C Physical Properties of Elements and Semiconductors: Hapter

CHAFTER 1
FhysicoI Froperties of EIements

ond 5emiconductors
1.1 Introduction
Semiconductors constitute a large class of substances which
have resistivities lying between those of insulators and
conductors. The resistivity of semiconductors varies in wide
limits, i.e., 10
4
to 10
4
-m and is reduced to a very great
extent with an increase in temperature (according to an
exponential law) as shown in Fig. 1.1.
In Mendeleevs periodic table, semiconductors form the
group of elements shown in Fig. 1.2. The most typical and
extensively employed semiconductors whose electrical
properties have been well investigated, are Germanium (Ge),
Silicon (Si) and Tellurium (Te). The study of their electrical
properties reveals that
(i) Semiconductors have negative temperature Coefficient of resistance, i.e., the resistance
of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature and vice versa as shown
Group
III IV V VI VII
Period
II B C
III Si P S
IV Ge As Se
V Sn Sb Te I
i|g. 1.2 losition of scmiconuuctor clcmcnts in thc Mcnuclccv laLlc.
Temperature (T)
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
(
R
)
i|g. 1.1 lhc tcmpcraturc ucpcnucncc
of thc rcsistancc in scmiconuuctors.
1
2 A Textbook of Electronics
in Fig. 1.1. For example, Germanium is actually an insulator at low temperatures
but it becomes good conductor at high temperature.
(ii) The resistivity of semiconductors lies between that of a good insulator and of a metal
conductor, i.e., lying in the range 10
4
to 10
4
-m.
(iii) The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is very much affected when a suitable
impurity, e.g., Arsenic, Gallium, Indium etc. is added to it. This property of
semiconductors is most important.
In recent years a number of devices based on semiconductors have been developed that
are of great practical applications in electronics. Most important of these are semiconductor
diodes, transistors and ICs. A transistor, which is a three terminal device having properties
similar to those of a vacuum tube (triode), but requires no cathode power, and at the same time
offers the hope of practically long life. In modern electronic systems, the complete electronic
circuit, containing many transistors, resistors, Diodes etc. is fabricated on a single chip is
called an Integrated Circuit (IC). As compared to electronic valves, semiconductor devices offer
the following advantages: (i) low weight and small size (ii) no power for the filament (iii) long
service life (thousands of hours) (iv) mechanical ruggedness (v) low power losses and (vi) low
supply voltages. At the same time semiconductor devices suffer from a number of disadvantages:
(i) marked spread in parameters between devices within the same type (ii) deterioration in
performance with time (ageing); higher noise level than in electronic valves (iii) unsuitability
of most transistors for use at frequencies over tens of megahertz; (iv) low input resistance as
compared with vacuum triodes; (v) inability to handle large power (vi) deterioration in
performance after exposure to radioactive emissions.
Continuing efforts in research and development, however, are eliminating or minimizing
many of the demerits of semiconductor devices. There are semiconductor rectifiers for currents
of thousands of amperes. Replacement of Germanium with Silicon makes crystal diodes and
transistors suitable for operation at temperatures upto 125C. There are transistors for operation
at hundreds of megahertz and more, and also microwave devices such as gunn diode, tunnel
diode.
Semiconductor devices impose a very small drain on power sources and make it possible
to miniaturize or even micro-miniaturize components and whole circuits. The minimum power
for an electronic valve is 0.1 watt, while for a semiconductor device it may be one microwatt.
Of course, semiconductor devices will not replace electronic valves in each and all
applications, for the valves are also being continually improved. Simply, crystal diodes and
transistors may be advantageous in some uses and electronic valves in others.
To understand the operation of semiconductor devices, it is necessary to study the
semiconductor materials in some detail.
1.2 Atomic Structure and Energy LeveI
To understand how semiconductors work, one must have a good knowledge of atomic structure.
We know that matter is composed of compounds and elements. The elements are the basic
materials found in nature. When elements are combined to form a new material, we have a
compound. The smallest particle that an element can be reduced to and still retain its properties
is called an atom.
Physical Properties of Elements and Semiconductors 3
Although the atoms of different elements have different properties, they all contain the
same subatomic particles. There are a number of different subatomic particles, but only three
of these are of interest in basic electronicsthe proton, the neutron and the electron.
The proton and the neutrons are contained in the nucleus of the atom, and the electrons
orbit around the nucleus. The electrons and the protons are the particles that have the electrical
properties. Neutrons have no electrical charge. An, atom has the same number of electrons
and protons, and so it is electrically neutral. If an atom does have more electrons, it is called a
negative ion. If it has more protons, it is called a positive ion.
To understand the location and energy of each electron in an atom, one must have the
knowledge of following four quantum numbers:
(i) Principal Quantum Number (n). This characterises the average distance of an
electron from the nucleus and corresponds to the principal energy level in which electron
resides. Obviously, n gives some idea about the position of the electron around the nucleus. n
can have positive integer values starting from 1, i.e. n = 1, 2, 3,...... . The principal energy levels
or shells having different values of n are designated by the letters K, L, M, N and so on. The
maximum numbers of the electrons that can be accomodated in a shell corresponding to n is
equal to 2n
2
.
(ii) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l). This is also called as orbital angular
momentum quantum number and gives a measure of the angular momentum of an electron
in the orbit. Physically, l indicates the shape of the classical orbit. For a given value of n, l can
take all positive integer values from o to (n l). The particular l value defines the subshell, and
the sub shells with l = 0, 1, 2, 3,...... are designated as s, p, d, f, g,...... respectively.
For a given principal quantum number, the energies of various subshells are in the
order of s < p < d < f ...... . Obviously, an electron in the s-sub shell has lower energy than in the
p sub shell with same n. The magnitude of this angular momentum if D = + l l ( ) 1 .
(iii) Magnetic Quantum Number (m
l
). This is also called as orbital magnetic
number and this determines the preferred orientation of the orbitals in space with respect to
an applied magnetic field. We know that the magnetic moment of an electron due to its orbital
motion gives rise to a magnetic field which can interact with an external magnetic field. The
electrons orient themselves in certain preferred region of space around the nucleus under the
influence of the external field.
For a given value of l, m
l
can take integer values between 1 to + 1 including 0, i.e. total
allowed values of m
l
are (2l + 1). The magnitude of the component of angular momentum along
the direction of the magnetic field is m
l

D
.
(iv) Spin Quantum Number (m
s
). Electron is spinning about its own axis in the atom.
The spin of the electron produces a spin magnetic moment which can either parallel or anti
parallel to the surrounding magnetic field. For an electron there are two spin states. Spin
quantum number is concerned with the spinning of the electron about its own axis. Thus m
s
can take only two possible states, + or .
Pauli Exclusion Principle. This states that in an atom no two electrons can exist in
the same quantum state, i.e. in an atom there cannot be two electrons with the same value of
all the four quantum numbers. With the help of this principle, one can write the configuration
of electrons. We may note that all the electrons with the same value of n constitute a shell and
a shell can have a maximum of 2n
2
electrons.
The energy state capacity of different shells and subshells are as follows:
K-shell. This corresponds to n = 1 and this has one subshell, namely, 1s. This corresponds
to n = 1, l = 0, m
l
= 0, m
s
and has 2 states.
L-shell. This corresponds to n = 2 and this has two subshells, namely, 2s and 2p.2s sub
shell corresponds to n = 2, l = 0, m
l
= 0 and has 2 states and 2p subshell correspond to n = 2,
l = 1, m
l
= 0, 1 and has 6 states.
M-shell. This corresponds to n = 3 and has 3s, 3p and 3d subshells. The 3s subshell
corresponds to n = 3, l = 1, and m
l
= 0,

1 and has 6 states. The 3d subshell corresponds to
n = 3, l = 2, m
l
= 0, 1, 2 and has 10 states.
Similarly, one can find subshells in other shells, e.g., N, etc. According to Pauli exclusion
principle, the electronic distribution in first four shells are shown in Table 1.1. We may note
that in all seven shells are required for all the chemical elements in the periodic table.
Table 1.1. Electron distribution in subshells
Shell K L M N
n 1 2 3 4
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Subshell s s p s p d s p d f
No. of electrons 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
The electrons in the inner most shells are very strongly attached to the atom and hence
they cannot be easily separated. In other words, the electrons that are very near to the nucleus
are most tightly bound and hence have the lowest energy. Clearly, the atoms that have electrons
in the closed shells will have very stable configurations.
The atomic number Z gives the numbers of electrons orbiting about the nucleus and the
superscripts are used to designate the number of electrons in a particular subshell, e.g. Z for
silicon is 14 and its electronic configuration is given as 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
2
. We may note that
silicon has only two electrons in the outer most subshell. Electronic configurations of C, Si, Ge,
Sn and Pb belonging to same subgroup (IV A) in the periodic table is given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Electronic configuration of some elements of group IV A
Element Atomic number Electronic configuration
C 6 1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
Si 14 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
2
Ge 32 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
2
Sn 50 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
5s
2
5p
2
Pb 82 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
4f
14
5s
2
5p
6
5d
10
6s
2
6p
2
Fig. 1.3 shows the representation of the atomic structures of H, B, Si, P and Ge atoms.
Fig. 1.3 (a) represents the hydrogen atom. It contains one electron revolving around one proton
which is the nucleus. The nucleus of H atom contains no neutrons.
Fig. 1.3 (b) represents the structure of a Boron atom. Its nucleus contains 5 protons (P)
and 5 neutrons (N). There are 5 electrons revolving around the nucleus in different shells.
There are two electrons in the first shell, 2 electrons in the second shell and only 1 electron in
the third outermost or valence shell.
Electron
Proton
Nucleus
3rd shell
2nd shell
1st shell
(a) Hydrogen atom
(1 )
H
(b) Boron atom
(5 )
B
(c) Silicon atom
(14 )
Si
(d) Phosphorus atom
(15 )
P
(e) Germanium atom
(32 )
Ge
1P
i|g. 1.3 ^tomic structurc of a fcw atoms.
Fig. 1.3 (c) represents the structure of a Silicon atom. It contains 14 protons and 14
neutrons the nucleus. There are 14 electrons revolving around the nucleus in different shells.
There are 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 electrons in the second shell and 4 electrons in the
outermost or valence shell.
Fig. 1.3 (d) and 1.3 (e) represent the structure of Phosphorus and Germanium atoms
respectively. We note that phosphorus contains 5 electrons in the outermost shell called valence
electrons whereas Ge atom contains 4 electrons in the outermost shell.
The electrons in the inner shells of an atom do not normally leave the atom. But the
electrons which are in the outermost shell, so called valence shell do not always remain confined
to the same atom. Some of these valence electrons move in a random manner and may travel
from one atom to another in a crystal lattice. These electrons are called as free electrons. It is
due to the presence of these free electrons in a material, that electrical conduction is possible.
The electrons in the inner orbits of the atom remain bound to the nucleus and are, therefore,
called bound electrons.
The tendency of an atom to give up its valence electrons depends on chemical stability.
When an atom is stable, it resists giving up electrons, and when it is unstable, it tends to give
up electrons. The level of stability is determined by the number of valence electrons, because
the atom strives to have its outermost or valence shell completely filled.
If an atoms valence shell is more than half filled, then atom tends to fill its shell. So,
since 8 is the maximum electrons that can be held in the valence shell, elements with 5 or more
valence electrons make good insulators, since they tend to accept rather than give up electrons.
On the other hand, atoms with less than 4 valence electrons tend to give up their electrons,
thereby the valence shell is empty, this would allow the next shell, which is already filled, to be
the outermost shell. These atoms make the best electrical conductors. The elements Si(14) and
(Ge(32) have 4 valence electrons, and are neither good conductors and nor good insulators.
These are called semiconductors.
Most characteristics of semiconductors can be easily explained by means of an energy
level diagram. We are familiar that each isolated atom has only a certain number of orbits
available. These available orbits represent energy levels for the electrons in the atom. According
to Bohrs theory of atomic structure only discrete values of electron energies are possible. An
electron energy is usually expressed in electron volt (1 eV = 1.6 10
19
J = 1.6 10
12
erg). An
electron can have only certain permissible values, i.e., no electron can exist at an energy level
other than a permissible one. Energy level diagram for hydrogen atom is shown in Fig. 1.4.
The permissible energy levels for hydrogen atom are numbered n = 1, 2, 3 ... in increasing
order of energy.
Lyman
series
Balmer
series
Paschen
series
Brackett series
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n =
En (eV)
0
0.85
1.5
3.4
13.6
i|g. 1.4 Lncrgy lcvcl uiagram of hyurogcn.
In any atom, an electron orbiting very close to the nucleus in the first shell is tightly
bound to the nucleus and possesses only a small amount of energy. The greater the distance of
an electron from the nucleus, the greater is its total energy. The total energy of an electron
includes Kinetic and Potential energies. Obviously, an electron orbiting far from the nucleus
would have a greater energy, and hence it can be easily knocked out of its orbit. This makes it
clear that why the valence electrons having maximum energy take part in chemical reactions
and in bonding the atoms together to form solids.
When radiations impinge on an atom, the energy of the electrons increases. As a result,
electrons are excited to higher energy levels. The excited state does not last long. Very soon,
the electron after emitting out energy in the form of heat, light or other radiations, fall back to
the original energy level.
1.3 Energy Band Theory
Most of the metals and semiconductors have crystalline structure. A crystal is made of a space
array of atoms of molecules in regular repetition in three dimensions of some fundamental
building block. The electronic energy levels for a gaseous element are the same as for a single
free atom because the individual atoms in a gas are well apart and has negligible influence on
each other. However, in a crystal the individual atoms are so closely packed that the resulting
energy levels gets modified due to interaction between the atoms in a crystal lattice. We may
note that when atoms form crystals, the energy, levels of the inner shell electrons are not
affected appreciably. On the otherhand, the energy levels of the outer-shell electrons are
considerably altered as these electrons are shared by the adjacent atoms in the crystal. As a
consequence of this interaction between the electrons of outer-shell, the energy levels spread
up to form a band of energy (Fig. 1.5).
Isolated
atoms
2N electrons
6N states 2N electrons
6N p states
2N electrons
2N s states
2N electrons
2N states
Lower energy levels remain
unaffected by crystal formation
a
Interatomic spacing
E
n
e
r
g
y
i|g. 1.5 Lncrgy Lanu formation in a crystal.
To make more clear the formation of energy bands in a crystal, we consider an example
of silicon crystal made up of N atoms. Let us assume that the interatomic spacing can be
varied without affecting the fundamental crystal structure. Let, the interaction between adjacent
atoms is negligible for very large interatomic spacing, say a (Fig. 1.5). Silicon has 14 electrons
and the outermost subshells, namely, 3s and 3p contains 2 electrons each. Thus in a silicon
crystal consisting of N atoms, the outermost subshells 3s and 3p consist of 2 N electrons each.
Obviously, the 3s subshell has 2 N electrons completely occupying the available 2 N states, and
the 3p subshell has only 2 N electrons partially occupying the available 6 N states, all at the
same energy level.
Now, we consider that the interatomic spacing is gradually decreased, i.e. we are moving
from right to left (Fig. 1.5). This means that there will be a gradual increase in the interaction
between the neighbouring atoms. The atomic wave functions overlap due to this interaction.
This makes the crystal an electronic system which obeys the Pauli exclusion principle. Clearly,
2Ns states spread out to form a band of energy. Since N is very large (~ 10
23
/cm
3
) and separation
between energy levels is small, the total spread between the minimum and maximum energy
levels become large. This spread will have several volts of energy and termed as energy band.
The lower shaded region in Fig. 1.5 shows this. In this band the 2 N states are completely filled
with 2 N electrons. Similarly, we see that at the same value of interatomic spacing at p-level,
6 Np states spread up to form a band. The upper shaded region in Fig. 1.5 shows this band we
may note that there are 6 N states available in this band but only 2 N states are occupied and
remaining 4 N states remain unoccupied.
There exists an energy gap (E
g
) between two energy bands, called as forbidden energy
gap, as no electrons can occupy states in this energy gap. With the decrease in atomic spacing
this forbidden energy gap decreases and becomes zero with further reduction in the interatomic
spacing, say at b (Fig. 1.6). When the interatomic spacing is small enough, the two energy
bands will overlap. Under these circumstances, the 6 Np states in the upper band merge with
the 2 Ns states in the lower band, giving a total of 8 N states. Half of these 8 N states, i.e. 4 N
states are occupied by the 4 N available electrons. Now, these 4 N electrons no longer belong to
either p-subshell or s-subshell but belong to the entire crystal. Clearly, at this interatomic
spacing, each atom in the crystal can contribute 4 electrons to the crystal. The band occupied
by these contributed electrons is known as valence band.
4N states
0 electrons
Conduction band
F
o
r
b
i
d
d
e
n
e
n
e
r
g
y
g
a
p
0
states
E
g
Crystal lattice
spacing
4N states
4N electrons
Valence band
c b
Interatomic spacing
E
n
e
r
g
y
i|g. 1.6 Lncrgy Lanu in a crystal as a function of intcratomic spacing.
Now, if the interatomic spacing is further reduced, say c (Fig. 1.6), the interaction
between the atoms becomes very large, and the energy band structure becomes as shown in
Fig. 1.6. The exact shape of the energy band structure depends on : (i) the orientation of the
atoms relative to each other in space, and (ii) the atomic number of the atom, which may be
obtained from the solution of Schrdingers wave equation. For spacing c, 4 N states in the
valence band are completely filled by 4 N electrons. This valence band is separated from the
upper unfilled or empty band by a forbidden energy gap (E
g
). However, the forbidden energy
gap contains no allowed energy states. The upper energy band has 4 N unfilled energy states
and this band is called as the conduction band.
1.4 Energy Band Diagrams in SoIids
The simple energy level diagram of Fig. 1.4 for electron energies is no longer applicable when
one discusses a solid. A solid is formed when atoms bond together. In a solid, the orbit of an
electron is influenced not only by the charges in its own atom but by electrons and nuclei of
every atom in the solid. Each electron in a solid occupies a different position inside the solid
and hence no two electrons can have exactly the same pattern of surrounding charges. Obviously,
the orbits of electrons in a solid are different.
When one is considering a solid in bulk, then the simple energy level diagram in Fig. 1.4
modifies to that shown in Fig. 1.5. All electrons belonging to the first orbits have slightly
different energy levels because no two electrons see exactly the same charge environment.
Since there are billions of first-orbit electrons in a bulk mass, the slightly different energy
levels form a group or band. Similarly, the billions of second orbit electrons, all with slightly
different energy levels, form the second energy band. Similarly all third orbit electrons form
the third band and so on.
Energy gap
E
n
e
r
g
y
(
e
v
)
Conduction
band
3rd band
(Valence band)
2nd band
1st band
i|g. 1.5 Lncrgy Lanus of silicon at aLsolutc zcro.
Silicon is a commonly used semiconductor having atomic number 14. It has 4 electrons
in its outermost or valence orbit. Here, the third band becomes the valence band (Fig. 1.5). In
Fig. 1.5, all these three bands are shown completely filled. Although the third shell of an
isolated atom of silicon is not completely filled as it has only 4 electrons whereas it could
accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons, the third energy band or valence band of a bulk
silicon material behaves as if completely filled. It is so, because in solid Silicon each atom
positions itself between four other silicon atoms, and each of these neighbours share an electron
with the central atom. In this manner, each atom now has 8 electrons filling the valence band
completely as shown in Fig. 1.9 (for Germanium), i.e., all the permissible energy levels in the
band are occupied by electrons. Obviously, no electron in a filled band can move and hence an
electron in a completely filled band cannot contribute to electric conduction current. At absolute
zero temperature, electrons cannot move through the solid Silicon material and hence it acts
like a perfect insulator. Beyond the valence band there is a conduction band (Fig. 1.6). At
absolute zero temperature, the conduction band is empty, i.e., no electron has enough energy
to travel in a conduction band. Definite amount of energy is needed to shift the electron from
the valence band to the conduction band. This amount differs from one substance to another
substance and helps to classify them as conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
1.5 Conductors, Semiconductors and InsuIators
The band structure in a solid determines whether the solid is an insulator or a conductor or a
semiconductor. The bands are filled upto a certain level by the electrons within each atom. The
highest band in which electrons are still predominantly attached to their atoms are found is
called the valence band. This is the band in which the valence (outermost) electrons from each
atom will be located. These are the electrons that are the possible carriers of electricity. However,
in order for an electron to conduct, it must get up to a slightly higher energy so that is free of
the grip of its atom.
Insulators. Let us consider the case when the valence band in full, i.e., when there are
no more available energy levels. Then, a valence electron must jump (increase its energy) into
the next higher band to be free. If the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is too large, then the electron will not be able to make that jump. Such a material will not
be a good conductor of electricity, and is called an insulator. Forbidden energy gap in an insulator
is about 5 eV or even more (Fig. 1.6 (a)). The band theory of solids tells us that an insulator is
a material in which the valence bands are filled and the forbidden energy gap between them
Conduction
band
E 5 eV
or more
g
Valence
band
Valence
band
Valence
band
Valence
band
Conduction
band
Conduction
band
Conduction
band
E 1 eV
g
(a) (b) (c) (d)

