TEACHING PRONUNCIATION KEY TO TASKS AND DISCUSSIONS Key to task 1 Individual sounds Voiced and unvoiced sounds /t/

/d/ /f/ /v/ /s//z/ In each case the sound on the left is different to the one on the right in that it is 'voiceless'. This means that the vocal cords do not vibrate. If you place your fingers in your ears and produce each sound you will hear significantly more when you produce the voiced sounds on the right. /k/ and /g/, // and //, and / /and // could also be added to the list. Key to task 2 Teaching activities /f/ - 3 /s/ - 1 /t/ - 2 Key to task 3 Pronunciation th (as in 'thin'): Place the tongue between the top and bottom teeth and squeeze the air around it. Do not vibrate vocal cords Key to task 4 Word stress camera photographer tripod develop album Key to discussion 1 1. When you write new words on the board, indicate where the stress is placed. This is a good idea, particularly on those items of vocabulary that learners have problems with pronouncing accurately. Teachers need to establish a clear method for indicating where the stress would fall. One technique is to put a circle or a box over the stressed syllable. It can be a good idea to use a different colour for this from the one in which the word is written so that learners who are trying to understand an alphabet which may be different to their own are not confused. 2. Ask learners to repeat words after you teach them. This is a useful technique. Sometimes the teacher can reinforce this by tapping the stress pattern on the table. 3. Teach learners the conventions used to indicate word stress in dictionaries. This is very useful. It is important to remember that different dictionaries may follow different conventions

Key to task 5 Utterance stress 1C 2A 3B Key to task 6 Intonation 1. Very flat intonation can give the impression of boredom or lack of interest. Particularly where an extended speaking turn is taken (such as in a speech or presentation) flat intonation can make it hard for the audience to concentrate and fully engage with what is being said. 2. 'Sorry' said with rising intonation is usually a request for repetition of some kind but with a falling pattern it is an apology. 3. This is an example of a question tag. Said with falling intonation it usually means that the speaker is virtually certain that what they are saying is true, but with a rising intonation it sounds more like a genuine question. 4. When listing things, the intonation pattern usually rises when the list is incomplete and there is more to follow and falls on completion. 5. True 6. False - usually with a rising intonation. 7. True - learners are often taught that they are asked with a falling intonation pattern but this is not always the case, particularly if the question is repeated or the questioner believes s/he should already know the answer. 8. True

DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILLS KEY TO TASKS AND DISCUSSIONS Key to task 1 Talking to a friend and making a speech at his/her wedding A speech will be characterised by a long turn (a speaker speaking without interruption), whereas when we talk to friends there will be short turns, where people say a few words and then someone else contributes, and so on. The content of a wedding speech will be dictated partly by tradition there are things the audience expects to hear - but when speaking to a friend there will be no particular agenda. People will speak about whatever seems important or interesting at the time. 2 Talking to a friend and talking to your boss It is likely that different topics will be discussed in these situations. In a work context there is likely to be a set topic and issues outside those related to work may not be acceptable. The formality of the

language will also vary because the power relationship between friends is equal, but this is not the case when speaking to a boss. This may affect who initiates conversational exchanges - typically the person with more power or authority - and also the choice of vocabulary used. 3 Talking to a friend and talking to the newsagent when you buy a paper The discussion with the newsagent may be 'transactional' in nature. S/he asks for a certain amount of money, you give it, say thank you, and leave. There is unlikely to be any development beyond what is essential for the transaction to be completed. This is obviously different to speaking to a friend, where there is no transaction as such, and the purpose is to build or maintain social relationships. Key to tasks 2 What does speaking involve? 1 Although the presentation calls for an extended period of speaking, at least the learner will have time to prepare and to practise what they want to say, unlike in conversations. They could use grammar reference books and dictionaries, as well as practising pronunciation of particular words or phrases beforehand. In a presentation the learner will also be able to focus totally on speaking, whereas conversation involves listening and decoding what others are saying, and having to respond very quickly. 2 Learners need to know enough vocabulary to express what they want and also to organise it in a way which the listeners can understand. Therefore vocabulary and grammar are essential. 3 Poor pronunciation may make listening difficult. 4 They may be able to correct themselves to some extent, but if they pay a lot of attention to accuracy they may lose fluency (speaking without too many pauses and hesitations) and listeners may become frustrated. Native speakers frequently pause and correct what they say. 5 Culture will play an important part in speaking. The strategies we use for interrupting others, showing disapproval, inviting others to speak, and knowing how long it is appropriate to speak for may vary in different cultures. Therefore learners may not be able to transfer appropriately their awareness of their own language to the speaking of another. Key to task 3 1D 2B 3E 4C 5A Activity A gives learners formulaic language to help them manage conversations. Activity B tries to replicate some of the unpredictability of much spoken language and tries to add an element of time pressure, which is typical of spoken language. Activity C tries to encourage learners to monitor the language they produce. Activity D helps learners to take part in predictable exchanges. Often such exchanges can be taught at quite a low level.

