Geodynamics

Geodynamics
First published in 1982, Don Turcotte and Jerry Schuberts Geodynamics became a classic te tboo! "or se#eral $enerations o" students o" $eophysics and $eolo$y% &n this second edition, the authors brin$ this classic te t completely up-to-date% &mportant additions include a chapter on chemical $eodynamics, an updated co#era$e o" comparati#e planetolo$y based on recent planetary missions, and a #ariety o" other ne' topics% Geodynamics pro#ides the "undamentals necessary "or an understandin$ o" the 'or!in$s o" the solid (arth% The (arth is a heat en$ine, 'ith the source o" the heat the decay o" radioacti#e elements and the coolin$ o" the (arth "rom its initial accretion% The 'or! output includes earth)ua!es, #olcanic eruptions, and mountain buildin$% Geodynamics comprehensi#ely e plains these concepts in the conte t o" the role o" mantle con#ection and plate tectonics% *bser#ations such as the (arths $ra#ity "ield, sur"ace heat "lo', distribution o" earth)ua!es, sur"ace stresses and strains, and distribution o" elements are discussed% The rheolo$ical beha#ior o" the solid (arth, "rom an elastic solid to "racture to plastic de"ormation to "luid "lo', is considered% &mportant inputs come "rom a comparison o" the similarities and di""erences bet'een the (arth, +enus, ,ars, ,ercury, and the ,oon% -n e tensi#e set o" student e ercises is included% This ne' edition o" Geodynamics 'ill once a$ain pro#e to be a classic te tboo! "or intermediate to ad#anced under$raduates and $raduate students in $eolo$y, $eophysics, and (arth science% Donald .% Turcotte is ,a 'ell /pson 0ro"essor o" (n$ineerin$, Depart- ment o" Geolo$ical Sciences, 1ornell /ni#ersity% &n addition to this boo!, he is author or co-author o" 2 boo!s and 234 research papers, includin$ Fractals and Chaos in Geology and Geophysics 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1992 and 19936 and Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets 5'ith Gerald Schubert and 0eter *lson7 1ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 28816% 0ro"essor Turcotte is a Fello' o" the -merican Geophysical /nion, 9onorary Fello' o" the (uropean /nion o" Geosciences, and Fello' o" the Geolo$ical So- ciety o" -merica% 9e is the recipient o" se#eral medals, includin$ the Day ,edal o" the Geolo$ical Society o" -merica, the :e$ener ,edal o" the (uropean /nion o" Geosciences, the :hitten ,edal o" the -merican Geophysical /nion, the ;e$ents 5<e' =or! State6 ,edal o" ( cellence, and 1altechs Distin$uished -lumnus -'ard% 0ro"essor Turcotte is a member o" the <a- tional -cademy o" Sciences and the -merican -cademy o" -rts and Sciences% Gerald Schubert is a 0ro"essor in the Department o" (arth and Space Sciences and the &nstitute o" Geophysics and 0lanetary 0hysics at the /ni-
i#
#ersity o" 1ali"ornia, .os -n$eles% 9e is co-author 'ith Donald Turcotte and 0eter *lson o" Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 28816, and author o" o#er >88 research papers% 9e has par- ticipated in a number o" <-S-s planetary missions and has been on the editorial boards o" many ?ournals, includin$ Icarus, Journal of Geophysical Research, Geophysical Research Letters, and nnual Revie!s of Earth and Planetary "ciences% 0ro"essor Schubert is a Fello' o" the -merican Geo- physical /nion and a recipient o" the /nions James @% ,ac(l'ane medal% 9e is a member o" the -merican -cademy o" -rts and Sciences%
1ontents
Preface Preface to the "econd Edition 1 0late Tectonics 1%1 &ntroduction 1%2 The .ithosphere 1%2 -ccretin$ 0late @oundaries 1%> Subduction 1%A Trans"orm Faults 1%4 9otspots and ,antle 0lumes 1%3 1ontinents 1%8 0aleoma$netism and the ,otion o" the 0lates 1%9 Triple Junctions 1%18 The :ilson 1ycle 1%11 1ontinental 1ollisions 1%12 +olcanism and 9eat Flo' 1%12 Seismicity and the State o" Stress in the .ithosphere 1%1> The Dri#in$ ,echanism 1%1A 1omparati#e 0lanetolo$y 1%14 The ,oon 1%13 ,ercury 1%18 ,ars 1%19 0hobos and Deimos 1%28 +enus 1%21 The Galilean Satellites Stress and Strain in Solids 2%1 &ntroduction 2%2 @ody Forces and Sur"ace Forces
page iii 1 1 9 18 1A 22 2A 28 24 A9 4A 38 34 8A 98 91 92 93 99 18A 18A 183 123 123 128
#i
Contents
2%2 2%> 2%A 2%4 2%3 2%8 2
Stress in T'o Dimensions Stress in Three Dimensions 0ressures in the Deep &nteriors o" 0lanets Stress ,easurement @asic &deas about Strain Strain ,easurements
1>8 1>4 1>8 1A1 1A> 143 18A 18A 183 189 191 192 194 193 198 199 28A 218 212 214 213 228 222 223 228 223 223 228 2>8 2>2 2>> 2>9 2A2 2A> 248 242 24>
(lasticity and Fle ure 2%1 &ntroduction 2%2 .inear (lasticity 2%2 /nia ial Stress 2%> /nia ial Strain 2%A 0lane Stress 2%4 0lane Strain 2%3 0ure Shear and Simple Shear 2%8 &sotropic Stress 2%9 T'o-Dimensional @endin$ or Fle ure o" 0lates 2%18 @endin$ o" 0lates under -pplied ,oments and +ertical .oads 2%11 @uc!lin$ o" a 0late under a 9oriBontal .oad 2%12 De"ormation o" Strata *#erlyin$ an &$neous &ntrusion 2%12 -pplication to the (arths .ithosphere 2%1> 0eriodic .oadin$ 2%1A Stability o" the (arths .ithosphere /nder an (nd .oad 2%14 @endin$ o" the (lastic .ithosphere under the .oads o" &sland 1hains 2%13 @endin$ o" the (lastic .ithosphere at an *cean Trench 2%18 Fle ure and the Structure o" Sedimentary @asins 9eat Trans"er >%1 &ntroduction >%2 Fouriers .a' o" 9eat 1onduction >%2 ,easurin$ the (arths Sur"ace 9eat Flu >%> The (arths Sur"ace 9eat Flo' >%A 9eat Generation by the Decay o" ;adioacti#e (lements >%4 *ne-Dimensional Steady 9eat 1onduction >%3 - 1onduction Temperature 0ro"ile "or the ,antle >%8 1ontinental Geotherms >%9 ;adial 9eat 1onduction in a Sphere or Spherical Shell >%18 Temperatures in the ,oon >%11 Steady T'o- and Three-Dimensional 9eat 1onduction
>
Contents
#ii
>%12 >%12 >%1> >%1A >%14 >%13 >%18 >%19 >%28 >%21 >%22 >%22 >%2> >%2A >%24 >%23 >%28 >%29 >%28 A
Subsur"ace Temperature *ne-Dimensional, Time-Dependent 9eat 1onduction 0eriodic 9eatin$ o" a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-Space &nstantaneous 9eatin$ or 1oolin$ o" a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-Space 1oolin$ o" the *ceanic .ithosphere 0late 1oolin$ ,odel o" the .ithosphere The Ste"an 0roblem Solidi"ication o" a Di!e or Sill The 9eat 1onduction ()uation in a ,o#in$ ,edium *ne-Dimensional, /nsteady 9eat 1onduction in an &n"inite ;e$ion Thermal Stresses *cean Floor Topo$raphy 1han$es in Sea .e#el Thermal and Subsidence 9istory o" Sedimentary @asins 9eatin$ or 1oolin$ a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-Space Frictional 9eatin$ on Faults ,antle Geotherms and -diabats Thermal Structure o" the Subducted .ithosphere 1ullin$ ,odel "or the (rosion and Deposition o" Sediments
244 249 231 234 28A 298 29> 288 28> 283 218 213 222 22A 222 22A 223 2>A 2>8 2A> 2A> 2AA 24A 244 232 238 282 28A 283 289 291 29> 293 >8A >11 >11
Gra#ity A%1 &ntroduction A%2 Gra#itational -cceleration A%2 1entri"u$al -cceleration and the -cceleration o" Gra#ity A%> The Gra#itational 0otential and the Geoid A%A ,oments o" &nertia A%4 Sur"ace Gra#ity -nomalies A%3 @ou$uer Gra#ity Formula A%8 ;eductions o" Gra#ity Data A%9 1ompensation A%18 The Gra#ity Field o" a 0eriodic ,ass Distribution on a Sur"ace A%11 1ompensation Due to .ithospheric Fle ure A%12 &sostatic Geoid -nomalies A%12 1ompensation ,odels and *bser#ed Geoid -nomalies A%1> Forces ;e)uired to ,aintain Topo$raphy and the Geoid Fluid ,echanics 4%1 &ntroduction
#iii
Contents
4%2 4%2 4%> 4%A 4%4 4%3 4%8 4%9 4%18 4%11 4%12 4%12 4%1> 4%1A 4%14 4%13 4%18 4%19 4%28 4%21 4%22 4%22 4%2> 3
*ne-Dimensional 1hannel Flo's -sthenospheric 1ounter"lo' 0ipe Flo' -rtesian -)ui"er Flo's Flo' Throu$h +olcanic 0ipes 1onser#ation o" Fluid in T'o Dimensions (lemental Force @alance in T'o Dimensions The Stream Function 0ost$lacial ;ebound -n$le o" Subduction Diapirism Foldin$ Sto!es Flo' 0lume 9eads and Tails 0ipe Flo' 'ith 9eat -ddition -)ui"er ,odel "or 9ot Sprin$s Thermal 1on#ection .inear Stability -nalysis "or the *nset o" Thermal 1on#ection - Transient @oundary-.ayer Theory - Steady-State @oundary-.ayer Theory The Forces that Dri#e 0late Tectonics 9eatin$ by +iscous Dissipation ,antle ;ecyclin$ and ,i in$
>12 >18 >21 >2A >24 >23 >28 >22 >2> >>2 >>3 >A4 >43 >34 >81 >8A >88 >92 A88 A8A A14 A21 A2A A28 A28 A>8 AA2 A48 A3> A88 A93 A99 48A 489 41A 423 423 428
;oc! rheolo$y 3%1 &ntroduction 3%2 (lasticity 3%2 Di""usion 1reep 3%> Dislocation 1reep 3%A Shear Flo's o" Fluids 3%4 ,antle ;heolo$y 3%3 ;heolo$ical (""ects on ,antle 1on#ection 3%8 ,antle 1on#ection and the 1oolin$ o" the (arth 3%9 1rustal ;heolo$y 3%18 +iscoelasticity 3%11 (lasticC0er"ectly 0lastic @eha#ior Faultin$ 8%1 &ntroduction 8%2 1lassi"ication o" Faults
Contents
8%2 8%> 8%A 8%4 8%3 8%8 8%9 8%18 8%11 8%12 9
Friction on Faults -nderson Theory o" Faultin$ Stren$th (n#elope Thrust Sheets and Gra#ity Slidin$ (arth)ua!es San -ndreas Fault <orth -natolian Fault Some (lastic Solutions "or Stri!eCSlip Faultin$ Stress Di""usion Thermally -cti#ated 1reep on Faults
422 423 4>2 4>2 4>3 4A9 44> 443 439 482 492 492 492 49A 493 388 313 322 32A 329 32A 3>4 3A2 341 341 342 331 334 384 388 39A 884 81A 828
Flo's in 0orous ,edia 9%1 &ntroduction 9%2 Darcys .a' 9%2 0ermeability ,odels 9%> Flo' in 1on"ined -)ui"ers 9%A Flo' in /ncon"ined -)ui"ers 9%4 Geometrical Form o" +olcanoes 9%3 ()uations o" 1onser#ation o" ,ass, ,omentum, and (ner$y "or Flo' in 0orous ,edia 9%8 *ne-Dimensional -d#ection o" 9eat in a 0orous ,edium 9%9 Thermal 1on#ection in a 0orous .ayer 9%18 Thermal 0lumes in Fluid-Saturated 0orous ,edia 9%11 0orous Flo' ,odel "or ,a$ma ,i$ration 9%12 T'o-0hase 1on#ection 1hemical Geodynamics 18%1 &ntroduction 18%2 ;adioacti#ity and Geochronolo$y 18%2 Geochemical ;eser#oirs 18%> - T'o-;eser#oir ,odel 'ith &nstantaneous 1rustal Di""erentiation 18%A <oble Gas Systems 18%4 &sotope Systematics o" *&@ @ Symbols and /nits 0hysical 1onstants and 0roperties -ns'ers to Selected 0roblems
18
-ppendi -ppendi
-ppendi 1 Inde#
0re"ace
This te tboo! deals 'ith the "undamental physical processes necessary "or an understandin$ o" plate tectonics and a #ariety o" $eolo$ical phenomena% :e belie#e that the appropriate title "or this material is geodynamics% The contents o" this te tboo! e#ol#ed "rom a series o" courses $i#en at 1ornell /ni#ersity and /1.- to students 'ith a 'ide ran$e o" bac!$rounds in $eolo$y, $eophysics, physics, mathematics, chemistry, and en$ineerin$% The le#el o" the students ran$ed "rom ad#anced under$raduate to $raduate% &n all cases 'e present the material 'ith a minimum o" mathematical comple ity% :e ha#e not introduced mathematical concepts unless they are essential to the understandin$ o" physical principles% For e ample, our treatment o" elasticity and "luid mechanics a#oids the introduction or use o" tensors% :e do not belie#e that tensor notation is necessary "or the understandin$ o" these sub?ects or "or most applications to $eolo$ical problems% 9o'e#er, sol#in$ partial di""erential e)uations is an essential part o" this te tboo!% ,any $eolo$ical problems in#ol#in$ heat conduction and solid and "luid mechanics re)uire solutions o" such classic partial di""erential e)uations as .aplaces e)uation, 0oissons e)uation, the biharmonic e)uation, and the di""usion e)uation% -ll these e)uations are deri#ed "rom "irst principles in the $eolo$ical conte ts in 'hich they are used% :e pro#ide elementary e planations "or such important physical properties o" matter as solid-state #iscosity, thermal coe""icient o" e pansion, speci"ic heat, and permeability% @asic concepts in#ol#ed in the studies o" heat trans"er, <e'tonian and non-<e'tonian "luid beha#ior, the bendin$ o" thin elastic plates, the mechanical beha#ior o" "aults, and the interpretation o" $ra#ity anomalies are emphasiBed% Thus it is e pected that the student 'ill de#elop a thorou$h understandin$ o" such "undamental physical la's as 9oo!es la' o" elasticity, Fouriers la' o" heat conduction, and Darcys la' "or "luid "lo' in porous media% The problems are an inte$ral part o" this te tboo!% &t is only throu$h
Preface
sol#in$ a substantial number o" e ercises that an ade)uate understandin$ o" the underlyin$ physical principles can be de#eloped% -ns'ers to selected problems are pro#ided% The "irst chapter re#ie's plate tectonics7 its main purpose is to pro#ide physics, chemistry, and en$ineerin$ students 'ith the $eolo$ical bac!$round necessary to understand the applications considered throu$hout the rest o" the te tboo!% :e hope that the $eolo$y student can also bene"it "rom this summary o" numerous $eolo$ical, seismolo$ical, and paleoma$netic obser#ations% Since plate tectonics is a continuously e#ol#in$ sub?ect, this material may be sub?ect to re#ision% 1hapter 1 also brie"ly summariBes the $eolo$ical and $eophysical characteristics o" the other planets and satellites o" the solar system% 1hapter 2 introduces the concepts o" stress and strain and discusses the measurements o" these )uantities in the (arths crust% 1hapter 2 presents the basic principles o" linear elasticity% The bendin$ o" thin elastic plates is emphasiBed and is applied to problems in#ol#in$ the bendin$ o" the (arths lithosphere% 1hapter > deals mainly 'ith heat conduction and the application o" this theory to temperatures in the continental crust and the continental and oceanic lithospheres% 9eat trans"er by con#ection is brie"ly discussed and applied to a determination o" temperature in the (arths mantle% Sur"ace heat "lo' measurements are re#ie'ed and interpreted in terms o" the theory% The sources o" the (arths sur"ace heat "lo' are discussed% 0roblems in#ol#in$ the solidi"ication o" ma$mas and e trusi#e la#a "lo's are also treated% The basic principles in#ol#ed in the interpretation o" $ra#ity measurements are $i#en in 1hapter A% Fluid mechanics is studied in 1hapter 47 problems in#ol#in$ mantle con#ection and post$lacial rebound are emphasiBed% 1hapter 3 deals 'ith the rheolo$y o" roc! or the manner in 'hich it de"orms or "lo's under applied "orces% Fundamental processes are discussed "rom a microscopic point o" #ie'% The mechanical beha#ior o" "aults is discussed in 1hapter 8 'ith particular attention bein$ paid to obser#ations o" displacements alon$ the San -ndreas "ault% Finally, 1hapter 9 discusses the principles o" "luid "lo' in porous media, a sub?ect that "inds application to hydrothermal circulations in the oceanic crust and in continental $eothermal areas% The contents o" this te tboo! are intended to pro#ide the material "or a coherent one-year course% &n order to accomplish this $oal, some important aspects o" $eodynamics ha#e had to be omitted% &n particular, the "undamentals o" seismolo$y are not included% Thus the 'a#e e)uation and its solutions are not discussed% ,any seismic studies ha#e pro#ided important data rele#ant to $eodynamic processes% ( amples include 516 the radial distribution o" density in the (arth as in"erred "rom the radial pro"iles o" seismic #eloci-
ii Preface
ties, 526 important in"ormation on the locations o" plate boundaries and the locations o" descendin$ plates at ocean trenches pro#ided by accurate determinations o" the epicenters o" earth)ua!es, and 526 details o" the structure o" the continental crust obtained by seismic re"lection pro"ilin$ usin$ arti"icially $enerated 'a#es% -n ade)uate treatment o" seismolo$y 'ould ha#e re)uired a #ery considerable e pansion o" this te tboo!% Fortunately, there are a number o" e cellent te tboo!s on this sub?ect% - comprehensi#e study o" the spatial and temporal #ariations o" the (arths ma$netic "ield is also considered to be outside the scope o" this te tboo!% - short discussion o" the (arths ma$netic "ield rele#ant to paleoma$netic obser#ations is $i#en in 1hapter 1% 9o'e#er, mechanisms "or the $eneration o" the (arths ma$netic "ield are not considered% &n 'ritin$ this te tboo!, se#eral di""icult decisions had to be made% *ne 'as the choice o" units7 'e use S& units throu$hout% This system o" units is de"ined in -ppendi 1% :e "eel there is a stron$ trend to'ard the use o" S& units in both $eolo$y and $eophysics% :e reco$niBe, ho'e#er, that many c$s units are 'idely used% ( amples include Dcal cm 2 s 1 "or heat "lo', !ilobar "or stress, and milli$al "or $ra#ity anomalies% For this reason 'e ha#e o"ten included the e)ui#alent c$s unit in parentheses a"ter the S& unit, "or e ample, ,0a 5!bar6% -nother decision in#ol#ed the re"erencin$ o" ori$inal 'or!% :e do not belie#e that it is appropriate to include a lar$e number o" re"erences in a basic te tboo!% :e ha#e credited those indi#iduals ma!in$ ma?or contributions to the de#elopment o" the theory o" plate tectonics and continental dri"t in our brie" discussion o" the history o" this sub?ect in 1hapter 1% :e also pro#ide re"erences to data% -t the end o" each chapter a list o" recommended readin$ is $i#en% &n many instances these are te tboo!s and re"erence boo!s, but in some cases re#ie' papers are included% &n each case the ob?ecti#e is to pro#ide bac!$round material "or the chapter or to e tend its content% ,any o" our collea$ues ha#e read all or parts o" #arious dra"ts o" this te tboo!% :e ac!no'led$e the contributions made by Jac! @ird, 0eter @ird, ,ua'ia @araBan$i, -llan 1o , :alter (lsasser, ;obert Eay, SuBanne Eay, ,ar! .an$seth, @ruce ,arsh, Jay ,elosh, John ;undle, Sean Solomon, Da#id Ste#enson, Een Torrance, and Da#id =uen% :e particularly 'ish to ac!no'led$e the many contributions to our 'or! made by ;on * bur$h and the e cellent manuscript preparation by Tanya 9arter%
0re"ace to the Second (dition
-s 'e prepared our re#isions "or this second edition o" Geodynamics 'e 'ere struc! by the relati#ely "e' chan$es and additions that 'ere re)uired% The reason is clearF this te tboo! deals 'ith "undamental physical processes that do not chan$e% 9o'e#er, a number o" ne' ideas and concepts ha#e e#ol#ed and ha#e been included 'here appropriate% &n re#isin$ the "irst chapter on plate tectonics 'e placed added emphasis on the concept o" mantle plumes% &n particular 'e discussed the association o" plume heads 'ith continental "lood basalts% :e e tensi#ely re#ised the sections on comparati#e planetolo$y% :e ha#e learned ne' thin$s about the ,oon, and the $iant impact hypothesis "or its ori$in has 'on 'ide acceptance% For +enus, the ,a$ellan mission has re#olutioniBed our in"ormation about the planet% The hi$h-resolution radar ima$es, topo$raphy, and $ra#- ity data ha#e pro#ided ne' insi$hts that emphasiBe the tremendous di""erences in structure and e#olution bet'een +enus and the (arth% Similarly, the Galileo mission has $reatly enhanced our understandin$ o" the Galilean satellites o" Jupiter% &n 1hapter 2 'e introduce the crustal stretchin$ model "or the isostatic subsidence o" sedimentary basins% This model pro#ides a simple e planation "or the "ormation o" sedimentary basins% Space-based $eodetic obser#ations ha#e re#olutioniBed our understandin$ o" sur"ace strain "ields associated 'ith tectonics% :e introduce the reader to satellite data obtained "rom the $lobal positionin$ system 5G0S6 and synthetic aperture radar inter"erometry 5&<- S-;6% &n 1hapter > 'e introduce the plate coolin$ model "or the thermal structure o" the oceanic lithosphere as a complement to the hal"-space coolin$ model% :e also present in this chapter the 1ullin$ model "or the di""u- si#e erosion and deposition o" sediments% &n 1hapter A 'e sho' ho' $eoid anomalies are directly related to the "orces re)uired to maintain topo$raphy% &n 1hapter 4 'e combine a pipe-"lo' model 'ith a Sto!es-"lo' model in
i# Edition
Preface to the "econd
order to determine the structure and stren$th o" plume heads and plume tails% The relationship bet'een hotspot s'ells and the associated plume "lu is also introduced% &n addition to the steady-state boundary-layer model "or the structure o" mantle con#ection cells, 'e introduce a transient boundarylayer model "or the stability o" the lithosphere% Finally, 'e conclude the boo! 'ith a ne' 1hapter 18 on chemical $eodynamics% The concept o" chemical $eodynamics has e#ol#ed since the "irst edition 'as 'ritten% The ob?ect is to utiliBe $eochemical data, particularly the isotope systematics o" basalts, to in"er mantle dynamics% Guestions addressed include the homo$eneity o" the mantle, the "ate o" subducted lithosphere, and 'hether 'hole mantle con#ection or layered mantle con#ection is occurrin$% The use o" S& units is no' "irmly entrenched in $eolo$y and $eophysics, and 'e use these units throu$hout the boo!% Since Geodynamics is meant to be a te tboo!, lar$e numbers o" re"erences are inappropriate% 9o'e#er, 'e ha#e included !ey re"erences and re"erences to sources o" data in addition to recommended collateral readin$% &n addition to the collea$ues 'ho 'e ac!no'led$e in the pre"ace to the "irst edition, 'e 'ould li!e to add 1laude -llHe$re, .ouise Eello$$, Da#id Eohlstedt, @ruce ,alamud, ,ar! 0armentier, and Da#id Sand'ell% :e also ac!no'led$e the e cellent manuscript preparation by Stacey Shir! and Ju- dith 9ohl, and "i$ure preparation by ;ichard Sada!ane%
1 0late Tectonics
1%1 &ntroduction 0late tectonics is a model in 'hich the outer shell o" the (arth is di#ided into a number o" thin, ri$id plates that are in relati#e motion 'ith respect to one another% The relati#e #elocities o" the plates are o" the order o" a "e' tens o" millimeters per year% - lar$e "raction o" all earth)ua!es, #olcanic eruptions, and mountain buildin$ occurs at plate boundaries% The distribution o" the ma?or sur"ace plates is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C1% The plates are made up o" relati#ely cool roc!s and ha#e an a#era$e thic!ness o" about 188 !m% The plates are bein$ continually created and consumed% -t ocean rid$es ad?acent plates di#er$e "rom each other in a process !no'n as seafloor spreading% -s the ad?acent plates di#er$e, hot mantle roc! ascends to "ill the $ap% The hot, solid mantle roc! beha#es li!e a "luid because o" solid-state creep processes% -s the hot mantle roc! cools, it becomes ri$id and accretes to the plates, creatin$ ne' plate area% For this reason ocean rid$es are also !no'n as accreting plate $oundaries% The accretionary process is symmetric to a "irst appro imation so that the rates o" plate "ormation on the t'o sides o" a rid$e are appro imately e)ual% The rate o" plate "ormation on one side o" an ocean rid$e de"ines a hal"-spreadin$ #elocity u% The t'o plates spread 'ith a relati#e #elocity o" 2u% The $lobal system o" ocean rid$es is denoted by the hea#y dar! lines in Fi$ure 1C1% @ecause the sur"ace area o" the (arth is essentially constant, there must be a complementary process o" plate consumption% This occurs at ocean trenches% The sur"ace plates bend and descend into the interior o" the (arth in a process !no'n as su$duction% -t an ocean trench the t'o ad?acent plates con#er$e, and one descends beneath the other% For this reason ocean trenches are also !no'n as convergent plate $oundaries% The 'orld'ide distribution
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%1 &istri$ution of the ma'or plates( %he ocean ridge a#is )accretional plate margins*, su$duction +ones )convergent plate margins*, and transform faults that ma,e up the plate $oundaries are sho!n(
2
-(- Introduction
Fi$ure 1%2 -ccretion o" a lithospheric plate at an ocean rid$e and its subduction at an ocean trench% The asthenosphere, 'hich lies beneath the lithosphere, is sho'n alon$ 'ith the line o" #olcanic centers associated 'ith subduction%
o" trenches is sho'n in Fi$ure 1C1 by the lines 'ith trian$ular symbols, 'hich point in the direction o" subduction% - cross-sectional #ie' o" the creation and consumption o" a typical plate is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C2% That part o" the (arths interior that comprises the plates is re"erred to as the lithosphere% The roc!s that ma!e up the lithosphere are relati#ely cool and ri$id7 as a result the interiors o" the plates do not de"orm si$ni"icantly as they mo#e about the sur"ace o" the (arth% -s the plates mo#e a'ay "rom ocean rid$es, they cool and thic!en% The solid roc!s beneath the lithosphere are su""iciently hot to be able to de"orm "reely7 these roc!s comprise the asthenosphere, 'hich lies belo' the lithosphere% The lithosphere slides o#er the asthenosphere 'ith relati#ely little resistance% -s the roc!s o" the lithosphere become cooler, their density increases because o" thermal contraction% -s a result the lithosphere becomes $ra#itationally unstable 'ith respect to the hot asthenosphere beneath% -t the ocean trench the lithosphere bends and sin!s into the interior o" the (arth because o" this ne$ati#e buoyancy% The do'n'ard $ra#itational body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere plays an important role in dri#in$ plate tectonics% The lithosphere acts as an elastic plate that transmits lar$e elastic stresses 'ithout si$ni"icant de"ormation% Thus the $ra#itational body "orce can be transmitted directly to the sur"ace plate and this "orce pulls the plate to'ard the trench% This body "orce is !no'n as trench pull% ,a- ?or "aults separate descendin$ lithospheres "rom ad?acent o#erlyin$ lithospheres% These "aults are the sites o" most $reat earth)ua!es% ( amples are the 1hilean earth)ua!e in 1948 and the -las!an earth)ua!e in 194>% These
>
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%2 &Balco #olcano in (l Sal#ador, an e ample o" a subduction Bone #olcano 5<*--I<GD1 9o'ell :illiams6%
are the lar$est earth)ua!es that ha#e occurred since modern seismo$raphs ha#e been a#ailable% The locations o" the descendin$ lithospheres can be accurately determined "rom the earth)ua!es occurrin$ in the cold, brittle roc!s o" the lithospheres% These planar Bones o" earth)ua!es associated 'ith subduction are !no'n as .adati/0enioff +ones% .ines o" acti#e #olcanoes lie parallel to almost all ocean trenches% These #olcanoes occur about 12A !m abo#e the descendin$ lithosphere% -t least a "raction o" the ma$mas that "orm these #olcanoes are produced near the upper boundary o" the descendin$ lithosphere and rise some 12A !m to the sur"ace% &" these #olcanoes stand on the sea"loor, they "orm an island arc, as typi"ied by the -leutian &slands in the <orth 0aci"ic% &" the trench lies ad?acent to a continent, the #olcanoes $ro' "rom the land sur"ace% This is the case in the 'estern /nited States, 'here a #olcanic line e tends "rom ,t% @a!er in the north to ,t% Shasta in the south% ,t% St% 9elens, the site o" a #iolent eruption in 1988, "orms a part o" this #olcanic line% These #olcanoes are the sites o" a lar$e "raction o" the most e plosi#e and #iolent #olcanic eruptions% The eruption o" ,t% 0inatubo in the 0hilippines in 1991, the most #iolent eruption o" the 28th century, is another e ample% - typical subduction Bone #olcano is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C2% The (arths sur"ace is di#ided into continents and oceans% The oceans ha#e an a#era$e depth o" about > !m, and the continents rise abo#e sea le#el% The reason "or this di""erence in ele#ation is the di""erence in the thic!ness o" the crust% 1rustal roc!s ha#e a di""erent composition "rom that o" the mantle roc!s beneath and are less dense% The crustal roc!s are there"ore $ra#ita-
-(- Introduction
tionally stable 'ith respect to the hea#ier mantle roc!s% There is usually a 'ell-de"ined boundary, the Moho or ,ohoro#iJciKc discontinuity, bet'een the crust and mantle% - typical thic!ness "or oceanic crust is 4 !m7 continental crust is about 2A !m thic!% -lthou$h oceanic crust is $ra#itationally stable, it is su""iciently thin so that it does not si$ni"icantly impede the subduction o" the $ra#itationally unstable oceanic lithosphere% The oceanic lithosphere is continually cycled as it is accreted at ocean rid$es and subducted at ocean trenches% @ecause o" this cyclin$ the a#era$e a$e o" the ocean "loor is about 188 years 5188 ,a6% *n the other hand, the continental crust is su""iciently thic! and $ra#itationally stable so that it is not subducted at an ocean trench% &n some cases the denser lo'er continental crust, alon$ 'ith the underlyin$ $ra#itationally unstable continental mantle lithosphere, can be recycled into the (arths interior in a process !no'n as delamination% 9o'e#er, the li$ht roc!s o" the upper continental crust remain in the continents% For this reason the roc!s o" the continental crust, 'ith an a#era$e a$e o" about 189 years 51 Ga6, are much older than the roc!s o" the oceanic crust% -s the lithospheric plates mo#e across the sur"ace o" the (arth, they carry the continents 'ith them% The relati#e motion o" continents is re"erred to as continental drift% ,uch o" the historical de#elopment leadin$ to plate tectonics concerned the #alidity o" the hypothesis o" continental dri"tF that the relati#e positions o" continents chan$e durin$ $eolo$ic time% The similarity in shape bet'een the 'est coast o" -"rica and the east coast o" South -merica 'as noted as early as 1428 by Francis @acon% This L"itM has led many authors to spec- ulate on ho' these t'o continents mi$ht ha#e been attached% - detailed e position o" the hypothesis o" continental dri"t 'as put "or'ard by Fran! @% Taylor 519186% The hypothesis 'as "urther de#eloped by -l"red :e$ener be$innin$ in 1912 and summariBed in his boo! %he 1rigin of Continents and 1ceans 5:e$ener, 19>46% -s a meteorolo$ist, :e$ener 'as particularly interested in the obser#ation that $laciation had occurred in e)uatorial re- $ions at the same time that tropical conditions pre#ailed at hi$h latitudes% This obser#ation in itsel" could be e plained by polar !ander, a shi"t o" the rotational a is 'ithout other sur"ace de"ormation% 9o'e#er, :e$ener also set "orth many o" the )ualitati#e ar$uments that the continents had "ormerly been attached% &n addition to the obser#ed "it o" continental mar$ins, these ar$uments included the correspondence o" $eolo$ical pro#inces, continuity o" structural "eatures such as relict mountain ran$es, and the correspondence o" "ossil types% :e$ener ar$ued that a sin$le supercontinent, 0an$aea, had "ormerly e isted% 9e su$$ested that tidal "orces or "orces associated 'ith the
Plate %ectonics
rotation o" the (arth 'ere responsible "or the brea!up o" this continent and the subse)uent continental dri"t% Further and more detailed )ualitati#e ar$uments "a#orin$ continental dri"t 'ere presented by -le ander du Toit, particularly in his boo! 1ur .an2 dering Continents 5du Toit, 19236% Du Toit ar$ued that instead o" a sin$le supercontinent, there had "ormerly been a northern continent, .aurasia, and a southern continent, Gond'analand, separated by the Tethys *cean% Durin$ the 19A8s e tensi#e e ploration o" the sea"loor led to an impro#ed understandin$ o" the 'orld'ide ran$e o" mountains on the sea"loor !no'n as mid-ocean rid$es% 9arry 9ess 519426 hypothesiBed that the sea"loor 'as created at the a is o" a rid$e and mo#ed a'ay "rom the rid$e to "orm an ocean in a process no' re"erred to as seafloor spreading% This process e plains the similarity in shape bet'een continental mar$ins% -s a continent brea!s apart, a ne' ocean rid$e "orms% The ocean "loor created is "ormed symmetrically at this ocean rid$e, creatin$ a ne' ocean% This is ho' the -tlantic *cean 'as "ormed7 the mid--tlantic rid$e 'here the ocean "ormed no' bisects the ocean% &t should be realiBed, ho'e#er, that the concept o" continental dri"t 'on $eneral acceptance by (arth scientists only in the period bet'een 1943 and 1938% -lthou$h con#incin$ )ualitati#e, primarily $eolo$ical, ar$uments had been put "or'ard to support continental dri"t, almost all (arth scientists and, in particular, almost all $eophysicists had opposed the hypothesis% Their opposition 'as mainly based on ar$uments concernin$ the ri$idity o" the mantle and the lac! o" an ade)uate dri#in$ mechanism% The propa$ation o" seismic shear 'a#es sho'ed beyond any doubt that the mantle 'as a solid% -n essential )uestion 'as ho' horiBontal displacements o" thousands o" !ilometers could be accommodated by solid roc!% The "luidli!e beha#ior o" the (arths mantle had been established in a $eneral 'ay by $ra#ity studies carried out in the latter part o" the nineteenth century% ,easurements sho'ed that mountain ran$es had lo'-density roots% The lo'er density o" the roots pro#ides a ne$ati#e relati#e mass that nearly e)uals the positi#e mass o" the mountains% This beha#ior could be e plained by the principle o" hydrostatic e3uili$rium i" the mantle beha#ed as a "luid% ,ountain ran$es appear to beha#e similarly to bloc!s o" 'ood "loatin$ on 'ater% The "luid beha#ior o" the mantle 'as established )uantitati#ely by <% -% 9as!ell 5192A6% Studies o" the ele#ation o" beach terraces in Scandina#ia sho'ed that the (arths sur"ace 'as still reboundin$ "rom the load o" the ice durin$ the last ice a$e% @y treatin$ the mantle as a #iscous "luid 'ith a #iscosity o" 1828 0a s, 9as!ell 'as able to e plain the present upli"t o"
-(- Introduction
Scandina#ia% -lthou$h this is a #ery lar$e #iscosity 5'ater has a #iscosity o" 18 2 0a s6, it leads to a "luid beha#ior "or the mantle durin$ lon$ inter#als o" $eolo$ic time% &n the 19A8s theoretical studies had established se#eral mechanisms "or the #ery slo' creep o" crystalline materials% This creep results in a "luid beha#ior% ;obert @% Gordon 5194A6 sho'ed that solid-state creep )uantitati#ely e plained the #iscosity determined "rom obser#ations o" post$lacial rebound% -t temperatures that are a substantial "raction o" the melt temperature, thermally acti#ated creep processes allo' mantle roc! to "lo' at lo' stress le#els on time scales $reater than 18> years% The ri$id lithosphere includes roc! that is su""iciently cold to preclude creep on these lon$ time scales% The creep o" mantle roc! 'as not a surprise to scientists 'ho had studied the 'idely reco$niBed "lo' o" ice in $laciers% &ce is also a crystalline solid, and $ra#itational body "orces in $laciers cause ice to "lo' because its temperature is near its melt temperature% Similarly, mantle roc!s in the (arths interior are near their melt temperatures and "lo' in response to $ra#itational body "orces% Forces must act on the lithosphere in order to ma!e the plates mo#e% :e$ener su$$ested that either tidal "orces or "orces associated 'ith the rotation o" the (arth caused the motion responsible "or continental dri"t% 9o'e#er, in the 1928s Sir 9arold Je""reys, as summariBed in his boo! %he Earth 5Je""reys, 192>6, sho'ed that these "orces 'ere insu""icient% Some other mechanism had to be "ound to dri#e the motion o" the plates% -ny reasonable mechanism must also ha#e su""icient ener$y a#ailable to pro#ide the ener$y bein$ dissipated in earth)ua!es, #olcanoes, and mountain buildin$% -rthur 9olmes 519216 hypothesiBed that thermal con#ection 'as capable o" dri#in$ mantle con#ection and continental dri"t% &" a "luid is heated "rom belo', or "rom 'ithin, and is cooled "rom abo#e in the presence o" a $ra#itational "ield, it becomes $ra#itationally unstable, and thermal con#ection can occur% The hot mantle roc!s at depth are $ra#itationally unstable 'ith respect to the colder, more dense roc!s in the lithosphere% The result is thermal con#ection in 'hich the colder roc!s descend into the mantle and the hotter roc!s ascend to'ard the sur"ace% The ascent o" mantle material at ocean rid$es and the descent o" the lithosphere into the mantle at ocean trenches are parts o" this process% The (arths mantle is bein$ heated by the decay o" the radioacti#e isotopes uranium 22A 522A /6, uranium 228 5228 /6, thorium 222 5222 Th6, and potassium >8 5>8 E6% The #olumetric heatin$ "rom these isotopes and the secular cooling o" the (arth dri#e mantle con#ection% The heat $enerated by the radioacti#e isotopes decreases 'ith time as they de-
Plate %ectonics
cay% T'o billion years a$o the heat $enerated 'as about t'ice the present #alue% @ecause the amount o" heat $enerated is less today, the #i$or o" the mantle con#ection re)uired today to e tract the heat is also less% The #i$or o" mantle con#ection depends on the mantle #iscosity% .ess #i$orous mantle con#ection implies a lo'er #iscosity% @ut the mantle #iscosity is a stron$ "unction o" mantle temperature7 a lo'er mantle #iscosity implies a cooler mantle% Thus as mantle con#ection becomes less #i$orous, the mantle cools7 this is secular coolin$% -s a result, about 88N o" the heat lost "rom the interior o" the (arth is "rom the decay o" the radioacti#e isotopes and about 28N is due to the coolin$ o" the (arth 5secular coolin$6% Durin$ the 1948s independent obser#ations supportin$ continental dri"t came "rom paleoma$netic studies% :hen ma$mas solidi"y and cool, their iron component is ma$netiBed by the (arths ma$netic "ield% This remanent ma$netiBation pro#ides a "ossil record o" the orientation o" the ma$netic "ield at that time% Studies o" the orientation o" this "ield can be used to determine the mo#ement o" the roc! relati#e to the (arths ma$netic poles since the roc!s "ormation% ;oc!s in a sin$le sur"ace plate that ha#e not been de"ormed locally sho' the same position "or the (arths ma$netic poles% Eeith ;uncorn 519A46 sho'ed that roc!s in <orth -merica and (urope $a#e di""erent positions "or the ma$netic poles% 9e concluded that the di""erences 'ere the result o" continental dri"t bet'een the t'o continents% 0aleoma$netic studies also sho'ed that the (arths ma$netic "ield has been sub?ect to episodic re#ersals% *bser#ations o" the ma$netic "ield o#er the oceans indicated a re$ular striped pattern o" magnetic anomalies 5re$ions o" ma$netic "ield abo#e and belo' the a#era$e "ield #alue6 lyin$ parallel to the ocean rid$es% Frederic! +ine and Drummond ,atthe's 519426 correlated the locations o" the ed$es o" the striped pattern o" ma$netic anomalies 'ith the times o" ma$netic "ield re#ersals and 'ere able to obtain )uantitati#e #alues "or the rate o" sea"loor spreadin$% These obser#ations ha#e pro#ided the basis "or accurately determinin$ the relati#e #elocities at 'hich ad?acent plates mo#e 'ith respect to each other% @y the late 1948s the "rame'or! "or a comprehensi#e understandin$ o" the $eolo$ical phenomena and processes o" continental dri"t had been built% The basic hypothesis o" plate tectonics 'as $i#en by Jason ,or$an 519486% The concept o" a mosaic o" ri$id plates in relati#e motion 'ith respect to one another 'as a natural conse)uence o" thermal con#ection in the mantle% - substantial "raction o" all earth)ua!es, #olcanoes, and mountain buildin$ can be attributed to the interactions amon$ the lithospheric plates at their boundaries 5&sac!s et al%, 19486% 1ontinental dri"t is an inherent part o" plate
-(4 %he Lithosphere
tectonics% The continents are carried 'ith the plates as they mo#e about the sur"ace o" the (arth% 0roblem 1%1 &" the area o" the oceanic crust is 2%2 188 !m2 and ne' 1 2 sea"loor is no' bein$ created at the rate o" 2%8 !m yr , 'hat is the mean a$e o" the oceanic crustO -ssume that the rate o" sea"loor creation has been constant in the past%
1%2 The .ithosphere -n essential "eature o" plate tectonics is that only the outer shell o" the (arth, the lithosphere, remains ri$id durin$ inter#als o" $eolo$ic time% @e- cause o" their lo' temperature, roc!s in the lithosphere do not si$ni"icantly de"orm on time scales o" up to 189 years% The roc!s beneath the lithosphere are su""iciently hot so that solid-state creep can occur% This creep leads to a "luidli!e beha#ior on $eolo$ic time scales% &n response to "orces, the roc! beneath the lithosphere "lo's li!e a "luid% The lo'er boundary o" the lithosphere is de"ined to be an isotherm 5sur"ace o" constant temperature6% - typical #alue is appro imately 1488 E% ;oc!s lyin$ abo#e this isotherm are su""iciently cool to beha#e ri$idly, 'hereas roc!s belo' this isotherm are su""iciently hot to readily de"orm% @eneath the ocean basins the lithosphere has a thic!ness o" about 188 !m7 beneath the continents the thic!ness is about t'ice this #alue% @ecause the thic!ness o" the lithosphere is only 2 to >N o" the radius o" the (arth, the lithosphere is a thin shell% This shell is bro!en up into a number o" plates that are in relati#e motion 'ith respect to one another% The ri$idity o" the lithosphere ensures, ho'e#er, that the interiors o" the plates do not de"orm si$ni"icantly% The ri$idity o" the lithosphere allo's the plates to transmit elastic stresses durin$ $eolo$ic inter#als% The plates act as stress $uides% Stresses that are applied at the boundaries o" a plate can be transmitted throu$hout the interior o" the plate% The ability o" the plates to transmit stress o#er lar$e distances has important implications 'ith re$ard to the dri#in$ mechanism o" plate tectonics% The ri$idity o" the lithosphere also allo's it to bend 'hen sub?ected to a load% -n e ample is the load applied by a #olcanic island% The load o" the 9a'aiian &slands causes the lithosphere to bend do'n'ard around the load, resultin$ in a re$ion o" deeper 'ater around the islands% The elastic bendin$ o" the lithosphere under #ertical loads can also e plain the structure o" ocean trenches and some sedimentary basins% 9o'e#er, the entire lithosphere is not e""ecti#e in transmittin$ elastic
18 18
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%> -n accretin$ plate mar$in at an ocean rid$e%
stresses% *nly about the upper hal" o" it is su""iciently ri$id so that elastic stresses are not rela ed on time scales o" 189 years% This "raction o" the lithosphere is re"erred to as the elastic lithosphere% Solid-state creep processes rela stresses in the lo'er, hotter part o" the lithosphere% 9o'e#er, this part o" the lithosphere remains a coherent part o" the plates% - detailed discussion o" the di""erence bet'een the thermal and elastic lithospheres is $i#en in Section 3C18%
1%2 -ccretin$ 0late @oundaries .ithospheric plates are created at ocean rid$es% The t'o plates on either side o" an ocean rid$e mo#e a'ay "rom each other 'ith near constant #elocities o" a "e' tens o" millimeters per year% -s the t'o plates di#er$e, hot mantle roc! "lo's up'ard to "ill the $ap% The up'ellin$ mantle roc! cools by conducti#e heat loss to the sur"ace% The coolin$ roc! accretes to the base o" the spreadin$ plates, becomin$ part o" them7 the structure o" an accretin$ plate boundary is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>% -s the plates mo#e a'ay "rom the ocean rid$e, they continue to cool and the lithosphere thic!ens% The ele#ation o" the ocean rid$e as a "unction o" distance "rom the rid$e crest can be e plained in terms o" the temperature distribution in the lithosphere% -s the lithosphere cools, it becomes more dense7 as a result it sin!s do'n'ard into the underlyin$ mantle roc!% The topo$raphic ele#ation o" the rid$e is due to the $reater buoyancy o" the
-(5
ccreting Plate 0oundaries
thinner, hotter lithosphere near the a is o" accretion at the rid$e crest% The ele#ation o" the ocean rid$e also pro#ides a body "orce that causes the plates to mo#e a'ay "rom the rid$e crest% - component o" the $ra#itational body "orce on the ele#ated lithosphere dri#es the lithosphere a'ay "rom the accretional boundary7 it is one o" the important "orces dri#in$ the plates% This "orce on the lithosphere is !no'n as ridge push and is a "orm o" gravitational sliding% The #olume occupied by the ocean rid$e displaces sea'ater% ;ates o" sea"loor spreadin$ #ary in time% :hen rates o" sea"loor spreadin$ are hi$h, rid$e #olume is hi$h, and sea'ater is displaced% The result is an increase in the $lobal sea le#el% +ariations in the rates o" sea"loor spreadin$ are the primary cause "or chan$es in sea le#el on $eolo$ical time scales% &n the 1retaceous 588 ,a6 the rate o" sea"loor spreadin$ 'as about 28N $reater than at present and sea le#el 'as about 288 m hi$her than today% *ne result 'as that a substantial "raction o" the continental interiors 'as co#ered by shallo' seas% *cean rid$es are the sites o" a lar$e "raction o" the (arths #olcanism% @ecause almost all the rid$e system is under 'ater, only a small part o" this #olcanism can be readily obser#ed% The details o" the #olcanic processes at ocean rid$es ha#e been re#ealed by e ploration usin$ submersible #ehicles% ;id$e #olcanism can also be seen in &celand, 'here the oceanic crust is su""iciently thic! so that the rid$e crest rises abo#e sea le#el% The #olcanism at ocean rid$es is caused by pressure2release melting% -s the t'o ad?acent plates mo#e apart, hot mantle roc! ascends to "ill the $ap% The temperature o" the ascendin$ roc! is nearly constant, but its pressure decreases% The pressure p o" roc! in the mantle is $i#en by the simple hydrostatic e)uation p P Q$y, 51%16
11 11
'here Q is the density o" the mantle roc!, $ is the acceleration o" $ra#ity, and y is the depth% The solidus temperature 5the temperature at 'hich the roc! "irst melts6 decreases 'ith decreasin$ pressure% :hen the temperature o" the ascendin$ mantle roc! e)uals the solidus temperature, meltin$ occurs, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1CA% The ascendin$ mantle roc! contains a lo'-meltin$- point, basaltic component% This component melts to "orm the oceanic crust% 0roblem 1%2 -t 'hat depth 'ill ascendin$ mantle roc! 'ith a temperature o" 1488 E melt i" the e)uation "or the solidus temperature T is T 5E 6 P 1A88 R 8%12p 5,0a6%
12 12
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%A The process o" pressure-release meltin$ is illustrated% ,eltin$ occurs because the nearly isothermal ascendin$ mantle roc! encounters pressures lo' enou$h so that the associated solidus temperatures are belo' the roc! temperatures%
Fi$ure 1%4 Typical structure o" the oceanic crust, o#erlyin$ ocean basin, and underlyin$ depleted mantle roc!%
-ssume Q P 2288 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s at constant temperature%
, and the mantle roc! ascends
The magma 5melted roc!6 produced by partial meltin$ beneath an ocean rid$e is li$hter than the residual mantle roc!, and buoyancy "orces dri#e
-(5
ccreting Plate 0oundaries
12 12
Table 1%1 %ypical Compositions of Important Roc, %ypes

1lastic 1ontinental Granite Diorite Sediments 1rust @asalt 9arBbur$ite L0yroliteM 1hondrite Si*2 38%8 -l2 *2 1>%4 Fe2 *2 1%4 Fe* 1%8 ,$* 8%9 1a* 2%8 <a2 * 2%A E2 * >%2 Ti*2 8%> A3%4 14%9 2%2 >%A >%2 4%8 2%> 2%> 8%9 38%> 1>%2 II A%2 2%2 2%8 1%8 2%8 8%3 41%3 1A%8 II 4%> 2%4 A%> 2%2 2%A 8%8 A8%2 14%A II 8%A 8%2 12%2 2%4 8%2 1%2 >A%2 1%8 II 8%1 >2%4 1%2 II II II >4%1 >%2 II 8%2 23%4 2%1 8%> 8%82 8%2 22%2 2%> II 2A%A 22%A 2%2 1%1 II II
it up'ard to the sur"ace in the #icinity o" the rid$e crest% ,a$ma chambers "orm, heat is lost to the sea"loor, and this ma$ma solidi"ies to "orm the oceanic crust% &n some localities slices o" oceanic crust and underlyin$ mantle ha#e been brou$ht to the sur"ace% These are !no'n as ophiolites7 they occur in such locations as 1yprus, <e'"oundland, *man, and <e' Guinea% Field studies o" ophiolites ha#e pro#ided a detailed understandin$ o" the oceanic crust and underlyin$ mantle% Typical oceanic crust is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C4% The crust is di#ided into layers 1, 2, and 2, 'hich 'ere ori$i- nally associated 'ith di""erent seismic #elocities but subse)uently identi"ied compositionally% .ayer 1 is composed o" sediments that are deposited on the #olcanic roc!s o" layers 2 and 2% The thic!ness o" sediments increases 'ith distance "rom the rid$e crest7 a typical thic!ness is 1 !m% .ayers 2 and 2 are composed o" basaltic roc!s o" nearly uni"orm composition% - typical composition o" an ocean basalt is $i#en in Table 1C1% The basalt is composed primarily o" t'o roc!-"ormin$ minerals, pla$ioclase "eldspar and pyro ene% The pla$ioclase "eldspar is A8 to 8AN anorthite 51a-l2 Si2 *8 6 component and 1A to A8N albite 5<a-lSi2 *8 6 component% The principal pyro ene is rich in the diopside 51a,$Si2 *4 6 component% .ayer 2 o" the oceanic crust is composed o" e trusi#e #olcanic "lo's that ha#e interacted 'ith the sea'ater to "orm pillo' la#as and intrusi#e "lo's primarily in the "orm o" sheeted di!es% - typical thic!ness "or layer 2 is 1%A !m% .ayer 2 is made up o" $abbros and related cumulate roc!s that crystalliBed directly "rom the ma$ma chamber% Gabbros are coarse-$rained basalts7 the lar$er $rain siBe is due to slo'er coolin$ rates at $reater depths% The thic!ness o" layer 2 is typically >%A !m% Studies o" ophiolites sho' that oceanic crust is underlain primarily by a
1> 1>
Plate %ectonics
peridotite called harBbur$ite% - typical composition o" a harBbur$ite is $i#en in Table 1C1% This peridotite is primarily composed o" oli#ine and orthopyro ene% The oli#ine consists o" about 98N "orsterite component 5,$2 Si*> 6 and about 18N "ayalite component 5Fe2 Si*> 6% The orthopyro ene is less abundant and consists primarily o" the enstatite component 5,$Si*2 6% ;elati#e to basalt, harBbur$ite contains lo'er concentrations o" calcium and aluminum and much hi$her concentrations o" ma$nesium% The basalt o" the oceanic crust 'ith a density o" 2988 !$ m 2 is $ra#itationally stable 'ith respect to the underlyin$ peridotite 'ith a density o" 2288 !$ m 2 % The harBbur$ite has a $reater meltin$ temperature 5A88 E hi$her6 than basalt and is there"ore more re"ractory% Field studies o" ophiolites indicate that the harBbur$ite did not crystalliBe "rom a melt% &nstead, it is the crystalline residue le"t a"ter partial meltin$ produced the basalt% The process by 'hich partial meltin$ produces the basaltic oceanic crust, lea#in$ a re"ractory residuum o" peridotite, is an e ample o" i$neous fractionation% ,olten basalts are less dense than the solid, re"ractory harBbur$ite and ascend to the base o" the oceanic crust because o" their buoyancy% -t the base o" the crust they "orm a ma$ma chamber% Since the "orces dri#in$ plate tectonics act on the oceanic lithosphere, they produce a "luid-dri#en "racture at the rid$e crest% The molten basalt "lo's throu$h this "racture, drainin$ the ma$ma chamber and resultin$ in sur"ace "lo's% These sur"ace "lo's interact 'ith the sea'ater to $enerate pillo' basalts% :hen the ma$ma chamber is drained, the residual molten basalt in the "racture solidi"ies to "orm a di!e% The solidi"ied roc! in the di!e pre#ents "urther mi$ration o" molten basalt, the ma$ma chamber re"ills, and the process repeats% - typical thic!ness o" a di!e in the #ertical sheeted di!e comple is 1 m% *ther direct e#idence "or the composition o" the mantle comes "rom #eno2 liths that are carried to the sur"ace in #arious #olcanic "lo's% Senoliths are solid roc!s that are entrained in eruptin$ ma$mas% Senoliths o" mantle peridotites are "ound in some basaltic "lo's in 9a'aii and else'here% ,antle enoliths are also carried to the (arths sur"ace in !imberlitic eruptions% These are #iolent eruptions that "orm the !imberlite pipes 'here diamonds are "ound% &t is concluded that the composition o" the upper mantle is such that basalts can be "ractionated lea#in$ harBbur$ite as a residuum% *ne model composition "or the parent undepleted mantle roc! is called pyrolite and its chemical composition is $i#en in Table 1C1% &n order to produce the basaltic oceanic crust, about 28N partial meltin$ o" pyrolite must occur% &ncompatible elements such as the heat-producin$ elements uranium, thorium, and
-(6 "u$duction
potassium do not "it into the crystal structures o" the principal minerals o" the residual harBbur$ite7 they are there"ore partitioned into the basaltic ma$ma durin$ partial meltin$% Support "or a pyrolite composition o" the mantle also comes "rom studies o" meteorites% - pyrolite composition o" the mantle "ollo's i" it is hypothesiBed that the (arth 'as "ormed by the accretion o" parental material similar to Type 1 carbonaceous chondritic meteorites% -n a#era$e composition "or a Type 1 carbonaceous chondrite is $i#en in Table 1C1% &n order to $enerate a pyrolite composition "or the mantle, it is necessary to remo#e an appropriate amount o" iron to "orm the core as 'ell as some #olatile elements such as potassium% - 28N "ractionation o" pyrolite to "orm the basaltic ocean crust and a residual harBbur$ite mantle e plains the ma?or element chemistry o" these components% The basalts $enerated o#er a lar$e "raction o" the ocean rid$e system ha#e near-uni"orm compositions in both ma?or and trace elements% This is e#idence that the parental mantle roc! "rom 'hich the basalt is "ractionated also has a near-uni"orm composition% 9o'e#er, both the basalts o" normal ocean crust and their parental mantle roc! are systematically depleted in incompatible elements compared 'ith the model chondritic abundances% The missin$ incompatible elements are "ound to reside in the continental crust% Seismic studies ha#e been used to determine the thic!ness o" the oceanic crust on a 'orld'ide basis% The thic!ness o" the basaltic oceanic crust has a nearly constant #alue o" about 4 !m throu$hout much o" the area o" the oceans% ( ceptions are re$ions o" abnormally shallo' bathymetry such as the <orth -tlantic near &celand, 'here the oceanic crust may be as thic! as 2A !m% The near-constant thic!ness o" the basaltic oceanic crust places an important constraint on mechanisms o" partial meltin$ beneath the rid$e crest% &" the basalt o" the oceanic crust represents a 28N partial melt, the thic!ness o" depleted mantle beneath the oceanic crust is about 2> !m% 9o'e#er, this depletion is $radational so the de$ree o" depletion decreases 'ith depth% 1%> Subduction -s the oceanic lithosphere mo#es a'ay "rom an ocean rid$e, it cools, thic!ens, and becomes more dense because o" thermal contraction% (#en thou$h the basaltic roc!s o" the oceanic crust are li$hter than the underlyin$ mantle roc!s, the colder subcrustal roc!s in the lithosphere become su""iciently dense to ma!e old oceanic lithosphere hea#y enou$h to be $ra#itationally unstable
1A 1A
14 14
Plate %ectonics
'ith respect to the hot mantle roc!s immediately underlyin$ the lithosphere% -s a result o" this $ra#itational instability the oceanic lithosphere "ounders and be$ins to sin! into the interior o" the (arth at ocean trenches% -s the lithosphere descends into the mantle, it encounters increasin$ly dense roc!s% 9o'e#er, the roc!s o" the lithosphere also become increasin$ly dense as a result o" the increase o" pressure 'ith depth 5mantle roc!s are compressible6, and they continue to be hea#ier than the ad?acent mantle roc!s as they descend into the mantle so lon$ as they remain colder than the surroundin$ mantle roc!s at any depth% 0hase chan$es in the descendin$ lithosphere and ad?acent mantle and compositional #ariations 'ith depth in the ambient mantle may complicate this simple picture o" thermally induced $ra#itational instability% Generally spea!in$, ho'e#er, the descendin$ lithosphere continues to subduct as lon$ as it remains denser than the immediately ad?acent mantle roc!s at any depth% The subduction o" the oceanic lithosphere at an ocean trench is illustrated schematically in Fi$ure 1C3% The ne$ati#e buoyancy o" the dense roc!s o" the descendin$ lithosphere results in a do'n'ard body "orce% @ecause the lithosphere beha#es elastically, it can transmit stresses and acts as a stress $uide% The body "orce actin$ on the descendin$ plate is transmitted to the sur"ace plate, 'hich is pulled to'ard the ocean trench% This is one o" the important "orces dri#in$ plate tectonics and continental dri"t% &t is !no'n as sla$ pull% 0rior to subduction the lithosphere be$ins to bend do'n'ard% The con#e cur#ature o" the sea"loor de"ines the sea'ard side o" the ocean trench% The oceanic lithosphere bends continuously and maintains its structural inte$rity as it passes throu$h the subduction Bone% Studies o" elastic bendin$ at subduction Bones are in $ood a$reement 'ith the morpholo$y o" some subduction Bones sea'ard o" the trench a is 5see Section 2C136% 9o'e#er, there are clearly si$ni"icant de#iations "rom a simple elastic rheolo$y% Some trenches e hibit a sharp Lhin$eM near the trench a is and this has been attributed to an elasticCper"ectly plastic rheolo$y 5see Section 3C116% -s a result o" the bendin$ o" the lithosphere, the near-sur"ace roc!s are placed in tension, and bloc! "aultin$ o"ten results% This bloc! "aultin$ allo's some o" the o#erlyin$ sediments to be entrained in the upper part o" the basaltic crust% Some o" these sediments are then subducted alon$ 'ith the basaltic roc!s o" the oceanic crust, but the remainder o" the sediments are scraped o"" at the base o" the trench% These sediments "orm an accretionary prism 5Fi$ure 1C36 that de"ines the land'ard side o" many ocean trenches% ,ass balances sho' that only a "raction o" the sediments that ma!e up layer 1 o" the oceanic crust are incorporated into accretionary prisms% Since these sediments are deri#ed by the erosion o" the continents, the subduction o"
-(6 "u$duction
13 13
Fi$ure 1%3 Subduction o" oceanic lithosphere at an ocean trench% Sediments "ormin$ layer 1 o" the oceanic crust are scraped o"" at the ocean trench to "orm the accretionary prism o" sediments% The #olcanic line associated 'ith subduction and the mar$inal basin sometimes associated 'ith subduction are also illustrated%
sediments is a mechanism "or subductin$ continental crust and returnin$ it to the mantle% The arcli!e structure o" many ocean trenches 5see Fi$ure 1C16 can be )ualitati#ely understood by the ping2pong $all analogy% &" a pin$-pon$ ball is indented, the indented portion 'ill ha#e the same cur#ature as the ori$inal ball, that is, it 'ill lie on the sur"ace o" an ima$inary sphere 'ith the same radius as the ball, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C8% The lithosphere as it bends do'n'ard mi$ht also be e pected to beha#e as a "le ible but ine tensible thin spherical shell% &n this case the an$le o" dip T o" the lithosphere at the trench can be related to the radius o" cur#ature o" the island arc% - cross section o" the subduction Bone is sho'n in Fi$ure 1C8$% The trian$les 1 0, 0 C, and 0 & are similar ri$ht trian$les so that the an$le subtended by the indented section o" the sphere at the center o" the (arth is e)ual to the an$le o" dip% The radius o" cur#ature o" the indented section, de"ined as the $reat circle distance 07, is thus aTU2, 'here a is the radius o" the (arth% The radius o" cur#ature o" the arc o" the -leutian trench is about 2288 !m% Ta!in$ a P 4231 !m, 'e "ind that T P 29%4 % The an$le o" dip o" the descendin$ lithosphere alon$ much o" the -leutian trench is near >A % -lthou$h the
18 18
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%8 The pin$-pon$ ball analo$y "or the arc structure o" an ocean trench% 5a6 Top #ie' sho'in$ subduction alon$ a trench e tendin$ "rom S to T% The trench is part o" a small circle centered at G% 5b6 1ross section o" indented section% @G; is the ori$inal sphere, that is, the sur"ace o" the (arth% @0; is the indented sphere, that is, the subducted lithosphere% The an$le o" subduction T is 1@D% * is the center o" the (arth%
pin$-pon$ ball analo$y pro#ides a "rame'or! "or understandin$ the arcli!e structure o" some trenches, it should be emphasiBed that other trenches do not ha#e an arcli!e "orm and ha#e radii o" cur#ature that are in poor a$reement 'ith this relationship% &nteractions o" the descendin$ lithosphere 'ith an ad?acent continent may cause the descendin$ lithosphere to de"orm so that the pin$-pon$ ball analo$y 'ould not be #alid% *cean trenches are the sites o" many o" the lar$est earth)ua!es% These earth)ua!es occur on the "ault Bone separatin$ the descendin$ lithosphere
-(6 "u$duction
"rom the o#erlyin$ lithosphere% Great earth)ua!es, such as the 1948 1hilean earth)ua!e and the 194> -las!an earth)ua!e, accommodate about 28 m o" do'ndip motion o" the oceanic lithosphere and ha#e len$ths o" about 2A8 !m alon$ the trench% - lar$e "raction o" the relati#e displacement bet'een the descendin$ lithosphere and the o#erlyin$ mantle 'ed$e appears to be accommodated by $reat earth)ua!es o" this type% - typical #elocity o" sub duction is 8%1 m yr 1 so that a $reat earth)ua!e 'ith a displacement o" 28 m 'ould be e pected to occur at inter#als o" about 288 years% (arth)ua!es 'ithin the cold subducted lithosphere e tend to depths o" about 448 !m% The locations o" these earth)ua!es delineate the structure o" the descendin$ plate and are !no'n as the .adati20enioff +one% The shapes o" the upper boundaries o" se#eral descendin$ lithospheres are $i#en in Fi$ure 1C9% The positions o" the trenches and the #olcanic lines are also sho'n% ,any subducted lithospheres ha#e an an$le o" dip near >A % &n the <e' 9ebrides the dip is si$ni"icantly lar$er, and in 0eru and <orth 1hile the an$le o" dip is small% The lithosphere appears to bend continuously as it enters an ocean trench and then appears to strai$hten out and descend at a near-constant dip an$le% - "eature o" some subduction Bones is paired belts o" deep seismicity% The earth)ua!es in the upper seismic Bone, near the upper boundary o" the descendin$ lithosphere, are associated 'ith compression% The earth)ua!es 'ithin the descendin$ lithosphere are associated 'ith tension% These double seismic Bones are attributed to the Lunbendin$,M i%e%, strai$htenin$ out, o" the descendin$ lithosphere% The double seismic Bones are "urther e#idence o" the ri$idity o" the subducted lithosphere% They are also indicati#e o" the "orces on the subducted lithosphere that are strai$htenin$ it out so that it descends at a typical an$le o" >A % Since the $ra#itational body "orce on the subducted lithosphere is do'n 'ard, it 'ould be e pected that the subduction dip an$le 'ould be 98 % &n "act, as sho'n in Fi$ure 1C9, the typical dip an$le "or a subduction Bone is near >A % *ne e planation is that the oceanic lithosphere is L"ounderin$M and the trench is mi$ratin$ ocean'ard% &n this case the dip an$le is determined by the "lo' !inematics% :hile this e planation is satis"actory in some cases, it has not been established that all slab dips can be e plained by the !inematics o" mantle "lo's% -n alternati#e e planation is that the subducted slab is supported by the induced "lo' abo#e the slab% The descendin$ lithosphere induces a corner "lo' in the mantle 'ed$e abo#e it, and the pressure "orces associated 'ith this corner "lo' result in a dip an$le near >A 5see Section 4C116% *ne o" the !ey )uestions in plate tectonics is the "ate o" the descendin$
19 19
28 28
Plate %ectonics
plates% (arth)ua!es terminate at a depth o" about 448 !m, but termination o" seismicity does not imply cessation o" subduction% This is the depth o" a ma?or seismic discontinuity associated 'ith the solidCsolid phase chan$e "rom spinel to pero#s!ite and ma$nesio'uVstite7 this phase chan$e could act to deter penetration o" the descendin$ lithosphere% &n some cases seismic acti#ity spreads out at this depth, and in some cases it does not% Shallo' subduction earth)ua!es $enerally indicate e tensional stresses 'here as the deeper earth)ua!es indicate compressional stresses% This is also an indica- tion o" a resistance to subduction% Seismic #elocities in the cold descendin$ lithosphere are si$ni"icantly hi$her than in the surroundin$ hot mantle% Sys- tematic studies o" the distribution o" seismic #elocities in the mantle are !no'n as mantle tomography% These studies ha#e pro#ided e amples o" the descendin$ plate penetratin$ the 448-!m depth% The "ate o" the descendin$ plate has important implications re$ardin$ mantle con#ection% Since plates descend into the lo!er mantle, beneath a depth o" 448 !m, some "orm o" !hole mantle con#ection is re)uired% The entire upper and at least a si$ni"icant "raction o" the lo'er mantle must ta!e part in the plate tectonic cycle% -lthou$h there may be a resistance to con#ection at a depth o" 448 !m, it is clear that the plate tectonic cycle is not restricted to the upper mantle abo#e 448 !m% +olcanism is also associated 'ith subduction% - line o" re$ularly spaced #olcanoes closely parallels the trend o" the ocean trench in almost all cases% These #olcanics may result in an island arc or they may occur on the continental crust 5Fi$ure 1C186% The #olcanoes lie 12A to 13A !m abo#e the descendin$ plate, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C9% &t is "ar "rom ob#ious 'hy #olcanism is associated 'ith subduction% The descendin$ lithosphere is cold compared 'ith the surroundin$ mantle, and thus it should act as a heat sin! rather than as a heat source% @ecause the "lo' is do'n'ard, ma$ma cannot be produced by pressure-release meltin$% *ne source o" heat is "rictional dissipation on the "ault Bone bet'een the descendin$ lithosphere and the o#erlyin$ mantle% 9o'e#er, there are se#eral problems 'ith $eneratin$ island-arc ma$mas by "rictional heatin$% :hen roc!s are cold, "rictional stresses can be hi$h, and si$ni"icant heatin$ can occur% 9o'e#er, 'hen the roc!s become hot, the stresses are small, and it appears to be impossible to produce si$ni"icant meltin$ simply by "rictional heatin$% &t has been su$$ested that interactions bet'een the descendin$ slab and the induced "lo' in the o#erlyin$ mantle 'ed$e can result in su""icient heatin$ o" the descendin$ oceanic crust to produce meltin$% 9o'e#er, thermal models o" the subduction Bone sho' that there is $reat di""iculty in producin$ enou$h
-(6 "u$duction
Fi$ure 1%9 %he shapes of the upper $oundaries of descending lithospheres at several oceanic trenches $ased on the distri$utions of earth3ua,es( %he names of the trenches are a$$reviated for clarity )89 P 8e! 9e$rides, C P Central merica, L% P leutian, L: P las,a, M P Mariana, I0 P I+u/0onin, :ER P :ermadec, 8; P 8e! ;ealand, % P %onga, :: P :urile/:amchat,a, 8C P 8orth Chile, P P Peru*( %he locations of the volcanic lines are sho!n $y the solid triangles( %he locations of the trenches are sho!n either as a vertical line or as a hori+ontal line if the trench/volcanic line separation is varia$le )Isac,s and 0ara+angi, -<==*(
21
22 22
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%18 (ruption o" ash and steam "rom ,ount St% 9elens, :ashin$ton, on -pril 2, 1988% ,ount St% 9elens is part o" a #olcanic chain, the 1ascades, produced by subduction o" the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the 'estern mar$in o" the <orth -merican plate 5:ashin$ton Department o" <atural ;esources6%
heat to $enerate the obser#ed #olcanism% The subducted cold lithospheric slab is a #ery lar$e heat sin! and stron$ly depresses the isotherms abo#e the slab% &t has also been ar$ued that 'ater released "rom the heatin$ o" hydrated minerals in the subducted oceanic crust can contribute to meltin$ by de- pressin$ the solidus o" the crustal roc!s and ad?acent mantle 'ed$e roc!s% 9o'e#er, the bul! o" the #olcanic roc!s at island arcs ha#e near-basaltic compositions and erupt at temperatures #ery similar to eruption temperatures at accretional mar$ins% Studies o" the petrolo$y o" island-arc ma$mas indicate that they are primarily the result o" the partial meltin$ o" roc!s in the mantle 'ed$e abo#e the descendin$ lithosphere% <e#ertheless, $eochemical e#idence indicates that partial meltin$ o" subducted sediments and oceanic crust does play an important role in island-arc #olcanism% &sotopic studies ha#e sho'n conclusi#ely that subducted sediments participate in the meltin$ process% -lso, the locations o" the sur"ace #olcanic lines ha#e a direct $eometrical relationship to the $eometry o" subduction% &n some cases t'o ad?acent slab se$ments subduct at di""erent an$les, and an o""set occurs in the #olcanic line7 "or the shallo'er dippin$ slab, the #olcanic line is "arther "rom the trench !eepin$ the depth to the slab beneath the #olcanic line nearly constant% 0rocesses associated 'ith the subducted oceanic crust clearly tri$$er subduction Bone #olcanism% 9o'e#er, the bul! o" the #olcanism is directly associated 'ith the meltin$ o" the mantle 'ed$e in a 'ay similar to the meltin$
-(> %ransform Faults
22
beneath an accretional plate mar$in% - possible e planation is that L"lu- idsM "rom the descendin$ oceanic crust induce meltin$ and create su""icient buoyancy in the partially melted mantle 'ed$e roc! to $enerate an ascendin$ "lo' and enhance meltin$ throu$h pressure release% This process may be three-dimensional 'ith ascendin$ diapirs associated 'ith indi#idual #olcanic centers% &n some trench systems a secondary accretionary plate mar$in lies behind the #olcanic line, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C3% This $ac,2arc spreading is #ery similar to the sea"loor spreadin$ that is occurrin$ at ocean rid$es% The composition and structure o" the ocean crust that is bein$ created are nearly identical% @ac!-arc spreadin$ creates marginal $asins such as the Sea o" Japan% - number o" e planations ha#e been $i#en "or bac!-arc spreadin$% *ne hypothesis is that the descendin$ lithosphere induces a secondary con- #ection cell, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C11a% -n alternati#e hypothesis is that the ocean trench mi$rates a'ay "rom an ad?acent continent because o" the L"ounderin$M o" the descendin$ lithosphere% @ac!-arc spreadin$ is re)uired to "ill the $ap, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C11$% &" the ad?acent continent is bein$ dri#en up a$ainst the trench, as in South -merica, mar$inal basins do not de#elop% &" the ad?acent continent is stationary, as in the 'estern 0a- ci"ic, the "ounderin$ o" the lithosphere leads to a series o" mar$inal basins as the trench mi$rates sea'ard% There is obser#ational e#idence that bac!-arc spreadin$ centers are initiated at #olcanic lines% 9eatin$ o" the lithosphere at the #olcanic line apparently 'ea!ens it su""iciently so that it "ails under tensional stresses% 0roblem 1%2 &" 'e assume that the current rate o" subduction, 8%89 m2 s 1 , has been applicable in the past, 'hat thic!ness o" sediments 'ould ha#e to ha#e been subducted in the last 2 Gyr i" the mass o" subducted sediments is e)ual to one-hal" the present mass o" the continentsO -ssume the density o" the continents Qc is 2388 !$ m 2 , the density o" the sediments Qs is 2>88 2 !$ m , the continental area - c is 1%9 188 !m2 , and the mean continental thic!ness h c is 2A !m%
1%A Trans"orm Faults &n some cases the ri$id plates slide past each other alon$ transform faults% The ocean rid$e system is not a continuous accretional mar$in7 rather, it is a series o" rid$e se$ments o""set by trans"orm "aults% The rid$e se$ments lie nearly perpendicular to the spreadin$ direction, 'hereas the trans"orm "aults lie parallel to the spreadin$ direction% This structure is illustrated in Fi$ure
2> 2>
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%11 ,odels "or the "ormation o" mar$inal basins% 5a6 Secondary mantle con#ection induced by the descendin$ lithosphere% 5b6 -scendin$ con#ection $enerated by the "ounderin$ o" the descendin$ lithosphere and the sea'ard mi$ration o" the trench%
Fi$ure 1%12 5a6 Se$ments o" an ocean rid$e o""set by a trans"orm "ault% 5b6 1ross section alon$ a trans"orm "ault%
1C12a% The ortho$onal rid$eCtrans"orm system has been reproduced in the laboratory usin$ 'a that solidi"ies at the sur"ace% (#en 'ith this analo$y, the basic physics $eneratin$ the ortho$onal pattern is not understood% The relati#e #elocity across a trans"orm "ault is t'ice the spreadin$ #elocity%
-(? 9otspots and Mantle Plumes
This relati#e #elocity results in seismicity 5earth)ua!es6 on the trans"orm "ault bet'een the ad?acent rid$e sections% There is also di""erential #ertical motion on trans"orm "aults% -s the sea"loor spreads a'ay "rom a rid$e crest, it also subsides% Since the ad?acent points on each side o" a trans"orm "ault usually lie at di""erent distances "rom the rid$e crest 'here the crust 'as "ormed, the rates o" subsidence on the t'o sides di""er% - cross section alon$ a trans"orm "ault is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C12$% The e tensions o" the trans"orm "aults into the ad?acent plates are !no'n as fracture +ones% These "racture Bones are o"ten deep #alleys in the sea"loor% -n ocean rid$e se$ment that is not perpendicular to the spreadin$ direction appears to be unstable and trans"orms to the ortho$onal pattern% - trans"orm "ault that connects t'o rid$e se$ments is !no'n as a ridge/ ridge transform% Trans"orm "aults can also connect t'o se$ments o" an ocean trench% &n some cases one end o" a trans"orm "ault terminates in a triple 'unc2 tion o" three sur"ace plates% -n e ample is the San -ndreas "ault in 1ali"or- nia7 the San -ndreas accommodates lateral slidin$ bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates%
2A 2A
1%4 9otspots and ,antle 0lumes 9otspots are anomalous areas o" sur"ace #olcanism that cannot be directly associated 'ith plate tectonic processes% ,any hotspots lie 'ell 'ithin the interiors o" plates7 an e ample is the #olcanism o" the 9a'aiian &slands 5Fi$ure 1C126% *ther hotspots lie at or near an ocean rid$e, an e ample is the #olcanism that "orms &celand% ,uch more #oluminous than normal ocean rid$e #olcanism7 this #olcanism resulted in a thic! oceanic crust and the ele#ation o" &celand abo#e sea le#el% &n many cases hotspots lie at the end o" 'ell-de"ined lines o" #olcanic edi"ices or #olcanic rid$es% These are !no'n as hotspot trac,s% The hotspot trac! associated 'ith the 9a'aiian hotspot is the 9a'aiianC (mperor islandC seamount chain that e tends across the 0aci"ic plate to the -leutian &slands% There is little a$reement on the total number o" hotspots% The positions o" thirty hotspots are $i#en in Table 1C2, and t'enty o" the most prominent hotspots are sho'n in Fi$ure 1C1>% -lso sho'n in this "i$ure are some o" the hotspot trac!s% Some compilations o" hotspots list as many as 128 5see Fi$ure 1C1A6% The de"inition o" a hotspot tends to be )uite sub?ecti#e, particularly 'ith re$ard to #olcanism on or ad?acent to plate boundaries% 9otspots occur both in the oceans and on the continents% They do not appear to be uni"ormly distributed o#er the (arths sur"ace% There are numerous hotspots
24 24
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%12 Satellite photo$raph o" the island o" 9a'aii% The island is dominated by the acti#e #olcano ,auna .oa near its center 5<-S- STS41-A8-88A36%
in -"rica and relati#ely "e' in South -merica, <orth -merica, (urope, and -sia% Jason ,or$an 519316 attributed hotspot #olcanism to a $lobal array o" deep mantle plumes% ,antle plumes are )uasi-cylindrical concentrated up'ellin$s o" hot mantle roc! and they represent a basic "orm o" mantle con#ection% 0ressure-release meltin$ in the hot ascendin$ plume roc! produces the basaltic #olcanism associated 'ith most hotspots% The hypothesis o" "i ed mantle plumes impin$in$ on the base o" the mo#in$ lithospheric plates e plains the ori$in o" hotspot trac!s 5see Fi$ure 1C146% The prototype e ample o" a hotspot trac! is the 9a'aiianC(mperor chain o" #olcanic islands and sea-mounts illustrated in Fi$ure 1C13% The associated hot-spot #olcanism has resulted in a nearly continuous #olcanic rid$e that e tends some >888 !m "rom near the -leutian &slands to the #ery acti#e
23 23
Table 1%2 9otspot Locations

