Combined R&FR V7

RESONANCE AND
FERRORESONANCE
IN POWER
NETWORK
WG C4.307
Resonance and ferroresonance in power network

Page 1
Members

Type Members Names with country of origin (two letter code)
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XXXXX (XX) B. XXXXX (XX)

Copyright 2011
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ISBN : (To be completed by CIGRE)


Page 2

ISBN : (To be completed by CIGRE)


Page 3
Resonance and
ferroresonance in power
networks
No Extra Cover page or blank pages
Use CIGRE abbreviations insofar as possible: Study Committee SC, Technical Brochure TB, Working Group WG
Joint Working Group JWG, Technical Committee TC
Photos: must be of reasonable definition (preferably 300 dpi); all figures and tables must be titled, legible and numbered
with legends provided.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ....... 8
CHAPTER 2 UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND FERRORESONANCE ........ 11
2.1 Introducing Resonance ................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Ideal Series Resonant Circuit ......................................................... 13
2.1.2 Damped Series Resonant Circuit ................................................... 15
2.2 Introducing Ferroresonance ............................................................ 18
2.2.1 Effect of circuit capacitance .......................................................... 21
2.2.2 Effect of source voltage ................................................................ 22
2.2.3 Effect of circuit losses ................................................................... 23
2.3 Physical Description of a Ferroresonant Oscillation ......................... 24
2.4 Types of Ferroresonance Oscillations .............................................. 28
CHAPTER 3 TYPICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LEADING TO RESONANCE IN
SHUNT COMPENSATED CIRCUITS ......................................... 30
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 30
3.1.1 Typical transmission circuit capacitances ..................................... 30
3.2 Potentially Risky Configurations in Shunt Compensated
Transmission Networks ................................................................... 31

Page 4
3.2.1 Uneven Phase Operation in Sigle-Circuit or Multi-Circuit
Corridors ........................................................................................ 31
3.2.2 Three-Phase switching in Multi-Circuit Corridors ......................... 34
CHAPTER 4 RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION
CIRCUITS ............................................................................ 39
4.1 Background..................................................................................... 39
4.2 Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase Conditions ......................... 40
4.2.1 Physical description ...................................................................... 40
4.2.2 Steady State Approximate Analytical Solution ............................. 42
4.2.3 Mixed Overhead Line and Cable Circuits ....................................... 46
4.2.4 Effect of Neutral Reactors ............................................................. 47
4.2.5 Effect of Reactor Core Construction .............................................. 51
4.3 Detailed Analysis of Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase
conditions using Time-Domain Simulation ..................................... 52
4.3.1 Steady State Analysis .................................................................... 52
4.3.2 TOV Analysis ................................................................................ 55
4.3.3 Summary of Parameters Affecting Line Resonance in Open-
Phase Conditions ............................................................................ 60
4.4 Line Resonance in Multiple-Circuit Corridors .................................. 62
4.4.1 Background .................................................................................. 62
4.4.2 Physical description ...................................................................... 62
4.4.3 Approximate Analytical Solution ................................................... 62
4.4.4 Case Study .................................................................................... 64
4.4.5 Summary of resonance issues associated with parallel shunt-
compensated circuits ...................................................................... 72
4.5 Practical Consequences of Line Resonance ..................................... 72
4.6 Mitigation Options .......................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 5 NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS LEADING TO FERRORESONANCE74
5.1 Ferroresonance in voltage transformers (VT)................................... 74
5.1.1 VT and Circuit Breaker Grading Capacitors ................................... 75
5.1.2 VT and Double Circuit Configuration ............................................ 76
5.1.3 VT in Ungrounded Neutral Systems with Low Zero-Sequence
Capacitance .................................................................................... 76
5.2 Ferroresonance in power transformers ........................................... 79

Page 5
5.2.1 Transformer Terminated Transmission Line in Multi-Circuit
Right of Way ................................................................................... 79
5.2.2 Lightly Loaded Transformer Energized via Cable or Long Line
from a Low Short-Circuit Capacity Network .................................... 80
5.2.3 Transformer energized in one or two phases ................................ 81
5.2.4 Transformer connected to a series compensated line. .................. 83
CHAPTER 6 MODELLING AND STUDYING ................................................ 84
6.1 Analytical Solution Methods ............................................................ 84
6.2 Digital Simulation Methods ............................................................. 85
6.3 Modelling of Network Components ................................................. 86
6.3.1 Extent of the Network Model ........................................................ 87
6.3.2 Overhead Line Model .................................................................... 87
6.3.3 Transformers ................................................................................ 87
6.3.4 Shunt Reactors.............................................................................. 88
6.3.5 Other Substation Equipment ......................................................... 88
6.4 Sensitivity to Parameters ................................................................. 89
6.4.1 Effect of Magnetising Curve .......................................................... 89
6.4.2 Influence of Circuit Breaker Closing Times .................................... 90
6.4.3 Influence of the Damping in the Circuit ........................................ 91
CHAPTER 7 MITIGATION OF FERRORESONANCE ...................................... 92
7.1 Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance ..................................................... 92
7.1.1 Secondary Open Delta Resistor ..................................................... 92
7.1.2 Secondary Wye Resistor .............................................................. 93
7.1.3 Secondary Wye Resistor in Series with a Saturable Reactor ......... 95
7.1.4 Other Mitigation Options .............................................................. 95
7.1.5 Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance in Ungrounded Neutral Systems . 96
7.2 Mitigation of Power Transformer Ferroresonance ............................ 99
ANNEX A RESONANCE EXAMPLES ...................................................... 108
A. 1 Resonance Associated with Single-phase Autoreclose Switching of
275 kV Shunt Reactor ................................................................... 108
A. 2 Line Resonance experienced in 275 kV Double Circuit as a result of
System Expansion ......................................................................... 112

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A. 3 Line Resonance Experienced in 400 kV and 225kV Subnetwork De-
energized for Black-Start Test ...................................................... 119
A. 4 Study of Resonant Over-voltages following three phase or single
phase tripping in a shunt compensated transmission line ............. 128
ANNEX B FERRORESONANCE EXAMPLES ............................................ 146
B. 1 Power Transformer Terminated Line Ferroresonance .................... 146
B. 2 Power Transformer Ferroresonance Teed from a Multi-Circuit Right
of Way ........................................................................................... 150
B. 3 Ferroresonance of a VT in Ungrounded Neutral Configuration ...... 152
B. 4 Ferroresonance with Power Transformer Connected to Series
Compensated Line ........................................................................ 157
B. 5 Ferroresonance of a Line VT with Circuit Breaker Grading
Capacitors .................................................................................... 164
B. 6 Ferroresonance on Transformer Enerisation from a Weak Network 170
ANNEX C MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETISATION CHARACTERISTICS ...... 173
C. 1 Measurement of magnetizing curve by free oscillations ................ 173


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.
Explain the technical reasons for conducting the study (system/component failures,
industrial/manufacturer needs for technical improvement, inadequateness of present standards, etc...).
Include reference, if any, to previous CIGRE work on the subject. A limited number of technical or numerical
data may be included, only if strictly necessary.


Page 8
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESONANCE AND
FERRORESONANCE
Ambitious targets for CO
2
emissions reductions and integration of renewable generation in power systems are
driving the need for significant reinforcement of existing transmission grids worldwide, in particular new high
capacity corridors are required to transfer large amounts of power from remote areas with high natural resources
(i.e. wind, wave, tidal, etc) to the demand centres. At the same time, increasing public opposition to the
construction of new overhead transmission infrastructure is driving the need for new pylon designs that minimise
visual impact resulting, in many cases, in smaller structures with reduced clearances. Where possible, existing
corridors are being upgraded and operated at higher voltage levels with minimum modifications to the towers, thus
increasing its transfer capability. Furthermore, the use of underground cable circuits at HV and EHV transmission
levels is steadily increasing, not only in congested urban areas, but also in remote rural locations in order to reduce
the environmental impact of new circuits in specific designated zones and to accelerate the connections of wind
farms to the transmission grids. These fundamental changes in the design and technology used for new
transmission circuits are resulting in an increased system capacitance that is shifting the natural resonant
frequencies closer to the power frequency (50/60 Hz).
Generally, resonance occurs in electric circuits that are able to periodically transform energy from an electric field
into a magnetic field and vice versa. It is the characteristic of such a circuit that if some single energy is delivered
into it (either of electric or magnetic type), the circuit then starts to oscillate with the so called free oscillations.
Generally, electric circuits are more complex, consisting of many capacitances and inductances that can exchange
energy between them via various paths and their free oscillations are composed from several frequencies.
It is important to note that resonance referred to in this document applies to fundamental frequency resonance only
and that if harmonics are present, either due to saturation of transformers or reactors, the resonance conditions
may change significantly.
Carlsson originally suggested in 1974 [62] that the installation of shunt reactors could increase recovery voltage on
a disconnected phase during single-pole reclosing and that resonance could occur at high degrees of shunt-
compensation on transmission lines (~ 90%). However, this publication did not provide any insight into the
phenomenon and it was mostly concerned with the extinction of secondary arc current. Reference [65] (1982)
presented field measurements and simulations of open-phase over-voltages in a 750 kV transmission line between
Hungary and USSR. The measured values (1.3 pu) were lower than those predicted by simulation (2.5 pu) and it
was concluded that the discrepancy was due to the limitation effect of corona losses.
The first publication providing a physical description of resonance on shunt-compensated transmission lines during
open phase conditions was [66], in 1984. where a detailed study of over-voltages induced during open-phase
condition in HV lines equipped with shunt-reactors, as may occur in conjunction with single phase reclosure and
stuck circuit breaker poles was presented. This work emphasised, again, the over-voltage limiting effect provided
by corona losses.
Reference [67] provides a very good review of aspects associated with single phase tripping and reclosing, namely
transient stability, extinction of secondary arc current, resonance, protection and operational issues. Reference [68]
deals with non-optimum phase and neutral reactor schemes for single-phase reclosing in single and double circuit
transmission lines. The effect of incomplete phase transposition is also considered. Studies and considerations
taken for a 500kV AC circuit in the south western USA in the early nineties examining the application of neutral
reactors to reduce over-voltages due to resonance is covered in Error! Reference source not found. and Error!
Reference source not found.. Simulation studies carried out for a 500kV shunt compensated transmission line in
Vietnam where temporary over-voltages up to 1.74 pu following the single-phase opening of the circuit have been
identified is described in [73]. A review of the basic resonant circuit formed during one or two open-phase(s)
conditions can be found in Error! Reference source not found. where the impact of various circuit design
parameters are examined. The same publication presents a case study related to a system expansion with
incomplete line transposition.

Page 9
In its simplest terms ferroresonance can be described as a non-linear oscillation due to the interaction of an iron
core inductance with a capacitance. Ferroresonance is a harmful low frequency oscillation where a non-linear
reactance can be driven into saturation and oscillate with the circuit capacitance giving rise to severe overvoltages,
with almost no damping when the amplitude is moderate, and in some circumstances, excessive overcurrents. If
enough energy provided by the source is coupled to compensate for the circuit losses, this oscillation can be
sustained indefinitely.
The phenomenon came to light in 1920 when it was first reported by P. Boucherot [1] to describe an oscillation
between a power transformer and a capacitance. Ferroresonance became a problem in the early part of the
century when small isolated systems were interconnected by long transmission lines [2][3], but at that time the
cause of the problem was not understood. In the 1940's and 1950's the phenomenon recurred as the electricity
supply industry expanded and longer overhead distribution systems were introduced into service. The terms
neutral instability [4] and voltage displacement [5] were also used in the 1940s referring to the same or very
similar phenomenon, although the term ferroresonance has prevailed. In 1966 it was discovered that, for cable
connected transformers, ferroresonance can occur even on circuits as short as 200 metres [6][7]. Since that time
many studies and investigations have been carried out and a number of papers have been published on the
subject.
Ferroresonance has focussed the attention of numerous researchers over the years with the outcome of extensive
literature addressing the subject, proposing analysis methods and reporting cases experienced by various utilities.
However, despite the vast amount of research and technical documentation available, it still remains widely
unknown today and is somehow misunderstood by many power network utilities. It is especially feared by power
systems operators, as it seems to occur randomly, normally resulting in the catastrophic destruction of electrical
equipment and the consequent adverse effect on the reliability of power network. This general lack of awareness
means that ferroresonance is, by and large, overlooked at the planning and design stages or, at the other extreme,
held responsible for inexplicable equipment failures [8]. However, use of non linear tools enabled a better
understanding of the behaviour and these networks and the determination of the different solutions (harmonic,
pseudo-periodic and even chaotic) along with the importance of the magnetic flux as a crucial state variable, even if
some areas have to be investigated further, especially when transformers are highly non linear.
Sustained overvoltages seen under ferroresonance conditions could stress equipment such as transformers and
breakers, and would cause surge arresters to conduct over extended period of time exceeding their energy
dissipation capabilities. A catastrophic failure of a surge arrester for example could damage other key equipment in
a substation and could also cause injury to personnel if they happen to be around at the time. Therefore
ferroresonance primarily poses a health and safety hazard to the substation personnel due to the risk of explosion
in the work place. An example of such threat is reported in [9], where a 230 kV voltage transformer failed
catastrophically causing damage to equipment up to 33 meters away. Nobody was injured in this instance but the
experience illustrates the danger that site operators are exposed to.
Many examples of plant equipment destruction caused by ferroresonance have been documented in the literature.
A very interesting case is reported in [10] where 72 voltage transformers were destroyed in a 50 kV network in
Norway. An investigation revealed that all the damaged voltage transformers were from the same manufacturer
whereas voltage transformers from other two manufacturers which were also in service survived the incident. The
catastrophic destruction of a 230 kV voltage transformer in a cogeneration substation is reported in [11]. The failure
of a 275 kV voltage transformer in UK is reported in [12]. Other typical examples include the explosive failure of a
115 kV voltage transformer in Canada [13], the explosive failure of voltage transformers in France [8] and the total
destruction or partial damage of six 345 kV voltage transformers as reported by a USA utility [14].
From an operational point of view, ferroresonant oscillations represent a potential threat to power network plant
integrity. The large current pulses caused by transformer saturation may overheat the transformer primary winding
and might, eventually, cause insulation damage. The large voltage oscillations, temporary or sustained, can also
cause severe stresses on the insulation of all the equipment connected to the same circuit. Surge arresters are
normally the most vulnerable apparatus in substations due to their low TOV withstand capabilities [15].

Page 10
Ferroresonance can also have an adverse effect on the reliability of the power network. The forced outage of part
of a substation due to an equipment failure can cause severe overloading in other parts of the network that could
evolve into a cascade tripping [16] or result in extended outage of major power network assets.
From an economic perspective, ferroresonance could represent unaccounted costs to electric power utilities. The
cost of ferroresonance could be twofold: on the one hand, there is an explicit cost associated with the replacement
of damaged or destroyed electrical plant, and on the other hand, there are high or perhaps even severe costs
associated with a reduced network security and possible disconnection of some customers. Quantification of the
latter is not a straightforward task and could only be fully quantified if performed on an individual case basis.
Ferroresonant waveforms are highly distorted, with a large content of harmonics and sub-harmonics. This in turn
results in a degraded power quality and possible misoperation of some protection relays [17]. Transformer
overheating may also occur under Ferroresonant conditions due to excessive flux densities. Since the core is
saturated repeatedly, the magnetic flux finds its way into the tank and other metallic parts. This can cause charring
or bubbling of paint in the tank [18].
In general, it is possible to distinguish temporary overvoltages from ferroresonance; in the former, the amplitude
may be very high initially but decreases rapidly in most cases. As harmonics are involved, the fluxes circulating in
the iron core may lead to overheatings in the core, and especially affecting the insulation between laminations.
These points are not covered by the IEC 60071-1, describing the standard tests to be performed, when addressing
stresses linked to insulation coordination issues. IEC 60071-1 enables the specification and subsequent purchase
of transformers for new installations, but does not address particular aspects related to the behaviour of the
equipment under operating conditions such as transformer energization.
As ferroresonance may induce a long duration phenomena, the overvoltages may affect the aging of the insulation,
but may not lead to the insulation breakdown of the bushing, as an example, in the case when the amplitude of the
overvoltages are moderate.
It is interesting to note that ferroresonance is normally accompanied by a very loud and characteristic noise caused
by magnetostriction of the steel and vibrations of the core laminations. This noise has been described in [18] as
the shaking of a bucket of bolts or a chorus of thousand hammers pounding on the transformer from within.
Although difficult to describe, the noise is definitely different from and louder than that heard under normal
operating conditions at rated voltage and frequency.


Page 11
CHAPTER 2 UNDERSTANDING RESONANCE AND
FERRORESONANCE
2.1 Introducing Resonance
For every combination of L and C in a linear circuit, there is only one frequency (in both series and parallel circuits)
that causes X
L
to exactly equal X
C
; this frequency is known as the natural or resonant frequency. When the
resonant frequency is fed to a series or parallel circuit, X
L
becomes equal to X
C
, and the circuit is said to be
resonant to that frequency.
The simplest oscillatory circuit consisting of one capacitor C and one inductor L is lossless (ideal) and the
frequency of its free oscillation is given by the well known formula of

Eq. 2-1

Free oscillations are also called natural oscillations because their frequency is given by passive parameters of a
circuit. For example the circuit of Figure 2-1 with C = 100 nF and L = 100 H starts to oscillate in an undamped
fashion following switching with a frequency of free oscillation being f
n
= 50,33 Hz.

Figure 2-1 Undamped inductance voltage (red) and current (green) oscillations

However, in reality, these free oscillations are typically damped as shown in Figure 2-2 (a resistor R value of 1 k
has been used in this example). Mostly, this damping comes in the form of resistive components and hence the
transformation of electric or magnetic energy into thermal energy. Losses, provided by the resistive components
could be high enough to dampen the oscilations within a couple of cycles (Figure 2-3 a) or they could be too high
and create an aperiodical transient where all available energy is transformed to losses in the just fi rst cycle of
oscillation ((Figure 2-3 b).
There are two types of resonance: series and parallel resonance. Basic schematic circuits for series and parallel
resonance are given in Figure 2-4. In the case of series resonance all elements are in one branch with common
current, resonance being excited by an alternating voltage source. Voltages U
LS
and U
CS
reach high amplitudes
but have opposing phase angles. In steady state the combined impedance introduced by L and C is zero and the
circuit current is limited only by the resistor R. In the case of parallel resonance, all elements are in parallel and
they have the same voltage, resonance being excited by an alternating current. Currents I
CP
and I
LP
reach high
amplitudes but have opposing phase angles. In steady state the combined impedance introduced by L and C is
infinite and the resonant voltage is limited only by the conductance G.
(file Fig_2-1.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L - c:U_C -U_L
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 [s]
-10.0
-7.5
-5.0
-2.5
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
[kV]
-1.0
-0.6
-0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
[A]
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L (plotted in left Y axis)
Green waveform: Current in inductor L (plotted in right Y axis)
UL IL

Page 12

Figure 2-2 Damped inductance voltage (red) and current (green) oscillations

Figure 2-3 Example of damped oscillations

(f ile Fig_2-2.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - c:U_R -U_L
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 [s]
-10.0
-7.5
-5.0
-2.5
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
[kV]
-1.0
-0.6
-0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
[A]
UL IL
(f ile f ig_2-3a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - c:U_R -U_L
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 [s]
-7.0
-3.6
-0.2
3.2
6.6
10.0
[kV]
-0.70
-0.36
-0.02
0.32
0.66
1.00
[A]
UL IL
(f ile f ig_2-3b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - c:U_R -U_L
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 [s]
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
[kV]
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
[A]
UL IL
a) strongly damped with R = 10 k b) aperiodical transient with R = 10 k

Page 13

Figure 2-4 Series and parallel resonant circuits

One important characteristic of the parallel resonant circuit is that the excitation can be realized only by a current
source. In power networks, the possibility of forming parallel resonant circuits are higher than that of series
resonant circuits but with no current sources to excite them, parallel resonance at power frequency is encountered
less frequently. Hence most of this publication deals with series resonant circuits.
The following sections introduce various concepts of series resonance in its transient form from zero initial
conditions to the final resonant state, rather than straight into the steady state form, as the former is of more
concern in power networks. In understanding series resonance it is appropriate to choose either the voltage across
the inductor (U
L
) or the capacitor (U
C
) as the circuit parameter to monitor. Both are of equal magnitude but with
phase angle shift of 180 between them. U
L
has been selected in this document.
2.1.1 Ideal Series Resonant Circui t
Figure 2-5 shows the transition of an ideal lossless series oscillatory circuit with natural frequency f
n
= 50 Hz to
resonance following the connection of a 50 Hz voltage source. From the start the phase angle between the voltage
across the inductor (U
L
) and the source voltage (U
S
) is kept at 90 giving maximum increase to the resonant
voltage with amplitude rising linearly proportional to U
S
.t for every period. As a function of time, the rise of the
resonant voltage amplitude U
L
(as an envelope) is given by
()
Eq. 2-2

If we consider the 50/60 Hz network frequency as constant, the rise time of resonant voltage on this basic circuit is
independent of the circuit parameters, except for the magnitude of the excitation voltage U
S
. In this particular
example the resonant voltage rate of rise is 1570.8 kV/s, based on U
S
value of 10 kV. The capacitor and inductor
values used in this resonant circuit were 101.32 nF and 100 H respectively, but the same result could be obtained
for different combinations of capacitor and inductor values with the same product, such as 1013.2 nF and 10 H
respectively.
a) Series b) Parallel
Comment [mve1]: I dont think this sentence is
very clear. In fact, Im not sure what exactly are we
trying to say here and how is the 90deg shift
relevant to the maximum increase of resonant
voltage or rate of rise of the voltage in the inductor
or capacitor. In fact, simulations show that the
phase shift is higher than 90 deg for a few cycles
after the switch is closed.

Page 14

Figure 2-5 Ideal series resonance oscillation with
n
=
S

The rate of rise of the resonant current amplitude can be obtained as U
S
/2L and the current is given by
()

Eq. 2-3

which is independent of frequency but inversely proportional to inductance L. This implies that various 50 Hz series
resonant circuits with various combinations of LC parts have the same rise time of resonant voltage under similar
excitation conditions, but the currents fed from the voltage source and their rise is inversely proportional to
resonant inductance. In the above example the two LC combinations that give the same resonant voltages U
L
,
would therefore result in different rise time for the resonant current (50 A/s and 500 A/s). It is of interest to note that
the active impedance of the resonant circuit is also changing in time according to
()
()

Eq. 2-4

Introducing a small difference between the voltage source frequency f
s
and the free oscillation natural frequency f
n
,
will result to a phase shift between voltage phasors that will change slowly as shown in Figure 2-6, and the
resonant overvoltage will fluctuate within a sine wave envelope in accordance with:
()
)]

Eq. 2-5

and for sufficiently small differences between
S
and
n
it can be simplified to
()
[ (
(
) (
(
)]

Eq. 2-6

In the above equation the cosine term represents the main resonant oscillation whereas the sinus term determines
the envelope (or low frequency beat) of the oscillation resulting from the interaction between the source and the
resonant circuit. If f
n
< f
s
, the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 0 and then to 270 (Figure 2-6 a). For f
n
>
f
s
the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 180 and then to 270 (Figure 2-6 b). In both cases the energy
exchange has the same periodic time evolution. Initially an energy pump from the source to the resonant circuit is
apparent and as the resonant current starts lagging this exchange decreases and at 90 phase shift it stops. At this
point the exchange of energy is reversed and it flows back to the source as can it can be seen in Figure 2-7 where
a pulsed power is flowing into the resonant circuit (red with +ve polarity) and then back to the source (red with ve
(file Fig_2-5.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L - v:U_S
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [s]
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
[kV]
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
[MV]
US
UL
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L (plotted in righ Y axis)
Green waveform: Source Voltage (plotted in left Y axis)
Comment [mve2]: when I measure the
frequency of the beat in the simulated waveform I
obtain Ts-Tn rather than (Ts-Tn)/2. Maybe I'm
measuring it incorrectly???

Page 15
polarity). Integral value of the pulsed power gives the accumulated energy in the oscillatory circuit (green) which
periodically reaches a maximum and then returns back to zero.

Figure 2-6 Ideal series resonance oscillation with
n
=
S

Figure 2-7 Energy exchange between source and resonant circuit
2.1.2 Damped Series Resonant Circuit
In real power networks resonant circuits are never lossless and hence it is important to visualise the effect of losses
on the resonant cases explained in the previous section.
In a damped resonant circuit with f
n
= f
s
, the resonant voltage will not increase above all limits as in ideal lossless
circuits, because the resonant current is limited by the resistance R, the maximum resonant voltage being given by:
(f ile Fig_2-6-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - v :U_S
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 [s]
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
[kV]
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L (114.632H)
Green waveform: Source Voltage
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L (88.0H)
(file fig_2-6-b.pl4; x-var t) v:U_L - v:U_S
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 [s]
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
[kV]
(fs+fn)/2 =
48.35 Hz
(fs+fn)/2 =
51.65 Hz
(fs-fn) = 3.3 Hz (fn-fs) = 3.3 Hz
a) fn = 46,7 Hz < fs b) fn = 53,3 Hz > fs
(file fig_2-6-b.pl4; x-var t) p:U_S -XX0001 e:U_S -XX0001
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 [s]
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
[kW]
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
[J]
Power Energy
Red waveform: Power exchange (plotted in left Y axis)
Green waveform: Energy exchange (plotted in right Y axis)

Page 16
()
Eq. 2-7

An example of this is given in Figure 2-8 obtained for a series resonant circuit with a 101.32 nF capacitor and a
100 H inductor with a source voltage of 10 kV, for two different resistance values (300 O and 1000 O).
Introducing a small difference between the excitation frequency f
s
and the frequency of free oscillation f
n
results to a
modulated wave. There is a transient after source switching, which for small damping seems to look as a
modulated wave of the ideal lossless circuit but with a difference. In the higher loss case the modulating waves are
damped step by step until the transition to steady state where the resonant voltage reaches a constant amplitude
and a fixed phase angle difference to source voltage, as shown in Figure 2-9 (L = 114.63 H, C = 101.32 F, U
s
=
10kV, f
n
= 46.70 Hz).
If f
n
< f
s
, the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 0 and then, due to losses, it cant reach 270 but settles to
a value between 0and 90 following the non-zero minimum point of the modulation as seen in Figure 2-10.
Similarly for f
n
> f
s
the angle between phasors moves from 90 to 180 and then to a value between 0and 90
following the non-zero minimum point of the modulation.
It is worth remembering that there is always some stray capacitance involved with inductors and this should always
form part of a circuit that can be re-configured by use of Thevenin theory to a series LC circuit.

Figure 2-8 Resonant voltage with damping and
n
=
S

Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L - Resistance 300 O U
L
(max) = (10 * e * 100)/300 = 1047.2 kV
Green waveform: Voltage across inductor L Resistance 1000 O U
L
(max) = (10 * e * 100)/1000 = 314.16 kV
fig_2-8-a.pl4: v:U_L -
fig_2-8-b.pl4: v:U_L -
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 [s]
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
[MV]
Comment [mve3]: maybe we should explain
what is this difference? In my simulations, the only
difference that I can see is the amplitude of the
oscillation and a very smal phase shift.
Comment [mve4]:

Page 17

Figure 2-9 Damped series resonance oscillation with
n
=
S

Figure 2-10 First over-swing and steady state of damped resonance (R = 1000 O) with
n
=
S

a) R = 300 b) R = 1000
(f ile f ig_2-9-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
[kV]
(f ile f ig_2-9-b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L -
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
[kV]
UL UL
(f ile f ig_2-10-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - v :U_S
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 [s]
-120
-80
-40
0
40
80
120
[kV]
(f ile Fig_2-10-b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - v :U_S
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 [s]
-120
-80
-40
0
40
80
120
[kV]
A) fn < fs = 50 Hz
B) fn > fs = 50 Hz
Red waveform: Voltage across inductor L
(f ile f ig_2-10-a.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - v :U_S
2.95 2.96 2.97 2.98 2.99 3.00 [s]
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
[kV]
(f ile Fig_2-10-b.pl4; x-v ar t) v :U_L - v :U_S
2.95 2.96 2.97 2.98 2.99 3.00 [s]
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
[kV]

Page 18
2.2 Introducing Ferroresonance
In simplest terms, ferroresonance can be described as a non-linear oscillation arising from the interaction between
an iron core inductance and a capacitor. In this section, the description of ferroresonance follows from the previous
sections with a basic analysis of a series resonant circuit and gradually increases the level of complexity to provide
a comprehensive explanation of the physical mechanism driving the nonlinear oscillation of ferroresonance. In this
initial description, a very simplified model of the magnetic core is used for a better understanding of the basic
mechanisms driving the oscillation.
As with linear resonance, ferroresonant circuits can be either series or parallel, albeit only series configurations are
typically encountered in transmission networks. It should be noted that parallel ferroresonant configurations are
common in distribution systems with ungrounded or resonant neutral connections. For simplicity and better
understanding, the analysis and explanation that follows is based on series resonant and ferroresonant circuits
only.
A basic series R-L-C circuit is shown in Figure 2-11 which includes the series connection of a voltage source U
S
, to
a capacitor C, an inductor L, and a resistor R. All circuit elements are linear.
Making use of phasor analysis, the equation describing the steady-state behaviour of the above circuit expressed
as:
[(
) (

)] (
)
Eq. 2-8

where e
s
is the angular frequency of the voltage source.

Figure 2-11 Linear Series R-L-C circuit

Resonance occurs when the capacitive reactance equals the inductive reactance at the driving frequency. Under
this condition the circuit impedance becomes purely resistive.

Eq. 2-9

The most characteristic feature of a linear R-L-C circuit is that there is only one natural frequency, f
n
, at which the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. This frequency is given in Eq. 2-1.
A graphical solution of Eq. 2-8 is presented in Figure 2-12 [18]. The circuit resistance has been ignored for
simplicity. The voltage-current representation results in two straight lines with slopes equal to the inductive and
capacitive reactances respectively. The intersection of both lines yields the current in the circuit. Figure 2-12 (a)
shows the operating point for a source frequency f
S
below the circuit natural frequency f
n
. It can be seen that the
capacitive reactance, X
C
, exceeds the inductive reactance, X
L
, resulting in a leading current and a high voltage
across the capacitor. Similarly, Figure 2-12 (c) shows the operating point for a source frequency above the circuit
natural frequency, f
n
. It can be seen that in this case the inductive reactance, X
L
, exceeds the capacitive reactance,
X
C
, resulting in a lagging current and a high voltage across the inductor. Finally, Figure 2-12 (b) shows that, for a
.t)
C
L

R
UL
UC
UR
I
US(t) = US.sin(eS.t)

Page 19
source frequency equal to circuit natural frequency f
n
, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal and the
two lines become parallel, yielding a solution of infinite current and voltages.
In practice all circuits have some sort of losses, even if in small amounts. These resistive losses have the effect of
limiting the amplitude of current and voltages in resonance as follows:

Eq. 2-10

Eq. 2-11

Eq. 2-12

Q is normally referred as the circuit quality factor, which gives an indication of the resistive losses and the circuit
gain. It becomes apparent that low circuit losses lead to high capacitor and inductor voltages under resonant
conditions.

Figure 2-12 Graphical Solution of Linear Series L-C circuit

Replacing the inductor L of the linear series R-L-C circuit of Figure 2-11 with a saturable magnetic core, a series
ferroresonant circuit can be obtained as shown in Figure 2-13. What differentiates ferroresonance from linear
resonance is that the inductance is not constant; therefore the ferroresonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-1
becomes a moving target. This means that a range of circuit capacitances can potentially lead to ferroresonance at
a particular source frequency. Another characteristic of ferroresonance is the existence of several solutions. This
distinctive behaviour will be illustrated next.