E
n
e
r
g
y
(
e
v
)
i|g. 1.6 Lncrgy Lanu uiagram cxhiLiting cncrgy Lanu gap in (=) lnsulators, (>) anu
(?) Conuuctors, anu (@) Scmiconuuctors.
is large and conduction band is at very high every level for the valence electrons to jump at
normal temperatures to it. An insulator does not conduct at room temperature because there
are no conduction electrons in it. However, an insulator may conduct if its temperature is very
high or if a high voltage is applied across it. This is known as the breakdown of the insulator.
Conductors. There are actually two possibilities for a substance to be a conductor. One
is that the valence band is not completely filled. Then an electron in the valence band can get
free of its atom by simply jumping to a higher energy level i.e. conduction band within the
same band. This jump requires a very small amount of energy, and many electrons can,
therefore, make that jump (Fig. 1.6 (b)).
Another situation in which a conductor results stems from the fact that the size of the
energy gaps between the valence band and the conduction band are different for different
materials. In some materials this gap can be quite small. It can even disappear, when the
valence band and conduction band overlap (Fig. 1.6 (c)). Therefore, the band theory tells us
that we have a conductor when
(i) The valence band is not filled, so electrons can move to higher states in the valence
band and be free, or
(ii) When there is no energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band, so
electrons can easily make the transitions from the valence to the conduction band
e.g., metals.
Semiconductors. There is a case in between conductor and insulator. A material with
intermediate properties is called a semiconductor e.g. Ge, Si, Tellurium, Selenium, Graphite,
etc. In a semiconductor.
(i) The valence band is filled, and
(ii) although there is an energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
yet the energy gap is not very large.
The energy-band diagram for a semiconductor is shown in Fig. 1.6 (d). In this case, the
forbidden energy gap is of the order of 1 eV (for Silicon, E
g
= 1.12 eV and for Ge, E
g
= 0.72 eV).
Silicon and Germanium are very good examples of semiconductors. The gaps between their
valence and conduction bands are sufficiently small that the normal thermal energy of the
solid at room temperature is enough to knock a few electrons into the conduction band. These
electrons conduct a current, but, as the name semiconductor implies, a semiconductor does
not conduct as best as a real conductor. We will discuss it later on. The conductivity of these
substances have a number of peculiarities:
(i) The dependence of conductivity on temperature is opposite to that of metals. The
conductivity of semiconductors, in contradiction to that of conductors (metals), may
decrease rapidly with temperature. At low temperatures, a semiconductor may become
an insulator. Hence, the distinction between semiconductors and insulators is purely
quantitative and, to a large extent, conventional. The resistance of most semi-
conductors is considerably more sensitive to changes in temperature than metals.
Compact temperature meters of high sensitivity may be constructed using
semiconducting thermal resistors (thermistors).
(ii) In a number of cases semiconductors may possess positive as well as negative
conductivity. We will discuss it in detail later on.
Few important properties of semiconductors are:
(i) these are crystalline in structure.
(ii) the resistivity of these materials is less than that of an insulator and more than that
of a conductor.
(iii) the resistivity of these materials decreases rapidly with the increase in temperature.
(iv) at high temperatures these behave just like good conductors but at low temperatures
they behave as insulators.
(v) the conductivity of these substances is generally sensitive to temperature,
illumination, magnetic field and the impurity added.
(vi) the distinctive feature of these substances is the type and the degree of binding
between atoms.
The semiconductors may be classified into following two types: (i) intrinsic (pure)
semiconductors, and (ii) extrinsic (doped) or impure semiconductors.
1.6 Fermi LeveI
In the preceding article, we have seen that as far as solid-state theory is concerned only the
upper energy bands (valence bands) are of interest, since electrons at lower levels practically
do not take part in interactions between atoms. How can the behaviour of upper band electrons
be described? Since we are dealing with a very large number of electrons, it is natural to use
statistical physics methods and consider an aggregate of such electrons as a kind of gas, usually
called electron gas.
The state of each electron of such a electron gas may be represented by a point (p
x
, p
y
, p
z
)
in momentum space. The direction of motion of an electron is parallel to its radius vector P
and the energy of an electron depends on its momentum. Let us consider as a crude
approximation that the electrons in solid behave like free particles, i.e., we neglect the potential
energy of the field in which the electrons move and the interaction among electrons.
If the electrons are free, the relationship between their energy and momentum is given
by E = (1/2 m) p
2
. This means that in momentum space a surface of total energy is a sphere.
Such a sphere is usually called a Fermi sphere. One may call the Fermi surface a surface of
maximum energy as the states of an electron gas are contained in a sphere of radius
P
max
= 2m E
max
.
The energy distribution of electrons is shown in Fig. 1.7. The energy E is shown as
abscissa, and the number of electrons, N, having a particular value of energy as ordinate. E
0
is
the maximum energy that electrons in a metal have at zero degree absolute (T = 0 K) and is
called the Fermi level. At OK, all the states below the Fermi level are completely filled by
electrons and above Fermi level are completely empty. From reference to the plot for T = 0, we
see that the number of electrons having zero energy is zero. As the value of energy increases,
the number of electrons possessing it also goes up. The most numerous are electrons at the
Fermi level, E
0
. From the plot for T > 0 in Fig. 1.7 (b), it is seen that some electrons have an
energy in excess of E
0
, but there are fewer electrons with energy E
0
. Those having E > E
0
decrease in number with increase of energy. The value of E
max
rises with temperature.
N N
T = 0
E E E
0
E
0
E
max
(a) (b)
T > 0
i|g. 1.7 Lncrgy uistriLution of clcctrons in a mctal.
From the above discussion one can easily conclude that the concept of Fermi level serves
the reference energy level from which all other energies are conveniently measured. The
probability F(E) of a state corresponding to energy E being occupied by an electron at
temperature T K is given by
F(E) =
1
1 +
F
H
G
I
K
J exp
E E
kT
F
(1.1)
Here k is Boltzmann constant. Three cases of interest are:
(i) At T = 0 K, if E > E
F
then F(E) = 0, i.e., energy state is empty.
(ii) At T = 0 K, if E < E
F
then F(E) = 1, i.e., energy state is occupied by an electron.
(iii) At T 0 K, and E = E
F
then F(E) = 1/2, i.e., energy state is 50% occupied.
Obviously, one finds that at T = 0 K, all the energy states above E
F
are empty, whereas
all those below Fermi energy (E
F
) are filled with electrons. With the rise in temperature,
states above Fermi energy level (E
F
) no more remain empty. They are then occupied by the
electrons to some extent. Fig. 1.8 shows the position of Fermi level in energy band diagram in
the case of pure or intrinsic semiconductors. Fig. 1.8 clearly depicts that Fermi level for an
intrinsic semiconductor is situated in the middle of forbidden gap, i.e., between conduction and
valence band, and the position of Fermi level is independent of temperature.

E
C
E
F
E
V
E
n
e
r
g
y
(
e
V
)
Forbidden
gap E
G
Valence band
Holes
E (Fermi level)
F
Electrons
Conduction band
i|g. 1.8 lcrmi lcvcl in intrinsic scmiconuuctor at u k.
Thus E
G
=
E E
C V
+
2
and E
G
= 2(E
F
E
V
)
where E
G
is forbidden energy gap ( 1 eV)
This reveals that when the temperature is raised there is a greater possibility of electrons
being found above the Fermi level with an equal possibility of finding an electron vacancy so
called hole below Fermi level. We will discuss it in later sections.
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductor devices, e.g., diodes and transistors, are made from a single crystal of
semiconductor material, e.g., germanium or silicon. To make a semiconductor device, a sample
of semiconductor must be in its purest form. A semiconductor in its purest form is called an
intrinsic semiconductor. A semiconductor is not truly intrinsic unless its impurity content is
less than 1 part impurity in 100 million parts of semiconductor. As stated earlier that at 0 K
temperature, the Fermi level (E
F
) in intrinsic semiconductors, lies nearly mid way between
the valence and conduction band.
The purity and the temperature are the main factors
on which the concentration of charge carrier in semicon-
ductor depends. A semiconductor becomes conducting only
when its temperature is increased considerably higher than
absolute zero. Fig. 1.8a shows the variation of the
concentration of charge carriers in the intrinsic region. The
charge carrier concentration rises with temperature
because electrons from deeper and deeper states of the
valence band move to the conduction band.
As the temperature is raised, some electrons near
the top of the valence band jump into the lowest levels of
the conduction band. The conduction band now contains a
few electrons, and the valence band has a few missing
electrons or holes* (Fig. 1.8). Thermal ionization, therefore,
is said to create hole-electron pairs, since there is one hole for each electron. Transferred to
C.B. As both electrons and holes transport charge through the semi-conductor, they are
collectively termed charged carriers or simply carriers. In applied electric and magnetic fields
a hole acts as if it is a positive electron. To understand, the phenomenon of conduction of
current in a semiconductor, it is essential to study is crystal structure.
log n
i
1/T
i|g. 1.8a. lcmpcraturc ucpcnucncc
of chargc carricr conccntration in thc
intrinsic scmiconuuctor.
*When an electron moves from the valence band it leaves behind a vacant energy state with a
positive charge. Moreover, as the electron moving from the valence band is located at the top edge of the
band has a negative effective mass and its absence in the valence band is associated with a positive
mass. The vacant energy state in the valence band therefore has a positive charge and a positive mass.
The vacant energy state is called a hole.
1.7 (a) CrystaI Structure of Semiconductors
It is the nature of some solid materials to form themselves into structures called crystals which
have characteristic geometric shapes. These are the crystalline substances. Exact opposites
are those other solids which form into shapeless structures and are said to be plastic, non
crystalline, or amorphous. Quartz is a familiar example of crystalline substances where as a
block of rubber is amorphous. Elements and compounds both can be crystalline. So can be
metals and non metals. Virtually all minerals are crystalline.
Externally, a crystal has several flat faces which are arranged symmetrically w.r.t. each
other. Internally, it has a certain orderly arrangement of atoms in a repeating system called a
lattice. Both externally and internally, a single crystal of a given true crystalline material
looks like all other crystals of that material. A single crystal may be large to the point of
hungeness or it may be so small as to be visible only with the aid of magnifier.
Inside the crystal lattice, certain loosely bound electrons (called valence electrons) in
the outer most shells of one atom align themselves with similar electrons in adjacent atoms to
form covalent bonds which hold the atoms together in the orderly structure of the lattice.
Thus, in any covalent bond there are shared electrons, so called because they are shared by
neighbouring atoms.
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are two very typical semiconductors. In Germanium
the atom has 32 electrons distributed in four orbits whereas in silicon there are 14 electrons
distributed in three orbits. The outermost orbit called the valence orbit contain 4 electrons in
each case.
Covalent
bond
Valence
electron
Ge Ge Ge
Ge
Ge Ge
Ge Ge
Ge
i|g. 1.9 ^ simplificu rcprcscntation of thc crystallinc structurc of a
scmiconuuctor (Gc) at aLsolutc zcro tcmpcraturc.
The crystals are tetrahedral in structure and each atom shares one of its electrons with
its neighbour. Such a sharing of its electrons between two neighbouring atoms is called a
covalent bond. A simplified representation of the crystalline structure of a semiconductor (Ge)
at absolute zero is shown in Fig. 1.9.
At very low temperature near absolute zero all the electrons in the atoms are tied up
strongly by these bonds, but with the rise of temperature, a few electrons break away from
some of the covalent bonds and get themselves freed creating vacant spaces, deficient of electrons
known as holes (Fig. 1.10a). A hole is equivalent to a net positive charge-equal to that of electron.
Whenever a free electron is generated, a hole is created simultaneously, i.e., free electrons and
holes are always generated in pairs. Obviously, the concentration of free electrons and holes
will always be equal in an intrinsic semiconductor. This type of generation of free-electron
hole pairs (Fig. 1.10b) in semiconductors is called as thermal generation.
Ge Ge Ge
Ge
Ge Ge
Ge Ge
Ge
Free
electron
Hole
i|g. 1.10 (=) Crystallinc structurc of Gc at room tcmpcraturc.
Owing to the thermal vibrations the free electrons in a semiconductor crystal jump from
one bond position to another. This is equivalent to the motion of a hole relatively in opposite
Conduction
band
E
n
e
r
g
y
(
e
V
)
Free
electron
Hole
F
o
r
b
i
d
d
e
n
e
n
e
r
g
y
g
a
p
Electron
hole pair
Valence
band
( )Energy-band Diagram. b
i|g. 1.10 (>) Gcncration of clcctron-holc pair in an intrinsic scmiconuuctor (Gc).
direction and thus gives rise to an electric current in the direction of motion of the hole. The
conductivity of semiconductor is, therefore, due to the motion of the holes and of the electrons.
(Fig. 1.10). Such intrinsic semiconductors produce very weak electric current not adequate for
useful work.
1.7 (b) Carrier (or EIectron and HoIe) Concentrations in Intrinsic
Semiconductors
In order to calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration, we first calculate the number of electrons
excited into the conduction band at any temperature T K and which in turn are free to migrate
in the crystal. In carrying out these calculations it will be assumed that the electrons in the
conduction band behave as if they are free with effective mass m
e
* and energy will be measured
from the top of the valence band. We further take the electron density of states in the conduction
band is equal to that for free electrons i.e.,
N(E) =
1
2
2
2 2
1/ 2
( )
*
m
h
e
F
H
G
I
K
J (E E
g
)
1/2
(1.2)
In addition to the density of states function we also require the probability function for
calculating the electron density in the conduction band. The appropriate probability function
is the Fermi function f(E) given by equation (1.1). As stated earlier that Fermi level E
F
is in the
middle of the band gap in the case of intrinsic semiconductors. If (E E
F
) < 4 . kT, i.e., the
lower edge of the conduction band is about 4k
B
T above E
F
, one can neglect 1 in the denominator
of equation (1.1) and Fermi function f(E) reduces to
F(E) = exp (E
F
E)/kT ...(1.3)
The number of electrons per unit volume having their energy in the range dE in the
conduction band can be obtained from
n
e
(E) dE = N
e
(E) f(E) dE (1.4)
or n
e
=
Fg
z
n
e
(E) dE.
This leads to
n
e
= N
e
exp [(E
F
E
g
)/kT] (1.5)
Here
N
e
= 2
2
2
3 2
m kT
h
e
*
/
L
N
M
O
Q
P
is called as the effective density of states in the conduction band. Equation (1.5) gives us the
electron concentration in the conduction band.
In order to calculate the hole density n
h
where h refers to hole, we assume that the holes
near the top of the valence band behave as if they are free particles with an effective mass m
h
*.
One can express the density of hole states in the valence band as
N
h
(E) dE =
2
2
3 2
m
h
h
*
/
F
H
G
I
K
J ( E)
1/2
dE per unit volume.
Here, one must remember that the energy is measured positive upwards from the top of
the valence band. If f
h
(E) represents the probability of occupation of the states by holes in the
valence band then it must be equal to the probability of the electron states being unoccupied in
the valence band, i.e.,
f
h
(E) = 1 f
e
(E) = 1
1
1 exp [( ) / ] E E kT
F
+
=
exp [( )/ ]
exp [( )/ ]
E E kT
E E kT
F
F
+ 1
(1.6)
Since E < E
F
, being the valence band, so exp [(E E
F
/kT] << 1 and hence we can always
neglect exp [(E E
F
/kT] in comparison to 1 in the denominator, one obtains
f
h
(E) = exp [(E E
F
/kT] (1.7)
Using the relation n
h
(E) dE = N
h
(E) dE, one obtains the hole concentration in the valence
band as
n
h
= N
v
exp [ E
F
/kT] (1.8)
where
N
v
= 2
2
2
m kT
h
h
* L
N
M
O
Q
P
is called the effective density of states in the valence band.
Since for intrinsic semiconductors, we have n
e
= n
h
and, therefore, from (1.5) and (1.8),
one obtains
m
e
*
3/2
exp [(E
F
E
g
)/kT = m
h
*
3/2
exp [ E
F
/kT]
or
E
F
=
E
kT
m
m
g
h
e
2
3
4
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
log
*
*
(1.9)
At T = 0 K, equation (1.9) reduces to
E
F
=
E
g
2
Thus for an intrinsic semiconductor
n
e
= n
h
= n
i
2
or np = n
i
2
= p
i
2
where n and p are electron concentration, (i.e., number of electrons/m
3
) and concentration of
holes, (i.e., number of holes/m
3
). Each of these intrinsic carrier concentration is commonly
denoted by n
i
.
1.7 (c) Fermi LeveI in Intrinsic Semiconductor
From (1.9) it follows that at T = 0 K, m
e
* = m
h
* and Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor
lies exactly mid-way in the forbidden gap, i.e.,
E
F
= E
g
/2
In general m
h
*

> m
e
*, i.e., m
h
* is slightly greater than m
e
* and so the Fermi level is
raised slightly as the temperature T increases. But for all practical purposes the Fermi level in
intrinsic semiconductors can be assumed to be constant for a wide range of temperature. It is
worthwhile to mention that the Fermi level in semiconductors is not a static level, but a dynamic
one, since it changes appreciably with change of temperature and impurities. Variation of
Fermi level with impurity concentration enables one, the operation of the various semiconductor
devices.
1.7 (d) Law of Mass Action
Multiplying (1.5) and (1.8), one obtains
np = n
e
n
h
= 4
2
2
3
kT
h
F
H
G
I
K
J (m
e
*m
h
*)
3/2
exp
L
N
M
O
Q
P
E
kT
g
where n
e
= n and n
h
= p and E
g
is the band gap energy. Since band gap energy E
g
is constant
and hence the product np is also constant, i.e.,
np = n
i
2
= const [T
3
exp ( E
g
/kT)] (1.10)
Here n
i
is called the intrinsic density of either carrier. From (1.10) it is evident that n
i
2
or np is a constant depending on the temperature and the width of the for bidden gap. It does
not depend on the impurities introduced as long as the impurities do not change with width of
the orbidden energy gap. Equation (1.10) is called the law of mass action. The result also holds
good in the presence of impurities as well.
Because np is a constant independent of impurity concentration at a given temperature,
the introduction of a small proportion of a suitable impurity to increase n, say must decrease p.
This result is important in practice, as one can reduce the total carrier concentration (n + p) in
an impurity crystal, sometimes enormously, by the controlled introduction of suitable impurities.
Such a reduction is called compensation of one impurity type by adding another.
1.7 (e) EIectricaI Conductivity
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors in the very low temperature range is
due to intrinsic charge carriers, i.e., due to electrons and holes. Such conductivity is sometimes
termed as intrinsic conductivity.
Since there are two types of carriers in the intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes,
its specific conductance is the sum of the conductivity
e
= | e | n
e
due to free electrons, with
the concentration n and mobility
e
, and of the conductivity
h
= | e | p
h
due to the presence
of holes, with the concentration p and mobility
h
. The mobility is defined as the magnitude
of the drift velocity per unit electric field
= | v | E (1.11)
The mobility is defined to be positive for both electrons and holes, although their drift
velocities are opposite.
The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
= | e | (n
e
+ p
h
) (1.12)
Since for an intrinsic semiconductor n = p, we have
i
= | e | n (
e
+
h
) (1.13)
Here
i
denotes the intrinsic conductivity. Substituting the value of n, one obtains
i
= 2 | e |
2
2
3 2
kT
h
F
H
G
I
K
J
/
(m
e
*m
h
*)
3/4
exp [ E
g
/2kT] (
e
+
h
) (1.14)
It is worthwhile to mention that the value of E
g
is more in the case of silicon (E
g
= 1.12
eV) than in the case of germanium (E
g
= 0.72 eV). Obviously, less number of electron-hole pairs
will be generated in silicon than in germanium at room temperature. This means that the
conductivity of silicon will be less than that of germanium at room temperature.
When a battery is connected across a semiconductor (Fig. 1.11) the electrons experience
a force towards the positive terminal of the battery; and holes towards the negative terminal.
The random motion of electrons and holes gets modified. Over and above the random motion,
there also occurs a net movement, called drift. The velocity of electrons and holes increases.
However, they cannot attain an indefinite increase but acquire an average increment in velocity.
This is due to the collisions of the carriers with the obstacles like nuclei, phonons, etc. in the
crystallattice. This additional velocity acquired by the charge carriers (electrons and holes) in
the electric field is called the drift velocity (v
d
). The drift velocity depends on the strength of
the electric field, i.e.,
v
d
E or v
d
= E
where is a proportionality constant and called as the mobility of charge carrier.
We have =
v
E
d
m
2
/V-s
One can define the mobility as the drift velocity acquired per unit electric field strength.
The random motion does not contribute to any electric current. The free electrons drift
towards the positive terminal of the battery, whereas the holes towards the negative terminal.
The electric current flows through the semiconductor in the same direction as in which the
holes are moving. Since the electrons are negatively charged, the direction of conventional
electric current is opposite to the direction of their motion. Although, the two types of charge
carriers move in opposite directions, the two currents are in the same direction.
When the flow of charge carriers in a semiconductor is due to an applied voltage the
resultant current is called a drift current. A second type of current called as diffusion current
also exists in a semiconductor. The diffusion current flows as a result of a gradient of carrier
concentration, i.e., the difference of carrier concentration from one region to another. The
diffusion current is also due to the motion of both electrons and holes.
Electron flow
Hole flow
Total current
I = I + I
n p
Electron flow
+
(Conventional flow
of current)
i|g. 1.11 Conuuction of clcctric currcnt in an intrinsic scmiconuuctor.
Let us now investigate the effect of temperature on intrinsic semiconductor. From (1.14),
it is evident that the exponential term exp [

E
g
/2kT] dominates all other temperature
dependence. Writing (1.14) as
log
i
=
E
kT
e
kT
h
m m
g
e h e h
2
2
2
2
3 2
3 2
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
log | | ( * *) ( )
/
/

or log = log
i
=
E
kT
e
kT
h
m m
g
e h e h
2
2
2
2
3 2
3 4
F
H
G
I
K
J +
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
log | | ( * *) ( )
/
/