9otspot 5De$rees6 9a'aii 1A3 Samoa St% 9elena @ermuda 1ape +erde 0itcairn ,acDonald ,ar)uesas Tahiti (aster ;eunion =ello'stone Galapa$os Juan FernandeB (thiopia -scencion -"ar -Bores &celand ,adeira 1anary 9o$$ar @ou#et 0r% (d'ard (i"el San Feli Tibesti Trinadade Tristan *#erlyin$ .atitude .on$itude 0late 5De$rees6 0aci"ic 28 12 1> 22 1> 24 28 18 13 23 28 >2 8 2> 8 8 18 29 4A 22 28 >9 A> >A >8 2> 18 28 132 4 43 28 122 1>8 128 1A1 118 AA 111 92 82 23 1> >2 28 28 18 13 49 2 A8 8 82 22 28 24
0aci"ic -"rica <% -merica -"rica 0aci"ic 0aci"ic 0aci"ic 0aci"ic 0ac-<aB &ndian <% -merica <aBca <aBca -"rica S% -mC-"r -"rica (urasia <% -mC(ur -"rica -"rica &ndC-nt -"rC-nt -"rC-nt (urasia <aBca -"rica S% -merica S% -mC-"r 12
SourceF -"ter 1rou$h and Jurdy 519886%
Eilauea #olcano on the island o" 9a'aii% There is a remar!ably uni"orm a$e pro$ression, 'ith the a$e o" each #olcanic shield increasin$ systematically 'ith distance "rom Eilauea% Directly measured a$es and a$es in"erred "rom sea"loor ma$netic anomalies are $i#en in Fi$ure 1C13% These a$es are $i#en as a "unction o" distance "rom Eilauea in Fi$ure 1C18 and they correlate #ery 'ell 'ith a propa$ation rate o" 98 mm yr 1 across the 0aci"ic plate% - stri!in$ "eature o" this trac! is the bend that separates the near-linear trend o" the (mperor chain "rom the near-linear trend o" the 9a'aiian chain% The bend in the trac! occurred at about >2 ,a 'hen there 'as an abrupt shi"t in the motion o" the 0aci"ic plate% This shi"t 'as part o" a $lobal
28 28
Plate %ectonics
reorientation o" plate motions o#er a span o" a "e' million years% This shi"t has been attributed to the continental collision bet'een &ndia and -sia, 'hich impeded the north'ard motion o" the &ndian plate% ,any hotspots are associated 'ith linear trac!s as indicated in Fi$ure 1C 1>% :hen the relati#e motions o" the plates are remo#ed the hotspots appear to be nearly "i ed 'ith respect to each other% 9o'e#er, they are certainly not precisely "i ed% Systematic studies ha#e sho'n that the relati#e motion amon$ hotspots amounts to a "e' mm yr 1 % These results are consistent 'ith plumes that ascend throu$h a mantle in 'hich horiBontal #elocities are about an order o" ma$nitude smaller than the plate #elocities% ,any hotspots are also associated 'ith topo$raphic s'ells% 9otspot s'ells are re$ional topo$raphic hi$hs 'ith 'idths o" about 1888 !m and anomalous ele#ations o" up to 2 !m% The hotspot s'ell associated 'ith the 9a'aiian hotspot is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C19% The s'ell is rou$hly parabolic in "orm and e tends upstream "rom the acti#e hotspot% The e cess ele#ation associated 'ith the s'ell decays rather slo'ly do'n the trac! o" the hotspot% 9otspot s'ells are attributed to the interaction bet'een the ascendin$ hot mantle roc! in the plume and the lithospheric plate upon 'hich the plume impin$es% The #olcanic roc!s produced at most hotspots are primarily basalt% &n terms o" o#erall composition, the roc!s are $enerally similar to the basaltic roc!s produced at ocean rid$es% &t appears that these #olcanic roc!s are also produced by about 28N partial meltin$ o" mantle roc!s 'ith a pyrolite composition% 9o'e#er, the concentrations o" incompatible elements and isotopic ratios di""er "rom those o" normal mid-ocean rid$e basalts% :hereas the midocean rid$e basalts are nearly uni"ormly depleted in incompatible elements, the concentrations o" these elements in hotspot basalts ha#e considerable #ariation% Some #olcanoes produce basalts that are depleted, some produce basalts that ha#e near chondritic ratios, and some #olcanoes produce basalts that are enriched in the incompatible elements% These di""erences 'ill be discussed in some detail in 1hapter 18% The earth)ua!es o" the :adatiC@enio"" Bone de"ine the $eometry o" the subducted oceanic lithosphere% <o seismicity is associated 'ith mantle plumes, and little direct obser#ational e#idence e ists o" their structure and ori$in% Thus 'e must depend on analytical, numerical, and laboratory studies "or in"ormation% These studies indicate that plumes ori$inate in a lo'er hot thermal boundary layer either at the base o" the mantle 5the D -layer o" seismolo$y6 or at an inter"ace in the lo'er mantle bet'een an upper con#ectin$ mantle layer and an isolated lo'er mantle layer% 0lumes result "rom the $ra#itational instability o" the hot lo'er thermal boundary layer ?ust as
29 29
Fi$ure 1%1> 9otspot and hotspot trac! locationsF 1, 9a'aii 59a'aiianC (mperor Seamount 1hain67 2, (aster 5TuomotoC.ine &sland 1hain67 2, ,acDonald Seamount 5-ustralCGilbertC,arshall &sland 1hain67 >, @ellany &sland7 A, 1obb Seamount 5Juan de Fuca ;id$e67 4, =ello'stone 5Sna!e ;i#er 0lainC1olumbia 0lateau67 3, Galapa$os &slands7 8, @ermuda7 9, &celand7 18, -Bores7 11, 1anary &slands7 12, 1ape +erde &slands7 12, St% 9elena7 1>, Tristan de 1unha 5;io Grande ;id$e 5'6, :al#is ;id$e 5e667 1A, @ou#et &sland7 14, 0rince (d'ard &sland7 13, ;eunion &sland 5,auritius 0lateau, 1ha$osC.acadi#e ;id$e67 18, -"ar7 19, (i"el7 28, Eer$uelen 0lateau 5<inety-(ast ;id$e6%
the subducted lithosphere results "rom the $ra#itational instability o" the cold, sur"ace thermal boundary layer, the lithosphere% <umerical and laboratory studies o" the initiation o" plumes sho' a leadin$ diapir or plume head "ollo'ed by a thin cylindrical conduit or plume tail that connects the diapir to the source re$ion% -n e ample "rom a laboratory e periment is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C28% 1on"irmation o" this basic model comes "rom the association o" massi#e "lood basalts 'ith plume heads% There is con#incin$ obser#ational e#idence that "lood basalt eruptions mar! the initiation o" hotspot trac!s% -s speci"ic e amples, the hotspot trac!s o" the currently acti#e ;eunion, &celand, Tristan da 1unha, and 0rince (d'ard hotspots ori$inate, respecti#ely, in the Deccan, Tertiary <orth -tlantic, 0arana, and Earoo "lood basalt pro#inces% The association o" the ;eunion hotspot 'ith the Deccan "lood basalt pro#ince is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C21% 0ressure-release meltin$ in the plume head as it approached and impin$ed on the lithosphere can e plain the
28 28
Plate %ectonics
eruption o" the Deccan traps in &ndia 'ith a #olume o" basaltic ma$ma in e cess o" 1%A 184 !m2 in a time inter#al o" less than 1 ,yr% Since then, ;eunion hotspot #olcanism has been nearly continuous "or 48 ,yr 'ith an 1 2 a#era$e eruption rate o" 8%82 !m yr % -s the &ndian plate mo#ed north'ard the hotspot trac! "ormed the 1ha$osC.accadi#e ;id$e% The hotspot trac! is then o""set by sea"loor spreadin$ on the central &ndian ;id$e and "orms the ,ascarene ;id$e on the &ndian plate that connects to the currently acti#e #olcanism o" the ;eunion &slands% 1%3 1ontinents -s described in the pre#ious sections, the de#elopment o" plate tectonics primarily in#ol#es the ocean basins, yet the #ast ma?ority o" $eolo$ical data comes "rom the continents% There is essentially no e#idence "or plate tectonics in the continents, and this is certainly one reason 'hy "e' $eolo$ists 'ere 'illin$ to accept the ar$uments in "a#or o" continental dri"t and mantle con#ection "or so lon$% The near sur"ace roc!s o" the continental crust are much older than the roc!s o" the oceanic crust% They also ha#e a more silicic composition% The continents include not only the area abo#e sea le#el but also the continental shel#es% &t is di""icult to pro#ide an absolute de"inition o" the di#ision bet'een oceanic and continental crust% &n most cases it is appropriate to de"ine the transition as occurrin$ at an ocean depth o" 2 !m% The area o" the continents, includin$ the mar$ins, is about 1%9 188 !m2 , or 23N o" the sur"ace o" the (arth% The roc!s that ma!e up the continental crust are, in bul!, more silicic and there"ore less dense than the basaltic roc!s o" the oceanic crust% -lso, the continental crust 'ith a mean thic!ness o" about >8 !m is considerably thic!er than the oceanic crust% These t'o e""ects ma!e the continental lithosphere $ra#itationally stable and pre#ent it "rom bein$ subducted% -lthou$h continental crust cannot be destroyed by subduction, it can be recycled in- directly by delamination% The mantle portion o" the continental lithosphere is su""iciently cold and dense to be $ra#itationally unstable% Thus it is possible "or the lo'er part o" the continental lithosphere, includin$ the lo'er continental crust, to delaminate and sin! into the lo'er mantle% This is partial subduction or delamination% &t has been su$$ested that delamination is occurrin$ in continental collision Bones such as the 9imalayas and the -lps and behind subduction Bones such as in the -ltiplano in 0eru% There are a number o" continental areas in 'hich the mantle lithosphere is absent% *ne e ample is the 'estern /nited States% 1rustal doublin$ such as in Ti- bet has also been attributed to the absence o" mantle lithosphere beneath
( = C o n t i n e n ts
Fi$ure 1%1A &istri$ution of surface hotspots, centers of intraplate volcanism, and anomalous plate margin volcanism(
21
22 22
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%14 Formation o" an islandCseamount chain by the mo#ement o" a lithospheric plate o#er a meltin$ anomaly in the upper mantle%
Fi$ure 1%13 -$e pro$ression o" the 9a'aiianC(mperor seamount and island chain 5,olnar and Stoc!, 19836% Dated seamounts and islands are sho'n in normal print and dates in"erred "rom ma$netic anomalies are sho'n in bold print%
-sia% Delamination is an e""icient mechanism "or the remo#al o" continental lithosphere% 1ontinental crust can also be recycled into the mantle by the subduction o" sediments% -lthou$h there is e#idence o" the recyclin$ o" the continental crust, it is much less e""icient than the recyclin$ o" oceanic crust by the plate tectonic cycle% The result is that the continental crust is nearly a "actor o" 18 older than oceanic crust% 1ontinental crust older than 1 billion years is common, and some is older than 2 billion years% Determinin$ the relati#e a$e o" continental roc!s has been an important
-(= Continents
22 22
Fi$ure 1%18 -$es o" islands and seamounts in the 9a'aiianC(mperor chain as a "unction o" distance "rom the currently acti#e Eilauea #olcano% The strai$ht line $i#es a constant rate o" propa$ation across the 0aci"ic plate o" 98 mm yr 1 %
Fi$ure 1%19 @athymetric pro"ile across the 9a'aiian rid$e at *ahu 5:atts, 19346%
aspect o" the historical de#elopment o" $eolo$y% The early classi"ication o" the a$e o" roc!s 'as based on the "ossils "ound in sedimentary roc!s% @y studyin$ the e#olution o" the species in#ol#ed, and their relati#e positions in the stratigraphic column, an uncalibrated, relati#e time scale 'as de#eloped% The di#isions o" the time scale 'ere associated 'ith sedimentary unconformities% These are reco$niBed as discontinuities in the sedimentation process, 'here ad?acent strata o"ten contain dissimilar "ossils% These uncon"ormities occur 'orld'ide% &t is no' reco$niBed that ma?or uncon"ormities correspond 'ith times o" lo' sea le#el% Durin$ these periods erosion occurred o#er a lar$e "raction o" the continents, causin$ $aps in the sedimentary record% Durin$ periods o" hi$h sea le#el much o" the area o" the continents 'as co#ered 'ith shallo'
2> 2>
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%28 0hoto$raph o" a lo'-density, lo'-#iscosity $lucose "luid plume ascendin$ in a hi$h-density, hi$h-#iscosity $lucose "luid 5*lson and Sin$er, 198A6%
seas, and sediments 'ere deposited% The causes o" the periods o" hi$h and lo' sea le#els are not "ully understood% 1learly, ice a$es can cause periods o" lo' sea le#el% -lso, on a lon$er time scale, #ariations in the #olume o" the ocean rid$e system can chan$e the sea le#el% Guantitati#e measurements o" the concentrations o" radioacti#e isotopes and their dau$hter products in roc!s ha#e pro#ided an absolute $eolo$ical time scale% The science o" datin$ roc!s by radioisotopic techni)ues is !no'n as geochronology% Geochronolo$ical methods 'ill be discussed in Section 18C 2% The radiometrically calibrated $eolo$ical time scale is $i#en in Table 1C2% <ote that the 0recambrian period, durin$ 'hich "ossils 'ere not a#ailable "or classi"ication purposes, represents 88N o" the (arths history% (rosion and sedimentation play an important role in shapin$ the sur"ace o" the continents% ,ountain ran$es that are built by plate tectonic processes are eroded to near sea le#el in a "e' million years% -ny areas o" the continents that are depressed belo' sea le#el are "illed 'ith these sediments to "orm sedimentary basins% The base o" a sedimentary basin is re"erred to as the $asement% @ecause the a$es o" basement roc!s are not 'ell !no'n on a 'orld'ide basis, it is di""icult to speci"y a mean a$e "or continental
-(= Continents
2A 2A
Fi$ure 1%21 The relationship bet'een the ;eunion hotspot trac! and the Deccan "lood basalts 5:hite and ,cEenBie, 19896%
roc!s% ;e$ions o" the continents 'here 0recambrian metamorphic and i$neous roc!s are e posed are !no'n as continental shields% Detailed studies o" 0recambrian terrains indicate that the plate tectonic processes that are occurrin$ today ha#e been $oin$ on "or at least 2 billion years% &t is relati#ely easy to estimate the composition o" the upper continental crust, but it is di""icult to estimate the composition o" the crust as a 'hole% Direct e#idence "or the composition o" the lo'er continental crust comes "rom sur"ace e posures o" hi$h-$rade metamorphic roc!s and lo'er crustal
24 24
Plate %ectonics
enoliths transported to the sur"ace in diatremes and ma$ma "lo's% &ndirect e#idence o" the composition o" the lo'er crust comes "rom comparisons bet'een seismic #elocities and laboratory studies o" rele#ant minerals% -n estimate o" the bul! composition o" the continental crust is $i#en in Table 1C1% &t is compared 'ith the mean composition o" clastic sediments 5representati#e o" the upper continental crust6 and 'ith a typical basalt composition% (stimates o" the mean composition o" the continental crust are clearly more basic 5less silicic6 than the composition o" the upper continental crust, but they do not approach a basaltic composition% -n important )uestion isF 9o' is continental crust "ormedO *ne hypothesis is that it is "ormed "rom partial melts o" the mantle% @ut as 'e ha#e discussed, mantle melts ha#e near-basaltic compositions% Thus, i" this 'ere the case, the mean composition o" the continental crust 'ould also be basaltic% 9o'e#er, as seen in Table 1C1, the mean continental crust is considerably more silicic than the composition o" basalts% - pre"erred hypothesis "or the $eneration o" the continental crust consists o" three stepsF 16 @asaltic #olcanism "rom the mantle associated 'ith island-arc #olcanics, continental ri"ts, and hotspots is responsible "or the "ormation o" the continental crust% 26 &ntracrustal meltin$ and hi$h-temperature metamorphism are responsible "or the di""erentiation o" the continental crust so that the upper crust is more silicic and the lo'er crust is more basic% @asaltic ma$mas "rom the mantle that intrude into a basaltic continental crust in the presence o" 'ater can produce the $ranitic roc!s associated 'ith the bul! continental crust% 26 Delamination o" substantial )uantities o" continental lithosphere includin$ the mantle and lo'er crust returns a "raction o" the more basic lo'er crust to the mantle% The residuum, composed primarily o" the upper crust, thus becomes more silicic and "orms the present continental crust% 1%8 0aleoma$netism and the ,otion o" the 0lates -lthou$h )ualitati#e $eolo$ical ar$uments had lon$ "a#ored the continental dri"t theory, it remained "or paleoma$netic studies to pro#ide )uantitati#e con"irmation% 0aleoma$netism is the study o" the (arths past ma$netic "ield "rom the records preser#ed in ma$netiBed roc!s% The silicate minerals ma!- in$ up the bul! o" a roc! are either paramagnetic 5oli#ine, pyro ene, $arnet, amphiboles6 or diamagnetic 5)uartB, "eldspar6 and are incapable o" ac)uirin$ a permanent magneti+ation% 9o'e#er, roc!s containin$ small amounts o" ferromagnetic, or more accurately ferrimagnetic, minerals, that is, iron o ides such as ma$netite Fe2 *> and hematite Fe2 *2 and iron sul"ides such
-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates
23 23
Table 1%2 Geologic %ime "cale

-$e 5,a6
8 8%81
0eriod
9olocene /pper 0leistocene Guaternary
(ra
(on
8%12 ,iddle 8%8 .o'er 1%8 /pper 2%4 .o'er A%2 /pper 11%2 ,iddle 14%> .o'er 22%8 /pper 28%A .o'er 22%3 /pper 23%8 ,iddle >9%8 .o'er A>%8 /pper 41%8 .o'er 4A%8 /pper 98%9 .o'er 1>2%8 /pper 1A9%> ,iddle 188%1 .o'er 28A%3 /pper 223%> ,iddle 2>1%3 2>8%2 .o'er /pper 2A4%8 298%8 .o'er /pper 222%8 .o'er 2A>%8 /pper 238%8 ,iddle 291%8 .o'er >13%8 >>2%8 /pper >38%8 >9A%8 .o'er /pper A8A%8 A18%8 ,iddle A>A%8 .o'er 2A88 >AA8
0liocene
,iocene 0aleo$ene 1enoBoic
*li$ocene
(ocene
0aleocene 1retaceous
Jurassic
<eo$ene ,esoBoic 0aleoBoic
Triassic
0ermian 1arboni"erous
De#onian Silurian *rdo#ician
1ambrian 0roteroBoic -rchean
0recambrian
28 28
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%22 Declination and inclination o" the ma$netic "ield%
as pyrrhotite Fe1y S, can ac)uire a 'ea! permanent ma$netism 'hen they are "ormed% The fossil magnetism in a roc! is re"erred to as natural remanent magnetism 58RM6% - roc! can ac)uire <;, in se#eral 'ays% :hen a mineral is heated abo#e its Curie temperature, all ma$netism is lost% For ma$netite the 1urie temperature is 8A1 E% :hen a roc! containin$ "erroma$netic minerals is cooled to a temperature belo' the 1urie temperature, !no'n as the $loc,ing tem2 perature, in the presence o" a ma$netic "ield, it can ac)uire a remanent ma$netism% This is !no'n as thermoremanent magnetism 5%RM6% &n some cases ma$netic minerals are "ormed by chemical processes at lo' temperatures% -s a $rain o" a "erroma$netic mineral $ro's, it reaches a siBe 'here it becomes ma$netically stable% &" this occurs in an applied ma$netic "ield, a chemical remanent magnetism 5CRM6 may be ac)uired% - sedimentary roc! may also ac)uire a remanent ma$netism durin$ its "ormation% -s small particles o" "erroma$netic minerals "all throu$h 'ater in the presence o" a ma$netic "ield, their magnetic moments become partially ali$ned 'ith the ambient ma$netic "ield7 the result is that the sedimentary roc! that is "ormed 'ith these particles present has a depositional remanent magnetism 5&RM6% ;oc!s may also ac)uire ma$netism a"ter they are "ormed% This type o" ma$netism may usually be remo#ed by sub?ectin$ the roc! to alternatin$ ma$netic "ields or by heatin$ the roc! to a substantial "raction o" the 1urie temperature% -"ter it has been con"irmed that the ma$netism in a roc! is in "act the remanent ma$netism ac)uired at the time o" its "ormation, the orientation or direction o" the remanent "ield is determined% This is normally e pressed in terms o" the declination & or magnetic a+imuth, 'hich is the an$le bet'een $eo$raphic north and the ma$netic "ield direction measured
29 29
Fi$ure 1%22 The (arths dipole ma$netic "ield%
positi#e cloc!'ise 58 to 248 6, and the inclination I, 'hich is the an$le bet'een the horiBontal and the "ield direction measured positi#e do'n'ard 598 to R98 6 5Fi$ure 1C226% &n addition to declination and inclination, the complete speci"ication o" a remanent ma$netic "ield re)uires the determination o" its ma$nitude @% The S& unit o" @ is the tesla or 'eber m 2 % Fi$ure 1C22 clearly sho's that the horiBontal @9 and #ertical @+ components o" the ma$netic "ield are related to the ma$nitude o" the "ield and the inclination by @9 P @ cos & @+ P @ sin & % 51%26 51%26
The horiBontal "ield can be "urther resol#ed into a north'ard component @9 < and an east'ard component @9 ( $i#en by @9 6 51%A6
The present-day ma$netic "ield o" the (arth can be reasonably appro - imated as a dipole magnetic field, the "orm o" 'hich is s!etched in Fi$ure 1C22% The horiBontal and #ertical components o" the (arths dipole ma$netic "ield, @W and @r , at its sur"ace, assumin$ that the (arth is a sphere o" radius a, are $i#en by D m @W P 8 2 sin Wm 51%46 >Xa
>8 >8
Plate %ectonics
@r P
D8 m cos Wm , 2Xa2
3
51%36 tesla m - 1 6, m
'here D8 is the permeability o" "ree space 5D8 P >X 18
is the dipole moment 5- m2 6, and Wm is the ma$netic colatitude 5ma$netic latitude Ym P XU2 Wm 6 5see Fi$ure 1C226% The ma$netic poles are the positions 'here the dipole "ield lines are #ertical% -t the north ma$netic pole 5Wm P 8, Ym P XU26, @W P 8, @r P D8 mU2Xa2 , the inclination is XU2 rad or 98 , and the "ield is directed into the (arth% -t2the south ma$netic pole 5Wm P X, Ym P XU26, @W P 8, @r P D8 mU2Xa , the inclination is XU2 rad or 98 , and the "ield is directed out "rom the (arth% The ma$netic "ield lines o" the (arths present dipole ma$netic "ield lea#e at the south ma$netic pole and enter at the north ma$netic pole 5Fi$ure 1C226% -t the ma$netic e)uator 5Wm P XU2, Ym P 86, @r P 8, @W P D8 mU>Xa2 , the "ield lines are horiBontal, and the inclination is Bero% The an$le o" inclination o" the dipole ma$netic "ield is $i#en by tan & P and its ma$nitude @ can be 'ritten
2 @ P 5@ 2 r R @ W6 1U2
@r , @W
51%86
51%96
@y substitutin$ "or @r and @W "rom ()uations 51C46 and 51C36, 'e can re'rite these e pressions "or & and @ as tan & P 2 cot Wm P 2 tan Ym 51%186 D m @ P 8 2 5sin2 Wm R > cos2 Wm 61U2 >Xa D8 m P 51 R 2 cos2 Wm 61U2 >Xa2 D8 m P 51 R 2 sin2 Ym 61U2 % >Xa2
51%116
The (arths ma$netic "ield is only appro imately a dipole% The present locations 5latitude and lon$itude6 o" the ma$netic poles are 32 <, 188 : and 48 S, 1>2 (% The ma$netic poles o" the dipole "ield that is the best "it to the (arths "ield are at 39 <, 38 : and 39 S, 118 (% Thus the a is o" the dipole "ield ma!es an an$le o" about 11 'ith the 22 (arths rotational a is% The moment o" the dipole "ield is m P 3%9> 18 - m2 , and the A sur"ace ,aps o"ma$netic "ield at the ma$netic e)uator is @W P 2%83 18 teslas% the ma$nitude, declination, and inclination o" the present ma$netic "ield o" the (arth are presented in Fi$ure 1C2>%
0roblem 1%> -ssume that the (arths ma$netic "ield is a dipole% :hat is the ma imum intensity o" the "ield at the coreCmantle boundaryO 0roblem 1%A -ssume that the (arths ma$netic "ield is a dipole% -t 'hat distance abo#e the (arths sur"ace is the ma$nitude o" the "ield one-hal" o" its #alue at the sur"aceO &" a dipole "ield is a reasonable appro imation o" the (arths ma$netic "ield throu$hout $eolo$ic time, a paleoma$netic measurement o" declination and inclination can be used to locate the ma$netic pole position at the time the roc! ac)uired its ma$netiBation% Suppose that the paleoma$netic measurement is carried out at a north latitude Y and an east lon$itude Z, as in Fi$ure 1C2A% From the de"inition o" declination it is clear that the paleoma$netic north pole lies an an$ular distance Wm alon$ a $reat circle ma!in$ an an$le D 'ith the meridian throu$h the measurement point% Geo$raphic north, paleoma$netic north, and the measurement point de"ine a spherical trian$le 'ith sides XU2 Y, Wm , and XU2 Yp , 'here Yp is the latitude o" the paleoma$netic pole% The trian$le contains the included an$le D% /sin$ a result "rom spherical tri$onometry, 'e can 'rite cos X Y p 2 P cos Y cos Wm 2 X R sin Y sin Wm cos D% 2 51%126 This can be simpli"ied by notin$ that cos5XU2 Yp 6 P sin Yp , cos5XU2 Y6 P sin Y, and sin5XU2 Y6 P cos Y% The result is sin Yp P sin Y cos Wm R cos Y sin Wm cos D% 51%126 The ma$netic colatitude Wm can be determined "rom ()uations 51C86 and 51C186% The an$le bet'een the meridians passin$ throu$h the measurement point and the paleoma$netic north pole is Zp Z, 'here Zp is the east lon$itude o" the paleoma$netic pole% - second spherical tri$onometric "ormula allo's us to 'rite sin5Zp Z 6 sin D sin 51%1>6 P P D sin Wm sin5XU2 Yp 6 cos Yp or sin Wm sin D X
sin5Zp Z6 P
cos Yp
51%1A6
Plate %ectonics
>2
Fi$ure 1%2> Present2day magnetic field of the Earth( )a* Magnitude, D%( Continued on pp( 4?/=(
>2 >2
Fi$ure 1%2> )cont(* )$* &eclination, deg(
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%2> )cont(* )c* Inclination, deg(
>> >>
i" cos Wm [ sin Y sin Yp % &" cos Wm \ sin Y sin Yp , ()uation 51C1A6 must be replaced by sin5X R Z Zp 6 P sin Wm sin D % cos Yp
>A >A
51%146
0aleoma$netic measurements are use"ul only i" the orientation o" the sample has remained "i ed 'ith respect to the rest o" the $eolo$ical pro#ince, since the sample 'as ma$netiBed% /sually the absence o" subse)uent de- "ormation can be established 'ith some certainty and the reliability o" the measurement established% 0roblem 1%4 The measured declination and inclination o" the paleoma$ netic "ield in /pper Triassic roc!s at >1%A < and 32%3 : are D P 18 and & P 12 % Determine the paleoma$netic pole position% 0roblem 1%3 The measured declination and inclination o" the paleo ma$netic "ield in *li$ocene roc!s at A1 < and 1>%3 ( are D P 288 and & P 42 % Determine the paleoma$netic pole position% 0roblem 1%8 The measured declination and inclination o" the paleoma$ netic "ield in .o'er 1retaceous roc!s at >A%A < and 32 : are D P 1A> and & P A8 % Determine the paleoma$netic pole position% 0aleoma$netic measurements can indicate the position o" the ma$netic pole as a "unction o" time "or roc!s o" di""erent a$es% 9o'e#er, be"ore discussin$ these results, 'e should note that one o" the early conclusions o" paleoma$netic measurements 'as that the (arths ma$netic "ield has been sub?ect to periodic reversals in 'hich the north ma$netic pole became the south ma$netic pole and #ice #ersa% This 'as apparent "rom the re#ersed orientations o" the remanent ma$netic "ield in a series o" roc!s o" di""erent a$es "rom the same locality% - summary o" dated roc!s 'ith normal and reversed polarities "or the last A ,a is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C24% ,easurements indicate that "or the past 328,888 years the ma$netic "ield has been in its present 5normal6 orientation7 this ma$netic time period is re"erred to as the @runhes epoch% @et'een 8%32 and 2%>A ,a, there 'as a period !no'n as the ,atuyama epoch durin$ 'hich the orientation o" the "ield 'as predominantly re#ersed% 0eriods o" normal polarity "or the last 138 ,a are $i#en in Table 1C>% The mechanism "or ma$netic "ield re#ersals is not !no'n% &n "act, the 'ay in 'hich the (arths ma$netic "ield is $enerated is only )ualitati#ely understood% &t is 'ell established "rom seismolo$y that the outer core o" the (arth is primarily composed o" li)uid iron% 0resumably, electric currents in
the hi$hly electrically conductin$ li)uid iron $enerate the (arths ma$netic "ield% 9o'e#er, the currents that create the ma$netic "ield are themsel#es dri#en by motions o" the conductin$ li)uid in the presence o" the ma$netic "ield% The "ield $eneration mechanism re)uires the presence o" the "ield itsel"% The process by 'hich "luid motions maintain the ma$netic "ield a$ainst its tendency to decay because o" ohmic dissipation is !no'n as regenerative dynamo action% -n ener$y source is re)uired to o#ercome the resisti#e losses% 0ossible ener$y sources are the decay o" radioacti#e elements in the core, the coolin$ o" the core, the latent heat release upon solidi"ication o" the inner core, and the $ra#itational ener$y release that accompanies solidi"ication o" the inner core% The last ener$y source e ists because the outer core contains an alloyin$ element li$hter than iron% The li$ht element does not enter the inner core 'hen solidi"ication occurs at the inner coreCouter core boundary% -s a result, $ro'th o" the inner core concentrates the li$ht element in the outer core, causin$ outer-core li)uid to become increasin$ly li$hter 'ith time% This releases $ra#itational potential ener$y in the same 'ay that separation o" the entire core did early in the (arths e#olution% *ne or more o" these ener$y sources dri#es the thermal or chemical con#ecti#e motions o" the hi$hly conductin$ li)uid iron that result in a sel"e cited dynamo7 ho'e#er, detailed theories o" the process are not a#ailable% Sel"-e cited mechanical dynamos built in the laboratory e hibit random re#ersals o" the resultin$ "ield% 0resumably, the dynamo in the (arths core is sub?ect to random "luctuations that aperiodically lead to "ield re#ersals% &t is belie#ed that the rotation o" the (arth has an important in"luence on the $eneration o" the "ield% :e ha#e already noted that the (arths present dipole a is is nearly ali$ned 'ith its a is o" rotation% &t is implicitly assumed in the use o" paleoma$netic measurements that the ma$netic poles and the $eo$raphic poles coincide% - measurement o" a paleoma$netic pole can then be used to deduce the motion o" the plate on 'hich the measurement 'as made% ,any paleoma$netic measurements ha#e been made% Data are di#ided into $eolo$ical periods and into continental areas that appear to ha#e remained a sin$le unit o#er the periods considered% -#era$e pole positions are $i#en in Table 1CA% &" no relati#e motion occurred amon$ the continental bloc!s, all measurements durin$ a particular period should $i#e the same pole position% 1learly, as can be seen "rom Table 1CA, this is not the case% &" a se)uence o" pole positions "or a particular continental area is plotted, it should "orm a continuous path terminatin$ close to the present position o" the ma$netic pole7 this is !no'n as the polar !andering path "or the ma$netic pole% - polar
Fi$ure 1%2A Geometry "or determinin$ the latitude and lon$itude o" a paleoma$netic "ield%
'anderin$ path o" a plate can be used to determine the absolute position o" that plate relati#e to the $eo$raphic poles% The relation bet'een the polar 'anderin$ paths o" t'o ad?acent plates can be used to determine relati#e #elocities bet'een the plates% The polar 'anderin$ paths "or <orth -merica and (urope are sho'n in Fi$ure 1C23% The systematic di#er$ence o" the paths o#er the past se#eral hundred million years 'as one o" the "irst pieces o" )uantitati#e e#idence that continental dri"t 'as occurrin$% /n"ortunately the considerable scatter in paleoma$netic measurements ma!es it di""icult to obtain reliable data% ,uch o" this scatter can be attributed to de#iations o" the ma$netic poles "rom the $eo$raphic poles% The ma$nitude o" the ma$netic "ield at the (arths sur"ace #aries both in space and in time% The spatial #ariations are !no'n as magnetic anomalies% &n the continents, re$ions o" hi$h ma$netic "ield, that is, positi#e ma$netic anomalies, are usually associated 'ith concentrations o" ma$netic minerals in the (arths crust% ;e$ional sur#eys o" the ma$netic "ield are an important method o" e ploration "or economic deposits o" minerals% Similar ma$netic sur#eys o#er the oceans ha#e sho'n a pattern o" striped ma$netic anomalies, that is, elon$ated continuous Bones o" positi#e ma$- netic anomalies some tens o" !ilometers 'ide separated "rom one another by Bones o" ne$ati#e ma$netic anomalies% The Bones o" striped ma$netic
>8 >8
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%24 ,easurements o" the polarity o" the (arths ma$netic "ield "or the last A million years% (ach short line indicates a dated polarity determination "rom a #olcanic roc!% The shaded periods are inter#als o" predominantly normal polarity%
>9 >9
Table 1%>
ges in Ma of Periods of 8ormal Polarity of the EarthAs Magnetic Field for the Last -=B Ma
0olarity -nomaly 8%32 8%93 1%88 2%89 2%91 2%83 2%>8 2%99 >%24 >%>8 A%88 A%94 4%22 4%39 3%18 3%A4 3%44 8%29 8%A> 8%82 9%89 9%>8 9%88 18%12 18%>2 18%42 11%18 11%98 12%2> 12%31 12%8> 12%21 12%4> 1>%2> 1>%39 1A%83 1A%2A 14%AA 14%3A 14%99 13%83 18%89 19%88 28%22 28%3> 21%23 21%3A 22%82 22%48 4%3 4%8 4%9 3%1 3%2 3%2 8%1 8%2 9%1 9%2 18%1 18%2 11%1 11%2 12 12%1 12%2 1A%1 1A%2 1A%2 14%1 14%2 13%1 13%2 13%2 18%1 18%2 18%2 19 28 21 22 22%1 22%2 22%2 2>%1 2>%2 2A 24 23 28 29 28 21 22%1 22%2 22%2 22 2> <ormal &nter#al 22%98 22%2A 22%42 2A%81 2A%13 2A%8> 24%29 24%>> 23%A2 28%12 29%88 29%2A 28%>2 28%82 21%48 2>%24 2>%A8 24%12 24%2A 24%92 23%21 23%42 28%28 29%28 29%>A 29%9> >8%>2 >8%98 >2%1> >2%12 >3%81 A8%82 A1%8A A2%12 A2%1A A2%29 A>%8A A3%19 A8%38 41%4A 42%9> 4>%14 4A%>2 43%22 38%1> 38%49 32%33 32%12 8>%88 0olarity -nomaly 22%8A 22%28 22%38 2A%11 2A%>A 24%81 24%23 23%12 28%83 28%A1 29%29 29%A8 28%33 21%21 22%81 2>%>> 2>%82 24%22 24%A> 23%14 23%A8 28%81 29%12 29%29 29%33 >8%24 >8%82 >1%21 >2%A3 >>%A3 >8%A1 A8%44 A2%88 A2%82 A2%28 A2%49 A>%4A A3%88 A9%22 42%13 42%38 4>%8A 43%1> 48%12 38%>2 32%2A 32%82 39%89 118%88 ,1 ,2 ,> ,4 ,3 ,8 ,9 ,18%1 ,18%2 ,18%2 ,18%> ,11%1 ,11%2 ,11%2 ,12%1 ,12%2 ,12%2 ,12 ,1> ,1A ,14 ,13 ,18 ,19%1 ,19%2 ,28%1 ,28%2 ,21 ,22%1 ,22%2 ,22%2 ,22%> ,22%1 ,22%2 ,2>%1 ,2>%2 ,2>%2 ,2>%> ,2A%1 ,2A%2 ,2A%2 ,2A%> ,24%1 ,24%2 ,24%2 ,24%> ,23 ,28 ,29 J-G] <ormal &nter#al 118%38 122%2A 12A%24 123%8A 123%2> 123%93 128%48 129%>2 128%19 128%42 121%82 121%4A 122%82 122%A8 12>%>2 12A%A4 12A%88 124%23 123%18 128%28 129%A8 1>1%8A 1>2%34 1>>%3A 1>>%94 1>4%>> 1>4%81 1>8%22 1>9%89 1A1%A1 1A1%41 1A2%A2 1A2%8> 1A2%>9 1A>%1A 1A>%8A 1AA%88 1AA%>8 1A4%88 1A4%AA 1A4%38 1A4%94 1A3%28 1A3%28 1A3%A2 1A3%44 1A8%81 1A8%23 1A8%83 148%22 0olarity
-nomaly 1%1 1%2 2%1 2%2 2%2 2%> 2%A 2%1 2%2 2%2 2%> 2%A 2%4 2%3 >%1 >%2 >%2 >%> >%A >%4 A%1 A%2 A%2 A%> A%A A%4 A%3 A%8 A%9 A%18 A%11 A%12 A%12 A%1> A%1A A%14 A%13 A%18 A%19 A%28 A%21 A%22 A%22 4%1 4%2 4%2 4%> 4%A 4%4
<ormal &nter#al 8%88 8%91 1%4A 2%84 2%>A 2%98 2%13 2%83 >%12 >%>1 >%39 A%49 4%8> 4%44 3%81 3%13 3%42 8%82 8%>8 8%38 8%91 9%1> 9%>9 9%82 18%1A 18%A3 11%11 11%31 12%8A 12%48 12%39 12%8> 12%>8 12%83 1>%2A 1>%98 1A%22 14%23 14%A9 14%82 13%AA 18%83 18%A8 19%24 28%A2 28%93 21%48 21%92 22%22
121%81 122%82 124%>4 123%21 123%A2 128%22 128%91 129%82 128%A3 121%88 121%24 122%A2 122%88 12>%21 12>%3A 12A%44 124%2> 124%4> 123%29 129%81 1>1%28 1>2%23 1>>%22 1>>%88 1>A%98 1>4%3A 1>3%>3 1>9%>2 1A1%>4 1A1%A4 1A1%49 1A2%44 1A2%21 1A2%A2 1A>%>8 1A>%88 1AA%21 1AA%8> 1A4%29 1A4%38 1A4%88 1A3%18 1A3%28 1A3%>4 1A3%41 1A3%8A 1A8%21 1A8%44 1A9%88 149%88
SourceF 9arland et al% 519986%
anomalies $enerally lie parallel to ocean rid$es and are symmetric 'ith respect to the rid$e crest% - typical pattern ad?acent to the mid--tlantic rid$e is sho'n in Fi$ure 1C28% - typical ma$netic anomaly pro"ile perpendicular to the (ast 0aci"ic ;ise is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C29% The ma$nitude o" any indi#idual anomaly is a "e' hundred nanoteslas, or about 1N o" the (arths dipole "ield at the sur"ace% The ma$netic anomalies are attributed to thermal remanent ma$netism in the basaltic oceanic crust% -s the #olcanic roc!s o" the oceanic crust cool throu$h the ma$netic bloc!in$ temperature near the ocean rid$e, a thermal remanent ma$netism is ac)uired in the direction o" the (arths ma$netic "ield% This ma$netiBation o" the oceanic crust produces the ma$netic anomalies as a conse)uence o" the episodic re#ersals
Table 1%A Position of the 8orth Magnetic Pole in &ifferent Geological Periods as &etermined $y Paleomagnetic "tudies
<orth -merica Tertiary / . 83<, 1>8( 8A<, 193( 4><, 183( 34<, 1>2( 42<, 188( >4<, 113( / . 23<, 124( 29<, 122( 28<, 192( 3<, 1>8( (urope 88<, 1A3( 3A<, 1A1( 84<, 8( 24<, A8( >A<, 1>2( >A<, 148( 28<, 141( ;ussian 0lat"orm 38<, 191( 48<, 192( 44<, 144( 4A<, 128( A1<, 1A>( >><, 142( >2<, 148( 22<, 148( *<, 124( 18<, 134( 22<, 143( 8<, 189( 24<, 142( 28<, 1>9( 28<, 1A1( 2><, 129( 2AS, 121( 24S, 123( 2>S, 14A( 11S, 1>2( 2><, 1>>( >3<, 1A1( Siberian 0lat"orm 44<, 22>( A3<, 1A2( 33<, 134( -"rica 83<, 1A2( 8A<, 184( 41<, 248( 4A<, 242( 23<, 249( >4<, 228( 24<, 284( South -merica 82<, 42( 38<, 224( 8><, 2A4( 88<, 31( 48<, 188( >2<, 1A1( -ustralia 33<, 23A( 38<, 284( A2<, 229( >8<, 221( 22<, 29A( 28<, 288( 3S, 28>( >4<, 21A( 32<, 2>( 32<, 13>( A><, 91( 2<, 188( 28<, 212( 24S, 212( &ndia
Plate %ectonics A8
1retaceous Jurassic Triassic 0ermian 1arboni"erous De#onian Silurian *rdo#ician 1ambrian
SourceF -"ter ,% :% ,c(lhinny 519326%
A1 A1
Fi$ure 1%23 0olar 'anderin$ paths "or <orth -merica and (urope% <umbers $i#e time be"ore present in millions o" years%
in the (arths ma$netic "ield% *cean "loor created in the last 328,888 years has been ma$netiBed in the direction o" the (arths present ma$netic "ield, leadin$ to a positi#e ma$netic anomaly 5see Fi$ure 1C246% 9o'e#er, ocean "loor created bet'een 2%>A and 8%32 ,a 'as primarily ma$netiBed in the direction o" the re#ersed "ield% This ma$netiBation is opposite to the present (arths "ield and there"ore subtracts "rom it, leadin$ to a Bone o" lo' "ield or a ne$ati#e ma$netic anomaly, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C29b% The conclusion is that the stripes o" sea"loor 'ith positi#e ma$netic anomalies 'ere created durin$ periods o" normal polarity o" the (arths ma$netic "ield and stripes o" the sea"loor 'ith ne$ati#e ma$netic anomalies 'ere created durin$ periods o" re#ersed polarity o" the (arths ma$netic "ield% Since the dates o" the "ield re#ersals are !no'n independently "rom $eochronolo$ical studies, the 'idths o" the ma$netic stripes can be used to determine the #elocity o" sea"loor spreadin$% For the e ample $i#en in Fi$ure 1C 29a, the distance "rom the rid$e crest to the ed$e o" each anomaly is plotted a$ainst the time o" !no'n "ield re#ersal in Fi$ure 1C29c% The result is nearly a strai$ht line, the slope o" 'hich is the #elocity o" sea"loor spreadin$, >A mm yr 1 in this case% +elocities o" sea"loor spreadin$ 5hal"-spreadin$ rates6 ran$e up'ard to about 188 mm yr 1 %
A2 A2
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%28 Striped pattern o" ma$netic anomalies parallel to the ,id-tlantic rid$e 59eirtBler et al%, 19446%
0roblem 1%9 Determine the #elocity o" sea"loor spreadin$ on the (ast 0aci"ic ;ise "rom the ma$netic anomaly pro"ile $i#en in Fi$ure 1C28a% 0roblem 1%18 Determine the #elocity o" sea"loor spreadin$ on the South (ast &ndian ;ise "rom the ma$netic anomaly pro"ile $i#en in Fi$ure 1C28b% Shipboard ma$netometers ha#e been used to obtain maps o" ma$netic anomalies o#er a lar$e "raction o" the 'orlds oceans% Striped patterns o" ma$netic anomalies ha#e not been obtained near the paleoma$netic e)uator% -t the ma$netic e)uator the ma$netic "ield is horiBontal, and the ma$netiBation o" the "erroma$netic minerals in the oceanic crust does not produce a si$ni"icant sur"ace ma$netic anomaly% The maps o" ma$netic anomalies ha#e been used to determine the a$e o" a lar$e "raction o" the ocean "loor 5Fi$ure 1C216% This distribution o" a$es has been con"irmed by the &eep "ea &rilling Pro'ect 5&"&P6% The deep-sea capability o" the drillin$ ship Glomar Challenger made it possible to drill a lar$e number o" cored holes throu$h
A2 A2
Fi$ure 1%29 5a6 ,a$netic anomaly pro"ile perpendicular to the (ast 0a ci"ic ;ise 5A2 S, re#ersals 118 :6% o" 5b6 &nduced in 5c6 the1orrelation oceanic crust due to episodic the (arthsma$netiBation ma$netic "ield% o" the positions o" the ma$netic anomalies 'ith t o" "ield re#ersals to $i#e the #elocity u o" sea"loor spreadin$%
the sedimentary co#er and into the underlyin$ basaltic oceanic crust% &" 'e hypothesiBe that the a$e o" the oldest sediments in the sedimentary se)uence ad?acent to the #olcanic crust, as determined "rom studies o" "ossils, corresponds to the a$e o" the #olcanic roc!s, then 'e can determine the a$e o" the sea"loor% This has been done "or a number o" DSD0 holes, and the results ha#e been compared 'ith the a$e o" the sea"loor in"erred "rom studies o" the ma$netic anomalies in Fi$ure 1C22% The e cellent a$reement is stri!in$ con"irmation o" the ma$netic method "or determinin$ the a$e o" the sea"loor% @ecause the sur"ace area o" the (arth remains essentially constant, the #elocities o" sea"loor spreadin$ at ocean rid$es can be related to #elocities o" subduction at ocean trenches% -s a result the relati#e #elocities amon$ the ri$id plates can be determined% The ten ma?or plates are illustrated in Fi$ure 1C1% The relati#e motion bet'een t'o ad?acent plates can be obtained usin$ (ulers theorem% This theorem states that any line on the sur"ace o" a sphere can be translated to any other position and orientation on the sphere by a sin$le rotation about a suitably chosen a is passin$ throu$h the center o" the sphere% &n terms o" the (arth this means that a ri$id sur"ace plate can be shi"ted to a ne' position by a rotation about a uni)uely de"ined a is% The point 'here this a is intersects the sur"ace o" the (arth is !no'n
A> A>
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%28 Typical pro"iles o" the ma$netic anomaly pattern 5a6 perpen dicular to the (ast 0aci"ic ;ise at 41 S and 1A1 : and 5b6 perpendicular to the South (ast &ndian ;ise at A> S and 1>2 (%
as a pole of rotation% This is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C22, 'here plate @ is rotatin$ countercloc!'ise 'ith respect to plate -% ;id$e se$ments lie on lines o" lon$itude emanatin$ "rom the pole o" rotation P% Trans"orm "aults lie on small circles 'ith their centers at the pole o" rotation% The relati#e motion bet'een t'o ad?acent plates is completely speci"ied 'hen the latitude and lon$itude o" the pole o" rotation to$ether 'ith the an$ular #elocity o" rotation ^ are $i#en% The location o" the pole o" rotation can be determined "rom the orientations o" rid$e crests, ma$netic lineaments, and trans"orm "aults% The an$ular #elocity o" rotation can be obtained "rom the sea"loor-spreadin$ #elocities determined "rom 'idths o" the ma$netic lineaments and the re)uirement that sur"ace area must be preser#ed% The latitudes and lon$itudes o" the poles o" rotation "or relati#e motions amon$ ten plates are $i#en in Table 1C4% The an$ular #elocities o" rotation are also $i#en% The relati#e #elocity u bet'een plates at any plate boundary is u P ^a sin _, 51%136
'here a is the radius o" the (arth and _ is the an$le subtended at the center o" the (arth by the pole o" rotation 0 and point - on the plate boundary 5see Fi$ure 1C2>6% <ote that ^ is in radians per unit time% The an$le _ can
Fi$ure 1%21 Map of seafloor ages )Muller et al(, -<<=*(
AA AA
A4 A4
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%22 1orrelation o" the a$es o" the oldest sediments in DSD0 holes 'ith the predicted a$es o" the oceanic crust based on sea"loor ma$netic anomalies%
Fi$ure 1%22 0late @ is mo#in$ countercloc!'ise relati#e to plate -% The motion is de"ined by the an$ular #elocity ^ about the pole o" rotation P% Double lines are rid$e se$ments, and arro's denote directions o" motion on trans"orm "aults%
be related to the colatitude W and east lon$itude Z o" the pole o" rotation and the colatitude W and east lon$itude Z o" the point on the plate boundary by the same spherical tri$onometry "ormula used in ()uation 51C126% @y re"errin$ to Fi$ure 1C2A 'e can 'rite cos _ P cos W cos W R sin W sin W cos5Z Z 6%

51%186
A3 A3
Table 1%4 Pole Positions and Rates of Rotation for Relative Motion 0et!een d'acent "urface Plates
0lates (/C<-FC<-FC(/ <-CS-FCS-<CS<-C11-CS<-C01*C01*C<1*C<] <]C0<]C-< <]CS-<C00-C-/ (/C01*C1<]C1-/C-< -FC-< -/C-F -/C&< &<C-F -;C-F &<C(/ -;C(/ -/C(/ &<C-;
.at% 5<6 42%> 38%8 21%8 14%2 42%A 84%> 3>%2 A8%8 >8%3 24%8 23%9 >%8 AA%4 >8%A A4%8 4>%2 48%1 41%1 2>%1 A4%2 12%2 A%4 12%> A%4 22%4 2>%1 2>%> 2>%4 1A%1 2%8
.on$% 5(6 12A%8 28%2 28%4 A8%1 29%> >8%3 24%1 4A%2 38%2 188%4 128%3 12>%2 98%1 9A%9 9>%8 8>%8 138%2 8A%8 119%> 18>%4 28%2 29%2 >9%8 33%1 28%A 2>%8 13%3 12%3 >8%A 91%A
^ 5de$U,yr6 8%21 8%2> 8%12 8%1A 8%21 8%24 8%18 8%18 8%3A 2%88 1%24 8%91 1%24 8%A2 8%32 8%83 1%83 8%84 1%21 8%AA 8%4A 8%12 8%42 8%28 8%>1 8%>8 8%A1 8%A8 8%49 8%82
Global plate motion model </+(.-1-% The "irst plate mo#es countercloc!'ise relati#e to the second plate% -bbre#iationsF 0-, 0aci"ic7 <-, <orth -merica7 S-, South -merica7 -F, -"rica7 1*, 1ocos7 <], <aBca7 (/, (urasia7 -<, -ntarctica7 -;, -rabia7 &<, &ndia7 -/, -ustralia7 1-, 1aribbean% See Fi$ure 1C1 "or plate $eometries% SourceF De,ets et al% 5199>6%
The sur"ace distance s bet'een points - and 0 is s P a_, 51%196
'ith _ in radians% This relation alon$ 'ith ()uation 51C186 can be used to determine the distance bet'een t'o points on the sur"ace o" the (arth
A8 A8
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%2> Geometry "or the determination o" the relati#e plate #elocity at point on the boundary bet'een t'o plates in terms o" the rate o" rotation ^ about pole P%
Fi$ure 1%2A Geometry "or determinin$ the an$le bet'een point boundary and a pole o" rotation%
on a plate
$i#en the latitudes and lon$itudes o" the points% /sin$ ()uations 51C136 and 51C186, one can "ind the relati#e #elocity bet'een t'o plates, at any point on the boundary bet'een the plates, once the latitude and lon$itude o" the point on the boundary ha#e been speci"ied% -s a speci"ic e ample let us determine the relati#e #elocity across the San -ndreas "ault at San Francisco 523%8 <, 122 :6% :e assume that the entire relati#e #elocity bet'een the ri$id 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates is accommodated on this Table 1C4 'e "ind W P 98 >8%3 P "ault% From >1%2 and Z P 38%2 % Since W P A2%2 and Z P 228 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation
-(< %riple Junctions

51C186 that _ P 22%4 7 'ith ^ P 8%3A ,yr 1 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 51C 136 that the relati#e #elocity across the "ault is >4 mm yr 1 % 0roblem 1%11 Determine the declination and inclination o" the (arths ma$netic "ield at @oston 5Y P >2%A , Z P 31 6% /se the dipole appro imation to the "ield, but do not assume that the $eo$raphic and ma$netic poles coincide% 0roblem 1%12 Determine the declination and inclination o" the (arths ma$netic appro - "ield at 1hica$o 5Y P >1%8 , Z P 83%A 6% /se the dipole imation to the "ield, but do not assume that the $eo$raphic and ma$netic poles coincide% 0roblem 1%12 :hat are the sur"ace distances bet'een the (arths ma$netic poles and $eo$raphic polesO 0roblem 1%1> :hat is the sur"ace distance bet'een the (arths ma$netic poles and the best-"it dipole polesO 0roblem 1%1A 0lot the distance bet'een the paleoma$netic poles obtained "rom <orth -merican and (uropean roc!s as a "unction o" time, and discuss the results% 0roblem 1%14 0lot the distance bet'een the paleoma$netic poles obtained "rom the ;ussian and Siberian 0lat"orm roc!s as a "unction o" time, and discuss the results% 0roblem 1%13 :hat is the spreadin$ rate bet'een the <orth -merican and (urasian plates in &celand 54A <, 28 :6O 0roblem 1%18 :hat is the relati#e plate #elocity bet'een the <aBca and South -merican plates at .ima, 0eru 512 S, 33 :6O 0roblem 1%19 :hat is the relati#e plate #elocity bet'een the &ndian and (urasian plates in the 9imalayas 528 <, 81 (6O 1%9 Triple Junctions - plate boundary can end only by intersectin$ another plate boundary7 this intersection is a triple 'unction% Since there are three types o" plate boundaries C rid$es, trenches, and trans"orm "aults C there are in principle ten types o" triple ?unctions% 9o'e#er, some o" these triple ?unction cannot e ist% -n e ample is a triple ?unction o" three trans"orm "aults% The re)uired condition "or the e istence o" a triple ?unction is that the three #ector #elocities de"inin$ relati#e motions bet'een plate pairs at a triple
A9 A9
48 48
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%24 5a6 Schematic o" a rid$eCrid$eCrid$e 5;;;6 triple ?unction o" plates -, @, and 1% 5b6 +ector #elocities "or relati#e motion bet'een the plates%
?unction must "orm a closed trian$le% For many types o" triple ?unctions this condition re)uires a particular orientation o" the plate boundaries% -s a speci"ic e ample let us consider the rid$eC rid$eCrid$e 5;;;6 triple ?unction illustrated in Fi$ure 1C24a% The rid$e bet'een plates - and @ lies in the north-south direction 5an aBimuth 'ith respect to the triple ?unction o" 8 6% Since the relati#e #elocity across a rid$e is perpendicular to the rid$e, the #ector #elocity o" plate @ relati#e to plate -, u@- , has an aBimuth, measured cloc!'ise "rom north, o" 98 7 'e assume that the 1 ma$nitude is an aBimuth o"u@- P 188 mm yr % The rid$e bet'een plates @ and 1 has 118 relati#e to the triple ?unction% The #ector #elocity o" plate 1 relati#e to plate @, u1@ , there"ore has an aBimuth o" 288 7 'e assume that the ma$nitude u1@ P 88 mm yr 1 % The problem is to "ind the aBimuth o" the rid$e bet'een plates - and 1, T, and the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" the relati#e #elocity u-1 % The #elocity condition "or all triple ?unctions re)uires that u@- R u1@ R u-1 P 8% 51%286 This is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C24b% &n order to determine the ma$nitude o" the #elocity u-1 'e use the la' o" cosinesF u-1 P 51882 R 882 2 188 88 cos 38 61U2
-(< %riple Junctions
P 18>%A mm yr
sin5T 188 6 P
41 41
51%216
The an$le T is then determined usin$ the la' o" sinesF

88 sin 38 P 8%3A18 P sin T, 18>%A
T P 228%3 %
51%226
The aBimuth o" the rid$e is 228%3 , and the aBimuth o" u-1 is 218%3 % -n e ample o" an ;;; triple ?unction is the intersection o" the <aBca, 1ocos, and 0aci"ic plates 5see Fi$ure 1C16% 0roblem 1%28 1onsider an ;;; triple ?unction o" plates -, @, and 1% The rid$e bet'een plates - and @ lies in a northCsouth direction 5an aBimuth o" 8 'ith respect to the triple ?unction6 and has a relati#e #elocity o" 48 mm yr 1 % The rid$e bet'een plates @ and 1 has an aBimuth o" 128 'ith respect to the triple ?unction, and the rid$e bet'een plates - and 1 has an aBimuth o" 238 'ith respect to the triple ?unction% Determine the aBimuths and ma$nitudes o" the relati#e #elocities bet'een plates @ and 1 and 1 and -% :e ne t consider a trenchCtrenchCtrench 5TTT6 triple ?unction% &n $eneral this type o" triple ?unction cannot e ist% - $eometry that is acceptable is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C23a% @oth plates - and @ are bein$ subducted beneath plate 1 alon$ a sin$le northCsouth trench% 0late - is also bein$ subducted beneath plate @ alon$ a trench that has an aBimuth o" 12A 'ith respect to the triple ?unction% Since o$li3ue su$duction can occur, the relati#e #elocities bet'een plates 'here subduction is occurrin$ need not be perpendicular to the trench% :e assume that the #elocity o" plate relati#e to plate @ has a ma$nitude u-@ P A8 mm yr 1 and an aBimuth o" 22A % :e also assume that the relati#e #elocity o" plate @ 'ith respect to plate 1 has a ma$nitude u@1 P A8 mm yr 1 and an aBimuth o" 238 % -pplyin$ the la' o" cosines to the #elocity trian$le o" Fi$ure 1C23b, 'e "ind u-1 P 5A82 R A82 2 A8 A8 cos 12A 61U2 P 92%> mm yr 1 % The an$le T in Fi$ure 1C23b is determined "rom the la' o" sinesF sin T P
A8 sin 12A P 8%282, 92%>
51%226
T P 22%A ,
51%2>6
so that the aBimuth o" u-1 is 2>3%A %The #elocity at 'hich subduction is occurrin$ is u-1 cos T P 8A%> mm yr 1 , and the is #elocity o" o" the triple ?unction alon$ the northCsouth trench u-1 sin T mi$ration P 2A%> mm 1 yr %
Fi$ure 1%23 5a6 &llustration o" a trenchCtrenchCtrench 5TTT6 triple ?unction o" plates -, @, and 1% 5b6 +ector #elocities "or relati#e motion bet'een the plates%
Fi$ure 1%28 -nother TTT triple ?unction%
-n e ample o" a TTT triple ?unction is the intersection o" the (urasian, 0aci"ic, and 0hilippine plates 5see Fi$ure 1C16% 0roblem 1%21 cannot e ist% Sho' that a triple ?unction o" three trans"orm "aults
0roblem 1%22 1onsider the TTT triple ?unction illustrated in Fi$ure 1C 28% This triple ?unction is acceptable because the relati#e #elocity bet'een plates 1 and -, u1- , is parallel to the trench in 'hich plate @ is bein$ subducted beneath plate 1% The trench bet'een plates 1 and @ has an aBimuth o" 188 so that u1- has an aBimuth o" 8 7 assume that u 1- P A8 mm yr 1 % -lso assume that the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u@- are 21A 1 and 48 mm yr % Determine the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u@1 %
Fi$ure 1%29 5a6 - trenchCrid$eC"ault 5T;F6 triple ?unction o" plates -, @, and 1% 5b6 +ector #elocities "or the relati#e motions bet'een the plates%
-s our "inal e ample 'e consider a rid$eCtrenchC"ault 5;TF6 triple ?unction% This is another type o" triple ?unction that cannot $enerally e ist% -n acceptable $eometry is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C29a7 the trench and the trans"orm "ault are ali$ned in the northCsouth direction% 0late 1 is bein$ subducted beneath plate @7 plate - is slidin$ past plate @ on a trans"orm "ault% The #elocity o" plate @ relati#e to plate - has a ma$nitude u@- P A8 mm yr 1 and an aBimuth o" 188 5the orientation o" the "ault re)uires an aBimuth o" either 8 or 188 6% The rid$e has an aBimuth o" 22A 'ith respect to the triple ?unction% This constrains the relati#e #elocity bet'een plates - and 1 to ha#e an aBimuth o" 21A 7 'e assume that u-1 P >8 mm yr 1 % -pplyin$ the la' o" cosines to the #elocity trian$le in Fi$ure 1C29b 'e $et u1@ P 5A82 R >82 2 >8 A8 cos >A 61U2 P 2A%3 mm yr 1 , and "rom the la' o" sines 'e "ind >8 sin T P sin >A P 8%39, 2A%3