I

U

I
U

U
S
X
L
X
C

I
U

(a) f
S
< f
n

Capacitive Circuit Resistive Circuit

Inductive Circuit
I

I
(b) f
S
= f
n
(c) f
S
> f
n
X
L
X
C
X
L
X
C
U
S U
S
U
C
U
C
U
S
U
S
U
S
U
L
U
L
U
L
=

-U
C
=

Page 20

Figure 2-13 Series Ferroresonant Circuit

An in-depth analysis of the circuit shown in Figure 2-13 is complex and requires the solution of nonlinear differential
equations. The circuit analysis, however, can be simplified considerably and yet provide a thorough conceptual
description of ferroresonance by limiting the calculations to power frequency and steady state [19]. It should be
noted that the presence of the non-linearity introduces harmonics in the current and voltage waveforms. However,
for simplicity, the description that follows assumes perfect sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms oscillating at
power frequency. Without this assumption, the application of phasor analysis would be invalid. Furthermore, the
resistive losses are also ignored. Under these particular conditions, the equation describing the steady-state circuit
behaviour at power frequency can be expressed as:
()
()

Eq. 2-13

where X
C
is the circuit capacitive reactance at power frequency, e
S
is the source angular frequency and U
L
(I) is the
voltage of the saturable magnetic core. This voltage across the non-linear inductance is a function of the current,
which is characteristic of the ferromagnetic inductance and is solely dependent on the number of turns and the
dimensions of the iron core.
Eq. 2-13 has been solved graphically in Figure 2-14 [18] where the voltage across the non-linear inductance (U
L
(I))
must always be equal to the sum of the source voltage U
S
and the voltage across the capacitor, which is
proportional to the current. The intersection of the U
S
+ I.X
C
line with the non-linear U
L
(I) curve gives the solution
for the current in the circuit. The first distinctive characteristic of this graphical visualisation is that there are three
possible solutions:
- Point 1 represents a normal operating point in which the circuit is working in an inductive mode, with
lagging current and low voltages. Voltage and current related by a linear expression. The inductive voltage
is greater than the capacitive voltage by the source voltage. This is a stable solution.
- Point 3 represents a ferroresonant state in which the circuit is working in a capacitive mode, with leading
current and high voltages. Voltage and current are related by a non-linear expression. The capacitive
voltage is greater than the inductive voltage by the source voltage. This is also a stable solution.
- Point 2 is another circuit solution but it represents an unstable state.
The stability of solutions 1 and 3 can be demonstrated with the following considerations: at point 1, a small
increase or decrease of the current will result in a linear change in the capacitor voltage (U
C
), acting in the same
direction of the source voltage (U
S
). However, the counteracting inductive voltage (U
L
) changes more intensely with
current due to its steeper slope, therefore the current will return to its original value. Similarly, at point 3, a small
variation in current will result in a small variation in inductive voltage (U
L
), acting in the same direction of the source
voltage (U
0
). The counteracting capacitive voltage (U
C
) changes more intensely due to its steeper slope, and
therefore the current will return to its original value again.

C

R

L
I
C

R
I
uL
uM

UR
U
C
U
L

Page 21
The instability of point 2 can be demonstrated by slightly increasing the current, which results in an increase in the
capacitor voltage (U
C
), acting in the same direction of the source voltage (U
S
). In this case, the steepness of (U
S
+
I.X
C
) is higher than the opposing voltage (U
L
), therefore the current will continue increasing away from point 2. A
similar consideration can be made for a small decrease in current.

Figure 2-14 Graphical Solution of the Series Ferroresonant Circuit

2.2.1 Effect of ci rcui t capaci tance
Figure 2-15 illustrates the effect of the circuit capacitance on the onset of ferroresonance. It can be seen that as the
capacitance value is reduced, the slope of the U
S
+U
C
line increases and the three possible solutions move
towards the vertical axes. Figure 2-15 (a) shows that there is a critical capacitance value, C
critical
, for which the
operating points 1 and 2 disappear and the only possible solution is a ferroresonant state, point 3. Similarly, Figure
2-15 (b) shows that higher capacitances result in a reduced slope in the U
S
+U
C
line. It is inferred that, for a large
enough capacitance value, the operating points 2 and 3 disappear and the only possible solution is a normal state,
point 1. This result has practical implications in transmission substations since it suggests that ferroresonance can
be avoided by the connection of a large capacitance.
-2000
-0.06

UL(I)
U
I
US + UC
2
1
3
UL
US
UC
U0
UC
US
UL XC
US
UL
UC
I
Solution at
point 1
UL
UC
I
Solution at
point 2
(unstable)
UL
UC
I
Solution at
point 3
US
US

Page 22

Figure 2-15 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of Circuit Capacitance

2.2.2 Effect of source voltage
The effect of the source voltage is illustrated in Figure 2-16. As this voltage is increased, the U
S
+U
C
line moves
upwards to a point in which there is no intersection in the first quadrant. Operating points 1 and 2 disappear and
the only possible solution is point 3, which is a ferroresonant state. Note also that the disconnection of the source
voltage, U, may not result in the elimination of ferroresonance, as illustrated with state 3. As U is removed, the
operating point simply slides to the right, but remains in the saturated region. This statement assumes that the
circuit has no losses, which is not true in reality, but it serves to illustrate the fact that, in theory, the ferroresonant
oscillations can be self-sustained.

Figure 2-16 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of the Source Voltage

-2000
-0.06

C1
C2
Ccritical
C1 > C2 > Ccritical
3

Reducing Capacitance

-2000
-0.06
C1
C2
C3
C1 < C2 < C3
1
Increasing Capacitance
(a) Effect of reducing Capacitance (b) Effect of increasing Capacitance
U U
I
I
US US
UL(I) UL(I)

-2000
-0.06

3

3
Removing Source Voltage
U
I
Increasing Source
Voltage
U
L
(I)
U
1
< U
2
< U
critical
U
1
U
2
U
critical

Page 23

2.2.3 Effect of ci rcui t losses
A more thorough analysis of series ferroresonance can be performed by introducing the damping effect of the
circuits resistive elements. If these losses are considered, the equation describing the steady-state behaviour of
the circuit shown in Figure 2-13 can be written as:
)
Eq. 2-14

( )

Eq. 2-15

|
()
( )
Eq. 2-16

The first term of Eq. 2-16 is plotted in Figure 2-17 (a). It is shown that multiple solutions are possible when the U
C

line intersects the U
L
(I) curve in the saturation region. To the left of I
C
the circuit operates in an inductive mode
whereas the region to the right of I
C
corresponds to a capacitive mode. The second term of Eq. 2-16 is an ellipse
that crosses the horizontal axis at I = U
S
/R and the vertical axis at U
S
. This is plotted in Figure 2-17 (b). The
intersection of this ellipse with the U
L
(I)-U
C
curve gives the current in the circuit. Figure 2-17 (b) shows three
possible solutions for a circuit resistance R
1
, which represents a low loss scenario. As previously demonstrated,
solution 2 is an unstable state, solution 3 is a ferroresonant state and solution 1 corresponds to a normal state. If
the circuit losses are increased, Figure 2-17 (c) shows that the multiplicity of solutions can disappear. In particular,
if I
C
> U
S
/R there is only one possible solution which corresponds to a normal operating state. This finding implies
that the onset of ferroresonance can be avoided by increasing the circuit losses.
It should be noted that the above qualitative description is an over simplification of the complex ferroresonant
behaviour that has been limited to steady state and power frequency. It is emphasized that this analysis is not valid
for operation in the saturated region of the inductance, i.e. under ferroresonance, due to the high harmonic content.
The analysis, however, is perfectly valid in the linear region operation and can be used to find the boundary limiting
parameters, where the circuit ceases to operate in a linear mode. Despite its limitations, the graphical analysis has
provided a very good intuitive insight into the key features governing a ferroresonant oscillation, as follows:

- Multiple steady-states are possible in a ferroresonant circuit.
- Jump phenomena can occur where the operating point changes drastically for a small change in circuit
parameters, supply voltage or frequency.
- The circuit capacitance is critical for the occurrence of a ferroresonant state.
- Low values of capacitance favour the onset of ferroresonance.
- As the capacitance is increased, either ferroresonance or normal operating conditions may arise.
- Very high values of capacitance can prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
- As the source voltage is increased, the risk of ferroresonance is also increased.
- As the circuit losses are increased, the risk of ferroresonance is reduced.
- Unlike linear resonance, there is not a single natural frequency of oscillation in a ferroresonant circuit.
Rather, such frequency is variable depending on the intensity of the current and the magnitude of
magnetisation.
- The frequency of the ferroresonant waveforms may differ from the source voltage.

Page 24

Figure 2-17 Graphical Solution Illustrating the Effect of Circuit Resistance

2.3 Physical Description of a Ferroresonant Oscillation
The description of ferroresonance presented in the previous section, although good enough as a first
approximation, does not provide a real understanding of the mechanisms driving a ferroresonant oscillation.
Various explanations of the physical behaviour of ferroresonant circuits can be found in [8], [13], [19] and [20]. A
review of those descriptions, expanded for an enhanced understanding of this complex phenomenon, is presented
next.
Figure 2-18 shows a series R-L-C circuit with a nonlinear inductor and a switch. A two-segment piecewise linear
representation is used for the magnetizing impedance. The circuit losses are initially ignored for simplicity. The
prospective current and voltage waveforms under this simplification are presented in Figure 2-19. Initially, the
capacitor charge is equal to U
0
. At t = 0 sec the switch is closed and the capacitor C starts discharging through the
inductor working in its linear region, L
unsat
. The frequency of this oscillation is:

Eq. 2-17

This is a very slow discharge process due to the large value of L
unsat
. Nevertheless, the flux linkage slowly builds up
in the magnetic core until saturation is reached. This is shown in Figure 2-19 at t = t
1
, when the magnetizing
reactance drops to its saturated value, L
sat
.
As L
sat
is a few orders of magnitude smaller than L
unsat
the capacitor discharges very rapidly. The frequency of this
new oscillation is e
2
:
0
0.00 0.01
( )
2 2
0
I R E

I X V
C L

IC
I
V
2
0
R
E

0
E
1
0
0.00 0.01
( )
2 2
0
I R E
I X V
C L

IC
I
V
1
0
R
E

0
E
1
2
3
0
0.00 0.01
I X V
C L

VL(I)
VC
I
V
Capacitive
Zone
Inductive
Zone
Xc
UC
Inductive
Zone
Capacitive
Zone
I X U
C L

U
(a) First Term of Equation 2.16
I X U
C L

I X U
C L

( )
2 2
I R U
s

US US
( )
2 2
I R U
s

(b) Solution of Equation 2.16 with low resistance value R1
(b) Solution of Equation 2.16 with high resistance value R2
(US / R1) (US / R2)
U
U
UL(I)

Page 25

Eq. 2-18

Figure 2-18 Basic Ferroresonant Circuit

Between t
1
< t < t
2
all the energy stored in the electric field of the capacitor is transferred into the magnetic field of
the coil. At t = t
2
the voltage has dropped to zero and the current reaches its peak. The magnetic f ield then
collapses and starts charging the capacitor in the opposite polarity. At t = t
3
the current through the inductor falls
into the linear region and the capacitor starts charging through L
unsat
. As L
unsat
is a few orders of magnitude higher
than L
sat
, the frequency of this oscillation e
1
is much lower than the previous one. The current decreases very
slowly and, consequently, very little variation can be appreciated in the capacitor voltage. At t = t
4
the voltage in the
capacitor reaches U
0
and the discharge process starts again. It can be observed that a full ferroresonant period
comprises two full charge-discharge cycles.
Using Faradays law, the flux linkage at any time can be calculated as the area under the voltage-time curve. As
such, the flux linkage from t
3
to t
5
is equal to the shaded area in Figure 2-19 (a). This can be expressed as:

Eq. 2-19

)
Eq. 2-20

Eq. 2-20 can be used to calculate the period of the ferroresonant oscillation as follows:

Eq. 2-21

Eq. 2-22

Eq. 2-23

I
u
L
unsat
L
sat
u
sat
I
sat
C
L
R
U
0

Page 26

Figure 2-19 Physical Behaviour of a Ferroresonant Circuit without Losses

Eq. 2-23 indicates that the frequency of a ferroresonant oscillation is directly linked to the circuit capacitance, C, the
initial charge of the capacitor, U
0
, and the non-linear characteristics of the magnetic core: L
sat
and u
sat
.
It has been shown that the basic ferroresonant circuit of Figure 2-18 behaves like a two-state oscillator switching
between two frequencies: low frequency during the unsaturated state and high frequency during the saturated
state. In the absence of losses, this process will repeat indefinitely with a period T
ferro
. In reality, the circuit losses
will cause the amplitude of the oscillation to decay. It is a direct consequence of Faradays law that, the lower the
voltage amplitude applied to the magnetic core, the longer it will take to reach saturation. As a result, the frequency
of the ferroresonant oscillation will decrease gradually until the process dies out. Figure 2-20 illustrates a
ferroresonant oscillation affected by circuit losses. It is shown that the voltage magnitude decreases with each
transition of polarity. This is due to the high (I
2
R) losses occurring during the saturated state. These losses are very
low during the unsaturated period due to the low current flow and, hence the voltage remains almost constant.
It has been illustrated that the introduction of losses makes the system dissipative, which causes the amplitude of
the oscillations to decay. In order for the ferroresonant oscillations to be maintained, energy needs to be supplied
externally to counteract the losses. This is shown in Figure 2-21, where a voltage source has been introduced to
represent an external source of energy. It is shown that the combined effect of the source voltage and the
oscillatory trapped charge is to raise the voltage at the reactor terminals just before each transition. If this voltage
rise is enough to compensate for the voltage drop caused by the resistive losses during the transition in polarity,
the oscillations is maintained indefinitely.
(a) Voltage, Flux and Current Waveforms (b) Flux-Current relationship
t
t
t
U
0
-U
0
u
sat
-u
sat
I
sat
-I
sat
t
1
t
2
t
5
t
3
t
4
L
sat L
unsat
I
u
t = 0
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
L
sat
L
unsat
Charge L
Discharge C
Charge C
Discharge L
Charge L
Discharge C
Charge C
Discharge L

Page 27

Figure 2-20 Physical Behaviour of a Ferroresonant Circuit with Losses

With regards to the voltage source two situations could arise in a ferroresonant circuit [13]:
1) If the initial ferroresonant frequency calculated with Eq. 2-23 is higher than the source frequency, there is a
chance that the decaying frequency of the oscillations will lock at the source frequency. This will result in
fundamental frequency ferroresonance, as illustrated in Figure 2-22 (a) where T
L-C
=T
S
, or f
L-C
=f
S
.
2) If on the other hand the initial oscillation frequency calculated with Eq. 2-23 is lower than the source
frequency, there is a chance that it will lock at an odd sub-multiple of the power frequency. This will result
in sub-harmonic ferroresonance, as illustrated in Figure 2-22 (b) where T
L-C
=3T
S
, or f
L-C
=f
S
/3.

Figure 2-21 Effect of Coupled Voltage on Ferroresonant Waveform

U
0
U
t
U
1
U
2
U
3
U
0
> U
1
> U
2
> U
3
> .
T
0
< T
1
< T
2
< .
T
0
T
1
T
2
C
L

US
U
C
U
L
-5
0
5
0 0.035

U
t
U
L
U
C
U
S

-5
0
5
0 0.035

-5
0
5
0 0.035

(a) Fundamental Frequency Ferroresonance (b) Sub-Harmonic Ferroresonance
U
L
U
C
U
S

U
S

U
C
U
L
T
S

T
L-C

T
S

T
L-C

U
t t
U

Page 28
Figure 2-22 Derivation of Ferroresonant Modes
2.4 Types of Ferroresonance Oscillations
Ferroresonant waveforms are categorised according to their periodicity. Based on field experience, experimental
observations and extensive numerical simulations, ferroresonance has been categorised into the following modes.
- Periodic Ferroresonance Modes
Periodic ferroresonance is characterised by waveforms that repeat themselves. These waveforms are highly
distorted, presenting a dominant frequency that can be either fundamental or sub-harmonic.
In the case of fundamental frequency ferroresonance, the oscillations are mainly at the same frequency as the
driving source. Although the supply frequency is dominant, a large number of harmonics is normally present. In
case of sub-harmonic ferroresonance, the oscillations normally arise at frequencies that are integral odd sub-
multiples of the fundamental frequency. Two examples of typical periodic ferroresonant waveforms are shown in
Figure 2-23.

Figure 2-23 Typical Periodic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveforms

- Quasi-Periodic Ferroresonance Modes
The quasi-periodic regimes are characterised by non-periodic oscillations having, at least, two main frequencies.
The fundamental frequency is normally present along with lower sub-harmonic frequencies. A distinctive
characteristic of these waveforms is the presence of a discontinuous frequency spectrum.
This ferroresonant mode has not been reported very frequently as a stable state. It was first observed in France
[26] during a black-start restoration test in a 400 kV system. It has also been referred to as transitional chaos in
[27] to describe a state that has no indication of periodicity but still shows features of fundamental and sub-
harmonic ferroresonance. This behaviour suggests that the operation is continuously shifting between various
periodic modes without stabilising into any particular one. An example of a quasi -periodic waveform is given in
Figure 2-24.

20 or 16.6ms 60 or 50ms
(a) Fundamental Frequency (b) 3
rd
Sub-Harmonic Frequency

Page 29
Figure 2-24 Typical Quasi-Periodic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform

- Chaotic Ferroresonant Modes
Chaotic ferroresonance waveforms show an irregular and apparently unpredictable behaviour and a broadband
power spectrum with a sharp component at system frequency. This ferroresonant mode is characterised by a non-
periodic waveform with a continuous frequency spectrum. Although the possibility of chaotic ferroresonant modes
has been widely described in literature, [26] to [33], this mode has only been predicted in EHV substations for
unrealistic values of source voltage, circuit capacitance or losses [29] to [32]. For instance, reference [29] reported
that chaotic ferroresonance could only be obtained for a source voltage in excess of 25.26 pu when realistic values
of transformer losses were employed. It is noteworthy that no practical experience of a sustained chaotic
ferroresonance in an EHV substation has been reported to date. A typical simulated example is shown in Figure
2-25.

Figure 2-25 Typical Simulated Chaotic Ferroresonant Voltage Waveform


Page 30
CHAPTER 3 TYPICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES LEADING TO
RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED CIRCUITS
3.1 Introduction
Power frequency resonance conditions in shunt-compensated transmission circuits have been described in
literature [62] - [67], and are explained in detail in section 4.2. As a rule of thumb, shunt compensation degrees in
excess of 70% can lead to high overvoltages following single-phase switching operations or a result of circuit
breaker malfunctioning. The resonant condition arises from the interaction between the shunt-reactor and the
phase capacitance in the disconnected phase(s), with energy coupled from the energised phases via the inter-
phase capacitances. The key elements required to form a resonant circuit are:
1. Shunt reactors directly connected to a transmission circuit
2. Inter-phase capacitive coupling in the transmission circuit
3. At least one phase is disconnected
4. At least one phase is energised
The phenomenon of power frequency resonance in a shunt-compensated multi-circuit Right-of-Way has been
described in literature [75]-[80], and is explained in detail in section 4.4. This resonant condition occurs when a de-
energised shunt-compensated circuit is in close proximity to another energised circuit. As a rule of thumb, shunt
compensation degrees in excess of 60% can lead to high overvoltages for typical inter-circuit capacitive coupling.
The resonant condition arises from the interaction between the shunt-reactors and the line capacitance in the
disconnected circuit, with energy coupled from the nearby parallel circuit(s). The key elements required to form a
resonant circuit are:
1. Shunt reactors directly connected to a de-energised transmission circuit
2. Inter-circuit capacitive coupling with a energised transmission circuit
Typical network topologies with risk of resonance at power frequency are presented in the next subsections. This
list is not exhaustive and additional topologies can also result in resonant circuits during unsusual network
topologies, such as blackstart restoration operations (see Appendix ANNEX A A. 3 for an example).
Both, series and parallel, circuit capacitances are important when assessing potential resonances. Parallel
capacitances are due to the phase-to-ground capacitance of the lines or cables, shunt capacitor banks, and to a
lesser extent stray capacitances in all apparatus. Series circuit capacitances appear in the grading capacitors of
circuit-breakers, phase-to-phase capacitances in single-circuit lines and inter-circuit capacitance in multi-circuit
corridors.
3.1.1 Typi cal transmi ssion ci rcui t capacitances
Typical circuit capacitances reported in various transmission systems are listed below, for illustration purposes:
- France : The typical phase-to-ground capacitance (C
0
) of overhead-lines is in the range of 10-13 nF/km for
400 kV lines and 8-9 nF/km for 225 kV and 90 kV lines. The inter-circuit capacitance of 400 kV double
circuit-lines is in the range 0.2-1.2 nF/km. The cable capacitance to ground is in the range of 100-200
nF/km for 400 kV and 225 kV XLPE cables and 150-350 nF/km for 90 kV XLPE cables.
- Ireland : 400 kV overhead-line (single circuit): C
+
= 11.59nF/km, C
0
= 7.77nF/km
- 750kV overhead line between Hungary and USSR [65]: (Hungarian section): C
+
= 13.25nF/km, C
0
=
9.72nF/km
- Saudi Arabia : 380kV double circuit line [81]: C
+
= 13.76 nF/km, C
0
= 7.78 nF/km
- 500 kV circuits in Thailand [71]:

Page 31
o Single circuit construction: C
ph-gr
= 8.55 nF/km, C
ph-ph
= 1.64 nF/km (i.e. C
+
= 13.47 nF/km, C
0
=
8.55 nF/km
o Double circuit construction:
Configuration C
ph-gr
C
ph-ph

C
ckt-ckt

(perfect
transposition)
C
ckt-ckt

(like phases
in incomplete
transposition)
C
ckt-ckt

(unlike
phases in
incomplete
transposition)
Both circuits in
service
5.39 nF/km 1.76 nF/km 1.05 nF/km 0.74 nF/km 1.21 nF/km
One circuit in service
with the other circuit
grounded
8.55 nF/km 1.76 nF/km --- --- ---

- 400 kV circuit construction in Hungary [72].
Line configuration C
0
[nF/km] C
+
[nF/km] C
ph-ph
[nF/km]
Conventional 400 kV flat arrangement 8.235 10.958 0.907
Conventional 400 kV delta arrangement 5.95 8.77 0.94
Compact 400 kV
(2 x 500mm2 phase conductors)
7.03 12.55 1.83
Compact 400 kV
(3 x 300mm2 phase conductors)
7.46 13.95 2.16

- 500kV circuit capacitances in China: C
+
= 13.06 nF/km, C
0
= 8.5 nF/km [reference ???]

3.2 Potentially Risky Configurations in Shunt Compensated
Transmission Networks
3.2.1 Uneven Phase Operation in Sigle-Circui t or Mul ti -Circui t
Corridors
Uneven phase operation in transmission circuits can be:
- Desirable: single-phase tripping schemes applied to improve system transient stability, system reliability and
availability, reduce switching overvoltages and/or reduce shaft torsional oscillations in large thermal units [67]
or
- Undesirable: mal-operation in circuit breakers
o during an opening operation: one (or two poles) may get stuck, resulting in two (or one) phases being de-
energised while one (or two) phase remains energised (see Figure 3-1 A and B).
o during a closing operation: one (or two) poles my fail to close, resulting in two (or one) phases being
energised while one (or two) phases remain de-energised (see Figure 3-1 B and C).


Page 32
If the transmission line is equipped with shunt reactors, a series resonant circuit can be formed between the de-
energised phase(s) shunt reactor(s) and the circuit capacitance. This phenomenon can occur in both, single circuit
and multi-circuit corridors and it is discussed in detail in section 4.2, CHAPTER 4.
This type of resonance can only occur if the disconnected phase(s) shunt reactor remains electrically connected to
that phase, as would normally happen with line connected shunt-reactors. However, some unusual situations may
also arise during commissioning or back-start restoration paths where the inductance comes from busbar
connected shunt reactors. This is illustrated in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-1 Uneven phase operation due to circuit-breaker mal-operation

A
B
C
Us
Us
Us
De-energised phase
De-energised phase
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole
during opening operation

A
B
C
Us
Us
Us
De-energised phase
Energised phase
Stuck Pole
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles
during opening operation
Stuck Pole
Energised phase
(C) One stuck circuit breaker pole
during closing operation

A
B
C
Us
Us
Us
De-energised phase
Energised phase
(D) Two stuck circuit breaker poles
during closing operation
Energised phase
Pole fails to close

A
B
C
Us
Us
Us
De-energised phase
De-energised phase
Energised phase
Pole fails to close

Pole fails to close


Page 33

Figure 3-2 De-energisation of Line and Busbar with shunt-reactors connected to the
Busbar

A B C
De-energised phase
Energised phase

A
B
C
Stuck Pole
De-energised phase
(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole during Busbar + Line De-Energisation
A B C
De-energised phase
Energised phase

A
B
C
Stuck Pole
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles during Busbar + Line De-Energisation
Stuck Pole
Energised phase

Substation-A
Substation-B
Substation-A
Substation-B
Busbar Shunt-Reactors

Page 34

Figure 3-3 Energisation of Line and Busbar with shunt-reactors connected to the
Busbar

3.2.2 Three-Phase switchi ng i n Multi -Circui t Corri dors
Figure 3-4 shows a typical double circuit tower with one circuit in service (I) and another circuit out-of-service (II).
Due to inter-circuit capacitive coupling, voltage is induced in an open (not earthed) line if the parallel circuit is
energized. The normal induced voltage in the de-energized circuit (U
circuit_II
) can be estimated as:
Eq. 3-1
where C
s
is the inter-circuit capacitance between circuits I and II and C
p
is the capacitance to ground of circuit II
(see Figure 3-4).

(A) One stuck circuit breaker pole during Busbar + Line Energisation
(B) Two stuck circuit breaker poles during Busbar + Line Energisation
Pole fails to close
A B C
De-energised phase
Energised phase

A
B
C
Energised phase

Substation-A
Substation-B
A B C
De-energised phase
Energised phase

A
B
C
De-energised phase

Substation-A
Substation-B
Pole fails to close
Pole fails to close

Page 35

Figure 3-4 Capacitances in Double-Circuit Transmission Line

This normal induced voltage in the de-energised circuit is typically just a small fraction of the inducing voltage. As
an illustrative example, the normal induced voltage in the 500kV double circuit refereed to in section 3.1.1 is
approximately 16.3% of the inducing 500kV source, assuming C
s
= 1.05 nF/km and C
p
= 5.39 nF/km.
However, the installation of shunt reactors can introduce resonant conditions at (or near to) power frequency for
certain operating topologies and degrees of shunt compensation. Under resonance (or near resonance) conditions,
the induced voltages on the de-energised circuit are several order of magnitude higher than those calculated with
Eq. 3-1 and can over-stress the line connected equipment. Early identification of these topologies will allow
implementation of cost-effective mitigation solutions at the design stage. When assessing these scenarios, it is
essential to consider both aspects related to the resonant overvoltages: (i) amplitude and (ii) duration.
Figure 3-5 illustrates three operating scenarios in which resonance can be observed in a shunt-compensated de-
energised circuit, for certain size of shunt reactors.
- Case 1 reproduces a possible situation where one circuit is energised while the parallel circuit is out of
service. A resonant circuit can be formed in the de-energised circuit depending on the size of the installed
shunt reactors. This is a steady-state condition i.e. the resonant condition will be present in the de-
energised circuit as long as the parallel circuit is energised.
- Case 2 reproduces a possible situation where a fault occurs in the energised circuit while the parallel circuit
is out of service. A resonant circuit can be formed in the de-energised circuit depending on the size of the
installed shunt reactors. This is a temporary condition i.e. the resonant condition will be present only for
the duration of the fault in the parallel circuit.
- Case 3 reproduces a scenario where there is a fault in the de-energised circuit while the parallel circuit is in
service. This scenario could arise as follows:
o During the maintenance outage of one circuit with the other parallel circuit still in service (or
energised), earths are applied to the outaged circuit. A resonant circuit can be formed if one or two
phases of the earthing switch fail to close (i.e. effectively creating a SLG or LLG fault on the de-
energised circuit) resulting in high overvoltages on un-earthed phase(s) of the outaged circuit. The
resonant condition will last as long as the unbalanced earthing remains or as long as the parallel
circuit is energised.
Circuit I
In Service
Circuit II
Out-of-Service

Page 36
or
o During normal operation of both circuits, a SLG or LLG fault occur in one of them and it is cleared
by three-phase tripping i.e. the faulted circuit is now de-energised. A resonant circuit can be
formed resulting in high overvoltages on the healthy phase(s) of the tripped circuit. This is a
temporary condition i.e. if resonance occurs, high overvoltages will be present in the de-
energised circuit only for the duration of the fault (i.e. until extinction of secondary arc) or until the
auto-recloser brings the circuit back into service.
An example of typical amplitude and location of resonant overvoltages on a 765kV double circuit
construction is presented in Figure 4-25 (CHAPTER 4) for the three cases described above as a function
of the shunt compensation degree.

Figure 3-5 Risk of resonance in shunt compensated double-circuit lines

The scenarios shown in Figure 3-5 can electrically arise under various network topologies, other than the standard
double-circuit construction with shunt reactors directly connected to the line. A few examples are illustrated in the
following subsections. These examples may seem unrealistic in normal operation conditions, but they can arise as
a result of extraordinary switching operations during commissioning, maintenance of equipment or during
emergency situations as part as a black-start restoration path. Identification of these critical topologies is essential
to guarantee that the equipment is not overstressed.
3.2.2.1 Busbar Shunt Reactors + Double Circuit Transmission Line

Closed Circuit #1
Circuit #2

Closed
Open Open 1
Risk of resonance for shunt
compensation degrees of
60-70% and 100%

Closed Circuit #1
Circuit #2

Closed
Open Open 2
60-70% and 100%
Resonant condition in
steady-state
Resonant condition for
duration of fault

Closed Circuit #1
Circuit #2

Closed
Open Open 3
60-100%
Resonant condition for
duration of fault

Page 37
This example presents two credible topologies leading to resonance in a double-circuit transmission line due to the
interaction with busbar shunt reactors. The dangerous topology arises when the busbar (with the shunt reactor)
and one of the circuits are de-energized while the parallel circuit remains energized from a remote end, thus
coupling energy to the reactor + de-energized circuit combination.

Figure 3-6 Double-Circuit Line and Busbar Shunt Reactors
Topology 1:
Figure 3-6 (a) shows a busbar section in substation B with two line feeders and one shunt reactor connected to it.
Ckt ii is energized from substation A and open at substation B. A resonant circuit can be formed upon opening the
parallel Ckt i circuit breaker in Substation A. This topology effectively leaves the busbar shunt reactor directly
connected to the de-energised circuit. Resonance occurs between the busbar shunt reactor and the capacitance of
the de-energised circuit (Ckt i), with energy coupled from Ckt ii, via inter-circuit capacitive coupling.
Topology 2:
Figure 3-6 (b) shows another situation where resonance can occur in a similar network topology. In this case, Ckt ii
is energized from substation A and open at substation B while Ckt i is connected to Substation B (without voltage)
but open at Substation A. A resonant circuit can be formed upon closing the shunt-reactor circuit breaker. The
resonant circuit is identical to the previous topology.
3.2.2.2 Power Transformer, Tertiary Shunt Reactors and Double Circuit
Transmission Line
This example presents two possible topologies leading to resonance in a double-circuit transmission line due to the
interaction with shunt reactors connected to the tertiary winding of a power transformer. The dangerous topology
arises when the transformer (with the tertiary shunt reactor) and one of the circuits are supposedly de-energized
while the parallel circuit remains energized from a remote end, thus coupling energy to the transformer/reactor +
de-energized circuit combination.
Similarly to the example described in section 3.2.2.1 for busbar shunt reactors, Figure 3-7 shows the network
topology where a resonant circuit can be formed. The description of the switching scenarios and topologies is the
same as in section 3.2.2.1, with the circuit reactance arising from the series combination of tertiary reactors and
power transformer reactance.
A
A
B
B
Ckt i
Ckt i
Ckt ii
Ckt ii

Page 38

Figure 3-7 Double-Circuit Line and Transformer Tertiary Shunt Reactors

a)
b)

Page 39
CHAPTER 4 RESONANCE IN SHUNT COMPENSATED
TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS
4.1 Background
The application of shunt reactors to long transmission circuits has been common practice for many years as a
passive and economical means to compensate for the effect of distributed line capacitance. The shunt reactors
compensate for the reactive power surplus in case of reduced power transfer, load rejection or an open
transmission line end, limiting steady-state over-voltages. Shunt reactors are usually required in EHV overhead
lines longer than 200 km Error! Reference source not found..
The degree of shunt compensation, k, provided by a reactor bank is quantified as a percentage of the positive
sequence susceptance of the circuit to which it is applied:
100
1
100
) (
) ( 1
100 [%]
2

=
= =
+ +
+
+
C L
C
L
B
B
k
s
s
s
C
L
e
e
e

Eq. 4-1

where L
+
is the shunt reactor inductance per phase (positive sequence), C
+
is the positive sequence line
capacitance and e
s
is the system angular frequency.
Typical degrees of shunt compensation for overhead circuits are in the range of 60%-80%, although higher values
have been reported in literature [81], [82]. Shunt compensation degrees close to 100% are normally required for
EHV cable circuits due to their higher capacitance.
Notwithstanding the main objective of limiting steady-state over-voltages in lightly loaded or open transmission
circuits, the installation of shunt reactors can result in induced voltages above nominal values under certain
resonant conditions. A resonant circuit can be formed between the shunt reactors and the line capacitance when
one or more phases are de-energized. Energy is coupled into the resonant circuit via capacitive coupling from
energized conductor(s) in same circuit or from parallel circuits.
The resonant conditions can be the result of:
1. Uneven open-phase conditions in a shunt compensated transmission circuit i.e. at least one phase is
disconnected while the other phase(s) remain energized. This condition can arise from the use of single-phase
tripping and autoreclosing schemes (SPAR) or from the mal-operation of circuit breakers with independent
operating mechanisms on each phase. During line energization, one phase could be left open while the other
two phases are energized due to a stuck pole in the circuit breaker. Similarly, two phases could be left open
while the other phase is still energized as a result of a stuck pole during line de-energization. Energy is coupled
into the resonant circuit via the phase-to-phase capacitances. Reference [66] provides a very good insight into
this resonant condition.
2. Disconnection of one circuit in a shunt compensated double-circuit line, while the parallel circuit remains
energized. Energy is coupled into the resonant circuit via the circuit-to-circuit capacitances. References [75] to
[80] deal with this resonant condition in great level of detail.
These resonant conditions will be analysed in detail in the next subsections.


