping delayed until after end of data recording period

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TABLE 13 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS U5 MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES ( MAXIMUM)
Gauge Number and Position 00 NW Base 01 NW Mid Height 02 * NW Mid Height 03 Corner Base 04 Corner Mid Hei ght 05 BW Base 06 BW Mid Height 07 * BW Mid Height Mean Time (Hours) Mean Strain
( )

Mean Stress (N/mm2) #

0.39

1562

264

0.47

1084

175

0.27

584

98

0.21

1187

204

0.13

345

60

0.46

1635

272

0.45 1269 207

0.44

903

147

* # NW NW

Strain gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally Stresses calculated from formulae = _

= Narrow wall = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

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TABLE 14 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS U5 MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (0.2 HOURS)
Gauge Number and Position 00 Base Mean Time (Hours) Mean Strain
()

Mean Stress (N/mm 2 )

0.20

1377

236

NW

01 NW Mid Height 02 * NW Mid height 03 Corner Base 04 Corner Mid hei ght 05 BW Base 06 BW Mid Height 07 * BW Mid Height

0.20

768

131

0.20 0.20

488 1171

83 200

0.20

329

57

0.20

1368

235

0.20

1064

181

0.20

578

98

* Strain gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally Stresses calculated from formulae = _ NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

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TABLE 15 SUMMARY OF TRIALS - MOULD TYPE: V3/481

Trial No.

Teeming to Stripping Time (Hrs) 8.66

Data Collection Period (Hrs) 35.72

Remarks

24

Pieces of mould torn out from inside base of instrumented broad face on stripping (torn seat) T/C No. 28 faulty No. 00 SG faulty T/C No. 15 and No. 28 faulty Incomplete ingot with slag on top. Slag erruption over sides of mould destroyed most of the thermocouples and strain gauges No strain gauges fitted to mould. Recorded temperatures low due to problems with umbilical lead to data logger

26 27

DS DS

35.93 27.45

32

0.50

33

DS

26.28

SG T/C DS

= = =

Strain gauge Thermocouple Stripping delayed until after end of data collection period

35

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

TABLE 16 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - V3/481 STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES ( MAXIMUM)
Gauge Number and Position 00 NW - Base 01 NW - Mid Height 02 * NW - Mid Height 03 Corner - Base 04 Corner - Mid Height 05 BW - Base 06 BW - Mid Height 07 * BW - Mid Height
t

MOULD

Mean Time (Hours)

Mean Strain ()

Mean Stress (N/mm 2 )*

0.22

1796

273

0.26

1164

175

0.15

1292

196

0.22

1122

171

0.10

624

94

0.30

2318

349

0.50

1700

246

0.17

1247

190

Strain gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally Stresses calculated from formulae = _ e NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

* #

36

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

TABLE 17 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTS - V3/481 MOULD STRAIN AND STRESS VALUES (0.2 HOURS) Gauge Number and Position 00 NW - Base 01 NW - Mid height 02 * NW - Mid height 03 Corner - Base 04 Corner - Mid hei ght 05 BW - Base 06 BW - Mid height 07 * BW - Mid height Mean Time (Hours) Mean Strain () Mean Stress
(N/mm 2 ) i f

0.20

1782

272

0.20

1103

167

0.20

1215

183

0.20

1091

167

0.20

450

68

0.20

2132

323

0.20

1241

188

0.20

1206

183

Strain gauges 02 and 07 mounted vertically, the rest horizontally Stresses calculated from formulae = _ e NW = Narrow wall BW = Broad wall (See Note on Table 7)

* t

37

TABLE 18 SUMMARY OF STRAIN GAUGE RESULTSMAXIMUM STRAIN VALUES Mould Type Mean Mould Life 120 84 96 103 Aspect Ratio Broad Wall H Mean Strain Mean Strain () () 787 1313 1269 (.42) (.23) (.45) 962 635 903 1217 (.48) (.42) (.44) (.17) Corner Mean Strain () 643 1055 345 624 (.10) (.09) (.13) (.10) Narrow Wall Mean Strain Mean Strain () () 1037 1119 1084 1164 (.19) (.28) (.47) (.26) 1000 1422 584 1292 (.40) (.15) (.27) (.15)

492

1.32 1.70 1.68 1.43

5 V3/481

1700 (0.5)

AT BASE OF MOULD 492 Ti Us V3/48I 120 84 96 103 1.32 1.70 1.68 1.43 1273 (.18) 740 1036 1187 1122 (.14) (.15) (.21) (.22) 1043 1174 1562 1796 (.28) (.22) (.39) (.22)

1783 (.41) 1635 (.46) 2318 (.30)

Notes: 1) 2) 3) Time in hours after start casting indicated by brackets = Horizontally mounted strain gauge V = Vertically mounted strain gauge

>
co

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

TABLE 19 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES USED BY DESIGN AUDIT LIMITED FOR FINITE ELEMENT THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS ON THE 492 (BOTTLE-TOP) AND Tj (OPEN TOP MOULDS)

Heat transfer coefficient to air Density Thermal conductivity Specific heat

20 W/m2/K 7190 kg/m3 46 W/mK 567 J/kg/K

Coefficient of linear expansion Young's modulus Poisson's ratio

12 IO-6/C 125 GN/m2 0.25

39

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

TABLE 20 SUMMARY OF SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE CAST - IRON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Specif LC Heat Temperature C 25 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 J/kg/K 502 510 548 598 640 736 824 925 Thermal Conductivity Temperature C 25 100 200 300 400 500 700 Heat Transfer Coefficient Temperature C W/m 2 /K 25 62.5 87.5 112.5 162.5 212.5 262.5 312.5 9 12.94 15.58 18.5 25.3 33.72 44.3 58.08
I

W/mK
35.8 37.9 40.6 38.3 35.8 33.3 28.3

Young's Modulus Temperature C GN/m2

25 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 172 169 164 159 153 145 133 120

Coefficient of linear expansion = 12.9 IO-6/C Poisson's Ratio Density = 0.27 = 7190 Kg/m3

40

TABLE 21 492 MOULD HORIZONTAL MODEL, STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT NODES N.B. 1) 2) All stresses in N/mm 2 See Figure 64 for node position INNER Time : (Seconds) 360 720 1440 1800 -676 -588 -490 -446 25 -67 -50 -46 -47 27 -651 -576 -489 -447 29 734 659 568 524 461 -1010 - 935 - 814 - 754 SURFACE NODE NUMBER 33 -1020 - 943 - 820 - 757 462 -999 -926 -805 -742 37 -754 -689 -588 -539 39 -671 -605 -512 -468 41 -638 -569 -477 -435 57 -707 -625 -519 -470 MID-HEIGHT

x Ul

CO

OUTER SURFACE NODE NUMBER Time (Seconds) 360 7 20 1440 1800 ! 101 ! 219 259 232 219 125 249 294 263 247 127 246 282 248 232 129 226 245 204 185 477 200 223 197 184 133 210 209 166 151 478 228 253 223 209 137 298 322 275 255 139 318 359 322 302 141 308 356 323 304 157 271 313 286 273

Note:-

Calculated using properties for spheroidal graphite

t\j

n > \

CO

TABLE 22 4 92 MOULD HORIZONTAL MODEL STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT NODES MID HEIGHT OUTER SURFACE Node Numbers Time Seconds (492 Mould correctly designed) 477 133 478 137
VO UI

CO LO

101

125

127

129

139

141

157

720

259

294

282

245

223

209

253

322

359

356

313

a.

to

OUTER SURFACE Node Numbers (492 Mould incorrectly designed) Time Seconds

101

125

127

129

477

133

478

137

139

141

157

720

287

261

236

191

188

175

236

320

366

369

344

1) 2)

All stresses in N/mm 2 See Figure 64 for node position Note:- Calculated using properties for spheroidal graphite

to

>

FR 95 6

831

7210.CA/813

TABLE 23 SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - COMPACTED GRAPHITE CASE

Specif ic Heat Temperature C 25 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 J/kg/K 502 510 548 598 640 736 824 925 Thermal Conductivity Temperature C 50 100 200 300 400 500 W/mK 40.2 42.5 44.2 41.2 38.1 35.1 Heat Transfer Ceofficient Temperature C W/m 2 /K 25 62.5 87.5 112.5 162.5 212.5 262.5 312.5 9 12.94 15.58 18.5 25.3 33.72 44.3 58.08

Temperature U C 20 100 200 300 400 500 600

Young's Modulus

GN/m 2 153 151 148 142 136 129 118

Coefficient of linear expansion = 12.9 IO-6/C Poisson's Density Ratio = = 0.27 7190 Kg/m3

43

i d

TABLE 24 492 MOULD HORIZONTAL MODEL, STRESS DISTRIBUTION - MID-HEIGHT INNER SURFACE Time (Seconds) NODE NUMBER

vo
Ul

CO

25

27

29

461

33

462

37

39

41

57

720

-500

-447

-490

-550

-791

-796

-784

-560

-514

-480

-530

OUTER SURFACE Time (Seconds) NODE NUMBER

101

125

127

129

477

133

478

137

139

141

157

7 20 1) 2)

218

245

238

190

189

175

214

270

303

300

263

All stresses in N/mm 2 See Figure 64 for node position

Note:- Calculated using properties for compacted graphite

to

>
CO

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET 1 HEAT BALANCE DATA - 49 2 MOULD

NARROWSIDE
Time 0 0.05 1600 12 630 142 510 347 347 (h) 0.1 920 26 660 200 530 206 206 0.2 770 115 685 280 555 178 0.57 0.72 179 0.5 450 315 745 400 630 120 5.45 2.33 128

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to mould (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

2700 12 12 12 490 563 563

45

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET 2 HEAT BALANCE DATA - 49 2 MOULD

NARROWSIDE
Time 1 2 30 540 795 620 800 10 20.3 5 4.63 35 (h) 3 22.5 556 776 674 825 8 22.48 4.98 35 4 -25 549 740 656 810 -8 21.39 4.91 18 5 -10 456 566 542 740 -3 13.29 3.91 14

Rate of temperture rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to mould (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT kW/m2)

150 460 805 550 735 47 13.29 3.83 64

46

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET 3 HEAT BALANCE DATA - 492 MOULD BROADSIDE Time (h)
0 0.05 1380 15 570 112 505 335 335 0.1 1040 15 630 162 520 260 260 0.2 625 75 650 278 555 167 0. 3 0. 3 168 0.5 400 270 7 20 370 600 116 3.71 1.90 122

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat loss to the mould (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

2250 15 15 15 490 530 530

47

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET 4 HEAT BALANCE DATA - 4 92 MOULD BROADSIDE Time (h) 10 Rate of temperature rise Outside temperature Inside temperature Mean temperature Specific heat (C) (C) (C/h) 205 430 800 535 725 72 11.18 3.51 60 540 870 660 820 24 20.86 4.63 49 40 558 868 710 850 16 22.48 5.02 44 -30 508 795 680 830 -12 21.39 4.92 14 14.06 3.99 11 20 465 606 550 735

(C)

(J/kg/K)

Rate of heat input to the mould (kW/m 2 ) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m 2 ) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

48

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Mid-height of m o u l d .

FIG.l POSITIONS WHERE SAMPLE BLOCKS WERE CUT FROM THE BROAD NARROW WALLS OF A 561 TYPE INGOT MOULD

49

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.2 GENERAL VIEW OF EQUIPMENT FOR MEASURING PROFILE OF INGOT MOULD FACES

50

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.3 VIEW OF MEASURING HEAD ARRANGEMENT OF MOULD PROFILE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

51

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

900 .

800-

700-

600-

Apparent Strain

500-

(MO

400

300-

200

Temperature ( c ) FIG. 4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPARENT STRAIN AND TEMPERATURE

52

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

7. Change i n Gauge Factor

FIG.5

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

CHANGE IN GAUGE FACTOR AND TEMPERATURE

53

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Mid-height of m o u l d .

S t r a i n - g a u g e s a r e placed near thermocouple

sites.

FIG.6

BOTTLE-TOP MOULD FOR INSTRUMENTATION WITH THERMOCOUPLES AND STRAIN-GAUGES

54

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Mid-height of mould.

S t r a i n - g a u g e s a r e placed near thermocouple

sites.

FIG.7

OPEN-TOP MOULD FOR INSTRUMENTATION WITH THERMOCOUPLES AND STRAIN GAUGES

55

n
S3 co

Ui

en

to M

> FIG. 8 GENERAL VIEW OF INSTRUMENTED MOULD AND INSULATED HOUSING FOR INSTRUMENTS

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(g)B0TTLET0P **(THERMOCOUPLE C HANNELS 8 ) * * LOCRTION BRSE OF NfRROW WLL

1000

900

800

tr a
ui

700

600

UI UU

is J
UI OL

500

3 :

UI
UI

cr.

a.

400

300 .;

ZOO

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.9

57

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULU TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHFtNNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF NRRROW WfLL
1000

9 0 0 ..

800

OC

700

ui

600

Ui UI UI

or
Ld

u er

500

tr

DC UI

a. r
ui

400

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.10

58

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLE-T0P ^^(THERMOCOUPLE CHfNNELS IS TO 18)** LOCRTION - BRSE OF CORNER

1000
+

900

800

Ul

o tr

700 ..

O LD
UI

(_)
( UI UI O

600

m ui
L

500

tr:
: 0 UI D_ E UI

400

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.11

59

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **<THERMOCOUPLE CHNNELS 19 TO 21)** LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF CORNER
1000

900

800 ..

cc

700

O LO

UI
CJ LO

eoo

UI UI
OL LO LU Q

500

UI O

: ui
CL

-D

400

ui

300

200 ..

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.12

60

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **(THERM0C0UPLE CHRNNELS 22 TO 25 ) * * LOCRTION BRSE OF BRORD WRLL

1000

900

800

cr o:
LO LU

Ul

700

u
LO

600

UI UI
CL CO UJ Q

500

tn
Y UI
UI

UI O -J

400

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.13

61

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLE-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCRTION - MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WALL
1000

900

800

UI

o tr

700

OL LO

UI

600

LO

UI UI
OL LO

UI

500 ..

UI

:
:

UI 0-

400

: LU

300 ,:

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.14

62

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 4 9 2 ( 2 ) B 0 T T L E T 0 P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF NRRROW WRLL

1000

900

800 ..

LU

CI
CU LO

700

LU

_>
LO

600

UI UI
CK LO

UI Q

500

CK
: CK UI Q. 7Ul

400 .

