History topic: An overview of the history of mathematics

Mathematics starts with counting. It is not reasonable, however, to suggest that early counting was mathematics. Only when some record of the counting was kept and, therefore, some representation of numbers occurred can mathematics be said to have started. In Babylonia mathematics developed from 2000 BC. Earlier a place value notation number system had evolved over a lengthy period with a number base of 60. It allowed arbitrarily large numbers and fractions to be represented and so proved to be the foundation of more high powered mathematical development. Number problems such as that of the Pythagorean triples (a,b,c) with a2+b2 = c2 were studied from at least 1700 BC. Systems of linear equations were studied in the context of solving number problems. Quadratic equations were also studied and these examples led to a type of numerical algebra. Geometric problems relating to similar figures, area and volume were also studied and values obtained for . The Babylonian basis of mathematics was inherited by the Greeks and independent development by the Greeks began from around 450 BC. Zeno of Elea's paradoxes led to the atomic theory of Democritus. A more precise formulation of concepts led to the realisation that the rational numbers did not suffice to measure all lengths. A geometric formulation of irrational numbers arose. Studies of area led to a form of integration. The theory of conic sections shows a high point in pure mathematical study by Apollonius. Further mathematical discoveries were driven by the astronomy, for example the study of trigonometry. The major Greek progress in mathematics was from 300 BC to 200 AD. After this time progress continued in Islamic countries. Mathematics flourished in particular in Iran, Syria and India. This work did not match the progress made by the Greeks but in addition to the Islamic progress, it did preserve Greek mathematics. From about the 11 th Century

Adelard of Bath, then later Fibonacci, brought this Islamic mathematics and its knowledge of Greek mathematics back into Europe. Major progress in mathematics in Europe began again at the beginning of the 16 th Century with Pacioli, then Cardan, Tartaglia and Ferrari with the algebraic solution of cubic and quartic equations. Copernicus and Galileo revolutionised the applications of mathematics to the study of the universe. The progress in algebra had a major psychological effect and enthusiasm for mathematical research, in particular research in algebra, spread from Italy to Stevin in Belgium and Vite in France. The 17th Century saw Napier, Briggs and others greatly extend the power of mathematics as a calculatory science with his discovery of logarithms. Cavalieri made progress towards the calculus with his infinitesimal methods and Descartes added the power of algebraic methods to geometry. Progress towards the calculus continued with Fermat, who, together with Pascal, began the mathematical study of probability. However the calculus was to be the topic of most significance to evolve in the 17th Century. Newton, building on the work of many earlier mathematicians such as his teacher Barrow, developed the calculus into a tool to push forward the study of nature. His work contained a wealth of new discoveries showing the interaction between mathematics, physics and astronomy. Newton's theory of gravitation and his theory of light take us into the 18th Century. However we must also mention Leibniz, whose much more rigorous approach to the calculus (although still unsatisfactory) was to set the scene for the mathematical work of the 18th Century rather than that of Newton. Leibniz's influence on the various members of the Bernoulli family was important in seeing the calculus grow in power and variety of application. The most important mathematician of the 18th Century was Euler who, in addition to work in a wide range of mathematical areas, was to invent two new branches, namely the calculus of variations and differential geometry. Euler was also important in pushing forward with research in number theory begun so effectively by Fermat.