Page 40
4.2 Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase Conditions
4.2.1 Physical description
The following assumptions and simplifications are made in order to describe the basic mechanisms of line
resonance in a shunt compensated circuit operated with one or two phases open (de-energized):
1. The transmission circuit is fully transposed and without losses.
2. All circuit elements are linear.
3. The circuit series impedance is neglected.
4. Shunt reactors are applied to compensate for k of the circuit capacitance (Eq. 4-1Error! Reference source
not found.)
5. There is no inter-phase magnetic coupling in the shunt reactors. This is the same as saying that the positive
and zero sequence reactances are equal.
6. The neutral point of the shunt reactors is directly connected to ground.
Given the above assumptions and simplifications, a shunt-compensated transmission circuit, at no load, can be
represented by the parallel combination of a lumped capacitance and inductance, as shown in Figure 4-1. The
lumped parameters representation is adequate because the phenomenon of interest is resonance at power
frequency.

Figure 4-1 Connection of shunt reactors in Transmission Circuit

The equivalent phase-to-ground impedance per phase (Z
eq
) is given by the following expression:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

=
=
+
+
+
+
+
100
1
1
||
1
0 0
2
0
k
C
C
L j
C L
L j
L j
C j
Z
s
s
s
s
eq
e
e
e
e
e

Eq. 4-2
where k is the degree of shunt compensation defined in Error! Reference source not found., L+ is the
shunt reactor inductance per phase (positive sequence), C
+
is the positive sequence capacitance of the circuit, C
0

is the zero sequence capacitance of the circuit
1
and e
S
is the angular frequency of the voltage source.
Three situations can occur depending on the degree of shunt compensation (k):

1
Note that the zero sequence capacitance of a symmetrical transmission circuit (C0) is the capacitance of the phase conductors
to ground (Cph-gr)

A
B
C
Us
Us
Us
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
C0 = Cph-gr C0
C0
Z
eq
L+ L+
L+

Page 41
1)
+
<
C
C k
0
100
The equivalent phase to ground impedance, Z
eq
, is capacitive.
2)
+
>
C
C k
0
100
eq
, is inductive.
3)
+
=
C
C k
0
100
eq
, is infinite.
Figure 4-2 shows the frequency scan of the equivalent phase-to-ground impedance per phase, Z
eq
, of a 400 kV
transmission line assuming two degrees of shunt compensation: 60% and 70%. The C
0
/C
+
ratio of this circuit is
0.67. Figure 4-2 (a) shows that with shunt compensation degree of 60% (i.e. < C
0
/C
+
), the phase-to-ground
impedance is capacitive at 50 Hz. Increasing the degree of shunt compensation to 70% (i.e. > C
0
/C
+
), Figure 4-2
(b) shows that the phase-to-ground impedance becomes inductive at power frequency. Although not shown in the
figure, it is clear that a shunt compensation degree of 67% would result in infinite impedance to ground at 50 Hz.

Figure 4-2 Equivalent line-to-ground impedance (Zeq) in a transmission line with
C0/C+=0.67

If we assume that one phase conductor is disconnected while the other two phases remain energized (for example
following a single phase trip), the equivalent phase to ground impedance - Z
eq
(Eq. 4-2) becomes series connected
with the inter-phase capacitances to the energized phases. This is illustrated in Figure 4-3 below. As previously
discussed, Z
eq
can be capacitive or inductive depending on the degree of shunt compensation applied to the circuit.
For low degrees of shunt compensation (i.e. k < C
0
/C
+
) Z
eq
is capacitive. The series connection of two
capacitances will not give rise to resonance issues. At k = C
0
/C
+
, Z
eq
becomes infinite, and there is a potential risk
of parallel resonance. However this parallel resonant mode cannot be excited with a voltage source, therefore k =
C
0
/C
+
is not a harmful topology. (How could the circuit be excited by a current source?). Finally, high degrees of
shunt compensation (i.e. k > C
0
/C
+
) will result in Z
eq
becoming inductive. The series connection of inductive and
capacitive elements will result in series resonance if both reactance values become equal. This series resonant
circuit is excited by the voltage source on the energized phases and gives rise to high currents and voltage across
the reactor.

(f ile EQUIVALENT_SHUNT_IMPEDANCE.pl4; x-var t) v:PHASE
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
-100
-75
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
(f ile EQUIVALENT_SHUNT_IMPEDANCE.pl4; x-var t) v:PHASE
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
0
30
60
90
120
150
*103
Frequency
Frequency
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

P
h
a
s
e

Z

51.1
51.1
Inductive Capacitive
(f ile capacitive_equivalent_shunt_impedance.pl4; x-var t) v:PHASE
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
0
30
60
90
120
150
*10
3
(f ile capacitive_equivalent_shunt_impedance.pl4; x-var t) v:PHASE
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
-100
-75
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

P
h
a
s
e

Z

47.3
47.3
Inductive
Capacitive
Frequency
Frequency
(a) 60% Shunt Compensation Degree (b) 70% Shunt Compensation Degree

Page 42

Figure 4-3 Simplified Equivalent Circuit during Single-Phase Opening

To summarise:
1. Series resonance can occur during open-phase conditions when k > C
0
/C
+
. Series resonance arises from
the parallel combination of the shunt reactor and line-to-ground capacitance in series with the inter-phase
capacitances.
2. A parallel resonant circuit between the line-to-ground capacitance and the shunt reactor exists when k =
C
0
/C
+
. However, parallel resonance cannot be excited by a voltage source; therefore this is not a harmful
topology.

In practice, typical C
0
/C
+
ratios in standard transmission line constructions are in the 0.6 0.7 range. This means
that, under the assumptions made above, there is a risk of series resonance following open-phase conditions when
the degree of shunt compensation exceeds 60-70%. The source of the series resonance is the uneven
compensation of positive and zero sequence capacitance provided by the shunt reactors.
4.2.2 Steady State Approximate Analytical Solution
Given the potential damage to line connected equipment, such as surge-arresters, instrument transformers, shunt
reactors and circuit breakers, the circuit configurations leading to excessive over-voltages need to be identified.
The key questions to be resolved for any line construction requiring shunt compensation are:
1. What are the particular reactor sizes that give rise to resonant conditions?
2. What is the induced open-phase voltage for any particular degree of shunt compensation?
A high level answer to those questions can be given using the simple formulae presented in sections 4.2.2.1 and
4.2.2.2 next. It should be noted that this is a steady-state analysis and higher temporary over-voltages can be
expected during transient conditions.
For clarity, the analytical equations will be expressed in terms of both, positive and zero, sequence capacitances as
well as phase-to-ground and inter-phase capacitances. The relationship between these magnitudes (assuming
symmetrical line construction) is as follows:
ph ph gr ph
C C C
+
+ = 3

Eq. 4-3
gr ph
C C

=
0

Eq. 4-4
The equations presented next (sections 4.2.2.1 and 4.2.2.2) are based on the assumptions made in section 4.2.1.
In particular, the assumptions of symmetrical line parameters, equal positive and zero sequence reactance for the
shunt reactors and solidly earthed reactor neutral connection apply (see section 4.2.4 for the effect of a neutral
reactor). Furthermore, it must be emphasised that losses and saturation effects have been ignored at this stage for

A
B
C
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
C0 = Cph-gr C0
C0
Z
eq
L+ L+
L+

A
B
C

Z
eq
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Us
Us
Us
Us
Us

Page 43
simplicity. In practice, the theoretical steady-state over-voltages calculated with this approach may be limited by
corona losses and reactor core saturation.
4.2.2.1 One Open-Phase
It is assumed that phases B and C are energized while phase A is disconnected (Figure 4-4 (a)). This circuit, as
seen from disconnected phase A, can be simplified as Figure 4-4 (b). By applying the Thevenin theorem, this circuit
can be reduced further as Figure 4-4 (c), which is a common series L-C circuit with a natural frequency of
oscillation equal to f
n_(1 open-phase)
:
) 2 ( 2
1
) 1 (
ph ph gr ph
n
C C L
phase open f

+
=
t

Eq. 4-5

Figure 4-4 Simplified circuit for the analysis of Line Resonance

Using circuit analysis to the equivalent shown in Figure 4-4 (c), the following expressions are derived:
- Shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at power frequency:

4.2.2.1.1 Eq. 4-6
- Induced open-phase voltage for a compensation degree k:

A
B
C
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
C0 = Cph-gr C0
C0
L+ L+
L+

A

B
C

Cph-ph
Cph-ph
(a)
(b)

L+

C0 = Cph-gr
A

UThev
2 Cph-ph + Cph-ph
(c)

L+ s
gr ph ph ph
ph ph
Thev
U
C C
C
U
+

=

2
2
Us
Us
Us
Us
Us


Page 44

Eq. 4-7
4.2.2.2 Two Open-Phases
A similar approach can be used with the two open-phases scenario, resulting in another equivalent L-C circuit with
a natural frequency of oscillation equal to f
n_(2 open-phases)
:
) 3 ( 2
1
) 2 (
ph ph gr ph
n
C C L
phases open f

+
=
t

Eq. 4-8

Similarly to the one open-phase condition, the following expressions are derived:
- Shunt compensation degree that causes series resonance at power frequency:

Eq. 4-9

- Open-phase voltage for a compensation degree k:
( )
2
1
1 3
1
2 ) 1 ( 3
1
0
2
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
(

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
C
C
k
k
C
C
U
ph ph
gr ph

Eq. 4-10
4.2.2.3 Practical Example
As an illustrative example, the analytical method presented above has been used to assess the resonant
conditions in a standard 400 kV transmission line design used in Ireland as a function of the degree of shunt
compensation. For this construction, the circuit capacitances are C
+
=11.59 nF/km and C
0
=7.77 nF/km. The line is
assumed to be fully transposed and the neutral point of the shunt reactors is directly connected to ground.
Figure 4-5 shows the natural frequencies of oscillation for one and two open-phase(s) conditions, as a function of
the degree of shunt compensation. It can be seen that the natural frequency increases with the degree of
compensation. These frequencies reach values within 0.5 Hz of power frequency for compensation degrees
between 77% and 79% during operation with two open phases and between 88% and 91% during operation with
one open-phase.


Page 45

Figure 4-5 Natural oscillation frequencies of a 400 kV shunt-compensated line under
one and two open phase conditions

Figure 4-6 presents the steady-state open-phase voltages as a function of the shunt compensation degree,
calculated using Eq. 4-7 and Eq. 4-10. These curves clearly show resonant conditions at 50 Hz for shunt
compensation degrees of 78% and 89% for the two open-phases and the one open-phase conditions respectively.
Shunt compensation degrees from 68% to 99% yield near-resonant conditions with steady-state open-phase
voltages in excess of 1 pu.
It should be noted that this illustrative example is based on a number of simplifications and the calculated voltages
refer to steady-state conditions only. In practice, temporary conditions may lead to voltages in excess to those
calculated using this analytical method. On the other hand, saturation or circuit losses may limit these over-
voltages. Notwithstanding its limitations, this method enables the engineer to carry-out a speedy estimation of the
risk of power frequency resonance for a particular circuit configuration and degree of shunt compensation. Further
detailed studies are required when it is envisaged to operate close to a resonant peak. This is typically done using
time domain simulation, as shown in section 4.3.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
[Hz]
[k]
fn_1open-phase fn_2open_phases
48.0
48.5
49.0
49.5
50.0
50.5
51.0
51.5
52.0
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
[Hz]
[k]
fn_1open-phase fn_2open_phases
91% 88% 79% 77%

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110%
k
V [pu]
Two open-phases
One open-phase

10.25
m
10.25
m
6.0 m
26.0
m
4 m
4.1 m
78% 89%
68% 99%
U [pu]
U
2
U
1

Page 46
Figure 4-6 Steady-State open-phase voltage (approximate analytical solution) in a 400
kV line as a function of the Shunt Compensation Degree, k.

To summarise :
1. A symmetrical shunt-compensated transmission circuit exhibits two series resonant peaks: one for one
open-phase and a second one for two open-phases conditions.
2. The two open-phases condition presents a resonant peak at a lower degree of shunt compensation than
the one-open-phase condition.
3. Steady-state voltages in excess of 1 pu can be expected for a wide range of shunt compensation degrees.

4.2.3 Mixed Overhead Line and Cable Circui ts
There are two main characteristics of underground cables that have a direct impact on line resonance:
1. The capacitance of an underground cable is typically in the order of 20 30 times the capacitance of an
equivalent overhead line circuit.

( )

2. HV and EHV cables have screens on each phase, therefore there is no inter-phase capacitive coupling.

The addition of a section of underground cable to an overhead transmission line increases the overall C
0
/C
+
ratio of
the circuit. This ratio changes rapidly from approximately 0.6-0.7 (no cable section) to 1 (no overhead line section).
The main implication of a higher C
0
/C
+
ratio is that the resonant peaks shift towards higher levels of shunt
compensation. This is illustrated with an example in Figure 4-7. In this example it has been assumed that the
overhead line construction is as per Figure 4-6 and the capacitance (per km) of the cable section is 25 times the
capacitance (per km) of the overhead line section. The results are plotted as a function of the proportion of cable
length in the entire length of circuit n= length
_UGC
/(length
_UGC
+length
_OHL
). It is shown that the introduction of an
underground cable section, even if small (for example 10% of circuit length), has a dramatic effect on moving the
resonant peaks towards regions of high degrees of shunt compensation (i.e. higher than 90%). In this example,
both resonant peaks are above 99% of shunt compensation when the section of cable exceeds 50% of the total
circuit length.

76%
78%
80%
82%
84%
86%
88%
90%
92%
94%
96%
98%
100%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k[%]
n[pu]
k(1_open Phase) k(2_open phases) 0% UGC
100% OHL
100% UGC
0% OHL
One Open Phase
Two Open Phases

Page 47
Figure 4-7 Location of Resonant Peaks in a Mixed Overhead/Cable Circuit vs
proportion of cable length section

The effect of increasing the proportion of cable length into a mixed transmission circuit can be explained by a
reduction in the inter-phase capacitive coupling combined with a significant increase in phase-to-ground
capacitance. The weaker inter-phase capacitive coupling means that the resonant phenomenon shifts from a series
towards a parallel condition, which requires a current source to be excited. The parallel resonant circuit is formed
between the phase-to-ground capacitance and the shunt reactor in the de-energized phase(s). This effect is
illustrated with and example in Figure 4-8. In this example, the section of cable circuit has been increased from 0%
to 70% of the total circuit length. It can be seen that the resonant peak (only one open-phase condition is shown for
clarity) moves towards 100% as the proportion of cable length in the circuit is increased. Also, it can be seen that
the resonant peaks get smaller. This is a characteristic feature of a transition from series to parallel resonance in a
series-parallel circuit.

Figure 4-8 Steady-state open-phase voltage in a Mixed Overhead/Cable Circuit as a
function of the shunt compensation degree, k, and increasing length of cable (one
open-phase)

4.2.4 Effect of Neutral Reactors
It has been demonstrated in the previous sections that the origin of the series resonant circuit during uneven open-
phase operation is linked to the unequal compensation of positive and zero-sequence line capacitances (i.e. C
0
/C
+

ratio). This resonant circuit can be detuned by the introduction of a properly dimensioned neutral reactor affecting
the zero-sequence compensation. Neutral reactors are normally used in conjunction with phase reactors in long
transmission lines to reduce the amplitude of the secondary arc current and to increase the reliability of Single-
Phase Auto-Reclosing (SPAR) schemes [62], [67]. A typical neutral reactor connection is shown in Figure 4-9.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110%
U [pu]
k
U1 (n=0) U1 (n=0.1) U1 (n=0.3) U1 (n=0.7)
n=0% UGC
k=89%
n=10% UGC
k=97%
n=30% UGC
k=99.06%
n=70% UGC
k=99.81%

Page 48

Figure 4-9 Four Reactor Compensation Scheme Equivalent line-to-ground impedance

Eq. 4-11 below gives the equivalent line-to-ground impedance per phase (Z
eq-0
) for the four-reactor bank
configuration shown in Figure 4-9.

Eq. 4-11

The minimum value of neutral inductance - L
N
- that can prevent the formation of a series resonant circuit at power
frequency is such that the equivalent line-to-ground impedance, Z
eq_0
, becomes capacitive. That minimum neutral
reactor - L
N_min
- is calculated using Eq. 4-12 below:

Eq. 4-12

Various approaches can be adopted to optimise the size of the neutral reactor for a particular circuit configuration.
Two examples are:
1. Even compensation of positive and zero sequence line capacitance [84]

Eq. 4-13

2. Compensating inter-phase capacitive coupling to minimise secondary arc current [62]-[64]
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
+
+
+
C
C C
k
C
C C
L
L
Knudsen N
0
0
_
3

Eq. 4-14

It should be noted that the application of Eq. 4-12 or Eq. 4-14 results in negative value of neutral reactors (i.e. need
for a neutral capacitor) for k < C
0
/C
+
and k < 1-(C
0
/C
+
), respectively. In practice, these are very low degrees of

A
B
C
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
Cph-ph
C0 = Cph-gr C0
C0
Z
eq-0
L+ L+
L+

LN
Us
Us
Us


Page 49
shunt compensation, which are very distant from resonant peaks. The installation of a neutral reactor for mitigating
resonance is not justified in these cases.
Figure 4-10 compares the size of the neutral reactors calculated using Eq. 4-12, Eq. 4-13 and Eq. 4-14 for a
practical range of shunt compensation degrees (i.e. between 70% and 100%). In this comparison, the ratio of the
neutral to phase reactors is plotted as a function of the shunt compensation degree. It can be seen that there is a
significant difference in the size of the neutral reactors for the lower range of shunt compensation degrees, with
Knudsens equation (Eq. 4-14) requiring the largest neutral reactors. This implies that, even though smaller neutral
reactors may be effective in detuning a potential resonant circuit, they may not be adequate for the purposes of
secondary arc extinction and successful SPAR. Both phenomena should be analysed simultaneously in order to
achieve the most cost-effective solution. Furthermore, Figure 4-10 also shows that, as the degree of shunt
compensation is increased, the three approaches converge to the same neutral reactor size.

Figure 4-10 Ratio of Neutral Reactor to Phase Reactor as a function of the Shunt
Compensation degree (C0/C+ = 0.67)

4.2.4.1 Practical Example with Neutral Reactors (Steady-State)
This example illustrates the effect of connecting a neutral reactor in the line construction described in section
4.2.2.3. Shunt compensation degree of 78% has been selected because it results in series resonance for the two
open-phases scenario when the reactors neutral is directly grounded (see Figure 4-6).
Figure 4-11 compares the steady-state open-phase voltages for the no shunt-reactor case with the corresponding
voltages arising from the connection of neutral reactors of different sizes Eq. 4-12, Eq. 4-13 and Eq. 4-14. It can
be seen L
N_Min
(calculated with Eq. 4-12,) effectively detunes the circuit from the resonance condition, however
open-phase voltages close to 1 pu are still observed. Further reductions of induced voltage are achieved with
L
N_even_k
(Eq. 4-13) and L
N_Knudsen
(Eq. 4-14).
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
LN/L+
k
LN(Knudsen)/L+ LN(even_k)/L+ LN(min)/L+
LN(Knudsen)/L+
LN(even K)/L+
LN(min)/L+
L
N
/ L
+

Page 50

Figure 4-11 Open-phase voltages in a Flat Line construction with 78% Shunt
Compensation degree. Effect of Neutral Reactors

In practical terms, the installation of a neutral reactor shifts the resonant peaks to higher levels of shunt
compensation degrees. This is illustrated in Figure 4-12 below which shows resonant peaks at 91% and 97%
compensation degrees when a neutral reactor is connected the circuit. This compares to 78% and 89%
compensation degrees for the same resonant peaks in the absence of a neutral reactor.

Figure 4-12 Steady-state open-phase voltages with a neutral reactor as a function of
shunt compensation degree, k

4.2.4.2 Insulation Level Considerations associated with Neutral
Reactors
When assessing the connection of a neutral reactor, it should be kept in mind that its size has direct implications on
the insulation requirements i.e. the larger the neutral reactor, the higher the voltage at the neutral point of the
phase reactors. For economic reasons, it is desirable to keep the insulation class of the reactor neutral as low as
1open phase
2open phases
S
o
l
i
d

N
e
u
t
r
a
l
L
N
_
(
m
i
n
)
L
N
_
(
e
v
e
n
_
k
)
L
N
_
(
C
a
r
l
s
s
o
n
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
V [pu]

S
o
l
i
d

N
e
u
t
r
a
l
L
N

(
M
i
n
)
L
N

(
e
v
e
n

k
)
L
N

(
K
n
u
d
s
e
n
)
U
Tw
o O
pen P
hases
O
ne O
pen P
hase
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95%100%105%110%115%120%
1 open-phase 1 open-phase (Xn)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%105%110%115%120%
2 open-phase 2 open-phase (Xn)
U [pu]
U [pu]
91% 78%
97% 89%
Without
Neutral
Reactor
With Neutral
Reactor
Without
Neutral
Reactor
With Neutral
Reactor

Page 51
possible. In the absence of detailed insulation co-ordination studies, the required neutral point Basic Insulation
Level (BIL) can be roughly determined using Eq. 4-15 [64]:

Eq. 4-15
The insulation requirements (BIL) for the neutral reactors obtained with Eq. 4-12, Eq. 4-13 and Eq. 4-14 are plotted
in Figure 4-13 as a function of the shunt compensation degree, k. It can be seen that an increase in neutral reactor
size is accompanied by an increase in the required insulation level of the neutral reactor. A cost-effective balance
between safe margin to resonance, secondary arc extinction performance and insulation levels must be sought.

Figure 4-13 Neutral Reactor Insulation Requirements as a function of the Shunt
Compensation degree

To summarise:
1. A wide range of neutral reactor sizes can be selected to detune the resonant circuit during open-phase
conditions.
2. The installation of a neutral reactor shifts the resonant peaks towards higher degrees of shunt
compensation.
3. Neutral reactors are usually required to minimise secondary arc current. Both, resonance and SPAR
performance must be assessed simultaneously.
4. The size of the selected neutral reactor has direct implications on the required insulation levels for phase
and neutral reactors.

4.2.5 Effect of Reactor Core Construction
The design of the magnetic core has a large effect on the reactors behaviour during unbalanced open-phase
conditions. The only type of reactor that does not have direct magnetic coupling between phases is the single-
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
BIL(Xn)/BIL(Xp)
k
BIL(LN-Knudsen)/BIL(L) BIL(LN-even k)/BIL(L) BIL(LN-min)/BIL(L)
BIL[XN(Knudsen)]/BIL[Xph]
BIL[XN(min)]/BIL[Xph]
BIL[XN(even k)]/BIL[Xph]


Page 52
phase unit
2
. Three-phase reactors present different levels of zero sequence coupling depending on the core
design, as follows [80].
Type I. Shell-type and four/five-legged core type reactors (with adequate steel section) provide a magnetic path
for the zero sequence flux, hence, the coupling between phases is very small and can normally be
neglected [73]. In this type of reactor X
0
/X
+
=1.
Type II. Three-legged core type reactors present a strong magnetic coupling between phases. In this type of
reactors X
0
/X
+
= 0.5 0.7.
The resonance analysis presented in the previous sections has assumed shunt reactors of type I (i.e. most
commonly used). However, if type II reactors are used for line shunt compensation, the effect of the magnetic
coupling is equivalent to connecting a negative neutral reactor (i.e. X
0
/X
+
< 1), therefore, the location of the
resonant peaks is shifted towards lower degrees of shunt compensation.

4.3 Detailed Analysis of Line Resonance in Uneven Open-Phase
conditions using Time-Domain Simulation
The analytical approximate solution presented in section 4.2 is very useful to obtain an initial high-level estimation
of the risk of resonance for a particular shunt-compensated line construction. However, this approach is based on a
number of simplifications and does not capture some practical effects such as circuit asymmetries, non-linearities
or complex circuit topologies. When the analytical approximate method suggests proximity to a resonant peak, a
more rigorous analysis is required. Time domain simulation using EMT software provides the right tools to carry-out
this type of detailed analysis. An example of time-domain simulation illustrating the effect of some key design
parameters is presented next. This parametric analysis starts with steady-state voltage calculations and continues
with an assessment of temporary over-voltages arising from switching operations. Modelling guidelines to represent
each circuit element are discussed in CHAPTER 6.
4.3.1 Steady State Analysi s
This section illustrates the effect of selected design variables on the induced voltages under uneven open-phase
conditions. Only steady-state voltages are assessed in this section. For this purpose, the relevant circuit breaker
poles are represented in open position for the entire duration of the simulation.
4.3.1.1 Effect of Tower Design
The line capacitances, phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground, play an important role in the occurrence of resonance
at power frequency. These capacitances are mainly defined by the conductor geometry. In order to illustrate the
effect of the line geometry, four typical transmission line constructions are compared. These are shown in Figure
4-14: (a) flat construction, (b) vertical construction, (c) delta construction and (c) inverted delta construction.
For the purposes of this analysis a linear model has been used to represent the shunt reactors, keeping the neutral
directly grounded. As shown in Figure 4-14, the inter-phase distances have been set to 10m and a minimum
ground clearance of 15m has been used for each line construction. One conductor per phase and full line
transposition has been assumed.
The simulated open-phase voltages are plotted in Figure 4-15 (a) and Figure 4-15 (b) respectively. It can be seen
that the flat line construction leads to resonance at the highest shunt compensation degrees, hence providing the
largest safety margin for the typical values used in practice. The main reason for this behaviour is the higher zero

2
Note that air core reactors do not have magnetic coupling between phases either. However, their use is generally limited to
low and medium voltages due to their high intensity external magnetic fileds when energized.

Page 53
sequence capacitance of the flat configuration due to the closer proximity of conductors to ground. The delta and
vertical configurations present similar resonance performance while the inverted delta configuration results in
resonance at the lowest shunt compensation degrees.

Figure 4-14 Transmission Line constructions: (a) Flat Configuration, (b) Vertical
Configuration, (c) Delta Configuration, (d) Inverted Delta Configuration.

Figure 4-15 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages in Shunt Compensated Transmission
Lines. Effect of Line Construction Type.

4.3.1.2 Effect of Line Transposition
The effect of line asymmetry is illustrated using the flat line configuration shown in Figure 4-14 without any phase
transposition. This geometry has been selected because it leads to the highest degree of asymmetry. For the
purposes of this analysis, a linear model has been employed to represent the shunt reactors and the neutral point
has been directly grounded.
The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-16(a) and Figure 4-16(b) for the one open-phase and two open-
phases scenarios, respectively. The following effects can be observed:
1. For the one open-phase scenario there are two resonant peaks corresponding to the external phases and the
central phase respectively. The central phase presents resonance at a slightly higher compensation degree
due to the higher inter-phase capacitances with respect to the external phases.
2. Three resonant peaks are observed for the two open phases scenario. Two peaks appear when one of the
open phases is the central one whereas only one peak appears when the two external phases are open.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
U [pu]
k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
U [pu]
k
(a) One Open-Phase Scenario (b) Two Open-Phases Scenario
Flat
Delta
Vertical
Inverted Delta
Flat
Delta
Vertical
Inverted Delta
A B C A
B
C
A B
C
A
B
C
10m 10m
10m
10m
15m 15m 15m
10m
10m 10m
10m
10m 10m
15m
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Page 54
The results shown in Figure 4-16 can be compared with Figure 4-15 to analyse the effect of the line asymmetry.
The main difference can be seen in the behaviour of each phase for the un-transposed scenario. The three phases
have identical performance when the line is fully transposed, whereas they present different numbers and location
of resonant peaks in the un-transposed case. This effect is not very significant for the one open-phase scenario
since the two resonant peaks are in very close proximity. However, the three resonant peaks arising from the two
open-phases scenario are quite distant, increasing the range of shunt compensation degrees that could lead to
harmful over-voltages.

Figure 4-16 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages for Untransposed Shunt Compensated
Transmission Line Flat Construction.

4.3.1.3 Effect of Reactor Saturation
The effect of the reactors core saturation is illustrated by comparing the steady-state performance of a flat line
configuration using linear and non-linear reactors. A full line transposition has been assumed and the shunt
reactors neutral has been solidly earthed. The phase reactors saturation knee-point has been assumed at 1.25 pu
The simulation results are included in Figure 4-17 (a) and Figure 4-17 (b) for the one open-phase and two open-
phases scenarios respectively. To facilitate the comparison the figures include the results for both linear and non-
linear reactors. It can be seen that the only effect of saturation is to limit the open-phase voltage to a value close to
the saturation knee-point. For compensation degrees leading to voltages below 1.25 pu, both curves are identical
since the shunt reactors are working in the linear region.

Figure 4-17 Steady-State Open-Phase Voltages for Shunt Compensated Transmission
Line. Effect of Shunt Reactors Saturation

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105% 110% 115% 120%
U [pu]
k 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 105% 110% 115% 120%
U [pu]
k
(a) One Open-Phase Scenario (b) Two Open-Phases Scenario
Central Phase
Open
External
Phase Open
External
Phases Open
External and
Central Phase
Open
External and
Central Phase
Open
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
U[pu]
k
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
U[pu]
k
Linear Shunt
Reactors
Non-Linear
Shunt
Reactors
(a) One Open-Phase Scenario
(b) Two Open-Phases Scenario
Linear Shunt
Reactors
Non-Linear
Shunt
Reactors

Page 55
4.3.2 TOV Analysis
The steady-state voltages computed in sections 4.2.2 and 4.3.1 represent the final continuous values that can be
reached in the absence of remedial actions i.e. if the uneven open-phase condition is left in the circuit indefinitely.
These steady-state voltages will be rarely reached in practice due to the long time-constant of the resonant circuit
and the operation of protection or control systems. However, during the transient process following a switching
operation, temporary voltage oscillations will exceed the steady state values and may stress the equipment
insulation for a short period. A detailed time domain simulation of those events allows accurate assessment of the
TOV. This analysis is illustrated in the next subsections by simulating the effect of selected design variables.
Assessment of the equipment withstand capabilities to the computed TOVs is beyond the scope of this Technical
Brochure.
4.3.2.1 Effect of Tower Design
This section illustrates the temporary over-voltages arising from uneven open-phase conditions in each of the four
line configurations shown in Figure 4-14. For the purposes of this illustrative analysis, the shunt compensation
degree has been fixed to 65%, the line has been made fully transposed and the shunt reactors neutral has been
directly grounded.
The voltage waveforms obtained from the time-domain simulations are shown in Figure 4-18. The steady-state
voltages reached after the temporary oscillations have dampened out are also included for illustration purposes.
The simulations started from a steady-state solution with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at 1 pu
voltage. After 5 power frequency cycles, one or two circuit-breaker poles were open to simulate an unbalanced
open-phase operation. The phase-to-ground voltage at the line sending end was recorded and it is plotted in Figure
4-18. It can be clearly seen that a transient voltage oscillation follows the circuit breaker operation. This waveform
is characterised by a beat process with low modulation frequencies, which are determined by the capacitance and
shunt reactance of the disconnected phase(s). A couple of seconds after the switching, the temporary oscillations
are fully dampened and the open-phase voltages converge to the values computed in the steady-state analysis
(Figure 4-15).
For each scenario shown in Figure 4-18, the two open-phases condition leads to higher TOVs than the one open-
phase condition. This is due to the closer proximity of a resonant pole for the selected degree of shunt
compensation (65%), as demonstrated in the steady-state analysis of Figure 4-15. The inverted delta configuration
resulted in the most severe TOV. The highest voltage obtained in the simulations was 3.2 pu, corresponding to the
two open-phases scenario. This, again, is due to the closest proximity to a resonant pole as shown in Figure 4-15
and reinforces the need for an ample safety margin in order to minimize stress on equipment insulation.

Page 56

Figure 4-18 Temporary Open-Phase Voltages in Transmission Lines with 65% Shunt
Compensation. Effect of Tower Construction.
4.3.2.2 Effect of Line Transposition

(f ile 2PH_INVERTED_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A v:SEND_B
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 1PH_INVERTED_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 2PH_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A v:SEND_B
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 1PH_DELTA.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 2PH_VERTICAL.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A v:SEND_B
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 1PH_VERTICAL.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 2PH_FLAT.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A v:SEND_B
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(f ile 1PH_FLAT.pl4; x-var t) v:SEND_A
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
U [pu]
One open phase Two open phases
Flat line construction Flat line construction
Inverted delta line construction
Vertical line construction
Vertical line construction
Delta line construction
Delta line construction
Inverted delta line construction
Steady state voltage = 0.366pu Steady state voltage = 0.57pu
Steady state voltage = 0.51pu

Page 57
As illustrated in the steady-state analysis of section 4.3.1.2, the main consequence of an incomplete line
transposition is that each phase behaves differently due to asymmetries in the inter-phase and phase-to-ground
capacitances. The temporary voltage oscillations arising from uneven switching operations are illustrated in this
section. For the purposes of this analysis, a flat line configuration has been selected because it leads to the highest
degree of asymmetry. A 75% shunt compensation degree has been used, which provides a very low margin to
resonance in the two open-phases condition. The shunt reactors have been assumed to be linear and the neutral is
directly grounded.
The simulation results for the two open-phases scenario are shown in Figure 4-19. The voltage waveforms
obtained with a fully transposed line configuration are also shown for comparison. The simulations started from a
steady-state solution with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at 1 pu voltage. After 5 power frequency
cycles, two circuit-breaker poles were opened to simulate the unbalanced operation. Each possible combination of
disconnected phases was simulated. It can be seen that, for the untransposed line case, the amplitude and
frequency of temporary voltage oscillations depends on the relative position of the disconnected phases. When
disconnecting the central phase and one of the external phases, Figure 4-19 (a) shows that the untransposed
configuration leads to higher TOVs than the fully transposed case. This is due to the closer proximity to a resonant
pole: 79.8% in the untransposed configuration vs. 82.2% in the fully transposed case. On the other hand, the
disconnection of the two external phases results in higher TOVs for the fully transposed case, as shown in Figure
4-19 (b). This again, is due to the closer to a resonant pole: 87.23% in the untransposed configuration vs. 82.2% in
the fully transposed case.