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.15

63

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **(THERM0C0UPLE C HRNNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WRLL
1000

STRIP TIME

ul cr
o LO

UI

u
LO LU LU CK LO

\-

CK -D

cr.
CK LU CL

T1ME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.16

64

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Mean Difference GOLD CUP o THERMOVISION . THERMOPROFILE + 2.85C 0.83 19.93

Std. Deviation of Difference 12.51 8.60 4.43

Level of Significance NOT SIGNIFICANT

It II

0.1%

600

500

THERMOVISION

THERMOPROFILE + GOLD CUP

(C>

400

300 300 THERMOCOUPLE ( C) FIG.17 COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR SURFACE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 600

65

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492. BOTTLETOP ( * * STRRIN GRUGE C HNNEL 1 HORIZONTL **) LOCRTION ' MID HEIGHT OF NRRROW WRLL
2000

1750

1500 . .

1250 . .

1000

o o 750

500

250.. *

0\f_
0. 1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

250

500 . .

TIME ELPSED FROM C OMMENC E C ASTING (HOURS)

FIG.18

66

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

(**

M _ 0 UL D __4 92 BOJ TLE-TO STRRIN GRUGE CHANNEL 4 ' HORIZONTAL LOCRTION - MID HEIGHT OF CORNER
2000

**)

1750

1500

1250

2 CT

1000

rv Irr u

LO

750

/*N
500

*
250 ..

o.^L
0. 1 -250.. 0.2 0.3

0.4

0.5

-500

TIME ELRPSED FROM COMMENCE CRSTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.19

67

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492B0TTLET0P ( * * STRRIN GRUGE C HRNNEL 6 HORIZONTAL **> LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WALL"
2000 .

1750

1500 . .

1250

1000

<r tf \

,V*NH*

ry

750

500

250

* * 0.1 250 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

500

TIME ELRPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.20

68

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height

From

Base (m.)

Of Mould

* Mould Taper Not to Scale 2-5

20

1-5

--1-0

--05

-0-5mm

-0-5mm

FIG.21
Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:- 1.-N orth N arrow Wall-492 2.-South N arrow Wall-492

69

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) # Mould Taper Not to Scale

-0-5mm

0-5mm

Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner W a l l s : - 1 . - W e s t Broad Wall - 492 2 - East Broad Wall - 492

70

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE T(01)0PENT0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 8 TO 11 ) * * LOCATION BRSE OF NARROW WALL

900

800 .

LU Q

tr

700 .

CK LO

LU

(J
LO LU LU

eoo.

a:
LO LU Q

500.

UI O. ) h<L i UI

400 .

ii
j

10 9 8 11

I
300.

' 7
1 !

200 .

1 1 100 . 1
! 0
1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.23

71

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE T(01)0PEN -T0P

**<THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WALL

1000
+

900

800

Ul Q CC

700

O LD LU U LO LU LU

600

IV

LO

UI d
LU CK -D

500

^r
ui ui

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.2 4

72

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE T<01)0PEN-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 16 TO 18)** LOCATION - BASE OF CORNER

900.

800 .

: ae
LO LJ O LO LU

700.

600.

UI

LU D

500.

=)
UI

CK

I CK

400.

"

16 18

300.

'
y If II ij ij ij 1f
il 1 1 1
I

200.

100 .

IJ

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.25

73

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE T<01)0PENTQP **(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 19 TO 21)** LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF CORNER

900.

800.

ui D
CK CD

700.