(1.15)
where is the resistivity.
The intrinsic semiconductor has a small
conductivity. In a sample of germanium at room
temperature the intrinsic carrier concentration is
2.5 10
19
/m
3
. With the rise in temperature, the
conductivity increases, i.e., resistivity decreases.
Fig. 1.12 shows plot of log vs. 1/T for some intrinsic
semiconductors.
0 1 2 3
10
4
10
2
10
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
Ge
Si
Cu O
2
Fe O
2 3
1/T ( 10 /K)
3
l
o
g
(
o
h
m
-
c
m
)
r
i|g. 1.12 llot of log vs. 1}6 for somc
intrinsic scmiconuuctors.
1.8 Extrinsic Semiconductors
We have seen that the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is very small and hence they
are not suitable for any useful work except as a heat or light sensitive resistances. The
conductivity can, however, be enormously increases by addition of suitable impurity in a very
small proportion, i.e., nearly 1 in 10
6
parts of the semiconductor. This process is called doping.
Doping is done after the semiconductor material has been refined to a high degree of purity. A
doped or impurity semiconductor is known as an extrinsic semiconductor.
When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with pentavalent atom impurity, it is called
donor doping and when it is doped with trivalent atom impurity, it is called acceptor doping.
Obviously, a semiconductor can be doped to have an excess of free electrons or an excess of
holes. Extrinsic or doped semiconductors are classified into two groups:
(i) N-type semiconductor (ii) P-type semiconductor
The doped semiconductor crystal as a whole remains electrically neutral. In the case of
the N-type semiconductor, for every extra free electron introduced in the crystal, there is an
extra positive charge on the impurity core. This makes the N-type crystal as a whole electrically
neutral. Similarly, a P-type semiconductor as a whole remains electrically neutral.
In the P-type semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers, whilst free electrons are
minority carriers, whereas in the N-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers
and holes are minority carriers. Often schematic representations of N-type semiconductor
would have a preponderance of negative charges, while a preponderance of positive charge is
used for illustrations of P-type semiconductor. We may note that these negative and positive
signs are meant only to indicate the charge of the majority carriers, and not the overall charge
on the crystal.
1.8 (a) -Type Semiconductors
Germanium and Silicon are tetravalent. The impurity atoms may be either pentavalent of
trivalent, i.e., from group V and III of the periodic table (Fig. 1.2). If a small quantity of a
pentavalent impurity (having 5-electrons in the outermost orbit) like Arsenic (As) Antimony
(Sb) or Phosphorus (P) is introduced in Germanium or Silicon, it replaces equal number of
Germanium atoms without changing the physical state of the crystal. Each of the four out of
five valency electrons of impurity say of Arsenic enters into covalent bonds with Germanium,
while the fifth valency electron is set free to move from one atom to the other in the lattice as
shown in Fig. 1.13. The impurity is called donor impurity as it donates an electron and the
crystal is called N-type semiconductor. A small amount of Arsenic (impurity) injects billions of
free electrons into a Germanium crystal thus increasing its conductivity enormously. In N-
type semiconductors the majority carriers of charge are the electrons and holes are minority
carriers. This is because when donor atoms are added to a semiconductor, the extra free electrons
give the semiconductor a greater number of free electrons that it would normally have. And,
unlike, the electrons that are freed because of thermal agitation, donor electrons do not produce
holes. As a result, the current carriers in a semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurities
are primarily negative electrons.
Ge Ge Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge Ge
Ge As
Fifth
electron
i|g. 1.13 -typc scmiconuuctor.
The impurity atom has five valence electrons. After donating one electron, it is left with
+ 1 excess charge. It then becomes a positively charged immobile ion. It is immobile because it
is massive and held tightly in the crystal by the four covalent bonds as shown in Fig. 1.13.
It is important to understand that in N-type semiconductors, although electrons (negative
charges) are the majority carriers, but the semiconductor crystal doped with impurity remains
electrically neutral. Free electrons and holes are generated in pairs due to thermal energy and
negative charge of electrons denoted by impurity atoms is exactly balanced by positive charge
of the immobile ions. Representation of an N-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 1.14, we
have not shown Silicon or Germanium atoms in the figure. One should assume them as a
continuous structure over the whole background. The fixed or immobile ions are regularly
distributed in the crystal structure. The electrons and the holes, being free to move, as shown
randomly distributed at any moment.
+
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+
+ + +
Holes
Immobile ion
(+ charge)
Free electron
( charge)
i|g. 1.14 Rcprcscntation of an -typc scmiconuuctor.
Since N-type semiconductors have extra free electrons, and pure semiconductors do not,
the energy band diagram for a doped semiconductor is slightly different from that of a pure
semiconductor. In effect, another energy level exists; a level for the donor electron, which is
closer to the conduction band. The forbidden band for the donor electron is much narrower
than the forbidden band for the valence electron; so one can see that it is much easier to cause
electron flow in an N-type semiconductor (Fig. 1.15).
E (Donor electron
energy level)
FN
Valence band
Donor electron
forbidden band
Conduction band
Forbidden
band
i|g. 1.15 Lxccss frcc clcctrons in -typc scmiconuuctors prouucc a uonor cncrgy
lcvcl closc to thc conuuction Lanu.
Fig. 1.15a shows the temperature dependence of charge carrier concentration in N-type
semiconductors. There is not a continuous rise in carrier concentration with temperature with
the rise in temperature above absolute zero, electrons from the donor level being very close to
conduction band reach the conduction band much earlier than in the case of intrinsic
semiconductor. On further rise in temperature, more electrons from the donor level reach the
conduction band and at a temperature known as depletion temperature, all the donor
electrons reach the conduction band. When the temperature is raised beyond T
s
, the number
of electrons in the conduction band remains constant upto the temperature when the thermal
energy becomes sufficient to raise the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band
(region bc in Fig. 1.15a). On further rise in temperature, the number of electrons in the
conduction band (region cd) increases. At a temeprature T
i
(known as the temperature of
transition of intrinsic conductivity), electrons from the valence band become equal to the
electrons from the donor level. Beyond this temperature, the extrinsic semiconductor behaves
as intrinsic semiconductor. This is because in the conduction band the number of electrons
raised from the donor level can be ignored in comparison to the electrons raised from the
valence band. In most semiconductors T
i
exceeds room temperature considerably.
1/T
i
1/T
s
1/T
a
b c
d
log n
n
i|g. 1.15a lcmpcraturc ucpcnucncc of chargc carricr conccntration: -typc scmiconuuctor.
1.8 (b) 2-type Semiconductor
When a trivalent impurity (having 3 electrons in outermost orbit) like Indium (In), Boron (B)
or Gallium (Ga) is added in a Germanium or Silicon intrinsic semiconductor, the impurity
atoms will displace some of the Germanium atoms in the crystal during is formation as shown
in Fig. 1.16. In this case only three out of the four possible covalent bonds are formed while the
fourth bond acts as a hole. Hence a hole moves relative to the electron in a direction opposite to
the direction of electron, when an electron moves from one bond to the other. This trivalent
impurity known as the acceptor or P-type impurity injects into the crystal billions of holes and
the majority carriers of the charge are the holes responsible for the conductivity of the crystal.
For this reason such crystals are called P-type semiconductor or P-type crystals. P-type
semiconductor can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.17.
Ge Ge Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge Ge
Ge In
Hole
i|g. 1.16 2-typc scmiconuuctor.

Electrons ( charge)
Holes (+ charge)
i|g. 1.17 Rcprcscntation of a 2-typc scmiconuuctor.
The energy band diagram of P-type semiconductor also differs from that of the pure
semiconductor. Since there is an extra number of holes, which tend to attract electrons they
aid in starting current flow. As a result, the acceptor energy level is also somewhat higher
than that of the valence band (Fig. 1.18). However, it is not as high as the donor level. P-type
semiconductors will conduct current easier than pure semiconductors, but not quite as easy as
n-type semiconductors.
Conduction band
Acceptor hole
energy level
Acceptor
hole
forbidden
band
Valence
hole
forbidden
band
i|g. 1.18 Lxccss holc in 2-typc scmiconuuctors introuucc an acccptor cncrgy lcvcl closc to valcncc lcvcl.
1.9 Important Properties of Extrinsic Semiconductors
We have seen that the introduction of impurities in pure semiconductors increases the density
of one type or another type of charge carriers. The product of holes and electrons in a
semiconductor is constant depending on the width of energy gap and temperature and hence
the introduction of the impurities results in an increase in the density of one type of carrier
and a reduction in the density of the other type of carrier. In an extrinsic semiconductor, the
carriers introduced by the impurities are called majority carriers and the other type are called
minority carriers. It is important to note that the low value for minority carrier density is due
to added recombination.
Let N
d
be the donor impurity density, N
a
the acceptor impurity density, p the density of
holes and n the density of electrons in an extrinsic semiconducting material. From the condition
of charge neutrality, we have
N
d
+ p = N
a
+ n
or
n = (N
d
N
a
) + p
= (N
d
N
a
) +
n
n
i
2
(3 np = n
i
2
)
or n
2
(N
d
N
a
)n n
i
2
= 0 (1.16)
Solving the quadratic equation in n, one obtains
n =
( ) ( ) N N N N n
d a d a i
+
2 2
4
2
or n
~
(N
d
N
a
) when (N
d
N
a
) >> n
i
(1.17)
Obviously, the electron density (n) in the N-type semiconductor equals the difference in
the donor and acceptor impurity densities when they are large compared to the intrinsic density,
n
i
. Similarly the hole density (p) in a P-type semiconductor is given by
p = (N
a
N
d
) when (N
a
N
d
) >> n
i
1.9 (a) Donor and Acceptor States
When an impurity atom from group V of the periodic table, say phosphorous is added to a pure
Ge of Si crystal as a pentavalent impurity these impurity atoms enter the lattice by substitution
for normal atoms, and not in interstitial positions. We have already seen that the crystal as a
whole remains neutral because the electron remains in the crystal. We have further seen that
the band diagram of N-type or P-type semiconductor differs from that of the pure semiconductor.
The band diagram for N-type or P-type semiconductor explains clearly why the conduction
becomes possible in impure semiconductors at comparatively low temperature.
1.9 (b) Fermi LeveI in Extrinsic Semiconductor
We have read that Fermi level is situated in the middle of the band gap in an intrinsic
semiconductor as the electron and hole densities are equal. When the intrinsic semiconductor
is doped, the carrier densities change, consequently the position of the Fermi level also changes.
The shift in the position of the Fermi level can easily be related to the majority carrier density
in an extrinsic semiconductor if it is assumed that the addition of impurities do not affect the
densities of energy states in the conduction and valence bands.
Let N
c
and N
v
denote the density of states in the conduction band and density of states
in the valence band, respectively. We have for an intrinsic semiconductor.
and
n N
E E
kT
p N
E E
kT
c
fi c
v
v fi
=
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
L
N
M
O
Q
P
U
V
|
|
W
|
|
exp
exp
(1.18)
Here E
fi
is the energy associated with the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor. For
an intrinsic semiconductor, we have n = p and therefore from (1.18), we have
N
N
E E E
kT
c
v
c v fi
=
L
N
M
O
Q
P
exp
2
Let E
fn
be the energy associated with the Fermi level in an N-type semiconductor having
an electron density n, we have
n = N
c
exp
E E
kT
fn c
L
N
M
O
Q
P
and p = N
c
exp
E E
kT
v fn
L
N
M
O
Q
P
n
p
n
n
N
N
E E E
kT
i
c
v
fn c v
= =
L
N
M
O
Q
P
2
2
2
exp
= exp
2( ) E E
kT
fn fi
L
N
M
O
Q
P
or n = n
i
exp
E E
kT
fn fi
L
N
M
O
Q
P (1.19)
Similarly, one obtains for a p-type semiconductor
p = n
i
exp
E E
kT
fi fp
L
N
M
O
Q
P
(1.20)
Thus the shift of the Fermi level in the n and p type of semiconductor can be expressed as
E E kT
n
n
E E kT
p
p
fn fi
i
fi fp
i
=
=
U
V
|
|
W
|
|
ln
ln
(1.21)
C.B
V.B
n-type
E
fn
E
fi
C.B
V.B
p-type
E
fi
E
fp
i|g. 1.19 Shift in thc lcrmi lcvcl in thc - anu F-typc of scmiconuuctor.
Fig. 1.19 represents the shift in the Fermi level in the n and p types of semiconductors.
1.9 (c) ThermaI Ionization of Extrinsic Semiconductors
When the temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor is raised above 0 K, the impurity atoms
get ionized. Due to ionization the donor impurity atoms give rise to electrons in the conduction
band and the acceptor impurity atoms give rise to holes in the valence band. These electrons or
holes alongwith those generated by intrinsic action, then serve as the current carriers at a
temperature. Two cases of interest are
(i) Conduction electron concentration is equal to
n = n
0
exp [(E
F
E
g
)/kT]
~
N
d
(1.22)
This shows that under the present conditions the concentration of conduction electrons
is approximately equal to the concentration of donors. This means that all the donors
are ionized. Equation (1.22) suggests that at room temperature the impurity
concentration for Si and Ge upto 10
14
to 10
16
donors per cc suits this range, i.e., if we
dope an intrinsic semiconductor crystal with this concentration of donors, one can
certainly predict that one will have ~ 10
16
electrons/cc.
(ii) At higher temperature, the carrier concentration is proportional to N
d
, i.e., they
all are ionised.
1.9 (d) Charge Densities in Extrinsic Semiconductors
The density of impurity atoms in n and p material is so low compared to the density of
semiconductor atoms that the rate of thermal pair generation is not affected appreciably by
the presence of impurity atoms. In the case of intrinsic semiconductors we have seen that the
concentration product
np = n
i
2
(1.22(a))
was a constant at a given temperature.
Assuming all impurity atoms in extrinsic semiconductors to be ionized at the usual
operating temperatures, the free charge densities in impurity material can be based upon N
D
,
the donor atom density in n-material, or N
A
, the acceptor atom density in p-material.
The electrical neutrality of the material demands
P + N
D
= n + N
A
(1.22(b))
The L.H.S. of 1.22(b) gives the total positive charge as the sum of holes in the valence
bonds and the positive charge associated with the donor atoms that have given up electrons
and become positive ions. The R.H.S. of 1.22(b) sums the negative charge of free electron density
n and the negative charge due to electrons held by the ionized acceptor atoms.
Using 1.22(a), one can write
n =
n
p
i
2
and p =
n
n
i
2
(1.22(c))
only donor impurities are introduced in n type material, so N
A
= 0. The donor density will be
made much larger than the density of intrinsic holes, or
N
D
>> p
and in n type material the electron density is written from 1.22(b) as
n N
D
(1.22(d))
on the similar reasoning for p-type material, we have N
D
= 0 and N
A
>> n. One obtains density
relations in p type material as
N
n
N
i
A
2
(1.22(e))
p N
A
(1.22(f))
From the above results we can conclude that the density of majority carrier approximates
the impurity atom density at usual ambient temperature, and the density of minority carriers
is reduced below the intrinsic level. This means that the increased electron density in n type
material raises the probability that an electron will meet and recombine with a hole, and so
the hole density is decreased to maintain n
2
constant.
1.10 PracticaI Semiconducting MateriaIs
We have mentioned that all semiconductors have crystalline structure. The most commonly
used semiconductor materials for practical applications in Electronics are: Germanium (Ge),
Silicon (Si) and Gallium arsenide (Ga As). The most frequently used semiconductors are Ge
and Si because the energy required to break the covalent bonds and release an free electron
from the valence bonds in these materials is lesser than that required or Ga As. The energy
required for releasing an electron from the valence band is 0.66 eV for G, 1.08 eV for Si and
1.58 eV for Ga As respectively.
Ge is an earth element and can be purified relatively well and also crystallised well. Ge
is obtained from the ash of the certain coals or from the flue dust of the zinc smeltors. Ge so
recovered is in the form of germanium dioxide powder which is then reduced to pure Ge. Due
to its narrow energy gap germanium diodes are used as infra-red detectors in fibre optic
communication system.
Si is found in most of the common rocks. Sand is silicon dioxide which is then reduced to
100% pure silicon. Silicon dioxide is a natural insulator and used in the fabrication of
semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. Due to its large gap energy Si is preferred to
Ge, because this helps to produce improved device properties at high temperatures. Si is a
better thermal conductor and usually required to remove unavoidable heat developed in the
device.
Gallium arsenide has higher electron mobility
n
which leads to faster switching
capabilities. Due to its larger energy gap, it has high temperature operating capabilities.
1.10(a) Semiconductor Devices
A semiconductor device can be defined as a unit which consists, partly or wholly, of
semiconducting materials and which can perform useful functions in electronic circuitry and
solid state research. Examples of semiconductor devices are semiconductor diodes (P-N junction),
transistors, integrated circuits (ICs) etc.
Table 1.3 gives the outlines of the active semiconductor devices currently in use.
Table 1.3. Semiconductor devices
(i) P-N junction diodes
P K
Rectifiers, Detectors
(ii) Zener diode
P K
Voltage, Regulation
(iii) Tunnel diodes
P K
Oscillators, Amplifiers
(iv) Varactor diodes
P K
Amplifiers, Oscillator tuning
(v) Schottkey diode
P K
Switching circuits
(vi) PNPN diode Switching (high voltage)
(vii) Transistors (BJT)
B B
E E
D C
NPN PNP
Amplifiers, Oscillators,
Mixers, Modulators
(viii) Transistor (FET)
G
S
D
N-Channel JFET
G
S
D
P-Channel JFET
Amplifiers, Oscillator
(ix) Transistor (UJT)
B
B
1
B
2
Oscillators, Power control
(x) Silicon Controlled
P K
G
Controlled rectifier, motor
Rectifiers (SCR) speed control
Almost all semiconductor devices are comprised of a single crystal semiconductor
incorporating two or more semiconducting regions of different impurity density. The difference
in the electric fields and carrier densities associated with differently doped regions, called
junctions, permit a wide range of essentially nonlinear conductivity effects in devices
incorporating two, three or more distinct regions. Most semi-conductor devices can be understood
through the simplest of such junction, called the P-N junction, which is a system of two
semiconductors in physical contact, one with excess of electrons (n-type) and other with excess
of holes (p-type).
1.11 2 Junction
When a P-type semiconductor is brought into contact with N-type semiconductor as the process
of crystallisation is taking place, the resulting combination is called a P-N junction. This junction
has important properties and is, in effect, the basis of modern semiconductor theory and practice.
Most semiconductor devices contain one or more P-N junction. The most important characteristic
of a P-N junction is its ability to conduct current in one direction only. In the reverse direction
it offers very high resistance.
Formation of a P-N Junction: Fig. 1.20 shows three types of such junctions. In Fig. 1.20
(a), P and N regions have been grown into the germanium block by mixing acceptor and donor
impurities respectively, into the single crystal during its formation. This is known as a grown
junction. It is worthwhile to mention that the grown type of P-N junction is not a sandwich
made by attaching a P block to an N block, but actually consists of P and N layers in a single
piece of germanium.
Pallet of
acceptor impurity
P-region
Point
contact
wire
P N N
P
N
P
(a)
Grown P-N
Junction
(b)
Diffused P-N
Junction
(c)
Point contact P-N
Junction
i|g. 1.20 lypcs of 2 junction.
The diffused junction in Fig. 1.20 (b) is made by placing a pellet of acceptor impurity,
such as indium, on one face of a wafer of N-type germanium and then heating the combination
to melt the impurity. Under proper conditions of temperature and time, a portion of the impurity
metal will diffuse a short distance into the wafer, thereby creating a region of P-type germanium
in intimate association with N-type bulk. This is also called an alloyed junction or fusion-alloy
junction from the fact that a small amount of pellet material alloys with the germanium.
Fig. 1.20 (c) shows a point contact type. Here, a fine, pointed wire (catwhisker) makes
pressure contact with the face of an N-type germanium wafer. After assembly, the device is
electroformed by passing a high-current surge momentarily across the junction of Wafer and
Whisker. The heat generated during the short interval drives a few electrons from the atoms
in the region of the point contact, leaving holes and thus converting into p-type a small volume
of germanium immediately under and around the point.
Silicon P-N junction is produced in a similar manner. In most instances, the Silicon has
been processed in such a way as to make it P-type. To create the junction, an n-type material
is either inserted at the proper point in the crystal process or (in the diffused, junction process)
an n-type material is later inserted into the body of P-type wafer. Like germanium diodes,
silicon diodes also are produced both in junction and point contact types.
P-N Junction with no external voltage. Fig. 1.21 shows a P-N junction just immediately
after it is formed. There is no external voltage connected to the P-N junction. Since N-type
material has a high concentration of free electrons while P-type material has a high
concentration of holes, the following processes are initiated:
Holes
P-type
Negative acceptor
ions
N-type Free
electrons
Positive
donor ions
i|g. 1.21 ^ 2 junction.
(i) At the junction, holes from the P region diffuse into the N region and free electrons
from the N region diffuse into the P region. This process is called diffusion. Holes
combine with the free electrons in the N-region whereas electrons combine with the
holes in the P-region.
(ii) The diffusion of holes from P region to N region and electrons from N region to P
region across the junction takes place because they move haphazardly due to thermal
energy and also because there is a difference in their concentrations in the two regions.
The P region has more holes whereas N region has more free electrons.
(iii) As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, positive donor
ions are uncovered, i.e., they are robbed off free electrons. Hence a positive charge is
built on the N-side of the junction. At the same time, the free electrons cross the
junction and uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore, a
net negative charge is established on P-side of the junction. When a sufficient number
of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered, further diffusion is stopped. It is because
now, a barrier or depletion region (Fig. 1.22(a)) is set up against further movement
of charge carriers. This is called potential barrier or junction barrier. The potential
barrier is of the order of 0.1 to 0.3 volt. Fig. 1.22 shows the electrostatic potential
difference across the P-N junction. How this potential barrier is developed? When a
sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered, further diffusion is
prevented. It is because now positive charge on N-side repels holes to across from P
type to N type and negative charge on P-side repels free electrons to enter from N
type to P type. Because of this a difference in potential exists between the two sections,
which inhibits further electron-hole combinations at the junction, and the Fermi
level of the two sides is in the same level as shown in Fig. 1.22 (c).
(iv) The region across the P-N junction in which the potential changes from positive to
negative is called the depletion region (Fig. 1.22(a)). The width of the region is of the
order of 6 10
8
m. Since this region has immobile (fixed) ions which are electrically
charged, it is also called as the space-charge region. Outside this region on each side
of the junction, the material is still neutral.
(v) The potential barrier for a silicon P-N junction is about 0.7 V, whereas for a germanium
P-N junction it is approximately 0.2 V.
P N
+
Immobile ions
(a)
Depeletion
region
V = 0.2V
0
Potential
barrier
(b)
C.B
C.B
P
N
V.B
V.B
E
FP
E
FN
(c)
i|g. 1.22 lotcntial Larricr across thc 2 junction. (Lxtcrnal zcro Lias)
The potential barrier stops the diffusion of majority carriers across the junction. However,
the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P region and few holes
in the N region) to drift across the junction. The minority carriers are constantly generated
due to thermal energy. But electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to
the P-N junction.
Width of Depletion Layer and Height of Potential Barrier: Let x
1
and x
2
are the width of
depletion layer in P and N sides of a P-N diode junction, then total width of depletion layer
x = x
1
+ x
2
Similarly if V
1
and V
2
are the potential barriers in P and N sides of P-N junction, then
the net junction potential barrier
V
0
= V
1
+ V
2
The Poissons equation in one dimension is
d V
dx
2
2
=
(i)
where is the permittivity of medium. The charge density in P-side of depletion layer is given
by
= eN
a
(ii)
where N
a
represent the density of acceptor ions.
Equation (i) for P-side of depletion layer is given by
d V
dx
N
a
2
2
=
(iii)
on integration, one obtains
dV
dx
eN
a
=
x + C
1
(iv)
where C
1
is constant of integration. Using boundary condition, i.e., at x = x
1
,
dV
dx
= 0
(since there is no variation of potential in region exclusing depletion layer). Equation (iv) gives
C
1
=
eN
a
x
1
dV
dx
eN
x
eN
x
eN
a a a
= + +