Compensation. Effect of Line Transposition

4.3.2.3 Effect of Neutral Reactors
It is discussed in section 4.2.4 that the resonant circuit formed during uneven switching operations can be detuned
by the introduction of an adequate neutral reactor. The influence of this reactor on resonant TOVs is evaluated in
this section. The size of the neutral reactor has been calculated according to Eq. 4-13. For the purposes of this
illustrative analysis, a fully transposed flat line construction and 80% shunt compensation degree have been
selected. This is just below a resonant peak for the two open-phases condition with a directly grounded neutral
connection, as shown in Figure 4-6.
The simulation results are shown in Figure 4-20 for the one open-phase and the two open-phases conditions. The
simulation results obtained with a directly grounded neutral have also been included in the graphs for comparison.
The simulations started from a steady-state condition with the circuit breaker closed and the line energized at a
voltage of 1 pu. After 5 power frequency cycles, one or two circuit-breaker poles were opened to simulate an

BC_UNTRANSPOSED.pl4: v:SEND_B
BC_TRANSPOSED.pl4: v:SEND_B
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
AC_UNTRANSPOSED.pl4: v :SEND_A
AC_TRANSPOSED.pl4: v :SEND_A
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
U [pu] U [pu]
(a) Disconnection of central and external phases (b) Disconnection of two external phases
t [sec] t [sec]
Untransposed circuit
Transposed circuit
Untransposed circuit
Transposed circuit

Page 58
unbalanced open-phase operation. The phase-to-ground voltage at the line sending end was recorded and it is
plotted in Figure 4-20. It can be seen that the presence of a neutral reactor greatly reduces the amplitude of
voltages induced on the open phase(s). When the neutral reactor, as calculated from Eq. 4-13, is inserted in the
circuit the open-phase voltages quickly decay in an oscillatory manner with a dominant frequency of 50 Hz and a
low frequency modulation of 6 Hz. A final steady-state of 0.08 pu is reached within 1 second. If the neutral is
directly grounded, the amplitude of the low frequency oscillations is considerably higher, reaching a theoretical
value of nearly 5 pu for the two open-phases scenario.
This example is presented for illustrative purposes only in order to assess the impact of installing a neutral reactor.
In practice, corona losses, saturation of magnetic cores and/or surge arrester operation will limit the induced open-
phase voltage well below the waveform presented in Figure 4-20 (b) for the solid neutral grounding case. All these
voltage limiting elements should be considered when studying the performance of a specific shunt-compensated
transmission line.

Compensation. Effect of Neutral Reactor

4.3.2.4 Effect of Reactor Saturation
The steady-state analysis discussed in section 4.3.1.3 has illustrated that the effect of reactors saturation is to limit
the open-phase voltages to a value close to the knee-point. A switching condition has been introduced in this
section to investigate the effects of saturation on the amplitude and duration of TOVs.
The simulation results corresponding to one open-phase condition in a fully transposed flat line configuration are
shown in Figure 4-21. Other line configurations follow the same trend and are not included for clarity. This graph
shows the highest voltage recorded during the simulation (shortly after the switching) as well as the voltage
sampled 5 seconds after the switching event (i.e. the transient effects would be expected to have decayed by
then). The results from the steady-state analysis, without switching transient, are also included for comparison. It
can be seen that maximum TOVs arising from the switching operation are significantly higher than their
corresponding steady-state voltages for the entire range of shunt compensation degrees. Furthermore, it would be
expected that the transient oscillations would be fully dampened after 5 seconds and match the steady-state
solution. This behaviour is not observed for shunt compensation degrees between 57.4% and 84.3% in this line
construction and it is caused by ferroresonance. In this shunt-compensation range, the switching transient forces
the operation point of the shunt reactor to jump from the linear to the saturated region where it locks resulting in
large voltages and currents.

FLAT_1PH_SOLID_EARTH.pl4: v:SEND_A
FLAT_1PH_NEUTRAL_REACTOR.pl4: v:SEND_A
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-2.500
-1.875
-1.250
-0.625
0.000
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500

FLAT_2PH_SOLID_EARTH.pl4: v:SEND_A
FLAT_2H_NEUTRAL_REACTOR.pl4: v:SEND_A
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
0.00
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
U [pu] U [pu]
(a) One Open-Phase (b) Two Open-Phases
t [sec] t [sec]
Solid Neutral Grounding
With Neutral Reactor
Solid Neutral Grounding
With Neutral Reactor

Page 59
An example of a voltage waveform for a shunt reactor driven into ferroresonance is shown in Figure 4-22. This
figure compares the simulation of a single-phase trip for two degrees of shunt compensation: 56% and 60%. The
graphs on the left (i and iii) show steady-state simulations without a switching operation (i.e. phase-A open in
steady-state). For the graphs on the right (ii and iv), the simulations started from a steady-state condition with the
circuit breaker closed and the line energized at a voltage of 1 pu, followed by a trip of phase-A at t = 0.1 s. Figure
4-22 (ii) shows that, for the 56% shunt compensation degree, the open-phase voltage reaches 1.75 pu just after the
trip. This open-phase voltage decays in an oscillatory manner to reach the no-trip steady-state solution of 0.27 pu
(i.e. matching Figure 4-22 (i)) in approximately 2 seconds. On the other hand, Figure 4-22 (vi) shows the equivalent
results for a shunt compensation degree of 60%. In this case, the open-phase voltage after the trip reaches 2.7 pu
and decays to reach a new steady-state of 2.05 pu, significantly higher than the no-trip steady state of 0.3 pu (i.e.
not matching Figure 4-22 (iii)). This new final state corresponds to a stable operation in the saturated zone of the
reactor magnetizing characteristic, which represents a ferroresonant condition.

Figure 4-21 One Open-Phase Voltage in Fully Transposed Line as function of shunt
compensation degree. Saturated reactors model. Effect of switching transient
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100%
k
V [pu] U [pu]

Steady-State
Max TOV
TOV decayed after 5
seconds

Page 60

Figure 4-22 Simulation Waveforms of one open-phase overvoltages for 56% and
60%shunt compensation degrees. Reactor saturation included

4.3.3 Summary of Parameters Affecting Line Resonance in Open-
Phase Conditions
Table to be completed
Impact on Resonance Comment
Network strength (SC power) No
Tower Design Marginal The tower design affects the
circuit capacitances. But the
effect is not significant for
practical line designs.
Circuit
asymmetries/transposition
High
Magnetic saturation of reactor
core
High
(f ile steady _state_56%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [s]
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
[pu]
(f ile special_cases_56%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [s]
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
[pu]
(f ile special_cases_60%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [s]
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
[pu]
(f ile steady _state_60%.pl4; x-v ar t) v :SEND_A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 [s]
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
[pu]
(i) Steady-state simulation 56% Shunt Compensation (ii) 1ph trip simulation 56% Shunt Compensation
(iii) Steady-state simulation 60% Shunt Compensation (iv) 1ph trip simulation 60% Shunt Compensation
U [pu] U [pu]
U [pu] U [pu]

Page 61
Reactor core saturation knee
point
High??
Installation of Neutral Reactor High
Installation of cable sections High
Size of shunt reactors (i. e. %
shunt compensation degree)
High
Circuit Breaker Grading
Capacitors
??????? Probably no impact because
grading capacitors are too small
compared with the circuit ph-ph
capacitance. It would be
interesting to confirm with a
simulation.

Nice to have:
It would be interesting to analyse the effect of a fault in one of the energized phases. Will this result in a different
resonant peak (like in the double-circuit case)? Will it affect the amplitude of the induced voltage on the
disconnected phase? This scenario could be, for instance, the result of an incorrect wiring in the circuit breaker (i.e.
trip command sent to the incorrect phase) or an error in the protection relays (i.e. mistake in the fault phase
selection process). It seems like a very unlikely scenario, but would it be prudent to look at it anyway?


Page 62
4.4 Line Resonance in Multiple-Circuit Corridors
4.4.1 Background
We need to make clear here that this section refers to three-phase disconnection of one circuit in a multiple-circuit
corridor, where the disconnected circuit is still capacitively coupled with other energized circuits. The resonance
issues described in section 0 still applies to multi-circuit corridors in single-phase tripping is applied or CB stuck
poles is considered.
4.4.2 Physical description
Needs to be added **** more complex circuit than the case of uneven open phases in
single circuits

The phenomena of induced voltage, due to electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling, on a shunt compensated
de-energized circuit from a parallel energized circuit is documented in literature [++++++++++]. The de-energized
circuit can be subjected to over-voltages due to parallel resonance between the shunt reactor and the line
capacitance. The occurrence of parallel resonance is defined by the de-energized circuit parameters and the
amplitude of the induced voltages is determined by the mutual coupling with the energized circuit. Analytical
expressions, neglecting electromagnetic coupling, were presented in [+++] for calculating the size of shunt reactor
that will result in resonance for a number of scenarios, namely fault and no fault conditions on the energized and
de-energized circuits.
4.4.3 Approximate Analytical Solution
Table 4-1 below presents simple equations that allow utility engineers to easily identify the conditions that could
result in parallel resonance in a fully transposed transmission line [80]. It can be seen that the only parameters
determining the occurrence of parallel line resonance are the ratio between positive and zero sequence
capacitances of the de-energized circuit (C
0
/ C
+
) and the ratio between positive and zero sequence inductances of
shunt reactor (X
0
/X
+
).
For a fully transposed circuit, there are four values of shunt compensation degrees that will result on resonance:
two under no fault conditions [77], [78] and another two during faults in the de-energized circuit [79]. In contrast, up
to nineteen values of shunt reactor compensation can result in resonance in an un-transposed circuit. Equations to
derive them can be found in [79]. In practical terms, some of the resonant peaks are very close or overlap but the
shunt compensation areas in which resonance can be avoided are greatly reduced with respect to the transposed
circuit. Furthermore, the circuit asymmetries result in very different levels of induced voltages for each phase.
Given that normal degrees of shunt compensation will most likely result in operation at resonance or near-
resonance in an un-transposed circuit, a more detailed analysis is recommended (see section xxxxxxxxx).

Table 4-1 Approximate location of resonant peaks in a de-de-energized transposed
transmission circuit
Resonant Peak [% Shunt Compensation] No Fault
Any Fault on
energised circuit
Fault on de-energised
circuit
SLG LLG LL LLL

Page 63
#1 100 h N x x

x x
#2 100
2
3
3
2 1
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
| +
h
h N
x

#3 100
2 1
3
3
2
|
.
|
\
|
+

|
.
|
\
| +
h
h N
x

#4 100 x x x

x

where:
-
+
=
C
C
N
0
;
- C
0
is the zero-sequence capacitance of the open circuit;
- C
+
is the positive-sequence capacitance of the open circuit upon which percentage shunt compensation is
based;
-
+ +
= =
L
L
X
X
h
0 0

- X
0
(L
0
)

is the equivalent zero-sequence reactance (inductance) of the shunt reactor(s) connected to the
open circuit;
- X
+
(L
+
) is the equivalent positive-sequence reactance (inductance) of the shunt reactor(s) connected to the
open circuit;
- k is the degree of shunt compensation, as defined in Eq. 4-1.
It should be noted that N = (C
0
/C
+
) varies within a very narrow range for typical constructions. For overhead
transmission lines, (C
0
/C
+
) is normally in the range of 0.5 0.7, whereas cable circuits have a (C
0
/C
+
) ratio of 1.
Mixed overhead/underground circuits have (C
0
/C
+
) ratios lying between these two ranges. Furthermore, the (X
0
/X
+
)
ratio of the shunt reactors is dependent on the core construction. Typically, the following ranges can be assumed
for solid grounded neutral arrangements [80]:
- Three-phase shell type, four or five legged core, single-phase units or air core reactors: (X
0
/X
+
)=1
-
Thr ee - phase t hr ee l egged cor e: ( X
0
/ X
+
) = 0. 5 t o 0. 7

The installation of neutral reactors increases the above ratios, since X
0
= X
0
+ 3. X
N
To illustrate the effect of each parameter, the equations presented in Table 4-1 have been plotted as a function of
the (C
0
/C
+
) or the (X
0
/X
+
) ratios for typical ranges see Figure 4-23. The following can be observed:
1. Low values of (C
0
/C
+
) or (X
0
/X
+
) result in resonant peaks that are quite distant apart. This is the case for typical
overhead line constructions and three-legged core shunt reactors. These configurations require special
attention to guarantee operation in a safe mode.
2. High values of (C
0
/C
+
) result in resonant peaks at higher levels of shunt compensation degrees and reduces
the distance between the peaks. This is the case for typical mixed overhead line / underground cable
constructions. Special attention needs to be paid in these cases as the cable section normally drives the need
for high degrees of shunt compensation, close to 100%.
3. High values of shunt reactor (X
0
/X
+
) ratio shift resonance to degrees of compensation above 100% (i.e.
overcompensation). This can be achieved with the introduction of neutral reactors.


Page 64

Figure 4-23 Location of resonant points in a transposed transmission circuit as a
function of X and C

To note:
1. Formulae are only provided in this document for fully transposed circuits. For un-transposed circuits, the
number of resonant poles increases from four to nineteen and this type of analysis becomes unpractical.
2. The electrostatic method only identifies the location of the resonant peaks but it does not provide any
information about the amplitude of the voltages induced on the de-energized circuit. This analysis does not
give the severity of the problem but it suggests the scenarios that need to be studied in detail with an EMT
model.
3. Resonant peaks 1 to 3 are zero-sequence resonances. Peak 4 (100% shunt compensation) is a positive-
sequence resonance.

4.4.4 Case Study
4.4.4.1 System Description
A practical example of parallel resonance in a 765 kV system is presented in this section. The system data is
shown in Figure 4-24 Error! Reference source not found.. It consists of two 765 kV Transmission lines, flat
construction, coupled along 193.1 km. One circuit (ckt #2) is opened at both ends and shunt compensated at the
receiving end only. Shunt-compensation on the energized circuit is not relevant for this analysis. Both circuits are
fully transposed. The shunt reactors are shell type three-phase units and the neutral point is solidly grounded. The
power system frequency is 60 Hz.

Figure 4-24 One-Line Diagram and Double Circuit Geometry
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Czero / Cpos
S
h
u
n
t

C
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
g
r
e
e

[
%
]
Resonant peak 1 Resonant peak 2 Resonant peak 3 resonant peak 4
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
Xzero / Xpos
S
h
u
n
t

C
o
m
p
e
n
s
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
g
r
e
e

[
%
]
Resonant peak 1 Resonant peak 2 Resonant peak 3 resonant peak 4
(i) Effect of variations on C0/Cpos (X0/Xpos = 1)
(ii) Effect of variations on X0/Xpos (C0/Cpos = 0.6)

Phase conductors: 4x1.385in | at 18in spacing
dc Resistance = 0.085O/mile
Earth Wires: steel, 0.437in |.
dc resistance = 2.3O/mile
15.24 15.24 15.24 15.24 15.24
A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2
21.0
20.4
20
All dimensions are in metres
765kV 765kV
Shunt reactor
MVAr varied
~ ~
193.1km
SENDING
END
RECEIVING
END
Closed Closed
Open Open
Circuit #1
Circuit #2
193.1km

Page 65

The analysis will seek to answer the following practical questions:
1. What sizes of shunt reactors will lead to resonance on the de-energized circuit?
2. What is the amplitude of the induced voltages at any operating condition?
3. How sensitive are the location of the resonant points to circuit or system design parameters?

4.4.4.2 Comparative Analysis of Solution Methods
The shunt-reactor values leading to resonance in the de-energized circuit have been calculated with two
independent methods: (i) electrostatic approximate equations shown in Table 4-1 and (ii) a detailed EMT model.
The inputs for the electrostatic analysis are:
- C
0
= 1.75 F ; C
+
= 2.54 F, calculated with a standard power frequency line constant tool for the circuit
geometry shown in Figure 4-24. N = C
0
/ C
+
= 0.69
- The shunt reactor is a three-phase shell-type unit. Typically X
0
= X
+
can be assumed for this reactor core
type, therefore h = X
0
/X
+
= 1.
For the EMT analysis, the following was assumed:
- Both transmission circuits were modelled using Bergeron model (i.e. distributed line parameter at power
frequency).
- One full line transposition was assumed. For that purpose, the circuits were modelled as three un-
transposed line sections (64.36 km each) and the phase transposition was carried out explicitly at the
connection nodes between each section.
- A linear representation was adopted for the shunt reactors for simplicity.
- Circuit breakers in circuit #1 were represented in a close position.
- Circuit breakers in circuit #2 were represented in an open position.
- Steady-state simulations, without any switching, were carried out by changing the size of the shunt-
reactors. Line to ground voltage at the terminal of the shunt reactors was monitored as a function of the
reactor size.
Table 4-2 shows the location of the resonant peaks calculated with each method. It can be seen that both set of
results compare very well, confirming that the electrostatic approximate method is robust enough for an initial risk
assessment of resonance (i.e. identifying the size of shunt reactors leading to resonance). If a problem is
suspected, detailed EMT simulations will be required to determine the severity of the problem and to investigate
mitigation options. In this example, the amplitude of induced voltages on the de-energized circuit were calculated
using the EMT model described above. These voltages were plotted against shunt reactor Mvar (positive
sequence) to identify trends, as shown in Figure 4-25. The following can be observed from this steady-state
analysis:
1. The de-energized circuit (ckt #2) exhibits two resonant points in a steady-state normal condition, without any
circuit faults. The first peak, close to a compensation degree of 70%, leads to voltages well below 1 pu. The
second resonant peak, at 100% shunt compensation degree, leads to voltages of up to 8 pu
3
. In particular,
shunt compensation degrees in the range from 98% to 104% lead to induced voltages in excess of 1 pu on the
de-energized circuit (ckt #2).

3
Note that shunt reactor saturation has been ignored in this example for simplicity. In reality, saturation will typically limit the
voltage to a value close to the knee point (i.e. in the order of 1.5pu)

Page 66
2. Faults on the energized parallel circuit (ckt #1) do no affect the location of the resonant points; however the
amplitude of the induced voltages on the de-energized circuit (ckt #2) increases significantly with respect to the
no fault condition. See Figure 4-25 (i), (ii) and (iii).
3. Faults on the de-energized circuit (#2) affect the amplitude and location of the resonant peaks with respect to
the no fault condition. See Figure 4-25 (iv), (v) and (vi).
4. The most onerous case arises from a single-line-to ground fault on the energized circuit (ckt #1) see Figure
4-25 (i). This condition results in induced voltages of up to 21 pu
3

at the resonant point. For this fault scenario,
steady-state voltages on the de-energized circuit (ckt #2) exceed 1 pu for a range of shunt compensation
degrees from 61% to 77% and from 98% to 104%.

Table 4-2 Calculated location of Resonant Peaks
Resonant
Peak
Aproximate
Electrostatic
Method
EMT Simulations
No fault
Fault on
Energised
Circuit
Fault on De-Energised Circuit
SLG LLG LL LLL
#1
68.2%
(386 Mvar)
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
--- ---
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
69.5%
(390 Mvar)
#2
79.2%
(444.3 Mvar)
--- ---
80.21%
(450 Mvar)
--- --- ---
#3
89.6%
(502.6 Mvar)
--- --- ---
90.02%
(505 Mvar)
--- ---
#4
100.0%
(561 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---

Page 67

Figure 4-25 Steady-State Line-Ground Voltages on circuit #2 (assumed both circuit
transposed and shell-type reactor)

4.4.4.3 Considerations about fault conditions
1. Faults on Energized Circuit (circuit #1)
It should be noted that a fault on the energized circuit is not a steady-state situation as, in reality, the protection
relays will trip the faulted circuit in a definite time (either in primary or back-up protection times). Therefore, the line
equipment will not be subjected to the level of stress computed in the steady-state analysis shown in Figure 4-25. A
detailed simulation of a single-line-to-ground fault at the first resonant peak (69.5%) is illustrated in Figure 4-26
below.
- Figure 4-26 (i) shows the theoretical steady-state solution assuming a permanent fault on the energized
parallel circuit (circuit #1). A steady-state voltage of 21 pu
3
is coupled on the de-energized circuit (circuit #2).
- Figure 4-26 (ii) shows the simulation of a fault on the energized circuit (ckt #1) without a subsequent trip. For
the first 100 ms of simulation, the coupled voltage on circuit #2 is just 0.4 pu, due to the normal operation of
10
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Reactor MVAr (at 765kV)
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No Fault
SLG Fault on
Circuit #1
1pu
No Fault
LL Fault on
Circuit #1
1pu
No Fault
3PH Fault on
Circuit #1
1pu
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No Fault
SLG Fault on
Circuit #2
1pu
No Fault
LLG Fault on
Circuit #2
1pu
No Fault
3PH Fault on
Circuit #2
1pu
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv) (v) (vi)
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
% Shunt Compensation
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
18% 36% 53% 71% 89% 107% 125%
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #3
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #2
Resonant
Peak #1
Resonant
Peak #4

Page 68
circuit #1. A t = 100 ms, a slg fault is applied to circuit #1. It can be seen that the voltage coupled on the de-
energized circuit (ckt #2) rises slowly to reach the theoretical steady state value in approximately 3 seconds.
- Figure 4-26 (iii) and (iv) show a realistic scenario in which a fault in the energized circuit (ckt #1) is followed by
the trip of that circuit. Two tripping times are illustrated: 100ms and 500ms, as typical primary and back-up
times. It can be seen that, due to the tripping of the parallel circuit (ckt #1), the induced voltages on the de-
energized circuit (ckt #2) do not reach the theoretical steady-state value. A primary fault clearance time of
100ms results on a maximum induced voltage of 2.1 pu
3
. In contrast, fault clearance by back-up protection in
500ms results on a maximum induced voltage of 8.3 pu
3
. Both maximum values are reached immediately after
the trip of the parallel circuit (ckt #1) i.e. removal of the exciting source stops the resonant condition and
results in a slow decay of the voltages on the de-energized circuit (ckt #2).
It should be noted that the coupled voltage on each of the three phases of circuit #2 is in phase, indicating that this
is a zero-sequence phenomena.

Figure 4-26 Temporary Overvoltages on de-energized circuit (ckt #2) during SLG fault
and trip in parallel energized circuit (ckt #1) 390 Mvar shunt reactor / 69.5% shunt
compensation

2. Faults on De-Energized Circuit (circuit #2)
Faults on the de-energized circuit (ckt #2) can reach steady state in some circumstances. One example is the
occurrence of a fault while the circuit is out-of-service. In this case the protection relays will not clear the fault as the
circuit breakers are already open, therefore the fault condition can remain indefinitely. Detailed simulations of
single-line-to-ground faults on circuit #2 at the second resonant peak (80.21%) are illustrated in Figure 4-27 below.
(iii) SLG fault in energised circuit - 100ms tripping time (iv) SLG fault in energised circuit - 500ms tripping time
(f ile tripping_500ms_resonance_lines_transposed_slg_f ault_in_energised_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
9
[pu]
SLG
fault
Trip
(f ile tripping_100ms_resonance_lines_transposed_slg_f ault_in_energised_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
9
[pu]
SLG
fault
Trip
(f ile no-tripping_resonance_lines_transposed_slg_f ault_in_energised_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-25.00
-18.75
-12.50
-6.25
0.00
6.25
12.50
18.75
25.00
[pu]
(ii) SLG fault in energised circuit No tripping
SLG
fault
(f ile steady -state_resonance_lines_transposed_slg_f ault_in_energised_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 [s]
-25.00
-18.75
-12.50
-6.25
0.00
6.25
12.50
18.75
25.00
[pu]
(i) SLG fault in energised circuit in steady state

Page 69
- Figure 4-27 (i) shows the theoretical steady-state solution assuming a permanent SLG fault on the de-
energized circuit (circuit #2). A steady-state voltage of 4.4 pu
3
is coupled on the other two phases of the de-
energized circuit (circuit #2).
- Figure 4-27 (ii) shows the simulation of a SLG fault on circuit #2 while being out-of-service. For the first 100 ms
of simulation, the coupled voltage on circuit #2 is just 0.16 pu. A t = 100 ms, a slg fault is applied to phase-A of
circuit #2. It can be seen that the voltage coupled on the other two phases rises slowly to reach the theoretical
steady state value in approximately 4 seconds. This is a possible scenario and the line equipment could be
subjected to this stress until some remedial action is implemented. This fault could possibly be caused by the
closing of earthing switches in only one phase.
- Figure 4-27 (iii) shows the simulation results for the following scenario: both circuit #1 and circuit #2 are initially
in service, a SLG fault occurs on circuit #2 at t = 100 ms and the protection relays trip that circuit in 100 ms. It
can be seen that the voltage coupled on the other two phases of circuit #2 (now de-energized) rises slowly to
reach the theoretical steady state value in approximately 4 seconds. A low frequency oscillation of 6 Hz can
also be observed. This is a possible scenario and the line equipment could be subjected to this st ress until
some remedial action is implemented. Furthermore, the high coupled voltages will difficult extinction of the
secondary arc.
- Figure 4-27 (iv) shows a similar scenario to (iii) but in this case autoreclosing is applied to circuit #2. It can be
seen that closing the circuit breakers in circuit #2 (i.e. re-energising the circuit) returns the voltages to normal.
This scenario assumes that the secondary arc extinguishes successfully during the autoreclosing dead time.
It should be noted that the coupled voltages on circuit # are perfectly balanced before the fault occurrence.
However, they move in-phase during the resonant condition caused by the fault, indicating that this is a zero-
sequence phenomenon.

(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_during_open_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 [s]
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
0.00
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
[pu]
(ii) SLG fault while circuit is de-energised
(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_and_trip_in_open_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 [s]
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
0.00
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
[pu]
(iii) SLG fault during normal operation followed by trip
(iv) SLG fault during normal operation followed by trip and reclose
(f ile steady -state_resonance_slg_f ault_in_open_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 [s]
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
0.00
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
[pu]
(i) SLG fault in steady-state
SLG
fault
SLG
fault
(f ile resonance_slg_f ault_open-and-reclose-in_open_circuit.pl4; x-v ar t) v :RE_C2B
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 [s]
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
0.00
1.25
2.50
3.75
5.00
[pu]
Trip
SLG
fault
Trip
Reclose

Page 70
Figure 4-27 Temporary Overvoltages on de-energized circuit (ckt #2) during SLG fault
and trip in circuit #2 450 Mvar shunt reactor / 80.21% shunt compensation

4.4.4.4 Effect of reactors zero sequence parameters
The sensitivity of the results to the zero sequence parameters of the shunt reactors is analysed by assuming the
introduction of a neutral reactor. In this example, the ratio between neutral reactor and phase reactors (X
n
/X
+
) is
assumed to be 0.35. This results in h = (X
0
/X
+
) = (X
+
+ 3X
n
)/ X
+
= 2.05. Keeping the other system parameters
unchanged, the resonant points obtained with the electrostatic approximate method and the EMT model are
shown in Table 4-3. It can be seen that both methods of analysis produce very similar results. Detailed line-to-
ground voltages coupled on circuit #2 were obtained with the EMT model and are illustrated in Figure 4-28.
The following can be observed from this steady-state analysis:
1. The introduction of a neutral reactor shifts the resonant points to higher degrees of shunt compensation.
2. The introduction of a neutral reactor does not affect the amplitude of the resonant over-voltages on the de-
energized circuit.

Table 4-3 Calculated Resonant Peaks (Reactor X0/X+ = 2.05)
Resonant
Peak
Aproximate
Electrostatic
Method
EMT Simulations
No fault
Fault on
Energised
Circuit
Fault on De-Energised Circuit
SLG LLG LL LLL
#1
141.1%
(791 Mvar)
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
--- ---
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
142.6%
(800 Mvar)
#2
120.3%
(674.7 Mvar)
--- ---
122.1%
(685 Mvar)
--- --- ---
#3
108.0%
(606.2 Mvar)
--- --- ---
109.6%
(615 Mvar)
--- ---
#4
100.0%
(561 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---
100.7%
(565 Mvar)
---


Page 71

Figure 4-28 Steady-State Line-Ground Voltages on circuit #2 effect of introduction
of neutral reactor
PHASE A
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REACTOR MVAr (at 765kV)
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PHASE B
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PHASE C
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(i) (ii) (iii)
X0/X+=2.05
No Fault
1pu
X0/X+= 1
No Fault
X0/X+=2.05
No Fault
1pu
X0/X+= 1
No Fault
X0/X+=2.05
No Fault
1pu
X0/X+= 1
No Fault
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1pu
X0/X+= 1
X0/X+=2.05
SLG Fault on Circuit #1
LL Fault on Circuit #1
1pu
X0/X+= 1
X0/X+=2.05
3PH Fault on Circuit #1
X0/X+= 1
X0/X+=2.05
1pu
(iv) (v) (vi)
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(vii) (viii) (ix)
SLG Fault on Circuit #2
LLG Fault on Circuit #2
3PH Fault on Circuit #2
1pu
1pu
1pu
X0/X+= 1
X0/X+=2.05
X0/X+=2.05 X0/X+= 1
X0/X+=2.05
X0/X+= 1
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
18% 53% 89% 125% 160% 196%
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1
Resonant
Peak #4
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
2
R
eso
n
an
t
P
eak #3
Resonant
Peak #4
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t
P
e
a
k
#
1

Page 72

4.4.5 Summary of resonance issues associ ated with parallel
shunt-compensated circuits

1. The location of the resonant peaks is only dependant on the un-energized circuit parameters (i.e. circuit
capacitances and shunt-reactor parameters).
2. The parallel energized circuit parameters affect the amplitude of the resonant voltages on the open circuit,
but not the location of the resonant peaks.
3. Under normal operating conditions, there are three resonant peaks in an un-transposed circuit and only two
resonant peaks in a transposed circuit. Transpositions on the energized circuit do not affect the number or
location of resonant peaks on the de-energized circuit.
4. Under fault conditions, there are nineteen resonant peaks in an un-transposed circuit and four resonant
peaks in a transposed circuit.
5. The main factor determining the location of the resonant peaks is the ratio between the inter-phase and
phase-to-phase capacitances in the de-energized circuit.
6. Phase transposition affects the amplitude of the resonant voltages.
7. Fault conditions on the energized circuit result in the highest resonant voltages on the de-energized circuit.
4.5 Practical Consequences of Line Resonance
Basically, this section should deal with the amplitude and duration/timescale of the expected over-voltages i.e.
temporary or sustained? Under what scenarios will the over-voltage appear (i.e. SPAR, CB failure,
commissioning/maintenance of equipment, normal operating conditions). The stressed equipment should be
mentioned but this TB should not elaborate on the capability of the equipment to withstand this stress - Refer to
?????
When making recommendations, it is important to look at line-to-ground voltages and voltages across open circuit
breaker poles. The latter is important to ensure that there will be no internal flashover due to excessive temporary
or steady-state stress in the circuit breakers (note that the voltage across the cb poles builds up slowly. This can be
taken into account when assessing stress and mitigation options).
Resonant conditions must be considered when specifying the zero-sequence current capability of phase and
neutral reactors.
The consequences of resonance or near-resonance conditions are excessive over-voltages and/or over-currents in
the affected circuit stressing insulation and causing damage to circuit equipment such as shunt reactors, surge
arresters, instrument transformers and circuit breakers. Even if the induced voltages do not represent a threat to
the equipment insulation, they need to be taken into account during maintenance outages in order to guarantee the
safety of the line crew. Also, earthing switches must be rated adequately to interrupt the large shorting currents
arising from the induced voltages.
4.6 Mitigation Options
To complete, but here are some initial thoughts .
- Installation of pole-discrepancy protection in circuit breakers

Page 73
- Line transposition
- Installation of neutral reactors
- Earthing switches
- Install circuit breakers on shunt-reactors i.e. disconnect the line shunt-reactors when the circuit is out-of-
service. (mitigation for double-circuit resonance only)
- Relocate part of the shunt compensation to the station busbar/tertiary of transformers
- Switching instructions for planned energization and de-energization of parallel circuits
- Shunt-reactors equipped with tapped windings and on-load tap changers.
- Avoid single-phase operation

Neutral reactors in/out (some sort of by-passing mechanism), disconnecting line shunt-reactors, installing reactors
in busbars rather than lines, cb failure/pole discrepancy protection, minimising inter-phase coupling in phase
reactors .. High-speed grounding of the faulted de-energized phase may be a good solution to avoid resonant
over-voltages and improve SPAR at the same time [hasibar et all, the application of high speed grounding switches
for single phase reclosing on 500 kV poser systems]
Risk of damage to equipment can be minimised by limiting the duration of the open phase(s) condition cb failure
or pole-discrepancy protection schemes. Delay on these protection schemes must be co-ordinated with the SPAR
dead time.