u
03 LU LU
UI

600.
1*

ui

. __
b .
~

~~~~~^
=::

20

::

^^_

19
21

=>

CK

'
400.

oc
CK J

300.

/ 7 1 1 I j
II II II 11
II II 1 1

200.

ll 100. 1
1 1

J
I I 1

TIME ELHPSED F ROM COMMENCE CRSTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.26

74

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE T(01)0PEN-T0P

**<THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 22 TO 25 ) * * LOCATION - BASE OF BROAD WALL

1000
+

900

800

ui
Q CE CK LO

700.,

UI
LO

600

UI UI UI

o
UI CK
HC CK CL

500 J

UI

400

300

200

100.

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.27

75

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

. MOULD TYPE (01)00 **<THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF BROAD WALL
1000 WUU ,

900.
. .

y'
800.

"""

***

" ^*, " .

^ . ^

/
/

*"".. " s^
***.
""

/
""*"

^28

700,

/
600,
io UI

27

! ! / /

/
/

/ / //

,'^^'

* ~^

^ ^ ^ ^ i i r 22 6 9
^

500,

400.

! / it //
//

//

300,

'/
'/
1 1 /

200.

100.

il il
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CRSTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.28

76

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (Ol) OPENTOP **<THERMOCOUPLE C HANNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WALL
1000

900

800..

STRIP TIME

g
CK LD

700

UI

u
LO UI UI

600

oc
LO UI UI CK
y-

500

cc
CK UI

: LU

400

300

200.

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.29

77

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE TCODOPENTOP **(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCATION - MID HEIG HT OF BROAD WALL
1000

900

STRIP TIME

800

ui cc
CK

700..

co

LU U 03 LU LU CK CD LU Q

600

~
LU

500

ce

CK LU

LU

400

300.:

200

100,

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMEN CE C f l S T l N 6

(HOURS)

FIG.30

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD j t 1 T K PEN ( * * STRAIN GRUGE CHNEL_l__zlHOR I ZONT RL * _ * )_ LOCATION MI D HEIGHT OF NRRROW WALL
2000

1750

1500..

1250

1000,

CK

o
CK

750,.

500

250
m m 0.1 -250 . .

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-500

TIME ELRP SED FROM COMMENCE CASTING

(HOURS)

FIG. 31

79

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE Tl. OPEN-TOP ( * * STRAIN G RUGE CHANNEL 4 - HORIZONTAL **) LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF CORNER"
2000

1750

1500.

1250

l-H

1 o
LK O

1000 .

750.

m * * * * * * * *

r
500.

250..

* 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

-250

-500..

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.32

80

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

M OUI. D TYPE Tl. - ( * * STRRN GRUGE CHANNEL 6"-HOR IZONTRL **) LOCRTION - MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WRLL
2000

1750

1500

1250

t.

CE CK

1000..

CK CJ

750 . .

* *

500

250

0.1
-250

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-500

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.33

81

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale --2-5

20

1-5

--10

--05

+ 0-5

-0-5mm

FIG.34
Deviation from Standard Dimensions-Mould Inner Walls:-1.-N orth N arrow Wall- 2-South N arrow Wall - T-j

82

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale

-0'5mm

0-5mm

FIG.35
Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner W a l l s : - 1 . - W e s t Broad W a l l - T i 2 - East Broad W a l l -

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 8 TO 11 ) * * LOCATION - BASE OF NARROW WALL

1000

900..

800

ui Q cc
CK

700

co

600

500
LU

C CK UI

10

400. J

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.36

84

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WALL

1000

900 ..

LU

CE CK LO

UI

LO UI UI CK
UI

co

UI CK Z>

CK U! CL

E
LU

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.37

85

FR 95 6

831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 16 TO 18)** LOCATION BASE OF CORNER

1000
+

900

800

LU Q CC CK CD

700..

ui

10 ui
LU CK

600..

LU
LU CK

500

cc
UI Q. je U!
CK

400

300..

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTI NG (HOURS)

FIG.3

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**<THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 19 TO 21)** LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF CORNER

1000

900 .

800 .

ui tr
CK LD

700.

600 .
LO

UI UI
CK LO

UI Q
UI CK -D CK UI D 2 Ul

500 .
/ /
S

' __
s*

"""""---20 ~~ ~~ 19 " s,_^21

>-

"

400 .

''
300 .

'

^
-

' If
/ ' l /
1 1 /

200 .

100 .

J J1

ij/ j

' Y 1f

''
1

1/

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.39

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE

(U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 22 TO 25 ) * * LOCATION - BASE OF BROAD WALL

1000

900

800

Ul Q CC CK LD

700

LO UI UI LO UI Q UI CK

600 , ' - 24 500 ;

CK UI

=>

400

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.40

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE

(U5)B0TTLE.T0P

**<THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF BROAD WLL

900.

^, - " \
800 .

UI

tr
CK LO

700.

LO LU CK LU Q LU CK

600 .

.....

~ ~ -

UI ca

500 .

/ / ' > /

-s
:
CK LU

400 .

LU

300 ,

'

200 ,

100 .
0

IJ
1 1 1 1 1

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CRSTING (HOURS)

FIG.41

89

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE (U5)BOTTLE.T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WRLL
1000

900. STRIP TIME 800 ,

ui
Q

cr
CK

700 ,

/ /

co
2 LU U LO LU LU CK LO LU Q

\ \
y

600 .

\'\

U)
CK 3

1 500 . i

/ /
.'

l CC
CK

i
400 ,

' >' y
/ //
/ //
C ~" ^ 14 13 12 15

ui
CL

TL UI

! i
300 ,

// '/

200 .

i 1 1
I Un 1 1 1

100 .

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.42

90

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE <U5)B0TTLE.T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHAN N ELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCFITION - MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WALL
1000

900.

STRIP TIME

800..

Ul

tr

700

CK CD

UI

(_!

600..

CO Ul UI CK LD Ul

o
Ul CK =3 ICE CK

500..

Q-

400

300

200.1

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.43

91

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE U5.B0TTLETP ( * * STRRIN GRUGE CHANNEL J HORIZONTAL **_> LOCA ION MIO" HEIGHT OF 'NR'RROW WRLL '
2000

1750 ..

1500

1250

S cc
CK

1000.

s*"*''

u r

750..
500

/ /
250

.0
250 ..

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

500

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.44

92

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MULD TYPE U.PQTTLL ( * * STRRIN 6RGE C HANNEL"4' HORIZONTAL * * ) _ LOCATION MID HEIGHT 'OF"C ORNER
2000

1750.

1500

1250

S 1000.. c c
CK t

w o
CK

750

500..

250..

^*tUt
*

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

250 . .

500..

TIME ELAPSED FROM C OMMENC E C ASTING (HOURS)

FIG.45

93

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE U5.BO TTLE. JOP ( * * STRRIN GRUGE CHANNEL 6 - "HORIZONTAL **) LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF BROAD WALL
2000

1750

1500..

1250

S t r c c tw o o

1000

750

500

250..

OIL

0.1 -250..

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-500,.

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS) FIG.46

94

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale

2-5

--20

1-5

--10

0-5

-0-5mm

0-5mm

FIG.47
Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:-1.-North Narrow Wall-U5 2.-South Narrow Wall- U5

95

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale 2-5

20

--1-5

K.

10

--05

-0-5mm

FIG.48
Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner W a l l s : - 1 . - West Broad Wall-U5 2 - East Broad Wall-U5

96

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 481(V3)0PENT0P **(THERMOCOUPLE C HANNELS 8 TO 11 ) * * LOCATION BASE OF NARROW WALL

1000
t

900

800 ..

LU

tx
CK 13

700 .

LU CJ LO

600

UI LU
CK LO LU O

500

LU CK h-

tr
CK

ui

:
LU

400

300

200

100

TJME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.49

97

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 481(V3)0PEN-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHANNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WALL
1000 UU\J
,

900 ,

800 ,

. -

"

. _

LU Q

tr

700 ,

y '

"""-^

CK to

UI (J LO LU Ul CK LO LU LU CK

600 .

500 .

''

""

""

!
400 .

//
i'

~ ~ ~ ^"^ ~ ^~ ^ ~ ~ _T "" " --12 1 5

cc
CK Ul CL

/ ,/ /,/
i

300 .

'
,1

1
200 .

100 ,

il il

>

1-

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.50

98

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 48KV3)0PENT0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 16 TO 18)** LOCATION BRSE OF CORNER

1000

900 .

800 .

s\

Ul

o tr

700 ,

CK

to

hZ LU CJ LO LU LU CK

600 .

to

LU Q LU CK )

\^
:
CK Ul CL Ul H

500.

400 .

_ _ _ _ .

"

xj

^^z~
' 's* r ^ -s*'*""""

~ * ^ _

^ _ i6

300 .

200 .

II II

f
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y

il
100 .

il
il
II

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.51

99

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE

48KV3)0PENT0P

**(THERMOCOUPLE C HANNELS 19 TO 21)** LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF CORNER

1000 +

900

800

UI

u
ll' fi L
V

700 .

III L>

600

W III III IV t'I 111 Q

\*r

500.
/

20
y

UI
CK

->

tr
ty LU J. UI
h

; 400 .

' if 1 J
' If
300 .

>'

'/

' l I

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.52

100

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 481(V3)QPEN-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 22 TO 25 ) * * LOCRTION - BRSE OF BROAD WALL

1000
t

300

800

UI

CK

tr

700

UI UI CK

LO

600

LO LU O

500

UI CK Z3

I
UI Q-

tr cc

400

: UI

300 :

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CRSTIN6 (HOURS)

FIG.53

101

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 481(V3)0PEN-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 26 TO 29 ) * * LOCATION - MID HEIGHT OF BROAD WALL
1000

900 ..

800

LU

tr
LO LU O LO

700

600

UI Ul
CK LO Ul Q

500
ui CK

zo

CK LU Cu

400

: UI

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CAST1N6 (HOURS)

FIG.54

102

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MG UL_D YP V3. 0 E N[ OP i*_* _S IR_H I G RUG E CHANNEL 1 - HORIZONTAL * tO ""LOCATION" M O" HEIGHT OF "NARROW " " WAL L
2000

1750

1500 . .

1250

1000

V
J*?*

^*^>^

CT

cr. l(
O

ry OJ
-t

750

* *

* 500 . * * *

250. *
*

0.1
-250 . .

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-500

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.55

103

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

(**

J MOULD TYf E V3.PENP STRA I N GAUGE CHANNEL 4 H O RI Z O N T A L LOCATION M I D__HE.1 _GHT_OF CORNER

**)

2000

1750

1500

1250

1000

C T

er t o cr u

750

500

250

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-250

-500 . .

TIME ELAP SED FROM COMMENCE CASTINS (HOURS)

FIG.56

104

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE V3. OPENTOP ( * * STRAIN GRUGE CHANNEL 6 HORIZONTAL * * ) " LOCATION MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WALL.""
2000

1750

je*

1500

S*
4?

1250.

Qi

1000
m

h 00 O

750

500
*

250 . .

0.1
-250 . .

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-500 . .

TIME ELAP SED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS)

FIG.57

105

FR 95 6

831

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale

--2-5

20

--1-5

--10

0-5

-0-5mm FIG.58

0-5mm

Deviation from Standard Dimensions - Mould Inner Walls:- 1.-North Narrow Wall-481(V) 2-South Narrow Wall - 481 (V)

106

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Height From Base Of Mould (m.) * Mould Taper Not to Scale

2-5

--20

--1-5

10

OS

-0-5mm

-5

0-5mm

FIG.59
Deviation from Sta nda rd Dimensions - Mould Inner Wa lls- 1 . - West Broa d W a l l - 4 8 l ( v ) 2 - Ea st Broa d Wa ll-481(V)

107

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

2000

vy

H
C/5

1000

0.05 180 TIME FIG.60

0.4 1440

0.5 1800

hours seconds

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED STRAIN VALUES "(492 MOULD", M DHEIGHT NARROW WALL)

108

FR 9 5

831

7210.CA/813

200

150 -

100

50.

1000 MAXIMUM MEASURED STRAIN C/L)

2000

FIG.61 MEAN LIFE VERSUS MAXIMUM MEASURED STRAIN AT MID-HEIGHT ON BROADWALL INGOT MOULD TYPES 492, V3, U5 AND TI

109

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

2000

S
CO

1000

hours seconds TIME FIG.62

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED STRAIN VALUES (TI MOULD, MID-HEIGHT NARROW WALL)

110

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.63 GEOMETRY OF MID-HEIGHT HORIZONTAL SECTION FOR TYPE 492 MOULD

111

FR 9 5

831

7210.CA/813

1. 2ram A

! 5

2.0mm

0.51mm

^1.59mm

Mould d i s p l a c e m e n t s a r e shown a f t e r t i m e l a p s e of 720 s e c o n d s .

1.66mm NOTE: 1) Numbers i n l a r g e t y p e a r e t h e element numbers. 2) Numbers i n 6mall t y p e a r e t h e node numbers.

2 .42mm

FIG.64 2D MESH FOR TYPE 4 9 2 MOULD

112

FR 9 5 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

eratures (720s)
Contour

A C D E F G H I J

Degrees C.

122 170 217 265 313 360 408 456 503 551

B CDE F G H IJ FIG.65

COMPUTER PREDICTED TEMPERATURE PROFILE FOR 492 MOULD AFTER 720 SECONDS

113

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

exi-er i r a i t a l cata 900 ccrt3-jtrr rrc-C: eta on

&CO

700

600
o

-CJ t3

500

400 .

300

200

100

100 D i s t a n c e fror, c o l d face (rrrn)

200

FIG.66 492 MOULD, MID-HEIGHT BROADWALL - VALIDATION RESULTS

114

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

2000

1
H co

1000 -

0.5 1800 TIME FIG 67

hours seconds

COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED STRAIN VALUES (492 MOULD, MID-HEIGHT NARROW WALL) (REVISED MOULD IRON THERMAL PROPERTIES FOR SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE IRON)

115

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

2000

PREDICTED STRAIN

1
H co

1000 -

0.5 hours 1800 seconds TIME FIG.68 COMPARISON OF PREDICTED AND MEASURED STRAIN VALUES (492 MOULD, MID-HEIGHT NARROW WALL)

116

FR 95 6 831

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APPENDIX 1 MATERIAL PROPERTY TEST RESULTS ON SAMPLES OF CAST IRON SUPPLIED TO BRITISH CAST IRON RESEARCH ASSOCIATION (ALVECHURCH, BIRMINGHAM) Two samples of ingot mould iron were supplied for material property tests. One sample marked 'BW' was from the broad wall of the mould and the other marked 'NW' was from the narrow wall. The test results, other than specific heat, for the broad and narrow wall samples are given in Sections 1.1 and 1.2 respectively. The specific heat test results for both samples are given in Section 1.3. 1.1. Results for Sample 'BW' from Ingot Mould 56-1/8347-1

The tests were carried out on samples cut from positions approximately half way between the cast surfaces and the centre of the ingot mould wall section as shown in Fig. Al.1. The results are given below. Tensile Tests (on standard 0.798 inch diameter test bars)
Test Temp. Tensile Strength Tons/in 2 N/mm 2 19.5 20.0 20.0 19.3 18.9 13.5 9.0 5.2 4.2 301 309 309 298 292 209 139 80 65 Strain-at-failure % 1.9 3.5 4.4 2.3 4.7 7.5 11.3 13.3 16.3

20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

The stress/strain curves are plotted in Fig. Al. 2, Modulus of Elasticity From stress/strain data From sonic resonance data Density 24.8 IO 6 lb/in2 (171 GN/m2) 24.9 IO 6 lb/in2 (172 GN/m2)

(Determined on sonic modulus specimen)

7.19 g/cc (Note: over a temperature range of 0-600C the density change would be about 21,%) Ultrasonic Velocity (Average of six results on block before cutting up) 5.46 km/s Poisson's Ratio 0.27 Note: Poisson's ratio is defined as the ratio of transverse contraction per unit dimension of a bar of uniform cross-section to its elongation per unit length, when subjected to a tensile stress. (Estimated value)

117

FR 95 6 831

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Thermal Conductivity 'Temperature Thermal Conductivity W/mK 36.4 38.5 41.2 38.6 36.1 33.5

50 100 200 300 400 500 Expansion Characteristics

Duplicate 2 ins long ^ in diameter specimens were heated in a dilatometer and allowed to stabilise at 50C intervals to 500C. Thereafter they were heated at a constant rate of 100C/h to 900C, held for 2 hours at 900C and cooled at a constant rate of 100C/h to 640C. They were then allowed to cool to 20C to determine the permanent growth. The results for the two specimens were identical. Temperature Range C 20-100 20-200 20-300 20-400 20-500 20-600 Permanent growth 0.11 per cent. A diagram of expansion and contraction progress 20C - 900C - 20C is shown in Fig. Al.3. Composition The chemical analysis was determined spectrographically on a chilled pin sample supplied directly from Dowlais Foundry. The sample had been taken from the iron ladle teeming stream during the casting of the mould. No. 56-1 8347-1 TC % 3.64 Mo% 0.02 Microstructure Si% 1.85 Al% Mn% 0.24 Sn% S% 0.01 As % P% 0.03 B% Mg% 0.046 Ti% Ni% Cr% Cu% Coefficient of linear thermal expansion 10"6/C 12.0 12.4 12.9 13.3 13.6 14.4

0.02 0.0 V%

0.013 <0.01 <0.01 <0.0005 0.048 <0.01 * = Total Carbon