Toward the end of the 18th Century, Lagrange was to begin a rigorous theory of functions and of mechanics. The period around the turn of the century saw Laplace's great work on celestial mechanics as well as major progress in synthetic geometry by Monge and Carnot. The 19th Century saw rapid progress. Fourier's work on heat was of fundamental importance. In geometry Plcker produced fundamental work on analytic geometry and Steiner in synthetic geometry. Non-euclidean geometry developed by Lobachevsky and Bolyai led to characterisation of geometry by Riemann. Gauss, thought by some to be the greatest mathematician of all time, studied quadratic reciprocity and integer congruences. His work in differential geometry was to revolutionise the topic. He also contributed in a major way to astronomy and magnetism. The 19th Century saw the work of Galois on equations and his insight into the path that mathematics would follow in studying fundamental operations. Galois' introduction of the group concept was to herald in a new direction for mathematical research which has continued through the 20th Century. Cauchy, building on the work of Lagrange on functions, began rigorous analysis and began the study of the theory of functions of a complex variable. This work would continue through Weierstrass and Riemann. Algebraic geometry was carried forward by Cayley whose work on matrices and linear algebra complemented that by Hamilton and Grassmann. The end of the 19th Century saw Cantor invent set theory almost single handedly while his analysis of the concept of number added to the major work of Dedekind and Weierstrass on irrational numbers Analysis was driven by the requirements of mathematical physics and astronomy. Lie's work on differential equations led to the study of topological groups and differential topology. Maxwell was to revolutionise the application of analysis to mathematical physics. Statistical mechanics was developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs. It led to ergodic theory. The study of integral equations was driven by the study of electrostatics and potential theory. Fredholm's work led to Hilbert and the development of functional analysis.

Notation and communication There are many major mathematical discoveries but only those which can be understood by others lead to progress. However, the easy use and understanding of mathematical concepts depends on their notation. For example, work with numbers is clearly hindered by poor notation. Try multiplying two numbers together in Roman numerals. What is MLXXXIV times MMLLLXIX? Addition of course is a different matter and in this case Roman numerals come into their own, merchants who did most of their arithmetic adding figures were reluctant to give up using Roman numerals. What are other examples of notational problems. The best known is probably the notation for the calculus used by Leibniz and Newton. Leibniz's notation lead more easily to extending the ideas of the calculus, while Newton's notation although good to describe velocity and acceleration had much less potential when functions of two variables were considered. British mathematicians who patriotically used Newton's notation put themselves at a disadvantage compared with the continental mathematicians who followed Leibniz. Let us think for a moment how dependent we all are on mathematical notation and convention. Ask any mathematician to solve ax = b and you will be given the answer x = b/a. I would be very surprised if you were given the answer a = b/x, but why not. We are, often without realising it, using a convention that letters near the end of the alphabet represent unknowns while those near the beginning represent known quantities. It was not always like this: Harriot used a as his unknown as did others at this time. The convention we use (letters near the end of the alphabet representing unknowns) was introduced by Descartes in 1637. Other conventions have fallen out of favour, such as that due to Vite who used vowels for unknowns and consonants for knowns. Of course ax = b contains other conventions of notation which we use without noticing them. For example the sign "=" was introduced by Recorde in 1557. Also ax is used to denote the product of a and x, the most efficient notation of all since nothing has to be written! Brilliant discoveries?

It is quite hard to understand the brilliance of major mathematical discoveries. On the one hand they often appear as isolated flashes of brilliance although in fact they are the culmination of work by many, often less able, mathematicians over a long period. For example the controversy over whether Newton or Leibniz discovered the calculus first can easily be answered. Neither did since Newton certainly learnt the calculus from his teacher Barrow. Of course I am not suggesting that Barrow should receive the credit for discovering the calculus, I'm merely pointing out that the calculus comes out of a long period of progress starting with Greek mathematics. Now we are in danger of reducing major mathematical discoveries as no more than the luck of who was working on a topic at "the right time". This too would be completely unfair (although it does go some why to explain why two or more people often discovered something independently around the same time). There is still the flash of genius in the discoveries, often coming from a deeper understanding or seeing the importance of certain ideas more clearly. How we view history We view the history of mathematics from our own position of understanding and sophistication. There can be no other way but nevertheless we have to try to appreciate the difference between our viewpoint and that of mathematicians centuries ago. Often the way mathematics is taught today makes it harder to understand the difficulties of the past. There is no reason why anyone should introduce negative numbers just to be solutions of equations such as x + 3 = 0. In fact there is no real reason why negative numbers should be introduced at all. Nobody owned -2 books. We can think of 2 as being some abstract property which every set of 2 objects possesses. This in itself is a deep idea. Adding 2 apples to 3 apples is one matter. Realising that there are abstract properties 2 and 3 which apply to every sets with 2 and 3 elements and that 2 + 3 = 5 is a general theorem which applies whether they are sets of apples, books or trees moves from counting into the realm of mathematics. Negative numbers do not have this type of concrete representation on which to build the abstraction. It is not surprising that their introduction came only after a long struggle. An understanding of these difficulties would benefit any teacher