Page 74
CHAPTER 5 NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS LEADING TO
FERRORESONANCE
Field experience and extensive research have shown that for an electrical circuit to exhibit ferroresonance the
following elements are needed [8]:
- Nonlinear inductance
- Capacitance.
- Low Losses.
- An external source of energy
The nonlinear inductance can be due to the magnetic core of a voltage transformer or it may have the complex
structure of a three-phase power transformer. These are made of saturable ferromagnetic materials, hence the
term ferroresonance. The quality of these ferromagnetic materials is continuously improving, with a significant
reduction in losses, which is a desirable feature from an economical aspect of power system operation.
Consequently, power transformers, instrument transformers and reactors are normally specified by the networks
owners with the minimum achievable losses, which ironically contributes to an increased risk of ferroresonance.
Circuit capacitance can be due to a number of elements, such as line-to-line capacitance or conductor to earth
capacitance of long transmission lines, underground cables, circuit breaker grading capacitance, busbar
capacitance, bushing capacitance, series capacitors and shunt capacitor banks. Furthermore, significant
capacitances are present in GIS. As a result, the suitable conditions for ferroresonance in electrical power systems
can arise under many diverse configurations.
Identifying ferroresonant conditions in a power system is not a straightforward task due to the complexity of inter-
phase and inter-circuit capacitances in countless possible configurations. Fortunately, studies and field experience
have shown that certain power system configurations are more susceptible to ferroresonance than others.
The following sections lists the most common situations in which ferroresonance can occur under the classification
of voltage and power transformers. In addition a further section is included to show possible configurations leading
to ferroresonance in distribution system. Although these are normally applicable to utilities, reports of occurrences
of ferroresonance have also been reported in IPPs and industrial plants [21] to [23].
5.1 Ferroresonance in voltage transformers (VT)
There are two basic types of voltage transformers: capacitive voltage transformers and electromagnetic (wound)
voltage transformers.
A capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) is essentially a capacitive voltage divider with an electromagnetic
transformer connected to the lower capacitor in the capacitance string. It is quite common practice to include a
series reactor with the transformer and the capacitance in order to provide improved regulation and to compensate
phase shifting introduced by the capacitances introduce. This forms the classical circuit required for ferroresonance
initiation. However, in order to minimise occurrences of ferroresonance, manufacturers include ferroresonance
suppression circuits onto the secondary side of CVTs. There are many ways of introducing this suppression. One
option is the installation of a load in series with a circuit tuned to fundamental frequency where the fundamental
frequency is blocked from the load. Another option is the installation of saturable reactors where more load is
added depending on the voltage level and hence the saturation of the reactor. A third option is to introduce surge
suppressors that clamp abnormally high voltage due to ferroresonance. It should be noted that all these
ferroresonance suppression techniques can adversely effect the performance of the CVT especially with rapid
voltage magnitude and phase angle changes. As CVTs are inherently not prone to ferroresonance due to the
suppression circuits employed, they are not considered any further when looking into ferroresonance.

Page 75
5.1.1 VT and Circui t Breaker Grading Capaci tors
This section describes the ferroresonant circuit formed by a set of isolated electromagnetic (inductive) VTs that
remain energized through the grading capacitors of open EHV circuit breakers. Grading capacitors are normally
installed in EHV circuit breakers to meet high breaking duty requirements by the use of multiple breaking
chambers. The use of grading capacitors started in the 1950s with air blast breakers and has continued through
different technologies and interrupting medium. Nowadays, SF
6
circuit breakers are almost exclusively installed in
EHV transmission systems and the trend in design is to reduce the number of interrupting chambers and to
increase the size of the grading capacitors. These capacitors are placed in parallel with each braking chamber to
achieve an even recovery voltage distribution.
In this case, an oscillation occurs between the non-linear magnetizing inductance of the VT and the circuit stray
capacitance. The energy required to sustain the ferroresonant condition is provided through the grading capacitors
of open circuit breakers.
5.1.1.1 Busbar VTs
VT ferroresonance can occur when a busbar is de-energized by opening the circuit breakers in all the feeders. This
can be the result of a busbar fault clearing or a maintenance outage. The necessary conditions for ferroresonance
to occur are:
- Presence of inductive VTs in the isolated busbar section.
- The feeder circuit-breakers (all or some of them) are equipped with grading capacitors.
This configuration is shown in Figure 5-1 (a) with the reduced equivalent circuit in Figure 5-1 (b). The capacitance
C
g
represents the grading capacitance of each open circuit breaker and n is the number of line bays. C
s
represents
the capacitance to ground of the disconnected section of busbar. R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing
inductance respectively.

Figure 5-1 (a) Network configuration leading to busbar VT ferroresonance and (b) the
Equivalent Circuit
5.1.1.2 Line VTs
VT ferroresonance can occur when line VTs are de-energized. The necessary conditions for ferroresonance to
occur are:
- The line circuit-breaker is equipped with grading capacitors
- The bus disconnector is closed and the line disconnector is open
- Presence of inductive VTs between the circuit breaker and the line disconnector.

Page 76
This configuration is shown in Figure 5-2 (a) with the reduced equivalent circuit in Figure 5-2 (b). The capacitance
C
g
represents the grading capacitance of the circuit breaker, C
s
represents the capacitance to ground of the
disconnected line bay, R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing inductance, respectively. Ferroresonance
may occur as a result of a line de-energization by opening the circuit breaker with the bus disconnector DA closed
and DL open.

Figure 5-2 (a) Network Configuration leading to Line VT ferroresonance and (b) the
Equivalent Circuit
5.1.2 VT and Double Circui t Configuration
This type of ferroresonance can arise when two high voltage lines are strung on the same pylons as a double-
circuit line construction. Ferroresonance occurs when one of the lines is disconnected while the other one remains
energized as shown in Figure 5-3 (a). The reduced equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5-3 (b) where capacitance
C
C
represents the coupling with the energized circuit, C
S
represents the capacitance to ground of the disconnected
line bay, R and L represent the VT losses and magnetizing inductance, respectively. The ferroresonant condition is
sustained by the capacitive coupling with the energized circuit. A ferroresonant incident in this topology has been
experienced in the transmission network in Belgium [24]. It has been reported in [17] that the risk of this type of
ferroresonance is almost negligible when the length of coupling of the two lines exceeds 5 to 10km.
5.1.3 VT in Ungrounded Neutral Systems with Low Zero-Sequence
Capaci tance
This type of ferroresonance condition has been mainly observed in distribution systems. A typical network topology
is shown in Figure 5-4. This topology comprises a set of inductive VTs connected between phases and ground in a
system with no direct neutral grounding. The VTs are in parallel with the zero sequence capacitance of the
distribution network. In general this phenomenon occurs in unloaded system (connection of a load normally
increases the zero-sequence capacitance of the network), however, transient disturbances arising from faults or
switching operations can drive the VTs into saturation and, depending on the relative values between network
capacitance and VT magnetising reactance, ferroresonance can be initiated. This is a parallel ferroresonant event.
Due to the ungrounded neutral connection, only phase-to-phase voltages are fixed. During ferroresonance, the
neutral point is displaced and the voltage on one or two phases rises with respect to ground, giving the false
impression of single phase to ground fault. This neutral displacement is illustrated in Figure 5-5. The resulting
phase to ground overvoltages can cause excessive stress on the equipment insulation.
A very interesting incident experienced in a 50kV network in Norway is reported in [10]. In this case, the clearing of
a fault disconnected the only source of grounding in the 50kV system. As a result of this event, 72 VTs were

Page 77
destroyed. All VTs damaged by ferroresonance were from the same manufacturer, while VTs from other two
manufacturers were also in service and were not damaged. An investigation into the ferroresonant incident
revealed that the saturation characteristics of the three VT types were very different and that the damaged VTs had
a significantly lower saturation point. The early saturation of these VTs and the high magnetising currents drawn
while in ferroresonance caused excessive I
2
R losses in the windings, which thermally destroyed them. This incident
drove a re-assessment of the specification and application of Voltage Transformers.

Figure 5-3 (a) Network Configuration leading to Double Circuit Line VT ferroresonance
and (b) the Equivalent Circuit

Figure 5-4 Network Configuration leading to Ungrounded VT Ferroresonance

The risk of ferroresonance is highly dependent on the characteristics of the distribution network therefore it is
difficult to quote, in general terms, the conditions under which ferroresonance can exist. However, as a rule of
thumb, the following formula can be used [34]. It can be estimated that there is a risk of ferroresonance when the
connected zero sequence capacitance expressed as s km of overhead line circuit is

Page 78

[ ]
Eq. 5-1

where U
n
is the system voltage expressed in kV.
A similar ferroresonance condition can occur on a slightly different configuration. This is shown in Figure 5-6 (a)
with ferroresonance occurring between the voltage transformer and the capacitance of a supply transformer
between high voltage and medium voltage sides. The HV side neutral is insulated from earth, although the HV side
is earthed at other points. The MV side, also insulated from earth, is connected to a set of three voltage
transformers but does not supply any load. Following an earth fault on the HV side of the transformer, its HV
neutral potential can be raised temporarily to a high voltage. The circuit formed by this voltage E
n
(Figure 5-6 (b)),
the coupling capacitance C
n
and, on each phase, the zero-sequence capacitance C
o
in parallel with X
s
can thus be
brought to a state of ferroresonance giving rise to an overvoltage on the MV side. After clearance of the fault on the
HV side, ferroresonant conditions may be maintained by the normal voltage existing on the HV neutral point.

Figure 5-5 Neutral Displacement and Phase-Ground Overvoltages during
Ferroresonance

(a)

Page 79

(b)
Figure 5-6 (a) Configuration for VT ferroresonance due to HV/MV capacitance and (b)
Simplified circuit
5.2 Ferroresonance in power transformers
5.2.1 Transformer Termi nated Transmission Li ne in Mul ti -Circuit
Right of Way
A ferroresonant circuit can be formed when a transformer terminated transmission line is de-energized while there
is an energized circuit running in parallel in the same right of way. A typical topology is illustrated in Figure 5-7 (a).
It shows a power transformer directly connected to a transmission line in Substation 1. Circuit breakers are only
installed on the LV side of the transformer in Substation 1 (CB1), whereas the HV side circuit breakers are
installed in a remote location, at Substation 2 (CB2). The transmission line between Substation 1 and
Substation 2 (ckt A) shares a right of way with other transmission line(s) (ckt B). Ferroresonance can occur after
opening circuit breakers CB1 and CB2 if the parallel circuit remains energized.
In this case, an oscillation occurs between the non-linear magnetising inductance of the transformer and the
capacitance of transmission line it is connected to. The energy required to sustain the ferroresonant condition is
provided from the capacitive coupling with the parallel energized circuit. This topology can occur when circuit
breakers are not installed on both sides of a transformer, for instance to reduce costs in the early stages of system
development. It should be noted that even when circuit breakers are installed on both sides of the transformer, this
topology can still arise if a circuit breaker fails to trip after a transformer fault and the back-up protection trips the
circuit breaker at the remote end of the transmission circuit. Ferroresonance has also been reported to occur
following uneven breaker pole operation (i.e. stuck circuit breaker pole). A similar network topology that has been
reported to exhibit ferroresonance is a tee or tapped step-down transformer as illustrated in Figure 5-7 (b) where
the transformer is tapped from one of the two parallel circuits.
A simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5-7 (c), where C
A
represents the capacitance to ground of Ckt A,
C
A-B
represents the inter-circuit capacitance between Ckt A and Ckt B, R represents the circuit losses and L
represents the transformer magnetising inductance. It should be noted that this simplified equivalent circuit is only
valid for banks of single phase transformers, where there is no coupling between phases. Otherwise, a three-phase
equivalent circuit must be used. Notwithstanding the simplification, the equivalent circuit assists in the visualisation
of the key parameters determining the likelihood of ferroresonance in this topology.
Various modes of ferroresonance, typically fundamental frequency and sub-harmonic ferroresonance can arise
depending on the circuit parameters, initial conditions or switching sequence. Field measurements of a 150km, 400
kV double circuit line terminating in a 500MVA transformer are described in [25]. This reference work relates the
length of the parallel coupling with the type of ferroresonant modes. Very short lines (i.e. less than 20km) do not

Page 80
experience ferroresonance. Fundamental frequency ferroresonance is observed for medium line lengths, while
sub-harmonic ferroresonant oscillations are dominant in long circuit lengths (i.e. >150km). The result of the
oscillations is normally an overvoltage stressing the line and transformer insulation and transformer overflux
causing excessive heating and possible damage to the core and windings. It should be noted that no destructive
failure of power transformer due to ferroresonance has been reported to date, however sustained operation of a
transformer in this condition is a main contributor to its accelerated aging.

Figure 5-7 Transformer terminated transmission line
5.2.2 Lightly Loaded Transformer Energized vi a Cable or Long
Line from a Low Short-Circui t Capaci ty Network
A ferroresonant circuit can be formed when a large power transformer is energized from a weak source via a long
overhead line or cable. This is a parallel ferroresonant topology where an oscillation arises between the non-linear
magnetising inductance of the transformer and the capacitance of transmission line or cable it is connected to. The
voltage source is located behind a large inductive source impedance. A typical network topology and its equivalent
circuit are shown in Figure 5-8. This type of network topology can arise as a result of unusual switching operations
such as during emergency switching operations or system restoration following a blackout. It is best avoided by

Page 81
proper system design and planning. An example of ferroresonance in this topology was experienced in France
during a black-start restoration test where two 1080MVA transformers were energized from a 90MW hydro unit via
a 360km long overhead line [26]. Sustained non-periodic ferroresonant oscillations have been recorded in this
incident.

Figure 5-8 Transformer energized from weak source via long transmission circuit
5.2.3 Transformer energized in one or two phases
Power transformer ferroresonance in this topology is more common in distribution systems due to the use of singe-
phase switching or the deployment of fuses. The system neutral can be either grounded or ungrounded, although
ungrounded neutrals are more susceptible to the phenomena. It is a series ferroresonant phenomenon with the
voltage source coming from the back feed voltage induced on the open phase of the transformer (this is highly
dependent on the core construction) as illustrated in Figure 5-9 for typical topologies. The non-linear inductance is
a combination of the individual limbs in the transformer core and the capacitance comes from the connected
network. It can be seen that series connections of a capacitance with the transformers reactance are possible
when one or two phases are disconnected. This can be the result of fuses blowing, sequential operation of single-
phase switches or accidental break in a phase conductor. It should be noted that the capacitance involved in this
series ferroresonant circuit is not necessarily just the feeding network between the transformer and the open
switch/fuse but it can also include other circuits still connected to the transformer terminals, such as capacitor
banks and the stray capacitance of the transformer winding. This concept is illustrated in Figure 5-10 where for
instance opening of one phase in S1 can leave a significant amount of circuit capacitance connected in series with
the reactance of TX1 and TX2. It should be noted that, in the case of a capacitor bank, if both neutrals (cap bank
and transformer) are grounded or both are ungrounded, then no series path exists and there is no clear possibility
of ferroresonance.
The result of this series ferroresonant phenomenon is typically an overvoltage of 2 to 3 p.u. on the transformer
windings and on the feeding network. This overvoltage imposes stress on the transformer insulation and on any
feeding cable.
The following three conditions must be met for ferroresonance to occur:
- At least one phase must be energized.
- Sufficient capacitance must be present between the transformer and the open point.

Page 82
- The loading and losses in the transformer must be low.
The maximum length of MV cable that can be connected to a distribution transformer energized in one or two
phases can be calculated using the following formula [35]:
) (
[ ]
Eq. 5-2

where L
critical
is the critical cable length in meters, I
mag%
is the transformer magnetising current (typically in the order
of 0.8%), KVAr is the transformer rating in kva, kV
R
is the rated voltage in kV, C
CC
is the cables core to core
capacitance in F/km and C
CS
is the cables core to sheath capacitance in F/km.

Figure 5-9 Transformer accidentally energized in one or two phases (figure extracted
from [8])


Page 83

Figure 5-10 Distribution Network Topologies Prone to Ferroresonance in single-phase
switching
5.2.4 Transformer connected to a series compensated line.
The installation of series capacitors in long transmission networks for voltage regulation purposes can increase the
risk of ferroresonance in certain configurations.
A load rejection on a long transmission/distribution line with series compensation could initiate ferroresonance. This
is a series ferroresonant circuit. If the load rejection was caused by opening the low voltage side circuit breakers,
the temporary overvoltages would cause transformers to operate into the saturation region. With series
compensation in-service, this line open condition could initiate a ferroresonance condition that would stress
dielectric and thermal withstand capability of equipment.
A typical topology is illustrated in Figure 5-11. An example is described in Appendix B4. Ferroresonance results in
large voltages and currents in the capacitor and the transformer.

Figure 5-11 Series Compensated Distribution Circuit

Transmission
.t)

Distribution
ZL1 ZL2
C
ZL1

ZL2
C
(a) Network Topology (b) Equivalent Circuit

Page 84
CHAPTER 6 MODELLING AND STUDYING
Due to the nonlinear nature of the ferroresonant phenomenon, analytical solutions are not simple to implement.
Several approaches as highlighted in the next section have been adopted in the past with significant limitations.
Time-domain digital simulation has emerged as the most powerful tool for the understanding of the phenomenon.
In general EMT type simulation tools provide explicit representation of nonlinear elements and facilitate the
modelling of complex circuit or substation configurations to assess whether or not ferroresonance can occur. It
should be noted that due to the sensitivity of the phenomenon to the circuit parameters and initial conditions, a
large number of simulations is required to assess the likelihood of ferroresonance in a particular network topology
or to gain confidence in a particular mitigation scheme.
Analytical solution methods associated with linear resonance were covered in Chapter 4 and hence it is not
repeated in this chapter.
6.1 Analytical Solution Methods
Different analytical solution methods have been applied to circuits exhibiting ferroresonant behaviour. The most
widely applied method is based on the principle of harmonic balance which is a special case of the Galerkin
method in which the state equations are represented by a Fourier series. Although analytical methods are
extremely powerful in identifying fundamental frequency ferroresonant regimes for a given circuit configuration,
identification of sub-harmonic ferroresonance is quite difficult due to the complexity of the mathematical derivations.
Furthermore, analytical solution methods are not capable of identifying non-periodic or chaotic solutions which can
occur in ferroresonant circuits [27], [29], [31] and [32].
Harmonic balance method has been utilised successfully by Janssens et al [36] to calculate directly the existence
and stability zones of ferroresonant oscillations on a 245kV electromagnetic voltage transformer. Likewise the
same method of analysis has been used in [37] to study the failure of an electromagnetic voltage transformer when
the 220kV busbar was de-energized by a circuit breaker fitted with grading capacitors across its contacts. Others
[38] have tried to use the method when looking to provide certain criteria for the stability of sustained sub-harmonic
ferroresonance but omitting higher harmonics in their calculations which resulted in discrepancies between their
experimental and calculated results.
The pseudo-arc-length continuation method as an addition to the Galerkin method was suggested by Kieny [39],
[40]. Using the two methods in conjunction they were able to predict all periodic solutions including sub-harmonic
and higher harmonic cases but they failed to identify any pseudo-periodic or chaotic solution.
Ritz's method of harmonic balance was used in [41] to formulate an analytical solution to the problem of
fundamental frequency ferroresonance. Using this method it was possible to map the boundaries between safe and
fundamental ferroresonance regions as a function of the system parameters.
The second type of analytical solution utilises the incremental describing function method usually applied to
nonlinear control systems to examine transformer ferroresonance. The method is based on the use of a dual input
describing function to analyse nonlinear systems [42]. It involves evaluating the gain of one of the frequency
components in passing through the nonlinear element when the input to the element consists of two sinusoidal
waves of differing amplitudes, frequencies and phases. When applied to ferroresonance, the nonlinear element
represents the transformer saturation characteristic and the two sinusoidal inputs are the system voltage applied to
the transformer, and the disturbance, such as a temporary overvoltage. The primary advantage of this method is
that it allows the critical jump values to be directly calculated. Since its introduction for application to transformer
ferroresonance [43] the method has been subjected to considerable investigation [44] to [47]. As an analytical tool
the method is very powerful but it is not very easy to implement and requires very accurate system data to produce
useful results, especially in the case of complicated power system networks.

Page 85
It is worth mentioning that Andrei and Halley [48] developed a different analytical approach to determine whether
ferroresonance can occur, based on the energy transferred from the system to the voltage transformer during the
switching transient.
6.2 Digital Simulation Methods
Describe numerical simulation methods used. Application of chaos theory and its tools (Poincare maps, bifurcation
diagrams) to the study of ferroresonance.
Since analytical solution methods are not capable of predicting non-periodic ferroresonance occurrences and even
sometimes sub-harmonic ferroresonance, researchers have used different digital simulation techniques including
EMT analysis and chaos theory to analyse ferroresonant circuits.
It was Kieny [26][40] who first suggested applying chaos to the study of ferroresonance in electric power systems
by studying the possibility of ferroresonance in power transformers, particularly in the presence of long capacitive
lines as highlighted by occurrences in France in 1982, and produced a bifurcation diagram indicating stable and
unstable areas of operation. Kieny [49] was also able to present a non-periodic (pseudo-periodic), but not chaotic
waveform, using Lyapunov exponents and was able to prove the stability of this waveform and postulated that the
bifurcation theory was the right mathematical framework to study ferroresonance phenomenon.
A fourth-order Runge-Kutta formula was introduced [29] to solve numerically the differential equation of a basic
ferroresonant circuit consisting of a capacitor in series with a nonlinear inductor. The same circuit was later used
[50] in a different software toolkit package [51] to solve the nonlinear equations of the circuit and produced
bifurcation diagrams with source voltage E being the bifurcation parameter for different exponent of the
nonlinearity.
Nonlinear dynamical techniques was used [52] in an attempt to establish a methodical approach for identifying all
possible initial conditions and, consequently, the different types of ferroresonant oscillations that can occur in a
capacitor voltage transformer.
EMT type program was used [53] to model the behaviour of an 8.33MVA power transformer with construction of
Poincar maps, phase plane trajectories, frequency spectrum and bifurcation diagrams. An add-on computer
simulation was developed [54] which was subsequently incorporated into an EMT type software to study the
problem of ferroresonance in a three-phase five-legged grounded wye-wye power transformer to reveal different
types of ferroresonant wave-forms. EMT type software was also used in [11] to simulate the conditions present
during a voltage transformer failure concluding that the method provided an accurate and inexpensive means to
simulate the potential for ferroresonance.

Page 86

6.3 Modelling of Network Components
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
s
t
a
t
e

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
bifurcation parameter
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-2.7 -2.65 -2.6 -2.55 -2.5 -2.45 -2.4 -2.35 -2.3 -2.25 -2.2 -2.15
d
e
r
i
v
a
t
i
v
e

o
f

s
t
a
t
e

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
state variable

Page 87
6.3.1 Extent of the Network Model
Ferroresonance is a localised phenomenon and, as a general rule, large network models are not necessary. Only
the main elements directly involved in to ferroresonant circuit (i.e. non-linear reactance, capacitances and voltage
source) need to be represented in detail. Therefore both in ferroresonance and resonance studies the feeding
network can be represented as a Thevenin source equivalent calculated at power frequency.
6.3.2 Overhead Li ne Model
An accurate representation of the line parameters at resonant and near-resonant frequencies is essential. The
most critical elements that need to be reproduced accurately are the circuit capacitances, therefore the model has
to be based on accurate geometrical configuration of conductors at the towers and along the spans. Circuit phase
transpositions, if present, need to be represented explicitly. The frequency dependency of the model parameters is
not critical since the phenomena of interest is resonance at (or near) power frequency. A multi-phase distributed
parameter model, such as Bergeron, calculated at power frequency normally yields reasonable results. A
frequency dependant model like JMARTI can also yield accurate results when the transformation matrix is
calculated at (or near) power frequency.
Corona losses can reduce the amplitude of resonant overvoltages when the critical corona onset voltage is
exceeded. These losses are dependent on a large number of random variables, atmospheric conditions among
them. Although there is significant literature dealing with corona losses under normal voltage operating conditions,
there is very limited published experimental data on corona at power frequency above critical voltage Error!
eference source not found.. In practical terms, corona will only contribute to the attenuation of Temporary
OverVoltages and most studies tend to ignore these losses to add a safety margin to the computed results.
Depending on the ferroresonant topology, it may be necessary to represent overhead lines in detail, for example in
cases where energy is coupled from an energized parallel circuit or, alternatively, to assess the detuning effect of
switching a long circuit.
Given that ferroresonance is a low frequency phenomenon, frequency dependency is not a critical feature of the
line model. Therefore, a multi-phase distributed parameter line model like Bergeron is sufficient for most
ferroresonant studies. The exception is when ferroresonance is initiated by a line switching transient where a
frequency dependant model of the circuit under study is recommended. Other circuits not involved in the switching
can be represented with lumped or distributed parameter models. If inter-circuit capacitances are part of the
ferroresonant circuit, both parallel circuits must be represented in detail using accurate tower geometry. Phase-
transposition, if employed, must be explicitly modelled. If the overhead line employs any series capacitors, these
can be modelled as lumped capacitive elements connected in series between two line sections.
6.3.3 Transformers
Power transformers must be represented with a three-phase model in order to reproduce correctly the coupling
between phases. Voltage transformers on the other hand can be represented with single-phase models, with the
secondary and tertiary winding connections represented externally to the model. Transformer stray, bushing and
inter-winding capacitances can be represented as lumped elements in parallel with the appropriate windings.
The nonlinear behaviour of the magnetic core of the transformer is the most critical aspect of the model and
therefore correct representation of the saturation effects along with losses is a key factor for the accuracy of the
simulation results. Some transformer models available in commercially available EMT type software packages do
not support inclusion of this data. In such cases the magnetic core data has to be represented externally. Some
models include the hysteretic behaviour of the magnetic core including losses where this is normally the area inside
the hysteresis loop. Normally, it is difficult to implement this type of model due to unavailability of data to the user.
To overcome this, some models employ a single-valued representation of a nonlinear inductor with a damping
resistor added externally to account for the losses. The nonlinear inductor provides a smooth computation since
Comment [ZE5]: Marta, this came originally from
you and this is the correct reference I think!
SHOULD BE 66 now

Page 88
flux is the integral of voltage and performs satisfactorily provided that the curve is not defined by too many
segments.
In some stand alone cases, a Preisach type mode [55] or a Preisach-Biorci-Pescetti hysteresis model [56] has
been utilised to include the hysteresis effect in the study of ferroresonance. It should be mentioned that although
this type of saturation modelling provides very good results it has the drawback of being extremely difficult to
implement due to the unavailability of data without specialised equipment testing.
The location of the saturation curve is also important in three phase power transformers. To obtain reasonable
results, the saturation curve must be represented in parallel with the closest winding to the magnetic core (this is
normally the LV winding). This approximation gives accurate results for frequencies below 1 kHz.
The magnetic core losses are critical in any simulation involving saturation. Various representations can be found
in literature: hysteresis loop, non-linear resistor and linear resistor. The advantages and limitations of each
representation are discussed in [10] [57][58]. Those technical publications conclude that the most accurate
representation is the hysteresis reactor; however the parameters required for its developments are normally not
available to the user and involve special testing. The non-linear resistor representation, on the other hand, can
have serious limitations since hysteresis losses depend on flux and not voltage. A linear resistance is the most
common representation mode for the magnetic core losses. It is reported in [10] that this core loss representation, if
it represents the average losses at the level of excitation being simulated, yields reasonable results.
For more detailed information on the modelling of transformers for this type of studies the reader is advised to refer
to CIGRE TB on Transformer Energization A Study Guide.
6.3.4 Shunt Reactors
The core construction has a large effect on the reactors behaviour during unbalanced open-phase conditions. The
only type of reactor that does not have direct magnetic coupling between phases is the single-phase unit. Three-
phase reactors present different levels of zero sequence coupling depending on the core design. The shell -type
and four/five-legged core-type reactors (with adequate steel section) provide a magnetic path for the zero
sequence flux, hence, the coupling between phases is very small and can normally be neglected. The three-legged
core construction, however, presents a strong magnetic coupling between phases and is not normally used for line
shunt compensation.
Shunt reactors are normally specified to remain linear up to a knee point of around 125% to 150% of nominal
voltage. For a preliminary analysis of line resonance, the shunt reactors can be represented as linear lumped
elements. However, operation near a resonant peak may drive the reactor into saturation and initiate a
ferroresonant oscillation. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the circuit must include reactors saturation.
Reactor losses affect the amplitude of near-resonant overvoltages. Typical quality factors for modern reactors built
with low loss materials are in the order of 1000. This can be represented by a lumped resistor connected in series
with the reactor.
6.3.5 Other Substation Equipment
The main aspect of the substation equipment that needs to be modelled accurately is the capacitive component.
The capacitances of all pieces of plant contributing to the ferroresonant circuit need to be represented accurately.
These elements include the busbars, bay conductors, disconnectors, current transformers, voltage transformers,
surge arresters, circuit breakers, power transformers, shunt capacitors, etc.
Series capacitances are of major importance when the capacitance is connected to the target transformer; i.e. the
case of series ferroresonance when the series capacitance is formed by the capacitances between the lines of a
double circuit line, with the first line being energized, and the second one is de-energized with the transformer
connected to it.

Page 89
A distinction is made between capacitances to ground of conductors and stray capacitances of plant apparatus:
Capacitances to Ground of Busbars and Bay Conductors
An accurate model of the busbars and bay conductors is required. These conductors must be modelled based on
the geometrical layout of the station. Lumped parameter line models are normally adequate for busbars or typical
conductor lengths within the station unless very long busbars are involved, in which case distributed models may
be employed. However, this approach restricts the size of the integration time-step and increases the computation
time. While this restriction may not be important for one single simulation, it may be unpractical when carrying out a
large number of parametric analysis simulations. In practice, for normal lengths of conductors within a substation,
the authors have found that a lumped parameter model (i.e. multi-phase pi representation) calculated at power
frequency yields adequate results.
Stray Capacitances of Apparatus
The stray capacitance of each apparatus involved in the ferroresonant circuit can be represented as lumped
elements connected between the phase conductors and ground. Accurate values of these capacitances must be
obtained from the equipment manufacturers and test reports.
In addition to the above, certain equipment may need to be modelled explicitly, as follows:
- Surge arresters may need to be represented if there is a concern about their energy absorption capabilities
being exceeded during the ferroresonant oscillations. Surge arresters can also influence the ferroresonant
oscillation mode [85].
- Current transformers and PLC line traps do not need to be represented.
- Circuit breakers can be represented as ideal switches. If the circuit breakers are equipped with grading
capacitors, these need to be represented in parallel with the switch.
- Capacitor banks can be represented as lumped capacitive elements with the appropriate connections (i.e.
wye or delta).
Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breakers can be represented as ideal time-controlled switches. Circuit breaker grading capacitors should be
represented explicitly as a parallel capacitance across the ideal time-controlled switch. Stray capacitance of the
circuit-breaker are of major importance when the phenomena appearing at the transformer de-energization are of
importance. In particular, they have an impact on the final value of the residual flux remaining in the iron core of the
transformer following the opening of the circuit-breaker poles.
6.4 Sensitivity to Parameters
6.4.1 Effect of Magnetisi ng Curve
The saturation curve is one of the key parameters, whether the non linearity is pronounced or not. One of the key
components of the saturation curve is the slope in the fully saturated region normally referred to as Lsat. This is
equal to Lair, the air core inductance of the transformer, minus the inductance corresponding to stray losses. Value
of Lair can be estimated with a very good accuracy either by analytical formulas [60] or by 3D electromagnetic
calculations [61], assuming that the relative permeability of the iron core is equal to 1
Figure 6-1 shows three magnetizing curves for three different VTs all used in a 400 kV network. They are
presented in the same scale, to demonstrate differences between them. Figure 6-2 shows voltage - frequency
dependencies for the above VTs for capacitances of 1 and 10 nF for a voltage range of 0 to 1600 kV based on
EMT type software simulation. It can be seen that VT3 with the highest magnetisation knee point connected to a

Page 90
capacitor of more than 5 nF is not able to oscillate on the fundamental power frequency for realistic levels of
voltages, so fundamental frequency ferroresonance is impossible for this particular VT. On the contrary VT1, with
its easy saturability, can exhibit ferroresonance for a wide range of frequencies.