1
(x + x
1
) (v)
on integration, one obtains
V =
eN x
x x
a
2
1
2
+
F
H
G
I
K
J + C
2
,
where C
2
is another constant of integration. Now at x = 0, V = 0 (at junction)
c
2
= 0
Hence V =
eN x
x x
a
2
1
2
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
At x = x
1
, V = V
1
V
1
=
eN x
x
eN x
a a

1
2
1
2 1
2
2 2
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
| V
1
| =
eN
a
2
x
1
2
(vi)
If N
d
is density of donor ions in N-side of depletion layer, then Poissons equation for
this becomes
d V
dx
eN
d
2
2
= =

( = eN
d
) (vii)
Proceeding as above and applying boundary conditions that at x = 0, V = 0 and at x = x
2
,
dV
dx
= 0, V = V
2
, one obtains
V
2
=
eN x
d 2
2
2
(viii)
The height of the potential barrier across the junction is obtained as
V
0
= | V
1
| + | V
2
| = e
N x N x
a d 1
2
2
2
2
+
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
(ix)
Since the crystal as a whole is electrically neutral, the number of both sides of charge
carriers must be equal, i.e.
N
a
x
1
A = N
d
x
2
A
where A is the area of crystal
x
x
N
N
d
a
1
2
= (x)
or x
2
=
N
N
a
d
x
1
Substituting the value of x
2
in (ix), one obtains
V
0
=
N
x
N
N
a a
d
2
1
1
2
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
This gives
x
1
=
2
1
2
0
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
V
N N N
V
e
N N
N N
a d
d a
a d
{ ( / )}
( / )
( ) +
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
and x
2
=
2
1
2
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
V
N N N
V
e
N N
N N
d d a
a d
a d
{ ( / )}
( / )
( ) +
L
N
M
O
Q
P
=
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P
x = x
1
+ x
2
=
2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
V
e
N N
N N
N N
N N
d a
a d
a d
a d
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
R
S
T
U
V
W
+
+
R
S
T
U
V
W
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
/ /
or x =
2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
V
e
N
N
N
N
d
a
a
d
F
H
G
I
K
J
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
(xi)
Effect of Temperature on Barrier Voltage. The barrier voltage depends on doping density
and temperature. For a given junction the doping density remains constant; therefore barrier
voltage depends on temperature. With the rise in temperature, more minority charge carriers
are produced, leading to their increased drift across the junction. Consequently the equilibrium
occurs at a slightly lower barrier potential, obviously, the barrier potential decreases with rise
of temperature. It is found that for both germanium and silicon semiconductors
V
0
2t mV
Here tC denote the change in temperature, i.e. barrier potential decreases by about
2 mV per degree C.
1.12 Forward and Reverse Biasing
We have seen that the natural tendency of the majority carriers (free electrons in the N-
section and holes in the P-section) was to combine at the junction. This is how the depletion
region and potential barrier were formed. Actually, the combination of electrons and holes at
the junction allows electrons to move in the same direction in both the P and N sections. In the
N-section, free electrons move toward the junction; in the P section, for the holes to move
toward the junction, valence electrons move away from the junction. Therefore, electron flow
in both the sections is in the same direction. This, of course, would be the basis of current flow.
With the P-N junction alone, the action stops because there is no external circuit and
because of the potential barrier that builds up. So, for current to flow, a battery can be connected
to the diode to overcome the potential barrier. And the polarity of the battery should be such
that the majority carriers in both sections are driven toward the junction. When the battery is
connected in this way, it provides forward bias, causing forward or high current to flow, because
it allows the majority carriers to provide the current flow.
To apply forward bias, positive terminal of the battery is connected to P type and negative
terminal to N type as shown in Fig. 1.23. The applied forward potential establishes an electric
field which acts against the potential barrier field. Obviously, the resultant field is weakened
and the barrier height is reduced at the P-N junction, Fig. 1.23 (b) and (c). Since potential
barrier height is very small (~ 0.2 V) and hence a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely
eliminate the barrier. Obviously, at some forward voltage the potential barrier at the P-N
junction can be eliminated altogether. Then the junction resistance will become almost zero,
and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Thus a large current is generated
in the circuit even for the small potential difference applied. Such a circuit is called forward
bias circuit and the current is called forward current. The salient features of the forward bias
circuit are summarized below:
(i) At some forward voltage, the potential barrier is eliminated altogether.
(ii) The P-N junction offers low forward resistance (r
f
) to current flow.
(iii) The magnitude of current in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance
path depends upon the applied forward voltage.
The mechanism of current flow in a forward biased P-N junction is as follows:
(i) The free electrons from the negative battery terminal continue to arrive into the N-
region while the free electrons in the N-region move towards the P-N junction.
+
Holes Electrons
P
N
Depletion
region
Potential barrier no external field
External
field
C.B
C.B
P
N
V.B
V.B
E
FP
E
FN
(a)
(b)
(c)
Potential barrier under
i|g. 1.23 2 junction unucr forwaru Lias.
(ii) The electrons travel through the N-region as free electrons. Obviously, current in N
region of the P-N junction is by free electrons.
(iii) When these free electrons reach the P-N junction, they combine with holes and become
valence electrons. Since a hole is in the covalent bond and hence when a free electron
combines with a hole, it becomes a valence electron.
(iv) Current in the P region is by holes. The electrons travel through P-region as valence
electrons.
(v) These valence electrons after leaving the crystal, flow into the positive terminal of
the battery.
The mechanism of current flow in a forward biased P-N junction is illustrated in Fig. 1.24.
Depletion region
(Reduced)
F
r
e
e
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
f
l
o
w
+
P
N
i|g. 1.24 Currcnt flow unucr forwaru Lias.
Reverse Biasing: We have seen that for forward current flow, the battery must be
connected to drive the majority carriers towards the junction, where they combine to allow
electrons to enter and leave the P-N junction. If the battery connections are reversed, the
potential at the N side will draw the free electrons away from the junction, and the negative
potential at the P side will attract the holes away from the junction. With this battery connection,
then, the majority carriers cannot combine at the junction, and majority current cannot flow.
For this reason, when a voltage is applied in this way, it is called reverse bias.
However, reverse bias can cause a reverse current to flow, because minority carriers are
present in the semiconductor sections. Remember, that although the P section was doped to
have excess holes, yet some electrons were freed because of thermal agitation. Also, although
the N section was doped to have excess free electrons, some electrons were freed to produce
holes in the N section. The free electrons in the P section, and the holes in the N section are the
minority carriers. Now, with reverse bias, one can see that the battery potentials repel the
minority carriers toward the junction. As a result, these minority carriers cross the P-N junction
in exactly the same way that the majority carriers did with forward bias. However, since there
are much fewer minority carriers than there are majority carriers, this minority current, or
reverse current as it is usually called, is much less of the order of A, with the same voltage
than majority or forward, current would be. Reverse bias P-N junction is shown in Fig. 1.25.
The salient features of reverse biased P-N junction are following:
+
Depletion
region
external field
no external field
C.B
C.B
P
N
V.B
V.B
E
FP
E
FN
(a)
(b)
(c)
P
N
i|g. 1.25 2 junction showing rcvcrsc Lias.
(i) The height of the potential barrier is increased and width of Depletion region also
increases, Fig. 1.25 (b) and (c).
(ii) The reverse bias P-N junction offers very high resistance to current flow. This
resistance is called reverse resistance (R
r
).
(iii) Due to the establishment of high resistance path, very small current flows in the
circuit. This current is usually called as the Reverse Bias or leakage current.
1.13 VoIt-Ampere Characteristics of 2 Junction
The P-N junction can be represented by a symbol of arrow and dash as shown in Fig. 1.26. The
arrow head represents the P-section of the crystal and shows the direction of flow of holes or
conventional current. Since the P-N junction diodes resistance changes according to the
direction of current flow hence it is called a nonlinear device. Basically, its nonlinearity is
dependent on the polarity of the applied voltage. For current in the forward direction, it has a
resistance of only a few hundred ohms. Whereas in the reverse direction, its resistance is often
close to 100,000 ohms.
P N
i|g. 1.26 SymLol of thc 2 junction uiouc.
Fig. 1.27 shows the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of a P-N
junction diode.
V
+
+
mA
+
i|g. 1.27 Circuit arrangcmcnt for uctcrmining 81 charactcristics of a 2 junction. (lorwaru Lias)
A graph between the potential difference across the P-N junction and the current through
the junction is called the V-I characteristic of the P-N junction diode and is shown in Fig. 1.28.
I(mA)
(+)
Forward
bias
()
Reverse
bias
( ) I
0
L
i
n
e
a
r
r
e
g
i
o
n
I
V
Reverse bias
current
i|g. 1.28 81 Charactcristic of a 2 junction uiouc.
In the forward direction, though considerably more current flows and the current for
the most part, increases linearly as the bias voltage is increased. In the forward direction,
then, the P-N junction can be considered a linear device over a large portion of its operating
curve. The small portion of the curve that is just above zero bias is nonlinear. This results
because both majority and minority current actually comprise the overall current. Since the
minority carriers are low energy carriers, majority current starts first, and then as the voltage
is raised, minority current joins in, causing a nonlinear rise in current. But as the voltage is
increased further, minority current becomes saturated since there are only few minority carriers.
The curve then follows the majority current increase which is linear.
When reverse bias is applied, a very small reverse current flows. This reverse current
increases only negligibly and attains nearly a saturation value I
0
(Fig. 1.28) which is of the
order of A. If the bias voltage is increased a lot (20 to 25 volts), then at this stage current
suddenly rises in the reverse direction due to the breakdown of the crystal, i.e., covalent bonds
of the crystal are broken and charge carriers are released in very large number. This breakdown
reverse bias is called the zener voltage. Diodes are also designed to produce a useful wide range
of zener breakdown region, and are used in special voltage-regulating circuits. We will discuss
zener diode later on (Art 1.16).
The cut-in voltage: There exist a cut-in voltage (V
r
) for every semiconductor diode,
below which the current is very small and beyond which the current rises very rapidly. This
voltage is also called as offset break point, or threshold voltage. The cut-in voltage for Ge
and Si diodes are 0.2 V and 0.6 V respectively.
The P-N junctions have a limit of allowable maximum reverse-bias voltage, beyond which
a rapid increase in current occurs. This limiting voltage is known as breakdown voltage and
mechanisms responsible for this are: (i) Zener breakdown and (ii) Avalanche breakdown
(Art. 1.16).
1.14 Static and Dynamic Resistance of a Diode
One of the most important properties of the diodes is its resistance under the forward and
reverse biasing. An ideal diode must offer zero resistance under forward bias and large resistance
under reverse bias. Truly speaking, no diode can act as an ideal diode, i.e., an actual diode does
not behave as a perfect conductor when forward biased and as a perfect insulator when reverse
biased. We consider the two resistances of the diode
(i) d.c. or static resistance
(ii) a.c. or dynamic resistance
(i) d.c. or static resistance. When P-N junction diode is forward biased, it offers a definite
resistance in the circuit. This resistance is called as the dc or static resistance (R
F
) of the diode.
dc resistance of diode is simply the ratio of the dc voltage across the diode to the dc current
flowing through it at a particular instant. (see Fig. 1.28)
r
dc
= V/I
(ii) a.c. or dynamic resistance: The ac or dynamic resistance of a diode, at a particular dc
voltage, is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of the characteristic at that point, i.e.,
r
f
=
change in voltage
resulting change in current
=
V
I
It is not a constant quantity but depends on operating voltage. For forward bias greater
than the internal junction voltage, the dynamic resistance varies inversely with the current,
but for reverse bias its value is much larger.
Under forward bias for large applied voltage [eqn. (21) Appx. D], the diode current at
junction temperature T is given as
I = I
0
exp (eV/kT)
where = 1 for Ge and 2 for Si. Differentiating the above w.r.t. V, one obtains
dI
dV
I
e
kT
=
F
H
G
I
K
J 0
e
eV/kT
=
e
kT
F
H
G
I
K
J
r
dc
=
dV
dI
kT
Ie
k
e
T
I
= =
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
138 10
16 10
23
19
.
.
F
H
G
I
K
J
T
I
or r
dc
= 8.626 10
5
(T/I) = r
F
.
1.15 Space Charge (or DepIetion Region) Capacitance
When no external voltage is applied, the width (d) of the depletion region of a P-N junction
diode comes out to be about 5 10
7
m and is mostly in the N-type material. The movement of
majority carriers i.e. holes and electrons across the junction causes opposite charges immobile
ions (Fig. 1.22(a)) to be stored at this distance d apart. This is effectively a parallel plate
capacitor whose capacitance C
T
(often called space-charge capacitance) is a approximately
20 pF with no external bias.
As forward bias is applied the width d of depletion region decreases and the capacitance
(C
T
) increases. Under reverse-bias conditions, width d of the depletion region increases and
C
T
decreases. This property of voltage variable capacitance appears in varactors (Art. 1.22),
varicaps or voltacaps.
Space Charge or Transition Capacitance. The thickness (width) of depletion layer changes
with voltage applied across the junction. Reverse biasing of a P-N junction, causes majority
carriers to move away from the junction, therefore uncovering more immobile charges. This
increases the thickness of depletion layer. Similarly the forward biasing of a P-N junction
decreases the amount of uncovered charges and hence the thickness of depletion layer. This
change in the uncovered charge with the applied voltage may be considered as a capacitive
effect. It gives rise to transition capacitance C
T
, given by
C
T
=
dQ
dV
A
x
=
Here x is thickness or width of depletion layer and A is junction cross-sectional area.

One can show that the width x of depletion layer is given by
x =
2
0
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
V
e N N
N
N
N
N
n d
d
n
n
d
( ) +
L
N
M
O
Q
P
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
C
T
=
A
V
e N N
N
N
N
N
n d
d
n
n
d
2
0
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
( ) +
L
N
M
O
Q
P
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
M
O
Q
P
P
or C
T

V
0
1/2
Obviously, the transition capacitance is not constant but depends on applied voltage
and hence it is also known as voltage-variance capacitance.
Diffusion or Storage Capacitance C
D
. When forward biased the P-N junction develops a
dominating diffusion capacitance C
D
. This arises due to injected charge stored near the junction
outside the transition region and is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied
voltage, i.e.,
C
D
=
dQ
dV
C
D
is found to be proportional current (I) and is much larger than the C
T
. C
D
has larger
value in forward direction and smaller value in reverse direction. The value of C
D
in forward
direction varies from 500 pF to 200 pF. Obviously, C
D