51%2A6
T P A2%> %
51%246
The rate at 'hich the rid$e is mi$ratin$ north'ard alon$ the trenchC 1 trans"orm boundary is u cos T R u cos >A P A8%1 mm yr % -n e ample 1@ -1 o" an ;TF triple ?unction is the intersection o" the 0aci"ic, <orth -merican, and 1ocos plates 5see Fi$ure 1C16% &t should be emphasiBed that the relati#e plate motions $i#en in Table 1C4 are only instantaneously #alid% -s plates e#ol#e, their poles o" rotation mi$rate, and their an$ular #elocities chan$e% 0late boundaries and triple
Fi$ure 1%>8 - TT; triple ?unction%
?unctions must also e#ol#e% *ne result is that a plate boundary may cease to be acti#e or ne' plate boundaries and triple ?unctions may "orm% -nother conse)uence is that plate boundaries may become broad Bones o" di""use de"ormation% The 'estern /nited States is an e ample o" such a Bone7 the de"ormation associated 'ith the interaction o" the 0aci"ic, Juan de Fuca, and <orth -merican plates e tends "rom the 1olorado Front in :yomin$, 1olorado, and <e' ,e ico, to the 0aci"ic 1oast 5see Section 1C 126% 0roblem 1%22 1onsider the TT; triple ?unction illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>8% - rid$e 'ith an aBimuth o" 12A relati#e to the triple ?unction is mi$ratin$ alon$ a northCsouth trench% &" the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u@ are 238 and A8 mm yr 1 and u 1@ P >8 mm yr 1 , determine the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u1- % -lso determine the direction and rate o" mi$ration o" the rid$e relati#e to plate -% 0roblem 1%2> 1onsider the TTF triple ?unction illustrated in Fi$ure 1C >1a% - ri$ht-lateral trans"orm "ault has an aBimuth o" >A 'ith respect to the triple ?unction that is mi$ratin$ alon$ a northCsouth trench% &" the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u@- are 238 and A8 mm yr 1 and u1@ P A8 mm yr 1 , determine the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u1- % -lso determine the direction and rate o" mi$ration o" the "ault alon$ the trench% 0roblem 1%2A 1onsider the TTF triple ?unction illustrated in Fi$ure 1C >1b% - le"t-lateral trans"orm "ault has an aBimuth o" 8 , and t'o trenches ha#e aBimuths o" 188 and 22A % &" the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u1@ are 98 and 18 mm yr 1 and u-@ P A8 mm yr 1, determine the aBimuth and ma$nitude o" u-1 %
-(-B %he .ilson Cycle
4A 4A
Fi$ure 1%>1 T'o TTF triple ?unctions%
1%18 The :ilson 1ycle J% TuBo :ilson 519446 proposed that continental dri"t is cyclic% &n particular he proposed that oceans open and close cyclically7 this concept is no' !no'n as the :ilson cycle and 'as based on the openin$ and closin$ o" the -tlantic *cean% The :ilson cycle, in its simplest "orm, is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>2% The "irst step in the :ilson cycle, illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>2a, is the brea!up o" a continent% This occurs on continental ri"t Bones% The "irst sta$e o" the splittin$ process is the "ormation o" a rift valley% :hen a continent starts to "racture under tensional stresses, a ri"t #alley is "ormed% The central bloc! o" the ri"t #alley, !no'n as a gra$en, subsides, as sho'n in Fi$ure 1C>2a, and the ed$es o" the ad?acent bloc!s are upli"ted% The "aults that occur on the sides o" the do'n-dropped central $raben are !no'n as normal faults% Displacements on the normal "aults accommodate horiBontal e tension% ( amples o" ri"t #alleys that may be in the "irst sta$e o" continental splittin$ include the (ast -"rican ri"t system and the ;io Grande 5ri#er #alley6 ri"t% There is ample e#idence in the $eolo$ical record, ho'e#er, that some ri"t #alleys ne#er e#ol#e into an ocean% The splittin$ process may be aborted% *nce the "ormation o" the ri"t #alley relie#es the tensional stresses, no "urther horiBontal e tension may occur% The ;ed Sea and the Gul" o" -den are ri"t #alleys that ha#e pro$ressed to the "ormation o" accretin$ plate mar$ins% To$ether 'ith the (ast -"rican ri"t they de"ine a three2armed pattern that can be seen in the satellite photo$raph in Fi$ure 1C>2% &" all the ri"ts o" a three-armed system de#elop into accretin$ plate mar$ins, an ;;; triple ?unction is "ormed% &n many cases, ho'e#er,
44 44
Plate %ectonics
only t'o arms de#elop into accretin$ mar$ins, and the third becomes a relict ri"t Bone in the continent% This third arm is re"erred to as a failed arm% -n e ample o" a "ailed arm is the @enue ri"t on the 'estern mar$in o" -"rica sho'n in Fi$ure 1CA2% The other t'o arms o" this system became part o" the early mid--tlantic rid$e at 'hich the -tlantic *cean "ormed% The "ailed arm o" the system e#entually became "illed 'ith sediments7 the sediment-"illed "ossil ri"t is !no'n as an aulacogen% The second sta$e o" continent splittin$ is the "ormation o" a sea"loorspreadin$ center, or ocean rid$e% This is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>2b% The normal "aults associated 'ith the mar$ins o" the ri"t #alley no' "orm the mar$ins o" a ne' ocean% /p'ellin$ hot mantle roc! partially melts to "orm ne' ocean crust and the "irst sta$es o" an ocean rid$e% -n e ample o" an ocean at this early sta$e o" de#elopment is the ;ed Sea 5Fi$ure 1C>26% -s sea"loor spreadin$ continues at the spreadin$ center, an ocean is "ormed% @ecause the creation o" ne' sea"loor at an ocean rid$e is #ery nearly a symmetric process, the ocean rid$e bisects the ne'ly created ocean% This is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>2c% -n e ample is the -tlantic *cean% The mar$ins o" the openin$ ocean are !no'n as passive continental margins in contrast to the active continental margins 'here subduction is occurrin$% -s the sea"loor at the continental mar$in $ro's older, the lithosphere becomes thic!er and more dense% (#entually the lithosphere becomes su""iciently unstable so that it "ounders and an ocean trench de#elops and subduction be$ins% This is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>2d% Trenches apparently "orm immediately ad?acent to one o" the continents% This is the site o" the oldest, coldest, and most unstable oceanic lithosphere% -lso, the continental mar$in is inherently a Bone o" 'ea!ness% -s the ocean basin ad?acent to a continent $ro's older, it continues to subside relati#e to the continent% This di""erential subsidence is accommodated on the normal "aults associated 'ith the continental mar$in% These normal "aults are Bones o" 'ea!ness, and they may play a !ey role in the "ormation o" ne' ocean trenches, 'hen a passi#e continental mar$in is con#erted to an acti#e continental mar$in% &" the rate o" subduction is $reater than the rate o" sea"loor spreadin$, the siBe o" the ocean 'ill decrease% (#entually the ocean rid$e itsel" 'ill be subducted 5see Fi$ure 1C>2e6% ;id$e subduction is occurrin$ alon$ the 'est coast o" <orth -merica% The remanents o" the Juan de Fuca rid$e "orm the boundary bet'een the Juan de Fuca plate and the 0aci"ic plate 5Fi$ure 1C 16% The northern part o" this rid$e 'as subducted beneath the -leutian trench% *ther parts o" the rid$e 'ere subducted o"" the 'est coast o" 1ali"ornia% &n these cases, the subduction led to the trans"ormation o" the con#er$ent plate boundaries bet'een the <orth -merican plate and the Juan de Fuca plate
Fi$ure 1%>2 %he .ilson cycle(
43 43
48 48
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%>2 Satellite photo$raph o" the ;ed Sea 5<-S- STS8>8-838-8886%
5also !no'n as the Farallon plate6 to the present trans"orm "ault boundaries bet'een the <orth -merican and 0aci"ic plates% -"ter rid$e subduction, the remainder o" the oceanic plate 'ill be subducted and the continents 'ill collide 5Fi$ure 1C>2" 6% The implications o" a continental collision are discussed in the ne t section% (#idence o" the past motions o" the continents comes "rom many sources% The distribution o" ma$netic lineations on the sea"loor can be used to reconstruct the positions o" the continents "or about the last 1A8 ,a% @ecause there is #ery little sea"loor older than this, reconstructions prior to about 1A8 ,a are primarily based on paleoma$netic measurements in continental roc!s% ,any other sources o" in"ormation contribute to paleoreconstructions% Dated oro$enic e#ents pro#ide in"ormation on the locations o" ocean trenches and continental collision Bones% The spatial distributions o" "ossils, $laciations, and morpholo$ical "eatures pro#ide additional latitude control% 1ontinental reconstructions "or the last 138 ,a are $i#en in Fi$ure 1C>>%
49 49
Fi$ure 1%>> 1ontinental reconstructions% 5a6 138 ,a% 1ontinued on pp% >2C2% 5Smith et al%, 193>6
;eassembly o" the continents clearly resembles the construction o" a ?i$sa' puBBle% <ot only does South -merica "it a$ainst -"rica, but -ustralia can be "it to$ether 'ith Southeast -sia and -ntarctica as 'ell as Greenland 'ith <orth -merica and (urope% 1ontinental reconstructions can be e tended e#en "arther bac! in time, but the uncertainties become lar$e% -t 138 ,a the supercontinent 0an$aea 'as bein$ ri"ted to "orm the northern continent .aurasia 5composed o" <orth -merica, (urope, and -sia6 and the southern continent Gond'analand composed o" South -merica, -"rica, &ndia, -ustralia, and parts o" -ntarctica and Southeast -sia% @et'een these continents the Tethys *cean 'as bein$ "ormed% @et'een 138 and 188 ,a the central -tlantic *cean be$an to "orm as <orth -merica rotated a'ay "rom -"rica% Simultaneously the Tethys *cean 'as closin$% @et'een 188 and A8 ,a the -tlantic *cean continued to "orm and the &ndian *cean "ormed
38 38
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%>> 5cont%6 5b6 188 ,a% 5Smith et al%, 193>6
as -ustralia and -ntarctica rotated a'ay "rom -"rica% The Tethys *cean continued to close% &n the last A8 ,a the -tlantic has continued to open, &ndia has collided 'ith (urasia, and -ustralia has mo#ed north'ard relati#e to -ntarctica% Today the ,editerranean Sea, @lac! Sea, and 1aspian Sea are the only relics o" the Tethys *cean%
1%11 1ontinental 1ollisions The collision o" t'o continents 'hen an ocean closes is a ma?or cause o" mountain buildin$% -t present a continental collision is occurrin$ alon$ a lar$e "raction o" the southern boundary o" the (urasian plate% The style o" this collision #aries considerably "rom 'est to east% The mountain buildin$ associated 'ith a continental collision is re"erred to as an orogeny% The re- $ion 'here mountain buildin$ is occurrin$ is re"erred to as an orogenic +one%
-(-- Continental Collisions
31 31
Fi$ure 1%>> )cont(* )c*
32 32
Plate %ectonics
The collision bet'een the (urasian and -"rican plates has resulted in the "ormation o" the -lps7 this is a relati#ely subdued continental collision and the -lpine oro$enic Bone is relati#ely narro'% *ne model "or this collision is illustrated in the cross section $i#en in Fi$ure 1C>A% - "la!e o" the upper continental crust o" the (urasian plate has o#erridden the continental crust o" the -"rican plate% The "orces associated 'ith the south'ard dippin$ subduction o" the (urasian plate has dri#en the upper (urasian crust se#eral hundred !ilometers o#er the -"rican crust% The lo'er (urasian crust has been delaminated and is bein$ subducted into the mantle 'ith the (urasian lithosphere% The underlyin$ -"rican crust is e posed throu$h the o#erlyin$ upper (urasian crust at se#eral points in the -lps% The splittin$ o" the (urasian crust at a depth o" about 1A !m re)uires an intracrustal decolle2 ment% This type o" splittin$ is o"ten obser#ed in the $eolo$ical record and is attributed to a so"t crustal rheolo$y at intermediate crustal depths% The continental collision bet'een the (urasian and the &ndian plates has resulted in a much broader oro$enic Bone that e tends throu$hout much o" 1hina% This oro$enic Bone is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>4% The collision has resulted in the "ormation o" the 9imalayas, the hi$hest and most e tensi#e mountain ran$e in the 'orld% - satellite photo$raph o" the 9imalayas loo!in$ to the north'est is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C>3% &mbedded 'ithin the 9imalayas is the &ndus suture, the actual boundary bet'een the &ndian plate and the (urasian plate% The Tibetan plateau is a broad re$ion o" ele#ated topo$raphy 'ith e tensi#e "aultin$ but #ery little recent #olcanism% Faultin$ e tends throu$hout much o" 1hina% - substantial "raction o" the lar$est historical earth)ua!es has occurred on these "aults and in many cases the death toll has been #ery hi$h% ;eports claimed that there 'ere 4AA,888 deaths durin$ the Tan$shan earth)ua!e o" July 28, 1934% The lar$est reported death toll in an earth)ua!e 'as the 888,888 deaths attributed to the Shensi earth)ua!e on January 22, 1AA4% &t is necessary to e plain 'hy this oro$enic Bone is so broad and 'hy the oro$eny is principally on the (urasian plate 'ith relati#ely little de"ormation on the &ndian plate% *ne e planation "or the asymmetric de"ormation is that the (urasian lithosphere in Tibet and 1hina 'as thin and 'ea! prior to the collision% This area may ha#e resembled the present 'estern /nited States 'hich has a 'ea! and easily de"ormable lithosphere% - simpli"ied model "or this continental collision is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C>8% The &ndian continental crust and lithosphere ha#e been thrust beneath the (urasian crust across the entire 'idth o" the Tibetan plateau% 1ontinental collisions can produce lar$e amounts o" horiBontal strain% &t is estimated that the ori$inal continental crust in the 9imalayas has been
32 32
Fi$ure 1%>A 1ross section o" the -lpine oro$enic Bone 5a"ter Schmid et al%, 19936%
shortened by 288 !m or more% Strain in the crust is accommodated by both brittle and ductile mechanisms% The brittle upper crust can be compressed and thic!ened by displacements on a series o" thrust faults that "orm a thrust $elt such as that illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>97 each o" the upthrust bloc!s "orms a mountain ran$e% Sedimentary basins o"ten "orm o#er the do'nthrust bloc!s% &n the :yomin$ thrust belt these sedimentary basins are the sites o" ma?or oil "ields% 1rustal thic!enin$ and shortenin$ resultin$ "rom thrustin$ durin$ the collision o" &ndia and -sia are illustrated in Fi$ure 1C>8% &n some cases the entire brittle part o" the continental crust is thrust o#er the ad?acent continental crust as a thrust sheet% (#idence indicates that a thrust sheet in the southern -ppalachian ,ountains e tends o#er hundreds o" !ilometers% This structure is associated 'ith the continental collision that occurred 'hen the proto--tlantic ocean closed at about 2A8 ,a% The crust can also be compressed by ductile de"ormation, one result o" 'hich is folding% The con#e up'ard or top o" a "old is !no'n as an anticline, and the conca#e up'ard or bottom o" a "old is !no'n as a syncline% *n a lar$e scale these are !no'n as anticlinoria and synclinoria% Foldin$ is illustrated in Fi$ure 1CA8% :hen a re$ion o" lar$e-scale "oldin$ is eroded, the easily eroded strata "orm #alleys, and the resistant stata "orm rid$es% This type o" #alley and rid$e topo$raphy is "ound in 0ennsyl#ania and :est +ir$inia 5Fi$ure 1CA16% The rid$es are primarily sandstone, and the #alleys are the
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%>4 Illustration of the orogenic +one resulting from the continental collision $et!een the Eurasian and Indian plates( %he ma'or faults and +ones of volcanism are sho!n( %he Indus suture is the pro$a$le $oundary $et!een the plates )after %apponier and Molnar, -<==*(
3>
3A 3A
Fi$ure 1%>3 Satellite photo$raph o" the 9imalayas and the Tibetan plateau 5<-S- STS >1G-128-88226%
result o" the erosion o" shales% The lar$e-scale "oldin$ in this area 'as also the result o" the continental collision that occurred at about 2A8 ,a% -n e treme amount o" de"ormation occurs in the "ormation o" nappes% - nappe may be either a thrust sheet or a recum$ent fold, that is, a "old 'hose limbs are almost parallel and rou$hly horiBontal 5Fi$ure 1C>A6% The e""ects o" continental collisions appear to #ary 'idely% The collision bet'een &ndia and -sia is responsible not only "or the 9imalaya ,ountains but also "or tectonics and seismicity throu$hout 1hina% &n contrast, the -lpine oro$eny in (urope is narro'ly con"ined% There is also obser#ational e#idence that the continental collision that resulted in the "ormation o" the -ppalachian ,ountains 'as relati#ely mild% This di""erence in collisional oro$enies may be attributed to the characteristics o" the oro$enic Bone prior to collision% 1hina may ha#e resembled the 'estern /nited States7 that is, its lithosphere may ha#e been #ery thin prior to collision, and it may there"ore ha#e been easily de"ormed durin$ the collision%
34 34
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%>8 - schematic cross section o" the 9imalaya and the southern Tibetan plateau sho'in$ underthrustin$ o" the &ndian continental crust and lithosphere beneath the (urasian crust% ,@T, ,ain @oundary Thrust7 ,1T, ,ain 1entral Thrust7 STD, South Tibetan Detachment 5a"ter ]hao and <elson, 19926%
Fi$ure 1%>9 9oriBontal compression resultin$ in continental collision and a series o" thrust "aults% (ach upli"ted bloc! creates a mountain ran$e and each do'ndropped bloc! a sedimentary basin%
1%12 +olcanism and 9eat Flo' -s 'e ha#e pre#iously discussed, #olcanism is associated 'ith both accretionary plate mar$ins and subduction Bones% The 'orld'ide distribution o" acti#e #olcanoes is sho'n in Fi$ure 1CA2% 1learly, most #olcanoes are associated 'ith plate mar$ins% 1ontinuous #olcanism occurs alon$ the 'orld'ide ocean rid$e system, 'here it "orms the 4-!m-thic! basaltic oceanic crust% *nly a small "raction o" this #olcanism is included in the distribution o" acti#e #olcanoes $i#en in Fi$ure 1CA27 the remainder occurs on the sea"loor, 'here it cannot be readily obser#ed% The linear chains o" acti#e #olcanoes associated 'ith ocean trenches are clearly illustrated in Fi$ure 1CA2% 9o'e#er, si$ni"icant $aps in the chains do occur e#en 'hen acti#e subduction is $oin$ on% ( amples are in 0eru and central 1hile%
-(-4 Colcanism and 9eat Flo!
33 33
Fi$ure 1%A8 .ar$e-scale "oldin$ resultin$ "rom horiBontal compression% The easily eroded strata "orm #alleys, and the resisti#e strata "orm rid$es%
:hile a lar$e "raction o" the (arths #olcanism can be directly attributed to plate boundaries, there are many e ceptions% The most ob#ious e ample is the #olcanism o" the 9a'aiian &slands% This intraplate #olcanism occurs near the center o" the 0aci"ic plate% -s discussed in Section 1C4 centers o" intraplate #olcanism are re"erred to as hotspots% The locations o" thirty hotspots are $i#en in Table 1C2 and the distribution o" t'enty hotspots is sho'n on the map in Fi$ure 1C1>% These are both intraplate hotspots and hotspots located on or near oceanic rid$es% *ne e ample o" a hotspot on an oceanic rid$e is &celand, 'here #ery hi$h rates o" #olcanism ha#e produced anomalously thic! oceanic crust% *ther e amples are the -Bores and Galapa$os &slands, 'here anomalous #olcanism has produced $roups o" islands near an ocean rid$e% &n many 'ays hotspot #olcanics are notable "or their di""erences rather than their similarities% :e 'ill no' discuss in some'hat more detail the hotspot #olcanics o" -"rica and 'estern <orth -merica% The distribution o" #olcanic roc!s in -"rica that are youn$er than 24 million years is sho'n in Fi$ure 1CA2% -cti#e #olcanism is occurrin$ throu$hout much o" -"rica% The (ast -"rican ri"t system is a nearly linear "eature e tendin$ south'est se#eral thousand !ilometers "rom its ?unction 'ith the ;ed Sea and the Gul" o" -den% The ri"t is characteriBed by tensional tectonics and horiBontal e tension% -s discussed pre#iously, the ri"t may represent the "irst sta$e o" continental rupture% The (ast -"rican ri"t is also characteriBed by near-circular re$ions o" el- e#ated topo$raphy re"erred to as s!ells% The relationship o" these "eatures to the ri"tin$ process is uncertain% They may be associated 'ith con#ecti#e plumes in the mantle% -n alternati#e hypothesis "or continental ri"ts is that they are the direct result o" tensional stresses in the lithosphere% The
38 38
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%A1 Space shuttle radar ima$e o" the -ppalachian "oldbelt in 0ennsyl#ania% The more resistant strata such as sandstones "orm the narro' rid$es 5<-S- 0&-812846%
tensional stresses cause the continental lithosphere to rupture, leadin$ to #olcanism and upli"t% *ther areas o" e tensi#e #olcanism in -"rica are the Tibesti area in northeast 1had and 9o$$ar to the 'est% &n addition to #olcanism these areas are associated 'ith crustal s'ells7 ho'e#er, they do not appear to be associated 'ith any linear "eatures% The 9aru? #olcanics north o" Tibesti are not associated 'ith any apparent crustal ele#ation% -d?acent to the continental mar$in in the Gul" o" Guinea is the 1ameroon line o" recent #olcanics% This is a series o" acti#e #olcanic centers that pass "rom oceanic onto continental crust% -lthou$h this is a linear chain o" #olcanic centers, the linear pro$ression in time is not 'ell de"ined% Farther to the north on the continental mar$in o" -"rica lie the 1anary &slands% &n this $roup o" #olcanic islands, #olcanism has been centered "or a lon$ period% &t is e#ident that #ery di#erse types o" intraplate #olcanism occur in -"rica%
39 39
Fi$ure 1%A2 Distribution o" acti#e #olcanoes in the Guaternary%
&t is not clear 'hether all this #olcanism can be attributed to a sin$le mechanism% &" mantle plumes are responsible "or this #olcanism, ho' many are re)uiredO :hy does the #olcanism in -"rica ha#e such a #ariety o" "ormsO The 'estern /nited States is another area o" e tensi#e #olcanism% The distribution o" recent sur"ace #olcanic roc!s 5'ith a$es o" less than 3 million years6 is $i#en in Fi$ure 1CA>% @ecause the San -ndreas "ault in 1ali"ornia is reco$niBed as a ma?or plate boundary bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates, the #olcanism o" this area may be classi"ied as bein$ platemar$in-related7 ho'e#er, the #olcanism e tends more than 1A88 !m "rom the plate mar$in% =ello'stone <ational 0ar! in the north'est corner o" :yomin$ is the center o" e tensi#e recent #olcanism that occurs at the end o" a trac! o" #olcanism that e tends alon$ the Sna!e ;i#er plain% For this reason the =ello'stone area is classi"ied as a hotspot 5see Fi$ure 1C1>6, and it is thus a possible site o" a mantle plume% The a$es o" sur"ace #olcanic roc!s on the Sna!e ;i#er plain are $i#en as a "unction o" the distance "rom =ello'stone in Fi$ure 1CAA% The a$es o" the oldest #olcanic roc!s tend to increase 'ith distance "rom =ello'stone7 ho'e#er, youn$ #olcanic roc!s occur alon$ much o" the len$th o" the Sna!e ;i#er plain% &t is di""icult to associate these youn$ #olcanics, 'hich e tend o#er a distance o" some A88 !m, 'ith a sin$le meltin$
88 88
Plate %ectonics
anomaly beneath =ello'stone% -lso, it is clear "rom Fi$ure 1CA> that #ery youn$ #olcanics e tend throu$hout the 'estern /nited States% Some o" these #olcanics "orm the #olcanic line associated 'ith subduction o" the Juan de Fuca plate beneath :ashin$ton, *re$on, and northern 1ali"ornia% @ut much #olcanism remains une plained% Small amounts o" #olcanism appear to be associated 'ith the tensional tectonics o" the ;io Grande ri"t in <e' ,e ico and the @asin and ;an$e pro#ince in <e#ada and -riBona% Further discussion o" this is $i#en in the ne t section% +ariations in sur"ace heat "lo' can also be correlated 'ith the distribution o" plates% *n a 'orld'ide basis the a#era$e sur"ace heat "lo' is about 83 m: m 2 % For roc!s 'ith an a#era$e thermal conducti#ity this corresponds to an increase in temperature 'ith depth o" 2A E !m 1 % The heat bein$ lost to the sur"ace o" the (arth can be attributed to the heat produced by the decay o" the radioacti#e isotopes and to the coolin$ o" the (arth% 0late mar$ins and other areas 'here #olcanism occurs are $enerally characteriBed by sur"ace heat "lo's much hi$her than the a#era$e #alue ?ust $i#en% The hi$h heat "lo's may be the result o" a thin lithosphere or, in some cases, the mi$ration o" ma$ma throu$h a relati#ely thic! lithosphere% The coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere as it spreads "rom an oceanic rid$e leads to a systematic decrease 'ith a$e in the heat "lu to the sea"loor%
81 81
Fi$ure 1%A2 Distribution o" #olcanic roc!s in -"rica% Dar! areas are sur"ace #olcanic roc!s 'ith a$es less than 24 ,a% -lso sho'n are some o" the tectonic pro#inces and areas o" crustal domin$%
82 82
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%A> Distribution o" recent #olcanic roc!s in the 'estern /nited States% Dar! areas are roc!s youn$er than 1%A ,a7 shaded areas are roc!s 'ith a$es bet'een 1%A and 3 ,a%
82 82
Fi$ure 1%AA -$es o" #olcanic roc!s in the Sna!e ;i#er plain as a "unction o" the distance "rom =ello'stone 1aldera%
Fi$ure 1%A4 *ld Faith"ul Geyser in =ello'stone <ational 0ar!, :yomin$ 5J% ;% Stacy 492, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6%
8> 8>
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%A3 Global distribution o" earth)ua!es 'ith ma$nitudes $reater than A%1 "or the period 194>C199A 5(n$dahl et al%, 19986%
The occurrence o" hot sprin$s is also stron$ly correlated 'ith #olcanism% &n continental areas 'ith no #olcanism, the temperatures o" sprin$s seldom e ceed 292 E% ,ost boilin$ hot sprin$s and $eysers 5Fi$ure 1CA46 are directly associated 'ith the coolin$ o" a ma$ma body at a relati#ely shallo' depth% The circulation o" heated $round 'ater near a coolin$ intrusion accelerates the solidi"ication o" the intrusion and plays an important role in the emplacement o" ore deposits% ,inerals dissol#e in the hot 'ater7 'hen the 'ater boils or is cooled, the minerals precipitate to "orm ore deposits% 9ydrothermal circulation o" sea'ater in the oceanic crust also is belie#ed to play a si$ni"icant role in remo#in$ the heat at ocean rid$es and in concentratin$ minerals on the sea"loor and in the oceanic crust% ( ploration 'ith the deep submersible lvin has pro#ided actual obser#ations o" hot 'ater "rom the crust #entin$ directly to the ocean% Submarine thermal sprin$s ha#e been disco#ered on the GalKapa$os ri"t and the (ast 0aci"ic rise crest% Spectacular submarine hot sprin$s 'ith e it 'ater temperatures near 388 E ha#e also been disco#ered at the latter location%
-(-5 "eismicity and the "tate of "tress in the Lithosphere
8A 8A
Fi$ure 1%A8 +ie' alon$ the San -ndreas "ault in 1hoia +alley% <ote the streams ha#e been o""set by the ri$ht-lateral displacement on the "ault 5;% (% :allace 28>, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6%
1%12 Seismicity .ithosphere
and the State o"
Stress
in the
Just as in the case o" #olcanoes, the occurrences o" earth)ua!es stron$ly correlate 'ith plate boundaries% The 'orld'ide distribution o" seismicity is illustrated in Fi$ure 1CA3% (arth)ua!es occur on all types o" plate boundaries7 ho'e#er, subduction Bones and areas o" continental collision are noted "or their #ery lar$e earth)ua!es% .ar$e earth)ua!es also occur in plate interiors but 'ith a much lo'er "re)uency% (arth)ua!es are associated 'ith displacements on pree istin$ "aults% typical displacement in a #ery lar$e earth)ua!e is 18 m% &" the relati#e 1 #elocity across a plate boundary is A8 mm yr , it 'ould ta!e 288 years to accumulate this displacement% .ar$e earth)ua!es at subduction Bones and ma?or trans"orm "aults such as the San -ndreas reoccur in about this period% Since re$ular displacements do not ha#e to be accommodated in plate interiors, the period bet'een ma?or intraplate earth)ua!es is much lon$er% The near-sur"ace e pressions o" ma?or "aults are broad Bones o" "ractured roc! 'ith a 'idth o" a !ilometer or more 5Fi$ure 1CA86% Smaller "aults may ha#e Bones o" fault gouge 'ith 'idths o" a "e' centimeters or less% Small
84 84
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%A9 1ross sections o" 5a6 a normal "ault and 5b6 a thrust "ault and top #ie's o" 5c6 ri$ht-lateral and 5d6 le"t-lateral stri!e-slip "aults%
"aults $rade do'n to roc! "ractures across 'hich there is no o""set displacement% The total o""set across ma?or "aults may be hundreds o" !ilometers% - "ault Bone is a Bone o" 'ea!ness% :hen the re$ional stress le#el becomes su""iciently lar$e, the "ault ruptures and an earth)ua!e occurs% There is e - tensi#e $eolo$ical e#idence that "aults become reacti#ated% .ar$e stresses can reacti#ate "aults that ha#e been inacti#e "or tens or hundreds o" millions o" years% The direction o" the displacement on a "ault can be used to determine the state o" stress responsible "or the displacement% Since #oids cannot be created in the (arths deep interior, displacements on "aults are parallel to the "ault sur"ace% &" a re$ion is in a state o" tensional stress, normal faulting 'ill occur, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1CA9a% &" a re$ion is in a state o" compressional stress, thrust faulting 'ill occur, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C A9b% &" a re$ion is in a state o" shear, stri,e/slip "aultin$ 'ill occur, as illustrated in Fi$ures 1CA9c and 1CA9d% &", to an obser#er standin$ on one side o" the "ault, the motion on the other side o" the "ault is to the le"t, the "ault is a left2lateral or sinistral stri!eCslip "ault% &" the motion on the other side o" the "ault is to the ri$ht, it is a right2lateral or de#tral stri!eCslip "ault% The displacement durin$ many earth)ua!es combines the horiBontal displacement associated 'ith stri!eCslip "aultin$ and the #ertical displacement associated 'ith either normal or thrust "aultin$% -s discussed pre#iously, the lithosphere can transmit stress o#er lar$e distances% There are se#eral sources "or the stress in the lithosphere% *ne source is the body "orces that dri#e the motion o" the sur"ace plates% These include the ne$ati#e buoyancy on the descendin$ plate at a subduction Bone and the
$ra#itational slidin$ o" a plate o"" an ocean rid$e% 1han$es o" temperature lead to thermal stresses% :hen the temperature increases or decreases, roc! e pands or contracts% The e pansion or contraction can cause #ery lar$e stresses% (rosion and sedimentation also cause a buildup o" stress throu$h the addition or remo#al o" sur"ace loads% Glaciation and de$laciation act similarly% @ecause the (arth is not a per"ect sphere but rather a spheroid 'ith polar "lattenin$ and an e)uatorial bul$e, plates must de"orm as they chan$e latitude% This de"ormation leads to mem$rane stresses in the lithosphere% 0late interactions such as continental collisions are an important source o" stress% .ar$e displacements o" the cool, nearsur"ace roc!s o"ten occur in these Bones% &" these de"ormations occur on "aults, hi$h stress le#els and ma- ?or earth)ua!es can be e pected% The state o" stress in the lithosphere is the result o" all these "actors and other contributions% -s a speci"ic e ample o" seismicity and stress 'e a$ain turn to the 'estern /nited States% The distribution o" seismicity in this re$ion is $i#en in Fi$ure 1C48% -lso included in the "i$ure are the relati#e #elocities bet'een plates and the directions o" lithospheric stress in"erred "rom displacements on "aults% The Juan de Fuca plate is bein$ "ormed on the Juan de Fuca rid$e 'ith a hal"-spreadin$ rate o" 29 mm yr 1 % The seismicity on a trans"orm "ault o""settin$ t'o se$ments o" the rid$e is clearly illustrated% @ecause the lithosphere is thin at the rid$e and the roc!s are hot and 'ea!, relati#ely little seismicity is associated 'ith the spreadin$ center at the rid$e crest% The Juan de Fuca plate is bein$ subducted at a rate o" about 1A mm yr 1 at a trench alon$ the *re$on and :ashin$ton coasts% The seismicity in *re$on and :ashin$ton associated 'ith this subduction is also relati#ely 'ea!% This may be due to aseismic slip on the "ault Bone bet'een the descendin$ oceanic plate and the o#erlyin$ continental lithosphere% &n this case the relati#e displacement is accommodated 'ithout the buildup o" the lar$e stresses re)uired "or e tensi#e seismicity% -n alternati#e e planation is that the accumulated displacement 'as relie#ed in a $reat earth)ua!e se#eral hundred years a$o and insu""icient displacement has accumulated to cause hi$h stresses% The historic record o" earth)ua!es in the 'estern /nited States is relati#ely short, and since the subduction #elocity is )uite small, the recurrence period 'ould be e pected to be o" the order o" A88 years% -lthou$h the e tensi#e seismicity usually associated 'ith acti#e subduction is absent in the 0aci"ic <orth'est, a 'ellde"ined line o" acti#e #olcanoes lies parallel to the trench% The #olcanoes e tend "rom ,ount @a!er in :ashin$ton to ,ount Shasta in northern 1ali"ornia% These #olcanoes ha#e had #iolent eruptions throu$hout the recent $eolo$ical past% -n eruption about 4888 years a$o remo#ed the upper 2 !m o" ,ount ,aBama, creatin$ 1rater
83 83
88 88
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%48 Distribution o" seismicity in the $eolo$ical pro#inces o" the 'estern /nited States 5stars6% Solid arro's $i#e relati#e plate #elocities7 open arro's $i#e stress directions in"erred "rom seismic "ocal mechanism studies%
.a!e in *re$on% The spectacular eruption o" ,ount St% 9elens, :ashin$ton 5Fi$ure 1C186, on ,ay 18, 1988, ble' out its entire north "lan!, a #olume o" about 4 !m2 % The #elocity bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates is >3 mm yr 1 in 1ali"ornia% - lar$e "raction o" this is accommodated by displacements on the San -ndreas "ault% &n the north the "ault terminates in a "aultC"aultC trench 5FFT6 triple ?unction 'ith the Juan de Fuca plate% &n the south the "ault terminates in a series o" small spreadin$ centers 5ocean rid$es6 e tendin$ do'n the Gul" o" 1ali"ornia% -lon$ much o" the "ault, displacements are almost entirely ri$ht-lateral stri!eCslip% 9o'e#er, north o" .os -n$eles the "ault bends, introducin$ a thrustin$ component% ,otion on thrust "aults in
this re$ion is responsible "or the "ormation o" a series o" mountain ran$es !no'n as the Trans#erse ;an$es%
89 89
- $reat earth)ua!e occurred on the northern section o" the San -ndreas "ault in 19847 the a#era$e displacement 'as > m% - $reat earth)ua!e occurred on the southern section o" the San -ndreas "ault in 18A37 the a#era$e displacement 'as 3 m% - detailed discussion o" the San -ndreas "ault is $i#en in Section 8C8% &t is clear that the displacements on accretin$ plate mar$ins, subduction Bones, and trans"orm "aults cannot e plain the entire distribution o" seismicity in the 'estern /nited States% ,a?or earth)ua!es occur throu$hout the re$ion% ;apid mountain buildin$ is associated 'ith the ;oc!y ,ountains and the Sierra <e#ada% The @asin and ;an$e pro#ince is a re$ion o" e tensi#e normal "aultin$% The presence o" many $raben structures is e#idence o" crustal e tension due to tensional stresses% The asthenosphere rises to the base o" the continental crust in this re$ion, and the lithosphere is thin and 'ea!% 1onsiderable #olcanism occurs throu$hout the pro#ince% The ;io Grande ri"t, 'hich mar!s the eastern boundary o" this area o" #olcanism, seismicity, and mountain buildin$, is also an e tensional "eature% The stress directions sho'n in Fi$ure 1C48 indicate the entire 'estern /nited States appears to be e tendin$ because o" tensional stresses% -lthou$h there is no comprehensi#e understandin$ o" this area, it is li!ely that the seismicity, #olcanism, and mountain buildin$ are the result o" comple interactions o" the 0aci"ic, <orth -merican, and Juan de Fuca plates that are de"ormin$ the entire re$ion% &t is li!ely that there is a $eometrical incompatibility bet'een the stri!eCslip motion on the San -ndreas "ault and the time-dependent relati#e displacement bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates% -s a result the 'estern part o" the <orth -merican plate is bein$ de"ormed% 1hina is another re$ion o" e tensi#e tectonics% &t is the site o" e tensi#e seismicity and mountain buildin$% De"ormation associated 'ith the continental collision bet'een &ndia and -sia e tends se#eral thousands o" !ilometers north o" the suture Bone% Seismicity can also occur in plate interiors% -n e ample is <e' ,adrid, ,issouri, 'here three #ery lar$e earth)ua!es struc! in 1811 and 1812% si$ni"icant number o" small earth)ua!es occur in this re$ion at the present time% &t should not be surprisin$ that earth)ua!es occur in plate interiors, since the elastic lithosphere can transmit lar$e stresses% These intraplate earth)ua!es are li!ely to occur 'here the elastic properties o" the plate chan$e and stress concentrates%
98 98
Plate %ectonics
1%1> The Dri#in$ ,echanism
0late tectonics pro#ides a $eneral "rame'or! "or understandin$ the 'orld'ide distribution o" seismicity, #olcanism, and mountain buildin$% These phenomena are lar$ely associated 'ith plate interactions at plate mar$ins% 9o'e#er, an e planation must also be $i#en "or the relati#e motions o" the plates% The basic mechanism responsible "or plate tectonics must pro#ide the ener$y "or the earth)ua!es, #olcanism, and mountain buildin$% The only source o" ener$y o" su""icient ma$nitude is heat "rom the interior o" the (arth% This heat is the result o" the radioacti#e decay o" the uranium isotopes 228 / and 22A /, the thorium isotope 222 Th, and the potassium isotope >8 E as 'ell as the coolin$ o" the (arth% -n accurate estimate o" the heat lost "rom the interior o" the (arth can be obtained "rom measurements o" the sur"ace heat "lo'% The ener$y associated 'ith seismicity, #olcanism, and mountain buildin$ is about 1N o" the heat "lo' to the sur"ace% 9eat can be con#erted to directed motion by thermal convection% 1onsider a horiBontal "luid layer in a $ra#itational "ield that is heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e% The cool "luid near the upper boundary is hea#ier than the hotter "luid in the layer% @uoyancy "orces cause the cool "luid to sin!, and it is replaced by hot risin$ "luid% .aboratory e periments sho' that under appropriate conditions t'o-dimensional con#ection cells de#elop, as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C41% - thin thermal $oundary layer o" cool "luid "orms ad?acent to the upper boundary o" the layer% Thermal boundary layers "rom t'o ad?acent cells mer$e and separate "rom the upper boundary to "orm a cool descending plume% The ne$ati#e buoyancy o" the cool descendin$ plume dri#es the "lo'% The thin thermal boundary layer is directly analo$ous to the lithosphere% The separation o" the thermal boundary layers to "orm the cool descendin$ plume is analo$ous to subduction% The buoyancy body "orce on the cool descendin$ plume is analo$ous to the body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere% -scendin$ mantle plumes can also be associated 'ith thermal con#ection% There is e pected to be a hot thermal boundary layer at the base o" the con#ectin$ mantle% @uoyancy "orces on the lo'-density mantle roc! 'ould be e pected to "orm hot ascendin$ plumes either at the base o" the mantle 5the D -layer o" seismolo$y6 or at an inter"ace in the lo'er mantle bet'een an upper con#ectin$ layer and an isolated lo'er layer% The "luidli!e beha#ior o" the (arths crystalline mantle can be e plained by solid-state creep processes% -t lo' stress le#els and temperatures approachin$ the roc! solidus, the dominant creep process is the di""usion o" ions and #acancies throu$h the crystal lattice% This di""usion relie#es an
-(-> Comparative Planetology
91 91
Fi$ure 1%41 @oundary layer model "or t'o-dimensional thermal con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e%
applied stress and results in strain% The strain rate is proportional to the stress, resultin$ in a 8e!tonian fluid $ehavior% -t hi$her stress le#els creep is the result o" the mo#ement o" dislocations throu$h the crystal lattice% &n this case, the strain rate is proportional to the third po'er o" the stress, resultin$ in a non28e!tonian fluid $ehavior% @oth di""usion creep and dislocation creep are thermally acti#ated7 that is, the strain rates are in#ersely proportional to the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature% The strain rate in the mantle is so small that it cannot be reproduced in the laboratory% 9o'e#er, e trapolations o" laboratory measurements $i#e "luid properties consistent 'ith thermal con#ection in the mantle% &ndependent in"ormation on the "luid beha#ior o" the mantle comes "rom studies o" $lacial loadin$ and unloadin$% :hen an ice sheet "orms, its 'ei$ht "orces mantle roc! to "lo' "rom beneath it, and the (arths sur"ace subsides% :hen the ice sheet melts, the mantle roc! returns, and the (arths sur"ace rebounds% &t ta!es about 18,888 years "or the rebound to ta!e place% Data on the rate o" rebound come "rom dated, ele#ated beaches% These data ha#e been used to obtain a #iscosity "or the mantle o" about 1821 0a s% -lthou$h this #iscosity is lar$e, it allo's a "luid beha#ior o" the mantle on $eolo$ical time scales%
1%1A 1omparati#e 0lanetolo$y Space missions ha#e pro#ided e tensi#e in"ormation on the other planets and the planetary satellites o" the solar system% &t appears that plate tectonics is
92 92
Plate %ectonics
uni)ue to the (arth% The ,oon and ,ercury ha#e continuous lithospheres 'hose sur"aces ha#e been shaped lar$ely by impacts and #olcanic processes% -lthou$h impact craterin$ and #olcanism ha#e also been pre#alent on ,ars, its sur"ace has also been modi"ied by its atmosphere and the "lo' o" a sur"ace "luid, presumably 'ater% 1loud-co#ered +enus has yielded its secrets to the eyes o" (arth-based and spacecra"t radar systems% 1raterin$ and #olcanism ha#e e tensi#ely modi"ied its sur"ace, but there is no direct e#idence o" plate tectonic "eatures such as e tensi#e rid$e or trench systems% The Galilean satellites o" Jupiter ha#e been sho'n to ha#e #ery di#erse "eatures includin$ #ery acti#e #olcanism on &o% The sur"ace o" Ganymede sho's impact craters and tectonic structures resultin$ "rom dynamical processes in an underlyin$ predominantly ice lithosphere% 1allisto is a hea#ily cratered ob?ect about the same siBe as Ganymede, but there is no si$n that its sur"ace has been altered by internal acti#ity% (uropa is mainly a roc!y ob?ect, some'hat smaller than the ,oon, 'ith a relati#ely thin outer shell o" 'ater that is ice at the sur"ace but may be li)uid at depth% The sur"ace o" &o has been recently "ormed by a style o" #olcanism apparently uni)ue to that body% &o is the only body in the solar system, other than the (arth, on 'hich 'e ha#e obser#ed acti#e #olcanism7 this satellite is the most #olcanically acti#e body in the solar system% .ithospheric plate e#olution has destroyed much o" the e#idence o" the early e#olution o" the (arth by continuously creatin$ ne' sur"ace roc!s and returnin$ old sur"ace roc!s to the mantle% The per#asi#e #olcanism o" &o has had the same e""ect by blan!etin$ the sur"ace 'ith recently "ormed la#as% 9o'e#er, bodies such as ,ercury, the ,oon, 1allisto, and the satellites o" ,ars preser#e the early records o" their e#olutions in their cratered sur"aces and thereby pro#ide in"ormation on the early history o" the solar system% Some o" the physical properties o" the terrestrial-li!e bodies o" the solar system are summariBed in -ppendi 2, Section 1%
1%14 The ,oon (arly telescopic obser#ations sho'ed that the near side o" the ,oon is composed o" t'o types o" sur"acesF topo$raphically lo', dar! areas-re"erred to as maria 5or seas6 and topo$raphically ele#ated, li$ht areas !no'n as highlands 5Fi$ure 1C426% The hi$hlands are more hea#ily cratered and are there"ore presumed to be older because the "lu o" meteorities is !no'n to ha#e decreased 'ith time% @ecause o" its synchronous rotation 'ith respect to the (arth, the "ar side o" the ,oon 'as "irst obser#ed "rom spacecra"t in lunar
-(-? %he Moon
92 92
Fi$ure 1%42 Full hemispheric ima$e o" the ,oon ta!en by the Galileo spacecra"t on December 3, 1992, on its 'ay to e plore the Jupiter system in 199AC93% The distinct bri$ht ray crater at the bottom o" the ima$e is the Tycho impact basin% The dar! areas are basaltic-roc!-"illed impact basinsF *ceanus 0rocellarum 5on the le"t6, ,are &mbrium 5center le"t6, ,are Serenitatis and ,are Tran)uillitatis 5center6, and ,are 1risium 5near the ri$ht ed$e6 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-88>8A6%
orbit% 9i$hland terrain dominates the "ar side o" the ,oon7 there are no e tensi#e maria on the "arside lunar sur"ace% The "irst manned landin$ on the ,oon too! place on July 28, 1949% This -pollo 11 mission as 'ell as the subse)uent -pollo 12, 1A, and 13 missions landed on the lunar maria% 1hemical studies o" the roc!s returned on these missions sho'ed that the maria are composed o" basaltic roc!s similar in ma?or element chemistry to the basalts o" the oceanic crust% ;adioacti#e datin$ o" these roc!s $i#es a$es o" 2%14 to 2%9 Ga% The -pollo 1> and 14 missions returned samples "rom the lunar hi$hlands% These roc!s ha#e a much more comple chemical history than the mare roc!s% They ha#e been e tensi#ely shoc!ed and melted by meteorite bombardment% Detailed chemical studies ha#e sho'n, ho'e#er, that these roc!s are hi$hly "ractionated i$neous roc!s% ;adioacti#e datin$ o" the hi$h- land roc!s indicates that they crystalliBed about >%A Ga a$o, close to the estimated a$e o" the solar system% The e#olution o" the ,oon can be di#ided into three phasesF 516 hi$hlands
9> 9>
Plate %ectonics
"ormation, 526 mare "ormation, and 526 sur"ace )uiescence% The hi$hlands o" the ,oon "ormed early in its e#olution, one hypothesis bein$ that they crystalliBed "rom a $lobal magma ocean% &t is di""icult to date the crystalliBation o" the hi$hlands e actly, but it certainly terminated by >%8 Ga and probably be"ore >%> Ga% The terminal bombardment bet'een 2%8 and >%8 Ga resulted in the e ca#ation o" many lar$e, deep basins% These basins, particularly on the nearside, 'ere subse)uently "illed by mare basaltic #olcanism% The lunar maria constitute some 13N o" the sur"ace area% *ne o" the ma?or disco#eries o" the -pollo missions 'as that the ,oon is made up o" a #ariety o" i$neous roc! types that di""er 'idely in both their chemistry and mineral composition% The ma?or di""erences bet'een the lunar maria and hi$hlands indicate lar$e-scale chemical di""erentiation o" the ,oon% (arly reco$nition o" the "act that the hi$hlands are composed mostly o" pla$ioclase, a relati#ely li$ht mineral, led to the su$$estion that this mineral represents crystal "lotation at the top o" a deep ma$ma ocean% The basic ar$ument "or a Lma$ma oceanM is the need "or a mechanism to "loat a pla$ioclase-rich crust, 'hile denser minerals such as oli#ine and pyro ene sin!% -s the ,oon "ormed, its outer portions consisted o" a layer o" molten silicate ma$ma in 'hich pla$ioclase "loated and accumulated into the "irst stable lunar crust% The solidi"ication o" the ma$ma ocean must ha#e occurred in about 188 ,yr a"ter the "ormation o" the solar system because o" the a$e o" the returned lunar samples% Seismic studies carried out on the -pollo missions sho'ed that the lunar crust has a thic!ness bet'een 48 and 188 !m% Seis- mic #elocities and the mean density o" the ,oon indicate that the lunar mantle is composed primarily o" peridotite similar to the (arths mantle% &t is hypothesiBed that the lunar crust represents about a 28N partial melt "raction o" a primiti#e lunar mantle 'ith a composition similar to pyrolite% &t is e pected that there is a layer o" depleted mantle roc! beneath the lunar crust 'ith a thic!ness o" about 288CA88 !m% Subse)uent to the solidi"ication o" the ma$ma ocean, the morpholo$y o" the lunar sur"ace 'as stron$ly a""ected by collisions 'ith the remainin$ planetesimals and lar$e meteorites% These collisions created lar$e basins7 the lar$est o" the collidin$ bodies created the &mbrium basin, an e#ent that has been dated at 2%84 Ga% - period o" #olcanism lastin$ 1 Gyr then "illed the "loors o" these pree istin$ impact basins 'ith the dar! basaltic roc!s that "orm the lunar maria% This #olcanism terminated at about 2 Ga% Since then the lunar sur"ace has remained #irtually unaltered% -ll o" the smooth dar! re$ions #isible on the ,oons nearside consist o" basaltic roc!s that partly or completely "ill the multirin$ mare basins%
-(-? %he Moon
<early all o" the basalts occur on the nearside% - si$ni"icant time inter#al elapsed bet'een the "ormation o" a lar$e mare basin by impact and its subse)uent "illin$ 'ith basaltic ma$ma "lo's to "orm a dar! lunar maria% 1urrent in"ormation dates the &mbrium basin at 2%84 Ga, but the la#as that "ill it date at about 2%2 Ga% The primary land"orms resultin$ "rom lunar basaltic #olcanism are #ast, smooth plains, indicatin$ lo' la#a #iscosities and hi$h eruption rates% ,a?or basaltic eruptions lasted a minimum o" 888 million years, i%e%, "rom 2%9 to 2%1 Ga% *n the basis o" lo' crater densities on some "ormations, minor eruptions could ha#e continued until as recently as 2 Ga% -lthou$h lunar roc!s are similar to i$neous roc!s on the (arth, there are si$ni"icant di""erences bet'een the t'o bodies% /nli!e the (arth, the ,oon does not ha#e a lar$e iron core% The ,oon may ha#e a small iron core, but its radius is constrained by the measured #alues o" lunar mass, radius, and moment o" inertia to ha#e a #alue less than about 2A8 !m% Since the mean density o" the ,oon is only 22>8 !$ m 2 , the missin$ iron cannot be distributed throu$h the lunar mantle% &t is there"ore concluded that the ,oon is de"icient in metallic iron relati#e to the (arth% The ,oon also has "e'er #olatile elements than the (arth7 there is no e#idence o" a si$ni"icant presence o" 'ater durin$ the e#olution o" the ,oon% ,a$netic "ield measurements 'ere made by small satellites le"t in lunar orbit by the -pollo 1A and 14 missions% -lthou$h localiBed re$ions o" ma$netiBed roc! 'ere detected by the subsatellites, no $lobal lunar ma$netic "ield could be measured% - lunar ma$netic dipole moment can be no lar$er than 1814 - m2 % This is nearly se#en orders o" ma$nitude smaller than the (arths dipole moment% The absence o" a present-day $lobal lunar ma$netic "ield is presumably due to the absence o" an acti#e dynamo in the ,oon% This may indicate that the ,oon has no core7 on the other hand, a small lunar core could ha#e cooled, or solidi"ied, su""iciently so that con#ecti#e motions in it are no lon$er possible% &t has been su$$ested that the localiBed areas o" remanent lunar ma$netism 'ere ma$netiBed in the ambient "ield o" an ancient lunar dynamo% The ,oon is the only body other than the (arth "or 'hich 'e ha#e in situ determinations o" the sur"ace heat "lu % T'o lunar heat "lo' measurements ha#e been made, one on the -pollo 1A mission and the other on -pollo 13% The measured heat "lo' #alues are 28 m: m 2 and 14 m: m 2 % -lthou$h these t'o determinations may not be representati#e o" the a#era$e lunar heat "lo', the #alues are consistent 'ith the (arths sur"ace heat loss i" the di""erences in the siBes o" the planets are accounted "or% The lunar $ra#ity "ield is !no'n )uite 'ell "rom the radio trac!in$ o"
9A 9A
94 94
Plate %ectonics
the many spacecra"t that ha#e been placed in lunar orbit% - map o" the ,oons $ra#ity "ield is sho'n in a later chapter 5Fi$ure AC126% The lunar maria are sites o" positi#e $ra#ity anomalies, or e cess concentrations o" mass !no'n as mascons% These sur"ace loads appear to be supported by the lunar lithosphere, an obser#ation that implies that the ,oons lithosphere is thic!er and there"ore stron$er than the (arths% The (arths lithosphere is not thic! enou$h to support lar$e e cess loads C mountains, "or e ample C 'ith the conse)uence that such loads tend to depress the lithosphere and subside% Since the maria 'ere "ormed by 2 Ga, the ,oons lithosphere must ha#e thic!ened su""iciently by then to support the mascons% The ,oons motion about the (arth is pro$rade7 that is, it rotates in the same sense as the rotation o" the planets about the sun% &n its present prograde or$it the tidal interactions bet'een the (arth and the ,oon cause the separation bet'een the bodies to increase7 in the past the ,oon 'as closer to the (arth% ( trapolation o" the present rate o" tidal dissipation bac! in time 'ould brin$ the ,oon to 'ithin a "e' (arth radii o" the (arth bet'een 1%A and 2 Ga% Since there is little e#idence to support a close approach o" the t'o bodies durin$ this period, it is presumed that the rate o" tidal dissipation in the past has been lo'er than at present% <e#ertheless, it is hi$hly li!ely that the ,oon has been considerably closer to the (arth than it is today% Theories "or the ori$in o" the ,oon ha#e been debated "or more than a century% The classic theories claim 516 that the ,oon "ormed as a separate planet and 'as captured by the (arth, 526 that the ,oon 'as ori$inally part o" the (arth and that the (arth bro!e into t'o parts, and 526 that the (arth and moon "ormed as a $inary planet% <one o" these theories has been able to satis"y all the ma?or constraints on lunar ori$in, 'hich include the lar$e pro$rade an$ular momentum o" the (arthC ,oon system relati#e to the other planets and the ,oons depletion in #olatile elements and iron compared 'ith the cosmic 5chondritic6 abundances% -nother theory pro- poses that the ,oon "ormed by accretin$ "rom a disc o" e?ecta orbitin$ the (arth a"ter the impact o" a ,ars-siBe body 'ith the (arth% The $iant impact ori$in o" the ,oon has $ained 'idespread support because it does not #iolate any o" the ma?or obser#ational constraints on lunar ori$in% *ne o" the ma?or conse)uences o" the $iant impact hypothesis o" lunar ori$in is a hot, partially molten 5or perhaps completely molten6 ,oon upon accretion "rom the circumterrestrial e?ecta dis!%
-(-= Mercury
93
Fi$ure 1%42 9emispheric ima$e o" ,ercury ac)uired by the ,ariner 18 spacecra"t on ,arch 2>, 193> 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-88>236%
1%13 ,ercury -lthou$h it is the smallest o" the terrestrial planets, ,ercury is the densest 5-ppendi 2, Section 16% &" the planet has the cosmic abundance o" hea#y elements, then its lar$e density re)uires that ,ercury is 48N to 38N Fe by mass% :ith the iron concentrated in a central core, ,ercury could best be described as a ball o" iron surrounded by a thin silicate shell% &n photo$raphs obtained by the ,ariner 18 spacecra"t durin$ 193> and 193A 5Fi$ure 1C426, portions o" ,ercurys sur"ace stron$ly resemble the hea#ily cratered lunar hi$hlands% &n addition, there are lar$e areas o" relati#ely smooth terrain and a number o" ringed $asins belie#ed to be impact structures% The lar$est o" these is the 1288-!m-diameter 1aloris basin, 'hich is similar to the &mbrium and *rientale basins on the ,oon% The 1aloris basin is co#ered 'ith a relati#ely smooth plains type o" material, perhaps similar to the lunar maria, ha#in$ many "e'er craters than the hea#ily cratered terrain% -reas o" relati#ely smooth terrain !no'n as in2 tercrater plains are also "ound interspaced bet'een the basins and craters% Lo$ate scarps, probably cur#ed "ault scarps, 'hich are se#eral !ilometers hi$h and e tend "or hundreds o" !ilometers across ,ercurys sur"ace, ha#e
98 98
Plate %ectonics
Fi$ure 1%4> 0hotomosaic o" ,ariner 18 ima$es o" the ,ichelan$elo Guadran$le 9-12 on ,ercury% &n addition to the numerous impact craters, e?ecta deposits are seen as bri$ht lines or rays radiatin$ out'ard "rom some youn$ craters% Se#eral lar$e lobate scarps are #isible in the lo'er le"t side o" the ima$e 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-822236%
no lunar counterpart 5Fi$ure 1C4>6% These scarps are su$$esti#e o" thrust "aults resultin$ "rom crustal shortenin$ and compression% Se#eral hypotheses ha#e been ad#anced to e plain the compressional sur"ace "eatures on ,ercury% The "irst hypothesis concerns tidal despinin$% (arly in its e#olution ,ercury may ha#e had a rapid rotation% &" the planet 'as hot it 'ould ha#e had a near hydrostatic shape 'ith considerable polar "lattenin$ and an e)uatorial bul$e% -s the planet cooled, a $lobal lithosphere de#eloped 'ith considerable ri$idity and ellipticity% 9o'e#er, tidal interactions 'ith the sun $radually slo'ed the rotation o" the planet% The ri$idity o" the lithosphere preser#ed a "ossil ellipticity associated 'ith the early rapid rotation but as a result lar$e lithospheric stresses de#eloped% The resultant compressional stresses in the e)uatorial re$ion are one e planation "or the obser#ed compressional "eatures% -n alterati#e e planation is that they 'ere caused by the "ormation andUor solidi"ication o" the lar$e iron core on ,er cury% ,ercurys hi$h mean density o" A>>8 !$ m 2 , almost e)ual to the (arths, is attributed to a lar$e iron core 'ith a A88 to 488 !m thic! co#er o" silicate roc!s% *ne e planation "or the hi$h mean density is that a massi#e collision blasted o"" a lar$e "raction o" an early mantle o" lar$er siBe% ,a$netic "ield measurements by ,ariner 18 sho'ed that ,ercury has an intrinsic $lobal ma$netic "ield% @ecause o" the limited amount o" data, there are lar$e uncertainties in the in"erred #alue o" ,ercurys ma$netic dipole moment% ,ost estimates lie in the ran$e o" 2 to A 1819 - m2 , or about
-(-@ Mars
A 18 > o" the (arths ma$netic "ield stren$th% -lthou$h a ma$netiBed crust cannot be ruled out as a source o" this "ield, it seems more li!ely that it ori$inates by dynamo action in a li)uid part o" ,ercurys core% @ecause o" the similarities in the sur"aces o" ,ercury and the ,oon, their e#olutions must ha#e been similar in se#eral respects% Separation o" the iron and silicates in ,ercury and crustal di""erentiation must ha#e occurred #ery early in its history because the planets sur"ace preser#es an ancient record o" hea#y bombardment similar to the lunar hi$hlands% The "illin$ o" the 1aloris basin must ha#e occurred subse)uent to the termination o" this se#ere craterin$ phase because the basin material is relati#ely "ree o" craters% The lobate scarps must also ha#e "ormed at the end o" or subse)uent to the early phase o" se#ere bombardment because they sometimes pass throu$h and de"orm old craters 5Fi$ure 1C4>6% The scarps may be a conse)uence o" the coolin$ and contraction o" the core, and i" so, they are the only sur"ace "eatures that distin$uish ,ercury 'ith its lar$e core "rom the ,oon 'ith only a #ery small core or none at all%
99 99
1%18 ,ars The "irst detailed photo$raphs o" the ,artian sur"ace 'ere returned "rom the "lybys o" ,ariner > 5194A6 and ,ariners 4 and 3 519496% These photo$raphs sho'ed a hea#ily cratered sur"ace much li!e that o" the ,oon% 9o'e#er, the ,ariner 9 519316 photo$raphs re#ealed that the earlier spacecra"t had photo$raphed only a sin$le type o" terrain on a planet o" $reat $eolo$i- cal di#ersity% There are #olcanoes that d'ar" the lar$est #olcanic structures on (arth, a hu$e canyon comple comparable to the (ast -"rican ri"t system, meanderin$ channels 'ith multiple braided "eatures and stream-lined islands, sand dunes, and polar caps% The richness and #ariety o" ,artian $eolo$ic "orms 'as not "ully realiBed prior to the pictures returned by the +i!in$ 1 and 2 orbiters and landers 519346 and the ,ars orbiter camera aboard the ,ars Global Sur#eyor 519996% The sur"ace o" ,ars is character- iBed by a 'ide #ariety o" #olcanic and tectonic land"orms% 9o'e#er, there is no e#idence o" the $lobal system o" rid$es and trenches that are characteristic o" acti#e plate tectonics% Thus, it is concluded that ,ars does not ha#e acti#e plate tectonics% The most stri!in$ $lobal "eature o" the ,artian sur"ace is its hemispheric asymmetry% ,uch o" the southern hemisphere o" ,ars is co#ered by densely cratered hi$hlands, 'hereas most o" the northern hemisphere is made up o" li$htly cratered plains% The hea#ily cratered terrain in the southern hemi-
188 1881
Plate %ectonics
sphere is probably the remnant o" the postaccretionary sur"ace o" the planet, and the youn$er northern plains are probably #olcanic in ori$in% The southern hi$hlands co#er more than 48N o" the sur"ace o" ,ars% ,ost o" the hi$hland terrain consists o" ancient densely cratered roc! 5lar$ely impact breccias6 "ormed early in the planets history 'hen impact rates 'ere hi$h% ( tensi#e la#a "lo's ha#e co#ered lar$e areas 'ithin the hi$hlands% The lar$e, rou$hly circular basins o" -r$yre and 9ellas 5Fi$ure 1C4A6 are located in the southern hemisphere and are $enerally belie#ed to be impact basins similar to the mare basins on the ,oon% The 9ellas basin has a rim diameter o" 2288 !m and is one o" the lar$est impact structures in the solar system% &t is the dominant sur"ace "eature o" the ,artian southern hi$hlands% The -r$yre basin has a diameter in e cess o" 1A88 !m% +olcanic plains co#er much o" the northern lo'lands o" ,ars% These #olcanic plains are similar to the #olcanic plains that dominate other planetary sur"aces, e%$%, +enus, and they are much less cratered than the southern hi$hlands% The appro imately hemispherical dichotomy is $enerally held to be an ancient, "irst-order "eature o" the ,artian crust% The dichotomy has been ascribed #ariously to a #ery lon$-'a#elen$th mantle con#ecti#e plan"orm, to subcrustal erosion due to mantle con#ection, to postaccretional core "ormation, to one lar$e impact, and to se#eral impact e#ents% Sleep 5199>6 has proposed that the lo'land crust 'as "ormed in an episode o" sea"loor spreadin$ on ,ars% 9e hypothesiBed a hemispheric subduction e#ent that destroyed the ori$inal primiti#e crust in the northern hemisphere, and proposed a 'ell-de"ined se)uence o" sea"loorspreadin$ e#ents that created the northern #olcanic plains% *ne o" the ma?or #olcanotectonic "eatures on ,ars is the Tharsis re$ion, 'hich is a lar$e ele#ated re$ion composed o" relati#ely youn$ #olcanics% The horiBontal scale is some 2888 !m 'ith the ele#ation risin$ about 18 !m abo#e the mean sur"ace ele#ation% The re$ion e hibits a comple history o" episodic tectonism, closely associated 'ith #olcanism on local and re$ional scales% The entire Tharsis upli"t appears to be the result o" e tensi#e #olcanism% Three immense #olcanic shields 5-rsia, 0a#onis, and -scraeus ,ontes6 "orm the Tharsis ,ontes, a linear chain o" #olcanoes e tendin$ northeast'ard across the Tharsis rise 5Fi$ures 1C4A and 1C446% These three shields ha#e $entle slopes o" a "e' de$rees 5the upper slopes are commonly steeper than the lo'er slopes6, 'ide calderas, and "lan! #ents% The shields appear to be the result o" basaltic "lo's and are similar to the intraplate shield #olcanoes o" the 9a'aiian &slands% The ,artian shield #olcanoes rise 18 to 18 !m abo#e the Tharsis rise and attain ele#ations o" 18 to 24 !m% -lon$ the Tharsis a ial trend, #olcanoes stretch "rom -rsia ,ons to near Tempe 0at-
-(-@ Mars
181 1811
Fi$ure 1%4A 1omposite ima$es o" the t'o hemispheres o" ,ars% /pper le"t is the LeasternM hemisphere% The hemispheric dichotomy bet'een the youn$, smooth, lo'-lyin$ northern plains and the hea#ily cratered, old, southern hi$hlands is clearly illustrated% The dar! circular 9ellas basin in the south is accepted to be an impact structure% .o'er ri$ht is the L'esternM hemisphere% The three $iant shield #olcanoes that "orm the linear Tharsis ,ontes chain lie near the e)uator% *lympus ,ons, the tallest mountain in the solar system, lies to the north'est o" this chain% To the east the +alles ,arineris canyon system is seen 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-828>86%
era, some >888 !m% .a#a "lo's that 'ere 4 erupted "rom the Tharsis ,ontes and surroundin$ #ents co#er nearly 3 18 !m2 % *lympus ,ons 5Fi$ures 1C4A and 1C446 is a shield #olcano nearly 488 !m
182 1821
Plate %ectonics
in diameter and o#er 24 !m hi$h, the tallest mountain in the solar system% Flo's on the "lan!s o" the #olcano and ad?acent #olcanic plains that 'ere erupted "rom "issures east o" the #olcano are amon$ the youn$est "lo's on ,ars% The e treme hei$ht o" the ,artian #olcanoes can be attributed to the lo' sur"ace $ra#ity and the lac! o" relati#e motion bet'een the lithosphere and the ma$ma source% The presence o" shield #olcanoes on ,ars and their absence on the ,oon can be attributed to di""erences in the #iscosities o" the erupted la#as% - si$ni"icant $ra#ity anomaly is associated 'ith the Tharsis upli"t% This $ra#ity anomaly can be e plained i" the #olcanic construct is partially supported by the elastic lithosphere on ,ars% @ecause ,ars is smaller than the (arth, it 'ould be e pected to cool more e""iciently C it has a lar$er sur"ace area to #olume ratio C and has a thic!er lithosphere, other "actors bein$ the same% This additional thic!ness and the smaller radius $i#e the elastic lithosphere on ,ars a much $reater ri$idity% -nother ma?or tectonic "eature on ,ars is an enormous canyon system, +alles ,arineris, e tendin$ east'ard "rom Tharsis "or about >A88 !m 5Fi$ure 1C437 see also Fi$ure 1C486% &ndi#idual canyons are up to 288 !m 'ide and se#eral !ilometers deep% &n the central section 5Fi$ure 1C486, the system is about 488 !m 'ide and o#er 3 !m deep% The +alles ,arineris system mi$ht be a comple set o" "ractures in the ,artian crust caused by the lar$e topo$raphic bul$e containin$ the Tharsis #olcanic re$ion% The system is rou$hly radial to this bul$e, as are other prominent "ractures% <umerous channels are 'idely distributed o#er the ,artian sur"ace% They display a #ariety o" morpholo$ic "orms, includin$ braidin$ and stream-lined islands, stron$ly su$$esti#e o" "ormation by "lo'in$ 'ater 5Fi$ure 1C496% &" 'ater did "lo' on the sur"ace o" ,ars some time in the past, the 'ater may ha#e ori$inated by the meltin$ o" subsur"ace ice% This is supported by the association o" the apparent sources o" many channels 'ith so-called chaotic terrainF areas o" lar$e, irre$ular bloc!s probably "ormed by collapse "ollo'- in$ the remo#al o" a subsur"ace material such as ground ice% 1haotic terrain is #isible in the photomosaic in Fi$ure 1C43 at the eastern end o" the +al- lis ,arineris system7 a broad collapsed area e tends out'ard "rom 1apri 1hasma% ,any o" the north-trendin$ channels in this area appear to ori$i- nate in this chaotic terrain% ,artian channels $i#e the impression o" ha#in$ been "ormed by episodic "loodin$ o" lar$e areas, as mi$ht be e pected "rom the sudden release o" lar$e amounts o" subsur"ace 'ater% 0ossible terrestrial analo$s to these channels are the scablands o" the 1olumbia plateau in the /nited States and the Sandur plains in &celand, both o" 'hich "ormed by the sudden release o" lar$e )uantities o" $lacial melt'ater% The e istence o" a ,artian $round ice is also indicated by the unusual "orms o" some crater
-(-@ Mars
182 1821
Fi$ure 1%44 &ma$e mosaic o" the shield #olcanoes in the Tharsis re$ion o" ,ars obtained on a sin$le ,artian a"ternoon by the ,ars orbiter camera on board the ,ars Global Sur#eyor% *lympus ,ons is the lar$e shield in the upper le"t corner% -rsia ,ons, 0a#onis ,ons, and -scraeus ,ons lie on a line trendin$ S:C<( near the center o" the ima$e% The $reat canyon system, +alles ,arineris, can be seen in the lo'er ri$ht corner 5<-S&ma$e 0&-828>96%
Fi$ure 1%43 ,ars Global Sur#eyor ima$e o" the +alles ,arineris canyon system on ,ars 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-88>226%
e?ecta% Fi$ure 1C38 sho's a lo$ate e'ecta "lo' surroundin$ an impact crater on ,ars% The uni)ue appearance o" the e?ecta pattern su$$ests the incorporation o" lar$e amounts o" 'ater into the e?ecta, as 'ould occur i" the impact penetrated a $round-ice-rich subsur"ace% &n addition to the small amount o" 'ater currently present in the thin 1*2 atmosphere o" ,ars,
18> 18>1
Plate %ectonics
the planet presently contains 'ater in the "orm o" ice in its permanent or residual polar caps, 'hich underlie the seasonal 1*2 ice caps% -lthou$h processes associated 'ith li)uid "lo' may ha#e been acti#e only in the past, the present sur"ace o" ,ars is bein$ acti#ely modi"ied by at2 mospheric erosion and deposition% &t is hardly surprisin$, in #ie' o" the perennial dust storms that blan!et the planet, that 'indblo'n sand e""ecti#ely alters the present sur"ace o" ,ars% Fi$ure 1C31 is a photo$raph o" a lar$e dune field on ,ars% :inds are an e""ecti#e means o" transportin$ material o#er the ,artian sur"ace7 there are layered deposits in the polar re$ions that are belie#ed to be accumulations o" material carried by the atmosphere "rom other re$ions o" the planet% The mean density o" 29A8 !$ m 2 and the relati#ely small moment o" inertia o" ,ars are e#idence that ,ars has a metallic core% The siBe o" the core depends on assumptions about its composition, 'hether the core is FeCFeS, "or e ample7 model #alues o" core radius #ary bet'een 8%> and 8%4 o" the ,artian radius% (#en thou$h ,ars has a metallic core, it does not ha#e a $lobal intrinsic ma$netic "ield% (arly ma$netic "ield measurements "rom the ,ars 2, 2, and A spacecra"t 'ere interpreted to imply that ,ars had a small ma$netic "ield 'ith a dipole moment 2 18 > times the (arths ma$netic dipole moment% Data "rom the ,ars Global Sur#eyor ha#e settled the )uestion o" the e istence o" a $lobal ,artian ma$netic "ield C there is none, but the crust o" ,ars has stron$ concentrations o" remanent ma$netism implyin$ that ,ars had a $lobal ma$netic "ield in the past% 1rustal ma$netiBation on ,ars is mainly con"ined to the ancient hi$hlands o" the southern hemisphere and it is lar$ely or$aniBed into east-'est-trendin$ linear "eatures o" alternatin$ polarity e tendin$ o#er distances as lar$e as 2888 !m% The ma$netiBation "eatures are reminiscent o" the ma$netic stripes on the (arths sea"loor, and su$$est the possibility o" a plate tectonic re$ime 'ith sea"loor spreadin$ early in the history o" ,ars% The absence o" crustal ma$netism near lar$e impact basins such as 9ellas and -r$yre implies that the early ,artian dynamo ceased to operate be"ore about > Ga% The ma?or e#idence "or an initially hot and di""erentiated ,ars is the acceptance o" ,ars as a parent body o" the S<1 meteorites% This is a class o" meteorites "ound on (arth that apparently escaped "rom the ,artian $ra#ity "ield a"- ter one or more lar$e impacts% The radiometric a$es "or S<1 meteorites are about >%4 Ga, the /U0b isotopic composition o" S<1 meteorites re)uire core "ormation at about >%4 Ga, and the old a$e 5> Ga6 o" the southern hi$hlands su$$ests early crustal di""erentiation% *ther e#idence "or a hot early ,ars includes 'ater-car#ed "eatures on the ,artian sur"ace su$$estin$ early out$assin$ and an early atmosphere%
-(-< Pho$os and &eimos
18A
1%19 0hobos and Deimos The t'o satellites o" ,ars, 0hobos and Deimos, are #ery small, irre$ularly shaped ob?ects% .ittle 'as !no'n o" these bodies until the ,ariner 9, +i!in$, and the ,ars Global Sur#eyor missions pro#ided detailed photo$raphs o" them 5Fi$ure 1C326% ;ou$hly spea!in$, they are tria ial ellipsoids about 18 to 28 !m across% Their sur"aces are hea#ily cratered, but not identical in appearance% &n particular, 0hobos has a system o" lon$ linear depressions or $roo#es each o" 'hich is about 188 to 288 m 'ide and 18 to 28 m deep 5Fi$ure 1C326% There are no $roo#es on Deimos% The $roo#es on 0hobos are probably related to "ractures caused by a lar$e impact, perhaps the one responsible "or the Stic!ney crater 5Fi$ure 1C326% There are no craters on Deimos as lar$e as Stic!ney7 this may e plain the absence o" $roo#es on Deimos% The lo' mean density o" 0hobos, 2888 !$ m 2 , and its reflectance spectrum su$$est that it is made o" a dar! $ray material similar to Types & or && car$onaceous chondrite meteorites%
1%28 +enus &n terms o" siBe and density +enus is the planet that is most similar to the (arth% -n ob#ious 'or!in$ hypothesis 'ould be that the tectonics o" +enus 'ould be similar to the tectonics o" the (arth and there 'ould be plate tectonics% :e no' !no' that this is not the case and that mantle con#ection on +enus has a di""erent sur"ace e pression than mantle con#ection on the (arth% The cloud co#er on +enus has pre#ented optical obser#ations% 9o'e#er, 0ioneer +enus radar, (arth-based radar obser#ations, +enera 1AC14 orbital ima$in$ radar, and the ,a$ellan radar ima$es ha#e pro#ided clear #ie's o" the sur"ace o" +enus% These #ie's, alon$ 'ith topo$raphy and $ra#ity data, indicate that (arth and +enus are in "act )uite di""erent% *n (arth the $lobal oceanic ri"t system and the arcuate ocean trenches are the primary sur"ace mani"estations o" plate tectonics% The almost total absence o" these "eatures on +enus has led to the conclusion that acti#e plate tectonics is not occurrin$ on that planet at this time% 1learly, any comprehensi#e understandin$ o" tectonism and #olcanism on +enus re)uires an understandin$ o" ho' heat is transported in the absence o" plate tectonics% There are other 'ays in 'hich +enus is stri!in$ly di""erent% &t rotates in a retro$rade sense 'ith a period o" 2>2 days7 a +enusian day is 113 (arth days% +enus has a massi#e, mostly 1*2 atmosphere 'ith a sur"ace temperature o" about 3A8 E and a sur"ace pressure o" nearly 18 ,0a% Sul"uric acid clouds
184 1841
Plate %ectonics
blan!et the planet and pre#ent us "rom directly #ie'in$ the sur"ace% @ecause o" its earthli!e siBe and mass, +enus most li!ely has a metallic core similar to (arths% 9o'e#er, ma$netic "ield measurements by the 0ioneer +enus orbiter durin$ 1939 and 1988 re#ealed that +enus does not ha#e an intrinsic $lobal ma$netic "ield7 these obser#ations determined that i" +enus had an intrinsic ma$netic "ield, its dipole moment 'ould ha#e to be much less than 1819 - m2 % Studies o" the sur"ace o" +enus durin$ the ,a$ellan mission ha#e pro#ided a 'ealth o" data on its tectonic and #olcanic processes% The radar ima$es o" the sur"ace are complemented by $lobal topo$raphy and $ra#ity data% The planet is remar!ably smooth7 4>N o" the sur"ace comprises a plains pro#ince 'ith ele#ation di""erences o" 2 !m or less7 hi$hland areas stand as much as 18 !m abo#e the plains but they constitute only about AN o" the sur"ace7 lo'lands are 2 to 2 !m belo' the plains and occupy the remainin$ 21N o" the sur"ace% Fi$ure 1C32 sho's the distribution o" these topo$raphic pro#inces% -lthou$h local ele#ation e tremes on +enus and (arth are rou$hly comparable, $lobal topo$raphic #ariations are much smaller on +enus7 the planets sur"ace is at a nearly uni"orm le#el% There are tectonic "eatures on +enus that resemble ma?or tectonic "eatures on the (arth% @eta ;e$io has many o" the "eatures o" a continental ri"t on (arth% &t has a domal structure 'ith a diameter o" about 2888 !m and a s'ell amplitude o" about 2 !m% &t has a 'ell-de"ined central ri"t #alley 'ith a depth o" 1C2 !m and there is some e#idence o" a threearmed plan"orm 5aulaco$en6% &t is dominated by t'o shieldli!e "eatures, Theia ,ons and ;hea ,ons, 'hich rise about > !m abo#e the mean le#el% The /%S%S%;% +enera 9 and 18 spacecra"t, 'hich landed ?ust east o" @eta ;e$io, measured a basaltic composition and a density o" 2888 !$ m 2 "or the sur"ace roc!s% These obser#ations substantiate the identi"ication o" Theia ,ons and ;hea ,ons as shield #olcanoes% -tla, (istla, and @ell ;e$iones ha#e ri"t Bone characteristics similar to @eta ;e$io% ,ost o" the hi$hlands on +enus are concentrated into t'o main continental- siBed areasF &shtar Terra, the siBe o" -ustralia, in the northern hemisphere, and -phrodite Terra, about the siBe o" -"rica, near the e)uator 5Fi$ures 1C32 and 1C3>6% -phrodite Terra, 'ith a len$th o" some 1A88 !m, is reminiscent o" ma?or continental collision Bones on (arth, such as the mountain belt that e tends "rom the -lps to the 9imalayas% &shtar Terra is a re$ion o" ele#ated topo$raphy 'ith a horiBontal scale o" 2888C2888 !m% - ma?or "eature is .a!shmi 0lanum 'hich is an ele#ated plateau similar to Tibet 'ith a mean ele#ation o" about > !m% This plateau is surrounded by linear moun-
-(4- %he Galilean "atellites
tain belts% -!na, Danu, Frey?a, and ,a 'ell ,ontes, reachin$ ele#ations o" 18 !m, are similar in scale and ele#ation to the 9imalayas% The $ra#itational anomalies associated 'ith topo$raphic planetary "eatures "urther constrain their ori$in% Gra#ity anomalies obtained "rom trac!in$ 0ioneer +enus pro#ided "urther ma?or surprises% /nli!e on the (arth, $ra#ity anomalies correlate 'ith hi$h topo$raphy on +enus% .ar$e positi#e $ra#ity anomalies are directly associated 'ith @eta ;e$io and eastern -phrodite Terra% *ne o" the most important obser#ational constraints on the $eodynamics o" +enus comes "rom studies o" impact craterin$ on the sur"ace 5Fi$ure 1C 3A6% Some 8>8 impact craters ha#e been identi"ied "rom ,a$ellan ima$es 'ith diameters ran$in$ "rom 2 to 288 !m% The distribution o" craters on +enus cannot be distin$uished "rom a random distribution% /nli!e the ,oon and ,ars, older and youn$er terrains cannot be identi"ied% The sur"ace o" +enus appears to be o" a near-uni"orm a$e% 1orrelations o" this impact "lu 'ith craters on the ,oon, the (arth, and ,ars indicate a mean sur"ace a$e o" 8%A 8%2 Ga% -nother important obser#ation is that A2N o" the craters are sli$htly "ractured and only >%AN are embayed by la#a "lo's% These obser#ations led Schaber et al% 519926 to hypothesiBe that a $lobal #olcanic resur"acin$ e#ent had occurred at about A88 ,a and that relati#ely little sur"ace #olcanism has occurred since% Further statistical tests ha#e sho'n that a lar$e "raction o" the sur"ace o" +enus 588C98N6 'as co#ered by "resh #olcanic "lo's durin$ a period o" 18CA8 ,yr% &t is 'ell established that the $eolo$ic e#olution o" +enus is "ar more catastrophic than the (arths% *ther ma?or "eatures uni)ue to +enus are the coronae% These are )uasicircular "eatures, 188C2488 !m in diameter, 'ith raised interiors and ele#ated rims, o"ten 'ith annular trou$hs% &t has been su$$ested that the perimeters o" se#eral lar$e coronae on +enus, speci"ically -rtemis 5Fi$ure 1C346, .atona, and (ithinoha, resemble terrestrial subduction Bones in both plan"orm and topo$raphy% -rtemis chasma has a radius o" cur#ature similar to that o" the South Sand'ich subduction Bone on the (arth% .ar$e coronae may be incipient circular subduction Bones% The "ounderin$ lithosphere is replaced by ascendin$ hot mantle in a manner similar to bac!-arc spreadin$ on the (arth% 1%21 The Galilean Satellites The innermost satellites o" Jupiter, in order o" distance "rom the planet, are -malthea, &o, (uropa, Ganymede, and 1allisto% The latter "our 'ere disco#ered by Galileo in 1418 and are collecti#ely re"erred to as the Galilean
183 1831
188 1881
Plate %ectonics
satellites% -malthea 'as disco#ered by @arnard in 1892% They all ha#e nearly circular pro$rade orbits lyin$ almost e actly in Jupiters e)uatorial plane% *ur !no'led$e o" the Galilean satellites increased considerably as a conse)uence o" the "lybys o" +oya$ers 1 and 2 on ,arch A, 1939 and July 9, 1939, respecti#ely, and the Galileo mission 5199AC28886 has yielded a "urther enormous ?ump in our !no'led$e o" these bodies% :e no' !no' as much about the sur"aces and interiors o" the Galilean satellites as 'e do about some o" the terrestrial planets in our inner solar system% These satellites are #ery di""erent "rom one another and "rom the terrestrial planets7 many o" the physical processes occurrin$ in their interiors and on their sur"aces are uni)ue to these bodies% From -ppendi 2, Section D, it can be seen that &o is only sli$htly lar$er and more massi#e than the ,oon% &ts similarity to the ,oon e tends no "urther, ho'e#er7 the +oya$er and Galileo missions sho'ed &o to be the most #olcanically acti#e body in the solar system% Durin$ the "lybys o" both the +oya$er and Galileo spacecra"t numerous acti#e #olcanic plumes 'ere obser#ed, some e tendin$ to hei$hts o" hundreds o" !ilometers abo#e the sur"ace% &o 5Fi$ures 1C33 and 1C386 displays a $reat di#ersity o" color and al$edo7 spectral reflectance data su$$est that its sur"ace is dominated by sul"ur-rich materials that account "or the #ariety o" colors C oran$e, red, 'hite, blac!, and bro'n% &os #olcanism is predominantly silicate-based as on the terrestrial planets thou$h sul"ur-based #olcanism also occurs% The circular "eatures on &o 5Fi$ure 1C336 are caldera-li!e depressions 5Fi$ure 1C3867 some ha#e diameters as lar$e as 288 !m% There are no reco$niBable impact craters on the satellite, althou$h the "lu o" impactin$ ob?ects in the early Jo#ian system is belie#ed to be as lar$e as it 'as around the terrestrial planets% &os sur"ace is $eolo$ically #ery youn$, the silicate and sul"ur la#as ha#in$ only recently resur"aced the planet% ;elati#ely "e' o" &os calderas are associated 'ith structures o" si$ni"icant positi#e relie"% Thus they are )uite unli!e the calderas o" the 9a'aiian #olcanoes or the Tharsis #olcanoes on ,ars% There are isolated mountains 'ith considerable relie" on &o 518 !m6, but their e act hei$ht as 'ell as their mode o" ori$in is uncertain% The source o" heat "or &os #olcanism is tidal dissipation% The $ra#itational interaction o" &o 'ith (uropa and Ganymede "orces &o into an orbit 'ith hi$her eccentricity than it 'ould ha#e i" it 'ere circlin$ Jupiter by itsel"% The resultin$ tidal "le in$ o" &o in Jupiters $ra#ity "ield dissipates #ery lar$e )uantities o" heat7 &os sur"ace heat "lo' e ceeds the $lobal heat loss "rom the (arth by a "actor o" 2 or more% Tidal dissipation is insi$ni"icant as a heat source "or the terrestrial planets that are heated mainly by the decay o" radioacti#e elements% 9o'e#er, the special circumstances o" &os
-(4- %he Galilean "atellites
orbit around a massi#e planet ma!es tidal heatin$ an unusually e""ecti#e heat source "or &o% &os density and moment o" inertia constrain its internal structure% The satellite has a lar$e metallic core 'hose e act siBe is uncertain because 'e do not !no' the composition o" the core% The core radius could be as lar$e as about hal" o" &os radius and is surrounded by a silicate mantle% &os e tensi#e #olcanism su$$ests that the satellite has a crust and a partially molten asthenosphere% ,uch o" the tidal dissipati#e heatin$ probably occurs in this asthenosphere% &o is !no'n to be in hydrostatic e)uilibrium under the action o" the Jo#ian tidal "orces and its rotation% &t is not !no'n i" &o has its o'n ma$netic "ield% (uropa is only sli$htly smaller and less massi#e than the ,oon 5-ppendi 2, Section D6, but it also loo!s )uite di""erent "rom our satellite% Fi$ure 1C 39 is a +oya$er 2 picture o" (uropa that sho's the sur"ace to consist o" t'o ma?or terrain typesF a uni"ormly bri$ht terrain crossed by numerous dar! linear mar!in$s and a some'hat dar!er mottled terrain% ;elati#ely "e' impact craters e ist on (uropa indicatin$ that the sur"ace is $eolo$ically youn$% The linear mar!in$s are rid$es and "ractures7 they ha#e little or no #ertical relie"% They e tend o#er distances as lar$e as thousands o" !ilometers and #ary in 'idth "rom se#eral !ilometers to about 188 !m% (uropas density and moment o" inertia indicate that, althou$h it is composed mainly o" silicates, it must contain a lar$e "raction 5about 28N by mass6 o" 'ater% The 'ater is belie#ed to be in a sur"ace layer about 188 !m thic! surroundin$ a silicate mantle and metallic core% The 'ater layer may be completely "roBen or it may consist o" ice abo#e li)uid% &n"rared spectra o" (uropa and its hi$h albedo indicate that the sur"ace is co#ered 'ith 'ater ice or "rost% 9i$h-resolution Galileo pictures sho' "eatures such as ice ra"ts that ha#e rotated and separated "rom each other o#er an underlyin$ so"t ice layer or an internal li)uid ocean% The relati#e absence o" craters on (uropa may ha#e resulted "rom the "reeBin$ o" a competent ice layer only a"ter the termination o" the early phase o" se#ere bombardment or it may be due to $eolo$ically recent resur"acin$ o" the satellite7 the $lobal "racture pattern may be a conse- )uence o" tidal stresses and nonsynchronous rotation o" (uropas outer shell o" ice% The sur"aces o" (uropa and, as 'e shall see, Ganymede and 1allisto are shaped by processes occurrin$ in a predominantly ice shell% -lthou$h lar$e iceco#ered re$ions o" the (arth $i#e us some clues about 'hat sur"ace "eatures to e pect, the icy Galilean satellites pro#ide a uni)ue e ample o" sur"aces shaped by $lobal-scale ice tectonic processes at e tremely lo' temperatures 5the sur"ace temperatures o" the Galilean satellites are about 1A8 E6% The $eolo$ist studyin$ &o must be mainly a #olcanolo$ist7 the $eolo$ist
189 1891
118 1181
Plate %ectonics
in#esti$atin$ (uropa, Ganymede, and 1allisto, on the other hand, must be mainly a $laciolo$ist` &" there is an internal ocean on (uropa, the satellite must then be considered a possible site "or e tra-terrestrial li"e% Some tidal heatin$ o" (uropa is necessary to pre#ent the "reeBin$ o" an internal li)uid 'ater ocean% Ganymede and 1allisto, the icy Galilean satellites, are about the siBe o" ,ercury 5-ppendi 2, Sections 1 and D6% Their lo' mean densities, less 2 than 2888 !$ m , indicate that they are composed o" silicates 'ith #ery substantial amounts o" 'ater% The "raction o" 'ater contained in these bodies depends on the density o" the silicates7 as much as A8N o" the satellites could be 'ater% ,ultiple "lybys o" Ganymede and 1allisto by the Galileo spacecra"t ha#e pro#ided us 'ith !no'led$e o" the satellites densities and moments o" inertia "rom 'hich 'e can in"er the internal structures o" the bodies% Ganymede is "ully di""erentiated into a metallic core, silicate mantle, and thic! 5many hundreds o" !ilometers6 outer ice shell% &n contrast, 1allisto is only partially di""erentiated% ,ost o" the satellite consists o" a primordial iceCroc! mi ture7 only in the outer "e' hundred !ilometers can the ice and roc! ha#e separated% The Galileo spacecra"t "ound that Ganymede has its o'n ma$netic "ield 'hile 1allisto does not% Ganymede is the only moon in our solar system !no'n to ha#e an intrinsic $lobal ma$netic "ield at present% Ganymedes ma$netic "ield is so lar$e that the "ield must be $enerated by dynamo action in a li)uid metallic core ?ust as a dynamo in the (arths outer core produces our ma$netic "ield% *bser#ations o" Ganymede by the Galileo spacecra"t pro#ide stron$ support "or the complete di""erentiation o" the satellite and "or the e istence o" a li)uid metallic core in its interior% - ma?or unsol#ed )uestion is 'hy Ganymede is "ully di""erentiated 'hile 1allisto is only sli$htly di""erentiated7 both bodies are about the same siBe and are made up o" about the same proportions o" ice and roc!% *ne possible e planation is that Ganymede 'as tidally heated in the past 'hereas 1allisto 'as not% The appearances o" Ganymede and 1allisto are consistent 'ith a di""erentiated interior "or Ganymede and a relati#ely primordial interior "or 1allisto% /nli!e (uropa and &o, Ganymede has numerous impact craters% T'o ma?or terrain types ha#e been identi"iedF relati#ely dar! hea#ily cratered terrain and li$hter $roo#ed terrain% The "ormer has a crater density comparable 'ith that o" the lunar hi$hlands and other ancient cratered sur"aces o" the inner planets% -lthou$h the $roo#ed terrain contains "e'er craters, it nonetheless has a crater density comparable 'ith the oldest lunar maria and ,artian plains units% @ri$ht-rayed impact craters are abundant on both types o" ter-
References
111
rain% -lmost all the $roo#ed terrain is a mosaic o" sets o" $roo#es7 $roo#e systems are 18 to 188 !m 'ide and 18 to 1888 !m lon$% &ndi#idual $roo#es are a "e' hundred meters deep% The craters on Ganymede display a #ariety o" morpholo$ic "orms% 1raters se#eral hundred !ilometers in diameter are "ound only as subdued scars on the oldest parts o" Ganymedes sur"ace% These presumably de$raded impact craters appear today as circular bri$ht patches 'ithout rims or central depressions7 they ha#e been described as crater palimpsests% 1reep in a predominantly ice sur"ace is probably responsible "or the se#ere de$radation o" the lar$e craters% 1raters in the youn$er $roo#ed terrain are $enerally better preser#ed that those in the older hea#ily cratered areas% There is no ma?or relie" on Ganymede7 that is, there are no lar$e mountains or basins% Galileo obser#ations o" Ganymede con"irm that tectonism has been a ma?or "actor in shapin$ the satellites sur"ace% Tectonic acti#ity on Ganymede is in accord 'ith its di""erentiated interior%
;e"erences 1rou$h, S% T%, and D% ,% Jurdy 519886, Subducted lithosphere, hotspots, and the $eoid, Earth Planet( "ci( Let% >8, 1AC22% De,ets, 1%, ;% G% Gordon, D% F% -r$us, and S% Stein 5199>6, (""ect o" recent re#isions to the $eoma$netic re#ersal time scale on estimates o" current plate motions, Geophys( Res( Let% 21, 2191C219>% du Toit, -% 519236, 1ur .andering Continents 5*li#er and @oyd, (dinbur$h6% (n$dahl, (% ;%, ;% #an der 9ilst, and ;% @uland 519986, Global teleseismic earth)ua!e relocation 'ith impro#ed tra#el times and procedures "or depth determination, 0ull( "eis( "oc( m% 88, 322C3>2% Gordon, ;% @% 5194A6, Di""usion creep in the (arths mantle, J( Geophys( Res% 38, 2>12C2>18% 9arland, :% @%, ;% .% -rmstron$, -% +% 1o , .% (% 1rai$, -% G% Smith, and D% G% Smith 519986% Geologic %ime "cale -<@< 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e6% 9as!ell, <% -% 5192A6, The motion o" a #iscous "luid under a sur"ace load, Physics 4, 24AC249% 9eirtBler, J% ;%, S% .e0ichon, and J% G% @aron 519446, ,a$netic anomalies o#er the ;ey!?anes ;id$e, &eep "ea Res% 12, >23C>>2% 9ess, 9% 519426, 9istory o" ocean basins, in Petrologic "tudiesD Colume in 9onour of ( E( 0uddington, -% (% J% (n$le, ed%, pp% A99C428 5Geolo$ical Society o" -merica, @oulder6%
112
References
9olmes, -% 519216, ;adioacti#ity and (arth mo#ement S+&&&, %rans( Geol( "oc( Glasgo! 18, AA9C484% &sac!s, @% .%, and ,% @araBan$i 519336, Geometry o" @enio"" BonesF .ateral se$mentation and do'n'ards bendin$ o" the subducted lithosphere, in Island rcs, &eep "ea %renches, and 0ac,2 rc 0asins, pp% 99C 11> 5-merican Geophysical /nion, :ashin$ton, D%1%6% &sac!s, @% .%, J% *li#er, and .% ;% Sy!es 519486, Seismolo$y and the ne' $lobal tectonics, J( Geophys( Res% 32, A8AACA899% Je""reys, 9% 5192>6, %he Earth 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e6% ,c(lhinny, ,% :% 519326, Paleomagnetism and Plate %ectonis 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e6% ,olnar, 0%, and J% Stoc! 519836, ;elati#e motions o" hotspots in the 0aci"ic, -tlantic and &ndian *ceans since the late 1retaceous, 8ature 223, A83C A91% ,or$an, :% J% 519486, ;ises, trenches, $reat "aults, and crustal bloc!s, J( Geophys( Res% 32, 19A9C1982% ,or$an, :% J% 519316, 1on#ection plumes in the lo'er mantle, 8ature 228, >2C>2% ,uller, ;% D%, :% ;% ;oest, J% =% ;oyer, .% ,% Gaha$an, and others 519936, Di$ital isochrons o" the 'orlds ocean "loor, J( Geophys( Res% 182, 2211C 221>% *lson, 0%, and 9% Sin$er 5198A6, 1reepin$ plumes, J( Fluid Mech% 1A8, A11C A21% ;uncorn, E% 519A46, 0aleoma$netic comparisons bet'een (urope and <orth -merica, Proc( Geol( ssoc( Canada 8, 33C 8A% Schaber, G% G%, ;% G% Strom, 9% J% ,oore, .% -% Soderblom, ;% .% Eir!, D% J% 1had'ic!, D% D% Da'son, .% ;% Gaddis, J% ,% @oyce, and J% ;ussell 519926, Geolo$y and distribution o" impact craters on +enusF :hat are they tellin$ usO J( Geophys( Res% 93, 12,2A3C12,281% Schmid, S% ,%, *% -% 0"i""ner, G% SchVonborn, <% FroitBheim, and (% Eisslin$ 519936, &nte$rated cross section and tectonic e#olution o" the -lps alon$ the eastern tra#erse, in &eep "tructure of the "!iss lpsD Results of 8RP 4B, *% -% 0"i""ner, 0% .ehner, 0% 9eitBmann, S% ,ueller, and -% Stec!, eds%, pp% 289C28> 5@ir!hVauser, 1ambrid$e, ,ass%6% Sleep, <% 9% 5199>6, ,artian plate tectonics, J( Geophys( Res% 99, A429C A4AA% Smith, -% G%, J% 1% @riden, and G% (% Dre'ry 5193>6, 0haneroBoic 'orld maps, in 1rganisms and Continents through %ime, <% F% 9u$hes, ed%, pp% 1C>2 5The 0aleontolo$ical -ssociation, .ondon6%
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Tapponier, 0%, and 0% ,olnar 519336, -cti#e "aultin$ and tectonics in 1hina, J( Geophys( Res% 82, 298AC2928% Taylor, F% @% 519186, @earin$ o" the Tertiary mountain belt on the ori$in o" the (arths plan, 0ull( Geol( "oc( m% 21, 139C224% +ine, F%, and D% ,atthe's 519426, ,a$netic anomalies o#er ocean rid$es, 8ature 199, 9>3% :atts, -% @% 519346, Gra#ity and bathymetry in the central 0aci"ic *cean, J( Geophys( Res% 81, 1A22C1AA2% :e$ener, -% 519>46, %he 1rigin of Continents and 1ceans, >th (d% 5Do#er, <e' =or!6% :hite, ;%, and D% ,cEenBie 519896, ,a$matism at ri"t BonesF The $eneration o" #olcanic continental mar$ins and "lood basalts, J( Geophys( Res% 9>, 348AC3329% :ilson, J% T% 519446, Did the -tlantic close and then reopenO 8ature 211, 434C481% ]hao, :%, and E% D% <elson 519926, Deep seismic re"lection e#idence "or continental underthrustin$ beneath southern Tibet, 8ature 244, AA3C AA9% 1ollateral ;eadin$
112 1121
Continents drift, Readings from "cientific merican 5:% 9% Freeman and 1ompany, San Francisco, 19326, 132 pa$es% - collection o" 1A papers on plate tectonics ori$inally published in Scienti"ic -merican% The papers are di#ided into three ma?or sections dealin$ 'ith the (arths interior, sea"loor spreadin$ and continental dri"t, and conse)uences and e amples o" continental dri"t% (ach section is preceded by a brie" introduction by J% T% :ilson% Dec!er, ;%, and @% Dec!er, Colcanoes 5:% 9% Freeman and 1ompany, San Francisco, 19816, 2>> pa$es% -n introductory discussion o" #olcanoes, ho' they 'or!, and ho' they are produced by plate tectonic processes% Jacobs, J% -%, Reversals of the EarthAs Magnetic Field, 2nd (d% 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 199>6, 2>4 pa$es% - detailed discussion o" obser#ations and theory associated 'ith the re#ersals o" the (arths ma$netic "ields% .e0ichon, S%, J% Francheteau, and J% @onnin, Plate %ectonics 5(lse#ier, -m- sterdam, 19326, 288 pa$es% *ne o" the "irst te tboo!s on plate tectonics% There are ma?or chapters on
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the rheolo$y o" the mantle, !inematics o" plate mo#ements, and physical processes at accretin$ and consumin$ plate boundaries% .o'rie, :%, Fundamentals of Geophysics 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19936, 2A> pa$es% This is a comprehensi#e treatment o" basic $eophysics at a moderately ad#anced le#el% Topics include $ra#ity, seismolo$y, $eoma$netism, and $eodynamics% ,cDonald, G% -%, Colcanoes 50rentice 9all, (n$le'ood 1li""s, <J, 19326, A18 pa$es% - lar$ely descripti#e and in-depth discussion o" the physical aspects o" #olcanolo$y% ,a?or chapters include #olcanic roc!s and ma$mas, la#a "lo's, #olcanic eruptions and edi"ices, craters, calderas, "umaroles, hot sprin$s, and $eysers% ,c(lhinny, ,% :%, Paleomagnetism and Plate %ectonics 51ambrid$e, .ondon, 19326, 2A8 pa$es% Se#en chapters deal 'ith $eoma$netism, roc! ma$netism, e perimental methods in paleoma$netism, re#ersals o" the (arths "ield, sea"loor spreadin$ and plate tectonics, apparent polar 'anderin$, and paleoma$netic poles% ,errill, ;% T%, ,% :% ,c(lhinny, and 0% .% ,cFadden, %he Magnetic Field of the Earth 5-cademic 0ress, San Die$o, 19946, A21 pa$es% - comprehensi#e discussion o" all aspects o" the (arths ma$netic "ield% Topics include the present $eoma$netic "ield, paleoma$netism, re#ersals, and dynamo theory% 0ress, F%, and ;% Sie#er, Earth 5:% 9% Freeman and 1ompany, San Francisco, 193>6, 9>A pa$es% -n introductory te tboo! on (arth science% The boo! is di#ided into three ma?or sections dealin$ 'ith the $eolo$ical history o" the (arth and its sur"ace and interior% ;in$'ood, -% (%, Composition and Petrology of the EarthAs Mantle 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 193A6, 418 pa$es% -n ad#anced te tboo! that combines obser#ational data "rom natural petrol- o$y 'ith e perimental results on phase e)uilibria o" natural roc! systems at hi$h temperature and pressure to discuss the composition and petrolo$y o" the upper mantleCcrust system% There are also chapters discussin$ the lo'er mantle and the ori$in and e#olution o" the (arth% :illiams, 9%, and -% ;% ,c@irney, Colcanology 5Freeman, 1ooper and 1ompany, San Francisco, 19396, 293 pa$es% -n ad#anced te tboo! 'ith chapters on the physical nature o" ma$mas, $eneration, rise, and stora$e o" ma$ma, erupti#e mechanisms, la#a "lo's,
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pyroclastic "lo's, "issure eruptions, oceanic #olcanism, and hydrothermal phenomena% :yllie, 0% J%, %he &ynamic EarthD %e#t$oo, in Geosciences 5John :iley, <e' =or!, 19316, >14 pa$es% -n ad#anced te tboo! desi$ned mainly "or $raduate students in $eolo$y and $eochemistry% 1hapters deal 'ith the structure, composition, mineralo$y, and petrolo$y o" the crust and mantle, mantle phase transitions, ma$ma $eneration, plate tectonics, and the (arths interior%
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Fi$ure 1%48 ,ars Global Sur#eyor ima$e sho'in$ the layered structure in the 'alls o" a mesa in southern ,elas 1hasma in +alles ,arineris% This ima$e co#ers an area 2 !m 'ide and 8%2 !m lon$% (rosion by landslides has e posed tens o" layers se#eral meters in thic!ness and has created the dar! "an-shaped deposits seen near the center o" the ima$e% The "loor o" the canyon is dar! and is co#ered by many parallel rid$es and $roo#es 5lo'er third o" the ima$e6 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-822986%
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Fi$ure 1%49 ,ars Global Sur#eyor ima$e sho'in$ a branchin$ #alley Lnet'or!M in an ancient cratered terrain% This ima$e co#ers an area o" 11%A by 23%> !m% The eroded #alleys are bri$ht and ta!en as e#idence that ,ars had li)uid 'ater runnin$ across its sur"ace about > billion years a$o 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-81>996%
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Fi$ure 1%38 This ,ars Global Sur#eyor ima$e sho's t'o small impact craters 'ith dar! e?ecta deposits that 'ere blo'n out o" the craters durin$ the impacts% The lar$e crater has a diameter o" about 89 m and the smaller crater about 24 m% The e?ecta is dar!er than the surroundin$ substrate because the impacts bro!e throu$h the upper, bri$hter sur"ace material and penetrated to a layer o" dar!er material beneath 5<-S&ma$e 0&-814826%
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Fi$ure 1%31 ,ars Global Sur#eyor ima$e o" a sand dune "ield% The number o" impact craters in the ima$e indicate that the dunes are )uite ancient 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-822A96%
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Fi$ure 1%32 This ima$e o" 0hobos, the inner and lar$er o" the t'o moons o" ,ars, 'as ta!en by the ,ars Global Sur#eyor on -u$ust 19, 1998% &t sho's a close-up o" the lar$est crater on 0hobos, Stic!ney, 18 !m in diameter, nearly hal" the siBe o" the entire body% 1rossin$ at and near the rim o" Stic!ney are shallo', elon$ated depressions 'hich may be "ractures that resulted "rom the impact that created Stic!ney 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-812226%
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Fi$ure 1%32 1omposite radar ima$es o" the t'o hemispheres o" +enus% The le"t hemispheric #ie' is ,ontes, centered the at 8hi$hest ( lon$itude% The re$ion north pole is ,a 'ell re$ion on li$ht +enus% The near the circular structure near the center is 9en$-o 1orona% The li$ht stippled re$ion south o" this is -lpha ;e$io% The ri$ht hemispheric #ie' is centered at 188 ( lon$itude% The bri$ht e)uatorial re$ion ?ust south o" the e)uator on the le"t is -phrodite Terra% The lar$e circular "eature ?ust south o" this is -rtemis 1orona 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-881A36%
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Fi$ure 1%3> ,a$ellan ima$e o" ,a 'ell ,ontes, the hi$hest mountain on +enus, risin$ almost 11 !m abo#e the mean planetary radius% The prominent circular structure is 1leopatra, an impact basin 'ith a diameter o" about 188 !m and a depth o" 2%A !m 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-881>96%
Fi$ure 1%3A ,a$ellan radar ima$e o" three lar$e impact craters in the .a#inia re$ion o" +enus% The craters ran$e in diameter "rom 23 !m to A8 !m% The bri$ht areas are rou$h 5radar-bri$ht6 e?ecta 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-888846%
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Fi$ure 1%34 1omposite ,a$ellan radar ima$e o" -rtemis corona% The near circular trou$h o" the -rtemis chasma has a diameter o" 2188 !m% The concentric "eatures outside the chasma are attributed to normal "aultin$ associated 'ith lithospheric "le ure similar to that occurrin$ sea'ard o" subduction Bones on the (arth% The $eometry o" -rtemis corona is $enerally similar to the -leutian island arc and has been associated 'ith an aborted subduction Bone 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-881816%
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Fi$ure 1%33 9i$h-resolution ima$e o" Jupiters moon &o ac)uired by the Galileo spacecra"t on July 2, 1999% The sur"ace is co#ered by #olcanic centers, many o" them acti#e 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-822886%
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Fi$ure 1%38 -n acti#e #olcanic eruption on Jupiters moon &o 'as captured in this ima$e ta!en on February 22, 2888, by the Galileo spacecra"t% This picture is about 2A8 !m across% The eruption is occurrin$ at T#ashtar 1atena, a chain o" $iant #olcanic calderas 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-82AA86%
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Fi$ure 1%39 <ear hemispheric ima$e o" Jupiters satellite (uropa ta!en by the +oya$er 2 spacecra"t on July 9, 1939% The linear crac!-li!e "eatures are clearly illustrated as 'ell as the dar!er mottled re$ions 5<-S- &ma$e 0&-81A226%
2 Stress and Strain in Solids
2%1 &ntroduction 0late tectonics is a conse)uence o" the $ra#itational body "orces actin$ on the solid mantle and crust% Gra#i- tational "orces result in an increase o" pressure 'ith depth in the (arth7 roc!s must support the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden that increases 'ith depth% - static e)uilibrium 'ith pressure increasin$ 'ith depth is not possible, ho'e#er, because there are horiBontal #ariations in the $ra#itational body "orces in the (arths interior% These are caused by horiBontal #ariations in density associated 'ith horiBontal di""erences in temperature% The horiBontal thermal contrasts are in turn the ine#itable conse)uence o" the heat release by radioacti#ity in the roc!s o" the mantle and crust% The horiBontal #ariations o" the $ra#itational body "orce produce the di""erential stresses that dri#e the relati#e motions associated 'ith plate tectonics% *ne o" the main purposes o" this chapter is to introduce the "undamental concepts needed "or a )uantitati#e understandin$ o" stresses in the solid (arth% "tresses are "orces per unit area that are transmitted throu$h a material by interatomic "orce "ields% Stresses that are transmitted perpendicular to a sur"ace are normal stresses7 those that are transmitted parallel to a sur"ace are shear stresses% The mean #alue o" the normal stresses is the pressure% :e 'ill describe the techni)ues presently used to measure the state o" stress in the (arths crust and discuss the results o" those measurements% Stress in an elastic solid results in strain or de"ormation o" the solid% The simplest e ample o" strain is the decrease in #olume accompanyin$ an increase in pressure due to the compressi$ility o" a solid% 8ormal strain is de"ined as the ratio o" the chan$e in len$th o" a solid to its ori$inal len$th% The shear strain is de"ined as one-hal" o" the decrease in a ri$ht an$le in a solid 'hen it is de"ormed% The sur"ace o" the (arth is continually bein$
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"tress and "train in "olids
strained by tectonic processes% These chan$es in strain can be measured directly by $eodetic techni)ues% This chapter also discusses the basic concepts re)uired "or a )uantitati#e understandin$ o" strain and chan$es in strain in the solid (arth% 2%2 @ody Forces and Sur"ace Forces The "orces on an element o" a solid are o" t'o typesF body "orces and sur"ace "orces% @ody "orces act throu$hout the #olume o" the solid% The ma$nitude o" the body "orce on an element is thus directly proportional to its #olume or mass% -n e ample is the do'n'ard "orce o" $ra#ity, that is, the 'ei$ht o" an element, 'hich is the product o" its mass and the acceleration o" $ra#ity $% Since density Q is mass per unit #olume, the $ra#itational body "orce on an element is also the product o" Q$ and the elements #olume% Thus the do'n'ard $ra#itational body "orce is $ per unit mass and Q$ per unit #olume% The densities o" some common roc!s are listed in -ppendi 2, Section (% The densities o" roc!s depend on the pressure7 the #alues $i#en are Beropressure densities% /nder the hi$h pressures encountered deep in the mantle, roc!s are as much as A8N denser than the Bero-pressure #alues% The #ariation o" density 'ith depth in the (arth is discussed in 1hapter >% Typical mantle roc!s ha#e Bero-pressure densities o" 22A8 !$ m 2 % @asalt and $abbro, 'hich are the principal constituents o" the oceanic crust, ha#e densities near 29A8 !$ m 2 % 1ontinental i$neous roc!s such as $ranite and diorite are si$ni"icantly li$hter 'ith densities o" 24A8 to 2888 !$ m 2 % Sedimentary roc!s are $enerally the li$htest and ha#e the lar$est #ariations in density, in lar$e part because o" #ariations in porosity and 'ater content in the roc!s% Sur"ace "orces act on the sur"ace area boundin$ an element o" #olume% They arise "rom interatomic "orces e erted by material on one side o" the sur"ace onto material on the opposite side% The ma$nitude o" the sur"ace "orce is directly proportional to the area o" the sur"ace on 'hich it acts% &t also depends on the orientation o" the sur"ace% -s an e ample, consider the "orce that must act at the base o" the column o" roc! at a depth y beneath the sur"ace to support the 'ei$ht o" the column, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C1% The 'ei$ht o" the column o" cross-sectional area a- , is Q$ya-% This 'ei$ht must be balanced by an up'ard sur"ace "orce byy adistributed on the horiBontal sur"ace o" area a- at depth y% :e are assumin$ that no #ertical "orces are actin$ on the lateral sur"aces o" the column and that the density Q is constant7 byy is thus the sur"ace "orce per unit area actin$ perpendicular to a horiBontal sur"ace, that is, stress% Since the "orces on the
4(4 0ody Forces and "urface Forces
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Fi$ure 2%1 @ody and sur"ace "orces actin$ on a #ertical column o" roc!%
Fi$ure 2%2 - continental bloc! L"loatin$M on the "luid mantle%
column o" roc! must be e)ual i" the column is in e)uilibrium, 'e "ind byy P Q$y% 52%16
The normal "orce per unit area on horiBontal planes increases linearly 'ith depth% The normal stress due to the 'ei$ht o" the o#erlyin$ roc! or over2 $urden is !no'n as the lithostatic stress or pressure% To "ind a typical #alue "or stress in the lithosphere, let us determine the lithostatic stress on a horiBontal plane at the base o" the continental crust% -ssume that the crust is 2A !m thic! and that its mean density is 23A8 !$ m 2 7 "rom ()uation 52C16 'e "ind that byy P 23A8 !$ m 2 18 m s 2 2%A 18> m P 9%42A 188 0a P 942%A ,0a% The S& unit "or pressure or stress is the pascal 50a6% 0ressures and stresses in the (arth are normally $i#en in me$apascals 5,pa67 1 me$apascal P 184 pascals%