trying to teach primary school children. Even the integers, which we take as the most basic concept, have a sophistication which can only be properly understood by examining the historical setting. A challenge If you think that mathematical discovery is easy then here is a challenge to make you think. Napier, Briggs and others introduced the world to logarithms nearly 400 years ago. These were used for 350 years as the main tool in arithmetical calculations. An amazing amount of effort was saved using logarithms, how could the heavy calculations necessary in the sciences ever have taken place without logs. Then the world changed. The pocket calculator appeared. The logarithm remains an important mathematical function but its use in calculating has gone for ever. Here is the challenge. What will replace the calculator? You might say that this is an unfair question. However let me remind you that Napier invented the basic concepts of a mechanical computer at the same time as logs. The basic ideas that will lead to the replacement of the pocket calculator are almost certainly around us. We can think of faster calculators, smaller calculators, better calculators but I'm asking for something as different from the calculator as the calculator itself is from log tables. I have an answer to my own question but it would spoil the point of my challenge to say what it is. Think about it and realise how difficult it was to invent non-euclidean geometries, groups, general relativity, set theory, .... .

Introduction
Mathematics has been vital to the development of civilization; from ancient to modern times it has been fundamental to advances in science, engineering, and philosophy. As a result, the history of mathematics has become an important study; hundreds of books, papers, and web pages have addressed the subject in a variety of different ways. The purpose of this site is to present a small portion of the history of mathematics through an investigation of some of the great problems that have inspired mathematicians throughout the ages. Included are problems that are suitable

for middle school and high school math students, with links to solutions, as well as links to mathematicians' biographies and other math history sites. WARNING:Some of the links on the page in this site lead to other math history sites. In particular, whenever a mathematician's name is highlighted, you can follow it to link to his biography in the MacTutor archives.

Table of Contents
The Bridges of Konigsberg - This problem inspired the great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler to create graph theory, which led to the development of topology. The Value of Pi - Throughout the history of civilization various mathematicians have been concerned with discovering the value of and different expressions for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Puzzling Primes - To fully comprehend our number system, mathematicians need to understand the properties of the prime numbers. Finding them isn't so easy, either. Famous Paradoxes - In the history of mathematical thought, several paradoxes have challenged the notion that mathematics is a self-consistent system of knowledge. Presented here are Zeno's Paradox and Cantor's Infinities. The Problem of Points - An age-old gambling problem led to the development of probability by French mathematicians Pascal and Fermat in the seventeenth century. A Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem - One of the most famous theorems in mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem has many proofs. Presented here is one that relies on Euclidean algebraic geometry and is thus beautifully simple. A Proof that e is irrational - A proof by contradiction that relies on the expression of e as a power series.

1) The mathematician Pythagoras was born around 569 BC. Where did Pythagoras live? Answer: Samos.

2) Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276 BC-197) was a Greek mathematician who worked on prime numbers and geometry. He made an accurate measurement of the circumference of the earth. Where was Cyrene? Answer: Libya. 3) Which famous mathematician was born in Sicily around 287 BC? Answer: Archimedes. 4) Hypatia of Alexandria was the first woman to make a recorded contribution to mathematics. When was she born? Answer: 370 AD. 5) When did Muslim scientists, mathematicians and astronomers make enormous contributions to the world's knowledge? Answer: before the European Renaissance. 6) Who is said to be the founder of algebra? Answer: Al-Khwarizmi. 7) What do we call the numbers we use today? Answer: Arabic numbers. 8) Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1250) is known for Fibonacci Numbers. In which city did Leonardo Fibonacci live? Answer: Pisa. 9) Leonardo da Vinci was a Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, engineer and scientist. Leonardo was also a mathematician and made discoveries in geometry. Where did he do most of his work? Answer: Florence. 10) Nicholas Copernicus, the Polish astronomer and mathematician, attended this university. Answer: Cracow. 11) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was a famous mathematician and astronomer. Where was he born? Answer: Pisa. 12) Descartes, the philosopher, scientist and mathematician, is known for his work on analytic

geometry. What was his nationality? Answer: French. 13) Pascal, the French mathematician and philosopher, has something named after him. What is it? Answer: a computer language. 14) What was the nationality of the eighteenth century mathematician Leonhard Euler? Answer: Swiss. 15) Albert Einstein was born in Germany but much of his work on the theory of relativity was done in another country. Where did he work? Answer: Switzerland.