predominates under forward bias and
arises due to minority carriers, while C
T
predominates under reverse bias and arises due to
majority carriers.
1.16 Effect of Temperature on 2 Junction Diodes
We know that temperature rise boosts the generation of electron hole pairs in semiconductors
and increase their conductivity. From a consideration of the energies of the carriers crossing
the depletion region in a P-N junction diode, an involved calculation yileds the following
relation between the diode current, voltage and temperature: (see Appendix D)
I = I
0
exp [V/V
T
1] (1.23)
Here
I the diode current (forward if positive, reverse if negative)
I
0
the diode reverse current, also called the reverse saturation current, at tempe-
rature T.
V the diode voltage, positive for forward bias, negative for reverse bias; in volts.
1 for germanium and 2 for silicon.
V
T
= T/11600, a quantity in volts, dependent upon temeprature and is known as volt
temperature equivalent.
T Temperature of the diode junction (K)
On increasing the temperature the forward characteristic (Fig. 1.28) shifts to left, showing
increase in current for same voltage and it shifts to right when temperature is decreased
showing biased current.
1.17 Zener Diode
Under reverse bias condition a p-n junction diode has a the breakdown region (Fig. 1.29),
where large changes in diode current produce only small changes in diode voltage. So a P-N
diode designed to operate in the breakdown region (V
z
) may be employed as a constant voltage
device. The diodes used in such a manner are called avalanche breakdown or zener diodes.
They are used as a voltage regulator in the manner shown in Fig. 1.29 (c). The voltage
source V and the resistance R are so selected that the diode operates in the breakdown region.
The diode voltage in this region which is also the voltage across the load R
L
is called zener
voltage (V
z
) and the diode current is called zener current (I
z
). As the load current (I
L
) or the
supply voltage changes, the diode accommodates itself to these changes and maintains nearly
constant load voltage (V
z
).
The diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diode current falls to I
zk
(Fig. 1.29 (b)) called knee current and at its average or test current I
zT
the voltage is maintained
nearly V
z
. Depending upon the nature of the semiconductor and its doping, the breakdown
voltage (V
z
) in diode ranges from about 3 volt to several hundred volts. The breakdown
phenomenon is reversible and harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.
P N
(a)
R
+
V
V
Z
R
L
I
L I
Z
(c)
V
z
(Breakdown or
Zener voltage)
0
+ V
I
zk
I
zT
( ) I
() V
(b)
i|g. 1.29 (=) SymLol of zcncr uiouc, (>) Rcvcrsc Lias charactcristic,
(?) 2cncr uiouc as a voltagc rcgulator.
The mechanism of diode breakdown on applying voltage (bias) is explained below:
(i) Avalanche Breakdown. In this mechanism, the minority charge carriers (electrons in
P type and holes in N type) acquire sufficient energy from the applied reverse voltage to produce
new charge carriers by removing valence electrons from the covalent bonds. The new charge
carriers in turn produce additional charge carriers and the process multiplies to give large
reverse currents. The diode is then said to be in the region of avalanche breakdown, usually, a
junction with a broad depletion layer (therefore a low field intensity) breaks down by this
mechanism. With the increase in temperature, the vibrations of the atoms in the crystal increase
which increases the possibility of collisions of the carriers with the lattice atoms and reduces
the possibility for the carriers to gain sufficient energy to start avalanche process. Thus at
high voltages, the avalanche process is prominent and does take place to cause diode breakdown.
The operating voltages in such diodes range from several volts to a few hundred volts.
(ii) Zener Breakdown. In this mechanism, the breakdown is initiated through a direct
rupture of covalent bonds rather than avalanche process due to the existence of strong electric
field. A junction having a narrow depletion layer (and hence high field intensity) will break
down by this mechanism. An increase in temperature increases the energy of the valence
electrons and makes it easier for these electrons to escape from these covalent bonds. Smaller
applied voltage is, therefore, required to pull these electrons from the crystal lattice. The zener
effect plays an important role only in diodes with breakdown voltage below about 6 volts. The
zener diode is always used in reverse biased condition (Fig. 1.29 (b)).
1.18 TunneI Diode
It is a device just like a P-N junction diode, which offers negative resistance under certain bias
conditions. The negative resistance of the diode is due to tunneling and it is called a tunnel
diode or Esaki diode. It is made very much like an ordinary P-N junction diode, except that
both the P and N regions are heavily doped (1 : 10
4
). It is used as an active device in electronic
circuits in the frequency range of few megahertz. The semiconductors with very high impurity
concentration are referred to as degenerate semiconductors. Typical tunnel diode characteristic
is shown in Fig. 1.30 (a).
As a result of high impurity levels, the contact potential is high, the depletion region is
very narrow and the Fermi levels lie in the conduction band for N-side and in the valence band
of the P side (Fig. 1.30 (b)). Under these circumstances, a very abrupt transition from P to N
type material is achieved within the crystal. Since depletion region is very narrow; this gives
rise to extremely large electric fields.
Tunnel Effect. When a P-N semiconductor is heavily doped, (it has many majority carriers
and ions), and under forward bias the hole and valence electron random drift is heavy. As a
result, it is not uncommon for a large number of electrons to fill holes and release energy to
only a few other valence electrons. These few valence electrons, then, have their energy levels
raised considerably so that they can cross from the N to the P section and current OA
(Fig. 1.30 (a)), increases, even with little forward applied voltage. This action which seems to
allow a valence electron to cross a potential barrier without enough applied external energy is
called the tunnel effect because it seems as though the valence electron tunnels through the
forbidden band as shown in Fig. 1.30 (c). On further increasing voltage the barrier height
decreases (Fig. 1.30 (d)) and Fermi level E
FN
is much raised so current decreases as shown by
AB (Fig. 1.30 (a)). This region is called negative resistance region. On further increasing voltage
the conduction band of N type is in level with C.B of P type and free electrons of N type easily
cross to P type thereby current BC again increases like ordinary diode.
The negative resistance region AB (Fig. 1.30) allows the diode to be used as an oscillator.
It can also be used as an electronic switch since it has a good response in negative resistance
region. By its nature, the tunnel diode has a rather high reverse current, on reverse biasing it
but operation under this condition is not generally used.
Negative
resistance
region
C
A
I
p
I
v
Primary
tunnel
current
Diode
symbol
B
0 (+)
Forward bias
Reverse
bias
Reverse
current
()
C.B
C.B
C.B
C.B
C.B
V.B
V.B
V.B
N
N
N
N
C.B
C.B
C.B
V.B
V.B
V.B
V.B
P
P
P
P
E
FP
E
FP
E
FP
E
FP
E
FN
E
FN
E
FN
E
FN
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Depletion
region
(a)
(b)
i|g. 1.30 lunncl uiouccharactcristic anu cncrgy lcvcls.
The equivalent circuit of tunnel diode is as shown in Fig. 1.31. The series resistance R
S
is the ohmic resistance. The series inductance L
S
depends upon the lead length and geometry
of the diode package. The junction capacitance C depends upon the bias and is usually measured
at the valley point. The negative resistance [ R
n
] has a minimum at the point of inflection
between peak current I
p
and valley current I
v
. Typical values for these parameters for a tunnel
diode having peak current value I
p
= 10 mA are R
n
= () 30, R
S
= 1, L
S
= 5 nH and C = 20 pF.
It is a voltage controllable device (like tetrode). Since between I
p
and I
v
we have three
values of voltage for a given current and on account of its multi valued feature it is used in
pulse and digital circuitry.
R
S
L
S
C ()R
n
i|g. 1.31 Lguivalcnt circuit of a tunncl uiouc.
Our principal interest in the tunnel diode is its application as a very high speed switch.
Since tunneling takes place at the speed of light, the transient response is limited only by total
shunt capacitance (junction plus stray wiring capacitance) and peak driving current. Switching
times of the order of a nanosecond are reasonable and times as low as 50 p. secs have been
obtained.
The advantages of a tunnel diode are (i) low cost, (ii) low noise, (iii) high speed,
(iv) environmental immunity and (v) low power.
The disadvantages of the diode are its low output voltage swing and the fact that it is a
two terminal device unlike ordinary diode in which current flows only when forward biased.
Because of this latter feature, there is no isolation between the input and output and it leads to
serious circuit design problems.
However we may have a special type of tunnel diode we whose peak value current (I
p
) is
of the order of valley current (I
v
). Such a diode is called Backward Diode. We may use it under
reverse biased condition as ordinary diode with the advantage that now the diode current is
available just beyond zero volt whereas in ordinary diode, current is not available till applied
voltage is more than (break over voltage) 0.7 volt in case of silicon and so in case a back diode
it is conveniently used as rectifier for small (mV) input signals. V-I characteristic of this diode
is shown in Fig. (1.32).
()V
Reverse bias
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(+)V
Forward bias
I
i|g. 1.32 81 charactcristic of Lackwaru uiouc.
Power diode. This is a specially designed P-N junction diode used in the application of
high power and at high temperature. This is constructed to have higher forward current, as
well as higher peak inverse voltage. The typical value of PIV is about somewhere between
50 V and 1000 V, with a maximum output of 30 A. The forward resistance of this diode is also
very low (~ 1). In several cases use of heat sinks are also provided along with a power diode
to draw away the heat due to heavy current.
1.19 Photodiode
A photo-diode is a P-N junction diode packed into a transparent plastic packet working under
reverse biased condition.
Principle. A very small current flows through a P-N junction diode when it is reverse
biased. It is because, minority charge carrier take part in conduction. The number of minority
carrier depend upon the working temperature. However when photons (light) of suitable
frequency is incident on the junction, the number of charge carrier increases. But this happens
only when light radiations strike the junction which is not the case in ordinary diode.
Working. In a photo diode visible light is focussed on the junction through a lens
(Fig. 1.33). Light on being incident at junction produces free electrons and holes. Thus number
of charge carriers increases and current increases. Generally a photodiode is optimized for its
sensitivity to light. As the light intensity increases more and more charge carriers are generated
and reverse bias current increases (Fig. 1.34).
Light
P N
+
Transparent
packet
(a)
Rr
+
(b)
i|g. 1.33 vorking of a photo-uiouc.
In this respect a photodiode acts as a photo detector, a device which converts incoming
light signal into electrical signal.
Volt-Ampere characteristic. Under normal reverse bias the current in a P-N junction
diode is given by
I = I
0
(1 e
V/V
T
)
I
0
since applied voltage V is negative. So the
second term goes to zero.
On illuminating the diode under reverse
biased conditions the number of hole-electrons
pairs increases. Which is proportional to the
intensity of incident light (number of photons).
Hence the total current flowing through the
diode,
I = I
o
+ I
S
where I
S
is the short circuit current generated
on account of photo-electric effect. In general
the volt-ampere characteristic is given by
I = I
S
+ I
0
(1 e
V/V
T
) (1.24)
This characteristic is drawn in Fig. 1.34.
We may note that photo current is a
function of the distance from the junction at
which the light falls (as shown in Fig. 1.34 (a)).
As the diffusion lengths of minority charge carriers in the P and the N regions are different
and therefore curve is not symmetrical on both sides.
P
h
o
t
o
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
A
)
m
P-region
Dark current
0
Distance from junction (mm)
i|g. 1.34 (=) variation of photo currcnt with uistancc from thc junction at which light falls.
Small signal model. Under ideal conditions a photo-diode under reverse biased is shown
in Fig. 1.35 (a). In Fig. 1.35 (b) parasitic elements C, R and r are taken into consideration,
where represents reverse biased resistance, C represents the transition capacitance and r
represents the bulk ohmic resistance. The barrier capacitance C is of the order of 10 pF, R 50
M and r = 100 . In Fig. 1.34 the dark current I
0
corresponds to the reverse current due to
thermally generated electron-hole pairs. From equation (1.24) we see that if diode terminals
Dark current
335 Foot candle
2000
Foot candle
3
0
0
0
F
o
o
t
c
a
n
d
le I
mA
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
l
i
g
h
t
()V
I
0
(+)V
i|g. 1.34 81 charactcristic of photo-uiouc.
are open circuited then the total current I has be zero. Under such conditions, a voltage known
as photovoltaic potential V
0C
will appear across diode. It is given by
V
0C
= V
T
I
n
1
0
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
I
I
S
I
0
V
1
() (+)
I
2 1 2
R
r
C
DI
S
I
S
(a) (b)
i|g. 1.35 lhoto-uiouc unucr (=) Rcvcrsc Liascu conuition, (>) larasitic clcmcnts.
Thus V
0C
increases logarithmically with I
S
or with intensity of incident light. Now if a
load (R
L
) is connected across the diode, the voltage drop across it will correspond to incident
light intensity. The output voltage generated is of the order of few hundred millivolts across
R
L
of few kilo-ohms. Large area photovoltaic P-N junction banks have been used for conversion
of solar energy into electrical energy which is the basis of solar cells.
Applications. Some of the important applications of photodiodes are
(i) Photo detection (both visible and invisible)
(ii) Demodulation
(iii) Logic circuits
(iv) Switching
(v) Optical communication system.
1.20 Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
LED is a solid state (P-N junction diode) light source which has replaced incandescent lamps
in many day to day applications.
LED is just not an ordinary P-N junction diode where silicon is used. Here we used
compounds having elements like gallium, arsenic and phosphorus which are semi-transparent
unlike silicon which is opaque. (Gallium-arsenide gives infrared radiations and gallium-
arsenide-phosphide gives visible radiations)
Principle. Whenever a P-N junction is forward biased, free electrons and holes recombine
at the junction. Here we may understand the situation by assuming that electrons fall into a
hole. While jumping the electron releases (radiates) energy since electron jumps from a higher
energy level (N-type) to a hole (P-type) in lower energy level. The energy radiated is in the
form of heat and light (Fig. 1.36 (a)) but none of the light is visible since silicon is opaque and
so no light can come out. Instead of silicon if we use a semitransparent material (like gallium,
Arsenic compounds etc.) then the light emitted due to recombination of free electrons and
holes at the junction will escape to the surroundings and we shall perceive it. The colour
(frequency) of the radiations coming out will depend upon the material used. Mostly we find
red, green or amber colour when the material used is gallium arsenide phosphide. In a few
cases we do get infrared radiations also when the compound used is gallium arsenide.
Radiant energy
A
n
P
N
C
(a) (b)
i|g. 1.36 (=) LLD crosscctional vicw (>) symLols.
Working: An LED is forward biased with a small resistance in series (Fig. 1.37). The
construction of LED is such that they have typical voltage drop of 1.5 to 2.5 V for currents
between 10 and 50 mA. When forward biased.
+
+
(a) (b)
i|g. 1.37 LLD circuit.
The exact voltage drop depends on the colour, tolerance, and other factors depending on
the nature of construction.
Incidentally LEDs have low reverse voltage ratings. A typical value is 3V for TIL 221
(red LED). So if an LED is reversed biased a voltage greater than 3V may destroy it. One way
to protect is to connect another ordinary diode in parallel with the given LED (Fig. 37 (b)).
Applications. LEDs which produce visible radiations are used in various instrument
displays, calculators, digital clocks etc.
Here we have LED arrays. An LED array is a group of LEDs that display numbers,
letters or other symbols. The most common LED array is the seven segment display shown in
Fig. 1.38 (a). The display contains seven LEDs (A to G) arranged in the form of rectangle. Each
LED is called a segment because it forms part of the character being displayed. Fig. 1.38 (b)
shows the schematic arrangement of the seven LEDs constituting a display. Their anodes
have been joined to common terminal (P). So a positive voltage when applied to it drives all
anodes. By grounding one or more cathodes. We can forward bias and of the diodes which in
turn form any digit from 0 to 9. For instance by grounding the cathodes of A, B and C. We
display the number 7 in Fig. 1.38 (a) or by grounding the cathodes of A, B, C, D and G we
display the number 3.
A
G
F B
E C
D
p
A B C D E F G
(a) (b)
Display
i|g. 1.38 LLD array.
A seven segment array can also display capital letters A, E, F, plus lower case letters
b and d which are commonly used in microwave ovens, stereo tuners and microprocessor
trainer kits. A typical display TIL 312 shown in Fig. 1.39 (b) represents the schematic diagram
of the same, showing left and right decimal points also. Fig. 1.39 (a) shows the pin-out of it.
The advantages of an LED are:
(i) Low voltage of operation
(ii) Long life (more than 20 yrs)
(iii) Fast ON-OFF switching (10
9
sec)
The other uses of LED are:
1. For indicating power ON/OFF (Power level indicators)
2. Optical switching applications
3. Solid state video displays
4. Optical communicationEnergy coupling circuits.
1
2
3
6
7
11
10
9
8
14
13
A
G
D
F
E
B
C
(a)
A B C D E F G RDP LPD
3
(b)
i|g. 1.39 ^ typical uisplay llL 312.
1.21 2-2 Diode (The Four Layer Diode)
It is a device which exhibits negative resistance region like tunnel diode and it finds extensive
application in switching circuits.
Construction: It is called the Four layer diode due to its construction as shown in Fig.
(1.40). It consists of four layers of silicon doped alternately with p and n type impurities.
The terminal in the external P region is the anode (A) or p-emitter and the terminal in
the external N region is the cathode (C) (or n-emitter).
P N N P
J
1
J
2
J
3
Anode Cathode
A C
Symbol
(b) (a)
i|g. 1.40 ^ 22 (lour-laycr) uiouc.
V-I characteristic: When an external voltage is applied to make the anode (A) positive
w.r.t. cathode, junction J
1
and J
3
are forward biased but the central junction J
2
is reverse
biased. The externally impressed voltage appears mainly across the junction J
2
since there is
very slight voltage drop across J
1
and J
3
. Due to this external voltage, current flowing through
the device is quite small. As the impressed forward biased is increased, the current increases
very slowly (Fig. 1.41) until a voltage called the firing or breakover voltage V
BO
is reached
where the current increases abruptly and the voltage across the device decreases sharply to a
value V
H
.
V
RA
I
I
H
I
BO
B
Saturation
region
Negative
resistance region
Cutoff region
0 V
H
V
BO
+V
Reverse
Avlanche
breakdown
i|g. 1.41 81 charactcristic of 22 uiouc.
At this breakover point the p-n-p-n diode switches from its OFF state to its ON state
there by current increases and it will operate in the saturation region. The device is then said
latch. If the voltage is now reduced, the switch will remain ON until the current has decreased
to a value I
H
called holding current. The corresponding voltage V
H
is called holding voltage.
Thus the holding current I
H
is the minimum current required to hold the device (switch) in its
ON state. Its value depends on type of device and is of the order of several milli-amperes.
The range of Breakover voltage V
BO
ranges from tens of volts to hundreds of volts. The
current I
BO
is of the order of some hundreds of micro amperes. The resistance of the device in
this region (OFF state) is some megaohms to several hundred megaohms. The holding voltage
V
H
varies from 0.5 V to about 20 V.
The incremental resistance of the device in the (ON state) saturation region hardly
exceeds 10 and decreases with increase in current.
Working: To understand the mechanism of the working of the device it may be imagined
to be made up of two transistors, connected internally and displaced mechanically as shown in
Fig. 1.42.
As shown the two transistors can be viewed as if joined back to back (Fig. 1.42 (b)). One
transistor is p-n-p type and the other is n-p-n type.
The n region of one, i.e., base acts like collector of the other and similarly for p-region.
The junction J
2
is a common collector junction of the two transistors.
E B C
N P
P
J
1
J
2
Anode
N P
N
C B
E
Cathode
J
3
(a)
I
c
1
I
c
2
P P P
I
N
N N
I
+
V
(b)
i|g. 1.42
On applying an external voltage V through a resistor across the device, some current I
flows through the device, collector currents I
C1
and I
C2
for transistors Q
1
and Q
2
are shown. In
the active region the collector current is given by
I
C
= I
E
+ I
CO
(see equation 5.3 )
where I
E
emitter current, I
CO
-reverse saturation current and is the short circuit common
base forward current gain. On applying the above equation individually to each transistor Q
1
and Q
2
respectively. We have
I
C
1
=
1
I + I
CO
1
I
C
2
=
2
I +
I
CO
2
since I
E
1
= I and I
E
2
= I for p-n-p transistor I
CO
1
is negative whereas for n-p-n transistor I
CO
2
is positive. Hence we may write
I I
I
CO CO
CO
2 1
2
= = ( )
From Kirchoffs current law we have
I + I I
C C
1 2
= 0
Making use of the above equations we have
I =
I I
I I CO CO
CO CO 2 1
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2

=

=
( )
This equation suggests that as the sum
1
+
2
approaches unity, the current I increases
without any limit as shown in the saturation region of the device (Fig. 1.42) and we say the
device breaks over. Such an action is not unexpected in view of the regenerative manner in
which the two transistors are interconnected. The collecter current of the transistor Q
1
is
furnished by the base current of Q
2
and vice-versa. When p-n-p-n device is acting in such a
manner that sum of
1
+
2
is less than unity, the device is in the OFF state and current I is
quite small and when
1
+
2
attains a value unity, the device is in the ON state and the
current is very large. The voltage across the device drops to a low value and current is not
unlimited as envisaged by theory but is limited by the external resistance connected in series
with external supply voltage.
In the ON state all the junction are forward biased and so the total voltage across the
device is equal to very nearly to the algebraic sum of these three saturation junction voltage.
The operation of the device depends, as we have seen on the fact that at low currents,
the current gain may be less than one half, a condition necessary if sum of two s is to be less
than unity. This characteristic is not envisaged in germanium. So germanium p-n-p-n devices
are not available and only silicon p-n-p-n devices are available.
These devices find use as (i) Saw-tooth Generator (ii) Pulse Generator (iii) Bistable
Multivibrator.
1.22 The SiIicon ControIIed Rectifier (SCR)
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a four layer NPNP solid state rectifier which has three
electrodes: (i) an anode (A) (ii) a cathode (C) (iii) a gate (G) which serves as a control element
(Fig. 1.43). The SCR differs from the ordinary p-n junction diode, in that it will not pass any
appreciable current, though forward biased until the anode voltage exceeds a value called
forward breakover Voltage (V
BRF
) (Fig. 1.44).
C(Cathode)
G(Gate)
A(Anode)
Symbol
Cathode
Gate
Anode
N
N
P
P
(a) (b)
i|g. 1.43 ^ Silicon-controllcu rcctificr (SCR).
This value of V
BRF
can be controlled by the level of gate current.
VI Characteristics: Fig. 1.44 (a) represents the voltage-current characteristic of SCR
when gate is open. When anode-cathode is reverse biased, there is slight reverse leakage
current called reverse blocking current. It remains nearly constant and quite small till peak
reverse is reached. At this point reverse avalanche region begins and the leakage current
increases very sharply called reverse avalanche current.
0
V
BRF
1
V
BRF
2
V
BRF
0
I I
G G
2 1
>
I I
G G
1 0
>
I
G
0
= 0
I
H
I
High conduction
current
Holding current
Peak reverse
voltage
I
H
0 V
H
V
BRF
Forward
blocking current
Reverse
avalanche current
(a) (b)
i|g. 1.44 81 charactcristics of SCR.
When the SCR is forward biased, there is a small forward leakage current which remains
small until forward breakover voltage (V
BRF
) is reached. This is the forward avalanche region;
at that point current jumps rapidly to the high conduction level like PNPN diode. Here also
the anode to cathode resistance of the SCR becomes very small ( 10 ) which was otherwise
quite high (omega ohms) and the SCR acts like a closed switch. In this high forward conduction
region, the voltage across SCR drops to V
H
which is very much less than V
BRF
. The entire
impressed voltage appears across the load which is in series with the device. It is this external
load which limits the high current flowing through the device.
Thus when the applied voltage in the forward biased condition is less than V
BRF
the
SCR (device) is in the OFF state like PNPN diode and when applied voltage reaches or exceeds
V
BRF
the device is in the ON state i.e. rectifier is turned on and high current flows through it
and the load connected to it. This continues till the current is more than the holding current
I
H
. When the voltage across the device drops to a very low (V
H
) value to sustain the holding
current, the device turns off.
Action of Gate: Gate control of forward breakover voltage (V
BRF
) is evident form the
characteristic (Fig. 1.44 (b)). The maximum forward breakover voltage V
BRF
0
occurs when gate
is open, that is when gate current I
G
= 0. However when gate is forward biased with respect to
cathode some gate current flows say I
G
1
, the forward breakover voltage V
BRF
, is lower than
V
BRF
0
. If the gate current is increased to I
G
2
the forward breakover voltage is further reduced
to V
BRF
2
which is determined by the gate current. Thus as the gate current increases the
forward breakover voltage goes on decreasing and above state the SCR behaves like an ordinary
PN junction diode.
After the SCR has been turned ON by the gate current, it loses control over the anode
(forward) current and reducing gate current has no effect on anode current as shown by
Fig. 1.44 (b). The SCR remains ON until anode forward voltage level is below (V
H
) that required
to maintain the holding current (I
H
).
When the anode source is alternating current the SCR turns off during negative cycle,
when anode cathode is reverse biased and the device acts like simple reverse biased p-n junction.
Since SCRs are controlled by forward state bias, so they are operated below maximum
forward breakover point ( ) V
BRF
0
.
Applications:
The other uses are:
(i) Heater Control
(ii) Light Dimmers
(iii) Battery Charges
(iv) Static Switches
(v) Relay Controls
(vi) Phase Control
(vii) Inverters
1.23 Varactor Diode
An ordinary P-N junction diode under reverse biased condition causes the majority charge
carriers to move away from the junction, thereby uncovering more immobile charges. Hence
the thickness of the space charge layer (Depletion region) at the junction increases with applied
reverse voltage. This increase in uncovered charge with applied voltage, may be considered a
capacitive effect. We may define an incremental capacitance C
T
by
C
T
=
dQ
dV
where dQ is the increase in covered charge caused by an increase dV in reverse voltage. The
quantity C
T
is generally referred to as transition region or space charge or Barrier Capacitance.
This quantity is not constant but depends upon the magnitude of reverse voltage. A
variation of C
T
with applied reverse voltage is shown in Fig. 1.45.
The larger the reverse voltage, the larger is the depletion region width and smaller the
capacitance C
T
. Similarly for increase in voltage in the forward biased condition depletion
region width will decrease and C
T
will increase.
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.8
1.6
2.4
3.2
4.0
25C
Reverse voltage
C
(
p
F
)
T
i|g. 1.45
Diodes which are based on voltage variable capacitance are called varactors. A circuit
model for a varactor diode under reverse bias is shown in Fig. 1.46.
Rr
1
C
T
Rs
2
1 2
(a) Equivalent circuit
(b) Symbol
i|g. 1.46 varactor uiouc.
The resistance R
S
represents the body (ohmic) series resistance of the diode and R
r
is
diode resistance. Typical values of which is 8.5 at 4V and resistance R
r
1 M respectively
and thats why it may be treated as open circuit across C
T
.
Applications:
Such diodes are useful in a number of circuits:
(i) Voltage tuning of an LC resonant circuit (Electronic
tuning circuit in radio, television etc.)
(ii) Self balancing bridge circuits
(iii) Parametric Amplifiers
(iv) Automatic frequency control device
In voltage tuning circuits on changing applied reverse
voltage. The capacitance of the circuit (including Varactor
Diode) will change i.e. increasing voltage shall reduce the
capacitance. Hence the resonant frequency of the L-C Circuit
will increase. This frequency can measured by using a variable
V
f
Reverse bias voltage
i|g. 1.47
oscillator. Thus, there is linear relationship between applied reverse voltage and resonant
frequency upto a certain limit.
1.24 HaII Effect
An effect whereby a conductor carrying an electric current perpendicular to an applied strong
magnetic field develops a voltage gradient which is transverse to both the current and the
magnetic field. It was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879. One can obtain the important information
about the nature of conduction process in semiconductors and metals through analysis of this
effect. Whether a given simple of semiconductor material is n or p-type can be determined by
observing the Hall effect. If the electric current is caused to flow through a sample of
semiconductor material and the magnetic field is applied in a direction perpendicular to the
current, the charge carriers are crowded to one side of the sample, giving rise to an electric
field perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This development of a transverse
electric field is known as Hall effect. The effect is also used to in the Hall probe for the
measurements of magnetic fields, and in magnetically operated switching devices.
The strength of the electric field E
H
produced is given by the relationship E
H
= R
Hj
B,
where j is the current density, B is the magnetic flux density, and R
H
is a constant called the
Hall coefficient. The value of R
H
can be shown to be 1/ne, where n is the number of charge
carriers per unit volume and e is the electric charge.
Hall Effect in Semiconductors
Hall effect in semiconductors originates from
motion of both electrons and holes. This provides
the best experimental evidence of the motion of
holes, i.e. the production of a transverse electric
field by the motion of charge carriers in a
magnetic field. With an applied electric field and
a transverse component of magnetic field, both
electrons and holes are deflected transversely
toward the same side of the sample as shown in
Fig. 1.48.
The drifting carriers experience Lorentz force in the magnetic field H
z
, and thereby
suffer deflections. Both electrons and holes are deflected towards the same side of the sample
as shown in Fig. 1.48. The situation in all sections is similar. The two types of carriers in
semiconductors under this arrangement, so called Hall geometry, therefore, tend to combine
and cancel each other at the front surface. However, this cancellation is incomplete, and thus
there is a net charge which accumulates on the front surface of the sample. Because of these
surface charges on the front and the rear surfaces of the sample, an electric field is produced in
Y direction, known as Hall effect in semiconductors,
y
may be calculated as follows.
The electron and hole current densities along x axis can be expressed as
J n
J p
xe e e x
xh e h x
=
=
U
V
W