Figure 6-1 Magnetizing curves (Wb - I) for three different 400 kV VTs

Figure 6-2 Frequency of oscillations as a function of initial voltage for three types of
VTs

6.4.2 Infl uence of Circui t Breaker Closing Times
The closing times of a circuit-breaker are a key parameter for the suppression of ferroresonance; the reason is
mainly due to the fact that the major state-variable in the electrical circuit is the flux circulating in it, which is
constituted mainly by the magnetic flux circulating in the iron core of the transformer. It may also be shown, in the
case of discrepancies in the closing times for circuit-breaker poles, that the phenomena may be generated due to
it, and stopped when re-synchronizing the poles of the circuit-breaker which operates.

VT1
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
VT3
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
VT2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

C=1 nF
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Voltage (kV)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
VT3
VT2
VT1

C=10 nF
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Voltage (kV)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
VT3
VT2
VT1

Page 91
6.4.3 Infl uence of the Damping in the Circui t
Damping factors are of major importance. In other parts of physics, dealing with non linear systems, especially in
chemistry, dissipative aspects are of major importance, linked to thermodynamic aspects, entropy [17], which
characterises the balance between the energy brought into the system (source as an input), and the dissipative
parts (losses of the system). In electrical network, when the energy is injected in the electrical system from on side,
through the up-stream network, the resonance phenomena may be damped through the dissipative components.


Page 92
CHAPTER 7 MITIGATION OF FERRORESONANCE
Ferroresonance can happen at any voltage level with the appropriate combination of capacitance, non-linear
inductance and low losses. The first line of defence against its harmful effects is an understanding of the
phenomena so that the risky network conditions can be avoided.
7.1 Mitigation of VT Ferroresonance
A wide range of remedial actions have been used worldwide for the mitigation of VT ferroresonance in EHV
substations. These are classified into two main groups:
a) Passive Methods: To prevent the occurrence of network conditions likely to result in ferroresonance.
b) Active Methods: To allow the network conditions that could lead to ferroresonance to exist but to introduce
losses to quickly dampen out any harmful oscillation.
The passive mitigation methods comprise the design of the physical layout of substations to minimise inter-circuit
couplings, the installation of VTs in the line side of the disconnectors, the selection of inductive VTs with lower flux
density, the use of capacitive VTs and the implementation of switchgear interlocking or revised switching
procedures. Passive methods provide the best protection against ferroresonance. However, even when an
installation is carefully planned with the risk of ferroresonance in mind, the number of unusual circuit configurations
that may arise during commissioning or maintenance procedures is countless. Furthermore, substation
refurbishments or expansions may modify the circuit capacitance, leading to an increased risk of ferroresonance.
The example of a substation in Canada is reported in [9] where, due to circuit breaker upgrades, the circuit
capacitance drastically increased after several years of equipment upgrades and resulted in the destruction of a
230kV inductive VT.
The active mitigation methods comprise the use of resistors connected to Wye secondary windings, the use of
resistors connected across open-delta windings, the use of air-core reactors connected in parallel with the HV
winding, the use of a series combination of a resistor and a saturable reactor in the secondary wi nding, and the
closing of grounding switches upon detection of ferroresonance.
A combination of passive and active mitigation methods will provide an optimum protection against ferroresonant
overvoltages. Given the low cost of most of these methods and the severe consequences of ferroresonance, the
combined application of active and passive mitigation options is recommended as the most cost-effective solution.
7.1.1 Secondary Open Del ta Resistor
This is the most widely used mitigation method due to its simplicity. The connection of a damping resistor to the
open-delta winding configuration is shown in Figure 7-1.

V
T
R
damping-A


Page 93
Figure 7-1 Connection of damping resistor to the VT open-delta secondary winding

This is an active method since ferroresonance is mitigated by the introduction of resistive losses. The advantage
of this connection is that the required losses are only introduced during unbalanced operating conditions.
Consequently, the accuracy of readings obtained with other secondary windings, for metering or protection, is not
affected.
The sizing criteria for the resistor are as follows:
a) The resistance value should be as low as possible in order to dampen the ferroresonant oscillations very
rapidly.
b) The resistor needs to cater for the possibility of earth-faults in the system, which will impose a zero
sequence voltage across its terminals. The thermal burden of the VT secondary must not be exceeded under any
circumstances, including for circuit breaker failure contingencies.
It can be observed that the two requirements for the ohmic value of the resistor are exclusive; hence a balance
needs to be found. Ferracci recommends the use of the following expressions [8]:

Eq. 7-1

Eq. 7-2

where U
S
is the rated secondary voltage, P
e
is the rated thermal burden of the secondary and P
R
is the rated VA of
the resistor.
The reader must be warned that the above expressions are empirical and should only be used as a starting point of
detailed analysis into the optimum size of resistor. Furthermore, the reader must also be aware that this solution is
not effective in all cases of VT ferroresonance. Karlicek reported in [35] that sub-harmonic ferroresonant modes
require smaller resistors than fundamental frequency modes to be suppressed, suggesting that a prior knowledge
of the expected mode of ferroresonance is required in order to mitigate it. Experience in Ireland has shown that a
resistance value as low as 0.5 was not efficient in suppressing fundamental ferroresonance. Analogue computer
simulations reported in [19] indicated that the open-delta resistor was only successful in eliminating ferroresonance
when the zero sequence voltage exceeded 15% of the system voltage. These uncertainties in the effectiveness of
open-delta resistors justify the need to carry-out detailed analysis when considering them as a valid mitigation
option.
7.1.2 Secondary Wye Resistor
The connection of damping resistors in parallel with the secondary windings of a VT is shown in Figure 7-2.

Page 94

Figure 7-2 Connection of damping resistors to the VT wye secondary windings

Some methods of calculating the damping resistance can be found in literature:
Price [19] recommends the following expression:
Eq. 7-3

where R
C
is the critical resistance seen from the primary VT winding, X
b
is the open circuit breaker capacitive
reactance, E
S
is the voltage at the knee-point of the VT saturation curve and E is the rated system voltage.
Ferracci recommends the use of the following expressions [8]:

Eq. 7-4

Eq. 7-5

where: U
S
is the rated secondary voltage, k is a factor between 0.25 and 1 to guarantee that errors and service
conditions remain within the limits specified by the applicable standards (i.e. IEC 186 or IEEE C57). P
t
is the rated
VA output of the secondary and P
m
is the VA required for measurement.
Li et al [59] recommend a theoretical resistance value based on the critical damping of an RLC circuit.

Eq. 7-6

where L
unsat
is the unsaturated VT inductance, C is the circuit capacitance, and r is the VT transformation ratio.
The main drawback of this connection is that continuous losses are introduced in the circuit under normal operating
conditions. Furthermore, unless a dedicated secondary winding is used for this purpose only, the damping resistor
will be connected in parallel with the measuring instruments or protection relays, affecting the accuracy of
measurements.
The specification of an additional secondary winding for the sole connection of a damping resistor increases
considerably the cost of the VT and may not be justified in most circumstances. Furthermore, spare secondary

VT
Rdamping-y

Page 95
windings may not be available in existing installations. Some solutions to overcome these difficulties have been
suggested in the literature. For example, [19] recommended switching the resistors into the secondary circuit only
when the conditions for ferroresonance are met. This is done by connecting an interposing relay that only operates
when all the breakers feeding a busbar VT are open or when a line VT is de-energized.
7.1.3 Secondary Wye Resistor i n Series wi th a Saturable Reactor
This connection is shown in Figure 7-3. Under normal operating conditions, the non-saturated inductance presents
such a large impedance that it guarantees no interference with the measuring or protecting devices sharing the
same circuit. Under ferroresonant conditions, the inductance is driven into saturation inserting the resistor in the
circuit. The additional load dampens the ferroresonant phenomenon. It should be noted that the proper design of
this damping circuit requires a prior knowledge of the ferroresonant modes to be expected, which means that the
design has to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

Figure 7-3 Damping resistors and saturable reactors on the VT wye secondary
windings
7.1.4 Other Mi tigation Options
Other mitigation options worth exploring are listed below:
- Specification of EHV circuit breakers without grading capacitors.
- Optical VT technology.
- Capacitive VTs.
- Installation of inductive VTs in the line side of a line disconnector.
- Interlocking schemes to avoid risky circuit configurations.
- Specification of VTs with a higher saturation point.
Optical transformer technology is a promising emerging alternative that eliminates the concern for ferroresonance.
Further operating experience is required, however, before they can be generally installed in EHV substations.
It is standard for manufacturers to include anti-ferroresonant measures in the design of Capacitive Voltage
Transformers (CVT). These voltage transformers are only an option when fast line discharge is not required. If
automatic reclosing is employed, as it is generally the case in EHV transmission lines, the CVTs cannot discharge
the trapped line voltage and, consequently, the level of switching transient overvoltages at reclosing will be very

VT
R L

Page 96
high. This issue has large implications in the selection of line surge arresters and the insulation level, which
increases significantly the cost of the installation. Consequently, CVTs are very rarely used to avoid line VT
ferroresonance in EHV substations. On the other hand, if the ferroresonant problem to be mitigated is due to
busbars VTs, the use of capacitive VTs provides the simplest and cheapest solution since automatic reclosing is
not deployed for busbar faults.
The use of inductive VTs with higher saturation knee, i.e. lower flux density, can reduce the risk of ferroresonance.
An example of VT magnetising curves from three different manufacturers is shown in Figure 7-4. It should be
noted, however, that the risk is not entirely eliminated. It just makes the onset of ferroresonance more difficult.
Furthermore, if ferroresonance occurs, the level of overvoltages will be higher. The increased cost must be
balanced against the achieved performance.

Figure 7-4 Magnetizing curves of three types of VT used in 400 kV networks

The mitigation options discussed above are applicable to both cases of VT ferroresonance; VTs energized through
grading capacitors of circuit breakers and VTs in double line configuration topology.
7.1.5 Mi tigation of VT Ferroresonance in Ungrounded Neutral
Systems
For the mitigation of VT ferroresonance in ungrounded neutral systems or in arc-suppressed neutral systems the
following options can be considered:
Operate the VT at a low induction value
The first design countermeasure against ferroresonance is to dimension the core for low induction. This is an effort
to ensure that, on occurrence of transient overvoltages, the core does not saturate and cause ferroresonance. A
first precaution is to ensure that nominal inrush current will not cause saturation. The induction of a VT will reach
nearly twice its steady-state value if the switch-in occurs at the zero crossing of the applied voltage. Therefore, to
avoid going into saturation in these circumstances, the rated induction must be less than half of the saturated
value. On an arc-suppressed or ungrounded neutral system, it is possible for the applied voltage to be 3 times the
rated value, so the induction of the VT on such as system should be less than 3 5 0 . times the saturated
induction.

VT1
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
VT3
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
VT2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

Page 97
Introduce resistive losses to damp-out ferroresonance.
As described in previous sections a damping circuit connected to the secondary winding is the usual way to
mitigate ferroresonance in an inductive VT. This damping circuit may be connected in for as long as required to
damp out ferroresonance or it may be connected permanently. The advantage of the former is that the damping
resistor does not need to be rated for long time voltage application as it is only in the circuit when ferroresonance is
likely to occur. However, the introduction of extra circuitry is a disadvantage and raises the question of physical
mounting of extra components and connection of same as well as the possibility of mal-operation due to failure of a
component. Whichever arrangement is used, the damping resistor is normally connected to the open delta
secondary winding of the VT.
Add more capacitance in parallel with the VTs

Page 98
This phenomenon is normally limited to small values of zero sequence capacitance. The connection of a long
circuit or a capacitor bank can be enough to prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
One large North American utility has, for many years, successfully avoided incidents of ferroresonance with VTs
used in many ground fault detection applications by using the arrangement shown in Figure 7-5.Figure 7-5 Two
bus VTs are connected from phase A to phase B and phase C to phase B. These VTs are rated for the full line-to-
line voltage on the bus. The third VT is connected from phase B to ground and is rated 2 times the line-to-line
voltage. The two different kinds of VTs are used to reduce the risk of ferroresonance. The auxiliary VTs, to step
down the voltage to the relay, are connected grounded wye-open corner delta. When a fault occurs, the neutral
shifts and a voltage of 3 times normal secondary voltage may occur across the open-corner delta. A resistive
burden of around 125 Ohms is connected across the open-corner of the delta. The utility has adopted this scheme
as standard for use with ground fault detection with autrotransformer tertiaries.
Some utilities employ bus VTs that are fully fluxed for line-to-line voltage but do not use resistive loading across the
secondary windings or a resistive burden across the open-corner delta secondary.
It should be noted that modern digital relays that are used to detect a ground fault on ungrounded busses, such as
delta-connected tertiary windings of autotransformers, do not use auxiliary VTs. They connect directly to the bus
VT phase-to-ground secondary windings. Thus, there is no opportunity to apply damping resistance across an
open-corner delta VT secondary winding unless the VTs have dual secondary windings where one set can be
configured accordingly. Ground fault detection schemes applied to floating neutral systems, based on modern
digital relays having reduced burdens may be more susceptible to ferroresonance problems than schemes
employing the older electro-mechanical relays.

IAV
C
A
C
A
BUS PTs
A B C
A B
C
B
A1 A2
C
AUX PTs
XV
YV
250
250
RELAY
YV1
XV1

Page 99
Figure 7-5 Interconnection of VTs and Auxiliary VTs
7.2 Mitigation of Power Transformer Ferroresonance
Mitigation options applicable to power transformer ferroresonance and especially in the case of transformer
terminated EHV lines in multi-circuit configuration can be grouped into three basic approaches:
Avoid circuit parameters or operating conditions favouring ferroresonance
One option to consider is to limit the length of the de-energized transmission line that can be left connected to the
transformer. This could be achieved by the installation of circuit breakers on both sides of the transformer when the
critical circuit length is exceeded.
It is also possible to specify transformers especially for new developments with low flux density. This measure
tends to be very uneconomical and unpractical as it increases significantly the cost and size of the transformer. A
third alternative is to disconnect any parallel circuit before the transformer is de-energized.
Minimise the energy transfer that is required to sustain the ferroresonant
oscillations
Losses could be increased artificially during switching by means of series resistors inserted in the switching devices
to avoid sustained ferroresonance. Another possibility to increase the losses is by loading the delta connected
tertiary windings with a suitable resistor.
Coupling from the adjacent live circuit could also be reduced by the introduction of phase transposition to both
circuits.
Control the duration of ferroresonance by operational switching
In this category ferroresonance is allowed to occur but its duration is controlled by careful management of switching
operations such that ferroresonance oscillations are quenched. One possible way is to open the disconnectors
used for the isolation of the transformer to remove it from the transmission line. However, special attention must be
given to this measure as the ferroresonant current could be sizable, resulting in large arcing and possible damage
to disconnector contacts. Another option is the employment of appropriately rated earth switches whereby earth
switches are closed automatically following detection of ferroresonance.
It is also possible to initiate disconnection of the parallel circuit to remove the source of energy. However this action
should be assessed in the context of the entire system integrity and stability as it results in a double circuit outage.
In the case of a distribution system power transformer ferroresonance due to the use of singe-phase switching or
the deployment of fuses, the most obvious mitigation measure is to avoid the use of single-phase switches or
fuses. Alternatively the length of cable connected to the transformer could be limited by installing a circuit breaker
cubicle as close as possible to the transformer terminals. It is also possible to introduce a resistive load to the
circuit.
Following a general network disturbance or black-out, a hydroelectric or a gas turbine power unit with black start
capability may be used with the primary objective of restoring power to the auxiliaries of a nuclear power plant [86].
This usually involves energization of the auxiliary transformer of a nuclear power unit so that it can participate in the
restoration of the network. In order to avoid resonance or ferroresonance due to the magnetization of the target
transformer, it is possible to use the hydroelectric or gas turbine power units to perform a "progressive voltage" re-
energizing, with the objective of applying a voltage to the target transformer that increases from 0 to its final value
in several seconds. In an automatic sequence, the source unit is brought up to its rated rotation speed, unexcited,
some protections having been inhibited so that on request at he voltage is increased following closure of the unitss

Page 100
circuit breaker and excitation contactor. The increase of voltage on the lines and transformers is performed under
the control of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR), for example by means of a ramp, to its final value in several
seconds or even several tens of seconds. The AVR voltage set-point is normally set to its minimum value,
corresponding in general to 90% of the rated generator voltage. In some cases with long lines where the level of
compensated is low, a lower value may be required to comply with the maximum authorised levels on the lines.
This reduced voltage set-point helps to reduce the voltage level at the target transformer terminals, thus avoiding
its saturation. By this progressive way of re-energizing transformers on weak networks, transient saturation is
avoided and there are no inrush currents. Thus there is a low risk of appearance of ferroresonance or resonance
phenomena characterized by temporary harmonic overvoltages that could present a danger to the equipment.


Page 101
Conclusion
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue massa. Fusce posuere,
magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.
Nunc viverra imperdiet enim. Fusce est. Vivamus a tellus.

Table no. 1: Evolution


Page 102
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Page 108
Annexes
ANNEX A RESONANCE EXAMPLES
A. 1 Resonance Associated with Single-phase Autoreclose
Switching of 275 kV Shunt Reactor
On one circuit of a 275 kV double-circuit line, an existing 30 Mvar fixed shunt reactor with a neutral earthing reactor
was reaching the end of its life. System studies had identified that this fixed shunt reactor should be replaced with
a 50 Mvar switched shunt reactor life. Separate studies identified that the line was sufficiently short that secondary
arc currents would self-extinguish if the shunt reactor were to be solidly earthed, with no requirement for a neutral
reactor life. This case study examines whether neutral earthing is required to avoid resonance in the recovery
voltage under single-phase autoreclose conditions. The system under study is shown in Figure A-1.

Figure A-1 Overview of double-circuit line and shunt reactor studied under single-
phase autoreclose

Bus X
50MVAr
NEX or
solid
earth
Coupling
from
healthy
phases
Coupling from
healthy adjacent
Circuit B
Bus Y
Bus Z
Circuit A
Circuit B
V

Page 109
For the 50 Mvar shunt reactor when solidly earthed, the ultimate steady-state recovery voltage at the Circuit A line
exit from Bus X (coupled from healthy conductors), is around 40kV
rms phase-earth
with one phase of Circuit A out
4
, as
indicated in Figure A-2. This value is well below the maximum continuous overvoltage (MCOV) of 191kV for the
surge arrester intended for this application and is not of concern. Whilst the MCOV is exceeded when the breakers
open, the situation persists for well under a second and is also not of concern.
However, Figure A-3 indicates that substitution with a 30 Mvar solidly earthed reactor (equivalent to removal of the
neutral reactor from the existing shunt reactor on Circuit A) yields a recovery voltage of around 330 kV, after slow
oscillations arising from the switching have settled down. This recovery voltage exceeds the 191 kV arrester MCOV
and could lead to equipment damage.

Figure A-2 Recovery voltage for 50 Mvar solidly earthed shunt reactor, blue phase
breakers opening at 0.5s [local end] and 0.6s [remote end] (x axis is time in seconds)

4
If, instead, three phases of Circuit A are out, representing three-phase autoreclose, the steady state recovery
voltage drops to around 20kV
rms phase-earth
.

Recovery Voltage (kVrms L-G)
x
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
...
...
...
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
VCOV

Page 110

Figure A-3 Recovery voltage for 30 Mvar solidly earthed shunt reactor, blue phase
breakers opening at 0.5s [local end] and 0.6s [remote end] (x axis is time in seconds)

Figure A-4 shows the effect upon the recovery voltage (blue phase open only, which is the worst of the three in this
instance) with varying shunt reactor sizes. For a solidly earthed shunt reactor, a peak occurs around 27 Mvar,
suggesting that a 50 Hz resonance would be likely to be excited, with recovery voltages potentially exceeding
several hundred kV, depending on resistive damping. Adding a 1000 neutral earthing reactor moves the resonant
condition to occur for a shunt reactor of around 33.5 Mvar. However, the intended 50 Mvar shunt reactor yields fully
acceptable recovery voltages life. In practice, recovery voltages as high as those suggested by the peak of Figure
A-4 would not be seen; rather, this is a prospective recovery voltage. Surge arresters on the line would tend to
reduce actual voltages, as would flashovers when surge arrester capabilities are exceeded.

Recovery Voltage (kVrms L-G)
x
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
...
...
...
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
VCOV

Page 111

Figure A-4 Effect of shunt neutral reactor size on recovery voltage on line exit (blue
phase only)

For the system studied in this case, the 50 Mvar reactor was found to avoid recovery voltage resonance problems,
with solid earthing or with a 1000 neutral earthing reactor. However, smaller reactors risk resonance between the
reactor and capacitive coupling from adjacent conductors during single-phase autoreclose operations.
Simulation of recovery voltages with varying reactor sizes under single- and three-phase autoreclose allows a
potentially relatively narrow resonant peak to be identified and then mitigated, either by a different size of reactor or
by altering the neutral earthing arrangement.

Recovery Voltage Variation with Shunt Reactor Size on Canowie Line Exit at
Davenport (blue phase only)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Shunt Q (MVAr)
R
e
c
o
v
e
r
y

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
r
m
s

L
-
G
)
1000 NEX
Solid earthing

Page 112
A. 2 Line Resonance experienced in 275 kV Double Circuit as a
result of System Expansion

Network Topology:
The 30 Mvar line reactors installed at Daven on the Daven to Robert and the Daven to Cano 275 kV transmission
lines where designed to prevent over-voltages at the Daven end of these lines when they were originally energized
from the Lakeside Substation further away. Since this time the Roberts 275/132 kV substation has been
established, significantly shortening the lines. The original line design also ensured that the transmission line was
fully transposed between Daven and the present location of Roberts substation, between Roberts to the proposed
site of Billo, and again between Billo and Lakeside.

Daven
Cano
Roberts
Lakeside
133.7km
212.5km
376.5km
30MVAr
Reactors

Figure A-5 Daven Roberts Lakeside 275 kV corridor

Resonance arising from planned network expansion:
Now that Cano substation has been established (cut into the Daven to Roberts #1 line), the effective line length has
been again reduced (and the transmission line at that location is in mid-transposition). In terms of impedance, the
transmission line has a capacitive reactance of approximately -j2600 O whereas the 30 Mvar reactor has an
inductive reactance of approximately +j 2500 O.

Page 113
A line length of about 5 km longer, or a system frequency of 51 Hz, or if the line reactor had an actual reactance of
about 29.1 Mvar, would all result in a true resonant condition occurring with an apparent impedance in excess of
3.2 MO resulting in possibly rated phase to ground voltage appearing on one phase, lower voltages on the other
two phases, and unbalanced resonant currents flowing through the reactor and reactor neutral. The presence of
these voltages and currents make it impossible to open the reactor isolator.
In the short term, to switch the line reactor in and out of service, the Daven to Roberts 275 kV transmission line
must also be energizede-energized to remove the source of excitation voltage.

Calculations, On-site Tests and Results
This section details the analysis carried out to identify whether a parallel resonant condition could conceivably
occur between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the Daven to Cano 275 kV
transmission line. This section also discusses the results of tests carried out to verify this parallel resonant
condition.
Transmission Line Parameters
Table A-1 below contains the line parameters for the Daven Roberts and Daven Cano Roberts 275 kV line
sections.
Table A-1 Daven Roverts 275 kV Line Section Parameters
From Bus To Bus
Line
Distance
Positive Sequence Parameters Zero Sequence Parameters
R
1
(pu) X
1
(pu) B
1
(pu) R
0
(pu) X
0
(pu) B
0
(pu)
Daven Roberts 212.5 0.0160 0.1139 0.4606 0.0662 0.3053 0.3272
Daven Cano 133.7 0.01006 0.07164 0.28972 0.04164 0.19203 0.20581
Cano Roberts 78.8 0.00594 0.04226 0.17088 0.02456 0.11327 0.12139
Daven Lakeside 376.5 0.0264 0.19370 0.85800 0.1127 0.5309 0.5435

Note: Impedance values are in pu on 100 MVA base.

Daven 275 kV Line Reactor Parameters
Table A-2 below contains the Daven 275 kV line reactor parameters.
Table A-2 Daven 275 kV Line Reactor Parameters at Fundamental Frequency (50 Hz)
Line Reactors Neutral Reactors
From
Bus
To Bus
Rating
(Mvar)
Reactance (/phase) Inductance
(H)
R
()
XL
()
X
L
u X
L
v X
L
w
Daven Roberts 30.30 2502 2491 2508
3.36 26.06 1056.2
Daven Cano 30.19 2512 2505 2509

Investigation of Parallel Resonant Condition

Page 114
Table A-3 below compares the capacitive reactance of the transmission line with the inductive reactance
associated with the corresponding line reactor.
Table A-3 Reactance comparison between line and corresponding line reactor
assuming nominal system parameters
From Bus To Bus
Line Capacitive
Reactance ()
Line Reactor Inductive
Reactance ()
Daven Roberts 1641.88
2504.97 Daven Cano 2610.28
Daven Lakeside 881.41

From Table A-3, it can be seen that for the Daven Cano 275 kV line, the capacitive line reactance of 2610 is in
close proximity to the line reactor inductive reactance of 2505 .
Making use of the Pi Equivalent Model of a transmission line (shown below in Figure A-6), the total apparent
impedance of a transmission line can be calculated.

Figure A-6 Pi Equivalent model of a transmission line

Comparing this total line impedance with the inductive reactive component associated with the line reactor will
provide an indication of whether a true resonance condition exits.
Using the line parameters shown in Table 1, the total apparent line impedance values (Z
total
) were calculated (note
that all calculations have assumed nominal system parameters):
1. Daven Roberts 275 kV line,
O = 4586
total
Z
;
2. Daven Cano 275 kV line,
O = 70920
total
Z
;
3. Daven Lakeside 275 kV line,
O =1271
total
Z
.
To enable visualisation of the resonance condition, total apparent line impedance versus line length plots were
generated for the Daven Cano Roberts Lakeside 275 kV line section; these are shown below from Figure A-7
to Figure A-10.
From Figure A-7, it can be seen that the total apparent line impendence is of a considerable magnitude for a line
length in the range of 130 150 km. For all other line lengths the total apparent line impedance is negligible.

Page 115
From Figure A-8, it can be seen that by expanding the scale for line length over the 130 150 km range shows that
a true resonant condition occurs with an apparent impedance of 3.2 MO at a line length of approximately 138.5 km.
Figure A-9 and Figure A-10 illustrate that the total apparent line impedance is negligible at and near the locations of
the Roberts and Lakeside substations along the line section.
When considering the implications of the total line impedance versus line length plots shown below in Figure A-7 to
Figure A-10, the following points need to be considered:
1. These plots are based on calculations performed using nominal system parameters such as unity system
voltage and fundamental frequency;
2. While great care is taken in ensuring all parameters used to model lines and devices within its transmission
network are as accurate as possible, never-the-less errors are always inherent and need to be considered and
suitable allowances made;
3. A Daven Cano 275 kV line length increase of approximately about 5 km, or a system frequency of 51 Hz, or
if the line reactor had an actual reactance of approximately 29.1 Mvar, would all result in a true resonant
condition occurring with an apparent impedance in excess of 3.2 MO resulting in possibly rated phase to
ground voltage appearing on one phase, lower voltages on the other two phases, and unbalanced resonant
currents flowing through the reactor and reactor neutral. The presence of these voltages and currents make it
impossible to open the reactor isolator.

Hence, variations in any of the above discussed system or modelling parameters has the potential to move the
location of the resonance condition towards the Cano substation.
Based on this analysis, the potential for a resonance condition is highly likely and appropriate measures need to be
undertaken to ensure this condition can be abated.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Line Length [km]
T
o
t
a
l

L
i
n
e

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
,

Z
t
o
t
a
l

(
M
)

Daven

Cano

Roberts Cherry
Gardens
True Resonance
Condition

Page 116
Figure A-7 Total Line Impedance versus line length for the Daven Cano Roberts
Lakeside 275 kV section

Figure A-8 Total Line Impedance versus line length at Cano 275 kV substation

Figure A-9 Total Line Impedance versus line length at Roberts 275 kV substation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Line Length [km]
T
o
t
a
l

L
i
n
e

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
,

Z
t
o
t
a
l

(
M
)

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
Line Length [km]
T
o
t
a
l

L
i
n
e

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
,

Z
t
o
t
a
l

(
M
)

Cano

True Resonance
Condition
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220
Line Length [km]
T
o
t
a
l

L
i
n
e

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
,

Z
t
o
t
a
l

(
)

Roberts

Page 117

Figure A-10 Total Line Impedance versus line length at Lakeside 275 kV substation

Test Results
Tests were carried out designed to measure the near parallel resonant condition, which was suspected to be
occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the Daven - Cano 275 kV
transmission line. This near resonant effect is excited by the closely coupled parallel Daven to Roberts 275 kV line,
when the Daven to Cano 275 kV line is isolated and unearthed at both ends. The resultant effect is (differing)
steady-state high voltages on the unearthed lines (e.g. 140 kV, 100 kV and 60 kV phase to ground, where as,
nominal phase to ground voltage is 159 kV).
This network configuration commonly occurs when switching the line reactor in and out of service using its
motorised isolator. Prior to the commissioning of Cano substation the steady state induced voltages were close to
0 kV.
The following Table A-4 contains a summary of the test results.
Table A-4 Daven Cano 275 kV Line Resonance Test Results
Condition
Phase Voltage (kV) Phase Current (A)
Daven Line
Reactor Neutral
Current (A)
Vu Vv Vw Iu Iv Iw In
System Normal
166.8
<0
167.8
<-120
167.8
<120
66.7 67.3 66.9 0.51
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376
Line Length [km]
T
o
t
a
l

L
i
n
e

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
,

Z
t
o
t
a
l

(
)

Cherry
Gardens

Page 118
Condition
Phase Voltage (kV) Phase Current (A)
Daven Line
Reactor Neutral
Current (A)
Vu Vv Vw Iu Iv Iw In
Daven Cano 275 kV line
supplied radially from Daven
167.8
<0
168.0
<-120
167.8
<120
67.1 67.4 66.9 0.52
energizede-energized
134.8
<0
67.8
<172
95.8
<-170
55.9 25.3 36.2 4.7
energizede-energized,
Daven Roberts 275 kV line
supplied radially from Daven
132.8
<0
68.8
<170
92.0
<-169
55.0 25.8 34.8 4.5
energizede-energized,
Daven Roberts 275 kV line
energizede-energized
1.25 5.5 2 0.7 1.9 0.9 0.75
supplied radially from Cano
Test Not Carried Out: Synch Check Relay Operation, Circuit Breaker Operation Fail
(faulty)

From Table A-4, it can be seen that for the two test conditions with both the Daven Cano 275 kV and Daven
Roberts lines in-service, the phase voltages and currents are balanced resulting in a very small line neutral reactor
current of approximately 0.5 A.
However, once the Daven Cano 275 kV line is removed from service and leaving the Daven Roberts 275 kV
line in-service results in differing (unbalanced) steady state high voltages on the Daven - Cano line of 134.8 kV,
67.8 kV and 95.8 kV. This unbalance causes a line neutral reactor current of approximately 4.7 A and unbalanced
phase currents of 55.9 A, 25.3 A and 36.2 A. The cause of this observed unbalance is attributed to the existence of
a true resonance condition occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance
on the Daven Cano 275 kV line.

Conclusions and Recommendations
Tests carried out confirmed that under the condition whereby the Cano Daven 275 kV line is removed from
service and the Daven Roberts 275 kV line remains in-service, unbalanced voltages and currents were observed
to be flowing through the line reactor and the reactor neutral. The presence of these high voltages and currents
make it impossible to open the reactor isolator. This phenomenon was attributed to the occurrence of a true
resonance condition occurring between the 275 kV 30 Mvar line reactor at Daven and the line capacitance on the
Daven Cano 275 kV line.


Page 119
A. 3 Line Resonance Experienced in 400 kV and 225kV Subnetwork
De-energized for Black-Start Test
This concrete case is based on an electrical circuit that has a resonance frequency near 50 Hz.
This example was recorded during an on-site test on the French grid. This interesting phenomenon appeared
during the preliminary phase of a black-start restoration test. This phase consists in preparing the network in order
to connect the source power plan to the auxiliary transformer of the target power plant.
Network Topology:
The network topology at the time of testing is shown in Figure A-11. A section of the over-head transmission grid
between the substations S0 and S4 was energizede-energized for the test. This sub-network was comprised of:
- 163 km of 400 kV circuit between the substations S1 and S4,
- 30 km of 225 kV circuit between the substations S0 and S1,
- a 405/240/21 kV autotransformer (Yyd winding) at S1,
- two shunt reactors located in the substation S0 (line reactor of 80 Mvar) and in the substation S1
(transformer reactor of 64 Mvar connected to the tertiary winding of the 600 MVA Auto-transformer).
It should be noted that the 400 kV circuit between S2 and S4 substations is of double-circuit construction (i.e.
two circuits of 3 phases conductors are found on the same tower). In other words, the double circuit line goes from
the substation S2 to the substation S4. The parallel circuit (on the double circuit line) remained energized during
this black-start restoration test.