The structure was essentially spheroidal graphite, consisted mainly of nodules and mishaped nodules of graphite with some compacted graphite in a matrix containing about 60 per cent ferrite. A typical area 20 is illustrated in Fig.Al.4. 1.2. Results from Sample 'NW' from Ingot Mould 56-1/8347-1

All the tests were carried out in an identical manner to those on sample 'BW'.

118

FR 95 6 831

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Tensile Tests (on Standard 0.798 inch diameter test bars) Test Temperature

C
20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Tensile S t r e n a t n 2 tons/in N/mm 20.0 20.6 19.5 19.6 20.5 15.0 8.5 5.0 4.4 309 318 301 303 317 232 131 77 68

Strainatfailure % 2.0 3.4 3.1 3.6 5.0 8.8 13.8 14.3 >17

1 The stress/strain curves are plotted in Fig.Al.5 Modulus of Elasticity From stress/strain data 25.2 IO 6 lb/in2 (175 GN/m2) From sonic resonance data 24.9 IO 6 lb/in2 (172 GN/m2) Density 7.13 g/cc Ultrasonic Velocity (Average of 6 results) 5.49 km/s Poisson Ratio (Estimated value) 0.27 Thermal Conductivity TemperatureC 50 100 200 300 400 500 Expansion Characteristics Temperature Range C 20100 20200 20300 20400 20500 20600 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion Thermal Conductivity W/mK 35.8 37.9 40.6 38.3 35.8 33.3

10"6/c

11.7 12.1 12.6 12.9 13.3 13.7

Permanent growth 0.115 per cent. A diagram of expansion and contraction progress 20C 900C 20C is shown in Fig.Al.6.

119

FR 95 6 831

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Microstructure The microstructure of sample 'NW' taken from the tensile specimen tested at room temperature was generally similar to that of sample 'BW' and is illustrated in Fig. Al.7. 1.3. Results of Determination of Specific Heat on Samples 'BW' and 'NW' From Ingot Mould 56-1/8347

The specific heat capacity was determined on samples 50mm diameter 50mm with a central 15mm diameter hole to house a small heating element. Samples were prepared from ingot mould irons 'BW' and 'NW' and commercially pure copper for a comparative standard. The cast iron samples were approximately 663 grams and the copper was 825 grams. Each block with heater and attached thermocouples was placed in a guard tube from which it was insulated with about 30mm of low thermal mass refractory matting. The heat input to the heater was 25w accurately monitored throughout the period of heating and power to the guard tube was manually adjusted to provide temperatures matched to those of the specimen to minimise heat loss. The heating rate varied from 150C to 180C/hour from 20C to 900C. It was possible to hold reasonably matching temperatures throughout with maximum differences of 20C for short periods only and generally within 10C. Using copper as reference books losses required required within a standard and assuming its specific heat to be as quoted in it was possible to correct the heat input to the test pieces for to heat the lagging immediately surrounding them and the heat the heating element itself.

Using this system, the values for mean specific heat of the samples are given below. Temperature Range

Mean Apparent Specific Heat Capacity Cal/gC Sample 'BW' Sample 'NW' 0.120 0.124 0.131 0.145 0.159 0.188 0.202 0.206 0.158

20-100 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800 800-900 Note:

0.118 0.120 0.131 0.141 0.147 0.163 0.192 0.205 0.165

The specific heat of copper was taken to be 0.092 cal/gC at 20C rising linearly to 0.115 at 1083C as given in ASME Handbook - Metal Properties 1954. These figures are in agreement with those given for 20C, 200C, 500C and 1000C (but not 100C) in Smithalls - Metals Reference Book 1976.

120

FR 95 6 8 3 1

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ALL SPECIMENS FROM THESE PIECES

CAST SURFACE

300mm

FIG.Al.1 SPECIMEN PREPARATION FROM SAMPLE TAKEN FROM THE INGOT MOULD IRON

121

*l

w
VD

co
OJ

STRESS 2 (tons/in ) 20 18 16 14 12 10
KJ tvj

STRESS (H/nn )

20?, ^ 3 0 0 ^ :

^100

_200 . 400C

.300

-250 500C -200

600C 8 6 700C 4 2 I

-150

100 800 50

10

l ' l

12

13

14

15

16

STRAIN (7.) FIG.Al.2 STRESS/STRAIN RELATIONSHIP BROADWALL SAMPLE

to

n > \
t-*

VD

1.5

CO OJ

0.15
GROWTH

IN 2H0URS

1.0

LENGTH CHANGE

0.5

-J

ro TEMPERATURE C

FIG.Al.3 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION P R O G R E S S 20 900c

>
20C
BROADWALL SAMPLE
CO LJ

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

w
&

f Ti
r , * A
% *

*
:
: ^ #

FIG.Al.4 MICROSTRUCTURE FROM BROADWALL SAMPLE (x 20 ETCHED 4% PICRAL)

124


53
VD LH

03
OJ

STRESS 2 (tons/in ) 22

STRESS (N/mm )

KJ

9 STRAIN (7.)

FIG.Al.5 STRESS/STRAIN RELATIONSHIP NARROW WALL SAMPLE

> \
M OJ

co


1.5 -

Tl

VD Ln

00 OJ

0.1557.
GROWTH IN 2H0URS

LENGTH CHANGE X

CTl

TEMPERATURE FIG.Al. 6

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PPOGRESS- 20o

900 - 20UC

NARROW WALL SAMPLE

> \
CO

OJ

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.Al.7 MICROSTRUCTURE FROM NARROW WALL SAMPLE (x 20 ETCHED 4% PICRAL)

127

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

APPENDIX 2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF INGOT MOULDS SUMMARY (i) General

The attrition rate of ingot moulds in the conventional steel route is acknowledged as a high cost area. The Welsh Laboratory of the British Steel Corporation were commissioned by the European Coal and Steel Community to carry out research into the causes and reduction of the problem. Four different types of mould were instrumented and data was recorded during usage cycles for the production of steel ingots. Design Audit Limited (D.A. Ltd) was appointed by the Laboratory to carry out finite element studies into the cause of failure, and to produce a design package to allow moulds to be investigated and redesigned. Mathematical models were formulated representing the mould and the heat flows. These models were calibrated against the test data. A design method was produced which was calibrated against complex analyses, and the effects of plasticity were investigated. A recommended redesign was attempted which indicates the area and method of improving one mould, although further work is needed. The programme of work has shown that the ingot moulds require considerable skill in redesign as they can be very sensitive to sudden changes in wall thickness. The situation is also unusual in that the heat flux values are high, and that equilibrium of heat flow is not really established during the production cycle.

128

FR 95 6 831

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Summary cont'd. (ii) Redesign Procedure

Design Audit Ltd. suggest that moulds are modified using the procedure given in this flow diagram . Further details on each stage are given in this Appendix and summarised in Appendix 2A. Typical mould design data for this procedure is given in Appendix 2B.

DEFINE MOULD GEOMETRY AND DATA

(1)

SET-UP 2-D HORIZONTAL MODEL AND RUN

(4)

CONVERT RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION TO RELEVANT DIAMETER

(6)

DETERMINE HORIZONTAL STRESSES

(5)

SET UP AND RUN'VERTICAL MODEL FOR VERTICAL STRESS

(7)

SET UP AND RUN A PARTIAL 3-D ANALYSIS IF NECESSARY

T (10)

COMBINE STRESSES FOR DESIRED POSITION

(8)

COMFARE WITH ACCEPTABLE VALUES

(9)

129

FR 95 6 831

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Summary cont'd... (iii) Conclusions

The proposed redesign of the Tl mould was not entirely successful and demonstrates the sensitivity of the mould to changes in Section . It is apparent that redesign of these moulds will have to be a repetitive procedure to reduce stresses. However, the result of the redesigned mould and other calculations lead to the following conclusions. a) Peak tensile stresses are reached in about 12 minutes, which are not necessarily concurrent with the peak compressive stresses. During each heat the mould is plastically strained; the strain appears to increase with aspect ratio. Stresses are much higher than those encountered in conventional engineering and thus can not be compared with existing data. A benchmark of a known "good" mould is used. Further work may be necessary to give meaning to the high compressive stresses. To reduce cracking by reducing the stresses on the outside of the mould, the mould should be thickened. The mould is extremely sensitive to thickening, and to thicken it without careful repetitive calculation may induce cracking elsewhere. In some places the stresses are low and there is some scope for reducing wall thicknesses, but this needs careful checking. High aspect ratio moulds suffer more permanent inwards deflection on the broad face than low aspect ratio moulds. By geometric considerations there is scope for improving life by increasing the mould taper. This particularly applies to the broadside. Quality control on mould wall thickness. This is particularly important since small errors in the position of the pattern when making the sand mould can result in significant differences in the mould wall thickness.

b)

c)

d)

e)

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1.

Introduction

In the traditional steelmaking routes, liquid steel is cast into an ingot and allowed to solidify. After a period of some hours the solid steel ingot is removed from the mould (a process known as stripping) either by lifting the mould off the ingot or by hydraulically ramming the ingot from the mould. Due to the high thermal and mechanical cycling associated with this process route the attrition rate for moulds is high, with average lives varying from some tens of cycles to about two hundred cycles depending upon the mould's precise circumstances. The above description is somewhat simplistic as there are many and varied parameters which can affect the life of the mould. Among the more significant ones are: Mould material; Mould design, principally mould aspect ratio and wall and corner thickness Casting practice including the use of 'hot top' insulating tiles and use of water to aid solidification Stripping practice and cooling practice/re-cycle time Within the complex situation Design Audit Limited (D.A. Ltd) was commissioned to conduct finite element stress/thermal studies with the aim of producing a mould design analysis package. To enable this to be done it is obvious that much subsidiary data is required and that the complex situation would require simplifying with the object of obtaining an engineering tool to predict mould behaviour. The Welsh Laboratory of the British Steel Corporation were able, both through their experience of mould behaviour and through a programme of works trials to identify and, in many cases, quantify missing data. The Welsh Laboratory's experience of mould behaviour and DA Ltd's engineering capabilities produced a package of analysis to give understanding of the situation and to enable recommendations to be produced. PAFEC Ltd. of Nottingham were commissioned to provide the necessary coding and computing facilities. 2. Welsh Laboratory Tests

The Welsh Laboratory of the British Steel Corporation had previously identified a package of work which they believed would provide insight into the causes of mould failure. 2.1. Mould Choice

Four moulds in current use had been selected by the Welsh Laboratory as the trial subjects. These were the following moulds and the causes of failure is commented upon: Type 492 - Bottle top V3/481 - Open top Average Life Estimate 120 103 Mode of Failure Wear/crazing internally. Vertical Cracking Inward distortion and horizontal cracks on broad walls and vertical cracking Vertical and horizontal cracks on broad walls Horizontal cracking of broad walls with inward distortion. Vertical cracking

U5 Tl

- Bottle top - Open top

96 84

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The moulds were chosen as being good and bad examples of open top and bottle top moulds and the drawings are found in Figures A2.1 - A2.4. 2.2. Mould Trials

Each of the four moulds were instrumented for both strain and temperature which were recorded during several trials until consistent sets of recordings were presented. It was the intention that each mould be instrumented as follows: At mid height On the broad side at mid span and on the narrow side at mid span and on the corner. Temperatures are measured from the cold surface to within about 6mm from the hot surface. A similar pattern to those at mid height.

At the base

The data is presented as graphs of temperature against time for each position on the mould for the complete time history of the cycle, and these are repeated until consistent data is produced. Examples of output are given in Figures A2.5 - A2.8. Moulds were also instrumented with strain gauges on the outside surface, adjacent to the surface thermocouples. These strain gauges should provide confirmatory data for the stresses and trends predicted by the computer model. 2.3. Other Data

Data on the cast iron was produced by the British Cast Iron Research Association (BCIRA) from samples provided by BSC Welsh Laboratory and provided the following measured data relevant to this analysis: Specific heat Tensile strength temperature Elasticity Density Expansion characteristics Thermal conductivity Poisson's ratio Chemical composition and structure Data was also provided by BSC Welsh Laboratory on the characteristics of the clay rope seal beteen the ingot mould and mould base plate. 3. Thermal Stress Analysis

When a body is heated or cooled, expansion or contraction is produced. If these movements are restrained stresses can be developed inside the body, these are called thermal stresses. It is possible in the physical situation to make distinctions of various types of thermal stresses. These distinctions require different solutions to alleviate the thermal stresses if they become high. a) Those stresses which are produced solely because the vessel or body is restrained. If is the temperature change through which the body or vessel is taken, and is the coefficient of expansion and E is the modulus of the material, the resulting stress o is given by: = E It will be

This stress is removed by freeing the body to allow it to expand. typified by a uniform temperature field. b)

Those stresses which are produced by a temperature difference across the width of the body. These will produce a bending moment across the body which is directly proportional to the temperature difference and inversely proportional to the wall thickness. There may be stresses of the type (a) associated with this. 132

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These type (b) stresses are removed by removing the temperature difference across the width by increased heating/cooling as appropriate. c) A body whose shape is such that incompatible internal expansions produce internal stresses. These may only be reduced by redesign.

In many structural engineering textbooks equations will be found relating to these cases. Some approximate hand calculations are found in Appendix 2C. 3.1. Ingot Mould Stress Analysis

There is a certain amount of knowledge which can be gained on thermal stress analysis of the ingot moulds by study of the temperature data. The preceding section shows that thermal stressing can be dependent upon the temperature distribution throughout the body. Figure A.2.9 gives graphical significance to this for unidirectional heat flow and shows the various states. Associated with the heating up curves there is a steep gradient near the hot face (which is proportional to the high heat flux) which is reduced towards the outer edge (proportional to a lower heat flux). The first law of thermodynamics demands that the flux is used to heat up the body. The case is used in reverse for the cooling down curve. The preceding section also indicates that stresses are crudely proportional to the gradient of the temperature/thickness curve. From Figures A2.5 - A2.8 we would then expect very high compressive stresses on the inner face on teeming which gradually dies down into the cycle. The extent of this compressive zone will increase with time, although the peak magnitude will decrease. Stability demands that these compressive stresses are balanced by tensile stresses and consequently the compressive field taken with the tensile field will produce a bending moment on the section. 3.2. Ingot Mould Finite Element Modelling