(1)
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
Y
X
Z
H
z
Applied field E
x
i|g. 1.48 Hall cffcct in scmiconuuctors.
The total current density J
x
is
J
x
= J
xe
+ J
xh
= e(n
e
+ p
h
)
x
(2)
(Small changes in mobility due to magnetic resistance are neglected.)
Let us now obtain the electron current density (J
ye
) along Y direction due to Lorentz
force. Lorentz force acting on an electron is e(V
e
B) = eV
e
B
z
, where V
e
is the drift velocity of
the electron. This Lorentz force is equivalent to an electric field V
e
B
z
. Since V
a
=
e
x
and
therefore this field may be expressed as B
z

e
x
. Using (1), one obtains
J
ye
= n
e
e
(B
z
x
)
Replacing B
z
by H
z
we have
J
ye
= ne
e
2
H
z
x
and hole current density is given by
J
yh
= pe
h
2
H
z
x
The total transverse current density is the sum of these:
J
y
=J
ye
+ J
yh
= e(n
e
2
p
h
2
) H
z
x
(3)
A Hall field
y
is required to make the net Y current zero. The ratio
y
/
x
is thus the same
as J
y
/J
x
:
e(n
e
+ p
h
)
y
= e(n
e
2
p
h
2
) H
z
x

y
=
p n
n p
h e
e h

2 2
+
(4)
The Hall coefficient R
H
is given by
R
H
=
y
z x
h e
e h
h e
H J
p n
e n p
e p n
=
+
=
2 2
2
2
2
( )
( )
(5)
Equation (5) is like that for a metal if the semiconductor is extrinsic (n >> p or p >> n).
Measurements of (= ne
e
+ pe
n
) and R
H
for strongly p-type and n-type extrinsic
semiconductors permit determination of Hall mobilities from (5). Since
n
,
p
, n and p are all
temperature dependent, Hall effect in a semiconductor exhibits wide temperature variations,
corresponding to the increase of intrinsic carriers at higher temperatures.
From equation (5), it is obvious that the magnitude of Hall coefficient is inversely
proportional to the carrier concentration. The coefficient of proportionality involves a factor
which depends on the energy distribution of the carriers and the way in which the carriers are
scattered in their motion. However, the value of this factor normally does not differ from unity
by more than a factor of two. The situation is more complicated when more than one type of
carrier is important for the conduction. The Hall coefficient then depends on the concentrations
of the various types of carriers and their relative mobilities.
The product of the Hall coefficient and the conductivity is proportional to the mobility of
the carriers when one type of carrier is dominant. The proportionality involves the same factor
which is contained in the relationship between the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration.
The value obtained by taking this factor to be unity is referred to as the Hall mobility.
Current
meter
I
I
t
+
I
V
H
y
x
z
B
0
b
i|g. 1.49 Basic sct up for thc uctcrmination of Hall cocfficicnt.
To measure the carrier concentration directly, the most common method is the use of
the Hall effect. Fig. 1.49 shows the basic set up, where a rectangular specimen of the
semiconductor of width b and thickness t is placed between the pole pieces of an electromagnet
such that a magnetic field B is applied along the z-direction. With the help of a battery, the
current I is allowed to pass through the sample in the x-direction (Fig. 1.49). One can measure
the Hall voltage V
H
with the help of two probes placed at the centres of the top and bottom
surfaces of the sample. We have
V
H
= E
H
t (6)
But E
H
= R
H
JB and hence Eq. (6) takes the form
V
H
= R
H
JBt (7)
We have the current density
J =
I
bt
(8)
where bt is the cross-sectional area of the sample. Making use of Eq. (8), Eq. (7) becomes
V
H
=
R IB
b
H
or R
H
=
R b
IB
H
(9)
one can measure the quantities appearing in the r.h.s. of Eq. (9) and hence R
H
can be readily
determined. In S.I. system, R
H
is obtained in m
3
/Coulomb. We must note that the polarity of
V
H
is opposite for N-type and P-type of materials and hence R
H
has opposite signs for the two
types of semiconductors.
Uses of the Hall Effect
(i) Determination of semiconductor type: The Hall voltage V
H
is measured by placing the
two probes at the centres of the top and bottom face of the sample. If the magnetic flux density
is B Wb/m
2
, then we have, n = 1/| e R
H
|, n = 1| e R
H
|, where R
H
= 1/ne, if the current is
carried by electrons.
Since R
H
is positive for P-type and negative for N-type semiconductor, the sign of R
H
is
used to determine the type of semiconductor specimen.
(ii) Determination of carrier concentration: We have n = 1/| eR
H
|, where R
H
= 1/ne.
Obviously, by measuring R
H
, one can find the electron concentration n and hole concentration p.
(iii) Determination of mobility of carriers: If the conduction is due to one type of carriers,
e.g. electrons, we have
= ne
n
n
=
ne
= R
H
i.e.
n
=
V b
IB
H
F
H
G
I
K
J [using Eq. (9)]
Obviously, by knowing , one can determine the mobility
n
. This mobility, i.e. given by
| R
H
| is referred to as Hall mobility.
(iv) Measurement of Magnetic Flux Density: We have seen that Hall voltage V
H
is
proportional to the magnetic flux density B for a given current I passing through a sample.
Thus knowing the sample dimensions and R
H
, one can determine the magnetic field by
measuring I and V
H
. One can also use it as the basis for the design of a magnetic flux density
meter.
(v) Measurement of Power in an Electromagnetic Wave: We know that in an electro-
magnetic wave in free space the magnetic field H and the electric field E are at right angles to
each other. Thus, if a semiconductor sample is placed parallel to E it will derive a current I in
the semiconductor. The semiconductor sample is subjected simultaneously to a transverse
magnetic field H producing a Hall voltage across the semiconductor sample. The Hall voltage
will be proportional to the product E and H across the sample, i.e. to the magnitude of the
poynting vector of the electromagnetic wave. Obviously, the Hall effect can be used to determine
the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
(vi) Hall Effect Multiplier: If the magnetic field B is produced by passing a current I
through an air-core coil, B will be proportional to current I. The Hall voltage V
H
is thus
proportional to the product II. This forms the basis for the design of a multiplier.
SoIved ProbIems
1. Find the conductivity and resistivity of a pure silicon crystal at temperature 300 K. The
density of electron hole pair per cc at 300K for a pure silicon crystal is 1.072 10
10
and
the mobility of electron
n
= 1350 cm
2
/volt-sec and hole mobility
h
= 480 cm
2
/volt-sec.
[Raj, Udaipur]
Solution: Conductivity of pure silicon crystal is given by
= n
i
e(
e
+
h
) n
i
= 1.072 10
10
i
= 1.072 10
10
1.6 10
19
(1350 + 480)
n
= 1350 cm
2
/volt-sec
= 3.14 10
6
mho/cm
h
= 480 cm
2
/volt-sec
e = 1.6 10
19
Coulomb
Resistivity of silicon crystal is given by
i
=
1 1
3 14 10
6
i
=
.
= 3.18 10
5
-cm
= 3.18 10
3
-m
2. A silicon wafer is doped with phosphorus of concentration 10
13
atoms/cm
3
. If all the
donor atoms are active, what is its resistivity at room temperature? The electron mobility
is 1200 cm
2
/volt-sec charge on the electron is 1.6 10
19
Coulomb.
Solution:
= e n = 1200 cm/volt-sec
= 1200 1.6 10
19
10
13
e = 1.6 10
19
C
= 19.2 10
4
mho/cm n = 10
13
= N
p
Resistivity
=
1 1
19 2 10
4
.
= 5.2 10
2
ohm-cm
3. In a semi-conductor, it is found that three quarters of current is being carried by electrons
and one quarter by holes. If at this temperature the drift speed of the electrons is two
and half times that of holes, determine the ratio of electrons to holes present.
Solution: Current I = I
n
+ I
p
Here I
n
current due to electrons
I
p
current due to holes
Let drift speed due to holes be V
p
, then
I = I
n
+ I
p
= n
n
eV
n
+ n
p
eV
p
According to the question,
I
n
=
3
4
I = n
e
e
5
2
V
p
(i)
and
I
p
=
1
4
I = n
p
eV
p
(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii), we obtain
n
n
n
p
= = 3
2
5
6
5
= 1.2
4. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm long, 1 mm wide and 1 mm thick
at temperature of 300 K. For germanium n
i
= 2.5 10
13
,
p
= 3900,
n
= 1900 cm
2
/volt-
sec at 300 K. [Raj., Vikram]
Solution:
= n
i
e(
e
+
h
)
= 2.5 10
13
1.6 10
19
(0.39 + 0.19)
= 2.32 mho/m
or =
1
2 32 .
ohm m
Now Resistance R =
i

length
area of cross section
L
N
M
O
Q
P
= 2.32
10
6
10
2
R =
1
2 32 10
4
.
ohm
= 4.31 k
5. A sample of germanium is made of P material by adding acceptor atoms at a rate of one
atom per 4 10
8
germanium atoms. The acceptor density is assumed to be zero and
n
i
= 2.5 10
19
per m
3
at 300 K. There are 4.4 10
28
germanium atoms/m
3
. The acceptor
density is found to be 1.1 10
20
atoms/m
3
. [MDS, Kerala]
Solution:
n
i
2
= np = n
p
N
a
n
p

~

n
N
i
a
2 38
20
6 25 10
11 10
=
.
.
= 5.6 10
18
n
n
p
i
=
5 6 10
25 10
18
19
.
.
= 0.22
6. Find the value of the applied forward voltage for a P-N junction diode if I
s
= 50 micro
amp/cm, I = 2 amp/cm
2
and e/kT = 40/volt. [Raj., Kerala]
Solution:
I = I
s
(e
ev/kT
1)
e
40V
=
J
J
s
1
~

2 10
30
6
V =
2 303
40
2 10
3
10
5
.
log
= 0.277 Volt.
7. The approximate value of P-N junction current under forward bias is given by I
~
I
s
e
ev/kT
.
Show that the incremental resistance R
e
, defined by V/I is equal to 1/40I at the room
temperature (e/kT = 40/volt).
Solution:
I = I
s
exp [eV/kT] = I
s
e
40V
R
e
=
V
I I
=
1
40
8. Determine the number density of donor atoms which have to be added to an intrinsic
germanium semi-conductor to produce an n-type semi-conductor of conductivity
5 mho/cm. The mobility of electrons in the n-type semi-conductor is 3850 cm
2
/volt-sec.
Solution:

n
= nq
n
= N
D
q
n

n
= 5 mho/cm
n = N
D
=
n
/q
n
n
= 3850 cm
2
/volt-sec
=
5
16 10 3850
19
.
q = 1.6 10
19
C
= 0.8 10
18
per cm
3
9. The saturation current density of a p-n junction germanium diode is 250 mA/m
2
at
300 K. Find the voltage that would have to be applied across the junction to cause a
forward current density of 10
5
A/m
2
to flow. [Mysore]
Solution:
I = I
s

exp
eV
kT
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
O
Q
P
1
Dividing throughout by volume, one obtains the equation in the form of current density
as
J = J
s
exp
eV
kT
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
O
Q
P
1
exp
eV
kT
F
H
G
I
K
J
1 = J/J
s
exp
eV
kT
F
H
G
I
K
J 1 =
10
250 10
5
3
J
s
= 250 mA/m
3
= 4 10
5
J = 10
5
A/m
2
or
eV
kT

~
log
e
4 10
5
= 12.9
V =
12 9 138 10 300
16 10
23
19
. .
.

= 0.33 V
10. Pure germanium at 300 K has a density of charge carriers 2.5 10
19
/m
3
. A specimen of
pure germanium is doped with donor impurity atoms at the rate of one impurity atom
for every 10
16
atoms of germanium. Assuming that all the electron and hole mobilities
are 0.36 m
2
/V-s and 0.18 m
2
/V-s respectively and the number of germanium atoms/unit
volume is 4.2 10
28
atoms/m
3
, show that the resistivity of germanium is 4.133 10
4
-m.
[Kerala, MDS]
Solution: We have n
i
= 2.5 10
19
/m
3
,

n
= 0.36 m
2
/V-s,
p
= 0.18 m
2
/V-s,
ratio of impurity atoms to germanium atoms = 10
6
,
and N (the germanium atoms per unit volume)
= 4.2 10
28
atoms/m
3
All the impurity atoms are ionised.
Number of impurity atoms/m
3
= ratio of impurity atoms to Ge atoms
number of Ge atoms/m
3
= 10
6
4.2 10
28
= 4.2 10
22
Number of free atoms due to impurities/m
3
n = 4.2 10
22
Now, we have from the law of mass action
np = n
i
2
or p =
n
n
i
2 19 2
22
2 5 10
4 2 10
=
( . )
.
Conductivity
= ne
n
+ pe
p
= e [n
n
+ p
p
]
= 1.6 10
19
[(4.2 10
22
) (0.36) + (1.488 10
16
) (0.18)]
= 2419 (-m)
1
Resistivity of Ge, =
1 1
2419
=
= 4.133 10
4
-m
11. How much donor impurity should be added to pure germanium so that its resistivity
drops to 10% of its original value? Determine n and p in a p-type germanium sample
whose resistivity is 0.01 ohm-cm, and also find n and p in a N-type silicon sample whose
resistivity is 10 -cm. [Mysore, Vikram]
Resistivity of pure Ge is 44.6 -cm.
Solution:
We want the resistivity to be 4.46 -cm, i.e. conductivity to be 1/4.46 = 0.0224 (-cm)
1
0.224 = N
D
1.6 10
19
3800
or N
D
= 3.68 10
14
atoms/cm
3
Now,
p
= N
A
q
p
or
1
0 01 .
= N
A
1.6 10
19
1800
or N
A
= 3.47 10
17
atoms/cm
3
Since N
A
>> n
i
p = N
A
= 3.47 10
17
holes/cm
3
and n = n
i
2
/p =
6 25 10
3 47 10
26
17
.
.
= 1.8 10
9
holes/cm
3
Now,
n
= N
D
q
n
1
10
= N
D
1.6 10
19
1300
or N
D
= 4.81 10
14
atoms/cm
3
3 N
D
>> n
i
, n = N
D
= 4.81 10
14
electrons/cm
3
and p =
2 25 10
4 81 10
20
14
.
.
= 4.68 10
5
holes/cm
3
12. The Hall coefficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be 3.66 10
4
m
3
/C. The
resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 10
3
-m. Assuming single carrier concentration,
find the mobility and density of charge carrier. [Punjab, Kerala]
Solution:
Given R
H
= 3.66 10
4
m
3
/C
= 8.93 10
3
-m
= ? and = ?
We have, Hall coefficient
R
H
=
1 1 1
= =
ne pe
p =
1 1
3 66 10 16 10
4 19
R e
H
=

. .
= 1.7055 10
22
/m
3
Now
p
= R
H
=
R
pe
H
i i

=
1
=
1
8 93 10 17055 10 16 10
3 22 19
( . ) ( . ) ( . )

= 0.041 m
2
/V-s
13. Show that the conductivity of a semiconductor is minimum when it is lightly doped with
p-type impurity such that
p = n
i

n
p
F
H
G
I
K
J
1/ 2
Also show that the minimum conductivity is 2n
i
(
n

p
)
1/2
q [MDS, Raj]
Solution:
We have = (n
n
+ p
p
) q
=
n
p
p
i
n p
2
+
F
H
G
I
K
J q (1)
To find the minima, we equate the derivative of to zero and obtain
d
dp
n
p
i
n p
= +
F
H
G
I
K
J
2
2 = 0
or
p
=
n
p
i
2
2

n
p = n
i

n
p
F
H
G
I
K
J
1/ 2
Now, substituting p = n
i

n
p
F
H
G
I
K
J
1/ 2
in Eq. (1), one obtains

min
=
n
n
n
i n
i
n
p
i
n
p
p
2
1/ 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
M
M
M
O
Q
P
P
P
P
q
= [n
i
(
n

p
)
1/2
+ n
i
(
n

p
)
1/2
] q
= 2n
i
(
n

p
)
1/2
q
14. The current flowing in a certain p-n junction diode at room temperature is 2 10
7
A,
when the large reverse voltage is applied. When 0.1 V forward bias is applied, calculate
the current flowing. [MDS, Jodhpur]
Solution:
We have I
0
= 2 10
7
A and V
F
= 0.1 V
Now, the current flowing through the diode under forward bias is given by
I = I
0
( )
/
e
V V
T
1
= I
0
( ) e
V
F
40
1
= 2 10
7
[e
400.1
1]
= 2 10
7
[e
4
1]
= 10.7 A
15. A sample of Si is doped with 10
17
phosphorus atom/cm
3
. What would you expect to
measure for its resistivity? What Hall voltage would you expect in a sample 100 m
thick if I
x
= 1 mA and B
z
= 1 kG (= 10
5
Wb/cm
2
)?
Solution:
Mobility for silicon 700 cm
2
/V-s. Obviously, the conductivity is
= 1.6 10
19
700 10
17
= 11.2 (-m)
1
The resistivity is =
1
= 0.0893 -cm
The Hall coefficient is R
H
= (en)
1
= 62.5 cm
3
/C
The Hall voltage is V
H
=
I B
x
R
x z
H
=
10 10
10
3 5
2
( 62.5) = 62.5 V
Summary
1. Semiconductors constitute a large class of substances characterized by negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
2. Semiconductors have half filled outer shells, and are neither good insulators nor good conductors.
3. Semiconductors have a forbidden band that represents the amount of energy needed to move a
valence electron from valence band to conduction band to cause conduction.
4. Crystal structure of semiconductors, e.g., germanium and silicon reveals that a pair of electrons
is shared between atoms to complete the valence shells of the individual atoms. Such bonding
between atoms is termed as covalent bonding.
5. In a pure semiconductor the number of holes and electrons are equal. Such a semiconductor is
termed intrinsic.
6. Conduction in a pure semiconductor consists of electron flow in the conduction band and hole
flow in the valence band. Hole conductivity is the result of motion of bound electrons along the
bonds.
7. Impurities are added to pure semiconductors, in a process called doping, to increase the number
of current carriers. Trivalent like Indium or acceptor, impurities like Indium have only 3 valence
electrons and form holes in the bonds, which accept electrons from the semiconductor material,
making it positive or P-type. Pentavalent, or donor impurities like Arsenic have 5 valence electrons,
and produce excess electrons that make the semiconductor material a negative or N-type.
8. P-type and N-type refer to the majority current carriers produced by doping; the overall
semiconductor remains electrically neutral minority current carriers, produced by thermal energy,
are opposite to the majority carriers.
9. The majority current carriers in an N-type material are electrons, while the minority carriers
are holes. The reverse is true for a P-type material. The doped semiconductor as a whole remains
electrically neutral.
10. A doped semiconductor acts like a resistor. The resistance of doped semiconductor is called bulk
resistance. Greater is doping, less is bulk resistance.
11. A P-N junction is formed in a process which may be of the grown, alloyed, or diffused type.
12. A P-N junction has a built-in potential hill or barrier that exists across the depletion region and
may be increased or decreased by the application of an external voltage.
13. A forward-biased P-N junction has the positive terminal applied to the P side and the negative to
the N-side. The reverse is true or a reverse-biased junction.
14. A small minority current flows in P-N diodes under both forward and reverse bias. The source of
minority current is freed valence electrons. An excessive number of freed valence electrons results
in a breakdown. This occurs when the number of available current carriers, particularly minority
carriers, increases beyond the current handling capacity of the diode.
15. Avalanche breakdown is the runaway increase in minority current carriers during forward current
flow. It occurs when many valence electrons are freed with sufficient force to dislodge other
valence electrons. It is used in switching diodes and special controlled rectifiers.
16. Zener breakdown is the runaway increase in minority carriers during reverse current flow. It is
also caused by the release of high energy valence electrons due to breaking of covalent bonding.
It is used in voltage-regulating diodes.
17. The tunnel effect is the movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the
conduction band with little applied voltage. Valence electrons seem to tunnel through the forbidden
energy band. The tunnel effect provides a negative resistance region in the tunnel diode where
increasing voltage results in decreasing current. Tunnel diodes are used in switching and
oscillatory circuits.
18. A germanium device is seldom used at a temperature higher than 75C, a silicon device seldom
used higher than 175C.
19. A P-N junction exhibits a transition capacitive effect of several picrofarad in reverse bias, but
may have many microfarads of diffusion capacitance in the forward-biased state.
20. Photo diode is a two element semiconductor light sensative device. They convert light energy
into electrical energy directly.
21. An LED is semicoductor diode which emits visible light from its P-N junction when it is forward
biased. They are used as readouts in alphanumeric displays. They are also used as pilot lamps in
most of the electronic and electrical devices.
22. The PNPN diode is a four layer solid state device having only two electrodes Anode and Cathode.
The current starts flowing through it only when applied forward biased is more than breakover
voltage and once current starts flowing the voltage across diode drops and current flowing is
very high.
23. An SCR is a three element, four layer (NPNP) solid state device which permits current to flow
through it is one direction only (i.e. when forward biased) and bias is equal to or greater than
forward breakover voltage. The third element called gate, controls the breakover voltage. Higher
the gate current, the lower the breakover voltage. Once the SCR is ON the gate loses control over
the conduction of SCR. It continues to conduct as long as it is forward biased and as long as the
current through it is equal to greater than holding current.
24. Varactor diode is a special type of solid state diode whose capacitance varies inversely with
applied voltage.
A. Review Questions
1. What are semiconductors? How do they differ from conductors and insulators? Why an increase
in temperature increases conductivity of a semiconductor? [Raj.]
2. Explain with suitable diagrams the conduction band, valence band and forbidden band and hence
explain the behaviour of conductor, semiconductor and insulator. Explain electrons and holes
contribution to electrical conduction. [Raj.]
3. Derive the expression for the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor. [Udaipur]
4. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? Discuss the locations of Ferm levels under
suitable limiting conditions and give the necessary theory.
5. What is extrinsic conduction in semiconductors? Explain how the presence of a small impurity
in a semiconductor modifies its conduction properties. [Raj.]
6. Explain the movement of electrons and holes in a semiconductor. In what respect N-type and P-
type semiconductors differ from each other?
7. What is drift current and diffusion current in a semiconductor? Write an expression for the total
electron current density in a semiconductor. [Raj.]
8. Draw the characteristics of a semiconductor diode and label the same.
9. Explain the working of a P-N junction. Discuss forward and reverse biasing of P-N junction
diode. [Raj.]
10. Explain with diagrams forward and reverse biasing of a P-N junction. What is meant by avalanche
breakdown? [Raj.]
11. Explain with reference to Zener diode characteristic curve the following:
(i) I
ZK
(ii) I
ZT
(iii) Z
Z
where symbols have usual meaning. [Udaipur]
12. Draw the (V-I) characteristics of a tunnel diode and discuss its applications. [Udaipur]
13. Explain the mechanism of electrical conduction in a typical semiconductor like germanium or
silicon. How the conductivity of a pure semiconductor is affected by adding traces of trivalent
and pentavalent impurities? [AMIE]
14. What is meant by doping a semiconductor? What basic properties must these doping elements
possess to make a pure semiconductor a P-type or N-type? Explain the physical principles involved.
[AMIE]
15. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Energy bands in solids
(ii) Avalanche breakdown
(iii) Zener breakdown
(iv) P type and N type semiconductors
(v) Tunnel diode [Raj.]
16. Give the structure of light emitting diode. Explain its working and give some of its uses.
17. What is Half effect? Briefly discuss the physical origin of the Hall effect. Mention uses of Half
effect.
18. What is Hall coefficient? Show that for a P-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient R
H
is given
by, R
H
= 1/eP. Describe an experimental set up for the measurement of Hall Voltage, V
H
.
[Vikram]
19. For an semiconductor show that the Hall Coefficient is given by
R
H
=
+
1
2 2
2
e
p p n
p n
n
p n