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Thin! o" continents as bloc!s o" 'ood "loatin$ on a sea o" mantle roc!, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C2% The mean density o" the continent, say Qc P 2 23A8 !$ m , is less than the mean upper mantle density, say Qm P 2288 !$ m 2, so that the continent L"loats%M rchimedesA principle applies to continents7 they are buoyed up by a "orce e)ual to the 'ei$ht o" mantle roc! displaced% -t the base o" the continent byy P Qc $h, 'here Qc is the density o" the continent and h is its thic!ness% -t this depth in the mantle, byy is Qm $b, 'here Qm is the mantle density and b is the depth in the mantle to 'hich the continent Lsin!s%M -nother statement o" -rchimedes principle, also !no'n as hydrostatic e3uili$rium, is that these stresses are e)ual% There"ore 'e "ind Qc h P Qm b% 52%26 The hei$ht o" the continent abo#e the surroundin$ mantle is hbP h Qc Q h P h 1 c % Qm Qm 52%26
/sin$ the #alues $i#en earlier "or the densities and the thic!ness o" the continental crust h P 2A !m, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C26 that h b P A%8 !m% This analysis is only appro imately #alid "or determinin$ the depth o" the oceans relati#e to the continents, since 'e ha#e ne$lected the contribution o" the sea'ater and the oceanic crust% The application o" hydrostatic e)uilibrium to the continental crust is !no'n as isostasy7 it is discussed in more detail in 1hapter A% 0roblem 2%1 -n a#era$e thic!ness o" the oceanic crust is 4 !m% &tsdensity is 2988 !$ m 2 % This is o#erlain by A !m o" 'ater 5Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 6 in a typical ocean basin% Determine the normal "orce per unit area on a horiBontal plane at the base o" the oceanic crust due to the 'ei$ht o" the crust and the o#erlyin$ 'ater% 0roblem 2%2 - mountain ran$e has an ele#ation o" A !m% -ssumin$ that Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qc P 2888 !$ m 2 , and that the re"erence or normal continental crust has a thic!ness o" 2A !m, determine the thic!ness o" the continental crust beneath the mountain ran$e% -ssume that hydrostatic e)uilibrium is applicable% 0roblem 2%2 There is obser#ational e#idence "rom the continents that the sea le#el in the 1retaceous 'as 288 m hi$her than today% -"ter a "e' thousand years, ho'e#er, the sea'ater is in isostatic e)uilibrium 'ith the ocean basins% :hat 'as the correspondin$ increase in the depth o" the ocean basinsO Ta!e Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 and the density o" the displaced mantle to 2 be Qm P 2288 !$ m %
Fi$ure 2%2 &sostasy o" the continental crust relati#e to an ocean basin%
- more realistic model "or the depth o" the ocean basins is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C2% The continental crust has a thic!ness hcc and a density Qcc 7 its upper sur"ace is at sea le#el% The oceanic crust is co#ered 'ith 'ater o" depth h' and density Q' % The oceanic crust has a thic!ness hoc and density Qoc % The mantle density is Qm % -pplication o" the principle o" isostasy to the base o" the continental crust $i#es Qcc hcc P Q' h' R Qoc hoc R Qm 5hcc h' hoc 6% 52%>6 The depth o" the ocean basin relati#e to the continent is $i#en by h' P 5Qm Qcc 6 hcc 5Qm Qoc 6hoc % 5Qm Q'6 5Qm Q'6
52%A6
Ta!in$ hcc P 2A !m, hoc P 4 !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 2888 !$ m 2 , and Qoc P 2988 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind h' P 4%4 !m% Subsidence o" the sur"ace o" the continental crust o"ten results in the "ormation o" a sedimentary $asin% -ssume that the sur"ace o" the continental crust is initially at sea le#el and, as it subsides, sediments are deposited so that the sur"ace o" the sediments remains at sea le#el% *ne cause o" the subsidence is the thinnin$ o" the continental crust% -s the crust is thinned, isostasy re)uires that the sur"ace subside% - simple model "or this subsidence applicable to some sedimentary basins is the crustal stretchin$ model 5,cEenBie, 19386% This t'o-dimensional model is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C>% - section o" continental crust 'ith an initial 'idth '8 is stretched to a "inal 'idth 'b % The stretchin$ "actor T is de"ined by ' T P b% 52%46 '8 &n order to conser#e the #olume o" the stretched continental crust 'e assume a constant crustal density Qcc and re)uire that 'b hcb P '8 hcc , 52%36
Fi$ure 2%> &llustration o" the crustal stretchin$ model "or the "ormation o" a sedimentary basin% - section o" continental crust o" initial 'idth ! 8 , illustrated in 5a6, is stretched by a stretchin$ "actor T P > to a "inal 'idth 'b to "orm the sedimentary basin illustrated in 5b6%
Fi$ure 2%A Thic!ness o" a sedimentary basin hsb as a "unction o" the crustal stretchin$ "actor T%
'here hcc is the initial thic!ness o" the continental crust and hcb is the "inal thic!ness o" the stretched crust% The combination o" ()uations 52C46 and 52C36 $i#es hcc hcb P % 52%86 T The sur"ace o" this stretched continental crust subsides and is assumed to be co#ered 'ith sediments o" density Qs 5Qs \ Qcc 6 to sea le#el% The sediments ha#e a thic!ness hsb and the lo'er boundary o" the sediments is re"erred to as $asement% -pplication o" the principle o" isostasy to the base o" the
re"erence continental crust $i#es Qcc hcc P Qs hsb R Qcc hcb R Qm 5hcc hsb hcb 6% 52%96
The combination o" ()uations 52C86 and 52C96 $i#es the thic!ness o" the sedimentary basin in terms o" the stretchin$ "actor as hsb P hcc Qm Qc c Qm Qs 1 1 % T 52%186
The thic!ness o" the sedimentary basin is $i#en as a "unction o" the 2 stretchin$ "actor in Fi$ure 2CA "or hcc P 2A !m, Q P 2288 !$ m , Qcc P m 2 2 2888 !$ m , and Q P 2A88 !$ m % The ma imum thic!ness o" the s sedimentary basin "or an in"inite stretchin$ "actor is hsb P 22 !m% 0roblem 2%> - sedimentary basin has a thic!ness o" > !m% -ssumin$ that the crustal stretchin$ model is applicable and that hcc P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 23A8 !$ m 2 , and Qs P 2AA8 !$ m 2 , determine the stretchin$ "actor% 0roblem 2%A - sedimentary basin has a thic!ness o" 3 !m% -ssumin$ that the crustal stretchin$ model is applicable and that hcc P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 2388 !$ m 2 , and Qs P 2>A8 !$ m2 , determine the stretchin$ "actor% 0roblem 2%4 - simple model "or a continental mountain belt is the crustal compression model illustrated in Fi$ure 2C4% - section o" the continental crust o" 'idth '8 is compressed to a 'idth 'mb % The compression "actor c is de"ined by '8 % 52%116 cP 'mb Sho' that the hei$ht o" the mountain belt h is $i#en by h P hcc 5Qm Qcc 6 5c 16% Qm
52%126
-ssumin$ c P 2, hcc P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , and Qcc P 2888 !$ m 2 , determine the hei$ht o" the mountain belt h and the thic!ness o" the crustal root b% Just as there are normal sur"ace "orces per unit area on horiBontal planes in the (arth, there are also normal sur"ace "orces per unit area on #ertical planes, as s!etched in Fi$ure 2C3% The horiBontal normal stress components b and bBB can include lar$e-scale tectonic "orces, in 'hich case b P
Fi$ure 2%4 &llustration o" the crustal compression model "or a mountain belt% - section o" continental crust o" 'idth ! 8 , sho'n in 5a6, is compressed by compression "actor c P 2 to "orm a mountain belt as sho'n in 5b6%
Fi$ure 2%3 9oriBontal sur"ace "orces actin$ on #ertical planes%
Fi$ure 2%8 Force balance on a section o" continental bloc!%
Fi$ure 2%9 The area under the stress #ersus depth pro"ile is proportional to the total horiBontal "orce on a #ertical plane%
bBB P byy % *n the other hand, there are many instances in 'hich roc! 'as heated to su""iciently hi$h temperatures or 'as su""iciently 'ea! initially so that the three stresses b , bBB , and byy are e)ual to the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden7 that is, p. b P bBB P byy P Q$y% 52%126 :hen the three normal stresses are e)ual, they are de"ined to be the pressure% The balance bet'een pressure and the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden is !no'n as a lithostatic state of stress% &t is completely e)ui#alent to the hydrostatic state o" stress in a motionless body o" "luid 'herein pressure "orces are e erted e)ually in all directions and pressure increases proportionately 'ith depth% :e 'ill no' sho' that the continental bloc! illustrated in Fi$ure 2C2 cannot simply be in a lithostatic state o" stress% The "orce balance on the continental bloc! is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C8% - horiBontal "orce is actin$ on the ed$e o" the bloc! Fm % :e assume that this "orce is due to the lithostatic pressure in the mantle roc! o" density Qm % The #ertical distribution o" this pressure is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C9% The horiBontal "orce Fm is obtained by inte$ratin$ the lithostatic pressureF 1 y dy P Qm $b2 % 52%1>6 2 8 8 This "orce is per unit 'idth o" the bloc! so that it has dimensions o" "orce per unit len$th% The total "orce per unit 'idth is proportional to the area under the stress distribution $i#en in Fi$ure 2C9% :e ne t determine the horiBontal "orce per unit 'idth actin$ at a typical cross section in the continental bloc! Fc % :e assume that the horiBontal normal stress actin$ in the continent b is made up o" t'o parts, the lithostatic contribution Qc $y and a constant tectonic contribution _b , Fm P p. dy P Qm $ b P Qc $y R _b % 52%1A6
]
b
The tectonic contribution is also !no'n as the deviatoric stress% The hori- Bontal "orce Fc is obtained by inte$ratin$ the horiBontal normal stress
]
Fc P P
h 8
dy P
h 8
5Qc $y R _b 6 dy 52%146
1 2 2 Qc $h
R _b h%
&n order to maintain a static balance, the t'o "orces Fc and Fm must be e)ual% /sin$ ()uations 52C26, 52C1>6, and 52C146, 'e obtain _b P 1 Qm $b2 1 1 Qc $h P Qc 2 h 2 2 $h 1 Qc % Qm 52%136
- horiBontal tensile stress is re)uired to maintain the inte$rity o" the continental bloc!% The horiBontal tensile stress is a "orce per unit area actin$ on #ertical planes and tendin$ to pull on such planes% - compressive stress is a normal "orce per unit area tendin$ to push on a plane% :e consider compressi#e stresses positi#e and tensile stresses ne$ati#e, a con#ention $enerally adopted in the $eolo$ical literature% This is opposite to the si$n con#ention used in most elasticity te tboo!s in 'hich positi#e stress is tensional% Ta!in$ h P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , and Qc P 23A8 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C136 that _b P 88%2 ,0a% Typical #alues "or de#iatoric stresses in the continents are o" the order o" 18 to 188 ,0a% 0roblem 2%3 1onsider a continental bloc! to ha#e a thic!ness o" 38 !m correspondin$ to a ma?or mountain ran$e% &" the continent has a density o" 2888 !$ m 2 and the mantle a density o" 2288 !$ m 2 , determine the tensional stress in the continental bloc!% 0roblem 2%8 Determine the de#iatoric stress in the continent "or the oceanicCcontinental structure in Fi$ure 2C2 by proceedin$ as "ollo's% Sho' that the pressure as a "unction o" depth in the continental crust pc is pc P Qcc $y, 52%186
and that the pressures in the 'ater, in the oceanic crust, and in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust are p 8 P Q' $y 8 y h' P Q' $h' R Qoc $5y h' 6 h' y h' R hoc P Q' $h' R Qoc $hoc R Qm $5y h' hoc 6 h' R hoc y hcc %
52%196
Fi$ure 2%18 <ormal and tan$ential sur"ace "orces on an area element in the "ault plane o" a stri!eCslip "ault%
Find the net di""erence in the hydrostatic pressure "orce bet'een the continental and the oceanic crusts F by inte$ratin$ the pressures o#er a depth e)ual to the thic!ness o" the continental crust% The result is F P $dh' hcc 5Qm Q' 6 R hoc hcc 5Qm Qoc 6 1 2 ' 5Qm Q' 6 h' hoc 5Qm Qoc 6 2 h 2 5Q Q 6 1 h 2 5Q Q 6e% 1 h oc cc 2 oc m 2 cc m 52%286 1alculate F "or h' PA !m, Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , hoc P 3 !m, Qoc P 2988 !$ 2 m , Qcc P 2888 !$ m 2 , and Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 % Find hcc "rom ()uation 52C A6% &" the elastic stresses re)uired to balance this "orce are distributed o#er a depth e)ual to hcc , determine the stress% &" the stresses are e erted in the continental crust, are they tensional or compressionalO &" they act in the oceanic lithosphere, are they tensional or compressionalO Sur"ace "orces can act parallel as 'ell as perpendi-cular to a sur"ace% -n e ample is pro#ided by the "orces actin$ on the area element a- lyin$ in the plane o" a stri!eCslip "ault, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C18% The normal compressi#e "orce b a- actin$ on the "ault "ace is the conse)uence o" the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden and the tectonic "orces tendin$ to press the t'o sides o" the "ault to$ether% The tan$ential or shear "orce on the element b B a- opposes the tectonic "orces dri#in$ the le"t-lateral motion on the "ault% This shear "orce is the result o" the "rictional resistance to motion on the "ault% The )uantity b B is the tan$ential sur"ace "orce per unit area or the shear stress% The "irst subscript re"ers to the direction normal to the sur"ace element and the second subscript to the direction o" the shear "orce% -nother e ample o" the resisti#e "orce due to a shear stress is the em
Fi$ure 2%11 <ormal and tan$ential "orces actin$ on a roc! mass displaced horiBontally to the ri$ht in a lo'-an$le o#erthrust "ault%
placement o" a thrust sheet% &n Bones o" continental collision a thin sheet o" crystalline roc! is o"ten overthrust upon ad?acent continental roc!s on a lo'-an$le thrust "ault% This process is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C11, 'here the thrust sheet has been emplaced "rom the le"t as a conse)uence o" horiBontal tectonic "orces% <e$lectin$ the in"luence o" $ra#ity, 'hich is considered in Section 8C>, 'e can 'rite the total horiBontal tectonic "orce FT due to a horiBontal tectonic stress _b as FT P _b h, 52%216
'here h is the thic!ness o" the thrust sheet and FT is a "orce per unit 'idth o" the sheet% This tectonic dri#in$ "orce is resisted by the shear stress by actin$ on the base o" the thrust sheet% The total resistin$ shear "orce per unit 'idth F; is F; P by ., 52%226 'here . is the len$th o" the thrust sheet% &n many cases it is appropriate to relate the shear stress resistin$ the slidin$ o" one sur"ace o#er another to the normal "orce pressin$ the sur"aces to$ether% (mpirically 'e o"ten obser#e that these stresses are proportional to one another so that by P " byy , 52%226 'here byy is the #ertical normal stress actin$ on the base o" the thrust sheet and " , the constant o" proportionality, is !no'n as the coefficient of friction% -ssumin$ that byy has the lithostatic #alue byy P Qc $h, 52%2>6
and e)uatin$ the dri#in$ tectonic "orce FT to the resistin$ shear "orce, 'e
Fi$ure 2%12 Gra#itational slidin$ o" a roc! mass%
"ind that _b P " Qc $.% 52%2A6
This is the tectonic stress re)uired to emplace a thrust sheet o" len$th .% Ta!in$ a typical #alue "or the tectonic stress to be _b P 188 ,0a and assumin$ a thrust sheet len$th . P 188 !m and Qc P 23A8 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind that the re)uired coe""icient o" "riction is " P 8%824% The e istence o" lon$ thrust sheets implies lo' #alues "or the coe""icient o" "riction% 0roblem 2%9 -ssume that the "riction la' $i#en in ()uation 52C226 is applicable to the stri!eCslip "ault illustrated in Fi$ure 2C18 'ith " P 8%2% -lso assume that the normal stress b is lithostatic 'ith Qc P 23A8 !$ m 2 % &" the "ault is 18 !m deep, 'hat is the "orce 5per unit len$th o" "ault6 resistin$ motion on the "aultO :hat is the mean tectonic shear stress o#er this depth bfB re)uired to o#ercome this "rictional resistanceO 0roblem 2%18 1onsider a bloc! o" roc! 'ith a hei$ht o" 1 m and 2 horiBontal dimensions o" 2 m% The density o" the roc! is 23A8 !$ m % &" the coe""icient o" "riction is 8%8, 'hat "orce is re)uired to push the roc! on a horiBontal sur"aceO 0roblem 2%11 1onsider a roc! mass restin$ on an inclined beddin$ plane as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C12% @y balancin$ the "orces actin$ on the bloc! parallel to the inclined plane, sho' that the tan$ential "orce per unit area b y on the plane supportin$ the bloc! is Q$h sin W 5Q is the density and h is the thic!ness o" the bloc!6% Sho' that the slidin$ condition is W P tan 1"%
52%246
0roblem 2%12 The pressure p h o" "luids 5'ater6 in the pores o" roc!s reduces the e""ecti#e normal stress pressin$ the sur"aces to$ether alon$ a "ault% ,odi"y ()uation 52C2A6 to incorporate this e""ect%
1>8 1>81
Fi$ure 2%12 Sur"ace "orces actin$ on a small rectan$ular element in a t'odimensional state o" stress%
2%2 Stress in T'o Dimensions &n the pre#ious section 'e 'ere concerned primarily 'ith stresses on the sur"ace o" a material% 9o'e#er, stress components can be de"ined at any point in a material% &n order to illustrate this point, it is appropriate to consider a small rectan$ular element 'ith dimensions a , ay, and aB de"ined in accordance 'ith a cartesian , y, B coordinate system, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C12% &n this section 'e 'ill consider a t'o-dimensional state o" stress7 the state is t'o-dimensional in the sense that there are no sur"ace "orces in the B direction and none o" the sur"ace "orces sho'n #ary in the B direction% The normal stresses are b and byy , and the shear stresses are b y and by % The notation adopted in labelin$ the stress components allo's immediate identi"ication o" the associated sur"ace "orces% The second subscript on b $i#es the direction o" the "orce, and the "irst subscript $i#es the direction o" the normal to the sur"ace on 'hich the "orce acts% The tan$ential or shear stresses b y and by ha#e associated sur"ace "orces that tend to rotate the element in Fi$ure 2C12 about the B a is% The moment e erted by the sur"ace "orce b y ayaB is the product o" the "orce and the moment arm a 7 that is, it is b y a ayaB% This couple is counteracted by the moment by a ayaB e erted by the sur"ace "orce by a aB 'ith a moment arm ay% @ecause the element cannot rotate i" it is in e)uilibrium, b
y
P by %
52%236
4(5 "tress in %!o &imensions
1>1 1>11
Fi$ure2%1>Trans"ormation o" stresses "rom the #, y coordinate system to the # , y coordinate system% )a* &llustration o" the coordinate systems% )$* Trian$ular element 5'ith sides in the #, y, and y directions6 on 'hich a static "orce balance is carried out%
Thus the shear stresses are symmetric in that their #alue is independent o" the order o" the subscripts% Three independent components o" stress b , byy , and b y must be speci"ied in order to prescribe the t'o-dimensional state o" stress% The state o" stress is dependent on the orientation o" the coordinate system% :e 'ill no' determine the three components o" stress in a coordinate system , y inclined at an an$le W 'ith respect to the , y coordinate system as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C1>a% To determine the normal stress, 'e carry out a static "orce balance on the trian$ular element 1 0 illustrated in Fi$ ure 2C1>b% The sides o" the trian$le lie in the , y, and y directions% :e "irst 'rite a "orce balance in the y direction% The "orce in the y direction on "ace -* is byy -*, and the "orce in the y direction on "ace *@ is b y *@%
1>2 1>21
The "orce in the y direction on "ace -@ is b

-@ sin W b cos W%
-@
The sum o" these "orces must be Bero "or the trian$ular element 1 0 to be in e)uilibrium% This $i#es 5b

sin W R b
cos W6-@ P byy -* R b y *@%

y
52%286 9o'e#er, the sides o" trian$le 1 0 are in the ratios -* P sin W -@ so that b sin W R b cos W%

*@ P cos W, -@ cos W P byy sin W R b

y
52%296
52%286 direction% The "orce in the
:e ne t 'rite a "orce balance in the direction on "ace -* is by -*, and the "orce in the
direction on "ace *@ is b *@%
The "orce in the
direction on "ace -@ is b

-@ cos W R b sin W%
y -@
/pon e)uatin$ the sum o" these "orces to Bero, 'e $et 5b

cos W b
sin W6-@ P by -* R b *@%
52%216
:ith the #alues o" -*U-@ and *@U-@ as $i#en in ()uation 52C296, 'e "ind b cos W b cos W%

sin W P by sin W R b 52%226
:e multiply ()uation 52C286 by sin W, multiply ()uation 52C226 by cos W, and add the results to obtain b

5cos2 W R sin2 W6 P b Rb
y
cos2 W R byy sin2 W sin W cos W 52%226
R by sin W cos W%
This can be "urther simpli"ied by usin$ cos2 W R sin2 W P 1 b y P by 2 sin W cos W P sin 2W% The result is b P b 52%236 cos2 W R byy sin2 W R b
y
52%2>6 52%2A6 52%246
sin 2W%
@y multiplyin$ ()uation 52C286 by cos W and subtractin$ the product o" ()uation 52C226 'ith sin W, 'e "ind b

5sin2 W R cos2 W6 P byy sin W cos W R b cos2 W b
y 2
sin W cos W by sin W% 52%286
@y usin$ the tri$onometric relations already )uoted, the symmetry o" the shear stresses b y and by and cos 2W P cos2 W sin2 W, 'e can re'rite ()uation 52C286 in the simpler "ormF
2
52%296
5byy b 6 sin 2W R b
cos 2W%
52%>86 ()uations 52C236 and 52C>86 pro#ide "ormulas "or obtainin$ the normal and shear stresses on arbitrarily oriented elements o" area in terms o" b , byy , and b y 5or by 6% Thus these three stress components completely speci"y the state o" t'o-dimensional stress in a solid% :hen W P 8, the e)uations sho' that b is b and b y is b y , as re)uired% 0roblem 2%12 Sho' that by y P b sin2 W R byy cos2 W b
y
sin 2W%
52%>16
0roblem 2%1> The state o" stress at a point on a "ault plane is byy P 1A8 ,0a, b P 288 ,0a, and b y P 8 5y is depth and the a is points 'est'ard6% :hat are the normal stress and the tan$ential stress on the "ault plane i" the "ault stri!es <CS and dips 2A to the 'estO For any arbitrary t'o-dimensional state o" stress b , byy , b y , it is possible to "ind a sur"ace oriented in such a manner that no shear "orces are
e erted on the sur"ace% :e need simply set b Bero and sol#e "or W% Stress b y is Bero i" tan 2W P
in ()uation 52C>86 to
2b y % b byy
52%>26
The direction W de"ined by ()uation 52C>26 is !no'n as a principal a#is of stress% &" W is a principal a is direction, then so is W R XU2 because tan 2W P tand25W R XU26e7 this can be seen as "ollo'sF tan 2 W R X 2 P tan52W R X6 P P tan 2W% tan 2W R tan X 1 tan 2W tan X 52%>26
The last step is true because tan X P 8% The coordinate a es de"ined by the ortho$onal principal a is directions are called the principal a es% There are no shear stresses on area elements oriented perpendicular to the principal a es% The normal stresses in the principal a is coordinate system are !no'n as principal stresses% To sol#e "or the principal stresses b1 and b2 , substitute ()uation 52C>26 into the e pression "or b , ()uation 52C 236% @e"ore ma!in$ the substitution, re'rite ()uation 52C236 usin$ the identities sin2 W P 2W cos2 W P ()uation 52C236 becomes b P or b P

1 cos
52%>>6
2 1 R cos 2W 2
52%>A6
b R byy 1 R cos 2W5b 2 2 2W
byy 6 R b
sin 52%>46
b R by y 1 R cos 2W5b 2 2 2W6%
byy R 2b
tan 52%>36
The determination o" the principal stresses "rom ()uation 52C>36 re)uires an e pression "or cos 2W as 'ell as "or tan 2W% The #alue o" cos 2W can be obtained "rom the e pression "or tan 2W usin$ tan2 2W P sin 2 2W 1 cos 2 2W cos2 2W P , cos2 2W
52%>86
'hich can be re'ritten as cos 2W P 1 % 51 R tan2 2W61U2 by y 1U2% byy 62 6 y R 5b b 52%>96
@y substitutin$ ()uation 52C>26 into ()uation 52C>96, one "inds cos 2W P 5>b 2 52%A86
/pon substitutin$ the e pressions abo#e "or tan 2W and cos 2W into ()uation 52C>36, 'e $et b1,2 P b R by y 2 5b byy 62 R b2 y >
1U2
% 52%A16
&nstead o" speci"yin$ b , byy , and b y , 'e can describe the state o" stress at a point in a solid by $i#in$ the orientation o" the principal a es and the #alues o" the principal stresses% &n deri#in$ these "ormulas "or the orientation o" the principal a es and the ma$nitudes o" the principal stresses, 'e ha#e tacitly assumed b byy P 8% &" b P byy , then b y P b y cos 2W, and the principal a es ha#e an$les o" >A , assumin$ b y P 8% &" b y P 8, the principal stresses are b and byy % &" b P byy and b y P 8, the principal stresses are 5b R byy 6 b y P b b y% 52%A26 2 &t is o"ten con#enient to ha#e "ormulas "or the normal and shear stresses "or an arbitrarily oriented coordinate system in terms o" the principal stresses and the an$le o" the coordinate system 'ith respect to the principal a es% To deri#e such "ormulas, consider the , y a es in Fi$ure 2C 1> to be principal a es so that b1 P b , b2 P byy , and b y P 8% The stresses b , b y , and by y are then $i#en as b
P b1 cos2 W R b2 sin2 W b1 R b2 5b1 cos 2W P R 2 b2 6
52%A26
2 1 P 2 5b1 b2 6 sin 2W
52%A>6 by y P b1 sin2 W R b2 cos2 W b1 R b2 5b1 P cos 2W% 2 b2 6
52%AA6
2 -t this point, there is no particular reason to retain the primes on the
coordinate a es% :e can simpli"y "uture applications o" ()uations 52CA26 to 52CAA6 by identi"yin$ the , y coordinate a es as Lne'M , y coordinate a es% There"ore, i" W is considered to be the an$le bet'een the direction o" b1 and the direction 5direction o" b 6, 'e can 'rite b P b1 R b2 5b1 b2 6 R 2 cos 2W
52%A46 2 1 b y P 2 5b1 b2 6 sin 2W 52%A36 b R b2 5b1 b2 6 byy P 1 cos 2W% 2 52%A86 2 0roblem 2%1A Sho' that the sum o" the normal stresses on any t'o ortho$onal planes is a constant% (#aluate the constant% 0roblem 2%14 Sho' that the ma imum and minimum normal stresses act on planes that are at ri$ht an$les to each other% @y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 52C>86 'ith respect to W and e)uatin$ the resultin$ e pression to Bero, 'e can "ind the an$le at 'hich the shear stress b y is a ma imum7 the an$le is $i#en by tan 2W P 5byy b 6 % 2b y 52%A96
- comparison o" ()uations 52C>26 and 52CA96 sho's that tan 2W "or the principal a is orientation and tan 2W "or the ma imum shear stress orien tation are ne$ati#e reciprocals% Thus the an$les 2W di""er by 98 and the a es that ma imiBe the shear stress lie at >A to the principal a es% The ma imum #alue o" the shear stress can thus be "ound by lettin$ W P XU> in ()uation 52CA36% *ne $ets 5b y 6ma P 215b 1 b2 6% 52%486
The ma imum shear stress is hal" the di""erence o" the principal stresses% &t is also ob#ious "rom ()uation 52CA36 that 5b y 6ma is e erted on a sur"ace 'hose normal is at >A to the principal a es% 2%> Stress in Three Dimensions &n three dimensions 'e re)uire additional stress components to speci"y the sur"ace "orces per unit area on sur"aces o" arbitrary orientation% Fi$ure 2C1A sho's the sur"ace "orces per unit area, that is, the stresses, on the "aces o" a small rectan$ular parallelepiped% There are nine components o" stress
re)uired to describe the sur"ace "orces per unit area on the "aces o" the
4(6 "tress in %hree &imensions
1>3 1>31
Fi$ure 2%1A Stress components on the "aces o" a small rectan$ular parallelepiped%
element% b , byy , and bBB are the normal stresses, and b y , by , b B , bB , byB , and bBy are shear stresses% &" the parallelepiped is not to rotate about any o" its a es, then b y P by , b B P bB , and byB P bBy % *nly si o" the stress components are independent% The trans"ormation o" coordinates to principal a es can also be carried out in three dimensions% Three ortho$onal a es can al'ays be chosen such that all shear stress components are Bero% The normal stresses on planes perpendicular to these a es are the principal stresses, usually denoted as b1 , b2 , and b2 % @y con#ention these are chosen such that b1 b2 b2 % There"ore, b1 is the ma imum principal stress, b2 is the minimum principal stress, and b2 is the intermediate principal stress% The state o" stress at a point in a solid is completely speci"ied by $i#in$ b , byy , bBB , b y , byB , and b B or the orientation o" the principal a es and the #alues o" the principal stresses% 1learly t'o or e#en three o" the principal stresses may be e)ual% :hen all three are e)ual, the state o" stress is isotropic and the principal stresses can be identi"ied as the pressure p P b1 P b2 P b2 % &n any coordinate system the normal stresses are e)ual to the pressure, and there are no shear stresses% -ny set o" ortho$onal a es )uali"ies as a principal a is coordinate system%
1>8 1>81
This is re"erred to as a hydrostatic state of stress% The lithostatic state of stress is a hydrostatic state in 'hich the stress increases proportionately 'ith depth at a rate controlled by the density o" the roc!% :hen the three principal stresses are not e)ual, the pressure is de"ined to be their meanF p P 21 5b1 R b2 R b2 6% 52%416 The pressure is in#ariant to the choice o" coordinate system, that is, to the orientation o" the coordinate a es, so that it is e)ual to the mean o" the normal stresses in any coordinate systemF p P 21 5b R byy R bBB 6%
52%426 ;ecall that 'e ha#e ta!en normal stress to be positi#e "or compression so that it has the same si$n as the pressure% &n studyin$ stress in the (arth, it is o"ten con#enient to subtract the mean stress, that is, the pressure, "rom the normal stress components% -ccordin$ly, 'e de"ine deviatoric normal stresses by b b
y
Pb Pb
y
by b
y B
P byy p Pb
B
bB
B B
P bBB P byB , 52%426
p by
'here primes re"er to the de#iatoric stresses% @y de"inition, the a#era$e o" the normal de#iatoric stresses is Bero% Similarly deviatoric principal stresses can be de"ined as b1 P b1 p b2
P b2 p b2
P b2 p, 52%4>6
and their a#era$e is Bero% :e can determine the orientation o" the plane on 'hich the shear stress is a ma imum, ?ust as 'e did in the case o" t'o-dimensional stress% The direction o" the normal to this plane bisects the an$le bet'een the directions o" the ma imum and minimum principal stresses% The lar$est possible #alue o" the shear stress is 5b1 b2 6U2% 2%A 0ressures in the Deep &nteriors o" 0lanets @ecause roc!s can readily de"orm on $eolo$ic time scales at the hi$h temperatures encountered deep in planetary interiors, it is a $ood appro imation "or many purposes to consider the planets to be in a hydrostatic state o" stress completely described by the dependence o" pressure p on radius r%
4(> Pressures in the &eep Interiors of Planets
1>9 1>91
Fi$ure 2%14 Spherically symmetric model o" a planet "or the purpose o" calculatin$ p)r*%
0ressure must increase 'ith depth because the 'ei$ht o" the material abo#e any radius r increases as r decreases% The situation is completely analo$ous to the lithostatic state o" stress already discussed% @y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 52C126 'ith respect to y, 'e "ind that the rate o" increase o" pressure, or lithostatic stress, 'ith depth is Q$% &n spherical coordinates, 'ith spherical symmetry, the rate o" decrease o" pressure 'ith radius is $i#en by dp P Q$% dr 52%4A6
&n calculatin$ the lithostatic stress near the sur"ace o" a planet, it is ade)uate to consider $ to be constant% 9o'e#er, deep in a planet $ is a "unction o" radius, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C14% &n addition, Q is also $enerally a "unction o" r% The $ra#itational acceleration $5r6 "or a spherically symmetric body is $i#en by $5r6 P G, 5r6 r2 , 52%446
'here G is the universal gravitational constant and , 5r6 is the mass inside radius r%
]
, 5r6 P
r 8
>Xr 2 Q5r 6 dr % 52%436
- "urther discussion o" planetary $ra#ity is $i#en in 1hapter A% Gi#en a model o" the density inside a planet, that is, $i#en the "orm o" Q5r6, one can inte$rate ()uation 52C436 to obtain , 5r67 $5r6 "ollo's "rom ()uation 52C 446% ()uation 52C4A6 can then be inte$rated to sol#e "or p5r6% &n $eneral, ho'e#er, Q5r6 is a "unction o" p5r67 so an e)uation o" state is re)uired%
For a small planet, such as the ,oon, the procedure is particularly strai$ht- "or'ard, since Q can be considered a constant7 , 5r6 2 is then and the acceleration o" $ra#ity is $5r6 P The e)uation "or p is dp > 2 P 2 XQ Gr, dr 'hich upon inte$ration $i#es p P
2 > 2 XQGr%
>
XQr 2 ,
52%486
52%496
XQ2
Gr 2
c%
52%386 The constant o" inte$ration c can be e#aluated by e)uatin$ the pressure to Bero at the sur"ace o" the body r P a% *ne obtains p
2
XQ2 G5a2
r 2 6%
52%316 0ressure is a )uadratic "unction o" radius in a small constant-density planet% 0roblem 2%13 Determine the pressure at the center o" the ,oon% -ssume Q P 2288 !$ m 2 and a P 1328 !m% :hat is the #ariation o" g 'ith radius in the ,oonO 0roblem 2%18 1onsider a simple t'o-layer model o" a planet consistin$ o" a core o" density Qc and radius b surrounded by a mantle o" density Qm and thic!ness a b% Sho' that the $ra#itational acceleration as a "unction o" radius is $i#en by $5r6 P P
> XQc Gr 2 > XGdrQ m 2
8rb R b2 5Qc Qm 6Ur2e
b r a% 52%326
and that the pressure as a "unction o" radius is $i#en by > 1 1 p5r6 P XQ m Gb2 5Q c Qm 6 2 r a 2 2 2 R XGQ2 r 6 br a m 5a 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 P XGQ2 r 6 R XGQ2 b 6 c 5b m 5a 2 2 > 1 1 2 R XQ m Gb 5Q c Q m6 2 b a 8 r b%
52%326
-pply this model to the (arth% -ssume Qm P >888 !$ m 2 , b P 2>84 !m, a P
4(? "tress Measurement
1A1 1A11
Fi$ure 2%13 Schematic o" o#ercorin$ techni)ue "or stress measurements% )a* - hole is drilled, and "our strain $au$es are installedF one on the side 'all to measure byy and three on the base to measure b , b B , and bBB % &t is assumed that the drillin$ o" the hole has not a""ected the ambient state o" stress% )$* The second annular hole is drilled% &t is assumed that this annular hole completely relie#es the initial stresses%
4231 !m% 1alculate Qc $i#en that the total mass o" the (arth is A%93 182> !$% :hat are the pressures at the center o" the (arth and at the coreCmantle boundaryO :hat is the acceleration o" $ra#ity at r P bO 2%4 Stress ,easurement The direct measurement o" stress is an important source o" in"ormation on the state o" stress in the lithosphere% -t shallo' depths, the state o" stress is stron$ly a""ected by the presence o" "aults and ?oints, and stress measurements near the sur"ace yield little use"ul in"ormation on tectonic stresses in the lithosphere% -t su""iciently lar$e depths, the lithostatic pressure closes these Bones o" 'ea!ness, allo'in$ stresses to be transmitted across them% Stress measurements made at depth are thus directly interpretable in terms o" lar$e-scale tectonic stresses% Stress measurements at depth are carried out in mines and in deep boreholes% The t'o principal methods o" ma!in$ in situ stress measurements are overcoring and hydrofracturing% The "irst step in o#ercorin$ is to drill a hole in roc! that is "ree o" "aults and ?oints% "train 5deformation6 gauges can be installed in three perpendicular directions on the base o" the hole and on the side, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C 13a 5strain or de"ormation in response to stress is discussed )uantitati#ely in the "ollo'in$ section6% -lternati#ely t'o holes are drilled at ri$ht an$les, and strain $au$es are installed on the bases o" the t'o holes% :e assume that
1A2 1A21
Fi$ure 2%18 0ressure lo$ durin$ hydro"racturin$%
the stress in the direction o" the strain $au$e is not a""ected by the drillin$ o" the hole% The hole is then o#ercored7 that is, an annular hole 'ith radius lar$er than the ori$inal hole is drilled, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C13b% :e assume that the o#ercorin$ completely relie#es the stresses in the isolated bloc! o" roc! to 'hich the strain $au$es ha#e been attached% The displacements on the strain $au$es can then be used to determine the ori$inal state o" stress% -n important limitation o" this method is that the len$th o" the hole used is limited to about 1 m% To ma!e o#ercorin$ measurements at $reater depths, it is necessary to drill the holes in mines% The second method o" direct stress measurement is hydro"racturin$% &n this method a section o" a borehole that is "ree o" "ractures or other porosities is isolated usin$ in"latable pac!ers% The isolated section is then pressuriBed by pumpin$ "luid into it, and the pressure o" the "luid is monitored% The pressure is increased until a "racture occurs% The "luid pressure at 'hich the "racture occurs is re"erred to as the $rea,do!n pressure pb % - typical pressureCtime history durin$ hydro"racturin$ is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C18% &" the pump is shut o"" immediately and the hydraulic circuit !ept closed, an instantaneous shut2in pressure 5I"IP6 is recorded, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C 18% This is the pressure that is ?ust su""icient to hold the "racture open% &" the "luid pressure is dropped and then increased, the ma imum pressure is the &S&0 'hen the "racture is once a$ain opened% Se#eral assumptions are implicit in the interpretation o" the pressure record obtained durin$ hydro"racturin$% The "irst is that the resultant "racture is in a #ertical plane% The second is that the roc! "ractures in pure tension so that the stress perpendicular to the "racture is the minimum horiBontal principal stress% :ith these assumptions the ma$nitude o" the
4(? "tress Measurement
1A2 1A21
Fi$ure 2%19 ,easured #alues o" the minimum horiBontal stress bmin as a "unction o" depth y in the 1a ?on 0ass borehole in 1ali"ornia 5]obac! and 9ealy, 19926% -lso included in this "i$ure are the #ertical component o" stress byy sho'n by the solid line 5assumed e)ual to the lithostatic pressure6 and 8%4 byy sho'n by the dashed line%
minimum horiBontal principal stress is e)ual to the &S&0% /sin$ theories "or the "racture o" roc!, the ma imum horiBontal principal stress can be deduced "rom pb and &S&0, but 'ith considerably less accuracy% ,easurements o" the minimum horiBontal stress bmin as a "unction o" depth in the 1a?on 0ass borehole in 1ali"ornia are $i#en in Fi$ure 2C19% This borehole is ad?acent to the San -ndreas "ault in southern 1ali"ornia and 'as drilled to a depth o" 2%A !m% - series o" &S&0 measurements 'ere carried out usin$ both hydro"ractures and pree istin$ "ractures, and it is assumed that these $a#e bmin % &n $eneral, measurements o" the #ertical component o" stress indicate that it is nearly e)ual to the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden, that is, the lithostatic pressure% /sin$ ()uation 52C16 'ith Q$ P 24%A ,0a !m 1 the #ertical component o" stress byy is also $i#en as a "unction o" depth in Fi$ure 2C19% The measured stresses correlate reasonably 'ell 'ith 8%4 byy % -nother techni)ue used to determine the orientation o" crustal stresses is the obser#ation o" 'ellbore brea!outs% :ellbore brea!outs are the result o" localiBed "ailure around a borehole in response to horiBontal compression%
1A> 1A>1
Table 2%1 "tress Measurements at 4BB m &epth vs( &istance from the "an ndreas Fault
Distance "rom Fault 5!m6 2 > 22 2> ,a imum 0rincipal Stress 5,0a6 9 1> 18 22 ,inimum 0rincipal Stress 5,0a6 8 8 8 11
1ompression produces spallation Bones alon$ the 'ellbore at the aBimuth o" minimum principal stress 'here the circum"erential compressi#e stress is a ma imum% The spallation Bones can be used to in"er the directions o" the horiBontal principal stresses 5Gou$h and @ell, 19816% *bser#ations o" 'ellbore brea!outs can be obtained "rom borehole tele#ie'er data% The borehole tele- #ie'er is an ultrasonic 'ell-lo$$in$ tool 'hich can ima$e the orientation and distribution o" "ractures as 'ell as the orientation o" stress-induced 'ellbore brea!outs% 0roblem 2%19 -n o#ercorin$ stress measurement in a mine at a depth o" 1%A !m $i#es normal stresses o" 42 ,0a in the <CS direction, >8 ,0a in the (C: direction, and A1 ,0a in the <(CS: direction% Determine the ma$nitudes and directions o" the principal stresses% 0roblem 2%28 The measured horiBontal principal stresses at a depth o" 288 m are $i#en in Table 2C1 as a "unction o" distance "rom the San -ndreas "ault% :hat are the #alues o" ma imum shear stress at each distanceO
2%3 @asic &deas about Strain Stresses cause solids to de"orm7 that is, the stresses produce chan$es in the distances separatin$ nei$hborin$ small elements o" the solid% &n the discussion that "ollo's 'e describe the 'ays in 'hich this de"ormation can occur% &mplicit in our discussion is the assumption that the de"ormations are small% Fi$ure 2C28 sho's a small element o" the solid in the shape o" a rectan$ular parallelepiped% 0rior to de"ormation it has sides a , ay, and aB% The element may be de"ormed by chan$in$ the dimensions o" its sides 'hile maintainin$ its shape in the "orm o" a rectan$ular parallelepiped% -"ter de"ormation, the sides o" the element are a g a , ay gyy ay, and aB gBB aB% The )uantities g , gyy , and gBB are normal components o" strain7 g is the chan$e in len$th
4(= 0asic Ideas a$out "train
1AA 1AA1
Fi$ure 2%28 - de"ormation that chan$es the dimensions o" a rectan$ular parallelepiped but not its shape%
o" the side parallel to the a is di#ided by the ori$inal len$th o" the side, and gyy and gBB are similar "ractional chan$es in the len$ths o" the sides ori$inally parallel to the y and B a es, respecti#ely% The normal components o" strain g , gyy , and gBB are assumed, by con#ention, to be positi#e i" the de"ormation shortens the len$th o" a side% This is consistent 'ith the con#ention that treats compressi#e stresses as positi#e% &" the de"ormation o" the element in Fi$ure 2C28 is so small that s)uares and hi$her order products o" the strain components can be ne$lected in computin$ the chan$e in #olume o" the element, the "ractional chan$e in #olume 5#olume chan$e di#ided by ori$inal #olume6 is g R gyy R gBB % This )uantity is !no'n as the dilatation _7 it is positi#e i" the #olume o" the element is decreased by compression% 0roblem 2%21 /pli"t and subsidence o" lar$e areas are also accompanied by horiBontal or lateral strain because o" the cur#ature o" the (arths sur"ace% Sho' that the lateral strain g accompanyin$ an upli"t _y is $i#en by gP 'here ; is the radius o" the (arth% 0roblem 2%22 The porosity Y o" a roc! is de"ined as its #oid #olume per unit total #olume% &" all the pore spaces could be closed, "or e ample, by sub?ectin$ the roc! to a su""iciently lar$e pressure, 'hat 'ould be the dilatationO For loose sand Y is about >8N, and "or oil sands it is usually in the ran$e o" 18 to 28N% Table 2C2 $i#es the porosities o" se#eral roc!s% The strain components o" a small element o" solid can be related to the displacement o" the element% &n order to simpli"y the deri#ation o" this relationship, 'e consider the t'o-dimensional e ample in Fi$ure 2C21% 0rior to de"ormation, the rectan$ular element occupies the position p)rs% -"ter _y , ; 52%3>6
Table 2%2 Roc, Porosities

;oc! 9asmar! dolomite ,arianna limestone @erea sandstone ,uddy shale ;epetto siltstone 0orosity 5N6 2%A 12%8 18%2 >%3 A%4
Fi$ure 2%21 Distortion o" the rectan$ular element p3rs into the rectan$ular element p 3 r s %
de"ormation, the element is in the position p ) r s % &t is assumed to retain a rectan$ular shape% The coordinates o" the corner p be"ore strain are and y7 a"ter strain the corner is displaced to the location denoted by p 'ith coordinates , y % The displacement o" the corner p as a result o" the strain or de"ormation is ' 5 , y6 P in the direction and 'y 5 , y6 P y y
52%3A6
52%346
in the y direction% Displacements in the ne$ati#e and y directions are considered positi#e to a$ree 'ith the si$n con#ention in 'hich positi#e strains imply a contraction% 1orner ) at R a , y is displaced to position ) 'ith coordinates R a , y as a result o" the de"ormation% &ts displacement in
the
direction is ' 5 R a , y6 P 52%336 Ra 5
Ra
6%
Similarly, the displacement o" corner s in the y direction 'y 5 , y R ay6 is $i#en by the di""erence in the y coordinates o" s and s 'y 5 , y R ay6 P y R ay 5y R ay 6% 52%386 &n 'ritin$ ()uations 52C336 and 52C386, 'e ha#e assumed that the strains 5a a 6Ua and 5ay ay 6Uay are small% Since a and ay are in"initesimal, 'e can e pand ' 5 Ra , y6 and 'y 5 , yR ay6 as h' ' 5 R a , y6 P ' 5 , y6 a h R h 'y ay% ' 5 , y R ay6 P ' 5 , y6 hy
y y
52%396 52%886
R Substitution o" ()uation 52C396 into ()uation 52C336 and subtraction o" ()uation 52C3A6 yield h' a % 52%816 h Similarly, substitution o" ()uation 52C886 into ()uation 52C386 and subtraction o" ()uation 52C346 yield a Pa
ay P ay R
h 'y ay% hy
52%826
From the de"initions o" the strain components and ()uations 52C816 and 52C826 'e "ind a a h' g 52%826 h h 'y gyy P % 52%8>6 a hy ay ay P ay
&n three2dimensional strain, the third strain component gBB is clearly $i#en by h 'B aB aB gBB P % 52%8A6 hB P aB The components o" strain in the , y, and B directions are proportional to the deri#ati#es o" the associated displacements in the respecti#e directions% The dilatation _ is $i#en by
_P
h' R % h R h 'y h 'B hy hB
52%846
Fi$ure 2%22 Distortion o" a rectan$le into a parallelo$ram by a strain "ield in#ol#in$ shear%
:e ha#e so "ar considered strains or de"ormations that do not alter the ri$ht an$les bet'een line elements that are mutually perpendicular in the unstrained state% Shear strains, ho'e#er, can distort the shapes o" small elements% For e ample, Fi$ure 2C22 sho's a rectan$ular element in t'o dimensions that has been distorted into a parallelo$ram% -s illustrated in this "i$ure, the shear strain g y is de"ined to be one-hal" o" the decrease in the an$le S0 G g
y
21 5Y1 R Y2 6,
52%836
'here Y1 and Y2 are the an$les throu$h 'hich the sides o" the ori$inal rectan$ular element are rotated% The si$n con#ention adopted here ma!es g y ne$ati#e i" the ori$inal ri$ht an$le is altered to an acute an$le% -s in the case o" stress, the shear strain is symmetric so that gy P g y % Fi$ure 2C22 sho's that the an$les Y1 and Y2 are related to the displacements by tan Y1 P 'y 5 R a , y 6 P Y1 a Z ' 5 , y R P Y2 % tan Y P ay6 2 ay 52%886 52%896
&n ()uations 52C886 and 52C896, 'e assume that the rotations are in"initesimal so that the tan$ents o" the an$les are #ery nearly e)ual to the an$les themsel#es% :e can e press 'y 5 R a , y6 and ' 5 , y R ay6 in terms o" the spatial
deri#ati#es o" the displacements accordin$ to 'y 5 R a , y6 P h 'y a h h' ' 5 , y R ay6 P ay, hy
1A9 1A91
52%986 52%916
:here, "or simplicity, 'e assume ' 5 , y6 P 8 and 'y 5 , y6 P 8% Substitution o" ()uations 52C986 and 52C916 into ()uations 52C886 and 52C 896 and "urther substitution o" the resultin$ e pressions "or Y1 and Y2 into ()uation 52C836 yield 1 h 'y h ' gy P R 52%926 2 h hy as the relation bet'een shear strain and the spatial deri#ati#es o" displacements% &n the en$ineerin$ literature, i y P 2g y is o"ten used% 1are should be e ercised in dealin$ 'ith these )uantities% Shear strain can also lead to a solid-body rotation o" the element i" Y1 P Y2 % The solid2$ody rotation ^B is de"ined by the relation 1 ^B P 5Y1 Y2 6% 52%926 2 Substitution o" ()uations 52C886 and 52C896 into ()uation 52C926 $i#es ^B P 1 h 'y h ' 2 h hy % 52%9>6
The rotation o" any element can be resol#ed in terms o" the shear strain and the solid-body rotation% From ()uations 52C836 and 52C926, the an$le Y1 throu$h 'hich a line element parallel to the a is is rotated is Y1 P 5g
y
R ^B 6,
52%9A6
and the an$le Y2 throu$h 'hich a line element in the y direction is rotated is Y2 P ^B g y % 52%946 Thus, in the absence o" solid-body rotation, g y is the cloc!'ise an$le throu$h 'hich a line element in the direction is rotated% &t is also the countercloc!- 'ise an$le throu$h 'hich a line element in the y direction is rotated% &" the amount o" solid-body rotation is Bero, the distortion is !no'n as pure shear% &n this case, illustrated in Fi$ure 2C22a, Y1 P Y2 h 'y h' P h hy 52%936 52%986
Fi$ure 2%22 S!etch o" )a* pure shear strain that in#ol#es no solid-body rotation o" elements and )$* simple shear strain that includes such rotation%
and the shear strain is g

y
h 'y h' P % hy h
52%996
The case o" simple shear, sho'n in Fi$ure 2C22b, combines solid-body rotation and shear in such a manner that Y1 P h 'y P 8% h 52%1886
From ()uation 52C9>6, the amount o" solid-body rotation is 1 h' ^B P , 2 hy and the shear strain is g
y
52%1816
1 h' % 2 hy
52%1826
Simple shear is o"ten associated 'ith stri!eCslip "aultin$% The e)uations $i#en "or t'o-dimensional strains and solid-body rotation about one a is can be readily $eneraliBed to three dimensions% pure shear
strain in the B plane has an associated shear strain component $i#en by g

B
141 1411
P gB P
1 2
h 'B h h 'B hy
h' hB h 'y % hB
52%1826
and a pure shear strain in the yB plane corresponds to gyB P gBy P 1 2 R 52%18>6
- solid-body rotation about the a is ^ is related to displacement deri#ati#es by 1 h 'B h 'y ^ P % 52%18A6 hB 2 hy Similarly, a solid-body rotation about the y a is is ^y P 1 2 h' hB h 'B % h 52%1846
The strain components g , gyy , gBB , g y , g B , and gyB are su""icient to describe the $eneral in"initesimal de"ormation o" solid elements sub?ected to stresses% The solid-body rotations ^ , ^y , and ^B do not alter distances be- t'een nei$hborin$ elements o" a solid and, there"ore, do not in#ol#e stresses% -ccordin$ly, the strain components and their associated stresses are o" primary concern to us in subse)uent chapters% Just as it 'as important to !no' the stresses on area elements 'hose normals ma!e arbitrary an$les 'ith respect to , y a es, so it is essential to !no' the "ractional chan$es in len$th and the rotation an$les o" arbitrarily inclined line elements% For simplicity 'e consider the t'o-dimensional case% :e 'ish to determine the strains in the , y coordinate system, 'hich is inclined at an an$le W 'ith respect to the , y coordinate system, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C2>a% -s a result o" the strain "ield g , gyy , g y and the solidbody rotation ^B , the line elements 0 ; and 0 G e perience chan$es in len$th and rotations% .ine element 0 ; is parallel to the a is, and 0 G is parallel to the y a is% The e tension in len$th o" 0 ; di#ided by the ori$inal len$th a is the strain component g 7 the countercloc!'ise an$le o" ^ % This is illustrated in rotation o" 0 ; is the an$le Y g y 1 P Fi$ure 2C2>b% The e tension in len$th o" 0 G B di#ided by the ori$inal len$th ay is the 7 the cloc!'ise rotation o" 0 strain component gy y G is the an$le Y 2 P ^B g y % This is sho'n in Fi$ure 2C2>c% :e "irst determine the strain component g % The displacement o" ; to ; in Fi$ure 2C2>b is the net result o" the combined elon$ations and rotations o" a and ay% The component o" the displacement o" ;
142 1421 relati#e
to ; arises "rom the elon$ation o" a in the
direction, g a , and the
rotation o" ay throu$h the cloc!'ise an$le Y2 % The latter contribution to the displacement is Y2 ay, 'hich, accordin$ to ()uation 52C946, is 5^B g y 6ay% Thus the total component o" the displacement o" ; 'ith respect to ; is g a R 5^B g y 6ay% The y component o" the displacement o" ; 'ith respect to ; is the sum o" the elon$ation o" ay, gyy ay, and the contribution "rom the rotation o" a , 'hich, 'ith ()uation 52C9A6, is Y1 a P 5g y R ^B 6a % Thus the total y component o" displacement o" ; 'ith respect to ; is gyy ay 5g y R ^B 6a % For small strains, the chan$e in len$th o" 0 ; is the sum o" the o" ;; pro?ected on the line PR, dg a R 5^B g y 6aye cos W, and the y component o" ;;

component
pro?ected on the line

y
PR, dgyy ay 5g W% The strain component g thus g

R ^B 6a e sin
is
d g P
Since
a R 5^B g y 6a y e cos W a d gyy ay 5g y R ^B 6a e % R sin W a ay a P sin W
52%1836
a a
P cos W
52%1886
()uation 52C1836 can be re'ritten as g Pg cos W% cos2 W R gyy sin2 W R 2g

y
sin W 52%1896
/sin$ ()uation 52C246, 'e can "urther re'rite ()uation 52C1896 as g

Pg
cos2 W R gyy sin2 W R g
sin 2W%
52%1186 This has the same "orm as the trans"ormation o" the normal stress $i#en in ()uation 52C236% :e ne t determine the strain component gy y % -s can be seen in Fi$ure 2C2>c, the component o" the displacement o" G 'ith respect to G in
Fi$ure 2%2> )a* The trans"ormation o" coordinates #, y throu$h an an$le W to # % )$* The trans"ormation o" the strain components onto , y the # a is% )c* The trans"ormation o" the strain components onto the y a is%
the ne$ati#e direction is the sum o" the elon$ation o" a , g a , and the contribution "rom the rotation o" ay, Y2 ay P 5^B g y 6ay, that is, g a 5^B g y 6ay% The y component o" the displacement o" G 'ith respect to G is the sum o" the elon$ation o" ay, gyy ay, and the contribution due to the rotation o" a , Y1 a P 5g y R ^B 6a , that is, gyy ay R 5^B R g y 6a % -"ter pro?ection o" these displacements onto the line 0 G, the strain component gy y can be 'ritten as dg a R 5^B g gy y P ay
y
6a y e sin W
Fi$ure 2%2A Geometrical determination o" )a* Y 1 and )$* Y
R Since a ay
d gyy ay R 5^B R g y 6a e % cos W ay ay ay P cos W,
52%1116
P sin W
52%1126
()uation 52C1116 can be put in the "orm gy y P g W% sin2 W R gyy cos2 W 2g

y
sin W cos 52%1126
@y substitutin$ ()uation 52C246 into ()uation 52C1126, 'e $et gy y P g 52%11>6 0roblem 2%22 Deri#e ()uation 52C11>6 "rom ()uation 52C1186 by usin$ the substitution W P W R XU2% :hy can this be doneO :e no' turn to the determination o" the shear strain, g y , and the solid- body rotation ^B in the ne' coordinate system% :e "irst determine the an$le Y 1 P g y ^B "rom the $eometrical relationships sho'n in Fi$ure 2C2Aa% For su""iciently small strain, Y 1 is $i#en by ; Y 1 P g y ^ B % 52%11A6 + a P From Fi$ure 2C2Aa 'e can see that

sin2 W R gyy cos2 W g
sin 2W%
; + P ; / + / P ; / T S,
52%1146
and ; / P dgyy ay 5g y R ^B 6a e cos W 52%1136 T S P dg a R 5^B g y 6aye sin W% 52%1186 @y combinin$ ()uations 52C1886 and 52C11A6 'ith 52C1186, 'e obtain g
R ^B P 5gyy g 6 sin W cos W R g y 5cos2 W sin2 W6 R ^B %
52%1196
The an$le Y 2 can be "ound "rom the $eometrical relationships sho'n in Fi$ure 2C2Ab7 it is $i#en by Y 2 P ^B g
52%1286
P From Fi$ure 2C2Ab it is seen that
ay
and