To determine the stress situation with clarity it is necessary to use sophisticated analysis tools; and the most applicable to the nature of the problem is finite element analysis. The object of the contract is to produce a design tool for the modification/design of moulds. In this situation it is necessary that the package be cost effective and that its limits and capabilities are known. Because of the nature of the problem, 3 dimensional thermal analysis is extremely expensive and as a design tool is probably prohibitive. A composite method was developed whereby a quasi - 3 dimensional model was proposed and made. It was used to predict stresses in the 492 type mould and this quasi - 3 dimensional model was then calibrated against a 492 3-dimensional model. The quasi - 3 dimensional model consisted of a horizontal section to obtain the horizontal stress distribution (including around the corners) combined with vertical stresses derived from an axisymmetric body representing the shape and properties of the mould. In assessing the usefulness of this approach the following points should be borne in mind: a) Interpretation of stress calculation results are a matter of comparison; so long as the method of derivation is consistent, comparisons can be made. The classical method of stress analysis is to derive stress values which are compared to values presented in various Engineering Codes of Practice. In the mould case expected stresses are extremely high and outside the scope of any code known to DA Ltd. Also ingot mould lives are low. The results can only be interpreted in relation to those derived for a "good" mould - namely the 492 type. This was our benchmark. The significance of extremely high compressive stresses can not be interpreted in the light of any existing data, except that some damage will be experienced on the inside surface which will be inevitable with the process.

b)

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c) 3.3.

The accuracy of mould manufacture is not consistent and has been seen to vary by 5%, which can considerably affect the calculated stress results. Finite Element Analysis Method

The interaction between the ingot, mould and environment was analysed using the PAFEC 75 suite of computer programmes. PAFEC Ltd also constructed the detailed models for the analysis under DA Ltd directions. It is appropriate to summarise the assumptions implicit in this method of structural analysis, which are as follows: a) The .structure is divided into a number of regions called elements, which correspond to simple geometric shapes such as rectangular or triangular plates (for 2-D analysis), beams (an essentially one-dimensional element), or membranes (with no bending resistance). The elements are assumed to be connected together at nodes, these being the corner or end points of the element. Some elements may also be joined at mid-side nodes. All forces between elements are assumed to act through nodes. Furthermore, all forces on the structure can only be introduced through nodes. Within each element the displacements due to the loading are assumed to vary according to some predetermined polynomial. Since the strains vary with displacement and their derivatives, they also vary in some predetermined way; and similarly the stresses. Note that this does not mean their values are specified beforehand, but that the shape of the variation follows a predetermined curve, parabolic for example. The fewer nodes an element has, the simpler the variation, until in the simplest element the stresses and strains are constant throughout the element. When stresses are involved, the accurate displaced shape of the structure is obtained by allowing each element to deform plastically according to a predetermined stress-strain curve (dependent on the material properties). e) The effects of temperature gradients, (thermal distortion and stresses) are calculated using appropriate thermal elements. At each node in the element, either the temperature or the heat flux entering the structure must be stated.

b)

c) d)

The finite element method is an essentially approximate method, in which accurate results depend on a proper knowledge and application of the loads. The data finally presented by the computer for analysis is in the form of: a) b) c)
3

An outline drawing of the structure, or part of structure, with each node marked and numbered. A computer analysis print-out giving the stresses and displacements at each numbered node. other output plots, e.g. displacement shape, as requested. Proposed Analysis Method for Design Modifications

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Notes: (See Fig.A2.10) (1) This will usually be defined on the appropriate drawings although some work is often required to produce the geometrical data required for the section under consideration. From this geometric data and the rules in the appropriate finite element program manuals a finite element mesh will be defined. (2) Defining heat inputs is difficult because of many factors are unknown - such as the flow pattern of liquid metal within the ingot and the formation of an air gap. Many of these factors are of a random nature and cannot be catered for other than by broad assumptions. In the analysis of the Tl and 492 moulds we were fortunate in having measured temperature data and so could define this precisely at two relvent points. We would suggest that this same data, selected from the more appropriate shape is used for the redesign of other moulds. This data can be found in Section 2 and 4 of this appendix and in the figures of the main report. (3) Heat losses are a function of the outside temperature of the ingot wall and a set of equations. As such they can be used in the finite element model with little change. The equations are in section 4. (4) In defining the geometry, mesh heat inputs and losses, the model is virtually defined. The only outstanding decision is the time considerations. We have found the following time steps satisfactory: 180, 360, 720 and 1800 seconds to cover the peak stresses. (See Tables A2.1 and A2.4). (5) Stresses are output by the PAFEC program after the calculated temperature distribution from the transient thermal analysis is entered into the stress program. (6) The rectangular the equation:4A , where D D = A cross section is converted to a cylindrical cross section by = diameter = perimeter = area of plane considered

This is used for all rectangular horizontal dimensions through the height of the model (see Section 7). (7) The cylindrical section derived above and the heat losses and input are put into a model and run to determine the stresses. Only the vertical stresses from this model are used. The hoop stresses are ignored. This model also includes a group of elements at the base of the mould to represent the clay rope separating the mould from the baseplate. This effectively stopped the heat flow from the mould to baseplate. (8) Combine the stresses from the two analyses by use of the well known equation by Von Mises (see Section 9 and Appendix 2D^ 1 ) ) . (9) Compare the stresses produced at the surfaces of the mould with those produced for the 492 mould to decide if any modifications are required. If they are, re-enter the loop at Stage 1. (See Section 6, Table A2.1). (10) In addition to the above, if the mould contains any significant non-symmetrical features, such as a skirt only applied to two opposite faces, it will be necessary to consider the effect of this. This will require the relvent area to be analysed separately with a 3-D model. It will not be necessary to model the complete mould. In order to model the effect of a skirt at the base, the lower quarter of the mould should be modelled with appropriate edge conditions (mould displacements), taken from the full 3-D model. 4. Derivation of Heat Balance Data

A section through the ingot mould at mid-height is shown schematically in Fig. A2.11. We have assumed that the steel ingot breaks away from the mould at an early

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stage, giving an air gap between the mould and the ingot. The variables and constants used in the calculation of heat transfer coefficients are also shown in Fig. A2.11. The rate at which heat is lost from the ingot H, is equal to the rate at which heat is gained by the mould, plus the rate of heat loss from the mould to the air. Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows: H, H m M H 4.1. = timm + M (4.1) c + Hr = heat loss from the ingot = = = heat 3 gained by the mould J heat lost to the air by convection heat lost to the air by radiation

where,

C onvection

The heat transfer coefficient H , for free convection along a vertical rectangular plate in air at room temperature is given by' 2 ).
H

2
6 z (W/m2 K)

0.825(X=/h)i5 + 0.605(f. /XJ a a

(4.2)

where,

h f

= = = =

thermal conductivity of air (W/mK) height of mould relative pressure factor temperature difference c
r

Fig. A2.12 = 2.565m = 1.0

t = m,o t =

tm ,o ta v (C ' ) outside wall temperature of mould (C )

air temperature (C )

The heat transfer coefficient calculated from equation (4.2) is plotted as a function of the outside wall temperature of the mould in Figure A2.13. and

~I-C

x H

(kW/m

,, , 2v

>

4.2.

Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by radiation , is given by:

H

(R

" 4 6 ' (kW/m2)

(4.3) (3'

where,

= =

total heat radiated from a black body (kw/m2)

J emissivity of the mould

_ m

0.46 =

back radiation at 25C

(kW/m2)

The heat transfer by radiation is plotted as a function of outside wall temperature of the mould in Figure A2.14. 4.3. Heat Transfer to the Mould

The rate of heat transfer to the mould H was calculated by plotting the mean mould temperature against time. For high heat input rates, the mean temperature

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was calculated using a planimeter to calculate the area under the temperature distance graphs, otherwise it was determined by counting squares on the graph. As an example, consider the 492 mould midheight, midpoint on the broad side. The temperaturedistance graphs are shown in Figures A2.15 and A2.16. The mean mould temperature is plotted in Figures A2.17 and A2.18 and the mean rate of change in temperature was calculated from the gradient of these graphs. The rate of heat transfer to the mould , is therefore given by the following equation:
H

m = 378 Y T
= = =

(kW/m2) ( 4

4 )

where,

m s t

mass of mould per m 2 of wall (kg/m2) specific heat capacity (J/kg K) see Figure A2.19

the mean rate of rise in mould temperature (K/hr)

4.4.

Heat Transfer from the Ingot

After calculating the rate of heat transfer to the mould, and the heat losses by convection and radiation as described in Sections 4.1 4.3, the rate of heat loss from the ingot can be calculated using equation 4.1. Heat transfer from the ingot to the mould wall was assumed to occur across a small air gap which will develop as soon as a solid skin forms on the ingot. The rate of heat transfer from the ingot H, across the air gap is given by: Hi where, m o t = = = = = 1 + 1 ^ 1 ( t s " fcm i') m s emissivity * of the mould = 0.85 emissivity of the steel = 1.00 equation 4.5

StefanBoltzmann constant = 56.7 I O 1 2 kW/(m2.K1*) temperature of ingot skin (K)

tm, . = inside wall temperature of the mould (K) From equations 4.1 and 4.5 it is therefore possible to calculate the skin temperature of the ingot. 5. Validation of Heat Balance Data

In order to validate the heat balance data derived in Section 4.0, a 1D model of the mould wall was made. This is a relatively cheap way of validating the data, and provides a realistic representation for heat transfer since the majority of the heat flow will be normal to the plane of the mould wall. This type of validation exercise is also important where the actual mould wall thickness of the instrumented mould varies from the nominal dimension given on the drawing. This was found to be the case for the 492 mould, broadside where the nominal thickness is 229mm, and the actual thickness was 241mm. The actual mould wall thickness was used in this analysis. The results of this 1D validation analysis are plotted in Figure A2.20 and show good agreement between the experimental and computer predicted temperature profiles.

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6. 6.1.

492 Mould Horizontal Section Mould Geometry and Finite Element Mesh

The basic dimensions of the type 492 bottle top mould are shown in Figure A2.21. In the first 2D finite element computer analysis, a horizontal section was taken at the midheight of the mould. The geometry of this section is shown in Figure A2.22. The calculated values for L, represent the points where the corner radius blends in to the side radius. The values for R\ Ri,, and , are given below:
Ri R2 R3 R4

3180mm, 3232mm, 3434mm, 3479mm,

02 02 04

= = = =

9.72 6.28 9.65 6.00

The mesh for the finite element analysis is shown in Figure A2.23. Due to the symmetry, only 1/4 of the horizontal section needs to be modelled. 6.2. Finite Element Analysis

In modelling the heat flow through the mould at the midheight, using a 2D model, it is assumed that there is no heat flow in the vertical plane. In view of the high thermal mass of the ingot, this is a reasonable assumption for the midheight position. The temperature profiles predicted by the computer were calculated, using the heat input from the ingot, and heat loss from the outside wall, calculated by Design Audit Ltd on Calculation Sheets A2.1 A2.4. An example of the computer predicted temperature profile is given in Figure A2.24 for a time lapse of 30 minutes. 6.3. 2D Horizontal Section

The largest stresses occur at the two surfaces of the mould. The stresses are tensile on the outside surface, and compressive on the inside surface. The stress distribution on the inside and outside surfaces is shown in Table A2.1 for times up to 30 minutes. Node positions are shown in Figure A2.23. The largest compressive stresses occur shortly after the mould has been filled with molten steel. This is to be expected since there is a very high thermal gradient close to the inside surface in the period 03 minutes (Figure A2.15). The compressive stresses are very high and would be expected to result in some damage, probably crazing of the inside surface. On a 2D section at midheight, the largest stress at any time is always found near to the corner. The stress concentration factors at the corner are given in Table A2.2. This table shows the relationship between the stress at the midpoint of the broad and narrow sides and corner. Table A2.2 shows that there is an almost constant relationship between stresses at these three points, although there is no reason why it should be so as the stress pattern varies with time. The maximum tensile stress occurs in the outside surface after a time of 720 seconds (12 minutes). The maximum stresses occur at two points, one each side of the corner. The 0.2% proof stress was calculated from curves supplied by BSC Welsh laboratory and is plotted in Figure A2.25. Since the proof stress values are exceeded, some plastic deformation can be expected which, in practice will reduce the peak calculated stress and slightly increase deflections. The computer predicted displacements of the 492 mould are shown on Figure A2.23 for a time interval of 720 seconds. 7. 492 Mould Vertical Section

An analysis of a 2D vertical section was done by approximating the mould to a hollow cone. This enables a 2D axisymmetric analysis to be run, which will calculate the hoop stress in addition to the stresses in the plane of the mould wall. The effective diameter D , of the mould for each change in mould section

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was calculated from the following equation: 4.A D where, A = = area of mould, assumed to be a rectangle perimeter

The dimensions of the mould used for this axisymmetric analysis are shown in Figure A2.26 and the mesh is shown in Figure A2.27. 7.1. Heat Transfer Data

The heat input to the mould wall for the axisymmetric analysis was taken as the average of the broad side and narrow side values used in the horizontal 2-D analysis. The data used is given in Table A2.3. The values used were assumed to be constant with mould height. The heat transfer coefficient between the ingot and the base was calculated as 480 W/m2/K (see Calculation Sheet A2.5). The mould was assumed to sit on a 2.5mm thickness of clay rope in order to seal the base. The heat transfer coefficient of the clay rope was taken as 1.4 W/m2/K and the specific heat as 1000 J/kg/K. 7.2. Temperature and Stress Distribution

The temperature distribution through the side of the mould, predicted by the computer analysis is shown in Figure A2.28 for the mid-height position. The data given in Figure A2.28 can be compared with the temperature distribution predicted from the 2-D horizontal analysis (Figure A2.15). Comparing the two figures shows close agreement in the predicted temperature at the outside surface. The vertical analysis predicts a lower inside surface temperature than the horizontal analysis. The stress in the mould wall at the mid-height position for the 2-D analysis is compared in Figures A2.29-A2.31. The stresses plotted are the largest absolute principal stress. The variation in mould stress with height is shown in Figure A2.32 after a time lapse of 720 seconds. 8. Tl Mould - Horizontal Section Mould Geometry and Input Data with references to horizontal section to determine the A2.6 and A2.7.

8.1.

The geometry of the Tl mould at the mid-height was determined BSC Dowlais Works drawing number AM/472. The geometry of the at the mid-height is given in Figure A2.33. The calculations values of Ri - Ru and - 0 i * are given in Calculation Sheets

A plot of the finite element mesh is shown in Figure A2.34. As before, due to symmetry only 1/4 of the section has been modelled. The heat transfer data used was calculated in exactly the same manner as for the 492 type mould. The derivation of heat input to the inside of the mould is given on Calculations Sheets A2.8 - A2.11. 8.2. Stress Results