Figure A-11 400 kV and 275 kV sub-network de-energized for black-start test

Few measurements have been realized in three different configurations for the presented network. Theses
configurations are obtained by opening first the line circuit breaker then the disconnector. The following voltage
measurements were obtained on the theoretically energizede-energized sub-network in the S3 substation, as
shown in Figure A-11:

S3 S2 S1
S4
64 Mvar
163 km in 400 kV
S0
39 km in 225 kV
80 Mvar
double circuit line
225 kV 400 kV
Auto transformer
YYd 405/240/21 kV

Page 120

Case #1

U
rms
=346 kV phase-to-phase
(i.e. 0.865 pu on a 400 kV base)
measured at S3 substation.
With the whole line (from the
S0 to the S4 substation
substation to the S4
substation including the bus
bars of all the substations).
Case #2

U
rms
measured at S3 substation
with the whole line but without
the busbar of the S4
substation because the circuit
breaker of the line is opened.
S4 busbar
circuit breaker
disconnector
S3
S4 busbar
circuit breaker
disconnector
S3

Page 121
Case #3

U
rms
measured at S3 substation
with the disconnectors opened
in the S4 substation.

EMT Simulations done to understand the phenomenon
In order to explain the near-resonance conditions observed during the field tests, the network topology was
modelled using a EMT analysis tool. See Figure A-12.
The model includes a 160 km double circuit HV line section as follows:
- The first circuit (circuit #1) is connected to the main grid at the nominal voltage (i.e. 400 kV).
- The second circuit (circuit #2) is supposed to be de energized. It is only connected to an auto transformer
with a tertiary winding connected to a reactor of 64 Mvar at the S1 substation and to a line reactor of 80
Mvar in S0.
In this model, an uncertainty of 5% was taken into account to represent the phase to earth capacitances of the over
head lines.
S4 busbar
circuit breaker
disconnector
S3

Page 122

Figure A-12 EMT representation of the 400 kV and 275 kV sub-networks

The double line circuit is represented by a 3-phase PI section component that is computed from the geometrical
configurations of the 8 conductors, their sections and their electrical characteristics.
Simulation results are shown in Figure A-13. We can note that:
- The voltages computed on the circuit #2 are not equal to zero
- The 3 voltages are unbalanced and they dont have the same module.

1 2
11.5/236

+
728Ohm

+

+

+

+

+

VM +
?v/?v/?v
VM +
?v/?v/?v
+

+

+
?
v
i
6
.
7
O
h
m
+
?
v
i
6
.
7
O
h
m
+
?
v
i
6
.
7
O
h
m
P & V & I
Meter
+
420kV /_0
?vi
MPLOT
2
3
1
405/240/21
?
Data
converter
VM +
?v/?v/?v
+
10

+
10

+
10

+
10

+

10.35kV /_0
VM +
?v/?v/?v
+
400
?vi
PI
+
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
k7
k8
m1
m2
m3
m4
m5
m6
m7
m8

BUS4
a
b
c
a
b
c
BUS5
b
c
a
BUS3
a
b
c
BUS2
a
b
c
BUS1

Page 123
Figure A-13 Simulation Results

A sensitivity analysis was carried-out to identify the critical factors influencing the voltages appearing on the
energizede-energized sub-network (i.e. circuit #2):
Parameter Influence
power load on circuit #1 No
Voltage level on circuit #1 Yes
Length of circuit #1 connected to the grid Yes
Type of tower used for the double circuit Yes
Phase to earth capacitances of the over head
lines
Yes
Neutral connection of the 64 Mvar reactor No (probably because of the
tertiary winding of the auto
transformer where the reactor is
connected.
Use of the reactor on the tertiary winding of the
auto transformer
Yes

A frequency scan analysis has been done in order to identify the natural resonant frequency of the sub network
(Figure A-14).

50 100 150 200 250 300
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
x 10
5
frequency (Hz)
y
PLOT
ZIN2@zinmag@1

Page 124
Figure A-14 Frequency scan of the sub-network

The resonance direct frequency of the sub circuit is located just above the 50 Hz frequency. That confirms the
hypothesis of a resonant circuit excited at 50 Hz by the main grid. The two peaks of the impedance are probably
due to the fact that the lines are not transposed in the sub network.

On site tests performed after the studies in order to check the hypothesis and the
conclusions of the studies
On-site measurements were carried out the two 400 kV circuits:
- Circuit #1 : connected to the grid
- Circuit #2 : disconnected from the grid and off line.

Figure A-15 Detailed Network Topology during Field Measurements

The measurements were taken at S3 400 kV substation. Line currents and phase-to-ground voltages were
measured on circuit #1 (connected to the grid) and on circuit #2 (disconnected from the main grid), which is the
analysed resonant circuit.
The initial conditions were the following ones:
- CB1: Open
- CB2 and CB3: closed
The following switching sequence was carried-out starting from the above initial conditions:
1) Close CB1 is closed in order to connect the reactor to the tertiary winding of the auto transformer of the S1
power station.
2) Open CB3 in order to cut the current in the circuit line #1. On can note that the voltage is still different of zero.
3) Open CB2 in order to fully energizede-energize circuits #1 and #2.

The recorded measurements on the 3 phases are presented in Figure A-16.

S3 S2
S1
S4
64 Mvar
163 km in 400 kV
S0
39 km in 225 kV
80 Mvar
double circuit line
225 kV 400 kV
Auto transformer
YYd 405/240/21 kV
CB1
CB2 CB3 circuit #1
circuit #2

Page 125

Figure A-16 Field Measurements

After opening CB2, circuit #1 is fully energizede-energized but there is still voltage in circuit #2. This is probably
due to the grading capacitors of the circuit breakers located at the borders of the off line network (circuit #2) that
still couple it with the main 50 Hz grid network.
One can note that the measured voltages are unbalanced probably because the double-circuit is not transposed
along the length of tested circuit.
This is probably due to the non symmetrical impedance of each phase: this impedance depends on the height of
the conductors and probably the distance between the conductors located on the two circuits.
Figure A-17 and Figure A-18 below show the voltage waveforms recorded during the connection of the transformer
tertiary reactor (i.e. close CB1). It can be seen that the connection of the reactor creates a resonant circuit.
Furthermore, the three phase voltages are unbalanced and they dont have the same module.

mesures_TEO: VGAU2_1 mesures_TEO: VGAU2_3 mesures_TEO: VGAU2_2
mesures_TEO: VCIR2_1 mesures_TEO: VCIR2_2 mesures_TEO: VCIR2_3
mesures_TEO: JCIR2_1 mesures_TEO: JCIR2_2 mesures_TEO: JCIR2_3
0
50
100
150
200
250 kV
V2
V1
V3
U dpart Gauglin2
Raccordement self d'Arrighi au rseau d'essai
0
50
100
150
200
250 kV
U dpart Cirolliers2
Ouv erture dpart Gatinais2 Cirroliers
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2 kA
J dpart Cirolliers 2
Ouv erture dpart Cirroliers2
17:00 17:10 17:20 17:30 17:40
6/8/06
h:m
Circuit #2: Network used for
the test off line and
disconnected
Circuit #1: 50Hz Network
connected to the Grid
Voltages
Currents
Close CB1
Open CB2
Open CB3
Current circuit #1
Voltage circuit #1
Voltage circuit #2

Page 126

Figure A-17 Voltage Waveform at Circuit #2 during connection of transformer tertiary
reactor

Figure A-18 Zoom-in Voltage Waveform at Circuit #2 during connection of
transformer tertiary reactor

Conclusions
The resonances observed on the off-line sub-network (i.e. circuit #2) are due to:
- The capacitive coupling between the two off line network and the main energized 50 Hz grid. The excitation is
mainly done by the double circuit line but also due to the grading capacitors of the circuit breakers. This

Page 127
coupling has been studied and it is due to the small distance between the two circuits that are located on the
same tower (double circuit HV line).
- The resonance of the circuit #1 which is not far from 50 Hz.
- The voltages on the circuit #1 should have been worst if the resonance frequency was closer than 50 Hz.
- The transient before the appearance of the resonant steady state has not been studied but we have measured
the highest over voltages during this transient that could be dangerous for the equipment insulation.


Page 128
A. 4 Study of Resonant Over-voltages following three phase or
single phase tripping in a shunt compensated transmission
line
Introduction
This case study is based on a potential problem faced in Queensland, where a fairly long (135 km) double circuit
275 kV transmission line is fitted with single pole tripping and reclose, has a line reactor at the northern end for
voltage control, and also has a very short section of underground cable near the northern terminal. Because of this
cable, which was installed to meet local aesthetic requirements, the goal is to keep over-voltages as low as
possible.
Transmission lines are often compensated at one end by a reactor, which is frequently attached to the line via its
own circuit breaker, (hence a line reactor). This is a means of reducing unacceptably high remote end power
frequency voltages under light load conditions. This action has a number of potentially undesirable consequences
which need to be addressed. One of these is resonance at sub power frequencies, which this case study deals
with. The lines capacitance forms a parallel resonant circuit with the line reactors. (Line inductance is insignificant
in comparison with the reactor inductance at light load.)
Line compensation is often measured as a percentage of complete compensation, where the magnitude of the
lines positive sequence capacitive reactance would be equal to the magnitude of the inductive reactance of the
added line reactor. Values up to about 50% compensation are typical. The resonant frequency of the line
capacitance/reactor inductance depends in a straightforward way on the degree of compensation:

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Percentage compensation
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

-

H
z

Page 129
Figure A-19 Parallel Resonant Frequency of Line/Reactor Combination vs Degree of
Compensation

Temporary Over-voltage Following Three-Phase Tripping
A temporary over-voltage can be seen in an EMT simulation, shown in Figure A-20, of a three phase trip of a line
with three single phase line reactors at one end. The degree of line compensation is about 53%. In this case it is a
double circuit line, but that is of secondary importance. Each of the lines is transposed at roughly 1/3 and 2/3 of the
length. Only one phases response is shown for clarity.
The line is initially closed at one end (the source) and open at the other (load). There is a three phase trip after 8
cycles. After this, the frequency changes to the natural frequency of the line/reactor combination and decays in a
complex manner. There is some beating of the response, an indication that there are some other natural
frequencies involved in what is actually quite a complex and slightly asymmetrical circuit, with each phase circuit
breaker also clearing current at slightly different times. There is an over-voltage associated with this simulation, but
in practice the line reactors will saturate and help prevent a dangerous over-voltage.
The rate of decay of the natural response is highly variable, depending on the (frequency dependant) resistances
of lines and reactor. Furthermore, (not shown in Figure A-20), as the reactor saturates its time constant decreases,
and so the damping and frequency of the natural response change. So actual responses to a three phase trip are
invariably smaller and better damped than this simulation, but it serves to illustrate the phenomenon, which is well
known.
The natural frequency response of this line/reactor combination, with a positive sequence resonance at about
35 Hz, can be seen in Figure A-20. The wave-shape is quite complex, with one beat frequency at about 10 Hz, and
another at about 0.5 Hz. These are not discussed here, but may be caused by slight phase unbalances and/or the
imperfect transposition. They appear to contribute to the over-voltage. The other phases, not shown for clarity,
have less severe over-voltages.

Figure A-20 Phase-to- Ground voltage. Three phase trip at 0.16s. No saturation of line
reactor
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
C

p
h
a
s
e
-
g
n
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
p
u
)
time (s)

Page 130

Single Pole Tripping without Neutral earthing Reactor
Steady State Voltages
It is when we move to single phase tripping of a line that we run into potentially serious over-voltage problems.
When attempting to clear a single phase fault on a transmission line that is equipped with single pole tripping and
reclosing, a single phase of the line is opened at both ends. The open phase is coupled capacitively to the two still
energized phases. The phase to ground impedance of the open phase is driven by the voltage on the healthy
phases through the inter-phase capacitances.
Capacitive coupling is the most important source of coupling between open phase and healthy phases inductive
coupling plays a relatively minor role. Capacitive and inductive coupling to any parallel circuits on the same
easement also play a minor role. These secondary effects are accounted for in the EMT models used, but are not
discussed here.
If the line now has a single phase, earthed line reactor attached to each phase, (i.e. a reactor that remains
connected to the line after a line fault is cleared), there is parallel LC circuit set up which comprises (a) the line to
ground capacitance of the open circuit phase and (b) the reactor still connected on the open circuit phase. Figure
A-21 shows the complete equivalent circuit for a single circuit line, including the lines capacitances and the line
reactors.
Figure A-21 Simple Equivalent circuit of line, including line reactors

C|g
C|| C||
C||
C|g
C|g
A B
C
L L L
open

Page 131
The equivalent power frequency phase to ground impedance is initially capacitive at 50 Hz, and increases with
increasing line compensation up to the resonant frequency of this LC circuit, at which point the open phase to
ground impedance is infinite. As the degree of line compensation increases still further, the equivalent phase-
ground impedance becomes inductive at 50 Hz, so that there is amplification of the Thvening equivalent voltage,
ultimately to a level that can damage equipment. For the line studied, the steady state open phase voltage as a
function of degree of line compensation is shown in Figure A-22. It can be seen that the open phase voltage hits
50 Hz resonance at about 85% compensation.
If the line reactor is a five-limbed three phase unit or three single-phase units, the same principles apply. If the
reactor is a three limbed type, it must be analysed taking into account the coupling between phases of the reactor.
This is usually readily accomplished by using sequence impedance theory, and represents the most general case,
with the most general treatment. The reactors positive and zero sequence impedances must be known. For a five
limbed reactor, it is assumed that B
+
=B
0
.

Figure A-22 Voltage on open phase as degree of line compensation increases

Transient Effects
There are actually two components to the open phase voltage, (1) the steady state component discussed above
and (2) the transient component(s). The most important transient component, and the only one discussed here, is
caused by the resonance between the reactor and a combination of the phase to phase line capacitances and the
phase to ground line capacitances. It is excited by any disturbance, most significantly the opening of one phase
due to a fault.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
O
p
e
n

p
h
a
s
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

-

p
u

Page 132
For this line, the resonance is at about 38 Hz. This resonant frequency, in combination with 50 Hz power frequency
from the healthy phases, can produce a very high, damped, double sinusoidal (i.e. beating) voltage which decays
very slowly before reaching the steady state value, which can also be high. The worst case transient component
appears to be for a high impedance fault during which the voltage on the faulty phase does not drop substantially.
A spurious trip or a test trip will also provide worst case initial conditions. Figure A-23 shows a simulation of the
recovery voltage on the open circuit phase after a single phase trip of the line at 0.1 s. The voltage reaches a peak
of almost 1.8 pu.

Figure A-23 Voltage on A phase after single pole trip of A phase at 0.1s. No Neutral
Reactor

Single Pole Tripping with Neutral Earthing Reactor (NEX)
By inserting a neutral earthing reactor (NEX) of a suitable value between the neutral end of the line reactor and
earth, some or all of the inter-phase capacitive current, (flowing from the healthy phases), can be shunted through
the reactor still connected to the open circuit phase, to the HV end of this neutral earthing reactor. This will keep
the open phase voltage at or closer to zero potential. (A simple explanation is that the inter-phase capacitance is
neutralized.)
The neutral reactor value required to exactly neutralize the inter-phase capacitive current is very sensitive to the
inter-phase capacitance, but it turns out that there exists quite a wide range of neutral reactor values that can
significantly reduce the over-voltage on the open circuit phase.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
A

p
h
a
s
e
-
g
n
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
p
u
)
time (s)

Page 133
The most convenient way to analyse the circuit that includes a neutral earthing reactor is to use sequence
components. The neutral reactor size for perfect cancellation of inter-phase capacitance is calculated from the line
positive and zero sequence susceptances (B
1
and B
0
) and the line reactor positive and zero sequence
susceptances (B
1
and B
0
). Perfect cancellation occurs when the (star equivalent) inter-phase capacitive
susceptance of the line, B
1
-B
0
, equals the equivalent inter-phase inductive susceptance created by the four
inductances (three phase reactors and the neutral earthing reactor).
In this case, the line reactor is of the five limb type, with B
1
=B
0
. The calculated value of B
n
for complete
neutralization of the inter-phase capacitance (i.e. where the open phase voltage is zero) is then given by:
Where
B
1
is the positive sequence susceptance of the line
B
0
is the zero sequence susceptance of the line
B
1
is the positive sequence susceptance of the line reactor

B
n
3 B1 B1 B1' B0' ( ) [ ]
B1' B0' ( )
:=
C|g
C|| C||
C||
C|g
C|g
A B
C
L L L
open
NEX

Page 134

Figure A-24 Simple Equivalent circuit of line, including line reactors and neutral
Reactor

If a line reactor is used for line compensation, then, for a single-pole-open condition, the voltage on the open phase
will always increase, (compared with the case of no line reactor). The power frequency over-voltage on the open
single phase during the dead time increases with increasing compensation, but a Neutral Earthing Impedance can
always be chosen to reduce the over-voltage, even to zero. In this case, there is a particular value of line
compensation, about 43%, at which the impedance of the Neutral Earthing Impedance required to achieve perfect
compensation is infinity. This means using an unearthed reactor, which of course is not usually an option. Below
43%, perfect compensation is theoretically achieved by a neutral earthing capacitor, also unrealistic and hard to
imagine being necessary, as the open phase voltage is fairly low at this point anyway.

Figure A-25 Voltage on A phase after single pole trip of A phase at 0.1s. With 10 H
Neutral Reactor

Voltage across NEX
The voltage at the HV end of the NEX can be very high, both during the fault and during the single-phase-open
condition, and increases with increasing NEX inductance. So there is a trade-off between (a) the voltage on the
open phase and (b) the voltage across the NEX. The larger the NEX inductance, (up to the point of complete
neutralization of inter-phase capacitive current), the lower is the open phase voltage during the single pole open
condition, but the larger is the voltage across the NEX.
Under worst case conditions, with an NEX of 10 H, the cable will experience an over-voltage of about 1.4 pu for a
cycle or two, after which it should quickly decrease. This is considered acceptable.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
p
h
a
s
e
-
g
n
d

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
p
u
)
time (s)

Page 135

Figure A-26 Voltage across 10 H NEX during single pole open condition. Opened at
0.2 s.

Appendix B shows how the open phase voltage of the line varies, both with (a) degree of line compensation and (b)
the value of the NEX (for a 24Mvar reactor). It also shows the variation in open phase voltage with NEX value
during the fault.
Comparisons between the EMT studies and the simple equivalent circuit for the open phase voltage as a function
of NEX impedance were made, showing that the simple equivalent circuit predicted the correct voltage to within 5%
in the worst case.
Reference
[1] Suppression of Ground-Fault Arcs on Single-Pole-Switched EHV Lines by Shunt Reactors. E.W. Kimbark
IEEE Transmission and Distribution March 1964.
Note: there are a couple of typesetting errors in this (old) paper:
Equation 1: the last equal sign should be a plus sign
Equation 17: a minus sign is missing directly after the B0 term on the top line
Equation 20:
Top line should be: E((B
1
-B
0
) - (B
1
-B
0
))
Bottom line should be: (2B
1
+B
0
) - (2B
1
+B
0
)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
N
E
X

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
time (s)

Page 136
Appendix A: EMT Model
The EMT model consists of a voltage source in series with a source impedance equivalent to a fault level of
1000MVA. The lines under investigation are modelled reasonably accurately, with average terrain conditions used.
The different tower types are taken into account, as are actual transposition points. The actual phasing is not taken
into account for the transpositions, which are selected at random. Load is represented at the remote bus, and had
only minor impact on results.

Appendix B: Spreadsheet calculations
The results of the EMT studies were checked, using a calculation spreadsheet, against steady state calculations
using a simple lumped parameter line and the approach developed in reference 1. This spreadsheet also gives
some insight into how sensitive over-voltages are to the circuit parameters. The spreadsheet was used to
calculate:
(i) The steady state value of the open phase voltage as a function of compensation
(ii) The single pole open resonant frequency as a function of compensation
(iii) The three poles open resonant frequency as a function of compensation
(iv) The value of the NEX for complete compensation of the inter-phase capacitance
(v) The perfectly compensated value of NEX as a function of compensation
(vi) The steady state open phase voltage as a function of NEX inductance
(vii) The secondary arc current as a function of NEX inductance
(viii) The NEX voltage during the single phase open condition as a function of NEX inductance
(ix) The NEX voltage during a single phase fault (earthed phase condition) at the remote end a function of
NEX inductance


Page 137
Length 135km :=
B
C
_km
2 t f Length 7.252 10
5
S = :=
Single Pole Autoreclose - Neutral Earthing Reactor (NEX)

This document calculates the NEX value required to reduce the voltage on the open phase after a single pole
trip of a line fitted with line reactors. It also calculates the open phase voltage for various values of the line
reactor without an NEX, and for various values of NEX for the 24 Mvar line reactor.

275 kV Line parameters

inter-phase capacitance (delta equivalent values, not star equivalent as recorded in line data)

now calculate the star equivalent inter-phase capacitance (using star-delta transformation). This is the
value always recorded in line data, and equals B
1
-B
0
.

the phase to ground capacitance is B
0

The positive sequence shunt capacitance consists of sum of phase-phase and phase-ground

positive sequence shunt susceptance
line charging current (A rms)
The zero sequence shunt capacitance is just the phase to ground capacitance

zero sequence shunt susceptance
Calculate line reactor parameters.
The line reactor is 24Mvar at 300kV.

The positive sequence susceptance of line reactor is
The percentage compensation of the line can now be calculated
mS S 10
3

C
_km
1.71
nF
km
:=
C
C
_km
Length 230.85nF = :=
C
n_km
3 C
_km
5.13
nF
km
= :=
C
g_km
6.75
nF
km
:=
C1
km
C
n_km
C
g_km
+ 11.88
nF
km
= := C1 C1
km
Length 1603.8nF = :=
B1' 2 t f C1 5.038 10
4
S = :=
I1
charge
B1' V
base
79.997A = :=
C0
km
C
g_km
6.75
nF
km
= := C0 C
g_km
Length 911.3nF = :=
B0' 2 t f C0 2.863 10
4
S = :=
L1
1
300000kV
3
|
\
|
|
.
2
2 t f
24 10
6
MVA
3
11.94H = :=
B1
1
2 t f L1
2.667 10
4
S = :=
B1
B1'
52.9% =

Page 138

S S 10
6

1. Open phase voltage, no NEX
The 50 Hz steady state voltage on the open phase without an NEX is given by:

The open phase voltage with various values of compensating reactance can be calculated, again
without an NEX
define a range of compensation from 0 to 100%

It can be seen that the open phase over-voltage rapidly rises after about 50% to 60% compensation. It
hits a resonance at about 85%.
Vopen
B1' B0' ( )
2 B1' B0' + ( ) 3 B1 ( )
0.44pu = :=
k 1 1000 .. :=
Comp k ( )
100 k 1 ( )
1000
:=
V
open
k ( )
B1' B0' ( )
2 B1' B0' + ( ) 3
Comp k ( )
100
B1'
|
\
|
|
.
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
O
p
e
n

p
h
a
s
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

-

p
u

Page 139

2. Resonant Frequency - single pole open, no NEX
The resonant frequency of the single pole open circuit condition is given by:

recasting this equation in terms of the degree of line compensation:

f
res
f
sys
3 B1
2 B1' B0' +
39.3Hz = :=
f
res
k ( ) f
sys
Comp k ( )
100
3 B1'
2 B1' B0' +
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

-

H
z

Page 140

3. Resonant Frequency - three poles open
The resonant frequency of the three pole open circuit condition is given by:

recasting this equation in terms of the degree of line compensation:

this is quite close to the single pole open condition
f
res_pos
f
sys
B1
B1'
36.4Hz = :=
f
res_pos
k ( ) f
sys
Comp k ( )
100
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
R
e
s
o
n
a
n
t

F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

-

H
z

Page 141

4. Calculate Value of NEX
The reactive susceptance of the NEX, B
n
, to exactly compensate the phase to phase
capacitance, and thereby reduce the open phase voltage to zero, occurs when the capacitive and
(equivalent) inductive inter-phase susceptances are equal, i.e. B1' - B0' = B1 - B0, and can be
calculated from:

or, in terms of sequence impedances:

check calculation: that capacitive and inductive inter-phase susceptances are indeed equal:
and ok
B
n
B1 B1 3 B

( )
1.805 10
4
S = :=
B
n_chk
3 B1 B1 B1' B0' ( ) [ ]
B1' B0' ( )
180.523S = :=
L
n
1
2 t f B
n
17.63H = :=
B0
1
B1
3
B
n
+
|
\
|
|
.
1
49.096S = :=
B1' B0' 217.57S = B1 B0 217.57S =

Page 142

5. Calculate Value of NEX for different values of compensation
The reactive susceptance of the NEX to exactly compensate the phase to phase capacitance
varies with the degree of line compensation as shown below. Note that it is zero at 43% - i.e.
open circuit neutral. Below this, Bn would have to be capacitive!

B
nn
k ( )
3
Comp k ( )
100
B1'
Comp k ( )
100
B1' B1' B0' ( )
(
(
B1' B0' ( )
:= L
nn
k ( )
1
2 t f B
nn
k ( )
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.0005
0.00025
0
0.00025
0.0005
0.00075
0.001
0.00125
0.0015
0.00175
0.002
B
n

-

m
i
c
r
o
S
i
e
m
e
n
s

Page 143

6. Open Phase Voltage with various values of NEX
The open phase voltage with the ideal value of NEX to cancel the inter-phase capacitances is given
by:
which should be zero - OK
The open phase voltage with various values of L
n
can be plotted

This shows that there is a wide range of values of Ln that will significantly reduce the open phase
voltage. A value of 10H was selected for this application
V
open
B1' B0' ( ) B1 B0 ( )
2 B1' B0' + ( ) 2 B1 B0 ( )
0 pu = :=
k 1 1000 .. :=
L
n
k ( )
k 1 ( )
1000
L
n
:=
V
open
k ( )
B1' B0' ( ) B1
1
B1
3 2 t f L
n
k ( ) +
|
\
|
|
.
1
(
(
2 B1' B0' + ( ) 2 B1
1
B1
3 2 t f L
n
k ( ) +
|
\
|
|
.
1
+
(
(
:=
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
Ln - Henries
O
p
e
n

p
h
a
s
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

-

p
u
V
open
k ( )
L
n
k ( )

Page 144

7. Secondary arc current (rms) with various values of NEX

(V
base
is defined above as the nominal ph-gnd voltage)

8. Neutral end voltage with phase open - various values of NEX

The neutral end voltage is about 40kV rms for a 10H NEX
I
sec
k ( )
V
base
3
B1' B0' ( ) B1
1
B1
3 2 t f L
n
k ( ) +
|
\
|
|
.
1
(
(
(
(
:=
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Ln - Henries
s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y

a
r
c

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

-

A

r
m
s
I
sec
k ( )
L
n
k ( )
V
n
k ( )
1 V
open
k ( ) +
( )
B1
3 B1 2 t f L
n
k ( )
( )
1
+
V
base
1000
:=
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Ln - Henries
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

a
t

r
e
a
c
t
o
r

n
e
u
t
r
a
l

-

k
V

r
m
s
V
n
k ( )
L
n
k ( )

Page 145
The neutral end voltage is about 38kV rms for a 10H NEX

9. Neutral end voltage with earthed phase - various values of NEX

V
n_sc
k ( )
B1
3 B1 2 t f L
n
k ( )
( )
1
+
V
base
1000
:=
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Ln - Henries
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

a
t

r
e
a
c
t
o
r

n
e
u
t
r
a
l

-

k
V

r
m
s
V
n_sc
k ( )
L
n
k ( )

Page 146
ANNEX B FERRORESONANCE EXAMPLES
B. 1 Power Transformer Terminated Line Ferroresonance
Power transformer ferroresonance can occur when one side of a double circuit transmission line connected to a
transformer is switched out while the other side is still energized. It is the transfer of power via mutual coupling from
the live circuit into the energizede-energized circuit that initiates and subsequently sustains the phenomenon. This
of course leads to transformer saturation but more importantly it affects control and protection operation with the
possibility of a double circuit outage in order to successfully isolate the distressed transformer.
Tests have been performed to establish ferroresonance quenching capability of rotating centre post disconnectors
X113 (Committee Design Type) and X103 (IEC design), shown in Figure B-1.
Almost all disconnectors including those of modern design are not approved for and usually have not been tested
against ferroresonance quenching duty. Some and especially those designed as open terminal disconnectors do
not have any current switching capability above 0.5A and considering that under ferroresonance conditions where
the current is peaky and can be as high as several hundred amperes, ferroresonance quenching could be a very
onerous duty.

Figure B-1 Single line diagram of the system under invest

A maintenance outage period has been utilised to access and perform switching on the system shown in Figure
B-1. It was thought that the arrangement shown was a particularly suitable network topology where ferroresonance
could be induced due to a reasonable length (approximately 37km) of coupling between Line 1 and Line 2 as well
as the line terminating with a 1000MVA 400/275/13kV power transformer.
The status of various plants was as detailed below:
- At 400 kV Bus C disconnector X303 is locked but the rest of the mesh corner is in service,
- At 275 kV Bus A circuit breaker T10 is open,
- At 400 kV Bus A all disconnectors and circuit breaker X420 is in service.
A point-on-wave (POW) switching was initiated at Bus A 400 kV with circuit breaker X420 to induce ferroresonance
on transformer F36B and Line 1 combination. The circuit breaker was tripped via an external POW control
switching device. After each switching operation the timing of the POW switching control was advanced by 1ms
and at 3ms POW, a sub-harmonic mode ferroresonance was established. The sub-harmonic ferroresonance had a
frequency of 16.6 Hz. High voltage side terminal voltage and line current of transformer F36B are shown in Figure
B-2 for all the phases. The rms values of current and voltage were approximately 9.0 A and 60.0 kV. During
ferroresonance there was a distinctive grumbling noise coming from the autotransformer clearly audible to all site
personnel involved in the testing.

X103
B
u
s

A
,

2
7
5

k
V

Bus A, 400 kV
Line 1
Line 2
X113
F36B
T13 T10 X303 X305 X307
B
u
s

C
,

4
0
0

k
V

X420
X413
F36A
T43 T40 X403
Line continues to
another substation

Page 147
It should be noted that the ferroresonance detection scheme installed at the substation did not operate.
The disconnector X113 which was under investigation regarding its capability of quenching ferroresonance was
eventually opened to quench the established ferroresonance. A barely visible arc was observed with only a small
extension away from the actual contact area. It was able to switch the current with no visible damage to its fixed or
moving contacts.
Tests were continued and at POW +11 ms, a fundamental frequency mode, 50 Hz, ferroresonance was induced.
High voltage side terminal voltage and line current of transformer F36B are shown in Figure B-3 for all the phases.
The rms values of current and voltage were approximately 70.0 A and 315.0 kV with peak values of 210 A and 355
kV respectively. It was noted that this mode of ferroresonance produced a much louder grumbling noise from the
power transformer audible from further afield. Furthermore, the installed ferroresonance detection scheme
operated correctly.
Again disconnector X113 was opened from the local control room to quench ferroresonance. Arcing, as long as 2m
was observed along the arm towards the centre. Following physical examination presence of some arcing damage
around fixed contacts was established. However the damage did not prevent the disconnector being returned to
service without corrective action.
Further tests were carried out to check ferroresonance quenching capability of disconnector X103. Point on wave
control switching of circuit breaker X420 was set to +11 ms, the same POW as the last switching at which
fundamental mode ferroresonance was successfully initiated. It took more than one attempt to initiate another
fundamental frequency mode ferroresonance indicating clearly that the initiation of ferroresonance is stochastic and
dependent upon a number of plant and system parameters such as system voltage, transformer residual flux and
system losses. Upon successful initiation, X103 was opened with a long arc from each contact which was
extinguished successfully. Burn marks on both the fixed and moving contacts as well as around the end pivot in the
arm assembly were observed following physical inspection of the disconnector. It was concluded that damage to
the pivot point could have easily happened resulting the disconnector to fail to close at the next operation.

Page 148

Figure B-2 Sub-harmonic mode (16.6 Hz) ferroresonance voltage and current

-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
Y
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

-100
-50
0
50
100
Y
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
-100
-50
0
50
100
B
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
B
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
R
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

200
-100
-50
0
50
100
R
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


Page 149

Figure B-3 Fundamental frequency mode (50 Hz) ferroresonance voltage and current

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
time (ms)
R
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

-200
-100
0
100
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
R
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
Y
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

-200
-100
0
100
200
Y
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
time (ms)
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
B
-
p
h

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

-200
-100
0
100
200
B
-
p
h

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


Page 150
B. 2 Power Transformer Ferroresonance Teed from a Multi -
Circuit Right of Way
This practical example relates to a traction supply case with a single line diagram as shown in Figure B-4. Both
transformers supplying the traction feeder station are 80MVA 400/26.25/26.25kV supplied by two phases on the
HV and are teed from the main overhead line circuits. The circuit lengths associated with the single line diagram
are given in a table within Figure B-4. The lack of HV circuit breakers on the traction supply transformers due to
customers economic consideration should be particularly noted. Ferroresonance was observed upon
energizationde-energization of Line 2 where the sequence of events started with the opening X205 at Bus B
followed by the opening of X205 at Bus A. A sustained fundamental ferroresonance of 1.33 p.u. maximum peak
was observed on the red and blue phases as shown in Figure B-5. Here the energy from the adjacent live circuit
(Line 1) is coupled to traction tranformers nonlinear inductance as well as to the energizede-energized circuit to
ground capacitance via the electrostatic coupling between the two circuits. Once ferroresonance is established the
available energy is enough to sustain it indefinitely in the absence of any system introduced damping. The lack of
HV circuit breaker prevents the disconnection of the transformer from this established resonance circuit and
therefore the result is localised heating of the transformer possibly leading to internal thermal damage. This is
mainly due to ferroresonance leading the transformer into saturation and hence the flux can no longer be confined
to the core only but rather to other ferromagnetic elements of the transformer as well.