/ S P/ 52%1216
RT
S ,
/ T P dg a 5^B g y 6aye cos W 52%1226 T S P dgyy ay R 5^B R g y 6a e sin W% 52%1226 @y combinin$ ()uations 52C1126 and 52C1286 'ith 52C1226, 'e obtain ^B g
P 5g gyy 6 sin W cos W g y 5cos2 W sin2 W6 R ^B %
52%12>6
@y addin$ and subtractin$ ()uations 52C1196 and 52C12>6, 'e can "ind separate e)uations "or ^B and g y F ^B P ^B 52%12A6 2 2 g y P 5gyy g 6 sin W cos W R g y 5cos W sin W6% 52%1246 The solid-body rotation is in#ariant to the coordinate trans"ormation, as e pected, because it represents a rotation o" an element 'ithout de"ormation% @y introducin$ ()uations 52C246 and 52C296 into ()uation 52C1246, 'e
obtain g
P y2
5gyy g 6 sin 2W R g
cos 2W%
52%1236 This has the same "orm as the trans"ormation o" the shear stress $i#en in ()uation 52C>86% Just as there are principal a es o" stress in a solid, there are principal a#es
of strain% &n the principal strain a is coordinate system, shear strain components are Bero% Settin$ g y P 8 in ()uation 52C1236 $i#es the direction o" one o" the principal a es o" strain as tan 2W P 2g y % g gyy 52%1286
:e ha#e already sho'n, in connection 'ith principal stress a es, that i" W is a principal a is direction, so is W R XU2% The "ractional chan$es in len$th alon$ the directions o" the principal strain a es are the principal strains% :ith W $i#en by ()uation 52C1286, ()uation 52C1186 determines the principal strain g1 P g % The principal strain g2 is identi"ied 'ith gy % @y a procedure analo$ous to the one used in deri#in$ ()uation 52C y A16 'e "ind
1 5g g1,2 P 2 1 5g R gyy 6 g2 y R >
gyy 62
o1U2
% 52%1296
&t is con#enient to ha#e "ormulas "or the normal and shear strains at an an$le W 'ith respect to the g1 principal strain a is% Ta!in$ g y P 8, g P g1 , and gyy P g2 in ()uations 52C1896 and 52C1236, 'e obtain g g
y
P g1 cos2 W R g2 sin2 W P 21 5g1 g2 6 sin 2W%
52%1286 52%1216
0roblem 2%2> Sho' that the principal strains are the minimum and the ma imum "ractional chan$es in len$th% 0roblem 2%2A Sho' that the ma imum shear strain is $i#en by 21 5g1 g2 6% :hat is the direction in 'hich the shear strain is ma imumO 0rincipal a es o" strain can also be "ound "or arbitrary three-dimensional strain "ields% :ith respect to these a es all shear strain components are Bero% The normal strains alon$ these a es are the principal strains g1 , g2 , and g2 % *ne can introduce the concept o" deviatoric strain in analo$y to de#iatoric stress by re"errin$ the strain components to a state o" isotropic strain e)ual to the a#era$e normal strain e% &n three dimensions e 1 5g 52%1226 2 R gyy R gBB 6 P
2 1
_%
The a#era$e normal strain and the dilatation are in#ariant to the choice o" coordinate a es% The de#iatoric strain components, denoted by primes, are g P g g y P g e
y
e g yy P gyy g B P g
B
gBB
P gBB e 52%1226
g yB P gyB %
4(@ "train Measurements
143
Fi$ure 2%24 - "ence o""set by 2 m on the ranch o" (% ;% Strain, ,arin 1ounty, 1ali"ornia, as a result o" slip alon$ the San -ndreas "ault durin$ the $reat 1984 earth)ua!e 5G% E% Gilbert 2828, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey%6
2%8 Strain ,easurements Strain or de"ormation at the (arths sur"ace is o"ten a conse)uence o" lar$escale tectonic "orces% Thus the measurement o" sur"ace strain can pro#ide important in"ormation on "undamental $eodynamic processes% For e ample, in order to understand the mechanical beha#ior o" "aults, it is essential to determine the distribution o" the coseismic surface strain as a "unction o" distance "rom the "ault, a problem 'e discuss "urther in 1hapter 8% @ecause sur"ace strains are $enerally #ery small, sophisticated distance-measurin$ techni)ues are usually re)uired to determine them% 9o'e#er, there are instances in 'hich sur"ace displacements are so lar$e that they can be easily measured% -n e ample is the sur"ace o""set on a "ault 'hen a $reat earth)ua!e occurs7 o""sets o" 18 m and more ha#e been recorded% Tree lines, roads, railroad trac!s, pipelines, "ences, and the li!e can be used to ma!e such measurements% Fi$ure 2C24 sho's a "ence o""set by 2 m durin$ the 1984 earth)ua!e on the San -ndreas "ault in 1ali"ornia% ,easured sur"ace o""sets resultin$ "rom this earth)ua!e are summariBed in Fi$ure 2C23% -lthou$h there is considerable scatter in the data, an o""set o" about > m 'as obser#ed alon$ much o" the "ault brea!% The scatter o" the data illustrates one
148
o" the principal problems in measurin$ sur"ace strain% The (arths crust is not a continuum material 'ith uni"orm properties% 1han$es in roc! type, the presence o" thic! soil layers, and o""sets on branchin$ or secondary "aults all contribute to the #ariations in the measured o""sets% The strain "ield associated 'ith the 1984 earth)ua!e can be estimated "rom the data in Fi$ure 2C23% Since the San -ndreas "ault is a stri!eCslip "ault, 'e assume that the strain "ield is a simple shear and that it e tends >8 !m "rom the "ault% The distance that the cyclic strain "ield e tends "rom the "ault is considered in detail in 1hapter 8% The #alue o" >8 !m is sub?ect to considerable uncertainty% The mean displacement o" > m across the "ault durin$ the earth)ua!e is made up o" 2 m displacements on opposite sides o" the "ault% The shear strain g B can thus be estimated "rom ()uation 52C1826 as 1 h' 1 2m gB P P 2%A 18 A % 52%12>6 2 hB 2 >8,888 m &" $reat earth)ua!es recur about e#ery 188 years alon$ the San -ndreas "ault, the rate of shear strain accumulation on the "ault gj B is gj
B
2%A 18
A
188 yr
P 8%2A 18
yr
52%12A6
-s 'e ha#e already noted, sur"ace strains o" the ma$nitude calculated in ()uation 52C12>6 are di""icult to measure7 they re)uire e tremely accurate determinations o" distances% This has been the main concern o" geodesy "or se#eral centuries% The traditional end product o" $eodetic sur#eys is the topo$raphic map, constructed "rom the ele#ations o" a net'or! o" $enchmar,s% @enchmar!s are spaced o#er much o" the /nited States at inter#als o" a "e' !ilometers and $round sur#eys are used to establish accurate benchmar! ele#ations in a geodetic net!or,% Geodetic net'or!s are systematically resur#eyed to determine the chan$es in ele#ation bet'een benchmar!s% +ertical displacements o" benchmar!s on the order o" 18 to 188 cm are o"ten "ound% &n many instances, these displacements can be associated 'ith subsidence due to the remo#al o" $round 'ater% 9o'e#er, in other cases they must be attributed to tectonic causes% ( tensi#e $eodetic measurements ha#e been made alon$ the San -ndreas "ault, and these are used to illustrate the concepts discussed in this section% @ecause the San -ndreas "ault is a stri!eCslip "ault, the displacements associated 'ith slip alon$ the "ault are predominantly horiBontal% Thus 'e restrict our attention to the horiBontal components o" strain g , g B , and gBB % 9oriBontal strains are obtained by measurin$ the positions o" "i ed monuments% 9istorically, the standard method "or determinin$ the positions o" monu-
4(@ "train Measurements 149
Fi$ure 2%23 1$served surface offsets on the "an
ndreas fault resulting from the -<B? earth3ua,e )%hatcher, -<=>*(
138 1381
Fi$ure 2%28 &llustration o" trian$ulation% The #, + position o" monument C can be determined "rom the line len$th 0 and the an$les W1 and W2 % The positions o" the other monuments can be similarly determined%
ments is triangulation, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C28% -ssume that the absolute positions o" the re"erence points - and @ ha#e been determined% The location o" monument 1 can be "ound "rom the line len$th -@ and the t'o an$les W1 and W2 as "ollo's% -pplyin$ the la' o" sines to trian$le -@1 produces 5-@6 5-1 6 52%1246 sin5X W1 W2 6 P sin W2 % &" 'e assume that point de"ines the ori$in o" the , B coordinate system and that 0 lies on the B a is, the coordinates o" 1 5 c , Bc 6 are $i#en by
c
P 5-1 6 sin W1
Bc P 5-1 6 cos W1 %
52%1236
@y sol#in$ ()uation 52C1246 "or 5-1 6 and substitutin$ into ()uation 52C 1236, 'e obtain 5-@ 6 sin W1 sin W2 c P sin5X W1 W2 6 5-@ 6 cos W1 sin W2 Bc P % sin5X W1 W2 6 52%1286 52%1296
The locations o" the other monuments in the trian$ulation net'or! can be similarly determined% The use o" redundant trian$les, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C 28, impro#es the accuracy o" the results% 0roblem 2%24 The coordinates - , B- and @ , B@ o" monuments - and @ sho'n in Fi$ure 2C29 are assumed !no'n% Determine the coordinates 1 , B1 o" monument 1 in terms o" the coordinates o" monuments - and @ and the an$les W1 and W2 % The an$les re)uired "or trian$ulation are obtained usin$ a theodolite% The
Fi$ure 2%29 S!etch "or 0roblem 2C24%
Fi$ure 2%28 )a* The three monuments at ,ount Diablo, ,ocho, and ,ount Toro are part o" a primary trian$ulation net'or! that spans the San -ndreas "ault south o" San Francisco% )$* *bser#ed chan$es in the an$le W bet'een the monuments since 1882 5Sa#a$e and @ur"ord, 19326%
accuracy to 'hich an an$le can be determined is 8%2 to 1%8 second o" arc, implyin$ errors in distance determination o" about 2 in 184 % - typical ma imum len$th o#er 'hich a measurement is made is A8 !m% The accuracy o" trian$ulation obser#ations is e)ui#alent to about 18 years o" shear strain accumulation on the San -ndreas "ault7 see ()uation 52C 12A6% There"ore, considerable redundancy in a net'or! is re)uired to obtain meanin$"ul results% -n e ample o" trian$ulation obser#ations is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C28% ,ount Diablo, ,ocho, and ,ount Toro are three monuments in a primary trian$ulation net'or! that spans the San -ndreas "ault south o" San Francisco 5Fi$ure 2C28a6% The chan$es in the an$le W bet'een these monuments in a series o" sur#eys since 1882 are $i#en in Fi$ure 2C28$% ,ount Toro lies 28 !m south'est o" the San -ndreas "ault, and ,ocho lies 48 !m north-
Fi$ure 2%21 - trian$ulation net across the San -ndreas "ault )a* and the measured an$le W since 18AA )$*%
east o" the "ault% &" it is assumed that these monuments lie outside the Bone o" strain accumulation and release associated 'ith $reat earth)ua!es, the relati#e motion across the San -ndreas "ault can be obtained "rom these obser#ations% - reasonable "it to the data is dWUdt P 8%192 sec o" arc yr 1 % The len$th o" the line bet'een ,ocho and ,ount Toro is 12A !m, and it crosses the San -ndreas "ault at an an$le o" >A % The calculated relati#e #elocity across the "ault is thus uP
1 12A 184 8%192 P >1 mm yr % 2488 A3%2 sin >A
52%1>86
This #alue is in )uite $ood a$reement 'ith the predicted relati#e #elocity o" >4 mm yr 1 "rom plate tectonics 5see Section 1C86% 0roblem 2%23 Fi$ure 2C21 sho's three monuments on ,ount Diablo, Sonoma ,ountain, and Farallon li$hthouse and the chan$e in the included an$le W relati#e to the 18AA measurement% -ssumin$ that these three monuments lie outside the Bone o" strain accumulation and release on the San -ndreas "ault, determine the relati#e #elocity across the "ault% 0roblem 2%28 Trian$ulation measurements at monument 8 $i#e the time rate o" chan$e o" W1 , Wj1 and the time rate o" chan$e o" W2 , Wj2 5Fi$ure 2C226% Sho' that j j gj y P 1 5W 2 sec W2 csc W2 W 1 sec W1 csc W1 6 52%1>16 5tan W2 tan W1 6 2
and gjyy gj P 'here gj on% P dg 5Wj 2 csc2 W2 Wj 1 csc2 W1 6 , 5ctn W1 ctn W2 6 52%1>26
Udt, and so
-s 'e ha#e sho'n, the accuracy o" trian$ulation measurements is $enerally insu""icient to obtain use"ul data on strain accumulation% Fortunately electro-optical distance-measurin$ instruments $reatly impro#e the accuracy o" strain measurements% 9o'e#er, they also $reatly increase the e pense% To ma!e a distance measurement, a $eodolite is placed on one monument and a re"lector on the second monument% The $eodolite emits a modulated laser beam that is re"lected bac! to the instrument "rom the re"lector% - comparison o" the modulated phases o" the emitted and returned beams determines the len$th o" the optical path bet'een the monuments as an un!no'n number o" 'hole modulation len$ths plus a precisely determined "ractional modulation len$th% The un!no'n number o" 'hole modulation len$ths is determined by carryin$ out measurements at successi#ely lo'er modulation "re)uencies% Distances bet'een measured monuments are typically 18 !m, and the inherent accuracy o" the $eodimeter is about 1 mm% There"ore an accuracy o" 1 part in 183 can in principle be achie#ed% This is about an order o" ma$nitude better than trian$ulation measurement accuracy% &n practice, ho'e#er, the accuracy o" distance determinations is limited by #ariations in re"racti#- ity alon$ the atmospheric path% &n order to obtain accuracies approachin$ 1 part in 183 , it is necessary to determine the temperature and humidity alon$ the path% This is usually done by "lyin$ a suitably e)uipped airplane or helicopter alon$ the path 'hile the distance measurement is bein$ car-
Fi$ure 2%22 &llustration o" ho' strain measurements bet'een three monuments , 0, and C can be used to determine the strain "ield g , gBB , and g B%
ried out% The atmospheric pressure at the t'o terminal monuments is also re)uired% @y carryin$ out measurements at three di""erent 'a#elen$ths or "re)uencies, de#ices 'ith multi'a#elen$th capabilities ha#e eliminated the need "or meteorolo$ical obser#ations alon$ the optical path% This approach reduces costs and impro#es accuracy to a "e' parts in 188 % &" it is assumed that the three monuments -, @, and 1 in Fi$ure 2C22 are in a uni"orm strain "ield, measurements o" the rates o" chan$e in the three line len$ths gj P _-@U-@, gj P _-1U-1 , and gj P _@1U@1 and the an$les W1 and W2 $i#e the entire rate o" strain "ield gj , gjBB , and gj B % From ()uation 52C1896 'e ha#e gj P gj cos W1 cos2 W1 R gjBB sin2 W1 R 2gj
B
sin W1 52%1>26
gj P gj W2 cos W2 %
cos2 W2 R gjBB sin2 W2 R 2gj
sin
52%1>>6
These e)uations can be sol#ed "or gjBB and gj B 7 'e "ind gjBB P gj R W2 gj P gj R W2 5ctn W1 ctn W2 6 gj sec W1 csc W1 tan W2 tan W1 gj sec 52%1>A6 csc W2 tan W2 tan W1 5ctn 2 W1 ctn 2 W2 6 gj csc2 W1 25ctn W2 ctn W1 6 2 csc 25ctn W2 gj ctn W1 6
52%1>46
The results can be trans"ormed into any other coordinate system usin$ ()uations 52C1896, 52C11>6, and 52C1236% -s an e ample o" the direct measurement o" strain accumulation, consider the data $i#en in Fi$ure 2C2>% :e assume that the three lines measured are in a uni"orm strain "ield% :e "urther assume that line 3 5len$th 28 !m6 de"ines the coordinate so that gj P 8U528 184 6 yr 1 P 8%29 18 4 yr 1 and that line 18 5len$th 21 !m6 de"ines the B coordinate so that gjBB P AU521 184 6 yr 1 P 8%14 18 4 yr 1 % The an$le bet'een lines 9 and 18 is 28 % The rate o" strain on line 9 5len$th 2A !m6 is gj P 1%AU52A 184 6 yr 1 P 8%4 18 4 yr 1 % The rate o" shear strain gj B can be determined by in#ertin$ ()uation 52C1896F gj
B
P 21 5gj
sec W csc W gj tan W6%
ctn W gjBB 52%1>36
:ith W P 128 and the pre#iously determined #alues o" gj 'e obtain gj
B
, gj
, and gjBB
P2 1 58%4 1%1A 2 8%29 1%32 R 8%14 8%A86 18 4 yr 1 P 8%98 18 4 yr 1 %
52%1>86
From ()uation 52C1286 the direction o" one o" the principal strain rate a es relati#e to the a is is W P 28 % -ssumin$ that line 9 trends <CS, the directions o" the principal strain rate a es are 22 : o" < and 22 < o" (% These can be compared 'ith the principal a is directions e pected "or a simple shear strain model o" strain accumulation in this re$ion7 since the San -ndreas trends >A : o" < in this area, the e pected directions are north and east% The #alues o" the principal strain rates "rom ()uation 52C1296 are gj1%2 P 4 1 4 1 8%992 18 yr , 8%842 18 yr % -ssumin$ gj B P gj1 P gj2 P 8%92 18 4 yr 1 5the a#era$e o" the abo#e t'o #alues6 and that simple shear is occurrin$ uni"ormly "or a distance d "rom the "ault, d can be determined "rom the shear strain rate and the relati#e #elocity u P >4 mm yr 1 accordin$ to >4 18 2 P 12%> !m% u P d P >gj 52%1>96 B > 8%92 18 4 :ith the uni"orm strain assumption, the strain accumulation 'ould be limited to a re$ion closer to the "ault than the $eodetic net considered% 0roblem 2%29 Gi#en in Fi$ure 2C2A are the line len$ths bet'een the monument at Diablo and the monuments at 9ills, S!yline, and Sunol obtained
"tress and "train in "olids 134
Fi$ure 2%2> Line length changes $et!een the monument at Mt( 9amilton and the monuments at llison )line =*, Loma Prieta )line -B*, and Morgan )line <* o$tained $et!een -<?- and -<=- using a geodimeter )"avage and 0urford, -<=5*(
133 1331
Fi$ure 2%2A Geodetic net and measurements "or use in 0roblem 2C29% The line len$th is L %
bet'een 1938 and 1938 usin$ a $eodimeter% -ssumin$ a uni"orm strain "ield, determine gj , gjyy , and gj y % Ta!e the SunolCDiablo line to de"ine the y coordinate% Discuss the results in terms o" strain accumulation on the San -ndreas "ault, 'hich can be assumed to trend at >A 'ith respect to the SunolCDiablo line 5Sa#a$e and 0rescott, 19386% -d#ances in space $eodesy ha#e re#olutioniBed $eodetic in#esti$ations o" tectonic motions% Studies carried out in the 1988s utiliBed satellite laser ranging 5S.;6 and very long $aseline interferometry 5+.@&6% S.; measures distances "rom a $round station to #arious satellites usin$ an electro-optical instrument similar to the $eodolite pre#iously described% Si$nals are re"lected "rom the satellite and the position o" the station is determined relati#e to the (arths center o" mass% +.@& uses interstellar emissions "rom )uasars to obtain inter"erometric patterns that determine an absolute position o" a station% This techni)ue can also be used "or studies o" the motion o" (arth relati#e to the stars% @ecause the si$nals pass throu$h the denser part o" the atmosphere at an obli)ue an$le, attenuation problems associated 'ith 'ater #apor are $reatly reduced% The success o" these techni)ues demonstrated that space-based $eodetic systems could
138 1381
pro#ide absolute positions on the sur"ace o" the (arth 'ith a subcentimeter accuracy% 9o'e#er, both techni)ues ha#e serious limi-tations due to their use o" lar$e stationary or mobile antennas that are bul!y and e pensi#e% These di""iculties 'ere o#ercome 'hen the glo$al positioning system 5G0S6 became "ully operational in the early 1998s% G0S consists o" some 2> satellites that interact 'ith $round-based recei#ers to pro#ide accurate sur"ace positions% G0S 'as introduced by the Department o" De"ense as a $lobal na#i$ation system 'ith an accuracy o" meters 59o"mann-:allenho" et al%, 19936% 9o'e#er, sur"ace instruments 'ere de#eloped that use the carrier si$nals "rom the acti#e G0S satellites in an inter"erometric mode to determine di""erential positions bet'een sur"ace benchmar!s 'ith a subcentimeter accuracy 5.arson, 19946% The $reat ad#anta$e o" G0S is the lo' cost and a#ailability o" the instruments so that lar$e numbers o" sur"ace obser#ations can be made% *ne o" the "irst accomplishments o" space $eodesy 'as the con"irmation that the plate tectonic #elocities $i#en in Section 1C8 are also #alid on a year- to-year basis% -s a speci"ic e ample, 'e sho' in Fi$ure 2C24 the relati#e displacements bet'een the =ara$adee station 50erth, -ustralia6 and the ,aui station 59a'aiian &slands6% These S.; obser#ations $i#e a relati#e #elocity u= , P 98 A mm yr 1 % :e ne t compare this #alue 'ith the #alue predicted by the plate motions $i#en in Table 1C4% :e "irst obtain the motion o" the ,aui station 5W P 98 28%3 P 49%2 , Z P 282%3 6 relati#e "i ed to the -ustralianplate% From Table 1C4 'e "ind 1A8%1 , Z 1 W P 98 R 48%1 P 1 P 138%2 , and ^ P 1%83 de$ ,yr 58%8183 rad ,yr 6% /sin$ ()uation 51C186 'e "ind that the an$le _0 , P 82%34 % Substitution into 1 ()uation 51C136 $i#es to u, 0 P 118 mm yr % This is the #elocity o" the ,aui station relati#e the "i ed -ustralian plate7 this #elocity is perpendicular to the $reat circle path passin$ throu$h the pole o" rotation and the ,aui station and is in the countercloc!'ise direction% The measured relati#e #elocity bet'een the =ara$adee and ,aui stations, u= , P 98 A mm yr 1 , is in the direction o" the $reat circle bet'een the t'o stations 5the ne$ati#e si$n indicates a con#er$ence6% The an$le c bet'een the t'o $reat circle paths = , and , 0 must be determined and the plate motion #elocity must be resol#ed onto the = , $reat circle direction% From Fi$ure 1C2A 'e see that 'e can determine the an$le c usin$ ()uation 51C186 'ith the result cos c P cos _0 = cos _0 , cos _=
,
52%1A86
sin _0 , sin _= ,
8%A
8%2A
8%8
k8%2A
k8%A 1938 1939 1988 1981 1982 1982 198> 198A 1984 1983 1988 1989 =ear
Fi$ure 2%24 The $eodetic time series "or the chan$e in distance alon$ a $reat circle path bet'een the =ara$adee station 50erth, -ustralia6 and the ,aui station 59a'aiian &slands6% The distance chan$es are in meters% The data 'ere obtained usin$ satellite laser ran$in$ 5S.;6 5Smith et al%, 19986% The strai$ht line correlation $i#es a #elocity u ym P 98 A mm yr1 %
Fi$ure 2%23 *bser#ed #elocity #ectors "or $eodetic stations in southern 1ali"ornia obtained "rom a combined G0S and +.@& data set 5Fei$l et al%, 19926% The #elocities are $i#en relati#e to a "i ed 0aci"ic plate% (rror el- lipses and ma ?or "aults are also illustrated%
188 1881
'here _0 = is the an$le subtended at the center o"the (arth by the pole o" rotation 0 and the =ara$adee station = 5W P 98 R29 P 119 , Z P 11A%2 6 and _= , is the an$le subtended by the ,aui station , and the =ara$adee station = % From ()uation 51C186 'e "ind _0 = P A2%4 and _= , P 98%A % Substitution o" these #alues into ()uation 52C1A86 $i#es c P A1%> % The relati#e #elocity bet'een the =ara$adee and ,aui stations u= , is related to the #elocity o" the ,aui station relati#e to the -ustralian plate u, 0 by u= , P u, 0 cos598 c6 P u, 0 sin c%
1
52%1A16
Ta!in$ c P A1%> and u, 0 P 118 mm yr , ()uation 52C1A16 $i#es u= , P 92 mm yr 1 % This is in e cellent a$reement 'ith the obser#ed #alue u= , P 98 A mm yr 1 % 0roblem 2%28 @ased on S.; obser#ations, the relati#e #elocity bet'een the Greenbelt, /S- 529 <, 282%2 (6, and :eitBell, Germany 5>9%1 <, 12%9 1 (6, stations is 18 > mm yr % Determine the e pected relati#e #elocities based on the plate motion data $i#en in Table 1C4% 0roblem 2%21 @ased on S.; obser#ations, the relati#e #elocity bet'een the Simosato, Japan 522%A <, 124 (6, and the ,aui stations is 424 mm yr 1 % Determine the e pected relati#e #elocities based on the plate motion data $i#en in Table 1C4% 0roblem 2%22 @ased on S.; obser#ations, the relati#e #elocity bet'een the (aster &sland 523%1 S, 2A8%4 (6 and the -re)uipa, 0eru 514%A S, 288%A 1 (6, stations is 42 3 mm yr % Determine the e pected relati#e #elocities based on the plate motion data $i#en in Table 1C4% The lo' cost and mobility o" G0S systems allo' detailed determinations o" tectonic strain in acti#e plate boundary re$ions% -n e ample "or central and southern 1ali"ornia is sho'n in Fi$ure 2C23 'hich $i#es the obser#ed #elocity #ectors o" $eodetic stations obtained "rom a combined G0S and +.@& data set 5Fei$l et al%, 19926% The #elocities are $i#en relati#e to a "i ed 0aci"ic plate% The #elocity #ectors o" the *+;* 5*'ens +alley6 and ,*J- 5,o?a#e6 stations are representati#e o" the relati#e south'est motion o" the <orth -merican plate 'ith respect to the 0aci"ic plate% The #irtual station- arity o" the +<D< 5+andenber$ -F@6 and the @./F 5San 1lemente &sland6 stations indicate their attachment to a ri$id 0aci"ic plate% The intermediate motion o" the J0. 50asadena6 station represents the comple displacement "ield 'ithin the .os -n$eles basin% 0roblem 2%22 station The displacement o" the *+;* 5*'ens +alley6
181 1811
Fi$ure 2%28 &nter"erometric pattern o" the coseismic de"ormation associated 'ith the ma$nitude 3%2 .anders, 1ali"ornia, earth)ua!e on June 28, 1992 50rice and Sand'ell, 19986% The dar! lines represent sur"ace ruptures associated 'ith the earth)ua!e and the 'hite lines represent other !no'n "aults in the re$ion% (ach inter"erometric "rin$e corresponds to a displacement o" 28 mm%
is 28%1 mm yr 1 to the east and 28%8 mm yr 1 to the north% -ssumin$ the San -ndreas "ault to be pure stri!e slip, and that this displacement is associated only 'ith motion on this "ault, determine the mean slip #elocity on the "ault and its orientation% 0roblem 2%2> The displacement o" the ,*J- 5,o?a#e6 station is 22%9 mm yr 1 to the east and 24%4 mm yr 1 to the north% -ssumin$ the San -ndreas "ault to be pure stri!e slip and that this displacement is
182 1821
Collateral Reading
associated only 'ith motion on this "ault, determine the mean slip #elocity on the "ault and its orientation% "ynthetic aperture radar interferometry 5&<S-;6 "rom satellites has opened a ne' era in $eodetic obser#ations% - synthetic aperture radar 5S-;6 im- a$e is obtained usin$ radar bac!scatter returns "rom the (arths sur"ace% &" the (arths sur"ace de"orms bet'een t'o S-; ima$e ac)uisitions, a radar inter"ero$ram can be obtained to )uanti"y the de"ormation% The point-'ise product o" the "irst ima$e 'ith the second ima$e produces a "rin$e pattern associated 'ith the phase di""erences bet'een the t'o ima$es% (ach "rin$e represents a phase chan$e o" 2X radians% -n e ample o" &<S-; inter"erometry is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C28 50rice and Sand'ell, 19986% This is the pattern o" ima$es associated 'ith the ma$nitude 3%2 .anders, 1ali"ornia, earth)ua!e 'hich occurred on June 28, 1992, and ruptured nearly 188 !m o" pre#iously unmapped "aults in the ,o?a#e Desert, 1ali"ornia% The ma imum measured sur"ace displacement 'as A%1 m% The ima$es 'ere ac)uired by the (;S-1 satellite on -pril 2> and -u$ust 3, 1992% The satellite 'as at an altitude o" 38A !m and the radar ima$es 'ere collected alon$ ray paths pointed 'est at an a#era$e an$le o" 22 "rom the #ertical% (ach "rin$e corresponds to 28 mm 5hal" the A4-mm 'a#elen$th o" the (;S1 S-;6% The distribution o" coseismic de"ormation sho'n in Fi$ure 2C28 'ill be considered in detail in 1hapter 8% 1ollateral ;eadin$ Fei$l, E% .%, et al% 519926, Space $eodetic measurement o" crustal de"ormation in central and southern 1ali"ornia, 198>C1992, J( Geophys( Res( 98, 21,433C21,312% Gou$h, D% J%, and J% S% @ell 519816, Stress orientations "rom borehole 'ell "ractures 'ith e amples "rom 1olorado, east Te as, and northern 1anada, Can( J( Earth "ci( 19, 1,2A8C1,238% 9o"mann-:allenho", @%, 9% .ichtene$$er, and J% 1ollins 519936, Glo$al Po2 sitioning "ystem, >th (d% 5Sprin$er, +ienna6, 289p% .arson, E% ,% 519946, Geodesy, Prog( stron( eronaut( 14>, A29CAA3% ,cEenBie, D% 519386, Some remar!s on the de#elopment o" sedimentary basins, Earth Planet( "ci( Let( >8, 2AC22% 0rice, (% J%, and D% T% Sand'ell 519986, Small-scale de"ormations associated 'ith the 1992 .anders, 1ali"ornia, earth)ua!e mapped by synthetic aperture radar inter"erometry phase $radients, J( Geophys( Res( 182, 23,881C23,814%
Collateral Reading
182
Sa#a$e, J% 1%, and ;% *% @ur"ord 519326, Geodetic determination o" relati#e plate motion in central 1ali"ornia, J( Geophys( Res( 38, 822C8>A% Sa#a$e, J% 1%, and :% 9% 0rescott 519386, Geodolite measurements near the @riones 9ills, 1ali"ornia, earth)ua!e s'arm o" January 8, 1933, "eis( "oc( m( 0ull( 48, 13AC188% Smith, D% (%, et al% 519986, Tectonic motion and de"ormation "rom satellite laser ran$in$ to .-G(*S, J( Geophys( Res( 9A, 22,812C22,8>1% Thatcher, :% 5193A6, Strain accumulation and release mechanism o" the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e, J( Geophys( Res( 88, >,842C>,832% ]obac!, ,% D%, and J% 9% 9ealy 519926, &n situ stress measurements to 2%A !m depth in the 1a?on 0ass scienti"ic research boreholeF &mplications "or the mechanics o" crustal "aultin$, J( Geophys( Res( 93, A,829C A,8A3% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @om"ord, G%, Geodesy 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19426, A41 pa$es% -n in-depth discussion o" $eodetic measurement techni)ues, methods o" analysis, and implications o" $ra#ity obser#ations "or the "i$ure o" the (arth, crustal structure, and the state o" stress in the crust% 9eis!anen, :% -%, and 9% ,oritB, Physical Geodesy 5:% 9% Freeman and 1ompany, San Francisco, 19436, 24> pa$es% - $raduate le#el te tboo! in $eodesy% The contents includes chapters on potential theory, the $ra#ity "ield o" the (arth, $ra#imetric methods, astro$eodetic methods, and statistical and mathematical approaches in determinations o" the (arths "i$ure% Jae$er, J% 1%, and <% G% :% 1oo!, Fundamentals of Roc, Mechanics 51hap- man and 9all, .ondon, 19346, A8A pa$es% -n ad#anced te tboo! presentin$ the mathematical and e perimental "oundations o" the mechanical beha#ior o" roc!% There are chapters on stress and strain, "riction, elasticity, roc! stren$th, laboratory testin$, ductile beha#ior, "luid "lo' in roc!s, "racture, state o" stress under$round, measurements o" under$round stresses, minin$ and en$ineerin$ applications, and $eolo$ical and $eophysical applications% Je""reys, 9%, %he Earth, Its 1rigin, 9istory and Physical Constitution 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19426, >28 pa$es% - classic te tboo! on the physics o" the solid (arth, 'hich includes discussions o" stress, strain, elasticity, mechanical beha#ior o" roc!s, seismolo$y, $ra#ity, and stress di""erences in the (arth% Timoshen!o, S%, and J% <% Goodier, %heory of Elasticity 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 19386, A43 pa$es%
18> 18>1
Collateral Reading
Fundamentals o" the mathematical theory o" elasticity 'ith en$ineerin$ applications% There are ma?or chapters on plane stress and plane strain, bendin$ o" beams, t'o-dimensional stress problems in rectan$ular, polar, and cur#ilinear coordinates, solutions by the method o" comple #ariables, three-dimensional stress-strain problems, torsion, bendin$ o" bars, thermal stresses, 'a#e propa$ation, and "inite-di""erence solutions% -bout hal" the chapters include student e ercises%
2 (lasticity and Fle ure
2%1 &ntroduction &n the pre#ious chapter 'e introduced the concepts o" stress and strain% For many solids it is appropriate to relate stress to strain throu$h the la's o" elasticity% Elastic materials de"orm 'hen a "orce is applied and return to their ori$inal shape 'hen the "orce is remo#ed% -lmost all solid materials, includin$ essentially all roc!s at relati#ely lo' temperatures and pressures, beha#e elastically 'hen the applied "orces are not too lar$e% &n addition, the elastic strain o" many roc!s is linearly proportional to the applied stress% The e)uations o" linear elasticity are $reatly simpli"ied i" the material is isotropic, that is, i" its elastic properties are independent o" direction% -lthou$h some metamorphic roc!s 'ith stron$ "oliations are not strictly isotropic, the isotropic appro imation is usually satis"actory "or the earths crust and mantle% -t hi$h stress le#els, or at temperatures that are a si$ni"icant "raction o" the roc! solidus, de#iations "rom elastic beha#ior occur% -t lo' temperatures and con"inin$ pressures, roc!s are brittle solids, and lar$e de#iatoric stresses cause "racture% -s roc!s are buried more deeply in the earth, they are sub- ?ected to increasin$ly lar$e con"inin$ pressures due to the increasin$ 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden% :hen the con"inin$ pressure on the roc! approaches its brittle "ailure stren$th, it de"orms plastically% Plastic deformation is a continuous, irre#ersible de"ormation 'ithout "racture% &" the applied "orce causin$ plastic de"ormation is remo#ed, some "raction o" the de"ormation remains% :e consider plastic de"ormation in Section 3C 11% -s discussed in 1hapter 1, hot mantle roc!s beha#e as a "luid on $eolo$ical time scales7 that is, they continuously de"orm under an applied "orce% Gi#en that roc!s beha#e )uite di""erently in response to applied "orces, dependin$ on conditions o" temperature and pressure, it is important to determine 'hat "raction o" the roc!s o" the crust and upper mantle beha#e
184 1841
Elasticity and Fle#ure
Fi$ure 2%1 5a6 Structure "ormed immediately a"ter rapidly pourin$ a #ery #iscous "luid into a container% 5$6 Final shape o" the "luid a"ter a lon$ time has elapsed%
elastically on $eolo$ical time scales% *ne o" the "undamental postulates o" plate tectonics is that the sur"ace plates constitutin$ the lithosphere do not de"orm si$ni"icantly on $eolo$ical time scales% Se#eral obser#ations directly con"irm this postulate% :e !no' that the trans"orm "aults connectin$ o""set se$ments o" the oceanic rid$e system are responsible "or the ma?or linear "racture Bones in the ocean% That these "racture Bones remain linear and at constant separation is direct e#idence that the oceanic lithosphere does not de"orm on a time scale o" 188 years% Similar e#idence comes "rom the linearity o" the ma$netic lineaments o" the sea"loor 5see Section 1C86% There is yet other direct e#idence o" the elastic beha#ior o" the lithosphere on $eolo$ical time scales% -lthou$h erosion destroys mountain ran$es on a time scale o" 184 to 183 years, many $eolo$ical structures in the continental crust ha#e a$es $reater than 189 years% The #ery e istence o" these structures is e#idence o" the elastic beha#ior o" the lithosphere% &" the roc!s o" the crust beha#ed as a "luid on $eolo$ical time scales, the $ra#itational body "orce 'ould ha#e erased these structures% -s an e ample, pour a #ery #iscous substance such as molasses onto the bottom o" a "lat pan% &" the "luid is su""iciently #iscous and is poured )uic!ly enou$h, a structure resemblin$ a mountain "orms 5see Fi$ure 2C1a6% 9o'e#er, o#er time, the "luid 'ill e#entually co#er the bottom o" the pan to a uni"orm depth 5see Fi$ure 2C1b6% The $ra#itational body "orce causes the "luid to "lo' so as to minimiBe the $ra#itational potential ener$y% - number o" $eolo$ical phenomena allo' the lon$-term elastic beha#ior o"
5(4 Linear Elasticity
183
the lithosphere to be studied )uantitati#ely% &n se#eral instances the lithosphere bends under sur"ace loads% Direct e#idence o" this bendin$ comes "rom the 9a'aiian &slands and many other island chains, indi#idual islands, and seamounts% There is also obser#ational e#idence o" the elastic bendin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere at ocean trenches and o" the continental lithosphere at sedimentary basins C the ,ichi$an basin, "or e ample% :e 'ill ma!e )uantitati#e comparisons o" the theoretically predicted elastic de"ormations o" these structures 'ith the obser#ational data in later sections o" this chapter% *ne important reason "or studyin$ the elastic beha#ior o" the lithosphere is to determine the state o" stress in the lithosphere% This stress distribution is responsible "or the occurrence o" earth)ua!es% (arth)ua!es are direct e#idence o" hi$h stress le#els in the lithosphere% -n earth)ua!e relie#es accumulated strain in the lithosphere% The presence o" mountains is also e#idence o" hi$h stress le#els% (lastic stresses must balance the $ra#itational body "orces on mountains% @ecause o" their elastic beha#ior, sur"ace plates can transmit stresses o#er lar$e horiBontal distances%
2%2 .inear (lasticity - linear, isotropic, elastic solid is one in 'hich stresses are linearly proportional to strains and mechanical properties ha#e no pre"erred orientations% The principal a es o" stress and strain coincide in such a medium, and the connection bet'een stress and strain can be con#eniently 'ritten in this coordinate system as b1 P 5l R 2G6g1 R lg2 R lg2 b2 P lg1 R 5l R 2G6g2 R lg2 b2 P lg1 R lg2 R 5l R 2G6g2 , 52%16 52%26 52%26
'here the material properties l and G are !no'n as LamEe parameters7 G is also !no'n as the modulus of rigidity% The material properties are such that a principal strain component g produces a stress 5l R 2G6g in the same direction and stresses lg in mutually perpendicular directions% ()uations 52C16 to 52C26 can be 'ritten in the in#erse "orm as 1 m m b1 b2 b2 ( ( ( m 1 m g2 P b1 R b2 b2 ( ( ( g1 P 52%>6 52%A6
188 1881
Fi$ure 2%2 De"ormation under unia ial stress%
m m 1 g2 P b1 b2 R b2 , ( ( (
52%46
and ( and m are material properties !no'n as FoungAs modulus and Pois2 sonAs ratio, respecti#ely% - principal stress component b produces a strain bU( in the same direction and strains 5m bU(6 in mutually ortho$onal directions% The elastic beha#ior o" a material can be characteriBed by speci"yin$ either l and G or ( and m 7 the sets o" parameters are not independent% -nalytic "ormulas e pressin$ l and G in terms o" ( and m , and #ice #ersa, are obtained in the "ollo'in$ sections% +alues o" (, G, and m "or #arious roc!s are $i#en in Section ( o" -ppendi 2% =oun$s modulus o" roc!s #aries "rom about 18 to 188 G0a, and 0oissons ratio #aries bet'een 8%1 and 8%>% The elastic properties o" the earths mantle and core can be obtained "rom seismic #elocities and the density distribution% The elastic properties (, G, and m in"erred "rom a typical seismically deri#ed earth model are $i#en in Section F o" -ppendi 2% The absence o" shear 'a#es in the outer core 5G P 86 is ta!en as conclusi#e e#idence that the outer core is a li)uid% &n the outer core m has the #alue 8%A, 'hich 'e 'ill see is appropriate to an incompressible "luid% The beha#ior o" linear solids is more readily illustrated i" 'e consider idealiBed situations 'here se#eral o" the stress and strain components #anish% These can then be applied to important $eolo$ical problems%
5(5 Gnia#ial "tress
189
2%2 /nia ial Stress &n a state o" unia#ial stress only one o" the principal stresses, b1 say, is nonBero% /nder this circumstance ()uations 52C26 and 52C26, 'ith b2 P b2 P 8, $i#e l g2 P g2 P g1 % 52%36 25l R G6 <ot only does the stress b1 produce a strain g1 , but it chan$es the linear dimensions o" elements ali$ned perpendicular to the a is o" stress% &" b1 is a compression, then g1 is a decrease in len$th, and both g2 and g2 are increases in len$th% The element in Fi$ure 2C2 has been shortened in the y direction, but its cross section in the B plane has e panded% /sin$ ()uations 52C>6 to 52C46, 'e can also 'rite m g2 P g2 P b1 P m g1 % ( 52%86 @y comparin$ ()uations 52C36 and 52C86, 'e see that mP l % 25l R G6 52%96
From ()uations 52C16 and 52C36 'e "ind G52l R 2G6 52%186 5l R G6 g1 , 'hich, 'ith the help o" ()uation 52C86, identi"ies =oun$s modulus as b1 P ( P G52l R 2G6 % 5l R G6 52%116
()uations 52C96 and 52C116 can be in#erted to yield the "ollo'in$ "ormulas "or G and l in terms o" ( and m ( G P 251 R m6 (m l P51 R m 651 2m 6 % 52%126 52%126
The relation bet'een stress and strain in unia ial compression or tension "rom ()uation 52C86, b1 P (g1 , 52%1>6 is also !no'n as 9oo,eAs la!% - linear elastic solid is said to e hibit 9oo!ean beha#ior% /nia ial compression testin$ in the laboratory is one o" the simplest methods o" determinin$ the elastic properties o" roc!s% Fi$ure 2C2
198 1981
Fi$ure 2%2 StressCstrain cur#es "or )uartBite in unia ial compression 5@ienia's!i, 19436%
sho's the data "rom such a test on a cylindrical sample o" )uartBite% The roc! de"orms appro imately elastically until the applied stress e ceeds the compressi#e stren$th o" the roc!, at 'hich point "ailure occurs% 1ompressi#e stren$ths o" roc!s are hundreds to thousands o" me$apascals% -s 'e discussed in the pre#ious chapter, a typical tectonic stress is 18 ,0a% :ith ( P 38 G0a, this yields a typical tectonic strain in unia ial stress o" 1%> 18 > % The dilatation _ or "ractional #olume chan$e in unia ial compression is, accordin$ to ()uation 52C86, _ P g1 R g2 R g2 P g1 51 2m 6% 52%1A6 The decrease in #olume due to contraction in the direction o" compressi#e stress is o""set by an increase in #olume due to e pansion in the ortho$onal directions% ()uation 52C1A6 allo's us to determine 0oissons ratio "or an incompressi$le material, 'hich cannot under$o a net chan$e in #olume% &n order "or _ to e)ual Bero in unia ial compression, m must e)ual 1U2% /nder unia ial compression, an incompressible material contracts in the direction o" applied stress but e pands e actly hal" as much in each o" the perpendicular directions% There are some circumstances in 'hich the "ormulas o" unia ial compression can be applied to calculate the strains in roc!s% 1onsider, "or e ample,
5(6 Gnia#ial "train
191
a rectan$ular column o" hei$ht h that is "ree to e pand or contract in the horiBontal7 that is, it is laterally unconstrained% @y this 'e mean that the horiBontal stresses are Bero 5b2 P b2 P 86% Then the #ertical stress b1 at a distance y "rom the top o" the column o" roc! is $i#en by the 'ei$ht o" the column, b1 P Q$y% The #ertical strain as a "unction o" the distance y "rom the top is Q$y g1 P % ( The slab contracts in the #ertical by an amount ah P
]
8 h
52%146
52%136
Q$ g1 dy P (
]
8
y dy P
Q$h2 % 2(
52%186
2%> /nia ial Strain The state o" unia#ial strain corresponds to only one nonBero component o" principal strain, g1 say% :ith g2 P g2 P 8, ()uations 52C16 to 52C26 $i#e b1 P 5l R 2G6g1 b2 P b2 P lg1 P ()uations 52C>6 to 52C46 simpli"y to b2 P b2 P m b1 51 m 6 52%216 l b1 % 5l R 2G6 52%196 52%286
51 m 6( g1 b1 P % 51 R m 651 2m 6 52%226
@y comparin$ ()uations 52C196 to 52C226, one can also deri#e the relations already $i#en bet'een l, G and m, (% The e)uations o" unia ial strain can be used to determine the chan$e in stress due to sedimentation or erosion% :e "irst consider sedimentation and assume that an initial sur"ace is co#ered by h !m o" sediments o" density Q, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C>% :e also assume that the base o" the ne' sedimentary basin is laterally con"ined so that the e)uations o" unia ial strain are applicable% The t'o horiBontal components o" strain are Bero, g2 P g2 P 8% The #ertical principal stress on the initial sur"ace b1 is $i#en by the 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden b1 P Q$h% 52%226
192 1921
Fi$ure 2%> Stresses on a sur"ace co#ered by sediments o" thic!ness h%
From ()uation 52C216 the horiBontal normal stresses are $i#en by m b2 P b2 P Q$h% 51 m 6
52%2>6
The horiBontal stresses are also compressi#e, but they are smaller than the #ertical stress% &t is o" interest to determine the de#iatoric stresses a"ter sedimentation% The pressure at depth h as de"ined by ()uation 52C416 is 1 p P 5b1 R b2 R b2 6 2 P 51 R m Q$h% 6 251 m 6 52%2A6
The de#iatoric stresses are then determined "rom ()uations 52C426 'ith the result 251 2m 6 Q$h 52%246 P b1 p P b1 251 m 6 51 2m 6 b P b p P bP b p P Q$h% 2 2 2 2 m6 251 52%236
The horiBontal de#iatoric stress is tensional% For m P 8%2A the horiBontal de#iatoric stress is 2U9 o" the lithostatic stress% :ith Q P 2888 !$ m 2 and h P 2 !m the horiBontal de#iatoric stress is 12%2 ,0a% This stress is o" the same order as measured sur"ace stresses% :e ne t consider erosion% &" the initial state o" stress be"ore erosion is that $i#en abo#e, erosion 'ill result in the state o" stress that e isted be"ore sedimentation occurred% The processes o" sedimentation and erosion are re- #ersible% 9o'e#er, in many cases the initial state o" stress prior to erosion is lithostatic% There"ore at a depth h the principal stresses are b1 P b2 P b2 P Q$h% 52%286
-"ter the erosion o" h !m o" o#erburden the #ertical stress at the sur"ace is bf1 P 8 5an o#erbar denotes a stress a"ter erosion6% The chan$e in #ertical stress _b1 P bf1 b1 is Q$h% &" only g1 is nonBero, ()uation 52C 216 $i#es _b2 P _b2 P _b1 % m 1m 52%296
The horiBontal sur"ace stresses a"ter erosion bf2 and bf2 are conse)uently $i#en by m bf2 P bf2 P b2 R _b2 P Q$h Q$h 51 m 6 1 2m P Q$h% 52%286 1m &" h P A !m, m P 8%2A, and Q P 2888 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C 286 that bf2 P bf2 P 188 ,0a% (rosion can result in lar$e sur"ace compressi#e stresses due simply to the elastic beha#ior o" the roc!% This mechanism is one e planation "or the 'idespread occurrence o" near-sur"ace compressi#e stresses in the continents% 0roblem 2%1 Determine the sur"ace stress a"ter the erosion o" 18 !m o" $ranite% -ssume that the initial state o" stress is lithostatic and that Q P 2388 !$ m 2 and m P 8%2A% 0roblem 2%2 -n unstressed sur"ace is co#ered 'ith sediments 'ith a den sity o" 2A88 !$ m 2 to a depth o" A !m% &" the sur"ace is laterally constrained and has a 0oissons ratio o" 8%2A, 'hat are the three components o" stress at the ori$inal sur"aceO 0roblem 2%2 - horiBontal stress b1 may be accompanied by stress in other directions% &" it is assumed that there is no displacement in the other horiBontal direction and Bero stress in the #ertical, "ind the stress b2 in the other horiBontal direction and the strain g2 in the #ertical direction% 0roblem 2%> -ssume that the earth is unconstrained in one lateral direction 5b2 P b2 6 and is constrained in the other 5g1 P 86% Determine g2 and b1 'hen y !ilometers o" roc! o" density Q are eroded a'ay% -ssume that the initial state o" stress 'as lithostatic%
2%A 0lane Stress The state o" plane stress e ists 'hen there is only one Bero component o" principal stress7 that is, b2 P 8, b1 P 8, b2 P 8% The situation is s!etched
Fi$ure 2%A 0lane stress%
in Fi$ure 2CA, 'hich sho's a thin plate loaded on its ed$es% The strain components accordin$ to ()uations 52C>6 to 52C46 are 1 5b1 m b2 6 ( 1 g2 P 5b2 m b1 6 ( m g P 5b R b 6% 52%226 2 1 2 ( g1 P 52%216 52%226
The $eometry o" Fi$ure 2CA su$$ests that the plane stress "ormulas may be applicable to horiBontal tectonic stresses in the lithosphere% .et us assume that in addition to the lithostatic stresses there are e)ual horiBontal components o" principal stress _b1 P _b2 % -ccordin$ to ()uations 52C216 to 52C226, the horiBontal tectonic stresses produce the strains 51 m 6 g1 P g2 P _b1 ( 2m g2 P _b1 % 52%2A6 (
52%2>6
&" the horiBontal tectonic stresses are compressi#e, #ertical columns o" lithosphere o" initial thic!ness h. , horiBontal area -, and density Q 'ill under$o a decrease in area and an increase in thic!ness% The mass in a column 'ill remain constant, ho'e#er% There"ore 'e can 'rite a5Q- h. 6 P 8% 52%246
The 'ei$ht per unit area at the base o" the column Q$h. 'ill increase, as can be seen "rom 1 a5Q$h. 6 P a Q$h. - 1 P a5Q$h. -6 R Q$h. - a 1 1 a% P Q$h. - 2 a- P Q$h. 52%236 The term a5Q$h. -6U- is Bero "rom ()uation 52C2467 a5Q$h. 6 is positi#e because a- U- is a positi#e )uantity $i#en by a- P g R g P 251 m 6 1 2 _b % 52%286 1 ( The increase in the 'ei$ht per unit area at the base o" the lithospheric column $i#es the increase in the #ertical principal stress _b2 % @y combinin$ ()uations 52C236 and 52C286, 'e $et 251 m 6 Q$ h. _b1 ( P 251 m 6Q$h. (

_b2 P or _b2
52%296
52%>86 _b1
Ta!in$ m P 8%2A, ( P 188 G0a, Q P 2888 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , and h. P 188 !m as typical #alues "or the lithosphere, 'e "ind that _b2 U_b1 P 8%8>A% @ecause the chan$e in the #ertical principal stress is small compared 'ith the applied horiBontal principal stresses, 'e conclude that the plane stress assumption is #alid "or the earths lithosphere% 0roblem 2%A Tria ial compression tests are a common laboratory techni)ue "or determinin$ elastic properties and stren$ths o" roc!s at #arious pressures p and temperatures% Fi$ure 2C4 is a schematic o" the e perimental method% - cylindrical roc! specimen is loaded a ially by a compressi#e stress b1 % The sample is also uni"ormly compressed laterally by stresses b2 P b2 \ b1 % Sho' that g2 P g2 and b1 b2 P 2G5g1 g2 6%
Fi$ure 2%4 S!etch o" a tria ial compression test on a cylindrical roc! sample%
Fi$ure 2%3 -n e ample o" plane strain%
Thus i" the measured stress di""erence b1 b2 is plotted a$ainst the measured strain di""erence g1 g2 , the slope o" the line determines 2G%
2%4 0lane Strain &n the case o" plane strain, g2 P 8, "or e ample, and g1 and g2 are nonBero% Fi$ure 2C3 illustrates a plane strain situation% - lon$ bar is ri$idly con"ined bet'een supports so that it cannot e pand or contract parallel to its len$th%
5(= Pure "hear and "imple "hear
193
Fi$ure 2%8 0rincipal stresses and shear stresses in the case o" pure shear%
&n addition, the stresses b1 and b2 are applied uni"ormly alon$ the len$th o" the bar% ()uations 52C16 to 52C26 reduce to b1 P 5l R 2G6g1 R lg2 b2 P lg1 R 5l R 2G6g2 b2 P l5g1 R g2 6% From ()uation 52C46 it is ob#ious that b2 P m 5b1 R b2 6% 52%>>6 This can be used to$ether 'ith ()uations 52C>6 and 52CA6 to "ind 51 R m 6{ b1 51 m 6 m b2 } ( 51 R m 6{ b2 51 m 6 m b1 }% g2 P ( g1 P 52%>A6 52%>46 52%>16 52%>26 52%>26
2%3 0ure Shear and Simple Shear The state o" stress associated 'ith pure shear is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C 8% 0ure shear is a special case o" plane stress% *ne e ample o" pure shear is b2 P 8 and b1 P b2 % From ()uations 52CA46 to 52CA86 'ith W P >A 5compare Fi$ures 2C1> and 2C86, 'e "ind that b P byy P 8 and b y P b1 % &n this coordinate system only the shear stress is nonBero% From ()uations
52C216 and 52C226 'e "ind that g1 P 51 R m 6 51 R m 6 b1 P b ( (

y
198 1981
P g2 ,
52%>36 P gyy P 8
and "rom ()uations 52C1286 and 52C1216 'ith W P >A 'e $et g and g y P g1% ()uation 52C>36 then $i#es b
y
( g y% 1R m
52%>86
@y introducin$ the modulus o" ri$idity "rom ()uation 52C126, 'e can 'rite the shear stress as b
y
P 2Gg y ,
52%>96
'hich e plains 'hy the modulus o" ri$idity is also !no'n as the shear modulus% 5<oteF &n terms o" i y 2g y , b y P Gi y %6 These results are #alid "or both pure shear and simple shear because the t'o states di""er by a solid-body rotation that does not a""ect the state o" stress% Simple shear is $enerally associated 'ith displacements on a stri!eCslip "ault such as the San -ndreas in 1ali"ornia% &n ()uation 52C12>6 'e concluded that the shear strain associated 'ith the 1984 San Francisco earth )ua!e 'as 2%A 18 A % :ith G P 28 G0a, ()uation 52C>96 $i#es the related shear stress as 1%A ,0a% This is a #ery small stress drop to be associated 'ith a $reat earth)ua!e% 9o'e#er, "or the stress drop to ha#e been lar$er, the 'idth o" the Bone o" strain accumulation 'ould ha#e had to ha#e been e#en smaller% &" the stress had been 1A ,0a, the 'idth o" the Bone o" strain accumulation 'ould ha#e had to ha#e been > !m on each side o" the "ault% :e 'ill return to this problem in 1hapter 8% 0roblem 2%4 Sho' that ()uation 52C>96 can also be deri#ed by assumin$ plane strain%
2%8 &sotropic Stress &" all the principal stresses are e)ual b1 P b2 P b2 p, then the state o" stress is isotropic, and the principal stresses are e)ual to the pressure% The principal strains in a solid sub?ected to isotropic stresses are also e)ual g1 P g2 P g2 P2 1 _7 each component o" strain is e)ual to one-third o" the dilatation% @y addin$ ()uations 52C16 to 52C26, 'e "ind pP 2l R 2G 1 _ E _ _% 2 c 52%A86
The )uantity E is the $ul, modulus, and its reciprocal is c, the compressi$il2 ity% The ratio o" p to the bul! modulus $i#es the "ractional #olume chan$e that occurs under isotropic compression% @ecause the mass o" a solid element 'ith #olume + and density Q must be conser#ed, any chan$e in #olume a+ o" the element must be accompanied by a chan$e in its density aQ% The "ractional chan$e in density can be related to the "ractional chan$e in #olume, the dilatation, by rearran$in$ the e)uation o" mass conser#ation a5Q+ 6 P 8, 'hich $i#es Qa+ R + aQ P 8 or a+ + aQ % Q 52%A26 52%A16
P_P
52%A26
()uation 52CA26 o" course assumes _ to be small% The combination o" ()uations 52CA86 and 52CA26 $i#es aQ P Qcp% 52%A>6
This relationship can be used to determine the increase in density 'ith depth in the earth% /sin$ ()uations 52C116 to 52C126, 'e can re'rite the "ormula "or E $i#en in ()uation 52CA86 as 1 ( E P P % 52%AA6 c 251 2m 6 Thus as m tends to'ard 1U2, that is, as a material becomes more and more incompressible, its bul! modulus tends to in"inity% 2%9 T'o-Dimensional @endin$ or Fle ure o" 0lates :e ha#e already discussed ho' plate tectonics implies that the nearsur"ace roc!s are ri$id and there"ore beha#e elastically on $eolo$ical time scales% The thin elastic sur"ace plates constitute the lithosphere, 'hich "loats on the relati#ely "luid mantle beneath% The plates are sub?ect to a #ariety o" loads C #olcanoes, seamounts, "or e ample C that "orce the lithosphere to bend under their 'ei$hts% @y relatin$ the obser#ed fle#ure or $ending o" the lithosphere to !no'n sur"ace loads, 'e can deduce the elastic properties and thic!nesses o" the plates% &n 'hat "ollo's, 'e "irst de#elop the theory o"
288 2882
Fi$ure 2%9 - thin plate o" len$th L and thic!ness h pinned at its ends and bendin$ under and applied load Ca %
Fi$ure 2%18 Forces and tor)ues on a small section o" a de"lectin$ plate%
plate bendin$ in response to applied "orces and tor)ues% The theory can also be used to understand "old trains in mountain belts by modelin$ the "olds as de"ormations o" elastic plates sub?ect to horiBontal compressi#e "orces% *ther $eolo$ic applications also can be made% For e ample, 'e 'ill apply the theory to model the up'arpin$ o" strata o#erlyin$ i$neous intrusions 5Section 2C126% - simple e ample o" plate bendin$ is sho'n in Fi$ure 2C9% - plate o" thic!ness h and 'idth . is pinned at its ends and bends under the load o" a line "orce +a 5< m 1 6 applied at its center% The plate is in"initely lon$ in the B direction% - #ertical, static "orce balance and the symmetry o" the situation re)uire that e)ual #ertical line "orces +a U2 be applied at the supports% The plate is assumed to be thin compared 'ith its 'idth, h ., and the #ertical de"lection o" the plate ' is ta!en to be small, ' .% The latter assumption is necessary to ?usti"y the use o" linear elastic theory% The t'o-dimensional bendin$ o" plates is also re"erred to as cylindrical $ending because the plate ta!es the "orm o" a se$ment o" a cylinder% The de"lection o" a plate can be determined by re)uirin$ it to be in e)uilib-
5(< %!o2&imensional 0ending or Fle#ure of Plates
rium under the action o" all the "orces and tor)ues e erted on it% The "orces and tor)ues on a small section o" the plate bet'een horiBontal locations and R d are sho'n in Fi$ure 2C18% - do'n'ard "orce per unit area )5 6 is e erted on the plate by 'hate#er distributed load the plate is re)uired to support% Thus, the do'n'ard load, per unit len$th in the B direction, bet'een and R d is )5 6 d % - net shear "orce + , per unit len$th in the B direction, acts on the cross section o" the plate normal to the plane o" the "i$ure7 it is the resultant o" all the shear stresses inte$rated o#er that cross-sectional area o" the plate% - horiBontal "orce 0 , per unit len$th in the B direction, is applied to the plate7 it is assumed that 0 is independent o" % The net $ending moment , , per unit len$th in the B direction, actin$ on a cross section o" the plate is the inte$rated e""ect o" the moments e erted by the normal stresses b , also !no'n as the fi$er stresses, on the cross section% :e relate , to the "iber stresses in the plate later in the discussion% -ll )uantities in Fi$ure 2C18 are considered positi#e 'hen they ha#e the sense sho'n in the "i$ure% -t location alon$ the plate the shear "orce is + , the bendin$ moment is , , and the de"lection is '7 at R d , the shear "orce is + R d+ , the bendin$ moment is , R d, , and the de"lection is ' R d'% &t is to be emphasiBed that + , , , and 0 are per unit len$th in the B direction% - "orce balance in the #ertical direction on the element bet'een and R d yields )5 6 d R d+ P 8 or d+ P )% 52%A36 d The moments , and , R d, combine to $i#e a net countercloc!'ise tor)ue d, on the element% The "orces + and + R d+ are separated by a distance d 5an in"initesimal moment arm6 and e ert a net tor)ue + d on the element in a cloc!'ise sense% 5The chan$e in + in $oin$ "rom to R d can be i$nored in calculatin$ the moment due to the shear "orces%6 The horiBontal "orces 0 e ert a net countercloc!'ise tor)ue 0 d' on the element throu$h their associated moment arm d'% 5<ote that d' is ne$ati#e in $oin$ "rom to R d %6 - balance o" all the tor)ues $i#es d, 0 d' P + d or d, d' P+ R0 % 52%A96 d d :e can eliminate the shear "orce on a #ertical cross section o" the plate + 52%A86 52%A46
281 2812
Fi$ure 2%11 The normal stresses on a cross section o" a thin cur#ed elastic plate%
"rom ()uation 52CA96 by di""erentiatin$ the e)uation 'ith respect to substitutin$ "rom ()uation 52CA36% *ne obtains
2 d 2, ) R 0 d ' % P d 2 d 2
and
52%486
()uation 52C486 can be con#erted into a di""erential e)uation "or the de"lection ' i" the bendin$ moment , can be related to the de"lection7 'e 'ill see that , is in#ersely proportional to the local radius of curvature of the plate ; and that ; 1 is d 2 'Ud 2 % To relate , to the cur#ature o" the plate, 'e proceed as "ollo's% &" the plate is de"lected do'n'ard, as in Fi$ure 2C11, the upper hal" o" the plate is contracted, and the lon$itudinal stress b is positi#e7 the lo'er part o" the plate is e tended, and b is ne$ati#e% The "iber stress b is Bero on the midplane y P 8, 'hich is a neutral unstrained surface% The net e""ect o" these stresses is to e ert a countercloc!'ise bendin$ moment on the cross section o" the plate% The cur#ature o" the plate has, o" course, been e a$$erated in Fi$ure 2C11 so that is essentially horiBontal% The "orce on an element o" the plates cross section o" thic!ness dy is b dy% This "orce e erts a tor)ue about the midpoint o" the plate $i#en by b y dy% &" 'e inte$rate this tor)ue o#er the cross section o" the plate, 'e obtain the bendin$ moment , P
]
hU2 hU2
b y dy,
52%416
'here h is the thic!ness o" the plate% The bendin$ stress b is accompanied by lon$itudinal strain g that is positi#e 5contraction6 in the upper hal" o" the plate and ne$ati#e 5e tension6 in the lo'er hal"% There is no strain in the direction perpendicular to the y plane because the plate is in"inite in this direction and the $ending is t!o2dimensional or cylindrical7 that is, gBB P 8% There is also Bero stress
normal to the sur"ace o" the plate7 that is, byy P 8% @ecause the plate is thin, 'e can ta!e byy P 8 throu$hout% Thus plate bendin$ is an e ample o" plane stress, and 'e can use ()uations 52C216 and 52C226 to relate the stresses and strains7 that is, g gBB 1 5b m bBB 6 ( 1 P 5bBB m b 6% ( P 52%426 52%426
&n 'ritin$ these e)uations, 'e ha#e identi"ied the principal strains g1 , g2 'ith g , gBB and the principal stresses b1 , b2 'ith b , bBB % :ith gBB P 8, ()uations 52C426 and 52C426 $i#e b P ( g % 51 m 2 6 52%4>6
()uation 52C416 "or the bendin$ moment can be re'ritten, usin$ ()uation 52C4>6, as , P ( 51 m 2 6
]
hU2 hU2
g y dy%
52%4A6
The lon$itudinal strain g depends on the distance "rom the midplane o" the plate y and the local radius o" cur#ature o" the plate ;% Fi$ure 2C12 sho's a bent section o" the plate ori$inally o" len$th l 5l is in"initesimal6% The len$th o" the section measured alon$ the midplane remains l% The small an$le Y is lU; in radians% The $eometry o" Fi$ure 2C12 sho's that the chan$e in len$th o" the section _l at a distance y "rom the midplane is l _l P yY P y , ; 52%446
'here the minus si$n is included because there is contraction 'hen y is positi#e% Thus the strain is g P _l y P % l ; 52%436
&mplicit in this relation is the assumption that plane sections o" the plate remain plane% The local radius o" cur#ature ; is determined by the chan$e in slope o" the plate midplane 'ith horiBontal distance% The $eometry is sho'n in Fi$ure 2C12% &" ' is small, d'Ud , the slope o" the midplane, is also the an$ular de"lection o" the plate "rom the horiBontal T% The small an$le Y in Fi$ure 2C12 is simply the chan$e in T, that is, dT, in the small distance l or d %
Fi$ure 2%12 .on$itudinal e tension and contraction at a distance y "rom the midplane o" the plate%
Thus Y P dT P and 'e "ind

2 1 Y P Y P d '% ; l d 2 d Finally, the strain is $i#en by
dT d' d2 ' d P d P d d , d d d 2 d
52%486
52%496
d 2' P y 2 , d and the bendin$ moment can be 'ritten g , P ( 51 m

26
52%386
d2 ' d
2
hU2 hU2
y 2 dy
hU2 hU2
P P
( d 2 ' y2 51 m 2 6 d 2 2 ( h2 d ' 2 % 1251 m 2 6 d 2
52%316
The coe""icient o" d 2 'Ud 2 on the ri$ht side o" ()uation 52C316 is called the fle#ural rigidity D o" the plate D (h2 % 1251 m 2 6 52%326
5(-B 0ending of Plates under Loads
pplied Moments and Certical
28A 28A2
Fi$ure 2%12 S!etch illustratin$ the $eometrical relations in plate bendin$%
-ccordin$ to ()uations 52C496, 52C316, and 52C326, the bendin$ moment is the "le ural ri$idity o" the plate di#ided by its cur#ature d 2' D , P D 2 P % 52%326 d ; /pon substitutin$ the second deri#ati#e o" ()uation 52C326 into ()uation 52C486, 'e obtain the $eneral e)uation "or the de"lection o" the plate d> ' d 2' P )5 6 0 % 52%3>6 d 2 d > :e ne t sol#e ()uation 52C3>6 "or plate de"lection in a number o" simple cases and apply the results to the de"ormation o" crustal strata and to the bendin$ o" the lithosphere% D 2%18 @endin$ o" 0lates under -pplied ,oments and +ertical .oads 1onsider a plate em$edded at one end and sub?ect to an applied tor)ue ,a at the other, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C1>% -ssume "or simplicity that the plate is 'ei$htless% :ith ) P 8, ()uation 52CA36 sho's that the shear stress on a section o" the plate + must be a constant% &n "act, + P 8, since there is no applied "orce actin$ on the plate% This can easily be seen by considerin$
Fi$ure 2%1> -n embedded plate sub?ect to an applied tor)ue%
Fi$ure 2%1A Force and tor)ue balance on a section o" the plate in Fi$ure 2C1>%
a "orce balance on a section o" the plate, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C1A% Since 0 P 8 and since 'e ha#e established + P 8, ()uation 52CA96 re)uires that , P constant% The constant must be ,a , the applied tor)ue, as sho'n by a moment $alance on an arbitrary section o" the plate 5Fi$ure 2C1A6% To determine the de"lection o" the plate, 'e could inte$rate ()uation 52C 3>6 'ith ) P 0 P 8% 9o'e#er, since 'e already !no' , ,a , it is simpler to inte$rate ()uation 52C326, the t'ice inte$rated "orm o" the "ourth-order di""erential e)uation% The boundary conditions are ' P 8 at P 8 and d'Ud P 8 at P 8% These boundary conditions at the le"t end o" the plate clari"y 'hat is meant by an embedded plate7 the embedded end o" the plate cannot be displaced, and its slope must be Bero% The inte$ral o" ()uation 52C326 sub?ect to these boundary conditions is 'P ,a 2D
2
52%3A6
The bent plate has the shape o" a parabola% ' is ne$ati#e accordin$ to the con#ention 'e established i" , is positi#e7 that is, the plate is de"lected up'ard% 0roblem 2%3 :hat is the displacement o" a plate pinned at both ends 5' P 8 at P 8, .6 'ith e)ual and opposite bendin$ moments applied at the endsO The problem is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C14% -s a second e ample 'e consider the bendin$ o" a plate embedded at its le"t end and sub?ected to a concentrated "orce +a at its ri$ht end, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C13% &n this situation, ) P 8, e cept at the point P ., and ()uation 52CA36 $i#es + P constant% The constant must be
Fi$ure 2%14 @endin$ o" a plate pinned at both ends%
Fi$ure 2%13 -n embedded plate sub?ected to a concentrated load%
+a , as sho'n by the #ertical "orce balance on the plate s!etched in Fi$ure 2C18% :ith 0 also e)ual to Bero, ()uation 52CA96 "or the bendin$ moment simpli"ies to d, P +a % 52%346 d This e)uation can be inte$rated to yield , P +a R constant, 52%336
and the constant can be e#aluated by notin$ that there is no applied tor)ue at the end P .7 that is, , P 8 at P .% Thus 'e obtain , P +a 5 .6% 52%386
The bendin$ moment chan$es linearly "rom +a . at the embedded end to Bero at the "ree end% - simple tor)ue balance on the section o" the plate sho'n in Fi$ure 2C18 leads to ()uation 52C386, since , must balance the tor)ue o" the applied "orce +a actin$ 'ith moment arm . % The displacement can be determined by inte$ratin$ ()uation 52C3>6, 'hich simpli"ies to d> ' P 8, 52%396 d > 'hen ) P 0 P 8% The inte$ral o" ()uation 52C396 is d2 ' P constant% d 2 52%886
Fi$ure 2%18 Forces and tor)ues on a section o" a plate loaded at its ri$ht end by a "orce Ca %
Fi$ure 2%19 - uni"ormly loaded plate embedded at one end%
The constant can be e#aluated by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 52C326 'ith respect to and substitutin$ "or d,Ud "rom ()uation 52C346% The result is d2 ' +a P % 52%816 2 d D - second-order di""erential e)uation "or ' can be obtained by inte$ratin$ ()uation 52C816 and e#aluatin$ the constant o" inte$ration 'ith the boundary condition d 2 'Ud 2 P 8 at P .% -lternati#ely, the same e)uation can be arri#ed at by substitutin$ "or , "rom ()uation 52C386 into ()uation 52C326 d 2' + P a 5 .6% 52%826 2 d D This e)uation may be inte$rated t'ice more sub?ect to the standard boundary conditions ' P d'Ud P 8 at P 8% *ne "inds 'P +a 2 . % 2D 2 52%826
0roblem 2%8 Determine the displacement o" a plate o" len$th . pinned at its ends 'ith a concentrated load +a applied at its center% This problem is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C9% -s a third and "inal e ample, 'e consider the bendin$ o" a plate embedded
at one end and sub?ected to a uni"orm loadin$ )5 6 P constant, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C19% ()uation 52C3>6, 'ith 0 P 8, becomes d> ' ) P % 52%8>6 d > D :e need "our boundary conditions to inte$rate ()uation 52C8>6% T'o o" them are the standard conditions ' P d'Ud P 8 at the le"t end P 8% - third boundary condition is the same as the one used in the pre#ious e ample, namely, d 2 'Ud 2 P 8 at P ., because there is no e ternal tor)ue applied at the ri$ht end o" the plate C see ()uation 52C326% The "ourth boundary condition "ollo's "rom ()uation 52CA96 'ith 0 P 8% @ecause there is no applied concentrated load at P ., + must #anish there, as must d,Ud and "rom ()uation 52C326, d2 'Ud 2 % -"ter some al$ebra, one "inds the solution 2 ) 2 . .2 % 52%8A6 'P R D 2> 4 > The shear "orce at P 8 is D5d2 'Ud 2 6 P8 % From ()uation 52C8A6 this is )., a result that also "ollo's "rom a consideration o" the o#erall #ertical e)uilibrium o" the plate because ). is the total loadin$% The shear stress on the section P 8 is ).Uh% The bendin$ moment on the section P 8 is D5d 2 'Ud 2 6 P8 or ).2 U2% The ma imum bendin$ or "iber stress, P b at y P hU2, is $i#en, "rom ()uations 52C8A6, 52C ma 4>6, and 52C b 386, by b ma P ( h dZ2 ' 4 dZ2 ' 4, P 2D 2 P 2 % 2 2 51 m 6 2 d h d h
52%846
-t P 8, b ma is 2).2 Uh2 % The ratio o" the shear stress to the ma imum bendin$ stress at P 8 is hU2., a rather small )uantity "or a thin plate% &t is implicit in the analysis o" the bendin$ o" thin plates that shear stresses in the plates are small compared 'ith the bendin$ stresses% 0roblem 2%9 1alculate + and , by carryin$ out "orce and tor)ue balances on the section o" the uni"ormly loaded plate sho'n in Fi$ure 2C28% 0roblem 2%18 - $ranite plate 'ith Q P 2388 !$ m 2 is embedded at one end% &" . P 18 m and h P 1U> m, 'hat is the ma imum bendin$ stress and the shear stress at the baseO 0roblem 2%11 Determine the displacement o" a plate that is embedded at the end P 8 and has a uni"orm loadin$ ) "rom P .U2 to P .%
218 2182
Fi$ure 2%28 Section o" a uni"ormly loaded plate%
Fi$ure 2%21 0late buc!lin$ under a horiBontal "orce%
0roblem 2%12 Determine the de"lection o" a plate o" len$th . that is embedded at P 8 and has e)ual loads +a applied at P .U2 and at P .% 0roblem 2%12 Find the de"lection o" a uni"ormly loaded beam pinned at the ends, P 8, .% :here is the ma imum bendin$ momentO :hat is the ma imum bendin$ stressO 0roblem 2%1> - $ranite plate "reely supported at its ends spans a $or$e 28 m 'ide% 9o' thic! does the plate ha#e to be i" $ranite "ails in tension at 28 ,0aO -ssume Q P 2388 !$ m 2 % 0roblem 2%1A Determine the de"lection o" a "reely supported plate, that is, a plate pinned at its ends, o" len$th . and "le ural ri$idity D sub?ect to a sinusoidal load )a P )8 sin X U., as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C21%
2%11 @uc!lin$ o" a 0late under a 9oriBontal .oad :hen an elastic plate is sub?ected to a horiBontal "orce 0 , as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C22a, the plate can $uc,le, as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C22b, i" the applied "orce is su""iciently lar$e% Fold trains in mountain belts are belie#ed to result "rom the 'arpin$ o" strata under horiBontal compression% :e 'ill there"ore
5(-- 0uc,ling of a Plate under a 9ori+ontal Load
211
Fi$ure 2%22 - "reely supported plate loaded sinusoidally%
consider the simplest e ample o" plate buc!lin$ under horiBontal compression to determine the minimum "orce re)uired "or buc!lin$ to occur and the "orm, that is, the !avelength, o" the resultin$ de"lection% &n a subse)uent section 'e 'ill carry out a similar calculation to determine i" the lithosphere can be e pected to buc!le under horiBontal tectonic compression% :e consider a plate pinned at both ends and sub?ected to a horiBontal "orce 0 , as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C22% The de"lection o" the plate is $o#erned by ()uation 52C3>6 'ith ) P 8F D d> ' d2 P 8% > d R 0' d 2 52%836
This can be inte$rated t'ice to $i#e D d 2' R 0 ' P c1 R c2 % d 2 52%886
9o'e#er, 'e re)uire that ! is Bero at P 8, . and that d 2 'Ud 2 P 8 at P 8, ., since there are no applied tor)ues at the ends% These boundary conditions re)uire that c1 P c2 P 8, and ()uation 52C886 reduces to D d 2' R 0 ' P 8% d 2 52%896
()uation 52C896 has the $eneral solution ' P c1 sin 0 D

1U2
R c2 cos
0 D
1U2
52%986
'here c1 and c2 are constants o" inte$ration% @ecause ' is e)ual to Bero at P 8, c2 must be Bero, and ' P c1 sin 0 D
1U2
52%916
212 2122
@ut ' must also #anish at
P ., 'hich implies that i" c1 P 8, then sin 0 D

1U2
. P 8%
52%926
Thus 50 UD61U2 . must be an inte$er multiple o" X, 0 D

1U2
. P nX
n P 1, 2, 2, % % %
52%926
Sol#in$ this e)uation "or 0 , 'e $et

2 2 0 P n X D% .2
52%9>6
()uation 52C9>6 de"ines a series o" #alues o" 0 "or 'hich nonBero solutions "or ' e ist% The smallest such #alue is "or n P 1 'hen 0 is $i#en by X2 D% 52%9A6 .2 This is the minimum buc!lin$ load "or the plate% &" 0 is smaller than this critical value, !no'n as an eigenvalue, the plate 'ill not de"lect under the applied load7 that is, c1 P 8 or ' P 8% :hen 0 has the #alue $i#en by ()uation 52C9A6, the plate buc!les or de"lects under the horiBontal load% -t the onset o" de"lection the plate assumes the shape o" a hal" sine cur#e 0 P 0c P ' P c1 sin P c1 sin 0 D
1U2
X % 52%946 . The amplitude o" the de"lection cannot be determined by the linear analysis carried out here% <onlinear e""ects "i the ma$nitude o" the de"ormation% The application o" plate "le ure theory to "old trains in mountain belts re)uires some'hat more comple models than considered here% -lthou$h a number o" e""ects must be incorporated to appro imate reality more closely, one o" the most important is the in"luence o" the medium surroundin$ a "olded stratum% The roc!s abo#e and belo' a "olded layer e ert "orces on the layer that in"luence the "orm 5'a#elen$th6 o" the "olds and the critical horiBontal "orce necessary to initiate buc!lin$% 2%12 De"ormation o" Strata *#erlyin$ an &$neous &ntrusion - laccolith is a sill-li!e i$neous intrusion in the "orm o" a round lens-shaped body much 'ider than it is thic!% .accoliths are "ormed by ma$ma that
is intruded alon$ beddin$ planes o" "lat, layered roc!s at pressures so hi$h that the ma$ma raises the o#erburden and de"orms it into a domeli!e shape% &" the "lo' o" ma$ma is alon$ a crac!, a t'o-dimensional laccolith can be "ormed% *ur analysis is restricted to this case% - photo$raph o" a laccolithic mountain is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C22 alon$ 'ith a s!etch o" our model% The o#erburden or elastic plate o" thic!ness h is bent up'ard by the pressure p o" the ma$ma that 'ill "orm the laccolith upon solidi"ication% The loadin$ o" the plate )5 6 is the part o" the up'ard pressure "orce p in e cess o" the lithostatic pressure Q$hF ) P p R Q$h% 52%936 This problem is #ery similar to the one illustrated in Fi$ure 2C19% &n both cases the loadin$ is uni"orm so that ()uation 52C8>6 is applicable% :e ta!e P 8 at the center o" the laccolith% The re)uired boundary conditions are ' P d'Ud P 8 at P .U2% The solution o" ()uation 52C8>6 that satis"ies these boundary conditions is obtained a"ter some al$ebra in the "orm 5p Q$ h6 'P 2>D
>
.> % 14
52%986
<ote that because o" the symmetry o" the problem the coe""icients o" and 2 must be Bero% The ma imum de"lection at the center o" the laccolith, P 8, is > '8 P 5p Q$ h6. % 52%996 28>D &n terms o" its ma imum #alue, the de"lection is $i#en by ' P '8 1 8 .> 0roblem 2%14 Sho' that the cross-sectional area o" a t'o-dimensional laccolith is $i#en by 5p Q$h6.A U328D% 0roblem 2%13 Determine the bendin$ moment in the o#erburden abo#e the idealiBed t'o-dimensional laccolith as a "unction o" % :here is , a ma imumO :hat is the #alue o" ,ma O 0roblem 2%18 1alculate the "iber stress in the stratum o#erlyin$ the t'odimensional laccolith as a "unction o" y 5distance "rom the centerline o" the layer6 and % &" di!es tend to "orm 'here tension is $reatest in the base o" the stratum "ormin$ the roo" o" a laccolith, 'here 'ould you e pect di!es to occur "or the t'o-dimensional laccolithO
2 >
.2
R 14
52%1886
Elasticity and Fle#ure 21>
(a)
Fi$ure 2%22 )a* laccolith in Red and .hite Mountain, Colorado( %he overlying sedimentary roc,s have $een eroded )Gniversity of Colorado, 0oulder*( )$* t!o2dimensional model for a laccolith(
5(-4 &eformation of "trata 1verlying an Igneous Intrusion 21A 21A2
Fi$ure 2%2> Models for calculating the hydrostatic restoring force on lithospheric plates deflected $y an applied load 3a ( )a* 1ceanic case( )$* Continental case(
214 2142
2%12 -pplication to the (arths .ithosphere
:hen applyin$ ()uation 52C3>6 to determine the do'n'ard de"lection o" the earths lithosphere due to an applied load, 'e must be care"ul to include in )5 6 the hydrostatic restorin$ "orce caused by the e""ecti#e replacement o" mantle roc!s in a #ertical column by material o" smaller density% &n the case o" the oceanic lithosphere, 'ater "ills in Lthe space #acatedM by mantle roc!s mo#ed out o" the 'ay by the de"lected lithosphere% &n the case o" the continental lithosphere, the roc!s o" the thic! continental crust ser#e as the "ill% Fi$ure 2C2>a illustrates the oceanic case% The upper part o" the "i$ure sho's a lithospheric plate o" thic!ness h and density Qm "loatin$ on a L"luidM mantle also o" density Qm % :ater o" density Q' and thic!ness h' o#erlies the oceanic lithosphere% Suppose that an applied load de"lects the lithosphere do'n'ard a distance ' and that 'ater "ills in the space abo#e the plate, as sho'n in the bottom part o" Fi$ure 2C2>a% The 'ei$ht per unit area o" a #ertical column e tendin$ "rom the base o" the de"lected lithosphere to the sur"ace is Q' $5h' R '6 R Qm $h% The pressure at a depth h' R h R ' in the surroundin$ mantle 'here there is no plate de"lection is Q' $h' R Qm $5h R '6% Thus there is an up'ard hydrostatic "orce per unit area e)ual to Q' $h' R Qm $5h R '6 {Q' $5h' R '6 R Qm $h} P 5Qm Q' 6$' 52%1816 tendin$ to restore the de"lected lithosphere to its ori$inal con"i$uration% The hydrostatic restorin$ "orce per unit area is e)ui#alent to the "orce that results "rom replacin$ mantle roc! o" thic!ness ' and density Qm by 'ater o" thic!ness ' and density Q' % The net "orce per unit area actin$ on the lithospheric plate is there"ore ) P )a 5Qm Q' 6$', 52%1826
'here )a is the applied load at the upper sur"ace o" the lithosphere% ()uation 52C3>6 "or the de"lection o" the elastic oceanic lithosphere becomes d> ' d 2' R 0 R 5Qm Q' 6$' P )a 5 6% 52%1826 d > d 2 Fi$ure 2C2>b illustrates the continental case% The upper part o" the "i$ure sho's the continental crust o" thic!ness hc and density Qc separated by the D
5(-6 Periodic Loading
,oho "rom the rest o" the lithosphere o" thic!ness h and density Qm % The entire continental lithosphere lies on top o" a "luid mantle o" density Qm % The lo'er part o" Fi$ure 2C2>b sho's the plate de"lected do'n'ard a distance ' by an applied load such as e cess topo$raphy% The ,oho, bein$ a part o" the lithosphere, is also de"lected do'n'ard a distance '% The space #acated by the de"lected lithosphere is "illed in by crustal roc!s% The crust beneath the load is e""ecti#ely thic!ened by the amount ' by 'hich the ,oho is depressed% The 'ei$ht per unit area o" a #ertical column e tendin$ "rom the base o" the de"lected plate to the sur"ace is Qc $5hc R '6 R Qm $h% The pressure at a depth hc R h R ' in the surroundin$ mantle "ar "rom the de"lected plate is Qc $hc R Qm $5h R '6% The di""erence bet'een these t'o )uantities is the up'ard hydrostatic restorin$ "orce per unit area Qc $hc R Qm $5h R '6 {Qc $5hc R '6 R Qm $h} P 5Qm Qc 6$'% 52%18>6
213 2132
The restorin$ "orce is e)ui#alent to the "orce that results "rom replacin$ mantle roc! by crustal roc! in a layer o" thic!ness '% The net "orce per unit area actin$ on the elastic continental lithosphere is there"ore ) P )a 5Qm Qc 6$'% 52%18A6 ()uation 52C3>6 "or the de"lection o" the plate becomes d> ' d 2' R0 R 5Qm Qc 6$' P )a 5 6% 52%1846 > d d 2 :e are no' in a position to determine the elastic de"lection o" the lithosphere and the accompanyin$ internal stresses 5shear and bendin$6 "or di""erent loadin$ situations% D 2%1> 0eriodic .oadin$ 9o' does the positi#e load o" a mountain or the ne$ati#e load o" a #alley de"lect the lithosphereO To ans'er this )uestion, 'e determine the response o" the lithosphere to a periodic load% :e assume that the ele#ation o" the topo$raphy is $i#en by h P h8 sin 2X , l 52%1836
'here h is the topo$raphic hei$ht and l is its 'a#elen$th% 0ositi#e h corresponds to rid$es and ne$ati#e h to #alleys% Since the amplitude o" the topo$raphy is small compared 'ith the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere, the in"luence o" the topo$raphy on this thic!ness can be ne$lected% The load on the lithosphere correspondin$ to the topo$raphy $i#en by ()uation 52C1836 is 52%1886 l 'here Qc is the density o" the crustal roc!s associated 'ith the hei$ht #ariation% The e)uation "or the de"lection o" the lithosphere is obtained by substitutin$ this e pression "or )a 5 6 into ()uation 52C1846 and settin$ 0 P 8 to obtain d> ' D > R 5Qm Qc 6$' P Qc $h8 sin % 52%1896 l d 2X @ecause the loadin$ is periodic in , the response or de"lection o" the lithosphere 'ill also #ary sinusoidally in 'ith the same 'a#elen$th as the topo$raphy% Thus 'e assume a solution o" the "orm ' P '8 sin 2X % 52%1186 l @y substitutin$ ()uation 52C1186 into ()uation 52C1896, 'e determine the amplitude o" the de"lection o" the lithosphere to be '8 P h8 Qm D 1R Q Qc c$ 2X l
>
)a 5 6 P Qc $h8 sin 2X
52%1116
The )uantity 5DUQc $61U> has the dimensions o" a len$th% &t is proportional to the natural 'a#elen$th "or the "le ure o" the lithosphere% &" the 'a#elen$th o" the topo$raphy is su""iciently short, that is, i" l 2X D Qc $
1U>
52%1126
then the denominator o" ()uation 52C1116 is much lar$er than unity, and '8 h8 % 52%1126 Short-'a#elen$th topo$raphy causes #irtually no de"ormation o" the lithosphere% The lithosphere is in"initely ri$id "or loads o" this scale% This case is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C2Aa% &" the 'a#elen$th o" the topo$raphy is su""iciently lon$, that is, i" l 2X D Qc $
1U>
52%11>6
Fi$ure 2%2A De"lection o" the lithosphere under a periodic load% 5a6 Short-'a#elen$th loadin$ 'ith no de"lection o" the lithosphere% 5$6 .on$'a#elen$th loadin$ 'ith isostatic de"lection o" the lithosphere%
Fi$ure 2%24 @uc!lin$ o" an in"initely lon$ plate under an applied horiBontal load 'ith a hydrostatic restorin$ "orce%
then ()uation 52C1116 $i#es ' P '8 P Qc h 8 % 5Q m Qc 6 52%11A6
This is the isostatic result obtained in ()uation 52C26% For topo$raphy o" su""iciently lon$ 'a#elen$th, the lithosphere has no ri$idity and the topo$raphy is "ully compensated7 that is, it is in hydrostatic e)uilibrium% The de$ree o" compensation 1 o" the topo$raphic load is the ratio o" the de"lection o" the lithosphere to its ma imum or hydrostatic de"lection ' 52%1146 1P 8 % '8 /pon substitutin$ ()uations 52C1116 and 52C11A6 into the e)uation "or 1 , 'e obtain 5Qm Qc 6 % 52%1136 1P D 2X > Qm Qc R $ l
228 2282
Fi$ure 2%23 Dependence o" the de$ree o" compensation on the nondimensional 'a#elen$th o" periodic topo$raphy%
This dependence is illustrated in Fi$ure 2C24% For a lithosphere 'ith elastic 2 thic!ness 2A 2 !m, ( P 38 G0a, m P 8%2A, Qm P 2288 !$ m , and Qc P 2888 !$ m 'e "ind that topo$raphy is A8N compensated 51 P 8%A6 i" its 'a#elen$th is l P >28 !m% Topo$raphy 'ith a shorter 'a#elen$th is substantially supported by the ri$idity o" the lithosphere7 topo$raphy 'ith a lon$er 'a#elen$th is only 'ea!ly supported% 2%1A Stability o" the (arths .ithosphere under an (nd .oad :e ha#e already seen ho' a plate pinned at its ends can buc!le i" an applied horiBontal load e ceeds the critical #alue $i#en by ()uation 52C9A6% .et us in#esti$ate the stability o" the lithosphere 'hen it is sub?ected to a horiBontal "orce 0 % :e 'ill see that 'hen 0 e ceeds a critical #alue, an in"initely lon$ plate 5. 6 'ill become unstable and de"lect into the sinusoidal shape sho'n in Fi$ure 2C23% The e)uation "or the de"lection o" the plate is obtained by settin$ )a P 8 in ()uation 52C1826F D d> ' d2 R 5Qm Q' 6$' P 8% d > R 0' d 2 52%1186
This e)uation can be satis"ied by a sinusoidal de"lection o" the plate as $i#en in ()uation 52C1186 i" D 2X l
>
2X l
R 5Qm Q'6$ P 8,
52%1196
a result o" directly substitutin$ ()uation 52C1186 into ()uation 52C 1186% ()uation 52C1196 is a )uadratic e)uation "or the s)uare o" the 'a#elen$th
5(-> "ta$ility of the EarthAs Lithosphere Gnder an End Load
221
o" the sinusoid l% &ts solution is 2X l

2
0 d0 2 >5Qm Q' 6 $ D e1U2 2D
52%1286
@ecause the 'a#elen$th o" the de"ormed lithosphere must be real, there can only be a solution i" 0 e ceeds the critical #alue 0c P {>D$5Qm Q' 6} 1U2% 52%1216
0c is the minimum #alue "or 0 "or 'hich the initially horiBontal lithosphere 'ill become unstable and ac)uire the sinusoidal shape% &" 0 \ 0c , the horiBontal lithosphere is stable and 'ill not buc!le under the end load% The ei$en#alue 0c can also be 'ritten ( h2 5Qm Q' 6$ 0c P
1U2
251 m 2 6
P bc h,
52%1226
'here bc is the critical stress associated 'ith the "orce 0c % Sol#in$ ()uation 52C1226 "or the critical stress 'e "ind ( h5Qm Q' 6$ bc P
1U2
251 m 2 6
52%1226
The 'a#elen$th o" the instability that occurs 'hen 0 P 0c is $i#en by ()uation 52C1286F lc P 2X P 2X 2D 0c
1U2
P 2X
D $5Qm Q' 6
1U>
1U>
(h 2 1251 m 2 65Qm Q' 6$
52%12>6
:e 'ish to determine 'hether buc!lin$ o" the lithosphere can lead to the "ormation o" a series o" synclines and anticlines% :e consider an elastic lithosphere 'ith a thic!ness o" A8 !m% Ta!in$ ( P 188 G0a, m P 8%2A, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , and Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C1226 that bc P 4%> G0a% - A8-!m-thic! elastic lithosphere can support a horiBontal compressi#e stress o" 4%> G0a 'ithout buc!lin$% @ecause o" the #ery lar$e stress re)uired, 'e conclude that such buc!lin$ does not occur% The lithosphere "ails, presumably by the de#elopment o" a "ault, be"ore buc!lin$ can ta!e place% &n $eneral, horiBontal "orces ha#e a small in"luence on the bendin$ beha#ior o" the lithosphere% For this reason 'e ne$lect them in the lithosphere bendin$ studies to "ollo'% 9oriBontal "orces are $enerally inade)uate to buc!le the lithosphere because o" its lar$e elastic thic!ness% 9o'e#er, the same conclusion may not
222 2222
Fi$ure 2%28 - bathymetric pro"ile across the 9a'aiian archipela$o%
apply to much thinner elastic layers, such as elastic sedimentary strata embedded bet'een strata that beha#e as "luids and hi$hly thinned lithosphere in re$ions o" hi$h heat "lo'% To e#aluate the in"luence o" horiBontal "orces on the bendin$ o" such thin layers, 'e ta!e h P 1 !m and the other parameters as be"ore and "ind "rom ()uation 52C1226 that bc P 988 ,0a% From ()uation 52C12>6 'e obtain lc P 28 !m% :e conclude that the buc!lin$ o" thin elastic layers may contribute to the "ormation o" "olded structures in the earths crust%
2%14 @endin$ o" the (lastic .ithosphere under the .oads o" &sland 1hains +olcanic islands pro#ide loads that cause the lithosphere to bend% The 9a'aiian rid$e is a line o" #olcanic islands and seamounts that e tends thousands o" !ilometers across the 0aci"ic% These #olcanic roc!s pro#ide a linear load that has a 'idth o" about 1A8 !m and an a#era$e amplitude o" about 188 ,0a% The bathymetric pro"ile across the 9a'aiian archipela$o sho'n in Fi$ure 2C28 re#eals a depression, the 9a'aiian Deep, immediately ad?acent to the rid$e and an outer peripheral $ulge or up'arp% To model the de"lection o" the lithosphere under linear loadin$, let us consider the beha#ior o" a plate under a line load +8 applied at P 8, as sho'n in Fi$ure 2C29% Since the applied load is Bero e cept at P 8, 'e ta!e )a 5 6 P 8 and 0 P 8 in ()uation 52C1826 and sol#e D d> ' R 5Qm Q' 6$' P 8% d > 52%12A6
The $eneral solution o" ()uation 52C12A6 is 'Pe