The stress distribution on the inside and outside surfaces is shown in Table A2.4 This table shoule be read in conjunction with Figure A2.34 which shows the position of each node referred to in Table A2.4. The largest compressive stresses occur at the inside surface at the corner after a time lapse of 5 minutes. The stress concentration effect at the corner is given in Table A2.5. This table shows the relationship between the stress at the corners and the mid-point of the two sides. The table shows that the stress concentration factor for the inside (compression) surface increases with time, indicating that the stress distribution in the section changes with time.

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The maximum tensile stress in the mould occurs at the outside surface. The maximum stress occurs after a time of 720 seconds (12 minutes) reaching a maximum value of 301 N/mm2. A stress contour plot is shown in Figure A2.35. At this level of stress some plastic deformation can be expected. Peak stresses on the outside surface occur at two points, one each side of the corner. The stress concentration factors are given in Table A2.5 for the outside (tensile) surface. The stress in the broad side mid-point varies with time in proportion to the maximum stress on the broad side. This is not the case for the narrow side, indicating that the stress distribution in this part of the mould varies with time. The computer predicted displacements of the Tl mould are shown in Figure A2.34 for a time interval of 720 seconds. 9. 492 Mould - 3 Dimensional Model

From the results of the 2-D analyses given in Section 6 and 7, it is clear that the ingot mould is subject to some very high stresses. The thermal stresses in the ingot mould will however have components in the three principal directions. In order to determine these stresses accurately, it was therefore necessary to use a 3-D finite element model of the mould. The cost of the computer time of running a 3-D thermal analysis is considerably greater than that for the 2-D analysis. It was therefore anticipated that the results from the 3-D analysis would be comparable with the results produced by combining results from the horizontal and vertical analyses. The results from the 3-D and 2-D analyses were therefore compared in order to validate this assumption. 9.1. Finite Element Mesh

The computer model of the structure is shown in Figure A2.36. The mould was modelled to include the bottle top, the base plate, and the clay rope insulation between the mould and its base. (Due to symmetry, only 1/4 of the mould needs to be modelled). In the PAFEC system, the model is built up of 20 noded three dimensional brick elements, on the external surface on the mould. Following discussions with the staff at BSC Dowlais Foundry, the mathematical form of the mould curvature was determined. The equations for the type 492 bottle top mould are summarised in Calculation Sheets A2.12 - A2.13. These equations will give a more accurate representation of the mould than those used in the 2-D analysis. 9.2. Heat Transfer Data

The heat flux applied to the inside surface of the mould was the same as that used in the previous 2-D horizontal analysis. In addition, the following heat transfer data was taken from the 2-D vertical axisymmetric analysis. i) Heat transfer coefficient, ingot to base, 480 W/m2/K ii) Heat transfer coefficient of clay rope, 1.4 W/m2/K iii) Specific heat of clay rope, 1000 J/kg/K 9.3. Results and Comparisons with 2-D Models The maximum tensile and

The model was run to cover the period of 0-lh. compressive stresses occur within this period. 9.3.1. Thermal Gradients

The temperature gradient through the mould wall is plotted in Figures A2.37 and A2.38 for the broad and narrow sides at the mid-point, mid-height. On each graph the computer predicted temperature profiles for 3-D and 2-D horizontal analyses are given. The results are in close agreement near the outside of the mould. The 3-D analysis predicts lower temperature at the inside surface. 140

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In Figures A2.39 and A2.40 the temperature profiles for the mid-height and base of the mould are plotted for the broad and narrow sides respectively. These graphs predict a very similar profile at both points, although the temperature at the base is consistently about 50C lower than the mid-height. 9.3.2. Stresses

The stresses through the mould wall for various positions are plotted on Figures A2.41-A2.44. Figures A2.41 and A2.42 show the stress at the mid-side and height of the mould on the narrow and broad sides repectively. On each of these graphs, the combined stress obtained from the two 2-D analysis is also shown for comparison. In the case of the combined 2-D analyses, data was taken from the horizontal analysis where possible. These results indicate that the two analyses yield similar stress distribution plots. However, the combined 2-D stress is consistently lower than the 3-D result by between 12 and 20% (see Calculation Sheet A2.14). Figure A2.45 gives the Von Mises stress contours at the mid-height of the mould, together with the point stresses on the inside and outside surfaces. These results show that local maximum tensile stresses are found at two points, one each side of the corner. This is in agreement with the results of the 2-D analysis. The stress distribution at the base of the mould is very different from that at the mid-height. The Von Mises stress contours are plotted in Figure A2.46. The figure shows that the highest tensile stresses occur at the mid-side on the broad and narrow faces. The maximum Von Mises stresses which occur as a result of tensile forces are 536 N/mm2 (broad side) and 494 N/mm2 (narrow side). These stresses are significantly higher than those found at the mid-height position (Figure A2.45). In order to discover the reason for the difference in stress between the mid-height and base it is necessary to examine the components of the Von Mises stress. Figures A2.47 and A2.48 show the stresses in the hoop direction together with the mould displacements at 720s. Figures A2.47 and A2.48 show significant differences in stress on both faces of the mould. The displacement of the broadside, mid-point is also much greater at the base than at the mid-height. The other significant contribution to the Von Mises stress is the stress in the direction. The variations in a with positions are shown on Figures A2.49 and A2.50. The value of is fairly low at the base, but becomes very significant at the mid-height position. The difference in behaviour at the base and mid-height is due to the fact that the narrowside has been thickened by 38mm at the base. This skirt has considerbaly stiffened the narrowside and corner. The resultant deflection in the broadside is such that the 'hoop' stress on the inside corner at the base is tensile and not compressive. Figure A2.51 gives the Von Mises stress at a position 2.1685m from the base, slightly below the bottle top. The stresses shown in Figure A2.51 are very similar to those found at the mid-height position. Significant stresses are also present in the bottle top. Figure A2.52 gives the Von Mises stress contours for the top surface of the mould. The largest stress is found adjacent to the hole. The maximum tensile force is 495 N/mm2, which will cause the mould to crack. On the underside of the bottle top the stresses are compressive. The bottle top therefore behaves in a similar manner to the mould walls with high compressive forces on the inside and large tensile forces on the outside. The results presented in this section are consistent with failure due to: (i) (ii) Vertical cracks from the base at the middle of either the broad or narrow walls; Crazing on the inside surface of the mould.

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10.

TI Mould Plasticity Effects

The results of the 2-D horizontal analyses for both the 492 and Tl moulds indicate that the yield stress of cast iron is exceeded in each case. The moulds will therefore deform plastically in operation. The effects of plasticity were examined with reference to the Tl mould since this is subject to the highest stresses. A plasticity analysis was run using the 2-D horizontal section of the Tl mould. The largest tensile stresses in the horizontal section occur after 720 seconds. The plasticity analysis was therefore run to predict the displacement of the mould at this time. In the plasticity analysis the cast iron was assumed to yield at a stress of 197 N/mm2. This represents the 0.2% proof stress from the cast iron at the mean mould temperature of 400C. The mould deforms plastically along the inside and outside surfaces where the stress exceeds 197 N/mm2. The displacement of the mould predicted by the plasticity analysis after 720 seconds in shown in Figure A2.53. The displacements are identical to those predicted for the linear elastic analysis, (Figure A2.34). The displaced shape of the mould was also predicted after the mould had cooled back to ambient temperature. The displaced shape plot is given in Figure A2.54. The results predict that the mould will contract on both sides by up to 0.62mm. 11. Modified Tl Mould

Practical experience in the use of the Type 492 and Tl moulds has shown that an acceptable mould life can be achieved with the Type 492 mould. A much shorter life is reported for the Type Tl mould. Analyses of the stresses in the Type 492 mould indicate that the highest tensile stresses at the mid-height occur at two points, one each side of the corner. The maximum stress on the outside surface is 261 N/mm2. If this maximum stress is used as a "bench mark" to assess the Tl mould, then two over-stressed areas are apparent. These occur on the outside surface on each side of the corner where the maximum stress is 301 N/mm2. In our modified design of the Tl mould, these areas adjacent to the corner have been strengthened. The modified mesh is shown in Figure A2.55. (The original design is shown dotted). The regions adjacent to the corner were thickened by 18mm. The calculations on which this increase was based are included in Calculation Sheet A2.15. The maximum absolute principal stress is plotted in Figure A2.56 together with some of the highest point stresses. The result shows that the effect of the modification is primarily to move the highly stressed region on the outside surface further away from the corners. The magnitude of the highest tensile stresses has also been increased from 301 N/mm^ to 336 N/mm2. This modified design has not therefore been entirely successful. It does however illustrate the adverse effect that sudden changes in section may have on the mould stresses. These would be reduced by blending the thickened corners carefully into the profile of the broad and narrow walls. 12. References S H Crandall, N C Dahl An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1972) 0 Hoffman, G Sachs Theory of Plasticity, McGraw-Hill (1953)

1. (a)

(b)

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(c)

W Johnson, Mellor Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers, Van Nostrad, London (1962) A Mendelson Plasticity - Theory and Application, McMillan, New York (1968)

(d)

2. 3.

Engineering Sciences Data Unit, Item 77031 Technical Data on Fuels, 7th edition, 1977, page 56 Published by the British National Committee, World Energy Conference. R.J. Roark Formulae for Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill (1965) 4th Edition.

4.

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APPENDIX 2A DESIGN PROCEDURE The following routine is proposed for a design tool for the design/modification of ingot moulds. The numbers by each box define subscripts. This procedure requries a transient thermal finite element analysis program in order to determine the mould temperature distribution at a given time.

DEFINE MOULD GEOMETRY AND DATA

(1)

DEFINE HEAT INPUTS

(2)

DEFINE HEAT LOSSES

(3)

SET UP 2-D HORIZONTAL MODEL AND RUN

(4)

CONVERT RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION TO RELEVANT DIAMETER

(6)

DETERMINE HORIZONTAL STRESSES

(5)

SET UP AND RUN VERTICAL MODEL FOR /ERTICAL STRESS

(7)

SET UP AND RUN A PARTIAL 3-D ANALYSIS IF NECESSARY

COMBINE STRESSES FOR DESIRED POSITION (10) COMPARE WITH ACCEPTABLE VALUES

(8)

(9)

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NOTES (1) This will usually be defined on the appropriate drawings although some work is often required to produce the geometrical data required for the section under consideration. From this geometric data and the rules in the appropriate finite element program manuals a finite element mesh will be defined. (2) Defining heat inputs is different because of many factors unknown - such as the flow pattern of liquid metal within the ingot and the formation of an air gap. Many of these factors are of a random nature and can not be catered for other than by broad assumptions. In the analysis of the Tl and 492 moulds we were fortunate in having measured temperature data and so could define this precisely at two relevant points. We would suggest that this same data, selected from the more appropriate shape is used for the redesign of other moulds. This data can be found in Sections 2.0 and 4.0, of Appendix 2. (3) Heat losses are a function of the outside temperature of the ingot wall and a set of equations. As such they can be used in the finite element model with little change. The equations are in section 4.0, of Appendix 2. (4) In defining the geometry, mesh heat inputs and losses the model is virtually defined. The only outstanding decision is the time considerations. We have found the following time steps satisfactory: 180, 360, 720 and 1800 seconds to cover the peak stresses. (See Tables A2.1 and A2.4). (5) Stresses are output by the PAFEC program after the calculated temperature distribution from the transient thermal analysis is entered into the stress program. (6) The rectangular cross section is converted to a cylindrical cross section by the equation:4A D = , where D = diameter = perimeter A = area of plane considered This is used for all rectangular horizontal dimensions through the height of the model (see Section 7.0 of Appendix 2. ) (7) The cylindrical section derived above and the heat losses and input are put into a model and run to determine the stresses. Only the vertical stresses from this model are used. The hoop stresses are ignored. This model also includes a group of elements at the base of the mould to represent the clay rope separating the mould from the baseplate. This effectively stopped the heat flow from the mould to baseplate. (8) Combine the stresses from the two analyses by use of the well known equation by Von Mises (see Section 9.0 Appendix 2 and Appendix 2D (*)). (9) Compare the stresses produced at the surfaces of the mould with those produced for the 492 mould to decide if any modifications are required. If they are, re-enter the loop at Stage 1. (See Section 6.0, Appendix 2, Table A2.1). (10) In addition to the above, if the mould contains any significant non-symmetrical features, such as a skirt only applied to two opposite faces, it will be necessary to consider the effect of this. This will require the relevant area to be analysed separately with a 3-D model. It will not be necessary to model the complete mould. In order to model the effect of skirt at the base, the lower quarter of the mould should be modelled with appropriate edge conditions (mould displacements), taken from the full 3-D model.

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APPENDIX 2B DESIGN DATA B.l. Mould Geometry The basic dimensions of the mould are obtained from relevant engineering drawings. The method used to obtain the mould profile was determined mathematically following discussion with the pattern makers. B.l.l. 2-D Horizontal and 3-D Models

For the 492 mould these equations are:(a) Broadside - internal wall x 2 + y 2 + (-0.634282z + 7945.8)y + (b) (505.8z - 4180830) = 0 (Bl)

Broadside - external wall x 2 + y 2 + (1.84015z + 7945.8)y (1023.5z + 6277875) = 0 (B2)

(c)

Narrowside - internal wall x 2 + y 2 + (9393 - 1.0746z)x (6503816 - 909.5z) = 0 (excluding skirt) (B3)

(d)

Narrowside - external wall

x 2 + y 2 + (3.64826z + 9393.7)x (2700.5z + 8864321) = 0 (B4)

The axes set is placed at the centre of the mould. is parallel to the broad side y is parallel to the narrow side is vertical (z = zero at the base) B.l.2. Vertical Model

The dimensions for the 2-D axisymmetric model were calculated using the effective diameter D relevant to each section of the mould. The value of D was calculated from the following equation:D where, A e = = = ^ p area of the mould, assumed to be a rectangle

perimeter of the mould

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.2.

Temperature Gradients