( )
where
P
and
N
are the mobilities of holes and electrons respectively.
Show that for an intrinsic semiconductor the above expression reduces to
R
H
=
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
1
n e
i
n p
n p

[B.E.]
[Hint. n = p = n
i
for an intrinsic semiconductor]
B. ProbIems
1. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
3600 cm
2
/volt-sec. and 1700 cm
2
/volt-sec. respectively. If the electron and hole densities are each
equal to 2.5 10
13
per cc, calculate its conductivity. [Ans. 2.12 mho/m]
2. The concentration of the acceptor atoms in P-type germanium crystal is 4 10
15
per cc. Find the
conductivity of the crystal at 300 K. Hole mobility in germanium at 300K is 1900 cm
2
per volt-sec.
All the acceptor atoms are ionized at this temperature. [Raj.]
[Ans. 121.6 mho/m]
3. Calculate the current produced in a small germanium plate of area 1 cm
2
and of thickness of 0.3
mm. When a potential difference of 2 V is applied across the faces. Given concentration of free
electrons in germanium is 2 10
19
m
3
and the mobility of electrons and holes are 0.36 m
2
/volt-
sec. and 0.17 m
2
/volt-sec. respectively. [Ans. 1.13 amp]
4. A specimen of pure germanium at 300K has a density of charge carriers of 2.5 10
19
per m
3
. It is
doped with a donor impurity atoms at the rate of one impurity atom for every 10
6
atoms of
germanium. All impurity atoms may be supposed to be ionised. The density of germanium atom
is 4.2 10
28
atoms/m
3
. Find the resistivity of the doped germanium if electron mobility is
0.36 m
2
/volt-sec. [Ans. 0.41 10
3
-m]
5. What concentration of donor atoms per cc is required in a germanium crystal so that the
conductivity of the crystal is 3 mho/cm at 300 K. For germanium
n
= 3900.
[Ans. 320.5 10
19
/m
3
]
6. Find the conductivity of germanium which is doped with donor atoms of concentration
N
d
= 10
17
/cm
3
and compare it to that of intrinsic case. Given n
i
= 2.5 10
13
/cm
3
,
n
= 3800 cm
2
/volt-
second. [Ans. 6.25 10
15
/m
3
]
7. Compare the number of electron hole pairs per cm
3
in a pure silicon crystal at the temperature of
(i) 27C and (ii) 57C. For silicon E
g
1.13 eV. [Ans. 8.39]
8. Find the value of P-N junction diode current in the forward bias condition, when the applied
voltage across it is 0.05 volt and I
s
= 50 A. Given e/kT = 40/volt. [Ans. 0.319 milli amp.]
9. Determine the donor concentration in N-germanium having a resistivity of 0.015 -m,
c
= 0.36
m
2
/volt-sec. Repeat for P-germanium of equal resistivity,
n
= 0.17 m
2
/volt-sec. [Udaipur]
10. In the circuit (Fig. 1.50) using a zener voltage regulator, calculate the limit of the V
in
for getting
regulated voltage without damaging the diode. Take the dynamic resistance of the diode as
negligible and temperature coefficient negligible; (Assume I
z min
= 5 mA). [Udaipur]
+
V
in
100 W
V = 10 Volts
P = 2 Watt
z
max
.EC #
C. Short Question Answers
1. A small portion of indium (In) is incorporated in germanium (Ge). Is the crystal N type or P type?
[PPE]
Ans. Obviously, the crystal is P type as indium is trivalent and one of the covalent bonds will remain
without electrons giving excess of holes.
2. What are the charge carriers in N-type and P-type semiconductors? [PPE]
Ans. The charge carriers in N-type semiconductors are the electrons while in P-type the charge carriers
are holes.
3. Why a semiconductor is damaged by a strong current? [PPE]
Ans. The safety limits of temperature for germanium and silicon are about 80C and 200C respectively.
A strong current passing through a semiconductor heats it up beyond these temperatures. At
these temperatures a large number of charge carriers are available for conduction and the specific
resistance of the crystal become very low and thus they are damaged, i.e., loose the property of
semiconductors.
4. What is the difference between hole-current and electron flow? [PPM]
Ans. The hole current is in the direction of conventional current which is due to the flow of positive
charge while the electron flow is opposite to the conventional current as it is due to the flow of
negative charges.
5. What is the germanium diode zener voltage?
Ans. When a reverse bias of about 25 volts is applied to the crystal, the excessively high temperature
destroys the covalent structure of germanium and the reverse current rises sharply. This
breakdown voltage is called zener voltage.
6. What do you understand by space charge region?
Ans. Within a short distance on either side of the junction, there is a high concentration of positive
charges in the N-type semiconductor, and the negative charges in the P-type semiconductor. Due
to this high concentration of immobile charges, this region is commonly called the space charge
region or depletion region, i.e. it is depleted of free electrons and holes.
7. Why a PN junction biased in the forward direction acts as a low resistance element?
Ans. Due to high current.
8. Why a PN junction biased in the reverse direction acts as a high resistance element?
Ans. Due to low current.
9. What is a rectifier?
Ans. Rectification is a process of converting an alternating current into a direct current output. Any
device that achieves this is called a rectifier.
D. Objective Questions
1. N-type germanium is obtained on doping intrinsic germanium by
(a) Phosphorous (b) Aluminium
(c) Boron (d) Gold
2. Depletion region is a zone which contains
(a) holes only (b) electrons only
(c) both electrons and holes (d) ions only
3. In a semiconductor diode arrow represents
(a) N type material (b) P type material
(c) both P and N type material (d) none of the above
4. Zener diode is used for
(a) rectification (b) amplification
(c) voltage stabilization (d) current stabilization
5. If a pure silicon crystal has 1 million free electrons inside it, how many holes does it have
(a) 1 million (b) 2 million
(c) zero (d) 10 million
6. Assuming a barrier potential of 0.7 V at an ambient temperature of 25C, what is the barrier
potential of a silicon diode when the junction temperature is 100C?
(a) 0.7 V (b) 0.55 V
(c) 0.9 V (d) 1 V
[Hint. When the junction temperature is 100C, the change in barrier potential is V = ( 2
mV/C); T = ( 2 mV/C) (100C 25C) = 150 mV
This means barrier potential decreases 150 mV from its room temperature value. So, it equals
V
B
= 0.7 V 0.15 V = 0.055 V
7. The depletion region of a junction diode is formed
(a) under forward bias (b) when the temperature of the junction is reduced
(c) under reverse bias (d) under zero bias.
8. The width of the depletion layer of a junction
(a) is independent of applied voltage (b) is increased under reverse bias
(c) decreases with light doping (d) increases with heavy doping
9. The merging of a free electron and a hole is called
(a) life time (b) covalent bonding
(c) recombination (d) thermal energy
10. The voltage where avalanche occurs in called the
(a) barrier potential (b) depletion layer
(c) knee voltage (d) breakdown voltage
11. Surface-leakage current is part of the
(a) reverse current (b) reverse breakdown
(c) forward current (d) forward breakdown
E. Mark which of the foIIowing statements are true/faIse
1. Breaking a covalent bond produces a free electron, which moves about the lattice in a random
manner
2. A semiconductor is damaged by a strong current
3. Charge carriers in N type semiconductor are holes
4. Minority current carriers, produced in a semiconductor by thermal energy, are opposite to majority
carriers
5. The arrow in a PN diode represents the P section, and corresponds to the anode in an electron
tube
6. Light emitting diode emits light when it is reverse biased
F. FiII in the BIanks
1. Free electrons are ......... current carriers and holes are ......... current carriers.
2. The potential barrier increases with ......... bias and decreases with ......... bias.
3. Forward bias utilizes ......... carriers to carry the current flow, and reverse bias utilizes .........
carriers.
4. Excessive forward bias causes ......... breakdown, and excessive reverse bias causes .........
breakdown.
5. The tunnel effect is the movement of valence electrons from the valence energy band to the .........
band with little or no applied energy.
6. The tunnel effect provides a ......... resistance region in the tunnel diode where increasing voltage
results in ......... current.
7. Under forward biased conditions an LED emits light when free ......... and ......... recombine at the
junction.
8. The most common LED array is the ......... indicator.
9. A photodiode is optimized for its sensitivity to ......... and it should be ......... biased.
Answers
Section D1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (c), 5. (a), 6. (b), 7 (d), 8, (b), 9. (c), 10. (d), 11. (a)
Section E1. (True) 2. (True), 3. (False), 4. (True) 5. (True), 6. (False)
Section F1. (Negative, Positive), 2. (Reverse, Forward), 3. (Majority, Minority),
4. (Avalanche, Zener), 5. (Conduction), 6. (Negative, Decreasing),
7. (Electrons, Holes), 8. (Seven , Segment), 9. (Light, Reverse).
78
)FFA@EN )
BIoch Theorem and Kronig Penny ModeI
The free-electron model is based upon the fact that the conduction electrons within a metal
move in a region of constant potential and act like the classical free particles of a gas, subject
only to limitation of Fermi-Dirac statistics. This model gives us considerable insight into several
of the electronic properties of metals (specific heat, paramagnetism etc.), yet there are other
electronic properties of solids for which the free electron model gives us no help. The model
cannot help us to understand why some substances have large number of free electrons and
are thus very good conductors, while others have hardly any and behave as insulators, with
electrical properties varying markedly with temperature. Furthermore semiconductors do not
find any explanation on the basis of this theory.
To understand the difference between insulators and conductors, one has to extend the
free electron model to take account of the periodic potential with periodicity of the lattice. In
one electron model of a solid, the periodic potential may be thought of as arising from periodic
charge distribution associated with ion cores situated on the lattice sites, plus the constant
(average) contribution due to all other free electrons of the crystals. The later contribution to
the potential accounts, in an average sense, the interaction effects of the single electron with
all others. A one dimensional representation of a periodic crystal potential, of a cubic crystal of
lattice constant a is shown in Fig. A.1.
So far as the one-electron quantum-mechanical picture is concerned, the crystal
periodicity will usually be assumed to extend to infinity in all directions, but, of course at a
surface of any actual crystal the periodicity will be interrupted, the potential function then
behaving somewhat at the left-band edge of Fig. A.1. The lattice spacing will be quite uniform
near such a surface, but as a practical matter the lattice periodicity will usually be found to be
almost perfect after a few atomic spacings within the crystal.
Appendix A 79
V(x)
Surface
a
x
.EC ) Schcmatic rcprcscntation of potcntial within a pcrfcctly pcriouic crystal latticc.
lhc surfacc potcntial Larricr is shown in thc lcft.
On the basis of above descriptions, one can easily show that electrons in crystal are
arranged in energy bands, separated by regions in energy for which no wave like electron
orbitals exists. Such forbidden regions are called energy gaps or band gaps and result from the
interaction of the conduction electron waves with the ion cores of the crystal. The important
question for electrical conductivity is how the electrons respond to an applied electric field.
The crystal will behave as an insulator if the number of electrons is such that the allowed
energy bands are either filled or empty, for then no electrons can move in an electric field. The
crystal will act as metal if one of more bands are partly filled. The crystal is semiconductor if
all bands are entirely filled, except for one or two bands slightly filled or partly empty.
The possibility of the band gap is the most important new property that emerges when
one extend the free electron model to take account of the periodicity of the lattice of the solid.
Block Theorem. It is a mathematical statement regarding the form of the one electron
wave functions for a perfectly periodic potential. Let the potential energy of an electron satisfy
the equation
V(x) = V(x + a)
where a is a period. The Schrdingers wave equation is then

2
2 2
2
x
m
+
D
[E V(x) = 0 (1)
With reference to the solutions of this equation there is an important theorem known as
Bloch theorem. This theorem states that the solutions are plane waves modulated by the function
U
k
(x) which has the same periodicity as the lattice. In the theory of differential equations it is
known as Floquets theorem. Mathematically the solutions are of the form
(x) = exp ( ikx) U
k
(x) (2)
where U
k
(x) = U
k
(x + a)
The wave functions of the type (2) are called Bloch functions. These Bloch functions
have the property
(x+ a) = exp [ ik(x + a)] U
k
(x + a)
= exp ( ika) (x)
obviously, Bloch functions have the property that
(x+ a) = (x) (3)
where constant is
= exp ( ika)
It is clear that if we can show that the Schrdinger equation (1) has solutions with the
property (3), the solutions can be written as Bloch functions and the theorem is proved.
Since (1) is a linear second-order differential equation, there are two independent
solutions g(x) and h(x) such that
(x) = Ag(x) + Bh(x) (4)
represents the most general solution of (1) with arbitrary constant. Since (x+ a) = (x), not
only g(x) and h(x) but also g(x + a) and h(x + a) satisfy (1). Any solution of (1) is expressible as
a linear combination of the independent solutions g(x) and h(x). Hence we must have the
relations
g x a g x h x
h x a g x h x
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
+ = +
+ = +
U
V
W

1 2
1 2
(5)
where s and s are constants and real functions of energy E. Then
(x + a) = Ag(x + a) + Bh(x + a)
= (
1
A +
1
B) g(x) + (
2
A +
2
B) h(x) (6)
Now (x + a) can always be expressed in the form
(x + a) = (x) = Ag(x) + Bh(x) (7)
Comparing coefficients of g(x) and h(x) in (6) and (7) we have
( )
( )

1 1
2 2
0
0
+ =
+ =
U
V
W
A B
B
A
(8)
This system of homogeneous equations in A and B has solutions other than A = B = 0,
only if

1 1
2 2
= 0
or
2
(
2
+
2
) + (
1
2

2
1
) = 0
Now, one can easily shown that
1
2

2
1
= 1. Thus we have
2
(
1

2
) + 1 = 0 (9)
The solution of this quadratic equation in serves to determine the two possible values
of for which eq. (7) is true. The two cases of interest are
(i) For energy ranges in which (
1
+
2
)
2
< 4:
The two roots
1
,
2
of (9) will be complex and since
1
2
= 1, they will be conjugates. In
those regions of energy, we may write
1
= e
ika
and
2
= e
ika
(10)
The corresponding functions
1
(x) and
2
(x) then have the property

1 1
2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x a e x
x a e x
ika
ika
+ =
+ =
U
V
W
(11)
Appendix A 81
Such functions are called Bloch functions. The functions are written in the form
k
(x) = exp ( ikx) U
k
(x) (11(a))
where U
k
(x) is a periodic function of period a. Thus the solutions of Schrdinger wave equation
in this region can be expressed in the form of Bloch function.
(ii) For energy range in which (
1
+
2
)
2
> 4:
In this case the two roots
1
and
2
are real. The solutions of Schrdinger equation are of
the type
1
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
x e U x
x e U x
x
x
=
=
U
V
W
(12)
where is a real quantity. Although such solutions are mathematically sound, they cannot in
general be accepted as wave functions describing electrons; since they are not bounded. Thus
there are no electronic states in the energy region corresponding to real roots
1
and
2
. The
above discussion thus leads also to the notion that the energy spectrum of an electron in a
periodic potential consists of allowed and forbidden energy regions or bands.
In three dimensions the Bloch theorem becomes
k
(r) = exp (ik . r) U
k
(r) (13)
The wave vector k used to label the Bloch functions has the properties:
(a) Under a crystal translation which carrier r to r + T we have
k
(r + T) = exp (ik . T) exp (ik . r) U
k
(r + T)
= exp (ik . T)
k
(r) (14)
because U
k
(r + T) = U
k
(r). Thus exp (ik . T) is the phase factor by which a Bloch function is
multiplied when we make a crystal lattice translation T.
(b) If the lattice potential vanishes U
k
(r) is constant. We have
k
(r) = exp [ik . r]
just as for a free electron.
(c) The value of k enters into conservation laws for collision processes of electrons in
crystals. For this reason Dk is called the crystal momentum of the electron.
Kronig Penny Model. The behaviour of electrons in one dimensional periodic potential
has been treated by Kronig and Penny by assuming a simple model of periodic potential as
shown in Fig. A.2. The period of potential is (a + b), in region such as a < x < a, the potential
energy is assumed to be zero in regions such an array periodic square potentials the exact
solution of Schrdinger equation is possible. Although the potential represented by Fig. A.2 is
somewhat idealised periodic potential which is only a crude approximation to that found in the
actual crystal, it is nevertheless very useful because it serves to illustrate in a most explicit
way many of the important characteristic features of the quantum behaviour of electrons in
periodic lattice. The wave functions associated with this model may be calculated in the one-
electron approximation by solving Schrdinger equation.

2
2 2
2 ( ) x
x
m
+
D
[E V(x)] (x) = 0 (15)
Since the potential is periodic, the wave functions must have the Bloch form, and we
may expect
(x) = exp [ikx] U(x) (16)
a b
(a + b)
Unit cell
U (x)
2
U (x)
1
.EC ) lucal pcriouic sguarc wcll potcntial uscu Ly kronig anu pcnny to illustratc thc
gcncral charactcristics of thc guantum Lchaviour of clcctrons in pcriouic latticcs.
Substituting (16) in (15) and putting = (2mE/h
2
)
1/2
, it is found that the function U(x)
must satisy
d U
dx
ik
dU
dx
k
m
U x
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
+ +
R
S
T
U
V
W
D
( )
U(x) = 0 (17)
If U
1
(x) and U
2
(x) represent the values of U(x) in the two regions of potential function,
i.e., ion the intervals (0 < x < a) and ( b < x < 0) respectively, we shall have
d U
dx
ik
dU
dx
2
1
2
1
2 + (k
2

2
) U
1
= 0 (0 < x < a) (18)
d U
dx
ik
dU
dx
2
2
2
2
2 + (k
2

2
) U
2
= 0 ( b < x < 0) (19)
where =
2
2
0
1/ 2
m
E V
D
( )
R
S
T
U
V
W
and is purely imaginary quantity for 0 < E < V
0
. The solutions of the differential equations (18)
and (19) are
U
1
= A exp [i( k)x] + B exp [ i( + k)x] (0 < x < a) (20)
U
2
= C exp (i( k)x) + D exp ( i( + k)x) ( b < x < 0) (21)
where A, B, C and D are constants. The continuity for the wave function and its derivative at
x = a and x = b and remembering that U(x) have the periodicity of the lattice demands that
the wave function U(x) satisfies the boundary conditions
U U U a U b
dU
dx
dU
dx
dU
dx
dU
dx
x x
x a x b
1 2 1 2
1
0
2
1 2
0
0
( ) ; ( ) ( ) = =
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
U
V
|
|
|
W
|
|
|
=
= =
(22)
using boundary conditions (22) we find that
A + B = C + D
Appendix A 83
( k)A ( + k)B = ( k)C ( + k) D
A exp (i( k)a) + B exp ( i( + k)a)
= C exp ( i( k)b) + D exp (i( + k)b)
U
V
|
|
|
W
|
|
|
(23)
( k) A exp (i( k)a) ( + k) B exp ( i( + k)a)
= ( k)C exp ( i( k)b) i( + k)D exp (i( + k)b)
The coefficients A, B, C and D can thus be determined and the wave functions can be
calculated. However, for our purpose we are more interested in determining the values of the
energy for which satisfactory solutions are obtained. Equations (23) have no-vanishing solutions
if and only if the determinant of the coefficients vanishes. This requires that
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
exp ( ) exp ( ) exp ( ) exp ( )
( ) exp ( ) ( ) exp ( ) ( )exp ( ) ( ) exp ( )

+ +
+ +
+ + + +
k k k k
i k a i k a i k a i k b
k i k a k i k a k i k b k i k b
b g b g b g b g
b g b g b g b g
= 0
Expanding the determinant, it can be shown that this leads to the following condition

2 2
+
sin a sin b + cos a cos b = cos k(a + b) (24)
Since in the range 0 < E < V
0
, as defined earlier is imaginary, for these values of
energy it is most convenient to express
= i
in this region, and noting that cos i x = cosh x and sin i x = i sinh x, eq. (24) can be written as