UT
c1 cos
UT
R c2 sin T
T T , 52%1246
R e
c2 cos
R c> sin
Fi$ure 2%29 De"lection o" the elastic lithosphere under a line load%
'here the constants c1 , c2 , c2 , and c> are determined by the boundary conditions and 1U> >D TP % 52%1236 5Qm Q' 6$ The parameter T is !no'n as the fle#ural parameter% @ecause there is symmetry about P 8, 'e need only determine ' "or 8% :e re)uire that ' 8 as and that d'Ud P 8 at P 8% 1learly, c1 and c2 must be Bero and c2 P c> % ()uation 52C1246 becomes ' P c2 e
UT
cos R sin 52%1286 T T
8%
The constant c2 is proportional to the ma$nitude o" the applied line load +8 % From ()uation 52C816 'e ha#e
2 > D c2 1 +8 P D d 5 P 86 P % 2 2 T ' d 2
52%1296
59al" the plate supports hal" the load applied at P 8% <ote also that a do'n'ard "orce on the le"t end o" the plate is ne$ati#e accordin$ to the si$n con#ention illustrated in Fi$ure 2C18%6 Substitutin$ "or c2 "rom ()uation 52C1296 into ()uation 52C1286, 'e obtain 'P +8 T2 8D e
UT
cos R sinT T
8% 52%1286 P 8 is $i#en by 52%1216
The ma imum amplitude o" the de"lection at '8 P +8 T2 % 8D
&n terms o" '8 , the de"lection o" the plate is cos ' P '8 e
UT
R sin T T %
52%1226
This pro"ile is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C28% The de"lection o" the lithosphere under a line load is characteriBed by a
Fi$ure 2%28 9al" o" the theoretical de"lection pro"ile "or a "loatin$ elastic plate supportin$ a line load%
'ell-de"ined arch or "orebul$e% The hal"-'idth o" the depression, by

8
8,
is $i#en
P T tan
516 P
2X T% >
52%1226
The distance "rom the line load to the ma imum amplitude o" the "orebul$e, b , is obtained by determinin$ 'here the slope o" the pro"ile is Bero% /pon di""erentiatin$ ()uation 52C1226 and settin$ the result to Bero 2' d' P 8 e T d 'e "ind
b UT
sin T P 8,
52%12>6
P T sin
8 P XT%
52%12A6
b
The hei$ht o" the "orebul$e 'b is obtained by substitutin$ this #alue o" into ()uation 52C1226F ' b P ' 8 e
X
P 8%8>22'8 %
52%1246
The amplitude o" the "orebul$e is )uite small compared 'ith the depression o" the lithosphere under the line load% This analysis "or the line load is only appro imately #alid "or the 9a'aiian &slands, since the island load is distributed o#er a 'idth o" about 1A8 !m% 9o'e#er, the distance "rom the center o" the load to the crest o" the arch can be used to estimate the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere i" 'e assume that it is e)ual to b % - representati#e #alue o" b "or the 9a'aiian archipela$o is 2A8 !m7 'ith b P 2A8 !m, ()uation 52C12A6 $i#es a "le ural parameter T P 88 !m% For Qm Q' P 2288 !$ m 2 and $ P 18 m s 2 ()uation 52C1236 $i#es D P 2%> 1822 < m% Ta!in$ ( P 38 G0a and m P 8%2A, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C326 that the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere is h P 2> !m%
Fi$ure 2%21 De"lection o" a bro!en elastic lithosphere under a line load%
0roblem 2%19 5a6 1onsider a lithospheric plate under a line load% Sho' that the absolute #alue o" the bendin$ moment is a ma imum at
m
P T cos
8P
X T 2
52%1236
and that its #alue is ,m P 2D '8 XU2 D' e P 8%>14 2 8 % 2 T T 52%1286
5b6 ;e"raction studes sho' that the ,oho is depressed about 18 !m beneath the center o" the 9a'aiian &slands% -ssumin$ that this is the #alue o" '8 and that h P 2> !m, ( P 38 G0a, m P 8%2A, Qm Q' P 2288 !$ m 2 , and $ P 18 m s 2 , determine the ma imum bendin$ stress in the lithosphere% Since #olcanism alon$ the 9a'aiian rid$e has 'ea!ened the lithosphere, it may not be able to sustain lar$e bendin$ moments beneath the load% &n this case 'e should consider a model in 'hich the lithosphere is "ractured alon$ the line o" the rid$e% .et us accordin$ly determine the de"lection o" a semiin"inite elastic plate "loatin$ on a "luid hal"-space and sub?ected to a line load +8 U2 at its end, as s!etched in Fi$ure 2C21% The de"lection is $i#en by ()uation 52C1246, 'ith the constants o" inte$ration yet to be determined% Since the plate e tends "rom P 8 to P and 'e re)uire ' 8 as , c1 and c2 must a$ain be Bero% :e ha#e assumed that no e ternal tor)ue is applied to the end P 8% From ()uation 52C326 'e can conclude that d 2 'Ud 2 P 8 at P 8% This boundary condition re)uires that c> P 8% Finally, by e)uatin$ the shear on the end P 8 to the applied line load, 'e "ind 1 +8 P D d2 5 P 86 P 2D c2 % 2 T2 ' d 2 52%1296
:ith the #alue o" c2 "rom ()uation 52C1296 and c1 P c2 P c> P 8, ()uation 52C1246 $i#es 'P +8 T2 e >D
UT
cos
52%1>86
5(-= 0ending of the Elastic Lithosphere at an 1cean %rench
223
Fi$ure 2%22 The de"lection o" the elastic lithosphere under an end load%
The ma imum amplitude o" the de"lection at '8 P +8 T2 % >D
P 8 is 52%1>16
For the same load, the de"lection amplitude o" a bro!en lithosphere is t'ice as $reat as it is "or a lithosphere 'ithout a brea!% @y substitutin$ ()uation 52C1>16 into ()uation 52C1>86, 'e can 'rite ' P '8 e
UT
cos T %
52%1>26
This pro"ile is $i#en in Fi$ure 2C22% The hal"-'idth o" the depression and the position and amplitude o" the "orebul$e are $i#en by
8
X T 2 2X P T >
2XU>
52%1>26 52%1>>6 cos 2X P 8%8438'8 % > 52%1>A6
'b P '8 e
The amplitude o" the "orebul$e "or the bro!en lithosphere model, althou$h still small compared 'ith the de"lection o" the lithosphere under the load, is considerably lar$er than the "orebul$e amplitude o" an unbro!en lithosphere supportin$ the same load% :e a$ain e#aluate the model results "or the de"lection o" the lithosphere caused by the 9a'aiian &slands% :ith b P 2A8 !m, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 52C1>>6 that T P 184 !m% This result, to$ether 'ith Qm Q' P 2288 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , ( P 38 G0a, and m P 8%2A, $i#es D P 3%24 1822 <m and h P >9 !m% The thic!ness o" a bro!en lithosphere turns out to be about A8N $reater than the thic!ness o" an unbro!en lithosphere%
Fi$ure 2%22 @endin$ o" the lithosphere at an ocean trench due to an applied #ertical load and bendin$ moment%
0roblem 2%28 5a6 1onsider a lithospheric plate under an end load% Sho' that the absolute #alue o" the bendin$ moment is a ma imum at 1 X 1 P T, 52%1>46 m P T tan > and that its #alue is ,m P 2D '8 eXU> sin X P 8%4>> D '8 % > T2 T2
52%1>36
5b6 ;e"raction studies sho' that the ,oho is depressed about 18 !m beneath the center o" the 9a'aiian &slands% -ssumin$ that this is the #alue o" '8 and that h P >9 !m, ( P 38 G0a, m P 8%2A, Qm Q' P 2288 !$ m 2 , and $ P 18 m s 2 , determine the ma imum bendin$ stress in the lithosphere% 2%13 @endin$ o" the (lastic .ithosphere at an *cean Trench -nother e ample o" the "le ure o" the oceanic elastic lithosphere is to be "ound at ocean trenches% 0rior to subduction, considerable bendin$ o" the elastic lithosphere occurs% The bent lithosphere de"ines the ocean'ard side o" the trench% To model this beha#ior, 'e 'ill consider an elastic plate acted upon by an end load +8 and a bendin$ moment ,8 , as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C22% The de"lection o" the plate is $o#erned by ()uation 52C12A6, and once a$ain the $eneral solution is $i#en by ()uation 52C1246% :e re)uire ' 8 as so that c1 P c2 P 8 and ' P e -t
UT
c2 cos
R c> sin
52%1>86
P 8, the bendin$ moment is ,8 7 "rom ()uation 52C326 'e obtain , T2 8 % 52%1>96 c> P 2D
228 2282
-lso, at "ind
P 8, the shear "orce is +8 7 "rom ()uations 52CA96 and 52C326 'e 52%1A86
T2 c2 P 5+8 T R ,8 6 % 2D The e)uation "or ' can no' be 'ritten as

2 UT % 'P T e ,8 sin R 5+8 T R ,8 6 cos T 2D T
52%1A16
()uation 52C1A16 reduces to ()uation 52C1>86 in the case ,8 P 8% <ote that the line load here is +8 7 it 'as +8 U2 in ()uation 52C1>86% The elastic de"lection o" the oceanic lithosphere in terms o" the #ertical "orce and bendin$ moment at the ocean trench a is is $i#en by ()uation 52C1A16% The #ertical "orce and bendin$ moment are the result o" the $ra#itational body "orce actin$ on the descendin$ plate% /n"ortunately, +8 and ,8 cannot be determined directly% Guantities that can be measured directly are the hei$ht o" the "orebul$e 'b and the hal"-'idth o" the "orebul$e b C 8 , as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C22% :e there"ore e press the trench pro"ile in terms o" these parameters% :e can determine 8 by settin$ ' P 8F tan Similarly, 'e can determine
b 8 T+8 T P 1 R ,8 %
52%1A26
by settin$ d'Ud P 8F
b 2,8 T P 1 T+ % 8
tan
52%1A26
b
The hei$ht o" the "orebul$e is obtained by substitutin$ this #alue o" ()uation 52C1A16F 'b P T2 e 2D
b UT
into
, sin 8
R 5,8 R +8 T6 cos 52C1A>6
From ()uations 52C1A26 and 52C1A>6 'e "ind tan

b 8
b sin T b cosT 8 cos sin T T P b 8 b cos T cos T R sinT sinT 8 tan P

T
b 8
sin b P cos Tb
T
8
tan
T
b
1 R tan8
tan
T
P1
52%1AA6
and
X T% 52%1A46 > This hal"-'idth is a direct measure o" the "le ural parameter and, there"ore, o" the "le ural ri$idity and thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere% @y usin$ ()uation 52C1A26, 'e can re'rite ()uation 52C1A16 "or the de"lection o" the lithosphere as
b
'P
T2 ,8 2D
2
UT
sin
R tan
T ,8 d5 P e 2D
5
8 6UTe 8 UT
T
8
cos
T
6
sin
cos T cos
cos T
8
sin T
T ,8 d5 P e 2D
8 6UTe
UT sin
T
8
cos
% 52%1A36
The hei$ht o" the "orebul$e is thus $i#en by T2 ,8 d5 'b P e 2D

b 8
6UTe
UT
sin cos
T
8
% 52%1A86
/pon di#idin$ ()uation 52C1A36 by ()uation 52C1A86 and eliminatin$ T usin$ ()uation 52C1A46, 'e obtain
h
' P 'b P
e p
> b e p X >
sin>
sin b
8 8
X >
X 2eXU> e p >
X sin >
b 8
52%1A96
The plot o" 'U'b #s% 5 8 6U5 b U 8 6 sho'n in Fi$ure 2C2>a de"ines a universal fle#ure profile% The pro"ile is #alid "or any t'o-dimensional elastic "le ure o" the lithosphere under end loadin$% :e can sol#e "or the bendin$ moment in terms o" 5 8 6U5 b 8 6 by substitutin$ ()uation 52C1A96 into ()uation 52C326 X5 8 6 2X 2 eXU> D 'b , P cos 8 5 b 8 62 >5 b 8 6
228 2282
e p X5 >5 b
6 % 86
52%1486
The dependence o" , 5 b 8 62 UD'b on 5 8 6U5 b 8 6 is sho'n in Fi$- ure 2C2>b% The bendin$ moment is a ma imum at 5 8 6U5 b 8 6 P 1% The shear "orce can be determined "rom ()uations 52CA96 and 52C1486 to be 2X 2 eXU> D 'b X5 86 + P cos 22 5 b 8 62 >5 b 8 6 X5 8 6 X5 8 6 R sin e p % >5 b >5 b 8 6 86 52%1416 The dimensionless shear "orce + 5
8 6 in Fi$ure 2C2>c% The shear "orce is Bero at 5 8 6U5 b 8 6 P 1% The uni#ersal "le ure pro"ile is compared 'ith an obser#ed bathymetric pro"ile across the ,ariana trench in Fi$ure 2C2A% &n ma!in$ the comparison, 'e ta!e b P AA !m and 'b P A88 m 5 8 P 86% From ()uation 52C1A46 'e "ind that T P 38 !m% :ith Qm Q' P 2288 !$ m 2 and $ P 18 m s 2 , ()uation 52C1236 $i#es D P 1%> 1822 < m% From ()uation 52C326 'ith ( P 38 G0a and m P 8%2A 'e "ind that the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere is 28 !m% This #alue is in )uite $ood a$reement 'ith the thic!ness o" the oceanic elastic lithosphere obtained by considerin$ island loads% The lar$est bendin$ stress is 988 ,0a, and it occurs 28 !m sea'ard o" the trench a is% This is a #ery lar$e de#iatoric stress, and it is doubt"ul that the near-sur"ace roc!s ha#e su""icient stren$th in tension% 9o'e#er, the yield stress o" the mantle is li!ely to approach this #alue at depth 'here the lithostatic pressure is hi$h% -lthou$h the trench bathymetric pro"ile $i#en in Fi$ure 2C2A appears to e hibit elastic "le ure, other trench pro"iles e hibit an e cessi#ely lar$e cur#ature near the point o" the predicted ma imum bendin$ moment% This is discussed in 1hapter 3, 'here 'e associate this e cess cur#ature 'ith the plastic "ailure o" the lithosphere% b
86
UD'b is plotted #s% 5
8 6U5 b
2%18 Fle ure and the Structure o" Sedimentary @asins .ithospheric "le ure is also associated 'ith the structure o" many sedimentary basins% - sedimentary basin is a re$ion 'here the earths sur"ace has been depressed and the resultin$ depression has been "illed by sediments% Typical sedimentary basins ha#e depths up to A !m, althou$h some are as
5(-@ Fle#ure and the "tructure of "edimentary 0asins 221
Fi$ure 2%2> Gniversal solution for the deflection of an elastic lithosphere under a vertical end load and $ending moment( )a* &ependence of the nondimensional displacement !U!b on the nondimensional position )# #8 *U)#b #8 *( %he profile is also sho!n at an amplification of -B to - to more clearly sho! the structure of the fore$ulge( )$* %he dimensionless $ending moment versus )# #8 *U)#b #8 *( )c* %he dimensionless vertical shear force as a function )# #8 *U)#b #8 *(
Fi$ure 2%2A Comparison of a $athymetric profile across the Mariana trench )solid line* !ith the universal lithospheric deflection profile given $y E3uation )5/-><* )dashed line*H #b P >> ,m and !b P B(> ,m(
222
5(-@ Fle#ure and the "tructure of "edimentary 0asins
222
deep as 1A !m% @ecause sedimentary basins contain reser#oirs o" petroleum, their structures ha#e been studied in detail usin$ seismic re"lection pro"ilin$ and 'ell lo$s% Some sedimentary basins are bounded by near-#ertical "aults alon$ 'hich the subsidence has occurred% *thers, ho'e#er, ha#e a smooth basement, and the subsidence is associated 'ith the "le ure o" the elastic lithosphere% The horiBontal dimensions o" these sedimentary basins, about >88 to 1888 !m, re"lect the ma$nitude o" the "le ural parameter based on sediments o" density Qs replacin$ mantle roc! o" density Qm , T P d>DU5Qm Qs 6$e1U> % Some sedimentary basins ha#e a nearly t'odimensional structure% They are caused by the loadin$ o" a linear mountain belt and are !no'n as foreland $asins% ( amples are the series o" sedimentary basins lyin$ east o" the -ndes in South -merica and the -ppalachian basin in the eastern /nited States lyin$ 'est o" the -ppalachian ,ountains% Depth contours o" the basement beneath the -ppalachian basin are $i#en in Fi$ure 2C24a% basement pro"ile is sho'n in Fi$ure 2C24b% The depth ' is the depth belo' sea le#el, and the coordinate is measured "rom the point 'here basement roc!s are e posed at the sur"ace% &t is appropriate to model the structure o" the -ppalachian basin as a t'odimensional lithospheric plate under a linear end load% Thus the uni#ersal "le ure pro"ile $i#en in ()uation 52C1A96 is directly applicable% &n order to "it the basement pro"ile $i#en in Fi$ure 2C24$ 'e ta!e b P 122 !m and 'b P 298 m 5 8 P 86% Since the "orebul$e has been destroyed by erosion this choice o" parameters is not uni)ue% They can be #aried some'hat, and a reasonable "it can still be obtained% 9o'e#er, these #alues are near the center o" the acceptable ran$e% From ()uation 52C1A46 'e "ind that they correspond to T P 1AA !m% -s 'e ha#e already noted, the "le ural ri$idity must be based on the density di""erence bet'een the mantle and the sediments Qm Qs % :ith Qm Qs P 388 !$ m 2 and $ P 18 m s 2 'e "ind D P 182> < m% From ()uation 52C326 'ith ( P 38 G0a and m P 8%2A 'e "ind that the thic!ness o" the elastic continental lithosphere is h P A> !m% This is some'hat lar$er than the #alues 'e obtained "or the thic!ness o" the elastic oceanic lithosphere% Fle ure studies o" other sedimentary basins $i#e similar #alues o" elastic thic!ness% 0roblem 2%21 -n ocean basin has a depth o" A%A !m% &" it is "illed to sea le#el 'ith sediments o" density 2488 !$ m 2 , 'hat is the ma imum depth o" the resultin$ sedimentary basinO -ssume Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 % 0roblem 2%22 The -maBon ;i#er basin in @raBil has a 'idth o" >88 !m% -ssumin$ that the basin is caused by a line load at its center and that the
22> 22>2
Collateral Reading
Fi$ure 2%24 5a6 1ontours o" basement 5in !m6 in the -ppalachian basin o" the eastern /nited States% Data are "rom 'ell lo$s and seismic re"lection studies% 5$6 The data points are the depths o" basement belo' sea le#el as a "unction o" the distance "rom the point 'here basement roc!s are e posed at the sur"ace alon$ the pro"ile $i#en by the hea#y line in 5a6% The solid line is the uni#ersal "le ure pro"ile "rom ()uation 52C1A96 'ith #b P 122 !m and !b P 298 m 5#8 P 86%
elastic lithosphere is not bro!en, determine the correspondin$ thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere% -ssume ( P 38 G0a, m P 8%2A, and Qm Qs P 388 !$ m 2 % 1ollateral ;eadin$ @ienia's!i, ]% T% 519436, ,echanism o" brittle "racture o" roc!F 0art &&% ( perimental studies, Int( J( Roc,( Mech( Min( "ci(, >, >83C>22%
Collateral Reading
22A
1ollateral ;eadin$ (rin$en, -% 1%, Mechanics of Continua 5John :iley, <e' =or!, 19436, A82 pa$es% - comprehensi#e treatment o" the mechanics o" continua at a relati#ely sophisticated le#el% The basic concepts o" strain, stress, "lo', thermodynamics, and constituti#e e)uations are introduced% -pplications are made to elasticity, "luid dynamics, thermoplasticity, and #iscoelasticity% Fun$, =% 1%, Foundations of "olid Mechanics 50rentice-9all, (n$le'ood 1li""s, <J, 194A6, A2A pa$es% - $raduate-le#el te tboo! on the mechanics o" solids% The te t is mainly concerned 'ith the classical theory o" elasticity, thermodynamics o" solids, thermoelasticity, #iscoelasticity, plasticity, and "inite de"ormation theory% The boo! be$ins 'ith an introductory chapter on elastic and #iscoelastic beha#ior% 1artesian tensors are then introduced and used in the discussions o" stress, strain, and the conser#ation la's% Sub- se)uent chapters deal 'ith linear elasticity, solutions o" elastic problems by potentials, t'o-dimensional problems, ener$y theorems, Saint- +enants principle, 9amiltons principle, 'a#e propa$ation, elasticity and thermodynamics, thermoelasticity, #iscoelasticity, and "inite strain theory% 0roblems "or the student are included% Jae$er, J% 1%, Elasticity, Fracture, and Flo!, 2rd edition 5,ethuen, .ondon, 19496, 248 pa$es% - mono$raph on the mathematical "oundations o" elasticity, plasticity, #iscosity, and rheolo$y% 1hapter 1 de#elops the analysis o" stress and strain 'ith emphasis on ,ohrs representations% 1hapter 2 discusses stressC strain relations "or elasticity, #iscosity, and plasticity, and criteria "or "racture and yield% 1hapter 2 deri#es the e)uations o" motion and e)uilibrium% 1hapters > and A deal 'ith stresses in the earths crust, roc! mechanics, and applications to structural $eolo$y% Jae$er, J% 1%, and <% G% :% 1oo!, Fundamentals of Roc, Mechanics 51hap- man and 9all, .ondon, 19346, A8A pa$es% See collateral readin$ list "or 1hapter 2% Eraus, 9%, %hin Elastic "hells 5John :iley, <e' =or!, 19436% -n e tensi#e mathematical treatment o" the de"ormation o" thin elastic shells% &t includes three chapters on the theory o" thin elastic shells, "our chapters on static analysis, t'o chapters on dynamic analysis, and t'o chapters on numerical methods% ,us!helish#ili, <% &%, "ome 0asic Pro$lems of the Mathematical %heory of Elasticity, >th edition 50% <oordho"", Gronin$en, 19426, 318 pa$es%
224 2242
Collateral Reading
This treatise on the mathematical theory o" elasticity is di#ided into se#en ma?or parts% 0art 1 deals 'ith the "undamental e)uations o" the mechanics o" an elastic body% &t includes separate chapters on analyses o" stress and strain, relation bet'een stress and strain, the e)uilibrium e)uations o" an elastic body, and the "undamental boundary #alue problems o" static elasticity% 0art 2 treats planar problems 'hose solutions are obtained 'ith the aid o" the stress "unction and its comple representation% The techni)ue o" con"ormal mappin$ is introduced% 0art 2 de#elops the Fourier series approach to the solution o" planar problems, 'hile 0arts > and A ma!e use o" 1auchy inte$rals% 0art 4 presents solutions "or special planar $eometries and 0art 3 deals 'ith the e tension, torsion and bendin$ o" bars% <o#oBhilo#, +% +%, %hin "hell %heory 50% <oordho"", Gronin$en, 194>6, 233 pa$es% - mathematical analysis o" stresses and strains in thin shells usin$ linear elasticity theory% There are "our chapters on the $eneral theory o" thin elastic shells, the membrane theory o" shells, cylindrical shells, and shells o" re#olution% Timoshen!o, S%, and J% <% Goodier, %heory of Elasticity, 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 19386, A43 pa$es% See collateral readin$ list "or 1hapter 2% Timoshen!o, S%, and D% 9% =oun$, Elements of "trength of Materials, Ath edition 5+an <ostrand, 0rinceton, <J, 19486, 233 pa$es% -n under$raduate en$ineerin$ te tboo! 'ith an e tensi#e treatment o" the bendin$ o" beams and elastic stability% 0roblems 'ith solutions are included%
> 9eat Trans"er
>%1 &ntroduction &n the pre#ious chapter 'e studied the elastic beha#ior o" the outer shell o" the (arth% *ur studies o" the bendin$ o" the lithosphere ha#e sho'n that a near-sur"ace re$ion 'ith a thic!ness o" 2A to A8 !m beha#es elastically on $eolo$ical time scales% Seismic studies ha#e sho'n that the entire mantle o" the (arth to a depth o" 288A !m is a solid because it transmits shear 'a#es% &n order to understand the presence o" a thin elastic shell, it is necessary to allo' "or #ariations in the rheolo$y o" the solid roc! as a "unction o" depth% -lthou$h the beha#ior o" the near-sur"ace roc!s is predominantly elastic, the deeper roc!s must e hibit a "luid or creep beha#ior on $eolo$ical time scales in order to rela the stresses% The "luid beha#ior o" mantle roc! also results in mantle con#ection and the associated mo#ement o" the sur"ace plates% :e !no' "rom both laboratory and theoretical studies that the rheolo$y o" solids is primarily a "unction o" temperature% There"ore, to understand the mechanical beha#ior o" the (arth, 'e must understand its thermal structure% The rheolo$y o" mantle roc!s is directly related to the temperature as a "unction o" depth% This, in turn, is dependent on the rate at 'hich heat can be lost "rom the interior to the sur"ace% There are three mechanisms "or the trans"er o" heatF conduction, convection, and radiation% 1onducti#e heat trans"er occurs throu$h a medium #ia the net e""ect o" molecular collisions% &t is a di""usi#e process 'herein molecules transmit their !inetic ener$y to other molecules by collidin$ 'ith them% 9eat is conducted throu$h a medium in 'hich there is a spatial #ariation in the temperature% 1on#ecti#e heat transport is associated 'ith the motion o" a medium% &" a hot "luid "lo's into a cold re$ion, it 'ill heat the re$ion7 similarly, i" a cold "luid "lo's into a hot re$ion, it 'ill cool it% (lectroma$netic radiation can also transport heat% -n e ample is the radiant ener$y "rom the Sun% &n the (arth, radiati#e
228 2282
heat transport is only important on a small scale and its in"luence can be absorbed into the de"inition o" the thermal conducti#ity% -s the discussion o" this chapter sho's, both conduction and con#ection are important heat transport mechanisms in the (arth% The temperature distribution in the continental crust and lithosphere is $o#erned mainly by the conducti#e heat loss to the sur"ace o" heat that is $enerated internally by the decay o" radioacti#e isotopes in the roc!s and heat that "lo's up'ard "rom the subcontinental mantle% The loss o" the (arths internal heat throu$h the oceanic crust and lithosphere is controlled lar$ely by conduction, althou$h con#ecti#e heat transport by 'ater circulatin$ throu$h the basaltic crustal roc!s is also important, especially near rid$es% &ntrusi#e i$neous bodies cool by both conduction and the con#ecti#e e""ects o" circulatin$ $round'ater% The heatin$ o" buried sediments and the ad?ustment o" subsur"ace temperatures to e""ects o" sur"ace erosion and $laciation occur #ia the process o" conduction% 1on#ection plays the dominant role in the transport o" heat "rom the (arths deep mantle and in controllin$ the temperature o" its interior% This chapter discusses mainly heat conduction and its application to $eolo$ical situations% @ecause con#ecti#e heat trans"er in#ol#es "luid motions, 'e 'ill postpone a detailed discussion o" this sub?ect to 1hapter 4, 'here 'e 'ill de#elop the "undamentals o" "luid mechanics% 9o'e#er, the conse- )uences o" con#ecti#e heat transport are incorporated into our discussion o" the (arths temperature to'ard the end o" this chapter%
9eat %ransfer
>%2 Fouriers .a' o" 9eat 1onduction The basic relation "or conducti#e heat transport is FourierAs la!, 'hich states that the heat "lu ), or the "lo' o" heat per unit area and per unit time, at a point in a medium is directly proportional to the temperature $radient at the point% &n one dimension, Fouriers la' ta!es the "orm dT ) P ! dy 5>%16
'here ! is the coe""icient o" thermal conducti#ity and y is the coordinate in the direction o" the temperature #ariation% The minus si$n appears in ()uation 5>C16 since heat "lo's in the direction o" decreasin$ temperature% :ith dT Udy [ 8, T increases in the positi#e y direction, so that heat must "lo' in the ne$ati#e y direction% Fi$ure >C1 is a simple e ample o" ho' Fouriers la' can be used to $i#e the heat "lu throu$h a slab o" material o" thic!ness l across 'hich a temperature
6(4 FourierAs La! of 9eat Conduction
229
Fi$ure >%1 9eat trans"er throu$h a slab%
Fi$ure >%2 9eat "lu and the local slope o" the temperature pro"ile 'hen %)y* has nonBero cur#ature%
di""erence _T is maintained% &n this case, the temperature $radient is dT _T P , dy l and the heat "lu , "rom Fouriers la', is )P !_T % l 5>%26 5>%26
Fouriers la' applies e#en 'hen the temperature distribution is not linear, as s!etched in Fi$ure >C2% &n this case, the local slope o" the temperature pro"ile must be used in Fouriers la', and "or constant ! the heat "lu is a "unction o" y, ) P )5y6% :e 'ill see that cur#ature in a temperature pro"ile implies either the occurrence o" sources or sin!s o" heat or time dependence%
2>8 2>82
>%2 ,easurin$ the (arths Sur"ace 9eat Flu
9eat %ransfer
The a#era$e heat "lu at the (arths sur"ace pro#ides important in"ormation on the amount o" heat bein$ produced in the (arth and the temperature distribution in its interior% &n the 1888s it 'as reco$niBed that the temperature in ca#es and mines increases 'ith depth% Typical #alues "or this increase are dT Udy P 28 to 28 E !m 1 % Since the thermal conducti#ities o" near-sur"ace roc!s are usually in the ran$e 2 to 2 : m 1 E 1 , the heat "lo' to the sur"ace o" the (arth implied by these temperature $radients is, accordin$ to ()uation 5>C16, >8 to 98 m: m 2 % &t is standard practice to ta!e the up'ard sur"ace heat "lo' to be a positi#e )uantity, e#en thou$h "rom ()uation 5>C16, 'ith y measured positi#e do'n'ard, it has a ne$ati#e #alue% -lthou$h temperature measurements in ca#es and mines $i#e appro imate #alues "or the near-sur"ace thermal $radient, accurate measurements o" the thermal $radient in continental areas re)uire deep drill holes% Deep measurements are necessary because climatic #ariations in the (arths sur"ace temperature, particularly those due to ice a$es, in"luence the temperatures in the near-sur"ace roc!s% These e""ects are considered )uantitati#ely in Section >C1>% &n order to reach the steady-state thermal structure, holes must be drilled deeper than about 288 m% The thermal $radient is measured by lo'erin$ a thermistor 5an accurate electronic thermometer6 do'n the drill hole% 1are must be e ercised to pre#ent the circulation o" drillin$ "luid durin$ drillin$ "rom a""ectin$ the measured $radient% This can be done in either o" t'o 'ays% ,easurements can be made at the bottom o" the drill hole durin$ drillin$% The drillin$ "luid does not ha#e time to chan$e the temperature at the bottom o" the hole% -lternati#ely, the temperature lo$ o" the hole 5the measurement o" the temperature as a "unction o" depth6 can be carried out some time a"ter drillin$ has ceased% &t usually ta!es 1 to 2 years "or a drill hole to e)uilibrate to the ambient $eothermal $radient% Drill holes are in#ariably "illed 'ith $round'ater% &t is the temperature o" this 'ater that is measured by the thermistor% -s lon$ as the 'ater is not "lo'in$, its temperature e)uilibrates 'ith that o" the surroundin$ roc!% 9o'e#er, many drill holes cross a)ui"ers 5under$round channels o" porous roc! in 'hich 'ater "lo's6, 'ith the result that 'ater 'ill "lo' up or do'n the drill hole i" it is not lined and 'ill a""ect the temperature distribution% From Fouriers la' it is clear that the determination o" the heat "lu re)uires a measurement o" both the temperature $radient and the thermal conducti#ity o" the roc!% The thermal conducti#ity o" roc!s can be deter-
6(5 Measuring the EarthAs "urface 9eat Flu#
2>1
Fi$ure >%2 .aboratory de#ice "or measurin$ the thermal conducti#ity o" a roc! sample%
mined in the laboratory by sub?ectin$ samples cut "rom drill holes to !no'n heat "lu es and measurin$ the temperature drops across them% Fi$ure >C2 is a schematic o" one 'ay in 'hich this can be done% The roc! sample o" thermal conducti#ity ! r is placed bet'een material C brass, "or e ample C o" thermal conducti#ity ! b % Thermocouples measure the temperatures o" the hot and cold ends o" the metal, T9 and Tc , respecti#ely, and the temperatures at the sur"aces o" the metal ad?oinin$ the roc! section, T1 and T2 % The contact bet'een the roc! and metal 5air perhaps6 in#ol#es an un!no'n thermal resistance to the "lo' o" heat% Since the same heat must be conducted throu$h the roc! and metal in steady state, Fouriers la' 5>C16 can be used to determine ! r in terms o" the measurable )uantities T9 , Tc , T1 , T2 , d, l and the conducti#ity ! b % Thermal conducti#ities o" a #ariety o" roc!s are $i#en in Section ( o" -ppendi 2% 0roblem >%1 For the situation s!etched in Fi$ure >C2 and discussed abo#e, sho' that the thermal conducti#ity o" the roc! sample can be determined "rom the e)uation T1 T2 ! d 2a! b P b R !r l l! c T9 T1 5>%>6
The thermal resistance o" the contacts are accounted "or by associatin$ a thermal conducti#ity ! c and a thic!ness a 'ith each contact% @y ma!in$
measurements on roc! samples o" di""erent thic!nesses and plottin$ 5T1 T2 6U5T9 T1 6 #s% d, one can determine ! r "rom the slope o" the resultin$ strai$ht line 'ithout !no'in$ either a or ! c % :e ?ust discussed the determination o" the sur"ace heat "lo' in the continents% The heat "lo' can also be measured on the ocean "loor% - lar$e "raction o" the sea"loor is co#ered by a layer o" so"t sediments% - needleli!e probe carryin$ a series o" thermistors is dropped "rom a ship and penetrates the sediments% Typically the probe has a len$th o" 2 m% The nearsur"ace heat "lo' in the oceanic crust is almost a constant because climatic #ariations do not chan$e the temperature o" the sea'ater in the deep oceans% This 'ater is bu""ered at a temperature bet'een 1 and 2 1, the temperature at 'hich the density o" the sea'ater is a ma imum% The #ariation is due to chan$es in salinity% &n many cases, ho'e#er, the near-sur"ace heat "lo' in the sediments is in"luenced by the hydrothermal con#ection o" sea'ater throu$h the sediments and basaltic crustal roc!s% The thermal conducti#ity o" the sediments can be determined usin$ a heater in the heat-"lo' probe% The record o" the increase in probe temperature 'ith time a"ter the heater is turned on can be interpreted to $i#e the thermal conducti#ity o" the sediments, as discussed later in this chapter% 0roblem >%2 Temperatures at the inter"aces bet'een sedimentary layers o" di""erent roc! types as determined "rom a 'ell lo$ are $i#en in Table >C1% The measured thermal conducti#ity o" each layer is also $i#en% Determine the heat "lo' throu$h each layer and the mean #alue o" the heat "lo'%
>%> The (arths Sur"ace 9eat Flo' Tens o" thousands o" heat "lo' measurements ha#e been made both in the continents and the oceans% @ecause the oceanic crust participates in the plate tectonic cycle and the continental crust does not, 'e can consider these re$ions separately% The mean heat "lo' "or all continents is 4A 1%4 m: m 2 % ;e$ions o" hi$h heat "lo' in the continents are $enerally restricted to acti#e #olcanic areas% ( amples are the lines o" #olcanoes associated 'ith ocean trenches C the -ndes, "or e ample C and re$ions o" tensional tectonics such as the 'estern /nited States% The areas o" hi$h heat "lo' associated 'ith #olcanic lines are $enerally )uite small and do not contribute si$ni"icantly to the mean heat "lo'% Similarly, areas o" tensional tectonics are )uite small on a
$lobal basis% @road re$ions o" continental tectonics, such as the collision Bone
6(6 %he EarthAs "urface 9eat Flo!
2>2
Table >%1 %emperatures 0et!een Layers of Roc, %ypes

Depth 5m6 288 >82 >12 >4A >3A A18 A1A Temp% 5 16 18%242 18%831 19%228 28%>>4 28%A88 21%221 21%A18 Sandstone Shale Sandstone Salt Sandstone Shale 2%2 1%3 A%2 4%1 2%> 1%9
;oc! Type
, 5:m--1 E--1 6
e tendin$ "rom the -lps throu$h the 9imalayas, ha#e near-normal sur"ace heat "lo's% There"ore, re$ions o" acti#e tectonics and mountain buildin$ ma!e a relati#ely small contribution to the mean continental heat "lo'% &n stable continental areas, the sur"ace heat "lo' has a stron$ correlation 'ith the sur"ace concentrations o" the radioacti#e, heat-producin$ isotopes% This correlation, 'hich is discussed in detail in Section >C8, is illustrated in Fi$ure >C11% -ppro imately one-hal" o" the sur"ace heat "lo' in the continents can be attributed to the heat production "rom the radioacti#e isotopes o" uranium, thorium, and potassium in the continental crust% Sur"ace heat "lo' systematically decreases 'ith the a$e o" the sur"ace roc!s in stable continental areas% Similarly, the concentration o" the radioacti#e isotopes in the sur"ace roc!s also decreases 'ith the a$e o" the roc!s% This decrease is attributed to the pro$ressi#e e""ects o" erosion that remo#e the near-sur"ace roc!s 'ith the lar$est concentrations o" the heat-producin$ isotopes% The conclusion is that the decrease in sur"ace heat "lo' 'ith a$e in stable continental areas can be primarily attributed to the decrease in the crustal concentrations o" the heat-producin$ isotopes% The mean measured heat "lo' "or all the oceans is 181 2%2 m: m 2 % The concentration o" the heat-producin$ isotopes in the oceanic crust is about one order o" ma$nitude less than it is in the continental crust% -lso, the oceanic crust is about a "actor o" A thinner than the continental crust% There"ore, the contribution o" heat production by the radioacti#e isotopes in the oceanic crust to the sur"ace heat "lo' is ne$li$ible 52N6% The most stri!in$ "eature o" heat "lo' measurements in the oceans is the
2>> 2>>2
systematic dependence o" the sur"ace heat "lo' on the a$e o" the sea"loor% This can be understood as a conse)uence o" the $radual coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere as it mo#es a'ay "rom the mid-ocean rid$e% This process is analyBed in detail in Section >C14, 'here it is sho'n that conducti#e coolin$ o" the initially hot oceanic mantle can e plain )uantitati#ely the obser#ed heat "lo'Ca$e relation% The dependence o" the oceanic heat "lo' measurements on a$e is $i#en in Fi$ure >C2A% The total heat "lo' "rom the interior o" the (arth G can be obtained by multiplyin$ the area o" the continents by the mean continental heat "lo' and addin$ the product o" the oceanic area and the mean oceanic heat "lo'% The continents, includin$ the continental mar$ins, ha#e an area - c P 2188 !m2 % ,ultiplyin$ this by the mean obser#ed continental heat "lo', 4A m: m 2 , 'e $et the total heat "lo' "rom the continents to be Gc P 1%28 1812 :% Similarly, ta!in$ the oceans, includin$ the mar$inal basins, to ha#e an area - o P 2%1 188 !m2 and a mean obser#ed heat "lo' o" 181 12 m: m 2 , 'e "ind that the total heat "lo' "rom the oceans is Go P 2%12 18 :% -ddin$ the heat "lo' throu$h the continents and the oceans, 'e "ind that the total sur"ace heat 8 "lo' 2is G P >%>2 1812 :% 2 Di#idin$ by the (arths sur"ace area - P A%1 18 !m , 'e $et 83 m: m "or the correspondin$ mean sur"ace heat "lo'%
9eat %ransfer
>%A 9eat Generation by the Decay o" ;adioacti#e (lements - substantial part o" the heat lost throu$h the (arths sur"ace undoubtedly ori$inates in the interior o" the (arth by the decay o" the radioacti#e elements uranium, thorium, and potassium% Some part o" the sur"ace heat loss must come "rom the o#erall coolin$ o" the (arth throu$h $eolo$ic time% -n upper limit to the concentration o" radioacti#e elements in the (arth can be deri#ed by attributin$ all the sur"ace heat loss to the radioacti#e heat $eneration% The mean heat $eneration per unit mass 9 is then $i#en by 9 P G % , 5>%A6
2> &" 'e ta!e , P A%93 18 mass o" the (arth, and G P >%>2 1812 :, 12 !$, the 'e "ind 9 P 3%>2 18 : !$ 1 % 9o'e#er, on the basis o" $eochemical studies, 'e can ar$ue that the core cannot contain a si$ni"icant "raction o" the heat-producin$ elements% &n this case, the mass in ()uation 5>CA6 should be the mass o" the mantle, , P >%8 182> !$ and 9 P 11%1 18 12 : !$ 1 % - "urther reduction must be made in the #alue o" 9 appropriate to the mantle because a substantial "raction o" the heat lost "rom the continents
6(> 9eat Generation $y the &ecay of Radioactive Elements
2>A 2>A2
ori$inates in the hi$hly concentrated radioacti#e isotopes o" the continental crust% -lthou$h the mean continental heat "lu o" 4A m: m 2 is !no'n 'ith some certainty, 'e are uncertain as to the "raction that can be attributed to the heat-producin$ elements% @ased on estimates o" the mean concentrations o" these elements in the continental crust, 'e attribute 23 m: m 2 to the heat-producin$ elements% The remainin$ 28 m: m 2 is attributed to basal heatin$ o" the continental lithosphere by mantle con#ection% This heat is then conducted throu$h the mantle portion o" the continental lithosphere to the base o" the continental crust% ;adio$enic heat production in the continental crust corresponds to a total heat "lo' o" 3%> 1812 :, or 13N o" the total sur"ace heat "lo'% ;eduction o" the mantle heat production by this amount $i#es 9 P 9%22 18 12 : !$ 1 % - "urther correction to the radio$enic heat production in the mantle must be made because o" the secular cooling o" the (arth% *nly a "raction o" the present-day sur"ace heat "lo' can be attributed to the decay o" radioacti#e isotopes presently in the mantle% @ecause the radioacti#e isotopes decay into stable isotopes, heat production due to radioacti#e decay is decreasin$ 'ith time% For e ample, 'e 'ill sho' that the heat production 2 billion years a$o 'as about t'ice as $reat as it is today% Since less heat is bein$ $enerated in the (arth throu$h time, less heat is also bein$ con#ected to the sur"ace% Thus, the #i$or o" the mantle con#ection system is decreasin$ 'ith the a$e o" the (arth% @ecause the stren$th o" con#ection is dependent on #iscosity and the #iscosity o" the mantle is a sensiti#e "unction o" its temperature, a decrease in the heat "lu 'ith time leads to a decrease in the mean mantle temperature% This coolin$ o" the (arth in turn contributes to the sur"ace heat "lo'% :e 'ill consider this problem in some detail in Section 3C8 and conclude that about 88N o" the present-day sur"ace heat "lo' can be attributed to the decay o" radioacti#e isotopes presently in the (arth and about 28N comes "rom the coolin$ o" the (arth% :e can thus reduce the present-day mantle heat production accordin$ly so that our pre"erred #alue is 9 P 3%28 18 12 : !$ 1 % ;adioacti#e heatin$ o" the mantle and crust is attributed to the decay o" the uranium isotopes 22A / and 228 /, the thorium isotope 222 Th, and the potassium isotope >8 E% The rates o" heat production and the hal"-li#es n1U2 o" these isotopes are $i#en in Table >C2% -t the present time natural uranium is composed o" 99%28N by 'ei$ht 228 / and 8%31N 22A /% <atural thorium is 188N 222 Th% <atural potassium is composed o" 8%8119N >8 E% The present rates o" heat production o" natural uranium and potassium are also $i#en in Table >C2% The ratios o" potassium to uranium and thorium to uranium are nearly
2>4 2>42
9eat %ransfer
Table >%2 Rates of 9eat Release 9 and 9alf2Lives n1U2 of the Important Radioactive Isotopes in the EarthAs Interior
&sotope
228 22A
9 5: !$--1 6
n1U2 5yr6
1oncentration C 5!$ !$--1 6 28%8 18 9 8%22 18 9 9 21%8 18 9 12> 18 24%9 18 9 21%8 1 A8
/ /
/
>8
222
Th E
9%>4 18 A >%>3 189 A%49 18 > 3%8> 188 A 9%81 18 2%4> 18 A 1%>8 1818 2%92 18 A 1%2A 189 2%>8 1 8 9
8oteD 9eat release is based on the present mean mantle concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements%
constant in a 'ide ran$e o" terrestrial roc!s% @ased on these obser#ed raE > Th E Th tios 'e ta!e 1 U1 P U1 P , and 1 / / 18 and 1 / >, 'here 1 , 1 are the present mass concentrations o" potassium, thorium, and uranium, respecti#ely% The total present-day production 98 is related to the heat $eneration rates o" the indi#idual radioacti#e elements by 98 P 1
/ 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 ER 9
1 Th 8
/ 18
Th
1 E8 R / 18
5>%46
1 Ta!in$ 98 P 3%28 18 12 : !$ / and the other as $i#en abo#e 8 parameters 1 8 and in Table >C2, 'e "ind that 1 P 2%1 18 !$ !$ or 21 ppb 5parts per billion by 'ei$ht6% These pre"erred #alues "or the mean mantle concentrations o" heat-producin$ elements are also $i#en in Table >C2% The mean heat production rate o" the mantle in the past can be related to the present heat production rate usin$ the hal"-li#es o" the radioacti#e isotopes% The concentration 1 o" a radioacti#e isotope at time t measured bac!'ard "rom the present is related to the present concentration 18 and the hal"-li"e o" the isotope n1U2 by
1 P 18 e p
t ln 2 % n1U2
o o
5>%36
Thus, the past mean mantle heat production rate is $i#en by 9 P 8%992818/ 9 /
/
228
o t ln 2 o e p /228 n1U2 o
R 8%883118 9 e p
/22A
t ln o 2 o /22A n1U2
Fi$ure >%> ,ean mantle heat production rates due to the decay o" the radioacti#e isotopes o" /, Th, and E as "unctions o" time measured bac! "rom the present%
Th 9 Th 18
t ln 2 e p Th n1U2
>
` o o
R 1%19 18
E
18E 9
>8
t ln 2 e p o E>8 o % n1U2 5>%86
The rate o" mean mantle heat production based on ()uation 5>C86 and parameter #alues in Table >C2 is plotted as a "unction o" time be"ore the present in Fi$ure >C>% The past contributions o" the indi#idual radioacti#e elements are also sho'n% :e see that the rate o" heat production 2 189 yr a$o 'as about t'ice the present #alue% Today heat is produced primarily by 228 / and 222 Th, but in the distant past 22A / and >8 E 'ere the dominant isotopes because o" their shorter hal"-li#es% The concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements in sur"ace roc!s #ary considerably% Some typical #alues are $i#en in Table >C2% The mantle #alues "rom Table >C2 are included "or re"erence% 0artial meltin$ at ocean rid$es depletes mantle roc! o" incompatible elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium% These incompatible elements are concentrated in the basaltic partial melt "raction% -s a result, the oceanic crust is enriched in these elements by about a "actor o" > relati#e to the "ertile mantle% 0eridotites that ha#e been depleted in the incompatible elements are sometimes "ound on the sur"ace o" the (arth% - typical e ample o" the small concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements in a LdepletedM peridotite is $i#en in Table >C2% 0rocesses that lead to the "ormation o" the continental crust, such as the #olcanism associated 'ith ocean trenches, "urther di""erentiate the
Table >%2 %ypical Concentrations of the 9eat2Producing Elements in "everal Roc, %ypes and the verage Concentrations in Chondritic Meteorites
;oc! Type ;e"erence undepleted 5"ertile6 mantle LDepletedM peridotites Tholeiitic basalt Granite Shale -#era$e continental crust 1hondritic meteorites / 5ppm6 8%821 8%881 8%83 >%3 2%3 1%>2 8%888 1oncentration Th 5ppm6 8%12> 8%88> 8%19 28 12 A%4 8%829 E 5N6 8%821 8%882 8%888 >%2 2%3 1%>2 8%8A4
incompatible elements% The concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements in a typical continental roc! such as a $ranite are )uite #ariable, but in $eneral they are an order o" ma$nitude $reater than in tholeiitic basalts% ;epresentati#e #alues o" concentrations in $ranite are $i#en in Table >C2% &t is $enerally accepted that the chondritic class o" meteorites is representati#e o" primiti#e mantle material% The a#era$e concentrations o" the heatproducin$ elements in chondritic meteorites are listed in Table >C2% The concentrations o" uranium and thorium are about a "actor o" > less than our mean mantle #alues, and the concentration o" potassium is about a "actor o" 2 lar$er% The "actor o" 8 di""erence in the ratio 1 E U1 / is belie#ed to repre8 8 sent a "undamental di""erence in elemental abundances bet'een the (arths mantle and chondritic meteorites%
0roblem >%2 Determine the present mean mantle concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements i" the present #alue "or the mean mantle heat pro/ > Th / duction is 3%28 1812 : !$1 and 1 E 8 U1 8 P 4 18 and 18 U1 8 P >% 0roblem >%> in Table >C2% Determine the rates o" heat production "or the roc!s listed
0roblem >%A The measured concentrations o" the heat-producin$ elements in a roc! are 1 / P 2%2 ppb, 1 Th P 11%3 ppb, and 1 E P 2%4N% Determine the rate o" heat $eneration per unit mass in the roc!%
6(? 1ne2&imensional "teady 9eat Conduction
2>9 2>92
Fi$ure >%A 9eat "lo' into 35y6 and out o" 35y R a y6 a thin slab o" thic!ness a y producin$ heat internally at the rate o" 9 per unit mass%
>%4 *ne-Dimensional Steady 9eat 1onduction 'ith +olumetric 9eat 0roduction 9eat conduction theory enables us to determine the distribution o" temperature in a re$ion $i#en in"ormation about the temperatures or heat "lu es on the boundaries o" the re$ion and the sources o" heat production in the re$ion% &n $eneral, 'e can also use the theory to determine time #ariations in the temperature distribution% :e "irst de#elop the theory "or the simple situation in 'hich heat is trans"erred in one direction only and there are no time #ariations 5steady state6 in the temperature or heat "lo'% The basic e)uation o" conducti#e heat trans"er theory is a mathematical statement o" conser#ation o" ener$y7 the e)uation can be deri#ed as "ollo's% 1onsider a slab o" in"initesimal thic!ness ay, as s!etched in Fi$ure >C A% The heat "lu out o" the slab )5y R ay6 crosses the "ace o" the slab located at y R ay, and the heat "lu into the slab )5y6 crosses the "ace located at y% The net heat "lo' out o" the slab, per unit time and per unit area o" the slabs "ace, is )5y R ay6 )5y6% Since ay is in"initesimal, 'e can e pand )5y R ay6 in a Taylor series as d) R % )5y R ay6 P )5y6 R aydy 5>%96
Thus 'e "ind d) d dT )5y R ay6 )5y6 P ay P ay ! dy dy dy 2 dT , P ay ! dy 2
5>%186
'here 'e ha#e used ()uation 5>C16 5Fouriers la'6 "or ), and 'e ha#e assumed a constant thermal conducti#ity% The ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C 186 is the net heat "lo' out o" a slab o" thic!ness ay, per unit time and per unit area% &t is nonBero only 'hen there is cur#ature in the temperature pro"ile% &" there is a nonBero net heat "lo' per unit area out o" the thin slab, as $i#en by ()uation 5>C186, this heat "lo' must be supplied, in steady state, by heat $enerated internally in the slab% &" 9 is the heat production rate per unit mass, the amount o" heat $enerated in the slab per unit time and per unit area o" the slab "ace is Q9 ay, 5>%116
'here Q is the density o" the slab% @y e)uatin$ 5>C186 and 5>C116, one obtains 8P ! d2 T R Q9% dy 2 5>%126
This e)uation can be inte$rated to determine temperature as a "unction o" position y once the re$ion o" interest and appropriate boundary conditions ha#e been speci"ied% -ssume that the medium is a hal"-space 'ith the sur"ace at y P 8 5see Fi$ure >C46% The coordinate y increases 'ith distance into the hal"-space7 thus y is a depth coordinate% *ne possible set o" boundary conditions "or ()uation 5>C126 is the speci"ication o" both temperature and heat "lu at the sur"ace% Thus 'e re)uire the temperature T to be T8 at y P 8 and the heat "lu at the sur"ace ) to be )8% The reason "or the di""erence in si$n bet'een ) and )8 is that ) is positi#e in the direction o" positi#e y, that is, do'n'ard, 'hile )8 is assumed to be positi#e up'ard 5'e anticipate application to the (arth "or 'hich the sur"ace heat "lu is indeed up'ard6% *ne inte$ration o" ()uation 5>C126 $i#es dT Q9 y P ! R c1 P ) R c1 , dy 5>%126 'here c1 is a constant o" inte$ration% Since ) P )8 on y P 8, 'e "ind c1 P ) 8 5>%1>6
6(? 1ne2&imensional "teady 9eat Conduction
2A1 2A12
Fi$ure >%4 Geometry and boundary conditions "or inte$ration o" ()uation 5>C126%
and dT Q9 y P ! R )8 % dy &nte$ration o" ()uation 5>C1A6 results in y2 P !T R )8 y R c2 , 5>%146 2 'here c2 is another constant o" inte$ration% Since T P T8 on y P 8, 'e "ind Q9 c2 P !T8 % and Q9 2 T P T8 R )8 y 5>%136 y % 2! ! 0roblem >%4 1onsider a $eolo$ical situation in 'hich the subsur"ace is layered, 'ith $edding planes ma!in$ an an$le W 'ith the horiBontal sur"ace, as sho'n in Fi$ure >C3a% Suppose that the thermal conducti#ity "or heat conduction parallel to @1 is !1 and the conducti#ity "or heat transport parallel to -@ is !2 % Thou$h the beddin$ planes are inclined to the horiBontal, isotherms are ne#ertheless horiBontal% Sho' that the up'ard sur"ace heat "lo' is $i#en by hT )8 P {!1 R 5!2 !1 6 cos2 W } % 5>%186 hy 9&<TF &ntroduce coordinates p and q as sho'n in Fi$ure >C3$% <ote that y P q cos W R p sin W 5>%196 5>%1A6
Fi$ure >%3 Geometry "or 0roblem >C4%
Fi$ure >%8 Temperature as a "unction o" depth 'ithin the (arth assumin$ heat transport is by conduction 5conduction $eotherm6% -lso included are the solidus and li)uidus o" basalt and the solidus o" peridotite 5oli#ine6%
and hT hT P cos W hq hy hT hT P sin W % hp hy 5>%286
:rite a steady-state heat balance "or the trian$le -@1 in Fi$ure >C3a% /se Fouriers la' o" heat conduction to e#aluate )p and )q % <ote )8 P )y % -ssume no heat sources%
6(=
Conduction %emperature Profile for the Mantle
2A2
>%3 - 1onduction Temperature 0ro"ile "or the ,antle :e can use ()uation 5>C136 to determine the temperature as a "unction o" depth in the (arth, that is, the geotherm, assumin$ heat is transported by conduction% The depth pro"ile o" the temperature is $i#en in Fi$ure >C8, as sumin$ T8 P 8 1, )8 P 38 m: m 2 , Q P 2288 !$ m 2 , 9 P 3%28 18 12 : 1 1 1 !$ , and ! P > : m E % -lso included in Fi$ure >C8 are the li3uidus and solidus o" basalt and the solidus o" peridotite% @asalt is the lo'-meltin$temperature "raction o" the mantle% :hen the temperature o" the mantle e ceeds the basalt solidus, this "raction starts to melt, resultin$ in #olcanism% This is the cause o" the e tensi#e basaltic #olcanism that "orms the oceanic crust% :hen the temperature reaches the basalt li)uidus, this "raction is entirely melted, lea#in$ a hi$h-meltin$-temperature residuum that is primarily composed o" the mineral oli#ine% :hen the mantle temperature reaches the oli#ine solidus, the remainder o" the mantle roc! melts% The ability o" seismic shear 'a#es to propa$ate throu$h the mantle indicates that substantial meltin$ does not occur% The conclusion is that this conduction analysis does not predict the temperature in the (arths mantle% &n an attempt to assess the "ailure o" the conducti#e mantle $eotherm to model the (arth, one may as! 'hether the near-sur"ace concentration o" radioacti#e elements in crustal roc!s can modi"y the analysis% 5The partial meltin$ processes that lead to the "ormation o" the crust concentrate the radioacti#e elements%6 The only 'ay in 'hich this could ha#e an e""ect is throu$h a reduction in the amount o" the sur"ace heat "lo' )8 attributed to mantle heat sources% Thus 'e must assess the contribution o" crustal radioacti#ity to sur"ace heat "lo'% &t is appropriate to do this "or the oceanic crust because the suboceanic mantle $eotherm dominates the temperature distribution o" the mantle% To determine the contribution )c to the sur"ace heat "lo' o" a layer o" crust o" thic!ness hc and heat production per unit mass 9c , 'e proceed as indicated in Fi$ure >C9% ()uation 5>C126 applies to this case also, 'ith Q P Qc and 9 P 9c 5subscript c re"ers to the crust6, dT Qc 9 c y P ! R c1 P ) R c1 % dy 5>%216 To e#aluate c1 , 'e note that ) P )c on y P 8 and c1 P ) c % The heat "lu in the slab satis"ies ) R )c P Qc 9c y% 5>%226
2A> 2A>2
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%9 9eat "lo' throu$h the top o" a slab containin$ internal heat sources% <o heat "lo's throu$h the bottom o" the slab%
@ut ) P 8 at y P hc because 'e ha#e assumed that no heat enters the bottom o" the slab 5the appropriate boundary condition i" 'e 'ant to determine the heat "lo'in$ out the top o" the slab due only to radioacti#e isotopes contained in it6% Thus 'e "ind )c P Qc 9c hc % 5>%226
The oceanic crust is primarily composed o" basalts% Thus 'e ta!e Qc P 2988 !$ m 2 , hc P 4 !m, and 9c P 2%4 18 11 : !$ 1 % 5The radio$enic heat production rate per unit mass o" basalts 'as calculated in 0roblem >C>%6 From ()uation 5>C226 the resultant contribution to the sur"ace heat "lo' is )c P 8%>A m: m 2 7 this is a small "raction o" the mean oceanic heat "lo', 'hich is about 188 m: m 2 % The conclusion is that heat production in the oceanic crust does not ma!e a si$ni"icant contribution to the oceanic sur"ace heat "lo'% There"ore, an alternati#e e planation must be "ound "or the "ailure o" the simple conduction pro"ile to model the suboceanic mantle $eotherm% &n later sections 'e sho' that heat "lo' due to mantle con#ection in#alidates the conduction results% >%8 1ontinental Geotherms :hereas conducti#e temperature pro"iles "ail to describe the mantle $eotherm, they success"ully model the $eotherm in the continental crust and lithosphere, 'here the dominant thermal processes are radio$enic heat production and conducti#e heat transport to the sur"ace% @ecause o" the $reat a$e
6(@ Continental Geotherms
o" the continental lithosphere, time-dependent e""ects can, in $eneral, be ne$lected% The sur"ace roc!s in continental areas ha#e considerably lar$er concentrations o" radioacti#e elements than the roc!s that ma!e up the oceanic crust% -lthou$h the sur"ace roc!s ha#e a 'ide ran$e o" heat production, a typical #alue "or a $ranite is 9c P 9%4 18 18 : !$ 1 59 "or $ranite 'as calculated in 0roblem >C>6% Ta!in$ hc P 2A !m and Qc P 2388 !$ m 2 , one 2 "inds that the heat "lo' "rom ()uation 5>C226 is )c P 91 m: m % Since this #alue is considerably lar$er than the mean sur"ace heat "lo' in continental areas 54A m: m 2 6, 'e conclude that the concentration o" the radioacti#e elements decreases 'ith depth in the continental crust% For reasons that 'e 'ill shortly discuss in some detail it is appropriate to assume that the heat production due to the radioacti#e elements decreases e ponentially 'ith depth, 9 P 9 8e
yUh
r
2AA 2AA2
5>%2>6
Thus 9 8 is the sur"ace 5y P 86 radio$enic heat production rate per unit mass, and hr is a len$th scale "or the decrease in 9 'ith depth% -t the depth y P hr , 9 is 1Ue o" its sur"ace #alue% Substitution o" ()uation 5>C2>6 into the e)uation o" ener$y conser#ation 5>C126 yields the di""erential e)uation $o#ernin$ the temperature distribution in the model o" the continental crustF 8P!
d2 T R Q98 e yUhr % 2 dy
5>%2A6
@eneath the near-sur"ace layer o" heat-producin$ elements 'e assume that the up'ard heat "lo' at $reat depth is )m 7 that is, ) )m as y % This model "or heat production in the continental crust is s!etched in Fi$ure >C18% -n inte$ration o" ()uation 5>C2A6 yields c1 P !
dT yUhr Q9 8 hr e yUhr P ) Q9 h e % 8 r dy
5>%246 The constant o" inte$ration c1 can be determined "rom the boundary condition on the heat "lu at $reat depth, that is, "rom the mantle heat "lu to the base o" the lithosphere c1 P ) m % Thus the heat "lu at any depth is ) P )m Q9 8 hr e
yUhr
5>%236
5>%286
Fi$ure >%18 ,odel o" the continental crust 'ith e ponential radio$enic heat source distribution%
The sur"ace heat "lo' )8 P )5y P 86 is obtained by settin$ y P 8 'ith the result )8 P )m R Qhr 9 8 % 5>%296
:ith an e ponential depth dependence o" radioacti#ity, the sur"ace heat "lo' is a linear "unction o" the sur"ace radioacti#e heat production rate% &n order to test the #alidity o" the linear heat "lo'Cheat production relation 5>C296, determinations o" the radio$enic heat production in sur"ace roc!s ha#e been carried out "or areas 'here sur"ace heat "lo' measurements ha#e been made% Se#eral re$ional correlations are $i#en in Fi$ure >C11% &n each case a linear correlation appears to "it the data )uite 'ell% The correspondin$ len$th scale hr is the slope o" the best-"it strai$ht line and the mantle 5reduced6 heat "lo' )m is the #ertical intercept o" the line% For the Sierra <e#ada data 'e ha#e )m P 13 m: m 2 and hr P 18 !m7 "or the eastern /nited States data 'e ha#e )m P 22 m: m 2 and hr P 3%A !m7 "or the <or'ay and S'eden data, )m P 22 m: m 2 and hr P 3%2 !m7 and "or the eastern 1anadian shield data, )m P 28%A m: m 2 and hr P 3%1 !m% &n all cases the len$th scale hr is near 18 !m% The #alues o" the mantle or reduced heat "lo' )m are reasonably consistent 'ith the mean basal heatin$ o" the continental lithosphere )m P 28 m: m 2 $i#en in Section >CA% Thus a model o" the continental crust 'ith e ponentially decreasin$ ra-
Fi$ure >%11 Dependence o" sur"ace heat "lo' 38 on the radio$enic heat production per unit #olume in sur"ace roc! Q 98 in selected $eolo$ical pro#incesF Sierra <e#ada 5solid s)uares and #ery lon$ dashed line6, eastern /%S% 5solid circles and intermediate dashed line6, <or'ay and S'eden 5open circles and solid line6, eastern 1anadian shield 5open s)uares and short dashed line6% &n each case the data are "it 'ith the linear relationship ()uation 5>C296%
dioacti#ity can e plain the linear sur"ace heat "lo'Csur"ace radioacti#ity relation% The e ercises to "ollo' sho' that the e ponential radioacti#ity distribution is not uni)ue in its ability to model the linear )8 #ersus Q98 relation7 other dependences o" 9 on depth that con"ine radioacti#ity near the sur"ace are consistent 'ith obser#ations% 9o'e#er, the e ponential distribution is the only one that preser#es the linear )8 #ersus Q98 relation under di""erential erosion, a stron$ ar$ument to support its rele#ance to the continental crust% The e ponential depth dependence is also consistent 'ith ma$matic and hydrothermal di""erentiation processes, althou$h a detailed understandin$ o" these processes in the continental crust is not a#ailable% 0roblem >%3 Table >C> $i#es a series o" sur"ace heat "lo' and heat production measurements in the Sierra <e#ada ,ountains in 1ali"ornia% Determine the reduced heat "lo' )m and the scale depth hr % 0roblem >%8 1onsider one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction in a hal"-space 'ith heat production that decreases e ponentially 'ith depth%
Table >%> "urface 9eat Flo! and 9eat Production &ata for the "ierra 8evada Mountains
38 5m: m--2 6 18 2A 2A 29 Q 98 5D: m--2 6 8%2 8%8 8%9 1%2 38 5m: m--2 6 21 2> >2 A> Q 98 5D: m--2 6 1%A 2%8 2%4 2%3
The sur"ace heat "lo'Cheat production relation is )8 P )m R Q98 hr % :hat is the heat "lo'Cheat production relation at depth y P h O .et ) and 9 be the up'ard heat "lu and heat production at y P h % 0roblem >%9 -ssume that the radioacti#e elements in the (arth are uni"ormly distributed throu$h a near-sur"ace layer% The sur"ace heat "lo' is 38 m: m 2 , and there is no heat "lo' into the base o" the layer% &" !P>: m 1 E 1 , T8 P 8 1, and the temperature at the base o" the layer is 1288 1, determine the thic!ness o" the layer and the #olumetric heat production% 0roblem >%18 1onsider one-dimensional steadystate heat conduction in a hal"-space% The heat sources are restricted to a sur"ace layer o" thic!ness $7 their concentration decreases linearly 'ith depth so that 9 P 9 8 at the sur"ace y P 8 and 9 P 8 at the depth y P b% For y [ b, 9 P 8 and there is a constant up'ard heat "lu )m % :hat is the )8 5up'ard sur"ace heat "lo'6C9 8 relationO Determine the temperature pro"ile as a "unction o" y% 0roblem >%11 The e ponential depth dependence o" heat production is pre"erred because it is sel"preser#in$ upon erosion% 9o'e#er, many alternati#e models can be prescribed% 1onsider a t'o-layer model 'ith 9 P 9 1 and ! P !1 "or 8 y h1 , and 9 P 92 and ! P !2 "or h1 y h2 % For y [ h2 , 9 P 8 and the up'ard heat "lu is )m % Determine the sur"ace heat "lo' and temperature at y P h2 "or Q1 P 2488 !$ m 2 , Q2 P 2888 !$ m 2 , !1 P !2 P 2%> : m 1 1 2 2 E , h1 P 8 !m, h2 P >8 !m, Q1 91 P 2 D: m , Q2 92 P 8%24 D: m , T8 P 8 1, and )m P 28 m: m 2 % - "urther inte$ration o" ()uation 5>C286 usin$ ()uation 5>C16 and the

Fi$ure >%12 - typical $eotherm in the continental crust%
boundary condition T P T8 at y P 8 $i#es T P T8 R )m y ! R Q9 8 h2 r yUhr 6% ! 51 e 5>%286
or, alternati#ely, usin$ ()uation 5>C296, 'e obtain T P T8 R 5)8 )m 6hr )m y 51 R ! e !