Temperature gradients in the mould v/all at various positions were obtained from instrumented moulds. In order to produce this data in a computer model, the thermal conductivity of the mould is required in addition to the data presented in Section B.3. The thermal conductivity varies with temperature as shown in Figure B.l. The accuracy of the thermal conductivity data is not crucial to the calculations, since the computer calculates the temperature profile by an iterative process in order to balance the rate of heat input with the rate of heat loss. .3. Derivation of Heat Balance Data mid-height is shown schematically in Figure ingot breaks away from the mould at an early mould and the ingot. The variables and heat transfer coefficients are also shown in

A section through the ingot mould at B.2. We have assumed that the steel stage, giving an air gap between the constants used in the calculation of Figure B.2.

The rate at which heat is lost from the ingot H , is equal to the rate at which heat is gained by the mould, plus the rate of heat loss from the mould to the air. Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:H H + M + H (B5)

= = = = =

where,

H M H m c

heat loss from the ingot heat gained by the mould heat lost to the air by convection heat lost to the air by radiation

B.3.1.

Convection

The heat transfer coefficient H , for free convection along a vertical rectangular plate in air at room temperature is given by^ 1 ) Hc where, h f t m, o t a = [.825( 3/)* + 0.605 (./ 3 ) 6 = thermal conductivity of air - figure B.3. = height of mould = 2.565m = relative pressure factor = 1.0 = temperature difference t - t e m, o a = outside wall temperature of mould c = air temperature ]2 (B6)

The heat transfer coefficient calculated from equation B6 is plotted as a function of the outside wall temperature of the mould in Figure B.4. B.3.2. Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by radiation , is given by: Hr = tm (R - 0.46) (B7)

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where,

= total heat radiated from a black body(2)

m = emissivity 1 of the mould 0.46 = back radiation at 25C The heat transfer by radiation is plotted as a function of outside wall temperature of the mould in Figure B.5. B.3.3. Heat Transfer to the Mould

The rate of heat transfer to the mould H was calculated by plotting the mean mould temperature against time. For high heat input rates, the mean temperature was calculated using a planimeter to calculate the area under the temperature distance graphs, otherwise it was determined by counting squares on the graph. The variation in mean mould temperature with time was then plotted. The gradient of this graph gives the mean rate of change in mould temperature. The rate of heat transfer to the mould is therefore given by:Hm m where, m s t B.3.4. = m = = = mass of mould per m 2 of wall specific heat capacity - see figure B.6. the mean rate of rise in mould temperature (C) m.s .t (B8) '

Heat Transfer from the Ingot

After calculating the rate of heat transfer to the mould, and the heat losses by convection and radiation as described in Sections B.3.1 - B.3.3, the rate of heat loss from the ingot can be calculated using equation B5. Heat transfer from the ingot to the mould wall was assumed to occur across a small air gap which will develop as soon as a solid skin forms on the ingot. The rate of heat transfer from the ingot H, across the air gap is given by:H

1+ ' _ m s
J

(t

s\,i')

<B9>

where,

m
o

=
= = =

emissivity of the mould = 0.85

emissivity of the steel = 1.00 Stefan-Boltzmann constant 56.7 10"1 2 kW/m2.^)

temperature of ingot skin (K)

t = inside wall temperature of the mould (K) r m, i From equations B5 and B9 it is therefore possible to calculate the skin temperature of the ingot. The total heat input to the 492 mould calculated in accordance with this procedure varies with time, and is given overleaf.

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Total Heat Input kW/m' Time (Hours) 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 '0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 B.4. Broadside 582 365 277 171.6 117.6 74.29 43.82 40.16 17.09 12.13 Narrowside 618 377 218 184 121 56.4 33.1 33.5 19.6 14.6

Additional Heat Transfer Data

In addition to the data presented in Section B.2, the following data is required for the 2-D axisymmetric and 3-D models:2

Heat transfer coefficient of clay rope Specific heat of clay rope Heat transfer coefficient between base plate and ingot (derived in Calculation Sheet A2.5)

1.4 W/m/K 1000 J/kg/K 480 W/m2/K

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APPENDIX 2C THERMAL STRESS IN INGOT MOULDSIMPLIFIED C ALC ULATIONS Reference: Formulae for stress and strain, Roark Page 373 6 (4'

If the wall of the mould is considered to be constrained by external forces (effect of the corners) then the maximum stress can be calculated with reference to section a.5 (page 374). Temperature profile from A Banks/275 figures 1 and 2 Mean Temperature 2 180 C leo _ . ., , Omside surface

16

450

750 Mean Temperature

600 C

450

Inner surface

The maximum bending stress = \ Whore, E = = = =

.E/ ( 1 ) = = 420C 13 IO6/K

temperature difference mean coefficient of expansion 12 5 IO 3 N/mm 2 0.25 = 455 N/mm2

Bending stress

Since the temperature profile is not uniform on each side localised stresses could be greater than this value. If stresses in the mould are considered to be due to the incompatability of the natural expansions/contractions of different parts of the wall then case b.14 (Roark page 376) would apply . The maximum tensile stress is given by
= where, \ Ea 2 o [Ti + T 2 = = = 750C 200C 160C 750 L + 200 320 + \ " '^| 3+0.25 (750 2 0 0 )J 1 2T0 + \ ~ |j ( - 2 ) ]

\ 125 3 x 13 1 0 ~ 6
o = 6 1 5 N/mm2

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APPENDIX 2D VON MISES EQUATION (See Reference 1) In order to relate two and three dimensional problems to the one dimensional uniaxial case it is convenient to work with equivalent stress. This is important since data relating to the strength of materials is most frequently determined from uniaxial tensile tests. The equivalent or Von Mises stress is given by the following equation:

VM

1 /2

(v

)
'

+(

)
'

+ 6(

xy

yz

'

where, , ,

are the stresses in the three orthogonal directions,

xy' , , are the shear stresses in the three orthogonal planes yz' a r In combining the stresses from the two 2D analyses, the values of a , and a were taken from the horizontal section. the axisymmetric analysis. The values of and a were taken from

The shear stress a

cannot be assigned a value from

either 2D analyses. The shear stresses are however small in comparison with the direct stresses, and the omission will not therefore significantly affect the result.

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vo
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TABLE A 2 . 1 . 492 MOULD HORIZONTAL MODEL, STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT NODES (MIDHEIGHT)

. . . TNNF.3 STTRParF

NODE NUMBER

Time 1
597 525 431 301 25 549 473 388 273 27 576 509 425 301 29 652 602 520 375 461 839 810 713 518 33 832 806 716 519

(Seconds)

462
841 808 719 520

37 650 596 526 371

39 588 517 450 318

41
573 493 426 298

57
624 544 469 322

180 360 720

1800
Ol IO

OUTER SURFACE NODE NUMBER Time (Seconds)

101 121 165 185 144

125 129 189 211 162

127 129 186 203 152

129 122 169 175 121

477 108 149 158 119

133 112 146 140 88

478 120 168 178 134

137 154 221 230 164

139 162 241 261 198

141 154 235 259 200

157 134 207 228 181

180 360
7 20 1800 N.B. 1) 2)

All stresses in N/mm See Figure A2.23 for node position

NJ

>
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TABLE A2.2 STRESS CONCENTRATION AT THE CORNER OF THE 492 TYPE MOULD (MID-HEIGHT)

Tension Surface Broad Side

Time ioi 0125 0125
0101

Narrow Side
0157 0139 0125
0101

7 20 1800

180 360

121 165 185 144

129 189 211 162

1.07 1.15 1.14 1.13

134 207 228 181

162 241 261 198

1.21 1.16 1.14 1.09

Compression Surface

Broad Side
T i m e

Narrow

Side
o

max mav

oi 1

,=,

w-

057

05 7

max

180 360 720 1800

841 -841 810 -810 719 -719 520 -520

-597 -525 -431 -301

1.41 1.54 1.67 1.73

-624 -544 -469 -322

1.35 1.49 1.53 1.61

All stresses are in N/mm 2

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TABLE A2.3. HEAT TRANSFER DATA FOR THE AXISYMMETRIC ANALYSIS

Time (h)

Heat Flux ( kW/m 2) 603 603 371 223 178 120 65. 4 38. 5 36. 9

Ingot Surface Temperature C 1490 1490 1439 1294 1230 1107 1008 957 945

0 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 3

Heat transfer coefficient ingot to base Heat transfer coefficient of clay rope Specific heat of clay rope Ingot car temperature

480 W/m2/K 1.4 W/m/K 1000 20C J/kg/K

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TABLE A2.4
VD

Tl MOULD, 2-D HORIZONTAL MODEL, MID-HEIGHT. STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT NODES INNER SURFACE Time (Seconds) 180 360 7 20 1800 NODE NUMBER 1 -621 -629 -500 -294 13 -603 -610 -490 -289 14 -630 -656 -546 -330 15 -718 -770 -661 -405 16 -890 -991 -877 -545 17 -890 -984 -868 -539 18 -919 -997 -877 -545 19 -763 -781 -668 -411 20 -686 -655 -543 -328 21 -649 -599 -487 -292 29 -708 -651 -511 -290

Ln co

to

OUTER SURFACE Time (Seconds) 180 360 7 20 1800 N.B. 1) 2) NODE NUMBER 41 98 161 184 120 53 156 257 292 196 54 161 263 292 191 55 155 249 269 168 56 134 215 234 154 57 136 214 223 133 58 130 213 236 154 59 142 240 269 172 60 142 251 293 195 61 137 250 301 206 69 91 180 235 176

See Figure A2.34 for node position All stresses in N/mm 2

NJ M

O >

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TABLE A2.5_. STRESS CONCENTRATION AT THE CORNER OF THE Tl TYPE MOULD (MID-HEIGHT)

Tension Surface Broad Side Time

* 1

Narrow Side
051* Oi*l 069 061

OS'*

061 069

180 360
7 20 1800

98

161 263 292 191

1.64 1.63 1.59 1.59

91

137 250 301 206

1.51 1.39 1.28 1.17

161 184 120

180 235 176

Compression Narrow Side

T

m e

029

max 180 360 720 1800 -919 -997 -877 -545 -621 -629 -500 -294

max 1.46 1.59 1.75 1.85 -708 -651 -511 -290

max

tr29

1 .29 1 .53 1 .72 1 .88

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.1. HEAT BALALNCE DATA - 492 MOULD NARROWSIDE

Time 0 0.05 1600 12 630 142 554 377 377 (h) 0.1 920 26 660 200 560 218 218 0.2 770 115 685 280 570 183 0.57 0.72 184 !

o,
450 315 745 400 585 113 5.45 2.33 121

Rate of Temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

2700 12 12 12 538 618 618

The mass of the mould (kg/m2) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 213mm narrowside), and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.2 HEAT BALANCE NARROWSIDE

Time 1 2 30 540 795 620 625 8. 11 20. 35 4. 63 33. 10 (h) 3 22.5 556 776 674 632 6.05 22.48 4.98 33.50 5 -25 549 740 656 628 -6. 68 21. 39 4. 91 19. 60 10 -10 456 566 542 605 -2 57 13 29 3 91 14 60

DATA - 49 2 MOULD

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

150 460 805 550 607 39. 3 13. 29 3. 83 56. 40

The mass of the mould (kg/m2) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 213mm narrowside), and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.3 HEAT BALALNCE DATA - 49 2 MOULD BROADSIDE

Time (h) 0.1 1040 15 750 162 555 277 277 0.2 625 75 750 278 570 171 0. 3 0. 3 171. 6 0.5 400 270 750 370 580 112 3.71 1.90 117.6

o
Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat loss to the mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2) *
582 2250 15 280 15 538 582 -

0.05 1380 15 750 112 550 365 365

The mass of the mould (kg/m2) was calculated in the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (241mm broadside) and a density of 7190 kg/m3.

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.4 HEAT BALANCE DATA - 49 2 MOULD BROADSIDE Time (h) 10 Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside temperature (C) Inside temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate heat input to the mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2) 205 430 800 535 604 59.6 11.18 3.51 74.29 60 540 870 660 635 18.33 20.86 4.63 43.82 40 558 868 710 658 12.66 22.48 5.02 40.16 -30 508 795 680 638 -9.22 21.39 4.92 17.09 20 465 606 550 615 -5.92 14.06 3.99 12.13

The mass of the mould (kg/m") was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (241mm broadside), and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.5 492, HT COEFFICIENT/METAL IN CONTACT

HT coefficient derived from narrow side: Time Metal temperature (ingot) C Skin temperature (mould) Heat flux W/m 2 C 0 490 12 624 IO 3 422 0.02 1490 235 624 IO 3 497 0.05 14 33 630 377 IO 3 470

HT coefficient W/m2/K

HT coefficient derived form broad side: Metal temperature Skin temperature Heat flux HT coefficient 1490 280 582 IO 481 480 W/m2/K
3

1490 300 528 IO 489

3

1443 750 365 IO 3 527

Average value

Used for heat transfer between base plate and ingot

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.6 MOULD GEOMETRY Tl (MIDHEIGHT)

Radius of C urvature Broadside Inside Wall Sin = 610 + 76 Sin ,

1
(1)

Tan

Rl

20.5

<2>

From (1) and (2)

Ri 01

= =

4,280mm 8.34

Radius of C urvature Narrow Side Inside Wall

Sin

02

302

l6

Sin

(3)

Tan 02

|^5

(4)

From (3) and (4)

R2 02

= =

2,486mm 7.20

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.7 MOULD GEOMETRY - Tl (MID-HEIGHT)

Radius of Curvature - Broad Side - Outside Wall

Sin 03

610

286^Sin 0 3

(5)

Tan 0 3

R 3 - 1 3 55.5-

(6)

From

(5 ) and

(6)

R3 03

= =

2,999mm 13.00

Radius of Curvature - Narrow Side - Outside Wall

c. Sin ,

_ -

302 + 286 Sin * H 1 *

,-,, (7)

Tan ,

302 Ri* - 317.5

(3)

From

(7) and

(8)

Ri* 01*

= =

1,749mm 11.91

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.8. HEAT BALANCE DATA - Tl MOULD

NARROWSIDE
1

Time (h) 0 0.05 2500 21 600 97 502 524 524 0.1 1250 30 625 174 523 273 273 0.2 800 110 645 284 562 188 188 0.5 350 312 660 443 642 93.70 5.07 2.28 101.1

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside surface temperature (C) Inside surface temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to the mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

2500 21 21 21 490 511 511

The mass of the mould (kW/m2) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 209mm narrowside), and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.9 HEAT BALANCE DATA - Tl MOULD

NARROWSIDE
Time 1 2 43 534 755 610 790 14.17 22.76 4.61 41.5 (h) 3 0 555 755 630 802 0 26. 45 4. 84 31. 3 5 -5 555 706 644 815 -1 70 22 26 4 895 25. 5 10 -42 449 538 504 690 -12 09 13 10 3 75 4 76

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside surface temperature (C) Inside surface temperature (C) Mean temperature(C) Specific heat (J/kg/k) Rate of heat input to the mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

155 437 730 540 725 46. 9 11. 85 3. 58 62. 3

The mass of the mould (kg/m2) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 209mm narrowside) and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.10 HEAT BALANCE DATA - TI MOULD

BROADSIDE
Time 0 0.05 1850 21 545 91 500 434 434 (h) 0.1 1200 25 558 165 520 293 293 0.2 785 85 605 246 545 201 0.33 201 0.5 425 284 705 429 635 126.7 4.35 2.01 133

Rate of temperature rise (C/h) Outside surface temperature (C) Inside surface temperature (C) Mean temperature (C) Specific heat (J/kg/K) Rate of heat input to mould* (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m2) Rate of heat loss by convection (kW/m2) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m2)

1850 21 21 21 490 425 425

The mass of the mould (kg/m^) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 241mm broadside) and a density of 7190 kg/m3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.11 HEAT BALANC E DATA Tl MOULD

BROADSIDE ime (h) 1 Rate of temperature rise (C /h) (C ) (C ) 210 451 784 540 725 71.5 12.56 3.6 7.7 2 70 568 858 670 830 27.3 23.60 5.00 55.9 3 25 601 860 710 847 9.94 27.22 5.33 42.5 5 5 622 862 745 860 2.07 30.53 5.60 34.06 10 50 513 I Inside surface temperature Mean temperature Specific heat (C ) 624 592 777 18.7 18.01 4.44 3.75

Outside surface temperature

(J/kg/K)

Rate of heat input to mould* (kW/m 2 ) Rate of heat loss by radiation (kW/m 2 ) Rate of heat losss by convection (kW/m 2 ) TOTAL HEAT INPUT (kW/m 2 )

* The mass of the mould (kg/m2) was calculated on the actual thickness of the instrumented mould (i.e. 241mm broadside), and a density of 7190 kg/m 3

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.12 SURFACE EQUATIONS FOR TYPE 492 MOULD-SUMMARY

Broadside Base

Internal Surface Equations x 2 + y 2 + 7945.8y - 4180830 x 2 + y 2 + 6667.ly - 3161124 = = 0 0

2016mm from Base

x 2 + y 2 + (-0.63428z + 7945.8)y + (505.8z - 4180830) (z measured vertically from the base)

Broadside - External Surface Equations Base Top (z = 2574.9) x 2 + y 2 + 7945.8y - 6277875 x 2 + y 2 + 12684y - 8913285 = = = 0 0 0

x 2 + y 2 + (1.84015z + 7945.8)y

- (1023.5z + 6277875)

168

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET A2.13 SURFACE EQUATIONS FOR TYPE 49 2 MOULD-SUMMARY

Narrowside - Internal Surface Equations Base 2016mm from base x 2 + y 2 + 9393.7x - 6503816 x 2 + y 2 + 72227.3x - 4670246 = = = 0 0 0

x 2 + y 2 + (9393 - 1.0746z) - (6503816 - 909.5z)

Narrowside - External Surface Equations Base (excluding skirt) Top (z = 2574.9) x 2 + y 2 + 9393.7x - 8864321 x 2 + y 2 + 18787.6x - 15817899 = = 0 0 0

x 2 + y 2 + (3.64826z + 9393.7)x - (2700.5z + 8864321) =

169

FR 95 6 831