Activity E tries to give learners fixed expressions to use if they mistime their contribution to a conversation, and so helps them to become more confident when interrupting others. Key to discussion 2 1 This is not the case, other than when groups are very small. Parts of lessons may be conducted in this way - typically the feedback stages - but learners will simply not get enough speaking practice if only one person can speak at a time. Also it will encourage the learners to rely on being prompted to speak by the teacher, rather than practising strategies of turn taking, interrupting and other features of normal speech. Much of the time should be spent with the learners speaking to each other in pairs and groups. 2 There is little evidence supporting the idea that learners will pick up a lot of mistakes made by others and incorporate them into their own language. However, it is something that learners worry about, and so they need to be reassured that the teacher is listening to what they say, and will pick up on mistakes later in the lesson. Monitoring pairs and groups is very important. 3 This is not necessarily the case. Mistakes that interfere with meaning need to be addressed, but speaking effectively demands a degree of confidence, and too much correction can destroy this. Teachers need to be sensitive in their approach and to treat learners as individuals. Some learners may benefit from a lot of correction while others may need very little. 4 Both aspects are important - what they say and how they say it. The teacher should get feedback from learners on what they said (this is important because it demonstrates the value of communication and that language is about more than the manipulation of certain forms), and also give feedback on how it was said. 5 Many teachers would agree with this, although it should be remembered that in most conversations the topic does change rapidly and therefore occasionally this may be quite useful practice, assuming that it is done in English. 6 This is not necessarily true. Certainly all learners should be given the opportunity to speak but some may be naturally more inclined to listen than perform, and may still benefit from this. If learners are shy about speaking in front of the whole class then pair work and group work can be a very useful way of building confidence. Key to discussion 3 Andrew's view is prioritising fluency. Fluency, in ELT, does not necessarily mean being able to speak like a native speaker, but means instead having the ability to produce reasonably large amounts of language fairly quickly - it is characterised by the ability to 'keep going' and being able to get the message across effectively without undue pauses and hesitations. It is focused on communication. Karen, on the other hand, prizes accuracy. This is the ability to produce language which is relatively free of mistakes. Typically, classroom activities which are designed to promote

accuracy focus on one language point, or a small set of language points. In these activities manipulating forms and meaning appropriately is sometimes more important than communicating real opinions, emotions and feelings. Key to discussion 4 Ways of developing fluency and accuracy Activity 1: Dialogue building A useful and flexible activity at most levels. This can be used to combine fluency and accuracy - the teacher elicits language from the learners which may involve them communicating fluently, and the teacher helps them to tidy the language up (make it more accurate), before putting it on the board and practising it further. Activity 2: Discussion Usually an enjoyable lesson as long as you have a class that are willing to voice opinions. Clearly fluency is catered for, and so the teacher needs to build in an accuracy stage (perhaps by correcting some mistakes - see the following chapter), to extend it to its full potential. Not usually appropriate for low level learners, and learners from some cultures may be reticent about voicing personal opinions. Activity 3: Listen and repeat Learners often enjoy this, particularly at low levels. The value may depend on what exactly the students are repeating. Useful to help develop accurate pronunciation and to build confidence. It could be argued that the pieces of language that are repeated become more automatic for the students - needing less thought - and therefore this activity may also help to develop fluency. This is particularly true of set phrases and chunks of language. Activity 4: Story telling Usually a useful and enjoyable activity. Fluency is clearly prioritised, so again the teacher needs to create an accuracy focus after the activity, by focusing on some of the mistakes made, or highlighting good examples of language usage. Activity 5: Presentations Usually quite a popular activity. Some learners prepare very thoroughly and tend to avoid mistakes, sometimes by using notes. Others develop fluency by talking with less preparation. Activity 6: Problem solving The focus is on communication and the outcome of solving the problem. Fluency is favoured, so again some reflection and accuracy work can be useful afterwards. Activity 7: Just a minute Enjoyable, if not very realistic practice. Fluency prioritised.

Activity 8: Role play Potentially quite a useful activity. Some students enjoy playing a role and not talking about their own opinions and feelings, others respond less well. Fluency is prioritised and the teacher could usefully build in an accuracy focus after the activity. Activity 9: Drill Learners often like this kind of practice. Accuracy is prioritised and there is no really genuine communication. However, drills can often be adapted to make them more communicative. For example, learners could be given a prompt such as 'tall' and respond with a true fact about their family, e.g. 'My brother is taller than me' Activity 10: Information gaps A useful activity because some communication takes place although the amount of language required is limited and can therefore focus on a particular language point. In this case the communicative value is weakened because Rebecca Mills is not a real person and therefore it is unlikely that the learners will have any genuine interest in her. However, the activity could be made more relevant and motivating by replacing Rebecca with a real person such as David Beckham, or something else of interest such as cities, countries, or historic sites.