yUhr
6%
5>%216
Fi$ure >C12 is a plot o" a typical $eotherm in the continental crust computed 2 "rom ()uation 5>C216 'ith T P18 1, ) P A4%A m: m , )m P 28 8 8 m: m 2 , hr P 18 !m, and ! P 2%2A : m 1 E 1 % 0roblem >%12 -n alternati#e model "or the continental crust is to assume that in addition to the e ponentially decreasin$ near-sur"ace radioacti#ity there is also a constant concentration o" radioacti#ity 9 8 to the depth hc % Sho' that the crustal $eotherm "or this model is $i#en by T P T8 R
Q9 8 h2 Q9 c y 2 r 51 e yUhr 6 ! 2! 5)m R Q9c hc y "or 8 y hc , R 6 !
5>%226
T P T8 R
)m y Q9 c h2 Q9 8 h2 c r R R ! 2! !
"or y h c % 5>%226
>>>
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%12 9eat "lo' into and out o" a thin spherical shell 'ith internal heat $eneration%
>%9 ;adial 9eat 1onduction in a Sphere or Spherical Shell :e ne t consider the steady radial conduction o" heat in a sphere or spherical shell 'ith #olumetric heat production% The temperature distributions in thic! planetary lithospheres, such as the lithospheres o" the ,oon and ,ars, are properly described by solutions o" the heat conduction e)uation in spherical $eometry% The e""ects o" spherical $eometry are not so important "or the (arths lithosphere, 'hich is )uite thin compared 'ith the (arths radius% 9o'e#er, on a small body li!e the ,oon, the lithosphere may be a substantial "raction o" the planets radius% To describe heat conduction in spherical $eometry, 'e must deri#e an ener$y balance e)uation% 1onsider a spherical shell o" thic!ness ar and inner radius r, as s!etched in Fi$ure >C12% -ssume that the conducti#e transport o" heat occurs in a spherically symmetric manner% The total heat "lo' out o" the shell throu$h its outer sur"ace is >X5r R ar62 )r 5r R ar6, and the total heat "lo' into the shell at its inner sur"ace is >Xr 2 )r 5r6% The subscript r on the heat "lu ) indicates that the "lo' o" heat is radial% Since ar is in"initesimal, 'e can e pand )r 5r R ar6 in a Taylor series as ) 5r R ar6 P ) 5r6 R ar 5>%2>6 r
r
d)r dr
R%
Thus ne$lectin$ po'ers o" ar, the net heat "lo' out o" the spherical shell is
6(< Radial 9eat Conduction in a "phere or "pherical "hell
241
$i#en by >Xd5r R ar62 )r 5r R ar6 r 2 )r 5r6e 2 d)r P >Xr 2 )r R a r% r dr
5>%2A6
&" the net heat "lo' "rom the shell is nonBero, then, by conser#ation o" ener$y, this "lo' o" heat must be supplied by heat $enerated internally in the shell 5in steady state6% :ith the rate o" heat production per unit mass 9 , the total rate at 'hich heat is produced in the spherical shell is >Xr 2 Q9 ar, >Xr 2 ar bein$ the appro imate e pression "or the #olume o" the shell% @y e)uatin$ the rate o" heat production to the net heat "lo' out o" the spherical shell, ()uation 5>C2A6, 'e $et d)r R 2)r P Q9%
5>%246 dr r The heat balance ()uation 5>C246 can be con#erted into an e)uation "or the temperature by relatin$ the radial heat "lu )r to the radial temperature $radient dT Udr% Fouriers la' still applies in spherical $eometry, dT )r P ! % dr /pon substitutin$ ()uation 5>C236 into ()uation 5>C246, 'e "ind 8P! or 8P! 1 d 2 dT R Q9% r r 2 dr dr 5>%296 d2 T 2 dT R dr 2 r dr R Q9 5>%286 5>%236
@y t'ice inte$ratin$ ()uation 5>C296, one obtains a $eneral e pression "or the temperature in a sphere or spherical shell 'ith internal heat production and in steady stateF Q9 2 c1 TP r R R c2 % 5>%>86 4! r The constants o" inte$ration c1 and c2 depend on the boundary conditions o" a particular problem% -s an e ample, 'e determine the temperature distribution in a sphere o" radius a that has a uni"orm internal rate o" heat production% The boundary condition is that the outer sur"ace o" the sphere has a temperature T8 % &n order to ha#e a "inite temperature at the center
444
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%1> Steady-state temperature distribution in a sphere containin$ internal heat sources%
o" the sphere, 'e must set c1 P 8% To satis"y the temperature boundary condition at the sur"ace o" the sphere, 'e re)uire Q9 a2 % 4! The temperature in the sphere is there"ore $i#en by c2 P T8 R T P T8 R Q9 2 5a r2 6% 4! 5>%>16
5>%>26
From ()uation 5>C236, the sur"ace heat "lu )8 at r P a is $i#en by )8 P 1 Q9 a% 2 5>%>26
()uation 5>C>26 is a statement o" conser#ation o" ener$y that applies no matter 'hat the mode o" internal heat trans"er in the sphere is% The temperature distribution in the sphere is sho'n in Fi$ure >C1>% 0roblem >%12 Deri#e the e)uation )8 P Q9 aU2 "or a sphere 'ith uni"orm #olumetric heatin$ and density by ma!in$ a simple o#erall steady-state heat balance% 0roblem >%1> :hat 'ould the central temperature o" the (arth be i" it 'ere modeled by a sphere 'ith uni"orm #olumetric heatin$O Ta!e )8 P 38 m: m 2 , ! P > : m 1 E 1 , and T8 P 288 E% 0roblem >%1A Deri#e an e pression "or the temperature at the center o" a planet o" radius a 'ith uni"orm density Q and internal heat $eneration 9 %
6(-B %emperatures in the Moon
242
9eat trans"er in the planet is by conduction only in the lithosphere, 'hich e tends "rom r P b to r P a% For 8 r b heat trans"er is by con#ection, 'hich maintains the temperature $radient dT Udr constant at the adiabatic r% The sur"ace temperature is T8 % To sol#e "or T 5r6, you need #alue to assume that T and the heat "lu are continuous at r P b% 0roblem >%14 &t is assumed that a constant density planetary body o" radius a has a core o" radius b% There is uni"orm heat production in the core but no heat production outside the core% Determine the temperature at the center o" the body in terms o" a, b, !, T8 5the sur"ace temperature6, and )8 5the sur"ace heat "lo'6% >%18 Temperatures in the ,oon The ,oon is a relati#ely small planetary body so it is a $ood appro imation to assume that its density is constant% &" 'e also assume that the ,oon is in a steady-state thermal balance and that the mean heat production is the same as the #alue 'e deri#ed "or the (arths mantle, that is, 9 P 3%28 18 12 : !$ 1 , 'e can determine the sur"ace heat "lo' on the ,oon usin$ ()uation 5>C >26% :ith Q P 2288 !$ m 2 and a P 1328 !m 'e "ind that )8 P 1>%1 m: 2 m % The mean o" t'o lunar heat "lo' measurements on -pollos 1A and 13 is )s P 18 m: m 2 % This appro imate a$reement su$$ests that the mean lunar abundances o" the radioacti#e isotopes are near those o" the (arth% The di""erence may be partially attributable to the coolin$ o" the ,oon% -ssumin$ that the conduction solution is applicable and that the ,oon has a uni"orm distribution o" radioacti#ity, the ma imum temperature at the center o" the ,oon can be obtained "rom ()uation 5>C>26 'ith the result Tma P 298> E, assumin$ ! P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 and that the sur"ace temperature is T8 P 2A8 E% This conduction solution indicates that a substantial "raction o" the interior o" the ,oon is totally melted% 9o'e#er, the limited seismic results "rom the -pollo missions su$$est that a siBable li)uid core in the ,oon is unli!ely% Thus, either the conducti#e solution is not #alid or the radioacti#e isotopes are not distributed uni"ormly throu$hout the ,oon% There should be some up'ard concentration o" radioacti#e isotopes in the relati#ely thic! lunar hi$hland crust 548 !m6 by analo$y 'ith the up'ard concentration o" radioacti#e isotopes in the (arths continental crust% 0roblem >%13 Determine the steady-state conduction temperature pro"ile "or a spherical model o" the ,oon in 'hich all the radioacti#ity is con"ined to an outer shell 'hose radii are b and a 5a is the lunar radius6% &n the outer shell 9 is uni"orm%
888
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%1A 9eat "lo' into and out o" a rectan$ular element%
>%11 Steady T'o- and Three-Dimensional 9eat 1onduction *b#iously, not all heat conduction problems o" $eolo$ic interest can be sol#ed by assumin$ that heat is transported in one direction only% &n this section, 'e $eneraliBe the heat conduction e)uation to account "or heat trans"er in t'o dimensions% The "urther $eneraliBation to three dimensions 'ill be ob#ious and stated 'ithout proo"% The "irst step is to 'rite an appropriate ener$y conser#ation e)uation% &" heat can be conducted in both the and y directions, 'e must consider the heat balance on a small rectan$ular element 'ith dimensions a and ay, as illustrated in Fi$ure >C 1A% The heat "lu in the direction is ) , and in the y direction it is )y % The rate at 'hich heat "lo's into the element in the y direction is )y 5y6a l, 'here l is an arbitrary len$th in the third direction 5in t'odimensional heat conduction 'e assume that nothin$ #aries in the third dimension6% Similarly, heat "lo's into the element in the direction at the rate ) 5 6ayl% The heat "lo' rates out o" the element are )y 5y R ay6a l and ) 5 R a 6ayl% The net heat "lo' rate out o" the element is {) 5 R a 6 ) 5 6}ayl R {)y 5y R ay6 )y 5y6}a l P h) h )y h a ayl R hy a ayl P h )y h) R a ayl% h hy 5>%>>6 Taylor series e pansions ha#e been used "or ) 5 R a 6 and )y 5y R ay6 to simpli"y the e pression in ()uation 5>C>>6% 0artial deri#ati#e symbols ap-
6(-- "teady %!o2 and %hree2&imensional 9eat Conduction
24A
pear in ()uation 5>C>>6 because ) can depend on both and y7 similarly )y can be a "unction o" both and y% &n steady state, a nonBero #alue o" the ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C>>6 re)uires that heat be produced internally in the rectan$ular element% The rate o" heat $eneration in the element is Q9 5a ayl67 e)uatin$ this to the ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C>>6 yields h) h )y R P Q9% h hy 5>%>A6
1learly, i" 'e had heat conduction in three dimensions, ()uation 5>C>A6 'ould be replaced by h) h )B h R h )y hy R hB P Q9% 5>%>46
Fouriers la' o" heat conduction relates the heat "lo' in any direction to the temperature $radient in that direction% &" 'e assume that the thermal conducti#ity o" the roc! is isotropic, that is, the roc! conducts heat e)ually readily in any direction, Fouriers la' can be 'ritten hT ) P! h hT )y P ! % hy 5>%>36 5>%>86
/pon substitution o" ()uations 5>C>36 and 5>C>86 into ()uation 5>C>A6, 'e obtain 2 2 ! h T R h T P Q9% 5>%>96 2 h hy 2 GeneraliBin$ this to three-dimensional heat conduction $i#es
2 2 2 ! h T R h T R h T 2 2 h hy hB 2
P Q9%
5>%A86
&" there are no internal heat sources, the temperature satis"ies h2 T h2 T R P 8% 2 h hy 2 ()uation 5>CA16 is !no'n as LaplaceAs e3uation% &n three dimensions, .aplaces e)uation is h2 T h 2T h2 T R R P 8% h 2 hy 2 hB 2 5>%A16
5>%A26
.aplaces e)uation is encountered in many other "ields, includin$ "luid "lo', di""usion, and ma$netostatics%
181 818
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%14 Temperature in a hal"-space 'hose sur"ace temperature #aries periodically 'ith distance%
0roblem >%18 &" the medium conductin$ heat is anisotropic, separate thermal conducti#ities must be used "or heat trans"er in the and y directions, ! and !y , respecti#ely% :hat e)uation replaces ()uation 5>C>96 "or determinin$ the temperature distribution in such a mediumO
>%12 Subsur"ace Temperature Due to 0eriodic Sur"ace Temperature and Topo$raphy -s an e ample o" a t'o-dimensional heat conduction problem, 'e sol#e "or the temperatures beneath the sur"ace in a re$ion 'here there are lateral #ariations in sur"ace temperature% Such sur"ace temperature #ariations can arise as a result o" topo$raphic undulations and the altitude dependence o" temperature in the (arths atmosphere% 9oriBontal sur"ace temperature #ariations also occur at the boundaries bet'een land and bodies o" 'ater, such as la!es or seas% - !no'led$e o" ho' sur"ace temperature #ariations a""ect subsur"ace temperature is important "or the correct interpretation o" borehole temperature measurements in terms o" sur"ace heat "lo'% 1onsider a$ain a semi-in"inite hal"-space in the re$ion y 8% The sur"ace is de"ined by the plane y P 8% For simplicity, 'e assume that the sur"ace temperature Ts is a periodic "unction o" 5horiBontal distance6 $i#en by Ts P T8 R _T cos 2X , l 5>%A26
'here l is the 'a#elen$th o" the spatial temperature #ariation% The situation is s!etched in Fi$ure >C14% :e also assume that there are no radio$enic heat sources in the hal"-space, since our interest here is in the nature o" the subsur"ace temperature #ariations caused by the periodic sur"ace temperature% To determine the temperature distribution, 'e must sol#e ()uation 5>CA16 'ith the boundary condition $i#en by ()uation 5>CA26% :e assume that the method o" separation o" #ariables is appropriate7 that
6(-4 "u$surface %emperature
243
Fi$ure >%13 -n undulatin$ sur"ace topo$raphy results in sur"ace temperature #ariations that e tend do'n'ard%
is, T 5 , y6 P T8 R S 5 6= 5y6% &n order to satis"y the sur"ace boundary condition, 'e must ha#e 2X 7 5>%AA6 l that is, the horiBontal #ariations in temperature are the same at all depths% :hen ()uations 5>CA>6 and 5>CAA6 are substituted into ()uation 5>C A16, 'e obtain >X 2 d2 = 8P 2 = R , 5>%A46 l dy 2 S 5 6 P cos 'hich is an ordinary di""erential e)uation "or = % The $eneral solution o" this e)uation is = 5y6 P c1 e
2XyUl
5>%A>6
R c2 e2XyUl ,
5>%A36
'here c1 and c2 are the constants o" inte$ration% Since the temperature must be "inite as y , 'e must re)uire that c2 P 8% To satis"y the boundary condition $i#en in ()uation 5>CA26, it is necessary that c1 P _T % The solution "or the temperature distribution in the hal"-space is 2X 2XyUl T 5 , y6 P T8 R _T e % 5>%A86 l cos The temperature disturbance introduced by the sur"ace temperature #ariation decays e ponentially 'ith depth in a distance proportional to the horiBontal 'a#elen$th o" the sur"ace temperature #ariation% The ener$y e)uation is linear in the temperature% There"ore, solutions to the e)uation can be added, and the result is still a solution o" the ener$y e)uation% This is !no'n as the principle of superposition% &" the temperature in the continental crust is $i#en by ()uation 5>C286 but the sur"ace temperature has a periodic #ariation $i#en by ()uation 5>CA26, the temperature
121 212
distribution in the crust is obtained by addin$ ()uations 5>C286 and 5>CA86F )m y Q9 8 h2 r R 51 eyUhr 6 ! ! 2X 2XyUl R _T cos e % 5>%A96 l This result satis"ies the applicable ener$y e)uation 5>C>96 and the re)uired sur"ace boundary condition 5>CA26% The analysis in this section can also be used to determine the e""ect o" small amplitude, periodic topo$raphy on the near-sur"ace temperature distribution% This problem is illustrated in Fi$ure >C13% The topo$raphy is $i#en by the relation 2X h P h 8 cos 5>%486 l :e assume that the atmosphere has a #ertical temperature $radient c so that the sur"ace temperature Ts is $i#en by T P T8 R Ts P T8 R cy
9eat %ransfer
y P h%
5>%416
- typical #alue "or c is 4%A E !m 1 % To apply these results, 'e must pro?ect the sur"ace temperature #alues that are !no'n on y P h onto y P 8% This is because the temperature $i#en by ()uation 5>CA96 is 'ritten in terms o" _T , the amplitude o" the periodic temperature #ariation on y P 87 see ()uation 5>CA26% @ecause the topo$raphy is shallo', this can be accomplished 'ith ?ust the "irst term o" a Taylor series e pansionF T 5y P 86 P T 5y P h6 hT hy h%
yP8
5>%426
The temperature on y P h is $i#en by ()uation 5>C416, and the temperature $radient 5hT Uhy6yP8 is $i#en to su""icient accuracy by the #alue o" the $radient in the absence o" topo$raphy because h is small% From ()uation 5>C296 'e can 'rite )8 )m R Qhr hT % 5>%426 P P 98 hy yP8 ! ! The result o" substitutin$ ()uations 5>C416 and 5>C426 into ()uation 5>C426 is T 5y P 86 P T8 R ch P T8 R c 5)m R Qhr 9 8 6 ! h )m R Qhr 9 8 ! h 8 cos
2X l %
6(-5 1ne2&imensional, %ime2&ependent 9eat Conduction
249
5>%4>6 1omparison o" ()uation 5>CA26 and 5>C4>6 sho's that ) Q9 8 hr _T P c m h8 % ! ! Finally, substitution o" ()uation 5>C4A6 into ()uation 5>CA96 $i#es T P T8 R )m y Q9 8 h2 r yUhr 6 R ! ! 51 e Q9 8 hr 2X 2XyUl )m R c h 8 cos e , ! ! l 5>%446 "or the temperature distribution in the continental crust 'ith periodic topo$raphy% 0roblem >%19 &" a spatially periodic sur"ace temperature #ariation has a 'a#elen$th o" 1 !m, at 'hat depth is the horiBontal #ariation 1N o" that at the sur"aceO 0roblem >%28 - mountain ran$e can be represented as a periodic topo$raphy 'ith a 'a#elen$th o" 188 !m and an amplitude o" 1%2 !m% 9eat "lo' in a #alley is measured to be >4 m: m 2 % &" the atmospheric $radient is 4%A E !m 1 and ! P 2%A :m 1 E 1 , determine 'hat the heat "lo' 'ould ha#e been 'ithout topo$raphy7 that is, ma!e a topo$raphic correction% >%12 *ne-Dimensional, Time-Dependent 9eat 1onduction ,any o" the important $eolo$ical problems in#ol#in$ heat conduction are time dependent% ( amples that 'e consider later are the coolin$ o" intrusi#e i$neous bodies, the coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere, erosion or sedimentation e""ects on temperature, and others% +olumetric heat production usually plays a minor role in these phenomena, and 'e accordin$ly assume 9 P 8% &n addition, it is ade)uate to consider heat conduction in one direction only% &" there are not heat sources in the medium, a net heat "lo' out o" the slab illustrated in Fi$ure >CA must reduce its temperature% The speci"ic heat c o" the medium is the ener$y re)uired to raise the temperature o" a unit mass o" material by one de$ree% Thus, an element o" the slab o" thic!ness ay and unit cross-sectional area re)uires an ener$y "lo' per unit time $i#en by Qc hT ay ht 5>%4A6
1>1 >1>
to maintain a temperature chan$e at the rate hT Uht5Qay is the slab mass per unit cross-sectional area and Qcay is the slabs heat capacity per unit cross-sectional area6% Thus 'e can e)uate the ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C186 'ith ay QchT Uht, since a net heat "lo' out o" the slab leads to a decrease in slab temperature 2 hT Qc P ! h T% 5>%436 ht hy 2 ()uation 5>C436 is the basic e)uation $o#ernin$ the time and spatial #ariations o" the temperature 'hen heat is trans"erred in one dimension by conduction% 0artial deri#ati#es are re)uired because T is a "unction o" both time and space% :e can re'rite ()uation 5>C436 in the "orm hT h2 T P s 2, ht hy 'here s, the thermal di""usi#ity, is sP ! % Qc 5>%496 5>%486
9eat %ransfer
<ote that s has units o" len$th2 Utime such as s)uare meters per second% &" temperature chan$es occur 'ith a characteristic time inter#al n , they 'ill propa$ate a distance on the order o" sn % Similarly, a time l2 Us is re)uired "or temperature chan$es to propa$ate a distance l% Such simple considerations can be used to obtain use"ul estimates o" thermal e""ects% :e no' proceed to sol#e ()uation 5>C486 "or a number o" situations o" $eolo$ical and $eophysical interest% 0roblem >%21 Deri#e the time-dependent heat conduction e)uation "or a situation in 'hich heat transport occurs radially to'ard or a'ay "rom a line o" in"inite len$th% The heat "lu ) and the temperature T depend only on the perpendicular distance "rom the line r and time t 5see Fi$ure >C18a6% 9&<TF :rite an ener$y balance "or a cylindrical shell o" len$th l, inner radius r, and outer radius r R ar% The heat "lo's occur o#er the entire lateral sur"aces o" the cylindrical shell, as s!etched in Fi$ure >C 18$% Fouriers la' o" heat conduction in the "orm ) P ! 5hT Uhr6 applies% The ans'er is hT s h P r hT % ht r hr hr 5>%386
0roblem >%22 Deri#e the time-dependent heat conduction e)uation appropriate to the situation in 'hich heat transport is al'ays radially to'ard or a'ay "rom a point% ()uation 5>C2A6 $i#es the net heat "lo' out o" a thin
Fi$ure >%18 Geometry "or the deri#ation o" the time-dependent heat conduction e)uation in cylindrical coordinates%
spherical shell% This must be e)uated to the time rate o" chan$e o" temperature o" the shell times the heat capacity o" the shell% Fouriers la' in the "orm o" ()uation 5>C236 applies% The ans'er is hT s h2 P 5rT 6% 5>%316 ht r hr2 /sin$ the relation n P l2 Us and ta!in$ s P 1 mm2
0roblem >%22
s 1 , determine the characteristic times "or the conducti#e coolin$ o" the (arth, ,oon, ,ars, +enus, and ,ercury% :hat are the implications o" these esti- matesO 0roblem >%2> &" the mean sur"ace heat "lo' on the (arth 5)f8 P 83 m: m 2 6 'ere attributed entirely to the coolin$ o" the (arth, 'hat 'ould be the mean rate o" coolin$O 5Ta!e cf P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 %6 0roblem >%2A &" the mean sur"ace heat "lo' on the ,oon 5)f8 P 18 m: m 26 'ere attributed entirely to the coolin$ o" the ,oon, 'hat 'ould be the mean rate o" coolin$ 5Ta!e cf P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 ) 8 6% >%1> 0eriodic 9eatin$ o" a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-SpaceF Diurnal and Seasonal 1han$es in Subsur"ace Temperature The sur"ace temperature o" the (arth re$ularly chan$es 'ith time because o" dayCni$ht #ariations and the chan$es o" season% *n a lon$er time scale, it chan$es because o" the )uasi-periodic nature o" $laciations, "or e ample% &n this section 'e use the one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction e)uation to determine ho' these time-periodic sur"ace temperature chan$es a""ect temperatures belo' the sur"ace%
-$ain consider a semi-in"inite hal"-space in the re$ion y 8 'hose sur"ace is de"ined by the plane y P 8% :e assume that the sur"ace temperature is a periodic "unction o" time Ts P T8 R _T cos ^t% 5>%326 The circular "re)uency ^ is related to the "re)uency " by ^ P 2X"% &n addition, the period o" the temperature "luctuations n is n P 1 2X P % " ^ 5>%3>6 5>%326
&" this represents the #ariation o" the sur"ace temperature, then n P 1 daily day, " P 1%1A3 18 A s 1 , and ^ P 3%232 18 A rad s 1 % :e also assume that T T8 as y 7 that is, #ery "ar beneath the sur"ace, the temperature is the a#era$e sur"ace temperature% To sol#e ()uation 5>C486 'ith this sur"ace boundary condition, 'e use the method o" separation o" #ariablesF T 5y, t6 P T8 R = 5y6T
5t6%
5>%3A6 @ecause the sur"ace temperature is time-periodic, 'e can assume that the subsur"ace temperature also #aries periodically 'ith time at the same "re )uency% 9o'e#er, it is not correct to assume that T 5t6 is simply cos ^t, as that 'ould imply that the subsur"ace temperatures are in e act time phase 'ith the sur"ace temperature% &n other 'ords, i" T 5t6 'ere cos ^t, the ma imum and minimum temperatures 'ould be reached at the same times, independent o" depth% &n "act, 'e 'ill see that the temperature chan$es at di""erent depths are not in phase7 the ma imum temperature at any depth la$s behind the ma imum temperature at the sur"ace, "or e ample, because o" the "inite amount o" time re)uired "or the temperature ma imum to di""use do'n'ard% The di""erence in phase bet'een temperature #ariations at the sur"ace and those at depth can be accounted "or by usin$ both cos ^t and sin ^t dependences "or T 5t6% :e $eneraliBe ()uation 5>C3A6 to T 5y, t6 P T8 R =1 5y6 cos ^t R =2 5y6 sin ^t% 5>%346 @y substitutin$ ()uation 5>C346 into ()uation 5>C486, 'e "ind
2 ^= P sd =2 1 dy 2
^=2 P s
d2 =1 % dy 2
5>%336
These are t'o coupled ordinary di""erential e)uations "or the un!no'ns =1
and =2 % :e can sol#e the "irst o" these e)uations "or =1 and substitute into the second e)uation to obtain d> =2 ^2 R 2 =2 P 8% dy > s 5>%386
-lternati#ely, 'e could ha#e sol#ed the second o" ()uations 5>C336 "or =2 and substituted into the "irst e)uation% 9ad 'e done so, 'e 'ould ha#e "ound that =1 satis"ies the same "ourth-order ordinary di""erential e)uation as does =2 % - standard techni)ue "or sol#in$ ordinary di""erential e)uations 'ith constant coe""icients, o" 'hich ()uation 5>C386 is an e ample, is to assume a solution o" the "orm =2 P ceTy % &" ()uation 5>C396 is to satis"y ()uation 5>C386, then T> R or 1 rZ i ^ TP , s 2 5>%816 ^2 s2 P8 5>%886 5>%396
'here i is the s)uare root o" 1% @ecause "our #alues o" T satis"y ()uation 5>C 886, the $eneral solution "or =2 5or =1 6 must be 'ritten = 2 P c1 e p R c2 e R c2 e R c> e 51 R i6 ^ y s 2 r 51 Z i6 ^ p y s 2 51 R i6 r ^ p y s 2 51 i6 r ^ p y % s 2
r
5>%826
@ecause the temperature "luctuations must decay 'ith depth, the constants c1 and c2 are Bero, and =2 ta!es the "orm
r
=2 P e p y
^ 2s
c2 e p ^ 2s %
iy
^ 2s 5>%826
R c> e p iy
&t is con#enient to re'rite the solution "or =2 as =2 P e p y

r
^ 2s
b1 cos
^ y R b2 sin 2s
2s
^ y , 5>%8>6
'here b1 and b2 are constants that can be related to c2 and c> , althou$h it is unnecessary to do so% The transition "rom ()uation 5>C826 to ()uation 5>C 8>6 is possible because the tri$onometric "unctions sin and cos can i i be 'ritten in terms o" the e ponentials e and e , and #ice #ersa% The un!no'n "unction =1 has a similar "orm =1 P e p y
r
^ 2s
b2 cos
^ y R b> sin 2s
2s
^ y % 5>%8A6
The remainin$ constants o" inte$ration can be determined as "ollo's% &" =1 and =2 are to satis"y ()uations 5>C336, then b2 P b2 and b1 P 8 and b1 P b> % b2 P _T % 5>%846 5>%836 -lso, the sur"ace temperature must be o" the "orm 5>C326, 'hich re)uires
Thus, the temperature #ariation in the hal"-space due to a time-periodic sur"ace temperature is T P T8 R _T e p y
r r
^ 2s
cos ^t cos y
^ 2s
r
R sin ^t sin y ^ 2s
^ , 2s
r
5>%886 ^ % 2s 5>%896
T P T8 R _T e p y
cos ^t y
()uation 5>C896 sho's that the amplitude o" the time-dependent temperature "luctuation decreases e ponentially 'ith depth% This "luctuation decreases to 1Ue o" its sur"ace #alue in a s!in depth d^ $i#en by d^ P 2s ^
1U2
5>%986
For the daily #ariation o" temperature, the "re)uency is ^ P 3%23 18 A rad s 1 % :ith s P 1 mm2 s 1 , the s!in depth "or diurnal temperature
chan$es "rom ()uation 5>C986 is 8%13 m% ( cept "or a "actor o" X 1U2 , the s!in depth "or the penetration o" the sur"ace temperature #ariation is ?ust 'hat one 'ould ha#e estimated on the basis o" dimensional ar$uments, that is, sn 5n P period6% @ecause s!in depth is in#ersely proportional to the s)uare root o" "re)uency, it is clear that the more rapid the "luctuation in temperature, the less it penetrates beneath the sur"ace% The ar$ument o" the tri$onometric "actor in ()uation 5>C896 sho's that the phase di""erence Y bet'een temperature "luctuations at the sur"ace and those at depth y is r ^ YPy % 5>%916 2s &" the depth y is the s!in depth, the "luctuations are out o" phase by 1 radian 5A3%2 6% Fi$ure >C19 illustrates ho' the amplitudes o" the temperature #ariations decay 'ith depth and ho' the phases o" the "luctuations shi"t 'ith depth% 0roblem >%24 -ssume that the yearly temperature #ariation is periodic% :hat is the s!in depthO -t 'hat depth is the temperature 188 out o" phase 2 1 'ith the sur"ace #ariationO -ssume s P 1 mm s % 0roblem >%23 -ssume that the temperature e""ects o" $laciations can be represented by a periodic sur"ace temperature 'ith a period o" 18> yr% &" it is desired to drill a hole to a depth that the temperature e""ect o" the $laciations is AN o" the sur"ace #alue, ho' deep must the hole be drilledO -ssume s P 1 mm2 s 1 % 0roblem >%28 (stimate the depth to 'hich "rost penetrates in the $round at a latitude 'here the annual sur"ace temperatures #ary bet'een A and 2A 1% -ssume that the 'ater content o" the $round is su""iciently small so that the latent heat can be i$nored on "reeBin$ and tha'in$% -ssume s "or the soil is 8%8 mm2 s 1 % 0roblem >%29 (stimate the e""ects o" #ariations in bottom 'ater temperature on measurements o" oceanic heat "lo' by usin$ the model o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space sub?ected to periodic sur"ace temperature "luctuations% Such 'ater temperature #ariations at a speci"ic location on the ocean "loor can be due to, "or e ample, the transport o" 'ater 'ith #ariable temperature past the site by deep ocean currents% Find the amplitude o" 'ater temperature #ariations that cause sur"ace heat "lu #ariations o" >8 m: m 2 abo#e and belo' the mean on a time scale o" 1 day% -ssume that the ther mal conducti#ity o" sediments is 8%8 : m 1 E 1 and the sediment thermal 2 1 di""usi#ity is 8%2 mm s %
Fi$ure >%19 0hase shi"t and amplitude decay 'ith depth o" a time-periodic sur"ace temperature #ariation%
0roblem >%28 1onsider a semi-in"inite hal"-space 5y 86 'hose sur"ace temperature is $i#en by ()uation 5>C326% -t 'hat #alues o" ^t is the sur"ace heat "lo' BeroO >%1A &nstantaneous 9eatin$ or 1oolin$ o" a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-Space - number o" important $eolo$ical problems can be modeled by the instantaneous heatin$ or coolin$ o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space% &n the middle o" the nineteenth century .ord Eel#in used this solution to estimate the a$e o" the (arth% 9e assumed that the sur"ace heat "lo' resulted "rom the coolin$ o" an initially hot (arth and concluded that the a$e o" the (arth 'as about 4A million years% :e no' !no' that this estimate 'as in error "or t'o reasons C the presence o" radioacti#e isotopes in the mantle and solid-state thermal con#ection in the mantle%
6(-> Instantaneous 9eating or Cooling of a "emi2Infinite 9alf2 "pace
212 121
Fi$ure >%28 9eatin$ o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space by a sudden increase in sur"ace temperature%
&n many cases ma$ma "lo's throu$h pree istin$ ?oints or crac!s% :hen the "lo' commences, the 'all roc! is sub?ected to a sudden increase in temperature% 9eat "lo's "rom the hot ma$ma into the cold country roc!, thus increasin$ its temperature% The temperature o" the 'all roc! as a "unction o" time can be obtained by sol#in$ the one-dimensional, timedependent heat conduction e)uation "or a semi-in"inite hal"-space, initially at a uni"orm temperature, 'hose sur"ace is suddenly brou$ht to a di""erent temperature at time t P 8 and maintained at this ne' temperature "or later times% This solution can also be used to determine the thermal structure o" the oceanic lithosphere% -t the crest o" an ocean rid$e, hot mantle roc! is sub?ected to a cold sur"ace temperature% -s the sea"loor spreads a'ay "rom the rid$e crest, the near-sur"ace roc!s lose heat to the cold sea'ater% The coolin$ near-sur"ace roc!s "orm the ri$id oceanic lithosphere% :e no' obtain the solution to ()uation 5>C486 in a semi-in"inite hal"space de"ined by y [ 8 'hose sur"ace is $i#en an instantaneous chan$e in temperature% &nitially at t P 8, the hal"-space has a temperature T1 7 "or t [ 8, the sur"ace y P 8 is maintained at a constant temperature T8 % -s a result, heat is trans"erred into the hal"-space i" T8 [ T1 , and the temperature increases% &" T1 [ T8 , the hal"-space cools, and its temperature decreases% The situation is s!etched in Fi$ure >C28 "or the case T8 [ T1 % The temperature distribution in the roc! is the solution o" ()uation 5>C 486 sub?ect to the conditions T P T1 at t P 8, y[8 t[8 t [ 8% 5>%926
T P T8 at y P 8 T T1 as y
The problem posed by ()uations 5>C486 and 5>C926 is a "amiliar one in the theory o" partial di""erential e)uations% &t can be sol#ed in a rather strai$ht"or'ard 'ay usin$ an approach !no'n as similarity% First, it is con#enient
222 222
to introduce the dimensionless temperature ratio W WP T T1 T8 T1 5>%926
9eat %ransfer
as a ne' un!no'n% The e)uation "or W is identical 'ith the one "or T , hW h2 W P s 2, ht hy but the conditions on W are simpler W5y, 86 P 8 W58, t6 P 1 W5, t6 P 8% 5>%9A6 The similarity approach to determinin$ W is based on the idea that the only len$th scale in the problem, that is, the only )uantity that has the dimensions o" len$th other than y itsel", is st, the characteristic thermal diffusion distance 5recall that the di""usi#ity s has dimensions o" len$th2 Utime6% &t is reasonable to suppose that, in this circumstance, W is not a "unction o" t and y separately, but rather it is a "unction o" the dimensionless ratio y qP % 5>%946 2 st The "actor o" 2 is introduced to simpli"y the subse)uent results% &t is not only reasonable that W should depend only on q, but a theorem in dimensional analysis sho's that this must be the case% The dimensionless parameter q is !no'n as the similarity varia$le% The solutions at di""erent times are LsimilarM to each other in the sense that the spatial dependence at one time can be obtained "rom the spatial dependence at a di""erent time by stretchin$ the coordinate y by the s)uare root o" the ratio o" the times% :e 'ill see "rom the solution to this problem that the characteristic thermal di""usion len$th is the distance o#er 'hich the e""ects o" a sudden, localiBed chan$e in temperature can be "elt a"ter a time t has elapsed "rom the onset o" the chan$e% The e)uations 5>C9>6 and 5>C9A6 must be re'ritten in terms o" q% This re)uires that 'e determine the partial deri#ati#es o" W 'ith respect to t and y in terms o" deri#ati#es 'ith respect to q% This can be accomplished usin$ the chain rule "or di""erentiation as "ollo'sF hW ht P dW hq dq ht P dW 1q dW 1 y 1 P dq dq 2t > st t 5>%936 5>%9>6
hW dW hq dW 1 P P hy dq hy dq 2 st 1 d2 W hq 1 1 d2 W h2 W P P % 2 hy > st dq 2 2 st dq 2 hy ()uation 5>C9>6 becomes

2 q dW P 1 d W % dq 2 dq 2
5>%986 5>%996
5>%1886
The boundary conditions are easy to deal 'ith7 y P 8 maps into q P 8 and both y P and t P 8 map into q P % Thus the conditions 5>C 9A6 reduce to W56 P 8 W586 P 1% 5>%1816 The "act that the introduction o" the similarity #ariable reduces the partial di""erential e)uation 5>C9>6 to an ordinary di""erential e)uation 5>C 1886 'ith respect to q and reduces the separate conditions in t and y to consistent conditions in#ol#in$ q alone, is a posteriori proo" o" the #alidity o" the approach% ()uation 5>C1886 can be inte$rated by lettin$ YP dW % dq 5>%1826
;e'ritin$ ()uation 5>C1886, 'e obtain qY P 1 dY 2 dq or q dq P 1 dY % 2 Y &nte$ration o" ()uation 5>C18>6 is strai$ht"or'ardF q 2 P ln Y ln c1 , 'here ln c1 is the constant o" inte$ration% &t "ollo's that Y P c1 e
]
q 2
5>%1826
5>%18>6
5>%18A6
dW % dq
5>%1846
/pon inte$ratin$ ()uation 5>C1846, 'e $et W P c1

q q2 8
dq R 1, 5>%1836
2>2 >2>
'here q is a dummy #ariable o" inte$ration and the condition W586 P 1 'as used to e#aluate the second constant o" inte$ration% Since W56 P 8, 'e must ha#e
]
9eat %ransfer
8 P c1
8
e
2
dq R 1% 5>%1886
The inte$ral in ()uation 5>C1886 is 'ell !no'nF ] 2 Z

8 Thus the constant c1 is 2U X and
X dq P
5>%1896
2 WP 1
eq dq % 2 5>%1186
The "unction de"ined by the inte$ral in ()uation 5>C1186 occurs so o"ten in solutions o" physical problems that it is $i#en a special name, the error function erf5q6 2 er"5q6 Thus 'e can re'rite W as
]
q
eq dq % 2 5>%1116 5>%1126
W P 1 er"5q6 P er"c q
'here erfc5q6 is the complementary error function% +alues o" the error "unction and the complementary error "unction are listed in Table >CA% The "unctions are also sho'n in Fi$ure >C21% The solution "or the temperature as a "unction o" time t and distance y is ()uation 5>C1126% &t can be 'ritten in terms o" the ori$inal #ariables as T T1 yZ P er"c % T8 T1 2 st 5>%1126
-t y P 8, the complementary error "unction is 1 and T P T8 % -s y or t P 8, er"c is 8 and T P T1 % The $eneral solution "or W or 5T T1 6U5T8 T1 6 is sho'n as er"c q in Fi$ure >C21% The near-sur"ace re$ion in 'hich there is a si$ni"icant temperature chan$e is re"erred to as a thermal $oundary layer% The thic!ness o" the thermal boundary layer re)uires an arbitrary de"inition, since the temperature T approaches the initial roc! temperature T1 asymptotically% :e de"ine the thic!ness o" the boundary layer yT as the distance to 'here W P 8%1% This distance chan$es 'ith time as the hal"-space heats up or cools o""% The condition W P 8%1 de"ines a uni)ue #alue o" the similarity #ariable qT , ho'e#er%
Table >%A %he Error Function and the Complementary Error Function
q 8 8%82 8%8> 8%84 8%88 8%18 8%1A 8%28 8%2A 8%28 8%2A 8%>8 8%>A 8%A8 8%AA 8%48 8%4A 8%38 8%3A 8%88 8%8A 8%98 8%9A 1%8 1%1 1%2 1%2 1%> 1%A 1%4 1%3 1%8 1%9 2%8 2%2 2%> 2%4 2%8 2%8 er" q 8 8%822A4A 8%8>A111 8%843422 8%898838 8%112>42 8%143994 8%222382 8%234224 8%228423 8%239282 8%>28292 8%>3A>82 8%A28A88 8%A42222 8%4828A4 8%4>2829 8%433881 8%3111A4 8%3>2181 8%338448 8%394988 8%828891 8%8>2381 8%88828A 8%91821> 8%92>888 8%9A228A 8%94418A 8%9342>8 8%982398 8%989891 8%992398 8%99A222 8%998123 8%999211 8%99934> 8%99992A 8%999938 er"c q 1%8 8%933>2A 8%9A>889 8%922238 8%989922 8%883A23 8%82288> 8%333293 8%32243> 8%431232 8%428418 8%A31488 8%A2>A18 8%>39A88 8%>24433 8%2941>> 8%2A3931 8%222199 8%2888>> 8%2A3899 8%229222 8%282892 8%139189 8%1A3299 8%11939A 8%889484 8%84A992 8%8>331A 8%82289A 8%8224A2 8%814218 8%818989 8%883218 8%88>438 8%881842 8%888489 8%888224 8%88883A 8%888822
From ()uation 5>C1126 and Table 5>CA6 'e obtain qT P er"c 1 8%1 P 1%14
5>%11>6
Fi$ure >%21 The error "unction and the complementary error "unction%
and "rom ()uation 5>C946 'e $et
yT P 2qT st P 2%22 st%
5>%11A6
boundary layer is 2%22 times the characteristic The thic!ness o" the thermal thermal di""usion distance st% 0roblem >%21 Deri#e an e pression "or the thic!ness o" the thermal boundary layer i" 'e de"ine it to be the distance to 'here W P 8%81% 0roblem >%22 &" the sur"ace temperature is increased 18 E, ho' lon$ is it be"ore the temperature increases 2 E at a depth o" 1 m 5s P 1 mm2 s 1 6O The heat "lu at the sur"ace y P 8 is $i#en by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 5>C 1126 accordin$ to Fouriers la' and e#aluatin$ the result at y P 8 such that ) P ! hT hy
yP8
h y P !5T8 T1 6 er"c hy 2 st yP8 h y P ! 5T8 T1 6 er" 2 st yP8 hy ! 5T8 d 5er" q6qP8 T1 6 2 st dq ! 5T8 T1 6 2 ! 5T8 T1 6 q 2 % P e P X 2 st Xst qP8 P 5>%1146
The sur"ace heat "lu ) is in"inite at t P 8 because o" the sudden application o" the temperature T8 at t P 8% 9o'e#er, ) decreases 'ith time, and the total heat into the semi-in"inite hal"-space up to any time, G, is "inite7 it is $i#en by the inte$ral o" ()uation 5>C1146 "rom t P 8 to t
]
GP
8
2! 5T T 6 8 ) dt P 1 sX t%
5>%1136
tem( &n cept the "actor X 1U2 Thompson, the heat "lu later into.ord the roc! is !used times the the"or mid-1888s :illiam Eel#in, the theory perature di""erence 5T di#ided by the thermal di""usion len$th st% 8 T1 6o" "or the conducti#e coolin$ a semi-in"inite hal"-space to estimate the a$e o" the (arth% 9e hypothesiBed that the (arth 'as "ormed at a uni"orm hi$h temperature T1 and that its sur"ace 'as subse)uently maintained at the lo' temperature T8 % 9e assumed that a thin near-sur"ace boundary layer de#eloped as the (arth cooled% Since the boundary layer 'ould be thin compared 'ith the radius o" the (arth, he reasoned that the onedimensional model de#eloped abo#e could be applied% From ()uation 5>C 1146 he concluded that the a$e o" the (arth t8 'as $i#en by
5T1 t8 P T8 6 , Xs5hT Uhy62 8

2
5>%1186
'here 5hT Uhy68 is the present near-sur"ace thermal $radient% :ith 5hT Uhy68 P 2A E !m 1 , T1 T8 P 2888 E, and s P 1 mm2 s 1 , the a$e o" the (arth "rom ()uation 5>C1186 is t8 P 4A million years% &t 'as not until radioacti#ity 'as disco#ered about 1988 that this estimate 'as seriously )uestioned% 0roblem >%22 *ne 'ay o" determinin$ the e""ects o" erosion on subsur"ace temperatures is to consider the instantaneous remo#al o" a thic!ness l o" $round% 0rior to the remo#al T P T8 R cy, 'here y is the depth, c is the $eothermal $radient, and T8 is the sur"ace temperature% -"ter remo#al, the ne' sur"ace is maintained at temperature T8 % Sho' that the subsur"ace temperature a"ter the remo#al o" the sur"ace layer is $i#en by T P T8 R cy R cl er" y % 2 st
9o' is the sur"ace heat "lo' a""ected by the remo#al o" sur"ace materialO 0roblem >%2> Determine the e""ect o" a $lacial epoch on the sur"ace $eothermal $radient as "ollo's% -t the start o" the $lacial epoch t P n , the subsur"ace temperature is T8 R cy% The sur"ace is y P 8, and y increases do'n'ard% Durin$ the period o" $laciation the sur"ace temperature drops to
T8 _T8 % -t the end o" the $lacial period, temperature
t P 8, the sur"ace
a$ain rises to T8 % Find the subsur"ace temperature T 5y, t6 and the sur"ace heat "lo' "or t [ n % &" the last $laciation be$an at 12,888 year @0 2 1 and , ! P 2%2 : 1 ended 8888 year @0 and _T8 P 28 E 5s P 1 mm s m1 E 6, determine the e""ect on the present sur"ace heat "lo'% 9&<TF /se the idea o" superposition to combine the elementary solutions to the heat conduction e)uation in such a 'ay as to de#elop the solution o" this problem 'ithout ha#in$ to sol#e a di""erential e)uation a$ain% 0roblem >%2A *ne techni)ue "or measurin$ the thermal conducti#ity o" sediments in#ol#es the insertion o" a #ery thin cylinder, or needle, heated by an internal heater 'ire at a !no'n and constant rate, into the sediments% small thermistor inside the needle measures the rise o" temperature T 'ith time t% -"ter the heater has been on "or a short time, measurements o" T sho' a linear $ro'th 'ith ln t, T P c1 ln t R c2 % The sediment conducti#ity can be deduced "rom the slope o" a T #ersus ln t plot, c1 , 'ith the aid o" a theoretical "ormula you can deri#e as "ollo's% 1onsider the temperature "ield due to an in"inite line source that emits G units o" heat per unit time and per unit len$th "or times t [ 8 in an in"inite medium initially at temperature T8 % Determine T 5r, t6 by sol#in$ ()uation 5>C386 sub?ect to the appropriate initial and boundary conditions% 9&<TF - similarity solution 'ith the similarity #ariable q P r 2 U>st 'or!s% &n "act, the solution is G T T8 P >X!
q
e q
q The inte$ral q 51Uq 6e dq is !no'n as the e#ponential integral (1 5q6% Thus T T8 P 5GU>X!6(1 5q6% The "unction (1 5q6 can be e#aluated numerically and tabulated, ?ust as the error "unction% 5+alues o" (1 5q6 are $i#en in Table 8C>%6 Furthermore, it can be sho'n that "or q su""iciently small 5t lar$e enou$h6
;
dq % 5>%1196
(1 5q6 P i ln q R , 5>%1286 'here i is (ulers constant 8%A3321A44>9% % % % Thus, a"ter a su""iciently lon$ time, G T T8 P 5 i ln q R 6 >X! 2 Gi G ln r R P >X! >X! >st
6(-? Cooling of the 1ceanic Lithosphere
Gi r2 G P G ln R ln t R >X! >X! >s >X! %
292 929
5>%1216
The measured slope c1 is thus GU>X!, and, 'ith G !no'n, ! can be determined% 0roblem >%24 Displacements alon$ "aults can brin$ roc! masses 'ith di""erent temperatures into sudden contact% Thrust sheets result in the emplacement o" buried crustal roc!s abo#e roc!s that 'ere pre#iously at the sur"ace% The trans"orm "aults that o""set ocean rid$e se$ments ?u tapose oceanic lithospheres o" di""erent a$es% 1onsider there"ore ho' temperature #aries 'ith time and position 'hen t'o semi-in"inite hal"-spaces initially at temperatures T 5y \ 86 and TR 5y [ 86 are placed ad?acent to each other alon$ y P 8 at time t P 8% Sho' that T is $i#en by TP R 5TR R T 6 5TR T yZ er" % 6 2 2 2 st 5>%1226
1onsider also ho' temperature #aries 'ith time and depth "or a situation in 'hich the initial temperature distribution in a hal"-space 5y [ 86 is T P T1 "or 8 \ y \ b and T P T2 "or y [ b% -ssume that the sur"ace y P 8 is maintained at T P T8 "or t [ 8 and that T T2 as y "or t [ 8% Sho' that T 5y, t6 is $i#en by T P 5T1 T8 6er" yZ 5T T 6 R 2 1 2 2 st 5>%1226
5y R b6 5y b6 R T8 % er" R er" 2 st 2 st
>%14 1oolin$ o" the *ceanic .ithosphere -s 'e ha#e already noted, the solution de#eloped in Section >C1A is also rele#ant to the coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere ad?acent to a mid-ocean rid$e% &n 1hapter 1 'e discussed ho' the mid-ocean rid$e system is associated 'ith ascendin$ mantle con#ection% The sur"ace plates on either side o" the rid$e mo#e horiBontally 'ith a #elocity u, as illustrated in Fi$ure >C 22% The plates are created "rom the hot mantle roc! that is "lo'in$ up'ard beneath the rid$e% This roc! is cooled by the sea'ater and "orms the ri$id plates that mo#e a'ay "rom the rid$e% Since the oceanic lithosphere is the sur"ace plate that mo#es ri$idly o#er the deeper mantle, it can be
282 9eat identi- "ied 'ith the part o" the upper mantle 'hose temperature is less 828 %ransfer
than some #alue belo' 'hich mantle roc!s do not readily de"orm o#er $eolo$ic time%
Fi$ure >%22 Schematic o" the coolin$ oceanic lithosphere%
Fi$ure >%22 The solid lines are isotherms, % %8 5E6, in the oceanic lithosphere "rom ()uation 5>C12A6% The data points are the thic!nesses o" the oceanic lithosphere in the 0aci"ic determined "rom studies o" ;aylei$h 'a#e dispersion data 5.eeds et al%, 193>6%
9i$h-temperature de"ormation o" roc!s in the laboratory indicates that this temperature is about 1488 E% Thus 'e can thin! o" the lithosphere as the re$ion bet'een the sur"ace and a particular isotherm, as sho'n in the "i$ure% The depth to this isotherm increases 'ith the a$e o" the lithosphere7 that is, the lithosphere thic!ens as it mo#es "arther "rom the rid$e, since it has more time to cool% :e re"er to the a$e o" the lithosphere as the amount o" time t re)uired to reach the distance "rom the rid$e 5because o" symmetry 'e consider positi#e67 t P Uu% The temperature o" the roc! at the rid$e crest P 8 and beneath the plate is T1 % The sea'ater cools the sur"ace to the temperature T8 % Thus, a column o" mantle is initially at temperature T1 , and its sur"ace is suddenly brou$ht to the temperature T8 % -s the column mo#es a'ay "rom the rid$e, its sur- "ace temperature is maintained at T8 , and it $radually cools% This problem is identical to the sudden coolin$ o" a hal"-space, treated in Section >C1A, i" 'e ne$lect horiBontal heat conduction compared 'ith #ertical heat conduction%
Fi$ure >%22 +ertical columns o" mantle and lithosphere mo#in$ horiBontally a'ay "rom the rid$e and coolin$ #ertically to the sur"ace 5t2 [ t1 [ 86%
This is a $ood appro imation as lon$ as the lithosphere is thin% :ith horiBontal heat conduction ne$lected, heat conduction is #ertical in columns o" mantle and lithosphere, as it is in the hal"-space problem% -lthou$h a thin column may not resemble a semi-in"inite hal"-space, the essential "eature both ha#e in common that ma!es the coolin$ problem identical "or both is the #ertical heat conduction% Fi$ure >C22 illustrates columns o" mantle mo#in$ laterally a'ay "rom the rid$e and coolin$ to the sur"ace% To adapt the hal"-space sudden coolin$ solution to the oceanic lithosphere coolin$ situation, let t P Uu, and re'rite ()uation 5>C1126 as y T1 T T1 T P er"c 2ps Uu % 8 This can be "urther rearran$ed as T1 P 1 T T8 P 1 er" p y T T1 T8 2 s Uu T8T1 and y T T8 % P er" p T1 T8 2 s Uu 5>%12A6 5>%12>6
-ccordin$ to ()uation 5>C12A6 the sur"ace temperature is T8 , since er" 586 P 8 and T T1 as the depth y , since er"56 P 1% Fi$ure >C2> sho's the isotherms beneath the ocean sur"ace as a "unction o" the a$e o" the sea"loor "or T1 T8 P 1288 E, and s P 1 mm2 s 1 % The isotherms in Fi$ure >C2> ha#e the shape o" parabolas% The thic!ness o" the oceanic lithosphere y. can be obtained directly "rom ()uation 5>C11A6 by replacin$ t 'ith UuF y. P 2%225st61U2 P 2%22 :ith s P 1 mm2 s
1
s u
1U2
5>%1246
the thic!ness o" the lithosphere at an a$e o" 88 ,yr is
114 !m% &t should be emphasiBed that the thic!ness $i#en in ()uation 5>C 1246 is arbitrary in that it corresponds to 5T T8 6U5T1 T8 6 P 8%9% -lso included in Fi$ure >C2> are thic!nesses o" the oceanic lithosphere in the 0aci"ic obtained "rom studies o" ;aylei$h 'a#e dispersion% The sur"ace heat "lu )8 as a "unction o" a$e and distance "rom the rid$e crest is $i#en by ()uation 5>C1146 ! 5T1 u T8 6 P !5T1 T8 6 )8 P Xs Xst
1U2
5>%1236
This is the sur"ace heat "lo' predicted by the hal"-space coolin$ model% ,any measurements o" the sur"ace heat "lo' in the oceans ha#e been carried out and there is considerable scatter in the results% - ma?or cause o" this scatter is hydrothermal circulations throu$h the oceanic crust% The heat loss due to these circulations causes obser#ed heat "lo's to be systematically lo'% .ister et al% 519986 considered only measurements in thic! sedimentary co#er that bloc!ed hydrothermal circulations% Their #alues o" sur"ace heat "lo' are $i#en in Fi$ure >C2A as a "unction o" the a$e o" the sea"loor% The results, "or the hal"-space coolin$ model "rom ()uation 5>C1236 are compared 'ith the obser#ations ta!in$ ! P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 and the other parameter #alues as abo#e% Guite $ood a$reement is "ound at youn$er a$es but the data appear to lie abo#e the theoretical prediction "or older a$es% This discrepancy 'ill be discussed in detail in later sections% The cumulati#e area o" the ocean "loor - as a "unction o" a$e, that is, the area o" the sea"loor 'ith a$es less than a speci"ied #alue, is $i#en in Fi$ure >C24% The mean a$e o" the sea"loor is 48%> ,yr% -lso included in Fi$ure >C24 is the cumulati#e area #ersus a$e "or a model sea"loor that has been produced at a rate d-Udt P 8%881A m2 s 1 and subducted at an a$e n o" 128%8 ,yr 5dashed line6% This is the a#era$e rate o" sea"loor accretion o#er this time% &t should be noted that the present rate o" sea"loor accretion is about 8%898 m2 s 1 7 #ery close to the lon$-term a#era$e #alue% For a constant rate o" sea"loor production and "or subduction at an a$e n , the mean oceanic heat "lo' )f8 is 1 )f8 P n
]
n
1 n !5T1 T 6 )8 dt P 8 n 8 Xst
2! 5T1 T8 6 % dt P Xsn 5>%1286
Ta!in$ n P 128%8 ,yr and the other parameters as abo#e, 'e "ind that the mean oceanic heat "lo' is )f8 P 38%A m: m 2 % This is in reasonable a$reement 'ith the mean #alue o" oceanic heat "lo' measurements 5181 m: m 2 6 $i#en in Section >C>% This a$reement is some'hat "ortuitous since
Fi$ure >%2A 9eat "lo' as a "unction o" the a$e o" the ocean "loor% The data points are "rom sediment co#ered re$ions o" the -tlantic and 0aci"ic *ceans 5.ister et al%, 19986% 1omparisons are made 'ith the hal"-space coolin$ model 59S1,6 "rom ()uation 5>C1236 and the plate model "rom ()uation 5>C1226 'ith y.8 P 9A !m 50, 9A6 and 'ith y.8 P 12A !m 50, 12A6%
the data are not e#enly distributed 'ith respect to the a$e o" the sea"loor7 oceanic heat "lo' data are also biased to'ard areas o" the sea"loor that are 'ell co#ered by sediments% <e#ertheless, 'e can conclude that a substantial "raction o" the heat lost "rom the interior o" the (arth is directly attributable to the coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere% -n oceanic $eotherm correspondin$ to the mean a$e o" 48%> ,yr as obtained "rom ()uation 5>C12A6 is $i#en in Fi$ure >C23% So "ar 'e ha#e discussed only the oceanic lithosphere% :e can also apply the one-dimensional coolin$ model to the continental lithosphere and compare the sur"ace heat "lo' predicted by the model 'ith heat "lo' measurements% The heat "lo' #alues that are rele#ant to this purpose are the reduced heat "lo's de"ined in Section >C8% ;ecall that the reduced heat "lu is the mantle contribution to the sur"ace heat "lo'7 it is deduced "rom the correlation o" the sur"ace heat "lo' 'ith the sur"ace concentration o" heat-producin$ radioacti#e isotopes 5see ()uation 5>C296 and Fi$ure >C116% ;educed heat "lu #alues "or se#eral $eolo$ical pro#inces are plotted a$ainst
2>2 >2>
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%24 1umulati#e area o" sea"loor as a "unction o" a$e t 5the area o" sea"loor 'ith a$es youn$er than a $i#en a$e6 5solid lines6% The dashed line is a cumulati#e area "unction "or a model sea"loor produced at a constant rate o" 8%881A m2 s 1 , and subducted at an a$e o" 128%8 ,yr%
the a$es o" the pro#inces in Fi$ure >C28% &" the mantle heat "lo' in continental areas 'ere due to the conducti#e coolin$ o" the lithosphere, )m 'ould be $i#en by ()uation 5>C1236 'ith t the a$e o" the continental crust% The prediction o" this e)uation "or ! P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and T1 T8 P 1288 E is also sho'n in Fi$ure >C28% 1learly, the #alues o" mantle heat "lo' deduced "rom obser#ations lie considerably abo#e the conducti#e coolin$ prediction "or the older pro#inces% The measured #alues correlate 2 better 'ith a constant mantle heat "lo' o" 2A m: m "or a$es bet'een A88 ,yr and 2%A Gyr% This correlation is stron$ e#idence that there is an additional heat input to the base o" the continental lithosphere caused by mantle con#ection7 this heat input is #ery close to the mean mantle heat "lo' )m P 28 m: m 2 $i#en in Section >CA% >%13 0late 1oolin$ ,odel o" the .ithosphere -s discussed earlier, obser#ations sho' that the hal"-space coolin$ model does not predict the time e#olution o" the continental lithosphere% The continental lithosphere does not continue to thic!en 'ith a$e but instead ap-
6(-= Plate Cooling Model of the Lithosphere
2A2 A2A
Fi$ure >%23 ,ean oceanic $eotherm determined "rom ()uation 5>C12A6 'ith t P 48%> ,yr%
proaches an e)uilibrium, time-independent thermal structure% This result re)uires heatin$ o" the base o" the continental lithosphere by mantle con#ection% The sur"ace heat "lo' data "rom the ocean basins $i#en in Fi$ure >C2A sho' that there is also basal heatin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere% To account "or this basal heatin$, 'e introduce the plate coolin$ model% 1onsider the instantaneous heatin$ or coolin$ o" a "inite thic!ness plate% Since our application is to the lithosphere, 'e ta!e the plate thic!ness to be y.8 , the thic!ness o" the lithosphere at lar$e times% The in"initely lon$ plate "ills the re$ion 8 y y.8 % The temperature in the plate is a solution o" the one-dimensional unsteady heat conduction e)uation 5>C486% &nitially at t P 8 the plate is at the temperature T1 7 "or t [ 8, the sur"ace o" the plate y P 8 is maintained at the temperature T8 % The base o" the plate y P y.8 is maintained at the temperature T1 % These conditions can be 'ritten as T P T1 at t P 8, T P T8 at y P 8, 8 y y.8 t[8
242 424
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%28 Dependence o" the mantle heat "lo' on a$e "or se#eral continental $eolo$ical pro#inces% The solid line is the predicted heat "lo' "or a conducti#ely coolin$ continental lithosphere "rom ()uation 5>C1236, and the dashed line is a constant mantle heat "lo' o" 2A m: m 2 % Data are "rom Sclater et al% 519886%
T P T1
at y P y.8 ,
t [ 8%
5>%1296
The solution o" ()uation 5>C486 that satis"ies the initial and boundary conditions $i#en in ()uation 5>C1296 can be obtained in the "orm o" an in"inite series% - detailed deri#ation o" the solution has been $i#en by 1arsla' and Jae$er 519A9, p% 1886% The result can be 'ritten as
y 2 S1 T P T8 R 5T1 T8 R e p X nP1 n y.8 6 2 2 sn X t sin nXy 2 y.8 y.8
5>%1286
-t lar$e times, t Us, an e)uilibrium linear temperature pro"ile is es.8 y2 tablishedF y T P T8 R 5T1 T8 6 % 5>%1216 y.8 -t small times, t .8 Us, the hal"-space coolin$ solution $i#en in Section >C y2 14 is reco#ered% The de#iations "rom the hal"-space coolin$ solution are 'ell appro imated i" only the "irst t'o terms o" the e pansion $i#en in ()uation 5>C1286 are retained, 'ith the result y 2 sX 2 t sin R e p 2 T P T8 R 5T1 T8 y.8 y.8 X 6
Xy y.8
2 1 >sXZ t sin e p y2 X .8
2X y y.8
% 5>%1226
:e can obtain the sur"ace heat "lo' )8 as a "unction o" a$e t "rom ()uations 5>C16 and 5>C1286 as ! 5T T 6 1 8 )8 P y.8 sn2 X 2 t S 1R 2 e p 2 y.8 nP1
t u
% 5>%1226
For lar$e times, t .8 Us, the e)uilibrium #alue o" the sur"ace heat "lo' is y2 )8e P !5T1 T8 6 % y.8 5>%12>6
:e can appro imate the de#iations o" the sur"ace heat "lo' "rom the hal"space coolin$ result $i#en in ()uation 5>C1236 by retainin$ the "irst t'o terms o" the e pansion in ()uation 5>C1226 'ith the result sX 2 t ! 5T T 6 )8 P 1 8 1R 2e p 2 y.8 y.8 2 >sX t R2e p 2 % y.8
5>%12A6
For lar$e times t the heat "lo' "rom ()uation 5>C12A6 approaches the e)uilibrium heat "lo' in ()uation 5>C12>6% :e ne t compare the predictions o" the plate model 'ith the heat "lo' compilation as a "unction o" sea"loor a$e $i#en in Fi$ure >C2A% 1omparisons are made "or t'o #alues o" plate thic!ness, y.8 P 9A and 12A !m, and "or other parameter #alues as be"ore% For y.8 P 9A !m, the e)uilibrium t heat "lo' "rom ()uation 5>C12>6 is )8e P >A m: m 2 , and "or y.8 P 12A !m, 'e ha#e )8e P 2> m: m 2 % -t a$es o" less than about A8 ,a, the hal"space coolin$ model and the plate models $i#e the same results% -t these a$es, the thic!ness o" the thermal boundary layer is less than the thic!ness o" the plate, so the presence o" a "inite plate thic!ness has no e""ect% -t older a$es, the speci"ied plate thic!ness restricts the $ro'th o" the thermal boundary layer and the heat "lo's predicted by the plate models are some'hat $reater than those predicted by the hal"-space coolin$ model% Further discussion o" the a$reement bet'een theories and obser#ations 'ill be postponed to Section >C22%
Fi$ure >%29 Gro'th o" a solid layer at the sur"ace o" a coolin$ la#a "lo'%
>%18 The Ste"an 0roblem - number o" important $eolo$ical problems in#ol#e the solidi"ication o" ma$- mas% :e assume that the ma$ma has a 'ell-de"ined melt temperature at 'hich the phase chan$e "rom li)uid to solid occurs% -ssociated 'ith this phase chan$e is a latent heat o" "usion .% This is the amount o" heat that is liberated upon the solidi"ication o" 1 !$ o" ma$ma% 9eat conduction problems in#ol#in$ phase chan$es di""er "rom problems 'e ha#e already sol#ed in t'o ma?or 'ays% First, 'e ha#e to determine as part o" the solution 'here the phase chan$e boundary, that is, the inter"ace bet'een solid and li)uid, is located% The position o" this boundary ob#iously chan$es as solidi"ication proceeds% Second, 'e ha#e to account "or the latent heat o" "usion, 'hich is liberated at the solidCli)uid inter"ace as solidi"ication ta!es place7 this additional heat must be conducted a'ay "rom the phase chan$e boundary% The "irst problem 'e consider is that o" a horiBontal layer o" ma$ma that is solidi"yin$ "rom its upper sur"ace do'n'ard as a result o" bein$ cooled "rom abo#e% :e assume that the upper sur"ace is maintained at a constant temperature T8 % -n e ample o" this 'ould be the solidi"ication o" a la#a "lo'% @ecause o" heat loss to the sur"ace the solid layer $ro's thic!er 'ith time% - la#a "lo' also solidi"ies at its base% 9o'e#er, i" 'e assume that the ma$ma is e truded at its melt temperature, then as lon$ as there is still a li)uid re$ion, the solidi"ication "rom the top and bottom can be treated independently% This also means that the o#erall "lo' thic!ness is unimportant in describin$ the solidi"ication process as lon$ as a molten re$ion is present% &n this section, 'e 'ill consider the solidi"ication "rom abo#e7 in the ne t section, 'e 'ill treat the solidi"ication "rom belo'% The solidi"ication o" a la#a "lo' "rom abo#e is essentially identical 'ith the "reeBin$ o" a la!e% This is the problem "or 'hich Ste"an 518916 "irst obtained the solution de#eloped belo'%
6(-@ %he "tefan Pro$lem
The problem 'e sol#e is illustrated in Fi$ure >C29% The "lo' has solidi"ied to the depth y P ym 5t6% :e assume that molten material o" uni"orm temperature Tm lies e#ery'here belo' the $ro'in$ sur"ace layer% The "act that the molten re$ion does not e tend in"initely "ar belo' the sur"ace is o" no conse)uence to the solution% :e must sol#e the heat conduction e)uation 5>C486 in the space 8 y ym 5t6 sub?ect to the conditions T P T8 at y P 8, T P Tm at y P ym 5t6, and ym P 8 at t P 8% The position o" the solidi"ication boundary is an a priori un!no'n "unction o" time% -s in the case o" the sudden heatin$, or coolin$, o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space, there is no len$th reason, 'e once a$ain introduce the dimenscale in this problem% For this sionless coordinate q P yU2 st as in ()uation 5>C9467 it is also con#enient to introduce the dimensionless temperature W P 5T T8 6U5Tm T8 6 as in ()uation 5>C926% The dimensionless coordinate q is obtained by scalin$ the depth 'ith the thermal di""usion len$th st because there is no other len$th scale in the problem% Similarly, the depth o" the solidi"ication inter"ace ym must also scale 'ith the thermal di""usion len$th in such a 'ay that ym U st is a constant% &n other 'ords, the depth o" the solidi"ication boundary increases 'ith time proportionately 'ith the s)uare root o" time% :e ha#e used dimensional ar$uments to determine the "unctional "orm o" the dependence o" ym on t, a nontri#ial result% @ecause q P yU2 st and ym is proportional to st , the 2 st o" solidi"ication boundary corresponds to a constant #alue qm P ym U the similarity coordinate q% :e denote this constant #alue by qm P l1 % Thus 'e ha#e ym P 2l1 st% 5>%1246 :ith our de"initions o" W and q, the heat conduction e)uation "or W5q6 is clearly identical to ()uation 5>C1886, 'hose solution 'e already !no' to be proportional to er"5q6% This "orm o" solution automatically satis"ies the condition W P 85T P T8 6 on q P 85y P 86% To satis"y the remainin$ condition that W P 15T P Tm 6 at q P qm 5y P ym 6 P l1 , 'e need simply choose the constant o" proportionality appropriately% The solution is WP er"5q6 % er"5l1 6 5>%1236
292 929
()uation 5>C1236 determines the temperature in the solidi"ied layer 8 y ym % &n the molten re$ion y [ ym , T P Tm and W P 1%
>8> 9eat The constant l1 is determined by re)uirin$ that the latent heat liberated 8>8 %ransfer
at the solidi"ication boundary be conducted #ertically up'ard, a'ay "rom the inter"ace% The situation at the solidi"ication boundary is illustrated in
Fi$ure >%28 .atent heat released at the solidi"ication boundary must be conducted up'ard throu$h the solidi"ied layer%
Fi$ure >C28% &n time at, the inter"ace mo#es do'n'ard a distance 5dym Udt6at% &n so doin$, a mass per unit area Q5dym Udt6at is solidi"ied, thus releasin$ an amount o" latent heat Q.5dym Udt6at per unit area% 1onser#ation o" ener$y re)uires that this heat release be conducted a'ay "rom the boundary at precisely the rate at 'hich it is liberated% The heat cannot be conducted do'n'ard because the ma$ma is at a constant temperature7 moreo#er, heat "lo's to'ard cooler temperatures that lie up'ard% Fouriers la' $i#es the rate o" up'ard heat conduction per unit time and per unit area at y P ym as !5hT Uhy6yPym % ,ultiplyin$ this by at and e)uatin$ it to Q.5dym Udt6at $i#es the e)uation "or "indin$ l1 % Q. dym hT dt P ! hy %
yPym
5>%1286
From ()uation 5>C1246 the speed o" the solidi"ication boundary is dym l1 s % 5>%1296 P dt t From ()uation 5>C1236 the temperature $radient at y P ym is hT hy P
yPym
dW dq
qPqm Pl1
hq 5Tm T8 6 hy 5>%1>86
5Tm T8 6 2 P 2 sT
2 1 el1 % er" l1 X
Substitutin$ ()uations 5>C1296 and 5>C1>86 into ()uation 5>C1286, 'e $et 2 e l 1 . X P , 5>%1>16 c5Tm T8 6 l1 er" l1
Fi$ure >%21 The ri$ht side o" the transcendental e)uation "or determinin$ the $ro'th o" a solid layer at the sur"ace o" a coolin$ la#a "lo'%
a transcendental e)uation "or determinin$ l1 % Gi#en a numerical #alue "or the le"t side o" ()uation 5>C1>16, l1 can be "ound by iterati#ely calculatin$ the ri$ht side o" the e)uation until a$reement is "ound% -lternati#ely, the ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C1>16 can be plotted as a "unction o" l1 , as in Fi$ure >C21, and the solution, "or a particular #alue o" the le"t side o" the e)uation, can be "ound $raphically% This theory can be compared directly 'ith obser#ations% The thic!ness o" the crusts on three la#a la!es on the 9a'aiian #olcano Eilauea ha#e been measured as "unctions o" time% (ruptions produced la#a la!es in the pit craters Eilauea &!i in 19A9, -lae in 1942, and ,a!aopuhi in 194A% - photo$raph o" the initial "ormation o" the crust on the la#a la!e in the -lae pit crater is $i#en in Fi$ure >C22% The thic!nesses o" the solidi"yin$ crusts on the three la#a la!es are $i#en as "unctions o" time a"ter the eruptions in Fi$ure >C22% For . P >88 !J !$ 1 , c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , and Tm T8 P 18A8 E, ()uation 5>C1>16 $i#es l1 P 8%834% :ith this #alue o" l1 and s P 8%3 mm2 s 1 , 'e can determine the thic!ness o" a solidi"yin$ crust as a "unction o"
Fi$ure >%22 0hoto$raph o" the la#a la!e "ormed in the pit crater -lae durin$ the 1942 eruption% - solid crust is ?ust be$innin$ to "orm on the ma$ma 5D% .% 0ec! 19, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6%
time "rom ()uation 5>C1246% The result plotted in Fi$ure >C22 sho's )uite $ood a$reement bet'een the obser#ations and theory% 0roblem >%23 - body o" 'ater at 8 1 is sub?ected to a constant sur"ace temperature o" 18 1 "or 18 days% 9o' thic! is the sur"ace layer o" iceO /se 1 1 1 1 1 1 . P 228 !J !$ , ! P 2 J m s E , c P > !J !$ E , Q P 1888 !$ m 2% 0roblem >%28 Scientists belie#e that early in its e#olution, the ,oon 'as co#ered by a ma$ma ocean 'ith a depth o" A8 !m% -ssumin$ that the ma$ma 'as at its melt temperature o" 1A88 E and that the sur"ace o" the ,oon 'as maintained at A88 E, ho' lon$ did it ta!e "or the ma$ma ocean to solidi"y i" it 'as cooled "rom the sur"aceO Ta!e . P 228 !J !$ 1 , s P 1 mm2 1 s , and c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 % 0roblem >%29 *ne o" the estimates "or the a$e o" the (arth $i#en by .ord Eel#in in the 1848s assumed that (arth 'as initially molten at a constant temperature Tm and that it subse)uently cooled by conduction 'ith a constant sur"ace temperature T8 % The a$e o" the (arth could then be determined "rom the present sur"ace thermal $radient 5dT Udy68 % ;eproduce Eel#ins result assumin$ Tm T8 P 1388 E, c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , . P >88 !J !$ 1 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and 5dT Udy68 P 2A E !m 1 % &n addition, determine the thic!ness o" the solidi"ied lithosphere% <oteF Since the solidi"ied layer is
Fi$ure >%22 The thic!nesses o" the solidi"yin$ crusts on the la#a la!es in the three pit craters Eilauea l!i 519A96, -lae 519426, and ,a!aopuhi 5194A6 on the #olcano Eilauea, 9a'aii 5:ri$ht et al% 19346% The theoretical cur#e is "rom ()uations 5>C1246 and 5>C1>16%
thin compared 'ith the (arths radius, the cur#ature o" the sur"ace may be ne$lected% 0roblem >%>8 1onsider the solidi"ication near the upper sur"ace o" a la#a "lo'% 1ompute the sur"ace heat "lu )8 as a "unction o" time% &nte$rate )8 o#er time, and compare the result 'ith the latent heat release up to that time, Q.ym % 0roblem >%>1 GeneraliBe the solution "or the solidi"ication o" the top o" a la#a la!e to the situation 'here the la#a is initially at a uni"orm temperature T# $reater than the solidi"ication temperature Tm % -ssume that the la#a e tends to $reat depth y and that T T# as y "or all t% -lso assume that T P T8 at y P 8 "or all t% -ssume that the molten la#a and the solidi"ied layer near the sur"ace ha#e the same thermal properties% 9&<TF =ou ha#e to modi"y the ener$y balance condition at the solidC li)uid inter"ace to account "or heat conduction in the li)uid%
>>> >>>
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%2> 5a6 0hoto$raph o" a lar$e sill on Fin$er ,ountain, +ictoria, +ictoria .and, -ntarctica 5:% @% 9amilton 28>, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6% 5$6 0hoto$raph o" a small di!e o""set alon$ a ?oint 5J% 0% .oc!'ood 1, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6%
0roblem >%>2 The oceanic crust is belie#ed to "orm "rom the solidi"ication o" a lar$e ma$ma chamber beneath the rid$e crest% /se the Ste"an solution to determine the 'idth o" the ma$ma chamber at its base% .et . P >88 !J !$ 1 , c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , Tm T8 P 1288 E, u P A8 mm yr 1 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and the thic!ness o" the oceanic crust is 4 !m% 0roblem >%>2 The mantle roc!s o" the asthenosphere "rom 'hich the lithosphere "orms are e pected to contain a small amount o" ma$ma% &" the mass "raction o" ma$ma is 8%8A, determine the depth o" the lithosphereC asthenosphere boundary "or oceanic lithosphere 'ith an a$e o" 48 ,a% -s sume . P >88 !J !$ 1 , c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , Tm P 1488 E, T8 P 23A E, and s P 1 mm2 s 1 % >%19 Solidi"ication o" a Di!e or Sill - lar$e "raction o" the ma$ma comin$ "rom the interior o" the (arth does not reach the sur"ace but instead solidi"ies as intrusi#e i$neous bodies% T'o o" the simplest types o" intrusi#e bodies are sills and di,es% - sill is a horiBontal layer o" solidi"ied roc!, and a di!e is its #ertical counterpart% These one- dimensional structures are illustrated in Fi$ure >C2>% :e 'ill no' consider the problem o" the solidi"ication o" a di!e or sill% The solidi"yin$ ma$ma loses heat by conduction to the ad?acent country roc,% *ur model "or di!e or sill solidi"ication is illustrated in Fi$ure >C2A% The plane y P 8 de"ines the ori$inal ma$maCroc! boundary% The di!e or sill occupies the re$ion 2b \ y \ 8% &nitially at t P 8 the molten roc! in the di!e is at its melt temperature Tm , and the 'all roc! is at the temperature
6(-< "olidification of a &i,e or "ill
>A> A>A
Fi$ure >%2A &nitial temperature distribution at t P 8 5% P %8 "or y [ 8, % P %m "or 2$ \ y \ 86 and subse)uent temperature distribution at t P t1 'hen the solidi"ication boundary is at y P ym 5t 6%
T8 % -t time t P 8, the di!e be$ins solidi"yin$ at the inter"ace y P 8% Fi$ure >C 2A sho's the temperature distribution initially at t P 8 and at a later time t1 % The li)uid part o" the di!e 2b \ y \ ym 5t6 is still at temperature Tm , but the solidi"ied part ym \ y \ 8 has cooled belo' Tm % The surroundin$ roc! near the di!e has been 'armed abo#e T8 by the release o" the latent heat o" "usion, but T T8 "ar "rom the di!e y % :e assume that the physical properties o" the country roc! and solidi"ied ma$ma are the same% There"ore the temperature satis"ies the onedimensional, time-dependent heat conduction e)uation 5>C486 in the re$ion y [ ym 5t6% The boundary conditions are that T P Tm at y P ym 5t6 and T T8 as y 7 the initial condition is that T P T8 "or y [ 8 and ym P 8% *nce a$ain ()uation 5>C1286 pro#ides a balance bet'een the heat conducted a'ay "rom the solidi"ication inter"ace and the heat released by the solidi"ication% :e use the same method o" solution as in the pre#ious section and introduce the dimensionless #ariables q P yU52 st6 and W P 5T T8 6U5Tm T8 6% &n this problem the p osition o" the solidi"ication boundary ym is ne$ati#e so that qm P ym U52 st6 is also ne$ati#e% :e denote this constant #alue by qm P l2 % Thus 'e ha#e ym P 2l2 st% 5>%1>26
The dimensionless temperature in the re$ion q [ l2 satis"ies ()uation 5>C 1886% :e ha#e pre#iously sho'n that a solution o" this e)uation is proportional to er"c q% Such a solution also satis"ies the condition W 85T T8 6 as q 5y 6% &n order to satis"y the condition that W P 1 5T P Tm 6 at q P qm P l2 5y P ym 6, 'e need simply to choose the constant o" proportionality appropriately% The solution is clearly WP er"c q % er"c5l2 6 5>%1>26
From the de"inition o" er"c in ()uation 5>C1126 and the property er" 5 6 P er" 'e obtain er"c5l2 6 P 1 er"5l2 6 P 1 R er" l2 % 5>%1>>6 Substitution o" ()uation 5>C1>>6 into ()uation 5>C1>26 $i#es WP er"c q % 1 R er" l2 5>%1>A6
The temperature o" the boundary bet'een the country roc! and the solidi"ied ma$ma q P 85y P 86 is 1 W586 P % 5>%1>46 1 R er" l2 The temperature o" this boundary is there"ore constant 'hile solidi"ication is occurrin$% &n order to determine the constant l2 , 'e must once a$ain use the heat balance at the solidi"ication boundary $i#en in ()uation 5>C1286% The speed o" this boundary is obtained by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 5>C1>26 dym s P l2 dt t
1U2
5>%1>36
The temperature $radient at y P ym is obtained by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 5>C1>A6% hT hy

yPym
dW hq 5Tm T8 6 dq qPl2 hy 5Tm T8 6 e l2 2 P % 5>%1>86 1U2 51 R er" l2 6 5Xst6 P
Substitution o" ()uations 5>C1>36 and 5>C1>86 into ()uation 5>C1286 $i#es 2 . X e l2 P % 5>%1>96 c5Tm T8 6 l2 51 R er" l2 6
Fi$ure >%24 The ri$ht side o" the transcendental ()uation 5>C1>96 "or determinin$ the motion o" the solidi"ication boundary%
&n terms o" e#aluatin$ l2 , this e)uation plays the same role that ()uation 5>C 1>16 played in the Ste"an problem% The ri$ht side o" the e)uation is plotted as a "unction o" l2 in Fi$ure >C24% Gi#en a #alue "or the le"t side o" the e)uation, l2 may be determined $raphically "rom the "i$ure or more accurately by iterati#e numerical calculations% The time ts re)uired to solidi"y a di!e o" 'idth 2b can be obtained directly "rom ()uation 5>C1>26% Solidi"ication occurs symmetrically "rom the t'o sides o" the di!e so that b2 ts P % 5>%1A86 >sl2 2 -t t P ts all the ma$ma has solidi"ied% .et us a$ain consider a numerical e ample% Ta!in$ . P 228 !J !$ 1 , 1 1 Tm T8 P 1888 E, and c P 1%2 !J !$ E , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5>C 1>96 5Fi$ure >C246 that l2 P 8%32% :ith this #alue o" l2 , b P 1 m, and s P 8%A mm2 s 1 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5>C1A86 that the time re)uired to solidi"y this intrusion is 18%9 days% The temperature at the boundary
Fi$ure >%23 Temperature pro"iles at di""erent times durin$ di!e solidi"ication%
bet'een the country roc! and the solidi"ied ma$ma "rom ()uation 5>C1296 is T8 RA98 E% The temperature pro"iles at se#eral times are $i#en in Fi$ure >C 23% 0roblem >%>> /se the results o" the sudden hal"-space heatin$ problem, ()uation 5>C1136, to estimate the time re)uired "or di!e solidi"ication by settin$ G P Q.b% 9o' does this time compare 'ith the 18%9 days computed in the e ampleO 0roblem >%>A 1onsider the "ollo'in$ model "or the coolin$ and solidi"ication o" an intrusi#e i$neous body% Suppose that the re$ion y \ 8 is initially solid 'ith constant temperature T and that the re$ion y [ 8 is initially li)uid 'ith constant temperature TR % The i$neous body cools and solidi"ies7 a solidCli)uid inter"ace at temperature Tm propa$ates into the re$ion y [ 8% The meltin$ temperature Tm is less than TR , but it is $reater than T % De- termine ym , the position o" the solidi"ication boundary as a "unction o" time t% Find T in the re$ions y \ 8, 8 \ y \ ym , and y [ ym %
>%28 The 9eat 1onduction ()uation in a ,o#in$ ,ediumF Thermal (""ects o" (rosion and Sedimentation - number o" important problems in $eolo$y in#ol#e mo#in$ boundaries% ( amples include the solidi"ication problems that 'e ha#e ?ust discussed7
6(4B %he 9eat Conduction E3uation in a Moving Medium
>9> 9>9
Fi$ure >%28 Fi ed 5#, y6 and mo#in$ 5v, p 6 coordinate systems "or the deri#ation o" the heat conduction e)uation "or a mo#in$ medium%
other e amples in#ol#e erosion and sedimentation% *ne use"ul approach to the solution o" mo#in$ boundary problems is to consider the boundary "i ed and the material mo#in$ into the boundary% For this and other reasons it is 'orth'hile to de#elop the "orm o" the e)uation o" heat conduction "or a mo#in$ medium% .et , y be a "i ed coordinate system, and assume that the medium mo#es in the positi#e direction 'ith #elocity / % .et v, p be a coordinate system mo#in$ 'ith the medium% The situation is s!etched in Fi$ure >C28% The coordinates , y and v, p are thus related by p P vR /t yP h2 T % hp 2 5>%1A16
The heat conduction e)uation "or an obser#er mo#in$ 'ith the medium is ()uation 5>C486 5$eneraliBed to t'o dimensions6F hT ht Ps
v
h2T h2 T R % hv 2 hp 2
5>%1A26
To "ind the appropriate "orm o" the heat conduction e)uation 'ith respect to the "i ed coordinate system, 'e need to relate partial deri#ati#es 'ith respect to v, p , t to partial deri#ati#es 'ith respect to , y, t% From ()uation 5>C1A16 'e ha#e hT hT d hT hT hT P R R/ , P ht v ht ht h h dt 5>%1A26 hT hv P
t
hT h
t
hT hp
P
t
hT hy
t
5>%1A>6
Thus ()uation 5>C1A26 can be re'ritten as hT hT h2T h2 T R/ Ps R , ht h h 2 hy 2 5>%1AA6
'here deri#ati#es are understood to be ta!en 'ith or t held constant as appropriate% The term / 5hT Uh 6 is the ad#ecti#e deri#ati#e% -n obser#er
mo#in$ 'ith the medium and measurin$ temperature on a recorder cannot distin$uish bet'een temperature #ariations resultin$ "rom motion throu$h a spatially #aryin$ temperature "ield / 5hT Uh 6 and actual temporal #ariations in temperature hT Uht% -s an additional e ample o" the use o" ()uation 5>C1AA6, consider the oceanic lithosphere coolin$ problem% :ith respect to an obser#er mo#in$ 'ith a column o" lithosphere, the rele#ant heat conduction e)uation is 5>C 1A26, a point o" #ie' 'e ha#e already ta!en% -lternati#ely, one could ta!e a lar$er #ie' o" the situation and consider a "i ed obser#er #ie'in$ the 'hole spreadin$ process and measurin$ # "rom the rid$e% That obser#er sees a steady heat trans"er problem described by ()uation 5>C1AA6 'ith hT Uht P 8 5and #ertical heat conduction only6F / hT h2 T P s % h hy 2 5>%1A46
These alternati#e 'ays o" approachin$ the problem are, o" course, e)ui#alent because the a$e o" the sea"loor is U/ % 0roblem >%>4 -ssume that a hal"-space 'ith a deep temperature T is bein$ eroded at a constant #elocity / % &" the erosional sur"ace is at a temperature T8 , determine the temperature as a "unction o" the distance "rom the sur"ace% 0roblem >%>3 -ssume that a hal"-space y [ 8 'ith a deep temperature T is bein$ eroded such that ym P T t, 'here ym is the depth o" the instantaneous sur"ace measured "rom the location o" the sur"ace at t P 8% &" the erosional sur"ace is at a temperature T8 , determine T 5y, t6 and the heat "lo' at the sur"ace% 9&<TF Sol#e the problem in the y, t system and assume an arti"icial 5un!no'n6 temperature at y P 8% 0roblem >%>8 Suppose that upon enterin$ the (arths atmosphere, the sur"ace o" a meteorite has been heated to the meltin$ point and the molten material is carried a'ay by the "lo'% &t is o" interest to calculate the rate at 'hich meltin$ remo#es material "rom the meteorite% For this purpose, consider the "ollo'in$ problem% The sur"ace o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space mo#es do'n'ard into the hal"-space 'ith constant #elocity + , as indicated in Fi$ure >C29% The sur"ace is al'ays at the meltin$ temperature Tm , and melted material abo#e the instantaneous sur"ace is remo#ed "rom the problem% -ssume that the sur"ace o" the hal"-space is melted by a constant heat "lu )m into the hal"-space "rom abo#e the sur"ace% -ssume also that "ar "rom the meltin$ sur"ace the temperature is T8 7 that is, T T8 as p % Find the
6(4- 1ne2&imensional, Gnsteady 9eat Conduction in an Infinite Region A1A1A1
Fi$ure >%29 ,odel "or the ablatin$ meteorite problem%
temperature distribution in the hal"-space as a "unction o" time T 5p , t6, and determine + in terms o" )m and the thermodynamic properties o" the roc!% -ccount "or the latent heat . re)uired to melt the material%
>%21 *ne-Dimensional, /nsteady 9eat 1onduction in an &n"inite ;e$ion The problem sol#ed in Section >C19 pro#ides the temperature distribution up until the time the di!e or sill is completely solidi"ied% To determine the subse)uent thermal history, 'e must sol#e the problem o" one-dimensional unsteady heat conduction in an in"inite re$ion 'ith a speci"ied initial temperature distribution% &" the temperature distribution at t P 8 is Tf5y6, the temperature distribution at subse)uent times is T P 1 2 Xst
]
Tf5y 6e 5y y
6 U>st
dy %
5>%1A36
This result is !no'n as LaplaceAs solution% For the di!e or sill coolin$ problem, the temperature at the time o" total solidi"ication 'ould be the initial temperature distribution Tf5y6, and ()uation 5>C1A36 could then be used to determine the subse)uent temperature distribution% To do this 'ould re)uire a numerical inte$ration% &nstead, an appro imate solution is possible i" the temperature "ar "rom the di!e is considered% The heat content o" the di!e per unit area o" the di!eCcountry roc! inter"ace is G P Qdc5Tm T8 6 R .e2b
5>%1A86 For | y | b, one can consider the di!e to be a planar heat source located at y P 8 containin$ G units o" heat per unit area at t P 8% -t later times this heat di""uses a'ay "rom the ori$in, and 'e are interested in determinin$
Fi$ure >%>8 0lanar heat source containin$ 7 units o" heat at t P 8%
ho' the temperature e#ol#es as a "unction o" distance "rom the ori$in and time% The situation is s!etched in Fi$ure >C>8% The temperature T 5y, t6 must satis"y the onedimensional, time-dependent heat conduction e)uation 5>C486 sub?ect to the conditions T T8 as |y | % -n essential condition on the temperature distribution is that the heat content o" all space must be the ori$inal heat content o" the di!e,
]

Qc
5T T8 6 dy P 2Qc
]
8
5T T8 6 dy P G, 5>%1A96
"or all t% &n other 'ords, the heat pulse supplied by the di!e can spread out as it di""uses a'ay "rom the ori$in, but no heat can be lost "rom the medium% - nondimensional "orm o" the solution must be possible% The only )uantity 'ith dimensions o" len$th is the thermal di""usion len$th st so that, once a$ain, the solution depends on the similarity #ariable q P yU2 st% @ecause this problem has no imposed temperature drop, T must be made dimensionless 'ith the speci"ied initial heat content o" the di!e G% - )uantity 'ith units o" temperature obtained "rom G is G , 2Qc st and the appropriate dimensionless temperature "or this problem is W T T 8 % GU52Qc st6 5>%1486
W as de"ined in this e)uation depends only on q% The inte$ral constraint on
temperature 5>C1A96 can be 'ritten in terms o" W as ] GZZ 2Qc W2 st dq P G 2Qc st 8 or ] 1 Wdq P % 2 8
5>%1416
The heat conduction e)uation must be re'ritten in terms o" W% From ()uation 5>C1486 'e ha#e hT GZZ dW P ht 2Qc st dq 1 t2U2 q R GWZZ 2t 2Qc s 2 5>%1426
t2U2 dW G % P >Qc s q dq R W
-lso, "rom ()uation 5>C1486 one obtains s h2 T sG d2 W 1 P % hy 2 2Qc st dq 2 >st dW d2 W P 2 q dq R W dq2 2 'hich can be inte$rated to $i#e 2qW P dW R c % 1 dq 5>%1446 d dq 5qW6 P d2 W , dq 2 5>%1426
/pon e)uatin$ 5>C1426 and 5>C1426, 'e "ind 5>%14>6
or
5>%14A6
The constant c1 must be Bero because the temperature distribution must be symmetric about the plane y P 8% This re)uires dWUdq P 8 at q P 8% Thus 'e ha#e dW 2qdq P , 5>%1436 W 'hich inte$rates to W P c2 e
q2
5>%1486
From the inte$ral constraint 5>C1416 'e can "ind c2 to be ] 1 X q2 c 2e dq P P c 2 2 2 8
A>A >A>
or
9eat %ransfer
1 c2 P % X Finally, the temperature distribution is T T8 P GZ e y2 U>st % 2Qc Xst
5>%1496
5>%1386
-t distances that are lar$e compared 'ith the 'idth o" the initial temperature distribution, the time dependence o" the temperature is independent o" the initial temperature distribution and is proportional to the heat content o" the re$ion% The temperature at any distance y as $i#en by ()uation 5>C1386 increases 'ith time to a ma imum #alue and then decreases% The time tma 'hen this ma imum occurs can be obtained by settin$ the time deri#ati#e o" ()uation 5>C1386 e)ual to Bero% The result is y2 % 5>%1316 2s ( cept "or a "actor o" 2, tma is the thermal di""usion time correspondin$ to the distance y% Substitution o" ()uation 5>C1316 into ()uation 5>C1386 $i#es the ma imum temperature Tma as a "unction o" y, tma P Tma P T8 R G 1
1U2
Qcy 2Xe
5>%1326
The ma imum temperature is proportional to 1Uy% -pplyin$ these results to the e ample $i#en at the end o" Section >C19, 'e "ind G P 8%8 189 J m 2 'ith the parameter #alues $i#en "or that 2 e in ample and Q P 2988 !$ m % For the temperature distribution $i#en ()uation 5>C1386 to be #alid, the time must be lon$ compared 'ith the solidi"ication time o" 18%9 days% The temperature pro"iles "rom ()uation 5>C 1386 at se#eral times are $i#en in Fi$ure >C>1% The ma imum temperature as a "unction o" distance "rom the center o" the di!e, "rom ()uation 5>C1326, is $i#en in Fi$ure >C>2% 1alculations o" this type can be used to determine the distance "rom an intrusion that lo'-temperature metamorphic reactions in the country roc! can be e pected% >%22 Thermal Stresses -ccordin$ to the la's o" thermodynamics the e)uilibrium state o" any material is determined by any t'o state #ariables% ( amples o" state #ariables
Fi$ure >%>1 Temperatures as a "unction o" distance "rom the center o" a 2-m-'ide intrusion at se#eral times "rom ()uation 5>C1386%
Fi$ure >%>2 ,a imum temperature as a "unction o" distance "rom the center o" a 2-m-'ide intrusion "rom ()uation 5>C1326%
include the temperature T , pressure p, and density Q% &n thermodynamics it is o"ten con#enient to use the speci"ic #olume # 5#olume per unit mass6 rather than the density7 the t'o #ariables are related by 1 % Q
#P
5>%1326
-s a state #ariable, the speci"ic #olume can be related to the pressure and temperature usin$ the chain rule "or partial di""erentiation d# P h# hT
p
dT R
h# hp
dp%
T
5>%13>6
The subscript indicates the #ariable that is held constant durin$ the di""erentiation7 that is, 5h#UhT 6p is the partial deri#ati#e o" #olume 'ith respect to temperature at constant pressure% The t'o partial deri#ati#es appearin$ in ()uation 5>C13>6 are related to 'ell-!no'n thermodynamic )uantities% The isothermal compressi$ility c o" a material is its "ractional chan$e in #olume 'ith pressure at constant temperature, 1 h# , 5>%13A6 cP # hp T and its volumetric coefficient of thermal e#pansion T# is its "ractional chan$e in #olume 'ith temperature at constant pressure, T# P 1 h# # hT %
p
5>%1346
The coe""icients c and T# are material properties that can be obtained "rom laboratory e periments% :e pre#iously sa' in ()uation 52CAA6 ho' c is related to the elastic properties o" a material% Substitution o" ()uations 5>C 13A6 and 5>C1346 into ()uation 5>C13>6 yields d# P #c dp R #T# dT % 5>%1336 &" a material is unconstrained, so that the pressure does not chan$e 5dp P 86 'hen the temperature and #olume chan$e, ()uation 5>C1336 implies d# P #T# dT or dQ P QT# dT % 5>%1396 5>%1386
&" a material is con"ined, so that its #olume cannot chan$e 5d# P 86, the chan$es in temperature and pressure are related by T dp P # dT % 5>%1886 c Typical #alues o" T# and c "or roc! are 2 18 A E 1 and 18 11 0a 1 , respecti#ely% :ith these material properties and a temperature increase o" 188 E, the increase in the con"inin$ pressure "rom ()uation 5>C1886 is _p P