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CALCULATION SHEET A2.14 ANALYSIS OF 3-D RESULTS FOR 49 2 MOULDS Comparison of combined 2-D with the 3-D results

Mid height stresses 2 2D (N/mm2) Broadside inside outside -543 263 3D (N/mm2) -621 315 % variation relative to 3-D 12.6 16.5

Narrowside -

inside outside

-553 280

-645 349

14.3 19.8

170

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

CALCULATION SHEET A2.15 MODIFICATION TO Tl

The maximum tensile stress in 492 mould, mid-height, is 261 N/mm2 (Table A2.1) after 720 seconds. The maximum tensile stress in the Tl mould, mid-height, is 301 N/mm2 (Table A2.3) after 720 seconds. Both of these stress maxima are near the corners. If 260 N/mm2 is taken as the maximum acceptable, then Tl will require strengthening in this region. The load is carried by that part of the mould in tension. In the part of the mould that is thickened, the temperature gradient is assumed to be zero. (See Figure A2.57b). There are therefore no additional stresses induced into this part of the mould. At the point of maximum stress 115mm measured through the thickness of the mould is in tension (See Figure A2.57a). The thickness required to reduce the stress to 260 N/mm2 is therefore:-jfrfs 115 = 133mm

i. e. increase thickness by 18mm

171

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

1614

1335

Dimensions in mm

FIG.A2.1 DIMENSIONS OF THE 492 BOTTLE TOP MOULD

172

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

1638 1181

1613
800

O f "VDT
m

in

12! .9

/
vo

in
CN

RjL
1257 1816 51 51 902 1486

76r

286r

Dimensions i n mm FIG.A2.2 DIMENSIONS OF THE 481 ( V . 3 ) OPEN TOP MOULD

173

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

1638

Dimensions i n mm

76r

298r

FIG.A2.3 DIMENSIONS OF THE U5 BOTTLE TOP MOULD

174

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

1892 1384

1657

f i

1 4 J36
2045

1
zi
^

1 51

Dimensions in nm

FIG.A2.4 DIMENSIONS OF THE TI OPEN TOP MOULD

175

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **THERMOCOUPLE C HRNNELS 8 TO 11 ) * LOCRTION BSE OF NRRROW WRLL

1000
+

900

800

LLI

cc

700

cr co

LU CJ LO LL) L

500

cr
LD LU O Ld

500

Channel Number Distance From Outer Surface mm - 10 - 247.0 -

cr

zo (E cr
LJ Q. . L

400

9 - 110.0 8 23.0 11 0.0

300,:

200

100

TJME ELAPSED FROM C OMMENC E C RSTJNS (HOURS;

FIG.A2.5

176

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P **(THERMOCOUPLE C HfNNELS 12 TO 15 ) * * LOCfTION MID HEIGHT OF NARROW WALL
1000

900

800

111 Q C CC LO

700 ..

Channel Number Distance From Outer Surface m m

L U

GOO

cr

LD L

500
L

cr er at
L

. r
LU

400

300

200

100

TJME ELHPSED FROM COMMENCE CRSTJ NG

(HOURS)

FIG.A2.6

177

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLE-T0P **(THERMOCOUPLE CHRNNELS 22 TO 25 ) * * LOCATION - BRSE OF BRORD WfLL

1000
+

300 ..

800..

LU Q CC

700 ..

cr
Ld LU

600

LO LU LU

cr
CD LU D LU

Channel Number Distance From Outer Surface mm 24 - 225.5

500 ..

cr zo cr LU .
:

96.0 23.5 0.0

400

. UI

300

200

100

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CASTING (HOURS;

FIG.A2.7

178

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

MOULD TYPE 492(2)B0TTLET0P ^(THERMOCOUPLE C HANNELS 26 TO 29 )_** LOCRTION MID HEIGHT OF BRORD WRLL
1000

300 .

y'

' ^m ' -^ m
' s, .

800 . /' /
LU Q CE

y'

'"**..^ '\
. " " '

700 . /

/
y

cr
Ld LU U LO LU L LT LD LU D

" " " " _

" "

' v. " " " " * ^ . ~~~~.__

Channel Number Distance From Outer Surface mm 28 216.0

" ^N.

1
600 .

27106.5 26 29 21.0 0.0

500 .
LU

'

'

"

>

cr
1 C cr
LU CL. LU

' /
// / / / / // l '/ / //' /'

400 .

1 1 300 .

/'/ 1 ' / 200 .

100 .

,] I
i
1 1 f
i

1
0

TIME ELAPSED FROM COMMENCE CA3T1N6 (HOURS)

FIG.A2.8

179

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

1
s

Hot Face Distance FIG.A2.9 THERMAL GRADIENTS

180

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

DEFINE MOULD GEOMETRY AND DATA

(1)

DEFINE HEAT INPUTS

(2)

DEFINE HEAT LOSSES

(3)

SET UP 2-D HORIZONTAL MODEL AND RUN

(4)

CONVERT RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION TO RELEVANT DIAMETER

(6)

DETERMINE HORIZONTAL STRESSES

(5)

SET UP AND RUN VERTICAL MODEL FOR VERTICAL STRESS

(7)

SET UP AND RUN A PARTIAL ** 3-D ANALYSIS \ (10) \ IF NECESSARY

COMBINE STRESSES FOR DESIRED POSITION

(8)

V
COMPARE WITH ACCEPTABLE
VALUES

(9)

FIG.A2.10 DESIGN PROCEDURE

181

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

Air t
cL

Mould 25 C m m,i = 0.85

Air Gap

Steel Ingot s = 1.0 calculated

figure A2.12 3 .

A2.I5 figures and A2.16

m,o S figure A2.9 m

= =

emissivity of the mould emissivity of steel

calculated skin temperature of ingot specific heat capacity of ingot mould air temperature

m,i

inside wall temperature of mould outside wall temperature of mould

m,o

thermal conductivity of aix

FIG.A2.11 SCHEMATIC DIAG RAM OF A SECTION THROUG H THE MOULD

182

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

0.06

0.05

s
0.04
TD

0.03

0.02
50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

,*~ (t + t ) Mean a a r t e m p e r a t u r s m, a
2

_ C

FIG.A2.12

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF AIR AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

183

VD

Ln

H c , Wfm K 10

00

100

200

300

400

500

600

m,o

(C)

FIG.A2.13 CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF WALL TEMPERATURE

to

O
CO

>

LO

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

30

25

I
IH
LM

20

15

10

100

200

300

400

500

600

Mould w a l l t e m p e r a t u r e

(C)

m,o FIG.A2.14 RADIATIVE HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF MOULD WALL TEMPERATURE .

185

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

I n s i d e mould surfa

ICO

200

D i s t a n c e measured from t h e o u t s i d e s u r f a c e (nm) FIG.A2.15 BROADSIDE MID-HEIGHT TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR 0 TO lh 49 2 MOULD

186

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

900

800

700

1
600

500

I n s i d e mould w a l l
400

100

200

Distance measured from the o u t s i d e surface (nm) FIG.A2.16 BROADSIDE MID-HEIGHT TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR 1 TO 10h

187

FR 95 6 831

210.CA/813

0.1

0.2 0.3 Time (h)

0.4

0.5

FIG.A2.17 MEAN MOULD TEMPERATURE AS A FUNCTION OF TIME - BROADSIDE MID-HEIGHT

Tl JO

800
00

700

600

500
2
H

>

*1
S CI 2

400

300

200

100
ro

> \
co
M OJ

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Peak not known

400 200 400 600 800

1000

Temperature ( C)

FIG.A2.19 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY FOR SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE AND FLAKE GRAPHITE CAST IRONS

190

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

exoerirnental data 900 computer prediction

800

700

60O

5CO

400 .

300

200

ICO

ICO Distance frem c o l d f a c e (rrm) FIG.A2.20

200

49 2 MOULD BROADSIDE, MID-HEIGHT - VALIDATION RESULTS

191

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

h w (top) w (base) d (top) d (base) t,

= = = = = =

2575mt 1335 1448

1614

1727nm (excluding s k i r t ) 229irm 216mn 76nm 28Snm

FIG.A2.21 DIMENSIONS OF THE TYPE 492 MOULD

192

TI JO
Ul

1671

CO

M O W K O Ti
1-3

H Q

1-3

a o
O f

H NI 1 3

en

>
LO

n
O 3
H

TI
S3

VD

to

3 O G

to

Dimensions in irm

>

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

1.01 nm

Mould displacements are shewn a f t e r a time lapse of 720s

Si

3 >s

35

303

40

>*i

4 tM OC

H:
305 iCC

35 H9a 3 6 3*
3'

41

!3I

3SB>32 37 so 3*649*

4Z
-*ti

1 3 3
*fJ

1.07 mm Note: large size figures are element numbers small size figures are node numbers

FIG.A2.23 2D MESH FOR THE TYPE 492 MOULD

194

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

The oscillations in the temperature contours for 322C, 367C and 412C arise from the form of extrapolation function used across large elements. Values indicated aL the nodes are correct values.

vV
14 3 U 10 CJ

< M

wo
Ol D

inotfv^cicocs <fiovovrivovor^

fxNf.kOivO

FIG.A2.24

COMPUTER PREDICTED TEMPERATURE PROFILE AFTER 30 MINUTES 49 2 MOULD

195

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

250 -

200

a ia ' 150
co en

od

OH

100

c-g

50

100

200

300

400 TEMPERATURE C

500

600

700

800

FIG.A2.25 THE VARIATION OF 0.2% PROOF STRESS WITH TEMPERATURE

196

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Dimensions In nm

FIG.A2.26 DIMENSIONS OF THE MOULD AND BASE PLATE USED IN THE AXISYMMETRIC ANALYSIS - 492 MOULD

197

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.A2.27 MESH FOR THE AXISYMMETRIC ANALYSIS

49 2 MOULD

198

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

600

500

400

to Di

300

kJ

200

100

O O 100 DISTANCE FROM OUTSIDE SURFACE (mm) F_IG.A2.2 8 200

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR 492 MOULD AXISYMMETRIC ANALYSIS, MID-HEIGHT 199

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Stress (Vr,m2)

300

200

ICO

-* V e r t i c a l model Narrow s i d e ) * Broad s i d e ) Horizontal model

-100-

-200-

-300-

-400

-500

-600

-700

-800

FIG.A2.29 COMPARISON OF HORIZONTAL STRESSES - 492 MOULD AT 180 SECONDS

200

FR 9 5

831

7210.CA/813

300' V e r t i c a l model 200Narrow s i d e ) Broad s i d e ) Horizontal model 100-

STRESS (N/mm2)

0 100 150 200 250 DISTANCE FROM HOT FACE (mm) -100-

-20O-

-300-

-400 Broad s i d e Narrow s i d e -500 Vertical -600

-700

-SCO

FIG.A2.30 COMPARISON OF HORIZONTAL 720 STRESSES SECONDS 49 2 MOULD AT

201

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

300

200

100

Narrow side Vertical model Broad side

STRESS (N/mm2)
1

"100 150 200 DISTANCE FROM HOT FACE (mm) -100 Narrow sideBroad side-200 v e r t i c a l model -300 -

250

-400

-500 .

-600

-700 -

FIG.A2.31 COMPARISON OF HORIZONTAL STRESSES - 492 MOULD AT 3 6 0 0 SECONDS

202

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

Stress Contour A C D E F G H I J

Stress 2 N/frm -791 -676 -560 -445 -329 -214 - 98.6 16.8 132 247

A E G H

FIG.A2.32 LARGEST ABSOLUTE PRINCIPAL STRESS AFTER 720 SECONDS

49 2 MOULD

203

TI

so
VD

Ul

1880

00 LO

a o

K O Ti
>3

to O
..

1 t > to

Ti

Dimensions in nm

>
2

to

> \
co

M U)

TI
VD Ol

co

en
D

Tl M 13 M

m
z o r+
(D O 3 cd

0.78mm

tr

'

>
15
1

.ir

a o
to O L/1
13

I
^ \
^4

1 . 63inn
1 . ^

G to

,.

a
H

"

'"t

imi

y
\
'HA

y \

2.69mm

\ "\
_LS>

t-

>7 \ "

3 H

H O

Displacements after 720s in mm

w
o
to

3.12mm

>

CO M CO


VD LU

co
LO

G F E D C

S t r e s s contours In N/mm'
*1 to
Ti Ti
T

> to
Ol

>
Ti W

A B C D E F G H I J

640.0 542.0 444.0 346.0 248.0 149.0 51.7 + 46.4 +144.0 +242.0

to

C D E F

>

co H
CO

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

FIG.A2.36 3-D MESH OF. THE 49 2 MOULD AND BASE PLATE

207

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

2-D horizontal model 3-D model

900

800

700

600

nu

500

400 -

300

200

100

Inside mould surface

100 200 Distance measured frcm the outside surface (mm)

FIG.A2.37 TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR THE BROADSIDE MID-HEIGHT FOR THE TYPE 49 2 MOULD

208

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

SCO

700

600

500

Lj

400 -

300

200 -

100

Inside mould surface

100 200 Distance measured frem the outside surface (nm) FIG.A2.38

TEMPERATURE PROFILES FOR THE NARROW SIDE MID-HEIGHT FOR THE TYPE 49 2 MOULD

209

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

100

200

Distance frem hot face (mm)

FIG.A2.39

TEMPERATURE PROFILE THROUGH THE BROADSIDE MID-POINT AFTER 720 SECONDS, 492 MOULD

210

FR 95 6 831

7210.CA/813

height

ICO D i s t a n c e frem h o t face (mm)

200

FIG.A2.40

TEMPERATURE PROFILE THROUGH THE NARROW SIDE MID-POINT AFTER 720 SECONDS, 492 MOULD

211

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

400

300

-n(l) Combined 2-D

200

100

-100

-200

-300

m m
0)

(1)
-400

co

Data f o r t h i s p l o t i s t a k e n frem t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n a l y s i s where p o s s i b l e

LO CU

-500

-600

-700

FIG.A2.41 VON MISES STRESS - 492 TYPE MOULD, NARROW SIDE MID-HEIGHT, TIME = 720 SECONDS

212

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

400

X
300

3-D

Q Ccmbined 2-D ( 1 )
200

100

-100

-2C0
LO LO

-U LO
LO O

-300

(1)
-400

Data f o r t h i s p l o t i s t a k e n from t h e h o r i z o n t a l 2-D a n a l y s i s where possible

-50C

-600

-700 L

FIG.A2.42 VON MISES STRESS - 492 TYPE MOULD, BROADSIDE MID-HEIGHT, TIME = 720 SECONDS

213

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

300

200

100

-100

co co

-200

-300

Narrowside,
-400

-500 -

-600

-700

FIG.A2.43 VON MISES STRESSES NEAR THE TOP OF THE 49 2 MOULD

214

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

4-JO

B r o a d s i d e , midside &
-500

Narrowside, midside

-600

-700

FIG.A2.44 VON MISES STRESSES NEAR THE BASE OF THE 49 2 MOULD

215

TI vo
Ln

00 LO

621

Point s t r e s s e s in U/ Stress contours (NA1" )

H to en H

n ..
1-3 H

3 M
II

. > to

H (,

ni

A C D E F G H I J

300 150 210 270 330 3 440 SCO

~J to O rn M fi O Z O (

bbO
610

349

to

> \
00 LO

Ti

CO LO

S
z
LS
M CO

M
LO CO -3

Point Stresses in N/i Stress contours (N/ta)

CO CO

>
H J
13

C D E F C.
il

130 1B0 220 260 3C0 350 390 4 30 4 520

13 S PI

>
co
LT O

13 3

I J

to

>
CO

Ti

VD LH

1.07
co
LO

2 C 3
H

>
G 3 H TI XI H

m co o
C"1

>
fi

CO 1-3

to M
CO

M M
CO CO

>
1-3 1-3

a a
a
H

Stress in N/mm' Displacements in mm

a ra

1-3 1-3 M

to

to

co M o co

58

> \

co


X
VD Ol

4.41

CTI

00

c o

to H
VD

VO H M
.

m c o

G > G Tl

Stresses in Displacements

to

3.24 >
00

TI
vo
_

co
LO

247

251

>

>
3

-709

-710

a
to to O
to

o o *. c H ft
G G

1-3 H H O

>

> 1-3
3

Stresses in N/iim

^3

to

^1 to

co

-726

268

> \

co

CO LO

VD

ui

CO LO

>
O

X M

1-3 H

H 1-3 to to
'JO to

T3 O

O G G G

co
H
H3

H O Z

>
1-3

>
co a
1-3 H

Stresses in N/irm
-89.1

-20.5

to
CO

to

-38.5

-86.1
O

G CO

>
CO I-1 LO

G W
VD ai

1.06

oo LO

1.36

to to to

a ro > C O M > H O > G . a m VD H to m H 3 a

<)
G G G G to

Stresses in N/mm' Displacements in mm

586

293

to

63

275

1.73

n >
00 M LO

G
VD Ul

Von Mises stress c ontours In N/mm A C D E F G H I J 120 190 270 350 430 510 590 670 750 830

CO

co co co

1 3 O G

G G O
to to

1 3 G

272 N/tan'

to

495 N/jm
O

>
co
M VO

G
VD LH

00 LO

D
G
CO G

>
(

0.78mm

1.63mm o
to to
,.

G H

G G

3 O

2.69mm

G W G G

1-3 G G M K

a
G

^1 to

- 3.12mm

> \
LO

co H

co
LO

CO G G

>

G D W

a >
1-3

G G

>

S
to to
LH

H G Z 1-3
1-3

G 3
G G

G H

> to
Ln

>-3 G

a
G

3 O G G G

0.62mm

>
G
G G

o o
G
H

Full line shews original mould profile at room temperature.

to

0.15mm *-

> \
co

vo tn

co LO

G H

G G G G Z

H 1 3

ti
1 3

G H
to to

>
to en

3 O

to

> \

00

G
VD

co
LO

3 G 3

>
G
G

o
G

hd to to ^1

X
H
H G

>
to

CO 1-3

Point s t r e s s e s In N/m Stress contours (/

A C D E F G H

co co

640 530 430 330 230 130 30

70 170 270
to

>"3

o
G

'

I J

> \

co

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

400

CO

200

co

re

a
CU

-200

D i s t a n c e frem h o t face (mm)

co

a
-400-

-600

(b) Temperature profile

600 c

400

200

100 D i s t a n c e frem t h e h o t face ( n m)

200

FIG.A2.57 Tl MOULD, MID-HEIGHT, STRESS AND TEMPERATURE PROFILES THROUGH THE MOULD WALL AT THE POINT OF MAXIMUM~STRESS (NODE 61)

228

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

G O

50

- .

40

>

U ^J C U

30

(1)

BCIRA d a t a r e f ERE/KRO/SP 12 3 5

(2)

Ref A Banks/273

20

ICO

200

300

400

500

600

Temperature ( C)

FIG.2B.1 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF CAST IRON

229

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

Air t a a = 25 C m

Mould = 0 . 8 5

Air Gap

Steel Ingot 1.0 calculated

f i g u r e 2.

m,i

m,o S fiaure m 2B.6

emissivity of the mould

m =

* emissivity of s t e e l m

calculated skin temperature of ingot

specific heat capacity of ingot mould air temperature

t . m,i

inside wall temperature of mould outside wall temperature of mould

m,o

thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y of air

FIG.2B.2 SCHEMATIC DIAG RAM OF A SECTION THROUG H THE MOULD

230

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

0.06

0.05

i
'J
G

ir
0.04

0.03

0.02
50

100
IL,

ISO
- 4 -

200
(t

250 m,o
+ t ')

300 a
0

350

400

Mean a i r t e m p e r a t u r e

FIG.2B.3 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF AIR AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

231

G G
VD UI

00 LO

H c , W/m K

10

to

LO

to

100

200

300

400

500

600

m,o

(C)

FIG.2B.4 CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF WALL TEMPERATURE

IO

>
co 1 LO

FR 95 6 8 3 1

7210.CA/813

25

2
L

20

a 41 g H

d
LH

co
LO

o
i

15

.c

JO rd

S .d ra
10

100 200 300 Mould w a l l temperature *^ FIG.2B.5

400 t m,o

500

600

(C)

RADIATIVE HEAT LOSS C OEFFIC IENT AS A FUNC TION OF MOULD WALL TEMPERATURE

233

FR 95 6 8 3 1

^210.CA/813

Peak not known

400 200 400

600

800

loco

Temperature ( C)

FIG.2B.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY FOR SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE AND FLAKE GRAPHITE CAST IRONS

234

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