It is believed that Ancient Egyptians used complex mathematics such as algebra, arithmetic and geometry as far back as 3000 BC, such as equations to approximate the area of circles. Babylonians measured the circumference of a circle as approximately 3 times the diameter, which is fairly close to todays measurement which uses the value of Pi (around 3.14). Chinese mathematics developed around the 11th century BC and included important concepts related to negative numbers, decimals, algebra and geometry. Greek mathematics developed from around the 7th century BC, producing many important theories thanks to great mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system began developing as early as the 1st century with a full system being established around the 9th century, forming the basis of the numerical digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 that we use today. The symbols used for addition (+) and subtraction (-) have been around for thousands of years but it wasn't until the 16th century that most mathematical symbols were invented. Before this time math equations were written in words, making it very time consuming. The equals sign (=) was invented in 1557 by a Welsh mathematician named Robert Recorde. Mathematical developments increased rapidly around the time of the Italian Renaissance in the 16th century and continued through the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, becoming increasingly abstract in the 19th and 20th centuries. The basic arithmetic operations used in mathematics are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern mathematics has advanced greatly thanks to the incredible computing power of todays computers. These days mathematics is important in many different types of jobs, including those related to engineering, business, science, medicine and more.

I am considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity. I calculated the area under the arc of a parabola and gave remarkably accurate approximations of pie. [A-------s]

Archimedes
I am famous for my incompleteness theorum. Who am I ? [K--- -----]

Kurt Godel
Born in 1707 I was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist. in 1736 I solved the Seven Bridges of Konigsberg problem. [Leonhard E----]

Leonhard Euler
I published more papers thatn any other mathematician in history. I died in 1996 [Paul E----]

Paul Erdos
Newton and Leibniz are both credited with inventing ... [--------]

Calculus
What is the name for the study of triangles ?

Trigonometry
I was born in 1643 and went on to build the first practical reflecting telescope and develop an entirely new field of mathematics. [I---- ------]

Isaac Newton
I discovered a very useful fact about the sides of right angle triagles. This theorum bears my name. Who am I ? [----------]

Pythagoras
am a branch of pure mathematics concerned with the study of number and integers in particluar. What am I ? [------ ------]

number theory
What is the missing word ? The highest moments in the life of a mathematician are the first few moments after one has proved the result, but before one finds the ------. [-------]

mistake
I am a three volume work on the foundations of math, published in 1910 by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell. [P-------- M----------]

Principia Mathematica
Some consider me the first of the modern school of mathematics. I am famous for the statement : I think therefore I am. [D--------]

Descartes
I developed the Mathematica software application. In 2002 I published a book called A New Kind of Science, it was intended to bring about a change in paradigm. I am ... [S------ W------]

Stephen Wolfram
I am famous for my last theorum. Who am I ? [P----- -- F-----]

Pierre de Fermat
I invented the first calculating machine in 1645. My gambling led me to study probability. I am french. Who am I ... [B----- P-----]

Blaise Pascal
1. Hypatia (370-415 AD) is the first female mathematician we know by name. But how did she die?
Your Answer: cut to pieces with shells

Although a popular lecturer at the university at Alexandria, a group of monks led by a patriarch named Cyril ordered her death because she was a pagan. A mob surrounded her carriage one afternoon after classes, cut her flesh off her bones with shells and took the remains to Cinaron to burn.
27% of players have answered correctly.

2. It has been known for a while that E. T. Bell's book 'Men of Mathematics' is not distinguished by accuracy. The example of Evariste Galois is often given as an example. It is true that he did die on the eve of his 21st birthday in a duel. What other romantic myth about Galois is, in fact, true?