2 2
2
sin b sin a + cosh b cos a = cos k (a + b) (25)

where is real quantity in the interval 0 < E < V
0
just as is in the interval V
0
< E < . Thus
we may use (24) most conveniently when V
0
< E < and (25) when 0 < E < V
0
.
The wave functions (16) must, like all wave functions, be well behaved function as x
approaches . Since U(x) is a periodic function whose values are the same in the unit cell, no
difficulty arises on its account provided that the factor exp (ikx) in (16) is well behaved under
these conditions. But exp (ikx) is well behaved at both + and only if k is real, whereby
exp (ikx) is oscillatory. If k were imaginary exp (ikx) would diverge to infinity either at + or
and resulting expression for (x) would not behave properly as a wave function. We must,
therefore, accept only functions of the forms (16) with real values for k. The expression (24)
and (25) have no left hand side a function of the form k
1
sin a + k
2
cos a which must equal
cos (a + b) k. If for a given value of energy the function on left hand side of these equations
should have a value in the range between + 1 and 1, then the required value for cos (a + b) k
is obtained with a real value for k (a + b). On the other hand if the value of the function on left
hand side of (24) or (25) should be outside that range, it would mean that cos (a + b) k would
have to be greater than + 1 or less than 1 which would, in turn, require that the argument k
(a + b) be a complex number with imaginary part other than zero. Under these circumstances
the solutions (16) would not behave properly at infinity and would not satisfy the physical
requirement for wave functions of the system. The energies associated with such values of k
would simply be forbidden to the electron.
The eqs. (24) and (25) can be written as
1
4
2 2
2 2
2
1/ 2
+
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P

sinh b
cos (a ) = cos k (a + b) (26)
where tan =

2 2
2
+
tan b (V
0
< E < )
and 1
4
2 2
2 2
2
1/ 2
+
+
L
N
M
O
Q
P

sinh b cos (a ) = cos k (a + b)
where tan =

2 2
2
+
tanh b (0 < E < V
0
) (27)
From these expressions it is clear that in both cases the left hand side has the form of a
cosine function times a modulating factor whose amplitude is invariably greater than unity.
The value of the modulating factor whose amplitude is invariably greater than unity. The
value of this modulating factor is actually maximum for = 0 (hence for E = 0) and approaches
unity in the limit of large energies, where .
When left hand sides of (26) and (27) are plotted as a function of energy keeping in mind
that
2

2
=
2
+
2
=
2
0
2
mV
D
= constant,
the results are as illustrated in Fig. A.4. When the ordinate of the curve lies between + 1 and
1, there exists a real value of K corresponding to physically possible wave functions. Outside
these limits, however, K must be complex with a non zero imaginary part.
Such values of K can never lead to physically well-behaved wave functions; the
corresponding ranges of energy are forbidden and are shown in Fig. A.3 by shaded regions.
f(E)
+1
0
1
/a+b p
2 /a+b p
3 /a+b p
4 /a+b p
.EC )! ^ plot of thc functions on thc lcft hanu siucs of (26) anu (27) vcrsus cncrgy.
lhc shaucu rcgions show forLiuucn cncrgy Lanus whcrc thc valuc of is complcx,
thc unshaucu rcgions allowcu cncrgy Lanus corrcsponuing to rcal valuc of .
Appendix A 85
There are thus formed alternate regions of allowed energy eigen values and forbidden regions.
These regions are usually referred to as allowed and forbidden energy bands, and the grouping
of the permitted energy values into these bands in one of the most important characteristic
feature of the behaviour of electrons in periodic lattice. It can be shown that energy bands
having the same qualitative aspects as those shown in Fig. A.3 are formed no matter what the
detailed form of the potential is, so lone as it is periodic. Form Fig. A.3 the following interesting
conclusions may be drawn:
(i) The energy spectrum of electrons consists of a number of allowed energy bands,
separated by forbidden regions.
(ii) The width of the allowed energy bands increases with increasing values of energy.
(iii) The width of a particular allowed band decreases with increasing binding energy V
0
.
In extreme case with V
0
the allowed regions become infinitely narrow and the
energy spectrum becomes a line spectrum.
Using (26) and (27) and the value of
= (2mE/D
2
)
1/2
and =
2
2
0
1/ 2
m
E V
D
( )
R
S
T
U
V
W
it is possible to plot a curve showing the energy E as a function of K. The result is shown in
Fig. A.4. The dotted curve is for large energies for which the function E(K) approaches the free
electron relation.
()K(E )
0
K(E )
0
k 4
a + b
p 2
a + b
p 2
a + b
p 0 4
a + b
p
E = hk /2m
E(K)
2
.EC )" lhc cncrgy - plottcu as a function of accoruing to (26) anu (27).
(iv) The discontinuities in E versus K curve occur for
K =
n
a b
+
, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,......
These K-values define the boundaries of 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. Brillouin zones. The first zone
extends from

a b a b +
+
+
to
.
Similarly the second zone consists of two parts, one extending from

a b a b + +
to
2
and
another part extending between

a b a b +
+
to
2
.
(v) Within a given energy band the energy is a periodic function of K. For example, if one
replaces K by
K +
2n
a b +
,
where n is an integer, the right hand side of (26) and (27) remains the same. In other words K
is not uniquely determined. It is, therefore, frequently convenient to introduce wave vector
which is limited to the region.

a b
K
a b +

+
(vi) The number of possible wave functions per band can easily be shown to be equal to
the number of unit cells N.
Now, as a result of the spin of the electrons and the Paulis exclusion principle each
wave function can be occupied by at most two electrons. Thus each energy band provides place
for a maximum number of electronsequal to twice the number unit cells. In other words if
there are 2N electrons in the band, the band is completely filled.
&%
)FFA@EN *
,AIEJO B 5J=JAI
Density of states for electrons in a band yields the number of states in a certain energy range.
This function is important in electronic processes, particularly in transport phenomena. When
we denote the density of states function by D(E), the quantity D(E)dE then gives number of
electron states per unit volume in the energy range E and E + dE.
Density of States for Free EIectrons
Let us consider the linear momentum P. In quantum mechanics P is represented by operator
P = iD
For the energy state (x, y, z), we have
P
k
(r) = iD
k
(r) = DK
k
(r) (1)
Obviously the plane wave
k
is an eigen function of the linear momentum with eigen
value DK. The particle velocity is given by
V =
DK
m
(2)
In the ground state of a system of N free electrons the occupied orbitals may be
represented as points inside a sphere in K-space. The energy at the surface of the sphere is the
Fermi energy, the wave vectors at the Fermi surface have the magnitude K
f
(Fig. B.1) such
that
E
f(0)
=
D
2 2
2
K
m
f
(3)
&& A Textbook of Electronics
K
z
K
f
K
y
K
x
.EC * ln thc grounu statc of a systcm of clcctrons thc occupicu orLitals of thc systcm
fill a sphcrc of rauius
B
whcrc -
B

D
2 2
2
B
is thc cncrgy of an clcctron.
From Fig. B.1 we see that there is one allowed wave vector (one distinct triplet) of
quantum numbers K
x
, K
y
, K
z
for the volume element
2
3
L
F
H
G
I
K
J of K-space. Thus in the Fermi
sphere of the volume
4
3
3
K
f
the total number of orbitals is
24 3
2 3
3
3 2
3

K
L
V
K
f
f
/
( / )
=
= N (4)
where the factor 2 on the left comes from the two allowed values of m
s
, the spin quantum
number for each allowed value of K. We have put the number of orbitals equal to N, the number
of electrons. From (4), we have
K
f
=
3
2
1/ 3
N
V
F
H
G
I
K
J
(5)
This depends only on the particle concentration and not on the mass. Using (3), we
obtain
E
f(0)
=
D
2 2
2 3
2
3
m
N
V
F
H
G
I
K
J
/
(6)
This relates the Fermi energy to the electron concentration N/V and the mass m. The
electron velocity V
f
at the Fermi surface is
V
f
=
D
D
k
m m
N
V
f
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
3
2
1/ 3
(7)
Appendix B &'
The density of states function D(E) defined from the fact that all the energy states below
E
f(0)
are occupied and this is equal to total number of electrons, i.e.
0
0
E
f ( )
z
D(E)dE = N (8)
From (6) and (8), one obtains
0
0
E
f ( )
z
D(E)dE =
V
mE
f
3
2
2
0
2
3 2
( )
/
D
F
H
G
I
K
J
Expressing the integral as an indefinite integral, we have
z
D(E)dE =
V mE
3
2
2 2
3 2
D
F
H
G
I
K
J
/
or D(E) =
V m
2
2
2 2
3 2
D
F
H
G
I
K
J
/
E
1/2
= CE
1/2
(9)
where
C =
V m
2
2
2 2
3 2
D
F
H
G
I
K
J
/
The above result may be obtained and expressed most simply by writing (6) as
log N =
3
2
log E
f(0)
+ constant
or
dN
N
dE
E
f
f
=
3
2
0
0
( )
( )
and we have D(E
f(0)
=
dN
dE
N
E
f f ( ) ( ) 0 0
3
2
= (10)
With a factor of the order of unity, the number of orbitals per unit energy range at the
Ferm-energy is just the total number of conduction electrons divided by the Fermi energy.
Density of States for MetaIs
The above results apply to free electrons with energy (E) proportional to K
2
. It is obvious that
the same expression should also describe the density of states for electrons n crystals, provided
that the effective mass rather than the inertial mass is involved. We shall see that this is
indeed true, provided that the constant energy surfaces are spherical. However, the constant
energy surfaces deviate from the spherical form and consequently the density of states function
becomes more complicated.
' A Textbook of Electronics
To calculate D(E) one draws a shell in k-shape whose inner and outer surfaces are
determined by the energy contours E(k) = E and E(k) = E + dE respectively as shown in Fig. B.2.
The number of allowed k-values lying inside the shell then gives the number of states which
when divided by the thickness of the shell dE, yields the desired function D(E).
K
y
dE
A
C
K
x
.EC * Conccntric shclls in -spacc uscu to cvaluatc thc ucnsity of statcs ,(-).
The allowed values of k for a crystal cube of side L, when periodic boundary conditions
are imposed, are
k
x
, k
y
, k
z
= 0,
2 4
L L
N
L
, ,......,
i.e., there is one allowed value of k for each volume element
2
3
L
F
H
G
I
K
J of k-space, or in other words
L
2
3
F
H
G
I
K
J allowed values of k per unit volume of k-space. Hence the number states of energy
between E and E + dE per unit volume of the specimen
D(E) dE =
z z
F
H
G
I
K
J =
F
H
G
I
K
J d k
3
3 3
1
2
1
2
d
3
k (11)
where the integral is extended over the volume between two surfaces of constant energy E and
E + dE. Now, let dS
E
denote an element of area in k-space on the surface for which the energy
is equal to E. The element of volume in k-space between the constant energy surfaces at E and
E + dE based on the area dS
k
is thus a cylinder of base dS
E
and of height dk
, where
dE = | dk .
k
E | = |
k
E | dk
|
k
E | =
dk
dE
F
H
G
I
K
J
1
Appendix B '
D(E) dE =
1
2
3
F
H
G
I
K
J
z
dS
E
. dk
=
1
2
3
( ) | |
z
dS
E
k
In order to take into account the spin degeneracy, i.e. the fact that each k state may
accommodate two electrons of opposite spin, we multiply this expression by 2 which yields.
D(E) =
1
4
3
dS
E
E
k
| |
(12)
It is clear that if the function E(k) is known, the density of states can be calculated from
(12). However, the mathematical form of E(k) is in most cases of practical interest so complex
that the integration can be done by numerical methods.
D(E) is intimately related to the shape of energy contours; and hence the band structure.
For the case in which dispersion relation for electron energy has the standard form
E = D
2
2
2
=
k
m*
the density of states from the analogue of the relation (9) with the difference that mass in
replaced by effective mass, can be written as
D(E) =
1
2
2
2 2
3 2
m*
/
D
F
H
G
I
K
J E
1/2
(13)
This shows that D(E) E
1/2
. Also we note that D(E) m
*3/2
that is the larger the mass
the greater the density of states.
The result (13) is very useful, but note that its validity is restricted to that region in k-
space in which the standard dispersion relation E
k
m
=
F
H
G
I
K
J
D
2 2
2 *
is satisfied. In simple metals, such
as alkali and noble metals, the relation (13) holds true until the energy contours come close to
the boundaries of the zone. It is sometimes useful to have an expression for density of states in
the energy range lying close to the top band, i.e.
D(E) =
1
2
2
3 2
m*
/
D
F
H
G
I
K
J (E
t
E)
1/2
(14)
where E
t
is the top of the valence band (E < E
t
).
'
)FFA@EN +
(a) Conduction in semiconductors by Charge Drift
(b) Conduction in semiconductors by Diffusion of Charge
(c) Barrier potential and volt-current equation for the P-N Diode.
(a) Conduction in semiconductors by Charge Drift. The free electrons and holes of the
semiconductor move in random paths due to the fluctuation of thermal energies. When an
electric field is applied along the semiconductor material, a component of velocity in the direction
of the electric field is added to the random thermal velocities. This directed motion of charge in
the semiconductor is called drift. The drift of the charge can be described in terms of the field
intensity and the conduction properties.
A current density J is defined as the charge passing through a unit area per second. In
terms of a charge density, , moving with a velocity through the plane of the observation, one
obtains
J =
amp
m
2
F
H
G
I
K
J (1)
Also = ne so J
e
= ne
e
, where
e
is the mean electron velocity. The random thermal
components of velocity will cancel across the plane and hence leaving the directed velocity
component due to the electric field.
Similarly, for holes, one obtains
J
h
= pe
h
where
h
is the mean hole velocity. Since
e
is oppositely directed to
h
, the total current density
due to both electrons and holes is
J = e(n
e
+ p
h
) (amp/m
2
) (2)
= eE n
E
p
E
e h

+
F
H
G
I
K
J
where E is the field intensity.
Appendix C '!
The conductivity of the material is defined as
=
J
E
= e(n
e
+ p
h
) (3)
where is called the charge mobility and it is defined as the velocity achieved per unit field-
intensity.
In extrinsic semiconductors the number of mobile charges is relatively fixed at n = N
D
or
p = N
A
, and the conductivity varies with impurity density. In the case of intrinsic semiconductors
the number of mobile charges created by thermal pair generation increases faster than the
mobility falls with temperature, and the conductivity rises with temperature. In an intrinsic
semiconductor the current is largely due to electrons, only small fraction is due to holes.
However, the situation in the case of metals is quite different. Metals have large and relatively
fixed numbers of mobile charges. As temperature rises, the increased agitation of the atomic
nuclei reduces the mobility of the charges and the conductivity of metal falls with rising
temperature.
Resistivity =
1 1

=
+ e n p
e n
( )
The mobility of electrons in a semiconductor is considerably greater than that of holes.
(b) Conduction in semiconductors by diffusion of charge. Fig. C.1 illustrates a charge
density gradient in non-homogeneous material.
It will produce a net movement of charge by diffusion.
N
e
t
c
h
a
r
g
e
d
e
n
s
i
t
y N
A
0
x
1
x
2
J
Hole diffusion
Electron diffusion
N
D
.EC + Chargc ucnsity grauicnt in cxtrinsic (non-homogcncous) scmiconuuctors.
The thermal agitation velocities remain random and due to this there will be more free
electrons in high density n-region with velocity components directed toward the p-region then
there will be electrons in the p-region with velocity component directed toward the n-region.
The result is a net movement or diffusion of electrons from n-region to p-region. This represents
a diffusion current. Similarly, we have net movement or diffusion of holes from p to n region.
J
h
= e D
h

dp
dx
(4)
where D
h
is a diffusion constant for holes, defined as D
h
=
1
2
x where is the mean
thermal velocity reached by the holes between collision with atoms. dp/dx is the density
gradient of holes in the + x direction.
'" A Textbook of Electronics
Similarly we can show that the electron gradient, a diffusion current density due to
electrons moving to the left is given by
J
e
= eD
e

dn
dx
(5)
Being of electrons, this is a conventional current to the right. Obviously, both currents
move to the right and are additive.
Diffusion current exists because of a space gradient of charge density. Drift current is
created by an electric field, whereas diffusion can occur in a region free of electric fields, a
condition that is present in many semiconductor devices.
Since drift and diffusion currents may occur simultaneously, we can use eqs. (4) and (5)
and the current densities to obtain the total current densities as
J
h
= e
h
pE eD
h

dp
dx
(6)
J
e
= e
e
nE + eD
e

dn
dx
(7)
The net current density
J = J
n
+ J
e
= e[n
e
+ p
n
]
E
+ e D
dn
dx
D
dp
dx
e h
L
N
M
O
Q
P
(7 (a))
(c) Barrier potential and volt-current equation for the P-N diode. To use a P-N junction
diode as a circuit element we need to know its volt-ampere relationship. We now develop the
voltage-current equation for the PN diode from the barrier potential and the N and P charge
densities.
We have the diffusion constant D and the charge mobility as measure of the
thermodynamic actions of charges. The Einstein relation is
D D kT
e
e
e
h
h

= =
(8)
where kT/e represents the mean thermal energy of the particles and is often called the voltage
equivalent of temperature, at room temperature 300 K, kT/e = 0.026 V and it is dimensionally
equal to work per unit charge. It could be stated in Volts and it is often called the voltage
equivalent of temperature, V
T
, i.e.
V
T
=
kT
e
T
=
11600 ,
At room temperature (~ 300 K), one finds that kT/e = 0.026 V.
The current must be zero in the open circuited pn junction. Considering the electron
component, we set J
e
= 0 in eq. (7) and we obtain
dn
n D
e
e
=
E dx
Appendix C '#
Using eq. (8), we can write as
dn
n
e
kT
= E dx (9)
Integrating the above expression across the junction, [Fig. C.1] from x
1
to x
2
, we obtain
dn
n
e
kT x
x
n
n
p
n
=
z z
1
2
( E) dx
where the subscript p indicates a p material and subscript n indicates an n material.
The integration of E from x
1
to x
2
leads to the value of the barrier potential V
B
with n
positive to P. We obtain the result of integration as
n
n
n
p
= exp [V
B
/(kT/e)] (10)
Eq. (10) is the relation between the electron density at the junction face in the n region
to the electron density at the junction face in the p-region. The exponent is a measure of the
average ability of charges to transit the barrier or represents the ratio of barrier height to
average energy of the charges.
Similarly by putting J
h
= 0 in eq. (6), one obtains
p
p
p
n
= exp [V
B
/(kT/e)] (11)
Eqs. (10) and (11) are called as Boltzmann equations. Since the barrier potential is a
function of the equilibrium densities of the mobile charges at the junction faces and hence on
the junction faces the electron charge densities are n
n
~
N
D
and n
p

~
n
i
2
/N
A
. Using these results,
we obtain from eq. (10) as
V
B
=
kT
e
N N
n
A D
i
ln
2
(12)
Eq. (12) is the relation between the barrier potential and the impurity densities that
create it.
In Fig. 1.24, a small potential V is applied to the junction, with the positive terminal to
p as a forward voltage. A forward current appears as i to the p terminal. The depletion region
is supplied with mobile charge from the source V and, with electrons added to n and holes
added to p, the junction barrier potential is reduced to V
B
V.
The pn-Diode Equation: One can derive a quantitative expression for the diode current
from the barrier potential and the n and p charge densities.
From equation (8), we have
D
e
/
e
= D
n
/
n
= kT/e (13)
In the open circuited p-n junction the current must be zero. Thus the expression for
current flow, i.e. Eq. (7) gives
dn
n D
e
e
=
E dx =
e
kT
E dx (14)
'$ A Textbook of Electronics
One can integrate the above expression across the junction from x
1
to x
2
, the transition
region, as
dn
n
e
kT x
x
n
n
p
n
=
z z
1
2
( E) dx (15)
The integration on the right hand side leads to the value of the barrier potential V
B
with
n positive to p. The Eq. (15) thus reduces to
n
n
/n
p
= exp (eV
B
/kT) (16)
Eq. (16) gives the ratio of electron densities at the junction depletion region face) in the
n region to that in the p-region. Similarly, one obtains
p
p
/p
n
= exp (eV
B
/kT) (17)
Equations (16) and (17) are Boltzmanns equations. If a small potential V is applied to
the junction with the positive terminal to the p-type, i.e. as a forward bias, the junction barrier
potential reduces to V
B
V. The mobile charge from the source moves to the depletion region
(electrons added to n and holes to p). The current far from the junction is due to majority
carriers. The diffusion at the junction is by minority carriers predominantly in the n-region.
Thus under the forward bias condition, Eq. (17) for the hole density on the right face of the
junction (n-region) becomes
p
n
+ p
n
= p
p

e p e
e V V kT
p
eV kT
B B

=
( ) / /
[ ]
p
n
= p
p
e
eV
kT
eV kT
B
F
H
G
I
K
J
L
N
M
O
Q
P
/
exp 1 (18)
Similarly, one can obtain the electron density at the left face of the junction (p-region)
as
n
p
+ n
p
= n
n
e n e
e V V kT
n
eV kT
B B

=
( )/ /
[ ] e
eV/kT
n
p
= n
n
e
eV kT
B
/
[e
eV/kT
1] (19)
Using eqn. (2) and assuming the junction area A, one obtains the total current across
the junction as
i = JA

= Ae [n
p
V
e
+ p
n
V
n
]
= Ae [n
n
V
e
+ p
p
n
]e
eV kT
B
/
[e
eV/kT
1] (20)
= I
s
[e
eV/kT
1] = I
0
[exp (eV/kT) 1] (21)
Eq. (21) is known as the diode equation (plotted in Fig. 1.28). Eq. (21) shows that for V
positive, i.e. forward bias, the current increases rapidly and for V negative, i.e. reverse bias,
the current decreases to a limiting valueI
s
. This current is called the reverse bias saturation
current. I
s
is small due to the low rate of pair generation at ambient temperature, but it is
strongly temperature dependent. The ratio of forward to reverse current at a given applied
voltage is called rectification ratio.

C Physical Properties of Elements and Semiconductors: Hapter

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C Physical Properties of Elements and Semiconductors: Hapter

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CHAFTER 1

FhysicoI Froperties of EIements

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Here x is thickness or width of depletion layer and A is junction cross-sectional area.

sin b sin a + cosh b cos a = cos k (a + b) (25)

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