Figure B-4 Single line diagram of the traction supply system

The solution adopted for quenching ferroresonance in this case was to adopt the earth switch X113 to be capable
of making onto a ferroresonant condition without sustaining any damage to its moving or fixed contacts used
primarily for earthing function. Ferroresonance quenching earth switch is required to have a certain number of
making operations followed by a breaking operation capability in addition to the breaking requirements appropriate
to Class B of IEC 62271-102 Annex C. The requirement for making onto a ferroresonant condition is set to 350A
peak (100A rms) for the 400 kV system. Waveforms captured for the operation of earth switch X113 with the
successful quenching of fundamental ferroresonance within a second is shown in Figure B-6.

X113
To traction feeder
station
X205 X205
B
u
s

A

B
u
s

B

B
u
s

C

Line 1
Line 2
From To Length (km)
Bus A Bus B 65.8
Bus A Bus C 36.4
Bus B Tee point 13.4
Bus C Tee point 16.0


Page 151

Figure B-5 Fundamental frequency ferroresonance following de-energization of Line 2

Figure B-6 Successful quenching of fundamental ferroresonance by use of earth
switch

-450
-300
-150
0
150
300
450
38.6 38.7 38.8 38.9 39 39.1 39.2
time (sec)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
50.8 50.9 51 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 51.5 51.6
time (sec)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)

Page 152
B. 3 Ferroresonance of a VT in Ungrounded Neutral
Configuration
An independent power producer with two 42 MW and one 26 MW generating units is connected radially to the utility
substation via two 44/13.8 kV generator step-up transformer and independent 4.3 km 44 kV circuits. These
transformers are not paralleled. There are no 44 kV circuit breakers at the IPP facility, only a set of motor-operated
disconnectors at the HV side of each transformer. Figure B-7 shows a simplified electrical single-line for one the
transformers (T5), the dedicated 44 kV intertie circuit to the utility, and some details of the LV side of the step-up
transformer to the main breaker. The 44 kV circuit consists of 0.4 km of 1192 MCM and 2.6 km of 1509 MCM
ACSR overhead line and 1.3 km of 44 kV 1000 MCM single-core cables. The step-up transformer is rated 60 MVA
(ONAN rating) 13.8/44 kV having a leakage impedance of 12.75%. The 13.8 kV windings are connected in delta
and the 44 kV windings are connected in grounded star. On the LV side, there are five 15 kV 750 MCM single-core
cables in parallel per phase. Each cable is 10.5 m in length and has a capacitance of about 2.7 nF. There are
three single-phase VTs on the breaker side of the LV cables with a thermal burden of 1750VA which drive critical
metering and protective relays for the generating plant. VTs primary windings are configured as solidly grounded
star. One secondary winding is configured as open-corner delta where zero sequence voltage (3*V
0
) is monitored
by a relay. The other secondary winding is configured as grounded star and the output is connected to the station
control and synchronizing panel. It should be noted that the burdens on the secondary windings of the PTs are
small and that the VTs are rated for a grounded neutral application and not for an ungrounded or temporarily
ungrounded neutral 13.8 kV system. The VTs will become fully fluxed for line-to-ground voltages less than rated
line-to-line voltage. Neutral shift during transformer energization can therefore be expected to drive the VTs into
saturation.
The utility requires that the line plus main transformer be picked up together rather than energizing the line first
followed by the transformer. As a result of this operational restriction, damage due to overvoltage frequently
occurred in the equipment connected to the secondary circuits of the VTs whenever the 13.8 kV bus was energized
from the utility substation. The problem appeared with both sets of VTs.

Page 153

Figure B-7 Single-line diagram of IPPs 44 kV circuit to 13.8/44 kV generator step-up
transformer

Field measurements have been performed by the IPP during line and transformer energization when the plant was
out of service for annual maintenance. Voltages in the 120 V secondary circuits of the VTs, for both T1
(transformer not shown in the single line diagram) and T5, were monitored. The results of these tests indicated
highly distorted voltage waveforms and high instantaneous overvoltages. At the time the IPP did not know if the
voltages appearing at the main transformer were also very high. The IPP arranged for the utilitys research division
to attend the site and carry out field measurements of energizationenergizationde-energization and re-energization
of one of the 13.8 kV generator busses. Upon review of the IPPs electrical single-line diagram, the failure history,
and the previous measurements by the IPP, it was suspected that the problem was due to a ferroresonance
phenomenon. When the generator is on line, it provides the neutral ground for the LV bus voltages. When the
generator is off-line, the phase-to-ground voltages are floating due to the delta-connected transformer LV
windings. The phase-to-ground connected magnetic VTs are driven into saturation due to zero sequence voltage
(neutral shift) during energization of the 13.8 kV bus with the main LV bus breaker open. The saturated iron cores
of the VTs establish an electrical resonance with existing circuit capacitance and high instantaneous overvoltages
are produced.
Instrumentation was set up on the LV side of transformer T5 to monitor the phase-to-ground voltages derived from
the VT 120 V star-connected secondary windings through 120/69 V star-star interposing transformers. In addition,
the open-corner delta voltage was monitored by accessing the rear terminals of the 59B overvoltage protection
relay.
With the generators on-line, an islanding test was performed where the utility substation end of the 44 kV express
line was tripped. This results in a transfer trip to open the main 13.8 kV breaker at the LV side of T5. Figure B-8

UTILITY
SUBSTATION
TO STATION CONTROL
AND SYNCHRONIZING
PANEL
59B
4A
10A
8400-120/120V
0.3WMXYZ 0.6ZZ
3 P.T.s with dual
secondaries
To 42 MW and 26 MW
Gas Turbine Generators
5 x 15 kV 750 MCM 10.7m cables
Each cable 2.7 nF capacitance
CB5
1.3 km 1000 MCM
44 kV cable
T5
60 MVA
44 13.8 kV
12.75% Z
0.4 km 1192 MCM ACSR
And
2.6 km 1509 MCM ACSR
Overhead 44 kV line
20

Page 154
shows the recorded voltage waveforms. The upper three traces correspond to the instantaneous phase-to-ground
voltages measured at 120 V secondary of VTs and the lower trace is the open-corner delta voltage. These
waveforms indicate that the voltages decay as would be expected when a saturable transformer is disconnected
with some associated line and cable shunt capacitance.
Figure B-9 shows the field recordings of the energizationre-energization of the 44 kV circuit and T5, up to the open
LV main breaker, from the utility substation. Figure B-9 (a) shows a 1.5 second recording of the voltage waveforms
while Figure B-9 (b) provides an expanded view (first 500 ms) where more details of the waveforms can be seen.
A chaotic form of ferroresonance commences within about 1 cycle of breaker closing. Phase-to-ground transient
overvoltages exceed 600 V
peak
(3.5 pu on 120 V
rms
or 169.7 V
peak
). The open-corner delta transient overvoltage
reaches 1500 V
peak
corresponding to a zero sequence voltage of 500 V
peak
per phase.
For the next energization, a 110 resistive burden was inserted across the open-corner VT secondary to provide
damping of zero sequence voltage transients. The original under-rated 8400-120-120 V PTs were left in place.
Voltage waveforms for the energizationre-energization of the T5 13.8 kV bus from the utility intertie substation are
shown in Figure B-10. As can be seen, there is a very large reduction in the transient overvoltages compared to the
previous case. The small distortion in the phase-to-ground voltages is to be expected, due to VT saturation. The
maximum instantaneous overvoltage across the open-corner delta has been reduced by about a factor of 50 and
zero sequence transient overvoltages has been effectively suppressed by addition of the damping resistor.
In summary it can be concluded that the existing VTs should be replaced with ones that are appropriate for the
actual ungrounded application i.e. replaced with VTs that are fully fluxed for applied line-to-ground voltages at or
above normal line-to-line voltage. This will provide accurate voltage measurements during ground fault conditions.
The sizing of the damping resistors across the open-corner delta should be such that the load on the PT secondary
is the full load at which the accuracy of the PT is rated. Reference [35] referred in the main text of this Technical
Brochure, for example, provides guidelines in the selection of damping resistance which depends upon the VT air-
core inductance and line-to-ground capacitance.


Page 155
Figure B-8 De-energization of 13.8 kV bus

Re-energization
Figure B-9 (a) Re-energization of the 13.8 kV bus from the utility substation and (b)
the first 500 ms showing the ferroresonant overvoltages in more detail

(a) (b)

Page 156

Figure B-10 Energization of the 13.8 kV bus with a 110 Ohm burden across the open-
corner delta VT secondary winding


Page 157
B. 4 Ferroresonance with Power Transformer Connected to
Series Compensated Line
System studies have shown that load rejection in a 535 km long 500 kV transmission line with series compensation
could lead to ferroresonance
5
. This transmission line is rated for 2000 A based on the steady-state rating of the
series capacitors (Figure B-11 (a)), and under open circuit conditions, the 500 kV line charging is about 650 Mvar.
Typical high power transfers take place from Station D to Station F, which is about 1800 MW. The tertiary windings
of autotransformers have a total of 225 Mvar shunt capacitors to maintain reactive power margin at Station D
during high power transfer levels. The substation equipment and transmission line are rated for a maximum
continuous operating voltage of 600 kV to withstand line open conditions. A load rejection caused by opening of
230 kV breakers has been identified as a potential ferroresonance condition and the most severe temporary
overvoltage (TOV) condition on equipment at Station D.
The transmission line between Stations D and F will be sectionalized at Station R, about 50 km from Station D
(Figure B-11 (b))The autotransformer at Station R will have an additional 220 Mvar shunt capacitor banks installed.
In the event of a load rejection on the 230 kV side, this extra capacitance would compound the potential for
ferroresonance and temporary overvoltages seen on the 500 kV transmission network.
System studies have shown a number of load rejection scenarios that could lead to ferroresonance in the 500 kV
transmission network. Each scenario constitutes of radial operation of the 500 kV line following a load rejection
caused by opening of 230 kV breakers on the low side of the 230/500 kV autotransformers.
The main contributing factors for ferroresonance are;
- Series capacitors in-service.
- Radial operation of 500 kV transmission lines.
- Load rejection from the 230 kV side of 230/500 kV autotransformer.

5
Application of a Protection Scheme to Mitigate the Impact of Load Rejection in a 500 kV Transmission
System, W. Chandrasena, D. Jacobson, IEEE EPEC 2011, Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 3-5, 2011

Page 158

Figure B-11 500 kV transmission system
Existing system; (b) Future system after sectionalisation at Station R
The transmission line 602 is expected to operate with series capacitors in-service at all possible times. However,
the probability of radial operation of the transmission lines and the probability of load rejection from the 230 kV side
can be considered very low. The radial operation could be due to maintenance/switching events or due to other
system constraints. A load rejection from the 230 kV side can be due to fault clearing or normal switching
operations. Therefore, the probability of having a network configuration that can initiate ferroresonance can be
considered very low. However, during such configurations, it is very likely to initiate ferroresonance that could result
in severe damage on equipment and significant outage times on a major transmission line.
The temporary overvoltages due to load rejection typically last in the range of seconds. An overvoltage condition of
this nature can be controlled by either switching shunt reactors or capacitor banks, or by using voltage controlling
devices such as static var compensators (SVC). Overvoltage relays are generally used as a last resort to
disconnect equipment. However, studies have shown that if a load rejection initiates a ferroresonance condition in
this 500 kV transmission network, none of these mitigation measures would be fast enough to protect equipment in
substations D and R.
The waveform of voltage showed ferroresonance and, based on the frequency content of voltage waveforms, it
was determined to be period-3 subharmonic ferroresonance mode, when allowed to reach steady state (Figure
B-12). The simulation results also showed that energy dissipation in surge arresters would exceed the 6 MJ rating
within 100 ms (Figure B-13).
225 Mvar reactor
147 Mvar
720 MVA
500/230/46 kV
73 Mvar
2 x 150 Mvar
reactors
50% series
compensation
360 MVA
535 km
225 Mvar reactor 147 Mvar
73 Mvar
220 Mvar
720 MVA
500/230/46 kV
485 km
Line 602
Line 602 Line 603
50 km
Station D
Station F
500/230/34.5 kV
(a)
(b)
SVC
SVC
50% series
compensation
2 x 150 Mvar
reactors
720 MVA
500/230/46 kV
360 MVA
500/230/34.5 kV
Station D
Station F Station R

Page 159

Figure B-12 Waveform of voltage at Station R showing period-3 ferroresonance

x
0.200 0.225 0.250 0.275 0.300 0.325 0.350 0.375 0.400
...
...
...
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
V_500_phase A V_500_phase B V_500_phase C
Frequency (Hz)
H
a
r
m
o
n
i
c

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
k
V
)Frequency content of voltage waveforms
Time (s)

Page 160

Figure B-13 Waveform of voltage and energy dissipation in surge arresters following a
load rejection at Station D

An EMT type simulation model was developed by converting a load flow base case to EMT. This approach enabled
development of simulation cases that maintain the correct system topology and proper initialization of the initial
steady-state power flow. The frequency dependent transmission line models with transpositions were used to
represent 500 kV transmission lines. Although a frequency dependent model is not required to model
ferroresonance, the main focus was to develop a system model that can also represent electromagnetic transients
during switching events.
The autotransformers at Station D consist of three single-phase three-winding banks. The autotransformers were
represented using three single phase models with a non linear saturation curve. An open circuit V-I curve
measured up to 1.3 pu voltage was available from autotransformer test reports for Station D. The parameters for
the saturation curve were determined using these measured data. It was assumed that autotransformers at Station
R would have the same rating and saturation characteristics.
The surge arresters were modelled using non linear V-I characteristics obtained from manufacturer data. A special
custom model represented the series capacitor with the detailed protection scheme and MOV. This model
accurately represents the MOV conduction during a transient and it would by-pass the MOV if energy dissipation
exceeds their rating or through an external by-pass signal generated through line protection. The entire system
model represented the network in detail three buses away from the 230 kV buses of Stations D, F and R
Time (s)

Page 161
respectively.Thevenin equivalents represented the remaining network. Aspecial custom model was used to
represent the SVC.
6

Simulations were carried out to identify network configurations that could initiate ferroresonance, and also to
investigate the impact of counter measures such as protection schemes at Stations D and R. The time-domain
simulation control logic represented the expected breaker clearing times during a load rejection event based on
signal processing/relay operation times, and circuit breaker operation times to extinguish an arc (Figure B-14). In
order to simulate the worst case scenario for a load rejection, it was assumed that the 230 kV breakers would open
in one cycle, and the 500 kV and 46 kV breakers would follow their rated operating times; i.e. two cycles for 500 kV
breakers, three cycles for 46 kV breakers at Station R and five cycles for 46 kV breakers at Station D. The worst
case scenario to initiate ferroresonance was found to be a stuck breaker condition at Station D or R following load
rejection on the 230 kV side.

Figure B-14 Simulation model of protection schemes at Stations D and R

The radial operation of Station R to Station F showed several network configurations that would not initiate
ferroresonance. Simulation results showed that a load rejection on 230 kV side at Station R would initiate
ferroresonance if both 225 Mvar shunt capacitors and 225 Mvar shunt reactor were in-service or if the shunt reactor
was out-of-service, irrespective of number of shunt capacitor banks in-service (Figure B-15).

6
Sybille, G., Giroux, P., Dellwo, S., Mazur, R., Sweezy, G., Simulator and Field Testing of Forbes SVS, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, vol.
11, no. 3, pp. 1507-1514, July 1996.
Line 603
current
<200 A
Wait For
0.030
Wait For
0.045
Open
Breaker
Open
Breaker
Open
Breaker
Wait
For
0.090
Open
Breaker
Station D
230 kV BRK
Station D
500 kV BRK
Station D
46 kV BRK
Station R
500 kV BRK
Wait For
0.033
Open
Breaker
Tranfer Trip Station R
500 kV BRK
Wait For
0.0333
Wait For
0.025
Wait For
0.0333
Open
Breaker
Transfer trip Station F
500 kV BRK
Relaying + PLC delays
Telecom delay
+ Aux relay
Station D
Station R
s
s
s
s s
s s

Page 162

Figure B-15 Radial operation from Station R to Station F; all shunt capacitors out -of-
service
Shunt reactor out-of-service (ferroresonance); (b) shunt reactor in-service (no
ferroresonance)

Other radial network configurations such as Station D radial to Station F with Station R out-of-service or Station D
radial to Station F with Station R 230 kV side open conditions showed ferroresonance irrespective of the status of
shunt reactors.
Analog Graph
x
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
...
...
...
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Riel_voltage:A _ 391 Riel_voltage:B _ 391 Riel_voltage:C_ 391
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Riel_voltage:A 404 Riel_voltage:B 404 Riel_voltage:C404
Analog Graph
x
0.900 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960 0.970 0.980 0.990 1.000
...
...
...
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Riel_voltage:A _ 391 Riel_voltage:B _ 391 Riel_voltage:C_ 391
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Riel_voltage:A 404 Riel_voltage:B 404 Riel_voltage:C404
(a)
(b)
(b)
(a)

Page 163
One of the three main contributing factors for ferroresonance on this transmission system is the status of series
capacitors. The sensitivity of by-passing series capacitors following a load rejection was simulated as in Figure
B-16. Results show ferroresonance until the series capacitors are by-passed, followed by a network re-
configuration into a non-ferroresonant state.
The utility currently uses higher rated equipment to withstand temporary overvoltages along with a protection
scheme to remove the equipment within reasonable time so that any impact of such overvoltages is mitigated. For
example, the 500 kV transmission line and associated substations are rated for 600 kV continuous operation. In
addition, a protection scheme is being used to isolate equipment if network configurations that could lead to high
temporary overvoltages and possible ferroresonant conditions are detected. This approach maintains an optimal
balance between capital investment on transmission assets and mitigating potential risks. In addition, this approach
minimizes the duty on line arresters and allows single-column IEC Class 5 arresters to be used.
It is difficult to interpret the published arrester energy ratings to determine if they are suitable for a ferroresonance
application. The energy ratings typically include:
1. Two-impulse- IEC 60099-4 (clause 8.5.5) defined switching surge operating duty test demonstrating 2
impulses over 1 minute.
2. Routine test energy- Production test demonstrating 3 impulses over 1 minute.
3. Single-impulse energy: Design test demonstrating maximum permissible energy, which the arrester may
be subjected to in a single impulse of 4 ms duration.
For this case, the ferroresonant event is closest to a single-impulse event. A typical high-voltage single-column
arrester has a single-impulse thermal energy rating between 7 and 18 kJ/kV. The arrester specification asked for a
single-impulse (4 ms) capability of 14 kJ/kV. This value was calculated by taking the worst case maximum energy
absorbed during the ferroresonant event and dividing the energy by the arrester rated voltage.

Figure B-16 Impact of by-passing the series capacitors following a load rejection

Analog Graph
x
0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400
...
...
...
-0.8k
-0.6k
-0.4k
-0.2k
0.0
0.2k
0.4k
0.6k
0.8k
1.0k
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
k
V
)
Riel_voltage 500 kV:A SC_BP Riel_voltage 500 kV:B SC_BP Riel_voltage 500 kV:CSC_BP
230 kV fault
Fault cleared/
load rejection
Series capacitor
by-passed

Page 164
B. 5 Ferroresonance of a Line VT with Circuit Breaker Grading
Capacitors
A ferroresonant incident was experienced during the commissioning tests of a line bay in a new 400 kV substation
in Ireland. The circuit configuration is shown in Figure B-17 where the inductive voltage transformers are on the
substation side of the line disconnector (DL).
Following a live test consisting of the energization of the VTs from busbars with the line disconnector (DL) open,
the line VTs were de-energized by opening the circuit breaker (CB). These unusual switching operations
inadvertently left the VTs energized through the circuit breaker grading capacitors (C
G
), which resulted in the
formation of a ferroresonant circuit.
A loud humming noise combined with very high voltage readings alerted the commissioning engineers of the
problem, who immediately closed the circuit breaker again. This quick reaction terminated the ferroresonant
oscillation and prevented the catastrophic failure of one VT. An inspection of the disturbance records (Figure B-18)
revealed a highly distorted voltage waveform in T-phase, with amplitude of 2 pu. The other two phases presented
normal voltage waveforms.

Figure B-17 400 kV Line Bay

400kV
Busbar

400kV
Busbar
DA

DA
DEM

CB

DL
DE

400kV
Line

CG

CT

Inductive
VTs

- 2 .5
- 2 .0
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
2 .5
- 2 .5
- 2 .0
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
2 .5
- 2 .5
- 2 .0
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
2 .5
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 5 0 7 0 0 7 5 0
Ele c tr o te k C o n c e p ts TO P, Th e O u tp u t Pr o c e s s o r
5
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
6
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
7
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
Time ( ms )
CB Closing
VR
[pu]

VS
[pu]

VT
[pu]


Page 165
Figure B-18 Recorded ferroresonant voltage waveforms

As a consequence of this incident, the commissioning of the line bay was deferred and an investigation was
initiated to understand the nature of the disturbance and to assess mitigation options. The next section describes
one of the options that were considered as part of the studies and some of the field tests carried out to evaluate its
effectiveness.
Following the VT manufacturers recommendations, a 0.5O damping resistor was connected across the open-delta
secondary windings and additional controlled tests were carried out. The circuit configuration and switching
sequence were as in the original commissioning tests: Close DA => Close CB => Open CB. The line disconnector
(DL) remained open during these switching operations and the 0.5O open-delta damping resistor was inserted into
the circuit. Several switching operations were performed resulting in two different outcomes.
The first and second switching tests resulted in normal voltage waveforms in all the phases (Figure B-19).
Following some initial oscillations, all the voltages settled to a normal steady-state suggesting that the damping
resistor had successfully prevented the onset of ferroresonance. The third switching test, however, produced a
completely different response with, apparently, the same initial conditions. The recorded waveforms are included in
Figure B-20 showing the severity of the continuous overvoltages. It can be seen that some quasi -periodic
oscillations followed the CB switching operation but, after nearly 300 ms, two phases jumped to a ferroresonant
steady-state with voltages reaching 2p.u. These waveforms were identical to those recorded on the initial tests and
demonstrated that the 0.5 O open-delta damping resistor failed to suppress the harmful ferroresonant oscillations.

Figure B-19 Recorded normal voltage waveforms with 0.5O damping resistor

The frequency spectrum of the recorded ferroresonant waveforms is shown in Figure B-21 and reveals a
predominant fundamental frequency component with a number of decaying odd harmonics including the 3
rd
, 5
th
, 7th
and 9
th
. This frequency spectrum is typical of a fundamental frequency ferroresonant mode. Additional switching
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 5 0 7 0 0 7 5 0 8 0 0 8 5 0 9 0 0 9 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 5 0 1 2 0 0
5
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
6
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
7
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
8
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
T i m e (m s )
V [pu]

V [pu]
VR

VS

VT

VN

CB opening


Page 166
tests were carried out keeping the line disconnector (DL) closed, which introduced the large zero sequence
capacitance of the line (785 nF) into the circuit. Each of these tests produced the very same response
corresponding to the normal discharge of a line through inductive VTs (Figure B-22).

Figure B-20 Recorded ferroresonant voltage waveforms with 0.5O damping resistor

Figure B-21 Frequency Spectrum of Recorded Ferroresonant voltage waveforms of
Figure B-20

The 400 kV substation was modelled in detail using an EMT type software with the purpose of simulating the
ferroresonant incident and to gain a better understanding of the phenomena. This model, when validated, was
employed to evaluate remedial actions. The model included VTs, CB, disconnectors and relevant busbars and bay
sections:
-2 . 5
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
2 . 5
-2 . 5
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
2 . 5
-2 . 5
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
2 . 5
-2 . 5
-2 . 0
-1 . 5
-1 . 0
-0 . 5
0 . 0
0 . 5
1 . 0
1 . 5
2 . 0
2 . 5
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 6 0 0 6 5 0 7 0 0 7 5 0 8 0 0 8 5 0 9 0 0 9 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 5 0 1 2 0 0
5
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
6
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
7
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
8
_
u
-
V
o
l t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
T i m e (m s )
V [pu]
VR

VS

VT

VN
CB opening
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Electrotek Concepts TOP, The Output Processor
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
Frequency (Hz)


Page 167
- The circuit breaker grading capacitance and line bay stray capacitance were 600 pF and 460 pF,
respectively.
- The VTs were modelled as three single-phase, three-winding transformers. The secondary windings were
Wye connected and the tertiary windings were in an open-delta configuration. The tertiary delta
connection was closed using a 0.5 O resistor.
- The magnetic behaviour of the core was represented by means of its saturation curve, derived from the no-
load V-I curve supplied by the manufacturer (Figure B-23).
- The VT losses were represented as a lumped resistor (182 MO) connected in parallel with the magnetizing
reactance. This resistor reproduces the no-load losses measured at rated voltage and power frequency
(293 W).
The simulation results of the switching operation leading to a sustained fundamental frequency ferroresonance are
shown in Figure B-24. These compare well with recorded waveforms shown in Figure B-20. The shape and
amplitude of the sustained ferroresonant overvoltages were reproduced with very good accuracy. The quasi-
periodic oscillations prior to the steady-state ferroresonant condition, from 200 ms to 500 ms in Figure B-20, were
almost impossible to replicate, although the simulated waveforms also displayed a quasi-periodic behaviour. Even
though the exact wave shapes were slightly different, the simulation results presented sufficient replication of the
field measurements to validate the model and to use it as a basis for evaluating mitigation options.
Several mitigation options were assessed and these can be summarized as follows:
- 0.5 O open-delta damping resistor was not effective in suppressing ferroresonance, as proved by field tests
and simulations. Lower resistance values were not practical due to thermal limitations in the secondary
windings.
- 50 MO resistor connected across the HV winding could suppress ferroresonance. This solution, however,
would imply extra losses of 28 MWh per year.
- 50 O resistor connected across the Y secondary can successfully quench resonance. Consideration
should be given to the effect of this added load on the operation of protection relays connected to the same
winding.
- 1 Mvar air-core reactor connected across the HV winding can prevent the onset of ferroresonance.
- Capacitive VTs were not an option since fast line discharge is essential for the auto-reclose scheme.
- VT relocation to the line side of DL was considered. The permanent connection of the 95 km long line
capacitance (785nF) detunes the circuit and prevents ferroresonance. Field tests and simulation results
confirmed it.
- An interlocking scheme to prevent the series connection of the VTs with the CB grading capacitors when
DL is open and DA is closed was also considered.
- VTs with higher saturation knee are under consideration for future installations.


Page 168

Figure B-22 Recorded line discharge voltage waveforms with DL closed

Figure B-23 400 kV VT Saturation Curve

- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
- 1 .5
- 1 .0
- 0 .5
0 .0
0 .5
1 .0
1 .5
1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 0 9 0 0 1 0 0 0
E l e ctr o te k Co n ce p ts TO P , Th e O u tp u t P r o ce sso r
5
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
6
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
7
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
8
_
u
-
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
M
a
g

p
u
)
Ti me ( ms)
CB Opening
VR
[pu]

VS
[pu]

VT
[pu]

VN
[pu]

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
I [mA]
U

[
k
V
]

Page 169

Figure B-24 Simulation of Ferroresonant Condition

(f ile VT_resonance_scan_stray -cap_266.2_VT_1ph.pl4; x-v ar t)
factors:
offsets:
1
0
v :SV_VTA
0.01
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [s]
-2.500
-1.875
-1.250
-0.625
0.000
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500
[V]

factors:
offsets:
1
0
v :SV_VTB
0.01
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [s]
-2.500
-1.875
-1.250
-0.625
0.000
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500
[V]

factors:
offsets:
1
0
v :SV_VTC
0.01
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [s]
-2.500
-1.875
-1.250
-0.625
0.000
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500
[V]

factors:
offsets:
1
0
t: XX0357
0.01
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [s]
-2.500
-1.875
-1.250
-0.625
0.000
0.625
1.250
1.875
2.500

VR
[pu]

VS
[pu]

VT
[pu]

VN
[pu]


Page 170
B. 6 Ferroresonance on Transformer Enerisation from a Weak
Network
Progressive re-energizing of transformers can be made from hydroelectric or gas turbine power units in view to
avoid transient resonances (see sequence description in chapter ).
However, the risk of ferroresonance subsists, especially when the total rated power of the transformers reachs a
high value, depending on the short-circuit power value of the network [A] [B].
One case of steady-state ferroresonance has been encountered during one of the earliest black supply field tests
performed with a hydroelectric power unit, in 1982.
Figure B-25 shows the network used. The hydro unit apparent power is 90MVA, and the rated generator voltage is
15kV. The two sets of nuclear power unit step-up and auxiliary transformers totalize 2x1140MVA. The network is
composed of 225kV lines, 340km long, and of two 400 kV lines between the nuclear units and the grid connection
point, 20km long, and includes a 300MVA autotransformer. Due to the high reactive power generated by the
unloaded long EHV lines, partial reactive power compensation is needed. For this purpose, a shunt reactor of
64Mvar is used, connected to the tertiary of another 300 MVA autotransformer, which 400 kV voltage winding
remains non connected.
Despite the progressive rising of the voltage on the lines and at the terminals of the different transformers and
autotransformers, and despite the low set-point of 0.9 p.u. applied to the automatic voltage regulator of the hydro
unit, ferroresonance appears at the end of the voltage rising, characterised by overvoltages and overcurrents,
slowly fluctuating, with harmonics. The hydro unit had to be disconnected to stop the phenomena.
The ferroresonant phenomena appears pseudo-periodic. The overvoltages were up to 1.2 p.u. on the generator
terminals and up to 2.5 p.u. on the 225kV at the grid connection point of the hydroelectric unit (Figure B-26).
After this unsuccessful test, different tests were performed, which conclude to the feasibility of the black supply of
only one set of nuclear power unit step-up and auxiliary transformers totalizing 1140MVA. The tests performed
regularly for the late thirty years confirm this conclusion, no other ferroresonant phenomena have been noticed.
The theoretical studies done on this ferroresonant case with help of bifurcation theory conclude to the difficulty to
predict such pseudo-periodic phenomena [Kieny, Ben Driss].
On a practical way, the limitation of the number or of the total apparent power of the transformers to be re-
energized, in association with a reduced set-point applied on the AVR and a very progressive rising of the voltage,
are the key factors to succeed such black supply of transformers through long lines. The progressive rising of the
voltage may take a few tens of seconds, and can be easily obtained by means of a numerical ramp on the AVR.
Bibliography/References :
[A] : [26],[39], [40], [49] references already existing in the TB
[B] : BEN DRISS Khaled Application de la thorie des bifurcations la prdiction des rsonances non-linaires
l'enclenchement de transformateurs vide
Thse prpare et soutenue Suplec, EEI (Universit Paris VI) le 13/06/1994
Application of the bifurcation theory to the prediction of non linear resonances in case of transformer
energization PhD thesis, SUPELEC-PARIS VI, 13-06-1994

Page 171

Figure B-25 Black supply EHV network configuration leading to ferroresonance


Page 172

Figure B-26 Recordings of the three generator terminal voltage, of one phase-to-
ground line voltage, of the generator field voltage and frequency, during the
ferroresonant phenomena


Page 173
ANNEX C MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETISATION
CHARACTERISTICS
C. 1 Measurement of magnetizing curve by free oscillations
Typical currents in normal operation of a VT are in mA range, but when driven into ferroresonant mode, these
values can reach 1A and more.

Figure 35a Circuit for measurement and evaluation of VT magnetizing curve

The simplest method to measure and evaluate magnetizing curve of a VT in the range of such extremely high
currents is to evoke transient damped self-oscillation of VT with a capacitor of appropriate value charged to
appropriate initial voltage as shown in the scheme of Figure 35a. Here, the capacitor is charged from a dc source
and then switched to a VT in parallel with a voltage divider. The transient voltage and current are recorded by way
of a digital recorder. A typical record of the voltage and current self-oscillation is given in figure 35b. The resistive
voltage drop along the winding due to winding resistance R
w
can be subtracted from the recorded voltage U
VT
(t)
and time evolution of induced voltage U
i
(t) can be calculated
Ui(t) = UVT(t) - Rw . i(t) (1)
The time series of the flux |(t) can then be obtained by integration of the induced voltage with zero initial condition
u
i
(0) = 0.
|(t) =
}
ui(t).dt + ui(0) (2)
Using the evaluated flux time series along with the recorded current time series it is possible to create pairs
i(t
n
), |(t
n
) for every time instant t
n
. The method is quite satisfactory in constructing a magnetizing curve. The most
important result of the method is to establish the position and full shape of the knee point of the magnetizing curve,
parameters which are decisive for VT sensitivity to ferroresonance.
Comment [ZE6]: LP to modify

Page 174

Figure 35b Construction of VT magnetization curve (record of voltage and current,
integrated flux and resulting magnetizing curve)

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RESONANCE AND

Pole fails to close

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