Your Answer: Famous mathematicians lost not one, but two of his manuscripts

Cauchy lost his first {manuscript;} his second was in the hands of Fourier when Fourier died, and was never seen again. While a genius, Galois had no expositional ability whatsoever and failed his examinations simply because he gave incomplete reasons. All his work had been written up previously, and he spent his last night collecting and organizing his work. There is no evidence that he was suckered into the duel because of his revolutionary leanings.
23% of players have answered correctly.

3. Jean Baptiste Fourier's 'fame was cinched by a series of mathematical ideas that were derived by unintentionally making a number of errors...', leading to, among other things, Fourier series and the fact that any periodic curve can be written as the sum of sines and cosines. But (and you've seen this question before), how did he die?
Your Answer: Heart attack While in Egypt, Fourier became obsessed with the healing powers (real or imagined) of {heat;} and when he returned to France, he kept his fireplaces going always. This exacerbated aheart condition, and he had a heart attack while going down a flight of stairs. The combination of the heart attack and the fall killed him. 28% of players have answered correctly.

4. Alan Turing was the man who cracked Enigma, made great contributions to computer science, and then killed himself in 1954. Many speculate that his sudden behavior was due to the drugs he had been taking for what condition?
Your Answer: Homosexuality

In the 1950's, homosexuality was considered a treatable psychological disorder (and was until DSM-IV, I believe, in the 80's). When he reported a burglary at his home in 1952, the police became more concerned about Turing than the thief, and he was required to either spend a year in jail or spend a year on psychoactive drugs that were thought to 'cure' homosexuality, mostly by repressing the sex drive.

41% of players have answered correctly.

5. Georg Cantor's greatest contribution to mathematics was probably his Diagonal Method, which has been borrowed to prove, among other things, the impossibility of a solution to the halting problem. What did Cantor use this method to prove?
Your Answer: That there are more real numbers than integers

The basic idea is this: if you've got a list matching every real number from 0 to 1 to a positive integer, a real number between 0 and 1 can be produced that isn't on the list, by taking the 'diagonal' number (i.e., the first digit from the first number, the second digit from the second number, etc.) and changing every digit.
41% of players have answered correctly.

6. Time for an obscure question! What French mathematician fell for probably the biggest dupe in history; a series of letters, all in French, all on paper, supposedly written by such people as Alexander the Great, Plato, Cleopatra, and Mary Magdalene?
Your Answer: Lagrange The correct answer was Chasles

Michael Chasles (1793-1880) was a geometer and some of his works were well-known in his time.
22% of players have answered correctly.

7. Kurt Goedel is famous for proving the incompleteness of mathematics. Once again (I'm not really this morbid, I swear), how did he die?
Your Answer: Starved to death

Goedel had an extreme case of paranoia. He believed that everyone was trying to poison him, and his wife had to constantly cajole him to eat. Well, one day in late 1977 his wife had to go to the hospital for major surgery, and Goedel stopped eating.

33% of players have answered correctly.

8. Sticking with Goedel, which of the following oddities about Goedel is false?
Your Answer: Proved the existence of God The correct answer was Started

every class with a prayer

He actually met his wife at the nightclub where she danced. If someone called him up for an appointment, he would readily make the appointment, but wouldn't show up (thus guaranteeing that he wouldn't accidentally run into the person).
23% of players have answered correctly.

9. What is the claim to fame of Hippasus of Metapontum?

Your Answer: he was Pythagoras' teacher The correct answer was proved

the irrationality of the square root of two

Hippasus was the Pythagorean who proved that the square root of two could not be expressed as a fraction. For his trouble, so the story goes, he was taken out to sea and drowned.
32% of players have answered correctly.

10. Finally, a question about pseudo-mathematics. 'The Great Pyramid' by Basil Stewart is still in print today. Why is this surprising?
Your Answer: It predicts the end of the world in 1953.

Yep--even though this prediction (the culmination of the entire book) would seem to be wrong, people are still buying (and believing) it.
35% of players have answered correctly.