288 ,0a% The implication is that chan$es in temperature can lead to #ery lar$e chan$es in pressure or stress% :hen temperature chan$es occur, the la's o" linear elasticity must be modi"ied to include the thermally associated chan$es in #olume% :e ha#e seen that a temperature chan$e _T produces a #olume chan$e _# P #T# _T in an unconstrained body% This chan$e in #olume is accompanied by the strains 1 g1 P g2 P g2 P T# _T 5>%1816 2 i" the body is isotropic% The minus si$n on the ri$ht side o" ()uation 5>C 1816 arises because o" the si$n con#ention that treats contraction strains as positi#e% The linear coefficient of thermal e#pansion Tl relates the thermally induced strains to the temperature chan$e, g1 P g2 P g2 P Tl _T or Tl P 1 T# , 2 5>%1826
so that the linear coe""icient o" thermal e pansion is the chan$e in the strain in the material per de$ree chan$e in temperature% The total strain in a body is the sum o" the stress-associated strains and the temperature-associated strains% The stress-associated strains ha#e been 'ritten in ()uations 52C>6 to 52C46% &" to these 'e add the thermal strains o" ()uation 5>C1826, 'e obtain the total strain 1 g1 P ( 5b1 m b2 m b2 6 Tl _T 5>%1826
g2 P
5m b1 R b2 m b2 6 Tl _T 5>%18>6
g2 P
5m b1 m b2 R b2 6 Tl _T % ( 5>%18A6
For a state o" unia ial stress 'e ta!e b1 P b and b2 P b2 P 8% From ()uations 5>C1826 to 5>C18A6 'e obtain b Tl _T ( m g 2 P g2 P b T _T % ( g1 P 1 5b1 m b2 6 Tl _T ( 1 g2 P 5b2 m b1 6 Tl _T ( g1 P 5>%1846 5>%1836
For plane stress, b2 P 8, and the e)uations o" thermal elasticity reduce to 5>%1886 5>%1896
m g2 P 5b1 R b2 6 Tl _T % ( 5>%1986 For a state o" isotropic stress b1 P b2 P b2 P p, g1 P g2 P g2 P _U2, and by addin$ ()uations 5>C1826 to 5>C18A6 'e "ind 2 51 2m 6p 2Tl _T % 5>%1916 ( :e pre#iously identi"ied the isothermal compressibility in ()uation 52CAA6 as 2 c P 51 2m 6% 5>%1926 ( This to$ether 'ith Tl P T# U2 and _ P d#U# sho's that ()uation 5>C1916 is e)ui#alent to ()uation 5>C1336% &n Section >C1>, ()uation 5>C896, 'e obtained the temperature distribution in a semi-in"inite hal"-space due to time periodic #ariation o" the sur"ace temperature% -ssumin$ that this hal"-space is a uni"orm elastic medium, 'e can determine the resultant thermal stresses% Ta!e the hal"-space to be con"ined in the horiBontal directions so that g1 P g2 P 8 and to be unconstrained in the #ertical direction so that b2 P 8% From ()uations 5>C 1886 and 5>C1896 'e "ind ( Tl _T b1 P b2 P % 5>%1926 1m _P The temperature _T is measured relati#e to the temperature at 'hich the stress is Bero% For the periodic heatin$ o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space 'e assume that at T P T8 , the a#era$e temperature, the stress is Bero% There"ore substitution o" ()uation 5>C896 into ()uation 5>C1926 $i#es b1 P b2 P ( Tl _T e p y 51 m 6
r
^ cos ^t y 2s
^ , 2s 5>%19>6
'here _T is the actual amplitude o" the periodic sur"ace temperature #ariation about the a#era$e temperature% The ma imum thermal stress is obtained by settin$ y P t P 8 in ()uation 5>C19>6, bma P ( Tl _T % 1m 5>%19A6
.et us ta!e as typical #alues "or roc! ( P 48 G0a, m P 8%2A, and Tl P 18 A E 1 % &" _T P 188 E, 'e "ind that bma P 88 ,0a% &n Section 2C> 'e determined the elastic stresses resultin$ "rom sedimentation and erosion% &t 'as sho'n that the addition or remo#al o" o#erburden caused si$ni"icant de#iatoric stresses% 9o'e#er, 'hen o#erburden is added or
remo#ed, the temperature at a $i#en depth chan$es, and as a result thermal stresses are $enerated% @ecause the e)uations o" thermal elasticity are linear, the thermal stresses can be added to those pre#iously obtained% :e "irst consider near-sur"ace roc!s that ha#e been buried to a depth h% &" su""icient time has elapsed to reestablish the normal $eothermal $radient c, the temperature increase o" the sur"ace roc!s is ch% -$ain assumin$ no horiBontal strain, the thermal stress "rom ()uation 5>C1926 is b1 P b2 P ( Tl c h % 51 m 6 5>%1946
The elastic stress due to the addition o" the o#erburden 'as $i#en in ()uation 52C2>6% -ddition o" the thermal stress to the elastic stress $i#es b1 P b2 P 5>%1936 h 5Q$m R (Tl c6% 51 m 6
To determine the de#iatoric stresses a"ter sedimentation, 'e determine the pressure at depth h, notin$ that b2 P Q$h7 the result is 1 p P 5b1 R b2 R b2 6 2 P 2 ( hTl c 51 R Q$h R % m6 2 51 m 6 251 m 6
5>%1986
The de#iatoric stresses are obtained by subtractin$ this e pression "or p "rom ()uation 5>C1936 and "rom b2 P Q$hF b
1
( h Tl c 51 2m 6 P b2 P Q$h R 251 m 6 251 m 6 2 51 2 ( h Tl c b 6 2m P % 2 2 51 m 6 Q$h 2 51 m 6
5>%1996 5>%2886
The di""erential horiBontal stresses due to the elastic e""ect are e tensional7 because o" the thermal e""ect they are compressional% Fi$ure >C>2 $i#es b1 UQ$h as a "unction o" c "or ( P 48 G0a, m P 8%2A, Tl P 18 A 1 E , $ P 18 m s 2 , and Q P 2388 !$ m 2 % The thermal e""ect is seen to be more important than the elastic e""ect "or thermal $radients $reater than 22 E !m 1 % @ecause this is a typical thermal $radient in continental areas, the thermal and o#erburden stresses are li!ely to be comparable under most conditions o" sedimentation% 1onsider ne t 'hat the sur"ace stress is a"ter h !m o" o#erburden ha#e been eroded% -s in Section 2C> 'e assume that the initial stresses are lithostatic so that ()uation 52C286 $i#es the nonthermal part o" the sur"ace stress% :e also assume that a ne' thermal e)uilibrium has been established subse)uent to the remo#al o" sur"ace material% -"ter the erosion o" h !m
Fi$ure >%>2 Di""erential stress resultin$ "rom the addition o" h !m o" o#erburden to an initially unstressed sur"ace%
the chan$e in temperature o" the sur"ace roc!s is ch% -$ain assumin$ no horiBontal strain, 'e "ind the sur"ace thermal stress "rom ()uation 5>C1926 to be (T ch b1 P b2 P l % 5>%2816 51 m 6 -ddin$ the sur"ace thermal stress to the sur"ace elastic stress due to the remo#al o" o#erburden, ()uation 52C286, 'e obtain b1 P b2 P 5>%2826 h d51 2m 6Q$ (Tl ce% 51 m 6
-s a conse)uence o" erosion, the elastic e""ect causes sur"ace compression, and >C the thermal e""ect causes sur"ace e tension% &" b1 UQ$h $i#en in Fi$ure >2 is multiplied by 2, one obtains b1 UQ$h due to erosion% Thus it is clear that sur"ace thermal stress and sur"ace stresses resultin$ directly "rom remo#al o" sur"ace material are comparable "or typical #alues o" the $eothermal $radient% 0roblem >%>9 Determine the sur"ace stress a"ter 18 !m o" erosion% Ta!e A ( P E 1 , Q P 2388 !$ m 2 , and c P 28 E 148 G0a, m P 8%2A, Tl P 18 !m % 0roblem >%A8 &" T# P 2 18 A E 1 and the temperature o" the (arth increased by 188 E, 'hat 'ould the chan$e in radius beO There is an important distinction bet'een rene!a$le and nonrene!a$le stresses% Thermal and erosional stresses are permanently relie#ed by irre#ersible creep and are e amples o" nonrene'able stresses% ( amples o" rene'able stresses include bendin$ stresses in the lithosphere, the lithosphere stresses that dri#e plate tectonics, and the crustal stresses that support mountain ran$es% These stresses are not relie#ed by a small amount o" creep%

6(45 1cean Floor %opography
414 141
Fi$ure >%>> The principle o" isostasy re)uires the ocean to deepen 'ith a$e to o""set the thermal contraction in the lithosphere%
>%22 *cean Floor Topo$raphy :e pre#iously sol#ed "or the thermal structure o" the lithosphere ad?acent to ocean rid$es in ()uation 5>C12A6% :e also demonstrated in the pre#i- ous section that the coolin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere causes the density o" lithospheric roc! to increase% The relationship bet'een density and temperature is $i#en in ()uation 5>C1396% &n addition, 'e introduced the principle o" isostasy in Section 2C2% The principle o" isostasy states that any #ertical column o" material has the same mass per unit area bet'een the sur"ace and some depth of com2 pensation% This is e)ui#alent to the assumption that the lithostatic pressure at some depth is the same o#er a lar$e horiBontal area% 9o'e#er, as sho'n in Fi$ure >C22, columns o" mantle material at di""erent a$es do not contain the same mass per unit area% The older column contains more dense, cold lithosphere than the youn$er one7 the e tra 'ei$ht o" the older lithosphere causes it to subside% ,antle material belo' the lithosphere "lo's a'ay to accommodate the subsidence, and the ocean "ills in the hole created at the sur"ace% Fi$ure >C>> sho's the oceanic lithosphere 'ith the o#erlyin$ ocean increasin$ in depth 'ith distance "rom the rid$e% The t'o columns o" a$es t1 and t2 no' ha#e the same mass per unit area because the older column contains more 'ater to o""set the added 'ei$ht o" dense lithospheric roc!% The ability o" the mantle roc! beneath the lithosphere to beha#e as a "luid on $eolo$ical time scales is the !ey to the isostatic ad?ustment o" the oceanic lithosphere% @y calculatin$ the masses per unit area in #ertical columns e tendin$ "rom the sur"ace to the base o" the lithosphere and re)uirin$ that these be the same "or columns o" all a$es, 'e can deri#e a "ormula "or the
424 242
depth o" the ocean "loor ' as a "unction o" a$e t or distance "rom the rid$e % The mass per unit area in a column o" any a$e is
]
y. 8
9eat %ransfer
Q dy R 'Q' ,
'here y. is the thic!ness o" the lithosphere and Q' is the density o" 'ater% -t the rid$e crest, Q P Qm the deep mantle density, and the mass o" a column o" #ertical hei$ht ' R y. is Qm 5' R y. 6% &sostasy re)uires that
]
Qm 5' R y.6 P or '5Q' Qm 6 R

]
8
y. 8
Q dy R 'Q'
5>%2826 5>%28>6
y.
5Q Qm 6 dy P 8%
The "irst term in ()uation 5>C28>6 represents a ne$ati#e mass because the 'ater 'ith density Q' is less dense than the mantle roc! that it has replaced because o" the subsidence o" the sea"loor a distance '% The second term in the e)uation represents a positi#e mass because thermal contraction in the coolin$ lithosphere causes the density Q to be hi$her than the re"erence hot mantle roc! density Qm % &ntroducin$ the #olume coe""icient o" thermal e pansion "rom ()uation 5>C1396, 'e can 'rite Q Qm P Qm T# 5T1 T 6% 5>%28A6 /pon substitution o" the temperature pro"ile "rom ()uation 5>C 12A6 into ()uation 5>C28A6 and that result into ()uation 5>C28>6, 'e obtain '5Qm Q' 6 P Qm T# 5T1 T8 6
]
y u8 er"c 2 s
1U2
dy%
5>%2846
@ecause Q Qm and T T1 at the base o" the lithosphere, the limit on the inte$ral has been chan$ed "rom y P y. to y P % :e can re'rite ()uation 5>C2846 by usin$ the similarity #ariable q P 5yU26 5u8 Us 61U2 so that 'P 2Qm T# 5T1 T8 6
]
1U2
er"c5q6 dq%
8
5Qm Q' 6 The de"inite inte$ral has the #alue

]
u8
5>%2836 1 er"c5q6 dq P X
5>%2886
8
Fi$ure >%>A Sea"loor depth as a "unction o" a$e in the -tlantic, 0aci"ic, and &ndian *ceans% Data are "rom DSD0 and *D0 drill sites on normal ocean crust and depths ha#e been corrected "or sediment co#er 5Johnson and 1arlson, 19926% 1omparisons are made 'ith the hal"space coolin$ model 59S1,6 "rom ()uation 5>C2896 and the plate model "rom ()uation 5>C2116 'ith y.8 P 9A !m 50, 9A6 and y.8 P12A !m 50, 12A6%
so that 2Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 'P

1U2
5>%2896
5Qm Q' 6
Xu8
()uation 5>C2896 predicts that the depth o" the ocean increases 'ith the s)uare root o" the distance "rom the rid$e or the s)uare root o" the a$e o" the ocean "loor% This theoretical result is compared 'ith sea"loor depths in Fi$ure >C>A% The results sho'n are "rom Deep Sea Drillin$ 0ro?ect 5DSD06 and *cean Drillin$ 0ro?ect 5*D06 drill sites 5Johnson and 1arlson, 19926% 1orrections ha#e been made "or sediment co#er and results are $i#en "or the -tlantic, 0aci"ic, and &ndian *ceans% 0redicted sea"loor depths are included "or the hal"-space coolin$ model, ()uation 5>C2896, assumin$ Qm P 2 2 2 1 2288 !$ m , Q' P 1888 !$ m , s P 1 mm s , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and 1 A T# P 2 18 E % &n addition, the rid$e depth is 2%A !m% For sea"loor a$es $reater than about 88 ,yr, the predicted #alues are systematically deeper than the obser#ed #alues% This di#er$ence is ta!en as e#idence o" the basal heatin$ o" old oceanic lithosphere% - model that appro imates basal heatin$ o" the lithosphere is the plate coolin$ model introduced in Section >C13% The temperature distribution in the oceanic lithosphere accordin$ to the plate coolin$ model 'as $i#en in ()uation 5>C1286% Substitution o" this temperature distribution into ()ua-
4>4 >4>
tion 5>C28A6 and "urther substitution o" the resultin$ density distribution into ()uation 5>C28>6 $i#e Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 y.8 > ] 'P
t
1 S
9eat %ransfer
1 n
e p
25Qm Q' 6
X
u
8 nP1
sn2 X 2 t sin5nXy 6 dy % y2 .8
5>%2186
(#aluation o" the inte$ral in ()uation 5>C2186 leads to Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 y.8 1 'P > 5Qm Q' 6 2
u t
S
1 51 R 2m62
e p
X2
mP8
2 2 s51 R 2m6 X t % 2 y.8
5>%2116
*nly the terms 'ith n P 1, 2, A, % % % in ()uation 5>C2186 contribute to the result in ()uation 5>C2116 since the terms 'ith n P 2, >, 4, % % % inte$rate to Bero% For lar$e times, t .8 Us, the e)uilibrium depth 'e is $i#en by y2 Qm T# 5T1 T8 6y.8 'e P % 5>%2126 25Qm Q'6 This is the e)uilibrium depth o" the old ocean basins beneath the rid$e crests% This relation pro#ides a constraint on the thic!ness o" the plate in the plate coolin$ model% &n comparin$ the predictions o" this model 'ith obser#ations, 'e consider plate thic!nesses y.8 P 9A and 12A !m% :ith Qm P 2288 !$ m 2, Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and T# P 2 18 A E 1 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5>C2126 that 'e P 2%3 !m "or y.8 P 9A !m and 'e P 2%A !m "or y.8 P 12A !m% :ith the depth o" ocean rid$es e)ual to 2%A !m, the correspondin$ e)uilibrium depths o" ocean basins are A%2 !m and 4 !m, respecti#ely% :e can appro imate the de#iations o" bathymetry "rom the hal"-space coolin$ result $i#en in ()uation 5>C2896 by retainin$ the "irst term o" the e pansion $i#en in ()uation 5>C2116, 'ith the result 'P > Qm T# 5T1 T8 6y.8 Qm Q' 2 1 X2 e p sX 2 t
2 y.8
5>%2126
6(45 1cean Floor 4A4 %opography The n P 2 term in the temperature distribution, ()uation 5>C1286, does A4A not
contribute to the bathymetry% Sea"loor subsidence predicted by the plate coolin$ model is compared 'ith obser#ations and the hal"-space coolin$
model in Fi$ure >C>A "or plate thic!nesses o" y.8 P 9A !m 50, 9A6 and y.8 P 12A !m 50, 12A6% The results "or a plate thic!ness y.8 P 12A !m are in e cellent a$reement 'ith the data% :hile a thic!ness o" y.8 P 9A !m is in $ood a$reement 'ith the heat "lo' data 5as sho'n in Fi$ure >C 2A6, a thic!ness o" y.8 P 12A !m is in $ood a$reement 'ith the subsidence data 5Fi$ure >C>A6% @ecause there is $enerally less scatter in sea"loor bathymetry than in heat "lo', 'e pre"er the #alue y.8 P 12A !m althou$h 'e reco$niBe there is considerable uncertainty in the choice% The plate model is clearly an idealiBation o" the oceanic lithosphere% There is no 'ell-de"ined Llo'er plate boundaryM in the mantle% The "lattenin$ o" the coolin$ cur#es can be attributed to the basal heatin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere% For y.8 P 12A !m, the re)uired basal heatin$ "rom ()uation 5>C 12A6 is )m P 2> m: m 2 , 'hich is )uite close to our pre"erred #alue "or 2 the basal heatin$ o" the continental lithosphere, )m P 28 m: m % The 2 di""erence bet'een the basal heatin$ "lu )m P 2> m: m and the mean oceanic heat "lu )o P 181 m: m 2 'e 'ill re"er to as the plate tectonic or subduction "lu )s P 43 m: m 2 % From this #alue o" the basal heat "lu "or the continental lithosphere and 'ith the area o" the continents includin$ continental mar$ins - c P 2%8 188 !m2 , 'e "ind that 12 the total basal heatin$ o" the continental lithosphere is G P 8%A4 18 :% From the #alue o" the basal heat "lu "or the mc oceanic lithosphere and 'ith the area o" the oceans includin$ mar$inal basins - o P 2%1 188 !m2 , 'e "ind that the total basal heatin$ o" the oceanic lithosphere is Gmo P 1%8A 1812 :% Thus, the basal heatin$ o" the entire lithosphere is Gm P 1%41 1812 :, 'hich represents 24N o" the total $lobal heat "lu G$ P >%>2 1812 :% From the estimate o" the "raction o" the oceanic heat "lo' directly associated 'ith subduction 5)s P 43 m: m 2 6 'e "ind that the total heat "lu associated 'ith subduction is Gs P 2%88 1812 :% The total $lobal heat "lu can be di#ided into three contributionsF 516 radio$enic heat production in the continental crust Gr P12 8%3> 1812 : 514%3N6, 526 basal heatin$ o" the lithosphere Gm P 1%41 18 : 524%2N6, and 526 subduction o" the oceanic lithosphere Gs P 2%88 1812 : 5>3N6% These results sho' that basal heatin$ o" the lithosphere is )uantitati#ely lar$e% There are t'o competin$ hypotheses "or this basal heatin$% The "irst is heat trans"er "rom mantle plumes impin$in$ on the base o" the lithosphere, and the second is small-scale or secondary con#ection in the lo'er lithosphere and underlyin$ asthenosphere% &t is $enerally accepted that mantle plumes are a source o" basal heatin$ so that the only )uestion is the ma$nitude o" this heatin$% :e 'ill address this )uestion in 1hapter 4% Small-scale or secondary con#ection is associated 'ith an instability in the lo'er litho-
Fi$ure >%>4 Dia$ram "or 0roblem >CA2%
sphere arisin$ "rom the stron$ temperature dependence o" the lithospheric #iscosity% &t is a "orm o" delamination or "ounderin$ o" the lithosphere and contrasts 'ith the instability o" the entire lithosphere that is mani"est as lithospheric subduction at an ocean trench% The amount o" heat transported by secondary con#ection near the base o" the lithosphere is hi$hly uncertain% 0roblem >%A1 -ssume that the temperature in the subductin$ lithosphere is $i#en by ()uation 5>C1216% Sho' that the plate tectonic heat "lu associated 'ith subduction Gs is $i#en by Gs P 1 Qm cy.8 Fs , 2
'here Qm is mantle density, c is the speci"ic heat, and Fs is rate o" sea"loor 1 1 subduction% Determine Gs ta!in$ Q P 2288 !$ m , c P 1 !J !$ E 1, m 2 1 y.8 P 12A !m, and Fs P 8%898 m s % 0roblem >%A2 The ocean rid$es are made up o" a series o" parallel se$ments connected by trans"orm "aults, as sho'n in Fi$ure 1C12% @ecause o" the di""erence o" a$e there is a #ertical o""set on the "racture Bones% -ssumin$ the theory ?ust deri#ed is applicable, 'hat is the #ertical o""set 5a6 at the rid$e crest and 5b6 188 !m "rom the rid$e crest in Fi$ure >C>4 5Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , T# P 2 18 A E 1 , T1 T8 P 1288 E, u P A8 mm yr 1 6% 0roblem >%A2 @ecause o" its coolin$, the sea"loor subsides relati#e to a continent at a passi#e continental mar$in% Determine the #elocity o" sub2 2 1 sidence i" Q P 2288 !$ m , s P 1 mm s , T1 T8 P 1288 E, T# P m A 1 2 18 E , and the a$e is 28 ,a% 0roblem >%A> The in"luence o" a small amount o" partial melt on the lithosphereCasthenosphere boundary has been considered in 0roblem >C>2% Determine the contribution o" this small de$ree o" partial melt to the subsidence o" the sea"loor as a "unction o" a$e% The density o" the ma$ma is Ql , its mass "raction is , and the latent heat o" "usion is .% &" P 8%8A, . P >88 !J !$ 1 , c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , T1 T8 P 12A8 E, s P 1 mm2 1 s , Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Ql P 2888 !$ m 2 , and T# P 2 18 A E 1 , determine
6(46 Changes in "ea Level
222
Fi$ure >%>3 9ei$ht o" the sea sur"ace in the past relati#e to present sea le#el "rom studies o" sedimentation 5+ail et al%, 19386%
the ratio o" the subsidence due to solidi"ication to the subsidence due to thermal contraction%
>%2> 1han$es in Sea .e#el 1han$es in sea le#el are 'ell documented "rom studies o" sedimentation% *n short time scales 518> to 18A years6 sea le#el chan$es can be e plained by #ariations in the #olume o" the polar ice sheets% 9o'e#er, on lon$er time scales 5183 to 188 years6 the ma$nitudes o" sea le#el chan$es are too lar$e to be understood in this 'ay% &" the polar ice sheets 'ere completely melted, the 'ater added to the oceans 'ould increase sea le#el by about 88 m% =et compared 'ith its present le#el, the sea has been hundreds o" meters hi$her durin$ the last AA8 ,a, as sho'n by the record in Fi$ure >C>3 5the #alue at t P 8 o" 88 m abo#e present sea le#el accounts "or the 'ater in the polar ice sheets6% Sea le#el in the 1retaceous 588 ,a6 'as 288 m hi$her than it is today, and 'ater "looded about >8N o" the present area o" the continents% These lar$e, lon$-term chan$es in sea le#el are attributed to chan$es in the a#era$e depth o" the sea"loor belo' the le#el o" the rid$e crests% &" this 'f a#era$e depth decreases as a conse)uence o" a decrease in the a#era$e a$e n o" subduction, the #olume o" 'ater contained in the deep ocean basins decreases and the hei$ht o" the sea abo#e the rid$e crests h, that is, sea le#el, increases% This is supported by ma$netic anomaly studies that sho'
484 848
that the 1retaceous 'as a time 'hen there 'ere more rid$es and the rid$es 'ere spreadin$ more rapidly than at present% Since 3A ,a, an e tensi#e rid$e system has been subducted beneath 'estern <orth -merica% Thus, on a#era$e, the present sea"loor is older and deeper than the sea"loor at 88 ,a% The present deep ocean basins hold more 'ater than the basins durin$ the 1retaceous, and the sea sur"ace today lies 'ell belo' its le#el in that period% 1han$es in the con"i$uration o" the sea"loor cannot chan$e the total #olume o" 'ater in the oceans% &" 'e ne$lect the chan$es that occur in the area o" the oceans as sea le#el chan$es, a chan$e in the mean depth o" the a'f ocean basins belo' the rid$e crests produces an opposite chan$e ah in the hei$ht o" the sea abo#e the rid$e crests ah P a'f % 5>%21>6 The mean depth o" the ocean "loor is 'f P 1 n
]
n 8
9eat %ransfer
' dt%
5>%21A6
@y substitutin$ "or ' "rom ()uation 5>C2896, 'e $et 'f P P 2Qm T# 5T1 5Qm Q' 6 X > Qm T# 5T1 T8 6
1U2
T8 6
s sn
1U2
1
8
n %
n 1U2
dt 5>%2146
5Qm Q' 6
The mean depth o" the ocean basins is directly proportional to the s)uare root o" the mean a$e o" subduction% Sea le#el chan$es are there"ore related to chan$es in the a#era$e a$e at 'hich subduction occurs by > Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 ah P
1U2
s a5n
1U2
5Qm Q' 6
6%
5>%2136
()uation 5>C2136 enables us to estimate the mean a$e o" subduction A 1 durin$ 2 the 1retaceous% :e ta!e Q P 2288 !$ m , T E s P 2 # P 2 18 2 1 m 1 mm s , T1 T8 P 1288 E, Q' P 1888 !$ m , the present mean , a$e o" subduction e)ual to 128%8 ,yr, and ah P 228 m 588 m o" the 288-m sea le#el rise is attributed to 'ater presently loc!ed up in polar ice6% The a#era$e a$e at 'hich sea"loor subducted in the 1retaceous is "ound to be 188 ,yr% Sea le#el chan$es due to chan$es in the mean subduction a$e o" the sea"loor can be used to in"er past #ariations in the mean oceanic heat "lo' )f8 % @y combinin$ ()uations 5>C1286 and 5>C2136, 'e "ind a 1 P 2X 5Qm Q' 6 ah%
5>%2186 )f8
8 !Qm T# 5T1 T8 62
:e 'ill see that the chan$es that ha#e occurred in mean oceanic heat "lo' a)f8 are small compared 'ith the present #alue )f8Q % The le"t side o" ()uation 2 5>C2186 can there"ore be appro imated by a)f8 U)f 8Q , and 'e can 'rite the percenta$e #ariation in mean oceanic heat "lo' as a)f8 P 2X 5Qm Q' 6)f8Q ah%
5>%2196 8 !Qm T# 5T1 T8 62 )f8Q 9i$her sea le#els in the past imply lar$er #alues o" the mean oceanic heat "lu % This is e pected "rom the association o" hi$her sea le#els 'ith a youn$er sea"loor% :ith the pre#ious parameter #alues, ! P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 , and 2 )f8Q P 83 m: m , 'e "ind that a 24 m increase in sea le#el is associated 'ith a 1N increase in the mean oceanic heat "lu % The "ractional chan$es in a#era$e oceanic heat "lo' in"erred "rom the sea le#el data o" Fi$ure >C>3 'ith ()uation 5>C2196 and the abo#e parameter #alues are sho'n in Fi$ure >C>8% The "i$ure also sho's the increase in a#era$e oceanic heat "lo' that 'ould be e pected in the past i" the heat lost throu$h the oceans 'as proportional to the increased rate o" heat production "rom the radioacti#e isotopes in the mantle C see ()uation 5>C86% The in"erred "ractional chan$es that ha#e occurred in the a#era$e oceanic heat "lu durin$ the past AA8 ,a are about 18N% These #ariations in oceanic heat "lo' are not attributable to lar$er radio$enic heat production rates in the past% &nstead they are statistical #ariations associated 'ith chan$es in the $eometry and the mean spreadin$ rate o" the oceanic rid$e system% 0roblem >%AA :hat 'ould be the decrease in sea le#el due to a 18N reduction in the area o" the continentsO -ssume the depth o" deep ocean basins to be A !m%
>%2A Thermal and Subsidence 9istory o" Sedimentary @asins Subsidence o" the (arths sur"ace o"ten results in the "ormation o" sedimen2 tary $asins% :e can e plain the subsidence history o" many sedimentary basins by essentially the same model that 'e used to understand the coolin$, thic!enin$, and subsidence o" the oceanic lithosphere% The model is illustrated in Fi$ure >C>9% 1onsider a re$ion o" the (arth that is hot, either because o" sea"loor spreadin$ or e tensi#e #olcanism% &nitially 5t P 86 there is no sediment, and the basement has a temperature T1 and a density Qm % Sur"ace coolin$ causes subsidence as the basement roc!s cool and contract% :e assume that sediments "ill the basin caused by the subsidence7 that is,
Fi$ure >%>8 Fractional #ariations in the mean oceanic heat "lo' in the past AA8 ,a in"erred "rom the sea le#el data in Fi$ure >C>3 and ()uation 5>C 2196% The dashed line is the e pected increase in the mean oceanic heat "lo' due to the lar$er rate o" radio$enic heat production in the past%
Fi$ure >%>9 Sedimentary basin model%
the re$ion 8 \ y \ yS@ % This assumption re)uires an ade)uate supply o" sediment to pre#ent the "ormation o" a deep ocean basin% -s lon$ as the thic!ness o" the sediment yS@ is much smaller than the lithosphere thic!ness y. , 'e can carry o#er the results o" the coolin$ oceanic lithosphere calculation% There"ore the depth o" the sedimentary basin is $i#en by ()uation 5>C2896 'ith Qs , the density o" the sediments, replacin$ Q' , and t, the a$e o" the basin, replacin$ Uu8 , the a$e o" the oceanic lithosphere7 the result is yS@ P 2Qm Tm 5T1 T8 6 sm t , X 5Qm Qs 6
1U2
5>%2286
'here the subscripts m on T and s emphasiBe that these properties re"er
Fi$ure >%A8 Depths to sedimentary layers deposited at times ts as "unctions o" time%
to the mantle roc!s and not the sediment 5Tm is T# "or the mantle roc!s6% The depth o" the sedimentary basin is proportional to the s)uare root o" time% The subsidence o" the basin is caused primarily by the coolin$ o" the basement or lithospheric roc!s% The coolin$ o" the sedimentary roc!s is a ne$li$ible e""ect 'hen yS@ Uy. 1% &t is o" interest to determine the subsidence history o" a sedimentary layer that 'as deposited at a time ts a"ter the initiation o" subsidence% -t the time ts the basement lies at a depth $i#en by settin$ t P ts in ()uation 5>C2286% -ssumin$ no compaction o" the sediments, the layers deposited at time ts 'ill al'ays be this distance abo#e the basement% 9o'e#er, the depth o" the basement at time t is $i#en directly by ()uation 5>C2286% There"ore the depth to the sediments deposited at time t P ts at a later time t, denoted by ys , is $i#en by the di""erence bet'een the depth to basement at t and ts 7 that is, 2Qm Tm 5T1 T8 6 1U2 ys P 5Qm Qs 6 X sm 5t
1U2 1U2
t 6% s
5>%2216
The depth to sedimentary layers deposited at #arious times is $i#en in Fi$2 ure >CA8% These cur#es 'ere calculated assumin$ 2 , A 1 that Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 1 sm P 1 mm s , T1 T8 P 1288 E, Tm P 218 E , and Qs P 2A88 !$ m % @ecause the sedimentary layer is thin, the temperatureCdepth pro"ile is essentially linear in the sediments% The sedimentary layer must transport the heat "rom the coolin$ basement roc!s% Denotin$ this heat "lu by )8 , 'e ha#e, "rom ()uation 5>C1236, ! m 5T1 T8 6 )8 P % Xsm t
5>%2226
From Fouriers la' o" heat conduction, 'e !no' that in the sediments )8 P ! s dT dy ,
s
5>%2226
'here 5dT Udy6s is the constant $eothermal $radient in the sediments% @y combinin$ these last t'o e)uations, 'e $et dT dy P
s
! m 5T 1 T 6 % !8 Xsm t s
5>%22>6
Thus the temperature distribution in the sediments is ! m 5T1 T8 6 Ts P T8 R y% !s Xsm t
5>%22A6
The temperature o" a sedimentary layer deposited at time ts at a subse)uent time t is $i#en by substitutin$ ()uation 5>C2216 into ()uation 5>C22A6 TS. 2 ! m Qm Tm 5T1 T8 62 P T8 R 1 5Qm Qs 6 X !s
r
ts t % 5>%2246
The thermal history o" a sedimentary layer can be used to determine 'hether or$anic material in the sediments has been con#erted to petroleum% The .os -n$eles basin is a relati#ely small sedimentary basin 'ith a 'idth o" about A8 !m and a len$th o" about 3A !m% The basin is a pull- apart structure associated 'ith the San -ndreas "ault system% &t is probably similar to the small spreadin$ centers that o""set trans"orm "aults in the Gul" o" 1ali"ornia% Durin$ the initiation o" the basin subsidence, #olcanism 'as occurrin$% +olcanic roc!s "rom drill holes in the basin ha#e a$es o" 18 to 1A ,a% This #olcanism 'as probably similar to the #olcanism presently occurrin$ in the &mperial +alley o" southern 1ali"ornia% Since #olcanism ceased at about 18 ,a, subsidence has continued% &t is reasonable to assume that the #olcanism thinned the lithosphere and that the subse)uent subsidence is associated 'ith the conducti#e coolin$ and thic!enin$ o" the lithosphere% The structure o" the basin is clearly comple , 'ith considerable "aultin$% -lthou$h these "aults add comple ity to the basin, they are also li!ely to allo' "ree #ertical subsidence o" the #arious "ault-bounded bloc!s% .et us apply our analysis o" the thermal subsidence o" sedimentary basins to the south'est bloc!, 'hich e tends rou$hly "rom Santa ,onica to .on$ @each and is the site o" se#eral ma?or oil "ields% - cross section o" this part o" the basin is $i#en in Fi$ure >CA1% The depths o" #arious sedimentary units in
Fi$ure >%A1 1ross section o" the south'est bloc! o" the .os -n$eles basin% 5From California 1il and Gas Fields, +ol% 2, 1ali"ornia Di#ision o" *il and Gas, ;eport T;12, Sacramento, 193>6% The sedimentary layers are 0leistoceneC9olocene 5096, /pper 0liocene 5/0&6, .o'er 0liocene 5.0&6, /pper ,iocene 5/,i6, ,iddle ,iocene 5,,i6, and 1retaceous or older basement 51r6% -lso sho'n is the theoretical section "rom ()uation 5>C 2216%
Fi$ure >%A2 The crosses are the depths to the boundaries bet'een strati$raphic units in the :ilmin$ton oil "ield at the a$es o" the boundaries% The solid line is the subsidence predicted by ()uation 5>C2216%
the :ilmin$ton oil "ield are $i#en as a "unction o" their a$es in Fi$ure >CA2% The predicted depths o" these sedimentary units are $i#en by ()uation 5>C 2 A 1 2 2216% Ta!in$ Qm P 2288 !$ m , Qs P 2A88!$ m , Tm P 2 18 E , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and sm P 1 mm2 s 1 , 'e obtain the solid cur#e $i#en in Fi$ure >CA2% The predicted theoretical section is also $i#en in Fi$ure >C A2% ;easonably $ood a$reement is obtained, althou$h considerable tectonic structure is clearly associated 'ith the "ormation o" the basin and subse)uent motion on the San -ndreas "ault no' located to the east%
3>3 >3>
The present thermal $radient in the basin is predicted by ()uation 5>C 22>6% :ith ! m P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 , ! s P 2 : m 1 E 1 , and the other parameter #alues as be"ore, 'e "ind 5dT Udy6s P A9 E !m 1 % The measured sur"ace thermal $radients in the :ilmin$ton oil "ield are in the ran$e >8 to A4 E !m 1 % -$ain reasonably $ood a$reement is obtained% 0roblem >%A4 -ssume that the continental lithosphere satis"ies the hal"space coolin$ model% &" a continental re$ion has an a$e o" 1%A 189 years, ho' much subsidence 'ould ha#e been e pected to occur in the last 288 ,aO Ta!e Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , Tm T8 P 1288 E, and T# P 2 18 A E 1 % -ssume that the subsidin$ lithosphere is bein$ co#ered to sea le#el 'ith sediments o" density Qs P 2A88 !$ m 2 % 0roblem >%A3 &" petroleum "ormation re)uires temperatures bet'een 288 and >28 E, ho' deep 'ould you drill in a sedimentary basin 28 ,a oldO -ssume T8 P 28A E, T1 P 1488 E, sm P 1 mm2 s 1 , ! s P 2 : m 1 E 1 , and ! m P 2%2 : m 1 E 1 % &n Section 2C2 'e introduced the crustal stretchin$ model to e plain the subsidence o" a sedimentary basin% &n this model the subsidence is caused by the thinnin$ o" the continental crust% The model 'as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C >7 a section o" continental crust 'ith an initial 'idth '8 stretched by a stretchin$ "actor T to a "inal 'idth 'b P T'8 "rom ()uation 52C46% &n order to conser#e the #olume o" the crust the initial thic!ness o" the crust hcc is reduced to hcb P hcc UT as $i#en by ()uation 52C86% The resultin$ depth o" the sedimentary basin hsb is $i#en by ()uation 52C186% :e no' e tend the crustal stretchin$ model by assumin$ that the continental lithosphere 'ithin the sedimentary basin is also mechanically stretched and thinned by the same stretchin$ "actor T as the crust% :e assume that the shape o" the temperature pro"ile in the lithosphere remains unchan$ed but that its thic!ness is reduced by the "actor 1UT% :e assume that be"ore stretchin$, the temperature distribution in the lithosphere is $i#en by ()uation 5>C12>6% @y introducin$ the thic!ness o" the unstretched lithosphere y.8 "rom ()uation 5>C1246, 'e can re'rite ()uation 5>C12>6 as T1 T P er"c51%14yUy.86% 5>%2236 T1 T8 &n order to conser#e the #olume o" the lithosphere 'e re)uire y y.b P .8 , 5>%2286 T 'here y.b is the thic!ness o" the stretched lithosphere% The temperature
9eat %ransfer
distribution in the stretched and thinned lithosphere is $i#en by T1 T P er"c51%14yTUy.86% T1 T8 5>%2296
:hereas the thinnin$ o" the crust produces subsidence, the thinnin$ o" the lithosphere inhibits subsidence% The thinned continental lithosphere is hotter and less dense than the ori$inal lithosphere leadin$ to a thermal upli"t% -pplication o" the principle o" isostasy to the base o" the continental lithosphere $i#es
]
5Qcc Qm 6hcc Qm Tm 5T1 T8 6 P 5Qs Qm 6hsb R 5Qcc Q m 6

]
8
1%14y dy y.8 er"c
hcc m Q T m 5T 1 T 8 6 T 5>%2286
er" c
1%14Ty y.8
dy%
(#aluation o" the inte$rals usin$ ()uation 5>C2886 $i#es the thic!ness o" the sedimentary basin hsb in terms o" the stretchin$ "actor T as hsb P 5Qm Qcc 6 1 hcc 1%14 X 5Qm Qs 6 1 1 % T Qm Tm 5T1 T8 6y.8 5Qm Qs 6 5>%2216
The dependence o" the basin thic!ness on T is the same as that $i#en in ()uation 52C186 "or crustal thinnin$ alone% Ta!in$ the same parame2 ter #alues used in Section 2C2 5hcc P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m , Qcc P 2888 !$ m 2 , and Qs P 2A88 !$ m 2 6 alon$ 'ith Tm P 2 18 A E 1 , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and y.8 P 1A8 !m, 'e "ind that hsb P 18%1 !m in the limit T % The subsidence associated 'ith crustal thinnin$ alone 'ould be 22 !m, so the lithospheric thinnin$ reduces the subsidence considerably% &n the analysis ?ust $i#en, 'e implicitly assumed that crust and lithosphere are stretched in a time inter#al that is short compared 'ith the thermal time 2 constant sUy. o" the thinned lithosphere% -"ter the initial thinnin$ o" the crust and lithosphere, the lithosphere 'ill thic!en because o" the loss o" heat to the sur"ace% This coolin$ and thic!enin$ o" the lithosphere 'ill lead to "urther thermal subsidence% :ith the assumption that the temperature pro"ile in the thic!enin$ lithosphere as a "unction o" time is $i#en by ()uation 5>C12>6, the thic!ness o" the sedimentary basin as a "unction o" time is $i#en
Fi$ure >%A2 Depth o" the sedimentary basin hsb as a "unction o" a$e t "or se#eral #alues o" the stretchin$ "actor T%
by hsb P hcc
t
Qm Qc c Qm Qs
1 y.8 Q m Tm 5T1 T8 6 T 1%14 X5Qm Qs 6

1U2
1 2%222 st 1 R 2 T2 y.8
5>%2226
The thic!ness o" the sedimentary basin as a "unction o" time is $i#en in Fi$ure >CA2 "or se#eral #alues o" thestretchin$ "actor and "or the same parameters as be"ore 'ith s P 1 mm2 s 1 % :hen the thic!ness o" the thinned lithosphere increases to its initial #alue y.8 , the total subsidence 'ill be that $i#en by ()uation 52C186% 0roblem >%A8 -ssume that the continental crust and lithosphere ha#e been stretched by a "actor T P 2% Ta!in$ hcc P 2A !m, y.8 P 12A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 23A8 !$ m 2, Qs P 2AA8 !$ m 2, T# P 2 18 A E 1, and T1 T8 P 1288 E, determine the depth o" the sedimentary basin% :hat is the depth o" the sedimentary basin 'hen the thermal lithosphere has thic!ened to its ori$inal thic!nessO
6(4? 9eating or Cooling a "emi2Infinite 9alf2"pace
222
0roblem >%A9 -ssume that the continental crust and lithosphere ha#e been stretched by a "actor T P >% Ta!in$ hcc P 2A !m, y P 1A8 !m, .8 Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 2388 !$ m 2, Qs P 2>A8 !$ m 2, T# P 2 18 A E 1, and T1 T8 P 12A8 E, determine the depth o" the sedimentary basin% :hat is the depth o" the sedimentary basin 'hen the thermal lithosphere has thic!ened to its ori$inal thic!nessO 0roblem >%48 The compression model "or a continental mountain belt considered in 0roblem 2C4 can be e tended to include the compression o" the lithosphere% -ssumin$ that the temperature in the lithosphere a"ter compression is $i#en by T1 T 1%14y P er"c T1 T8 cy.8 5>%2226 sho' that the hei$ht o" the mountain belt is $i#en by hP T# 5T1 5Qm Qcc 6 T8 6y.8 cc h 5c 16% 1%14 X Qm 5>%22>6 -ssumin$ c P 2, hcc P 2A !m, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qcc P 2888 !$ m 2 , T# P 2 18 A , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and y.8 P 1A8 !m, determine the hei$ht o" the mountain belt and the thic!ness o" the crustal root% >%24 9eatin$ or 1oolin$ a Semi-&n"inite 9al"-Space by a 1onstant Sur"ace 9eat Flu So "ar 'e ha#e been primarily concerned 'ith heat conduction problems in 'hich temperature boundary conditions are speci"ied% &n some $eolo$ical applications it is appropriate to speci"y boundary conditions on the heat "lu % &" 'e ta!e the partial deri#ati#e o" the unsteady heat conduction e)uation 5>C486 'ith respect to y and substitute Fouriers la' 5>C16, 'e obtain h) h2 ) Ps 2 ht hy % 5>%22A6

The heat "lu satis"ies the same di""usion e)uation as does temperature% :e no' consider the heatin$ o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space by the constant addition o" heat at its sur"ace, ) P )8 at y P 8% &nitially at t P 8 the temperature in the hal"-space is constant T P T8 , and there is no heat "lo' )586 P 8% This problem is sol#ed by ()uation 5>C22A6 'ith the boundary conditions ) P 8 at t P 8, y[8
383 838
) P )8 at y P 8, ) 8 as y ,
9eat %ransfer
t[8 t [ 8% 5>%2246
This problem is identical 'ith the sudden heatin$ or coolin$ o" a semi-in"inite hal"-space% ()uation 5>C22A6 to$ether 'ith conditions 5>C2246 is e)ui#alent to ()uation 5>C9>6 and conditions 5>C9A6 i" 'e identi"y W as )U)8 % The solution "rom ()uation 5>C1126 is ) P )8 er"c q, 5>%2236
'ith q de"ined by ()uation 5>C946% &n order to "ind the temperature, 'e substitute Fouriers la' 5>C16 into ()uation 5>C2236 'ith the result hT ) ) y P 8 er"c q P 8 er"c % hy ! ! 2 st 5>%2286
:e can inte$rate ()uation 5>C2286 usin$ the boundary condition T T8 as y % :e "ind

y ) y T P T8 8 er"c dy 2 st ! ] )8 y P T8 R er"c dy 2 st ! y ] 2) st P T8 R 8 er"c q dq % ! 5>%2296 q
-"ter an inte$ration by parts 'e can e press the temperature as

q T P T8 R 2)8 st e q er"c q ! X r y 2) st y2 U>st y P T8 R 8 e er"c % ! X 2 2 st
2
5>%2>86 The sur"ace temperature Ts is obtained by settin$ y P 8 in ()uation 5>C2>86 Ts P T8 R 2)8 ! st X

1U2
5>%2>16
This "ormula $i#es the increase in the sur"ace temperature due to the uni"orm addition o" heat to a hal"-space% 0roblem >%41 The heat loss "rom the (arths sur"ace )s due to radiation is $i#en by )s P bT > , 5>%2>26
6(4= Frictional 9eating on Faults
22A
Fi$ure >%A> Geometry o" the descendin$ plate% 5a6 Side #ie'% 5$6 +ertical #ie'%
'here b P 8%A43 18 3 : m 2 E > is the "tefan20olt+mann constant, and T is the absolute temperature% -ssumin$ that T P 288 E, ! P 2 : m 1 1 E , and s P 8%8 mm2 s 1 , use this heat loss to determine the coolin$ o" the (arths sur"ace durin$ 12 hr o" ni$ht% 5-ssume ) is constant, a reasonable appro imation, and use the hal"-space coolin$ model in this section%6 >%23 Frictional 9eatin$ on FaultsF &sland -rc +olcanism and ,eltin$ on the Sur"ace o" the Descendin$ Slab -s noted in Section 1C>, ocean trenches 'here subduction is occurrin$ usually ha#e parallel chains o" acti#e #olcanoes o#erlyin$ the descendin$ lithosphere% Since the subduction process returns cold lithospheric roc!s into the interior o" the (arth, a subduction Bone 'ould be e pected to ha#e lo' temperatures and lo' sur"ace heat "lo's% &t is )uite surprisin$, there"ore, that e tensi#e #olcanism is associated 'ith subduction Bones% *ne e planation "or the hi$h temperatures re)uired "or #olcanism is "rictional heatin$ on the "ault Bone bet'een the descendin$ lithosphere and the o#erlyin$ mantle% That this "ault Bone is the site o" many lar$e earth)ua!es is indicati#e o" a lar$e stress on the "ault% :hen slip occurs in the presence o" a lar$e stress, si$ni"icant "rictional heatin$ occurs% &" the mean stress on the "ault is n and the mean #elocity o" the descendin$ plate is u, the mean rate o" heat production on the "ault, per unit area o" the "ault, is ) P un% 5>%2>26
888 888
To assess the in"luence o" "ault heatin$ on the descendin$ lithosphere, let us consider the simpli"ied $eometry illustrated in Fi$ure >CA>% The sur"ace plate approaches the trench 'ith a #elocity u at an an$le Y to the normal to the trench and descends into the mantle at an an$le W to the horiBontal% The linear chain o" acti#e #olcanoes lies at a distance d# abo#e the slip Bone% -n , y coordinate system is set up in the descendin$ plate as sho'n% The solution "or constant heat addition to a uni"orm hal"-space can be used "or this problem i" se#eral assumptions are madeF a% - substantial "raction o" the heat produced on the "ault Bone is lost to the underlyin$ descendin$ lithosphere% This is a $ood appro imation because the cold descendin$ plate is the dominant heat sin!% b% The initial thermal structure o" the lithosphere can be ne$lected% @ecause thermal conduction problems are linear in temperature, their solutions can be superimposed% The heat addition problem can be treated independently o" the ambient conduction problem as lon$ as the re)uired boundary conditions are not #iolated% c% Time t in the transient conduction problem is replaced by tP u cos Y % 5>C2>>6
9eat %ransfer
Substitution o" ()uations 5>C2>26 and 5>C2>>6 into ()uation 5>C2>16 $i#es the temperature on the slip Bone TsB as TsB P T8 R 2n ! us X cos Y
1U2
5>%2>A6
For sur"ace #olcanism to occur, the temperature on the slip Bone beneath the #olcanoes 5'ith d# P sin W6 must e)ual the melt temperature o" the roc! Tm % From ()uation 5>C2>A6 'e "ind Tm P T8 R 2n !
1U2 sd# u % X cos Y sin W
5>%2>46
-s a typical e ample o" a trench system 'e ta!e Tm T8 P 1288 E, u P 188 mm yr 1 , ! P > : m 1 E 1 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , d# P 12A !m, W P >A , and Y P 8 % From ()uation 5>C2>46 'e "ind that the mean stress le#el re)uired to produce the necessary heatin$ is n P 188 ,0a% -lthou$h this is a hi$h stress, it may be a reasonable #alue 'hen relati#ely cool roc!s are carried to depths 'here the lithostatic pressure is hi$h% Stress le#els on "aults are considered in some detail in 1hapter 8% 0roblem >%42 -ssume a constant slidin$ #elocity u" on a "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e that results in a "rictional heat production u" n 5n is the stress
on the "ault6% &" u" P 18 m s 1 , the total displacement d P > m, n P 18 ,0a, ! P > : m 1 E 1 , and s P 1 mm2 s 1 , 'hat is the temperature increase on the "ault durin$ the earth)ua!e as predicted by ()uation 5>C2>A6O 0roblem >%42 The amount o" heat $enerated by "riction on a "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e is $i#en by G P bn , 'here $ is the slip on the "ault and n is the mean stress on the "ault% &" b P 2 m and n P 18 ,0a, 'hat is the ma imum temperature increase 1 m "rom the "ault due to "riction on the "ault 5Q P 2388 !$ m 2 , c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 6O >%28 ,antle Geotherms and -diabats The thermal structure o" the upper mantle is dominated by the lar$e temperature $radients in the lithosphere% The thermal structure o" the oceanic lithosphere 'as determined in Sections >C14 and >C137 the temperatureC depth relation is $i#en in ()uation 5>C12A6 or ()uation 5>C1286% - representati#e $eotherm "or the oceanic lithosphere 'as plotted in Fi$ure >C 23 "or t P 48%> ,yr, T1 T8 P 1288 E, and s P 1 mm2 s 1 % The thermal structure o" stable continental crust 'as determined in Section >C8 and $i#en in Fi$ure >C12% @eneath the thermal boundary layer that de"ines the lithosphere, heat transport is primarily by con#ection% Details o" this con#ection and the creep mechanisms responsible "or the "luidli!e beha#ior o" hot, solid mantle roc! are discussed in later chapters% For our purposes it is su""icient to !no' that in the interior o" a #i$orously con#ectin$ "luid the mean temperature increases 'ith depth appro imately alon$ an adia$at% The adia$atic tem2 perature gradient in the mantle is the rate o" increase o" temperature 'ith depth as a result o" compression o" the roc! by the 'ei$ht o" the o#erlyin$ material% &" an element o" material is compressed and reduced in #olume by increasin$ pressure, it 'ill also be heated as a result o" the 'or! done by the pressure "orces durin$ the compression% &" there is no trans"er o" heat into or out o" the element durin$ this process, the compression is said to be adiabatic, and the associated temperature rise is the adiabatic increase in temperature% The chan$e in density 'ith pressure under adiabatic conditions is $i#en by the adiabatic compressibility ca P 1 hQ % Q hp s 5>%2>36
The subscript s means that the entropy s is constant% - re#ersible adiabatic process is a constant entropy or isentropic process% For a solid the adiabatic
Fi$ure >%AA Seismic #elocities Cp and Cs and the density Q are $i#en as a "unction o" depth%
compressibility is some'hat smaller than the isothermal compressibility de"ined in ()uation 5>C13A6 because the temperature increases 'ith pressure in an adiabatic process so there is some thermal e pansion% &" 'e assume that the adiabatic compressibility is a constant, 'e can inte$rate ()uation 5>C 2>36 'ith the boundary condition Q P Q8 at p P 8 to $i#e Q P Q 8 e ca p % The increase in pressure 'ith depth is $i#en by dp P Q$% dy 5>%2>96 5>%2>86
For the (arths mantle 'e can reasonably assume that the $ra#itational acceleration $ is a constant% @y combinin$ ()uations 5>C2>86 and 5>C 2>96 and inte$ratin$ 'ith $ constant and the boundary condition p P 8 at y P 8, 'e obtain 1 5>%2A86 pP ln51 Q y6 8 a $c ca Q % 5>%2A16 QP 8 1 Q8 $yca These e pressions "or pressure and density as "unctions o" depth are not completely satis"actory appro imations to the actual pressure and density in the mantle% The dependence o" the mantle density on depth is $i#en in Fi$ure >CAA% The #alues 'ere deduced "rom the seismic #elocities, 'hich are also
sho'n in Fi$ure >CAA and are tabulated in Section F o" -ppendi 2% The density discontinuity near a depth o" >18 !m is attributed to a solidCsolid phase chan$e o" the mineral oli#ine, the dominant mineral in the mantle% .aboratory studies ha#e sho'n that oli#ine trans"orms to a denser spinel structure at a pressure o" 12%A G0a and a temperature o" about 1388 E% The density 2 increase due to this phase chan$e is _Q P 288 288 !$ m % .aboratory studies ha#e also indicated that the density discontinuity near a depth o" 448 !m is caused by a trans"ormation o" the spinel structure to pero#s!ite and ma$nesio'uVstite% -t a pressure o" 22%1 G0a this trans"ormation ta!es place at a temperature o" about 183A E% The density increase due to this trans"ormation is _Q >88 !$ m 2 % These density discontinuities cannot be modeled usin$ ()uation 5>C2>36% &n addition, the adiabatic compressibility decreases 'ith increasin$ pressure in the mantle "rom a near-sur"ace #alue o" 8%3 18 12 0a 1 to a #alue o" 1%4 18 12 0a 1 at the coreCmantle boundary% For these reasons ()uation 5>C2A16 is a relati#ely poor appro imation "or the (arths mantle% :e no' return to our discussion o" the mantle $eotherm% -s already noted, the temperature $radient beneath the near-sur"ace thermal boundary layer 5the lithosphere6 is #ery near the adiabatic $radient due to mantle con#ection% The adiabatic temperature $radient can be calculated "rom the thermodynamic relation bet'een entropy per unit mass s, temperature, and pressure c T ds P p dT # dp, 5>%2A26 Q T 'here cp is the speci"ic heat at constant pressure and ds, dT , and dp are in"initesimal chan$es in entropy, temperature, and pressure% The entropy chan$e in an adiabatic process is Bero i" the process is also re#ersible% Thus the rate o" increase o" temperature 'ith pressure in an adiabatic, re#ersible process is obtained by puttin$ ds P 8 in ()uation 5>C2A26, "rom 'hich it "ollo's that T# T P % 5>%2A26 dT Qcp dp s :e assume that ()uation 5>C2A26 is #alid in the #i$orously con#ectin$ compressible mantle in 'hich heat conduction and other irreversi$le processes can be ne$lected% &" a material is strictly incompressible, pressure "orces cannot chan$e the #olume o" an element o" the material% -ccordin$ly, there can be no adia$atic compressional heating o" an incompressible material7 its adiabatic temperature $radient is Bero% ;oc!s, ho'e#er, are su""iciently compressible so that
8>8 >8>
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%A4 ;epresentati#e oceanic and continental shallo' upper mantle $eotherms%
the lar$e increases in pressure 'ith depth in the mantle produce si$ni"icant adiabatic increases o" temperature 'ith depth% The adiabatic temperature $radient in the (arth 5dT Udy6s can be "ound by multiplyin$ 5dT Udp6s "rom ()uation 5>C2A26 by dpUdy "rom ()uation 5>C2>96F dT dy
s
T# $ T % cp
A
5>%2A>6
For the near-sur"ace #alues T# P 2 18
E 1 , T P 1488 E, cp P 1 !J
!$ 1 E 1 , and $ P 18 m s 2 , ()uation 5>C22A6 yields 5dT Udy6s P 8%A E !m 1 % -t $reater depths the #olume coe""icient o" thermal e pansion is considerably smaller% To e tend the temperature pro"ile in the oceanic lithosphere $i#en in Fi$ure >C23 to $reater depths in the upper mantle, 'e assume that 5dT Udy6s P 8%2 E !m 1 % Fi$ure >CA4 sho's the oceanic upper mantle $eotherm to a depth o" >88 !m% The upper mantle $eotherm beneath the continents is not as 'ell under-
Fi$ure >%A3 ,antle $eotherms are $i#en "or 'hole-mantle con#ection L51ur#e a6 and layered mantle con#ectionM 51ur#e $6% The ran$e o" #alues "or the mantle solidus and the minimum temperatures in a subducted slab are also $i#en%
stood as the one beneath the oceans% *ne 'ay to model the temperature distribution in the continental lithosphere 'ould be to apply the same onedimensional hal"-space coolin$ solution that 'e applied earlier to the oceanic lithosphere% 9o'e#er, as sho'n in Fi$ure >C28, the predicted mantle heat "lo's are considerably lo'er than the obser#ed #alues% -lso, i" old continental lithosphere continued to cool, it 'ould also continue to subside accordin$ to ()uation 5>C2896 5see 0roblem >CA46% The result 'ould be continental cratons o#erlain by a continuously thic!enin$ sedimentary co#er% This condition has not been obser#ed, so there must be a heat input into the base o" the old continental lithosphere that retards "urther coolin$ and allo's old continental lithosphere to tend to'ard a steadystate temperature pro"ile% The input o" heat to the base o" the lithosphere is attributed either to mantle plumes impin$in$ on the base o" the lithosphere or to secondary con#ection in the lo'er lithosphere or to both, as discussed in Section >C22%
The in"luence o" near-sur"ace radioacti#ity on continental sur"ace heat "lo' has been considered in Section >C8% From ()uation 5>C296 and the data $i#en in Fi$ure >C11 'e "ound that the heat "lo' beneath the nearsur"ace layer o" heat-producin$ elements is about 23 m: m 2 % :e assume that heat production beneath the near-sur"ace radioacti#e layer can be ne$lected and that the thermal structure o" the continental lithosphere has reached a steady state% There"ore, it is appropriate to assume the heat "lo' throu$h the continental lithosphere beneath the near-sur"ace heatproducin$ layer, )m , is constant% The resultin$ $eotherm in the continental lithosphere is $i#en in Fi$ure >CA4 "or )m P 23 m: m 2 and ! P 2%2A : m 1 E 1 % The thic!ness o" the continental lithosphere is about 288 !m% *ur discussion so "ar has centered on the thermal state o" the shallo' upper mantle7 the $eotherms in Fi$ure >CA4 e tend only to a depth o" >88 !m% &" the entire mantle 'ere homo$eneous and stron$ly con#ectin$, the adiabatic temperature $radient $i#en by ()uation 5>C2A>6 'ould be a $ood appro imation o" the slope o" the temperature pro"ile throu$hout the mantle% :e ha#e noted, ho'e#er, that the distribution o" density 'ith depth has si$ni"icant discontinuities near depths o" >18 and 448 !m 5see Fi$ure >C AA6% The density discontinuity at >18 !m is associated 'ith the trans"ormation o" oli#ine to a spinel structure% The phase chan$e "rom oli#ine to spinel is e#othermic 'ith a heat o" reaction . P 98 !J !$ 1 % For adiabatic "lo' do'n'ard throu$h the phase chan$e, the temperature o" the mantle roc! increases by _T P . % cp 5>%2AA6
The heat released by the phase chan$e increases the temperature o" the roc!% For cp P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , the increase in temperature is 98 E at a depth o" >18 !m% This increase in temperature 'ith depth "or adiabatic "lo' is sho'n in Fi$ure >CA3, 'here the 'hole mantle $eotherm is $i#en% :e 'ill sho' that the >18-!m phase chan$e enhances mantle con#ection7 that the associated density boundary does not bloc! mantle con#ection is indicated by the descent o" the subducted lithosphere throu$h this depth% The density discontinuity at a depth o" 448 !m is attributed to the trans"ormation o" the spinel structure to pero#s!ite and ma$nesio'uVstite% This trans"ormation is endothermic 'ith a heat o" reaction . P 38 !J !$ 1 % The heat absorbed by this reaction cools the roc!% From ()uation 5>C2AA6 'ith cp P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , the decrease in temperature is 38 E at a depth o" 448 !m% :e 'ill sho' that the 448-!m trans"ormation is e pected to retard "lo' throu$h this boundary%
Deep-"ocus earth)ua!es pro#ide conclusi#e e#idence that there is acti#e mantle con#ection to depths o" 448 !m% Since the lo'er mantle is e pected to contain si$ni"icant concentrations o" radioacti#e isotopes, 'e e pect that mantle con#ection 'ill occur in the lo'er mantle in order to transport the resultin$ heat% Three alternati#e models "or mantle con#ection ha#e been proposedF a :hole mantle con#ection% &" si$ni"icant amounts o" subducted lithosphere can enter the lo'er mantle beneath 448 !m, then there must be a complementary mantle up'ellin$% &n this case the $eotherm "or the entire mantle is li!ely to be adiabatic% The e pected $eotherm is illustrated in Fi$ure >CA3 as cur#e a% The primary ar$uments a$ainst 'hole mantle con#ection come "rom chemical $eodynamic studies, 'hich 'e 'ill discuss in 1hapter 18% b .ayered mantle con#ection% T'o separate con#ection systems are operatin$ in the upper and lo'er mantle% This 'ould be the case i" the density discontinuity at a depth o" 448 !m completely bloc!s con#ection% -n upper con#ecti#e system associated 'ith plate tectonics 'ould be restricted to the upper 448 !m o" the mantle7 a lo'er, separate system 'ould operate bet'een a depth o" 448 !m and the coreCmantle boundary% &n this case a thermal boundary layer 'ould be e pected to de#elop at a depth o" 448 !m similar to the lithosphere% 9o'e#er, it is #ery di""icult to estimate the chan$e in temperature associated 'ith this boundary layer% -n e pected $eotherm "or layered mantle con#ection is $i#en as cur#e b in Fi$ure >CA3% -lthou$h deep-"ocus earth)ua!es do not occur at depths $reater than 448 !m, studies usin$ mantle tomo$raphy indicate that at least some subducted slabs penetrate throu$h this boundary% This is ta!en as con#incin$ e#idence that there is si$ni"icant material transport bet'een the upper and lo'er mantle% c 9ybrid models% 9ybrid models ha#e been proposed that in#ol#e a stron$ time dependence andUor a barrier to con#ection 'ithin the lo'er mantle% &" the 448-!m seismic discontinuity acts as a partial barrier to mantle con#ection, then mantle La#alanchesM may be tri$$ered that 'ould lead to a stron$ly time-dependent mantle con#ection% Dense subducted lithosphere could Lpile upM on the 448-!m deep seismic discontinuity until a "inite-amplitude instability resulted in a mantle Lo#erturnM or a#alanche% (pisodic mantle o#erturns ha#e been proposed as an e planation "or apparent episodicities in the $eolo$ical record% &t has also been proposed that there is a compositional barrier to 'hole mantle con#ection 'ithin the lo'er mantle% Studies usin$ seismic tomo$raphy ha#e been used to
ar$ue in "a#or o" such a barrier ha#in$ considerable topo$raphy and time dependence% - constraint on the temperature at the base o" the mantle is the seismic e#idence that the outer core is li)uid% This e#idence consists mainly o" the inability o" shear 'a#es to propa$ate throu$h the outer core% ,easured #elocities o" seismic compressional 'a#es in the outer core indicate that, althou$h the outer core is primarily composed o" iron, it must also contain si$ni"icant concentrations o" one or more other constituents, the most li!ely o" 'hich is sul"ur% The meltin$ temperature "or the ironCsul"ur eutectic mi ture at the coreCmantle boundary is estimated to be 2288 E% This is an appro imate minimum #alue "or the temperature at the coreCmantle boundary% The adiabatic lo'er mantle $eotherm in Fi$ure >CA3 is in appro imate a$reement 'ith this constraint% Just as an upper mantle thermal boundary layer, the lithosphere, inter#enes bet'een the sur"ace and the interior adiabatic state o" the mantle, a lo'er mantle thermal boundary layer is e pected to e ist ?ust abo#e the coreCmantle boundary% Seismic studies ha#e con"irmed the e istence o" this boundary layer, 'hich is re"erred to as the D -layer% The D -layer has a comple structure 'ith a thic!ness o" 1A8 to 288 !m% .aboratory studies indicate that the solidus temperature o" a pero#s!iteCma$nesio'uVstite assembla$e at the coreCmantle boundary 'ould be about >288 E% &n addition to sho'in$ the t'o $eotherms associated 'ith 'hole mantle con#ection a and layered mantle con#ection b, Fi$ure >CA3 $i#es the ran$e o" #alues "or the mantle solidus as 'ell as the temperature increases associated 'ith the D -layer% -lthou$h the re)uired heat "lu throu$h the D -layer can be estimated,the stability o" the layer 'hich 'ould $i#e its thic!ness is di""icult to determine% There may also be compositional strati"ication in this layer% 0roblem >%4> 9o' much heat is conducted alon$ the adiabat o" Fi$ure >CA3 at depths o" 1888 and 2888 !mO -t the coreCmantle inter"aceO /se ! P > : m 1 E 1 , T# P 1%A 18 A E 1 , $ P 18 m s 2 , cp P 1 !J !$ 1 1 E % 0roblem >%4A &" the rate at 'hich heat "lo's out o" the core 5J s 1 6 is 18N o" the rate at 'hich heat is lost at the (arths sur"ace, ho' lar$e is the mean temperature drop across the lo'er mantle thermal boundary layer in terms o" the mean temperature drop across the upper mantle thermal boundary layerO -ssume that the heat transport across a boundary layer can be calculated "rom Fouriers la' o" heat conduction in the simple "orm
6(4< %hermal "tructure of the "u$ducted Lithosphere
898 989
Fi$ure >%A8 &sotherms 5 16 in a typical descendin$ lithosphere% The >18!m phase chan$e is ele#ated in the subducted lithosphere% The position o" the slip Bone is also sho'n%
o" ()uation 5>C26% -lso assume that the upper and lo'er mantle boundary layers ha#e the same thic!nesses% >%29 Thermal Structure o" the Subducted .ithosphere The subduction o" the cold oceanic lithosphere into the deep mantle is a primary mechanism "or the transport o" heat "rom the interior o" the (arth to its sur"ace% 9ot mantle roc! comes to the sur"ace at accretional plate boundaries 5ocean rid$es6 and is cooled by heat loss to the sea"loor% The result is a cold thermal Lboundary layer,M the oceanic lithosphere% The thermal structure o" this boundary layer 'as determined in Sections >C14 and >C13% The cold subducted lithosphere is $radually heated and e#entually becomes part o" the con#ectin$ mantle% /p'ard con#ecti#e heat trans"er throu$h the mantle in#ol#es the sin!in$ o" cold thermal anomalies 5descendin$ lithosphere at ocean trenches6 and the risin$ o" hot thermal anomalies 5mantle plumes6% The density di""erences associated 'ith the lateral temperature #ariations pro#ide the dri#in$ "orce "or the mantle con#ecti#e circulation% &n this section 'e discuss the temperature distribution in the subducted oceanic lithosphere% &sotherms in a lithosphere descendin$ at an an$le o" >A into the mantle
989 898
9eat %ransfer
Fi$ure >%A9 The 1lapeyron or e)uilibrium cur#e separatin$ t'o phases o" the same material%
are sho'n in Fi$ure >CA8% Since the subducted lithosphere 'as "ormed on the sea"loor, its initial thermal structure upon subduction is $i#en by ()uation 5>C12A6% The dependence o" temperature upon depth prior to subduction is the oceanic $eotherm $i#en in Fi$ure >CA4% -s the subducted lithosphere descends into the mantle, "rictional heatin$ occurs at its upper boundary% The e""ects o" "rictional heatin$ 'ere studied in Section >C24% -s discussed there, the temperature distribution due to "rictional heatin$ C ()uation 5>C 2>86 C can be superimposed on the initial temperature distribution to $i#e the isotherms in the slab% The result is sho'n in Fi$ure >CA8% The lo' temperatures in the descendin$ lithosphere cause it to ha#e a hi$her density than the surroundin$ mantle% The hi$her density results in a body "orce dri#in$ the descendin$ lithosphere do'n'ard% This body "orce is important in dri#in$ the plates% -n additional do'n'ard body "orce on the descendin$ slab is pro#ided by the distortion o" the oli#ineC spinel phase boundary in the slab, as sho'n in Fi$ure >CA8% The oli#ineCspinel phase boundary is ele#ated in the descendin$ lithosphere as compared 'ith its position in the surroundin$ mantle because the pressure at 'hich the phase chan$e occurs depends on temperature% Fi$ure >CA9 is a s!etch o" the Clapeyron curve, 'hich $i#es the pressures and temperatures at 'hich t'o phases o" the same material, such as oli#ine and spinel, are in e)uilibrium% -ctually, the oli#ineCspinel transition is not uni2 variant7 it occurs o#er a ran$e o" temperatures and pressures% &t is su""icient "or our purposes here, ho'e#er, to treat the phase chan$e as occurrin$ at a sin$le temperature correspondin$ to a sin$le pressure% The t'o phases can coe ist at any point T , p lyin$ on the 1lapeyron cur#e% The slope o" the 1lapeyron cur#e i is de"ined by i dp dT %
pc
5>%2A46
&" 'e di#ide this e)uation by ()uation 5>C2>96, 'e obtain the chan$e dy in the #ertical location o" the phase transition correspondin$ to a chan$e in temperature dT dy dT i Q$
P
pc
5>%2A36
For the oli#ine to spinel phase chan$e, the slope o" the 1lapeyron cur#e is positi#e% Since dT is ne$ati#e "or the lo'er temperatures in the interior o" the descendin$ lithosphere, dy is ne$ati#e, and the oli#ineCspinel phase chan$e occurs at a shallo'er depth 5lo'er pressure6 in the slab% :ith i P 2 ,0a E 1 , Q P 2488 !$ m 2 , and $ P 18 m s 2 , 'e "ind "rom 1 ()uation 5>C2A36 that 5dyUdT 6pc P 8%8AA !m E % &" 'e ta!e the ma imum temperature di""erence across the slab to be _T P 888 E, 'e "ind that the ele#ation o" the oli#ineCspinel phase boundary in the descendin$ lithosphere is about >> !m% This ele#ation is illustrated in Fi$ure >CA8% Since spinel is about 288 !$ m 2 denser than oli#ine, the additional mass o" the ele#ated spinel in the descendin$ lithosphere pro#ides a si$ni"icant body "orce "or dri#in$ the plates in addition to the do'n'ard body "orce pro#ided by the thermal contraction o" the lithosphere% This approach can also be applied to the transition o" spinel to pero#s!ite and ma$nesio'uVstite% &n this case the slope o" the 1lapeyron cur#e is ne$a- ti#e and the transition occurs at a deeper depth 5hi$her pressure6 in the slab% :ith i P 2%A ,0a E 1 , Q P 2388 !$ m 2 and $ P 18 m s 2 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5>C2A36 that 5dyUdT 6pc P 8%83 !m E 1 % &" 'e ta!e the ma imum temperature across the slab to be _T P 3A8 E, 'e "ind that the depression o" this phase transition is A2 !m% Since pero#s!iteCma$nesio'uVstite is about >88 !$ m 2 denser than spinel, the buoyancy o" the depressed spinel pro#ides a si$ni"icant body "orce that inhibits con#ection throu$h the 448-!m boundary% 0roblem >%44 (stimate the do'n'ard body "orce on the slab per unit len$th o" trench due to the ele#ation o" the oli#ineCspinel phase boundary in Fi$ure >CA8% -ssume Q5spinel6 Q5oli#ine6 P 288 !$ m 2 % (stimate the do'n'ard body "orce on the slab per unit len$th o" trench due to thermal contraction by inte$ratin$ o#er the temperature distribution in Fi$ure >CA8% -ssume T# P 2 18 A E 1 , and consider the densi"ication o" the slab only to depths o" 448 !m%
>%28 1ullin$ ,odel "or the (rosion and Deposition o" Sediments The erosion and deposition o" sediments are responsible "or the "ormation and e#olution o" many land"orms% - classic e ample is an allu#ial "an caused by the deposition o" sediments on a horiBontal sur"ace% 1ross sections o" allu#ial "ans o"ten resemble the "orm o" the complementary error "unction $i#en in Fi$ure >C21% This similarity su$$ests that sediment deposition may be modeled usin$ the heat e)uation% The use o" the heat e)uation to model sediment erosion and deposition 'as "irst proposed by :% (% 9% 1ullin$ 519486 and this approach is !no'n as the 1ullin$ model% The basic hypothesis is that the do'n slope "lu o" sediments S is linearly proportional to the slope so that hh S P E , 5>%2A86 h 'here h is the ele#ation o" topo$raphy abo#e a base le#el, # is the horiBontal distance, and E is a constant that is called a transport coefficient% The sediment "lu S is the #olume o" sediment transported per unit time per unit 'idth% &n terms o" the analo$y 'ith the heat e)uation 5>C486, the "lu e)uation 5>C2A86 is directly analo$ous to Fouriers la' $i#en in ()uation 5>C16% 1onsider an element o" topo$raphy o" 'idth a % The "lu o" sediment out o" this element at R a is S5 R a 6 and the "lu o" sediment into this element at is S5 6% /sin$ ()uation 5>C2A86 and the same e pansion $i#en in ()uations 5>C96 and 5>C186 'e ha#e hS h2h S5 R a 6 S5 6 P a P a E 2 , 5>%2A96 h h 'here 'e ha#e assumed E to be a constant% &" there is a net "lo' o" sediment into the element, there must be a chan$e in ele#ation h $i#en by hh % ht Since a net "lu o" sediment out o" the element leads to a decrease in ele#ation, 'e ha#e hh h2 h P E 2, 5>%2486 ht h 'hich is identical to the one-dimensional, timedependent heat conduction e)uation 5>C486% .et us apply the 1ullin$ model to the pro$radation o" a ri#er delta into a )uiet basin 'ith a horiBontal "lo'% Sediments are supplied to the delta by the ri#er "ormin$ it% Sediments are deposited near the land'ard ed$e o" the a
6(5B Culling Model for the Erosion and &eposition of "ediments
929 292
Fi$ure >%48 &llustration o" the one-dimensional model "or a pro$radin$ ri#er delta% &t is assumed that the delta pro$rades sea'ard at a constant #elocity G8 7 its position at successi#e times t1 to t> is illustrated% The hei$ht o" the pro$radin$ delta abo#e the basin "loor is h%
delta and are transported do'n the "ront o" the delta by creep and shallo' landslides% *ur simple one-dimensional model is illustrated in Fi$ure >C48% The delta "ront is assumed to pro$rade "or'ard at a constant #elocity /8 and its position at successi#e times t1 , t2 , t2 , and t> is sho'n% :e utiliBe the approach $i#en in Section >C19 to sol#e this problem% .et v P /8 t 5>%2416 be a coordinate that is mo#in$ 'ith the "ront o" the delta% The shape o" the delta is independent o" time in this coordinate system and substitution o" ()uation 5>C2416 into ()uation 5>C2486 $i#es
2 / dh P E d h , 8 dv dv 2
5>%2426
'ith the boundary conditions h P h 8 at v P 8 and h 8 as v 'here h 8 is the hei$ht o" the land'ard ed$e o" the delta "ront% The solution o" ()uation 5>C2426 is / 8v hP- e p R @, 5>%2426 E 'here - and @ are constants% :hen the boundary conditions are satis"ied 'e obtain / v h P h8 e p 8 % 5>%24>6 E Substitution o" ()uation 5>C2416 into ()uation 5>C24>6 $i#es / h P h 8 e p 8 5 /8 t6 % E 5>%24A6
The hei$ht o" the delta "ront abo#e the "loor decreases e ponentially 'ith
Fi$ure >%41 Dependence o" the nondimensional hei$ht hIh8 on the nondimensional distance "rom shore G8 5#G8 t 6U: "rom ()uation 5>C24A6%
Fi$ure >%42 1ross-sectional pro"iles o" the ,ississippi ;i#er delta 5south'est passa$e6 at #arious times sho'in$ its pro$radation 5Fis! et al%, 19A>6%
distance "rom the shore% - plot o" hei$ht #ersus distance "rom the shore is $i#en in Fi$ure >C41% 1omparisons 'ith pro$radation data are obtained usin$ the delta "ront slope% This slope at v P 8 is $i#en by hh h
vP8
/8 h % P E
5>%2446
/sin$ this relation, 'e can obtain the transport coe""icient "rom the pro$radation #elocity /8 and the morpholo$y o" the delta% -s a speci"ic e ample, consider the south'est pass se$ment o" the ,ississippi ;i#er delta% .on$itudinal pro"iles o" this delta "ront are sho'n in Fi$ure >C42% Ta!in$ h P 183 m,
/8 P 34 m yr 1 , and 5hhUh 6vP8 P 8%8894, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5>C2446 that E P 8%A 18A m2 yr 1 % 0roblem >%43 1onsider a simpli"ied mation o" an allu#ial "an% -ssume that S 8 o#er a #ertical cli"", "ormin$ a allu#ial "an% -ssume that the 1ullin$ methods o" Section >C2A to sho' that 2S 8
1U2
6(5B Culling Model for the Erosion and &eposition of "ediments
9A9 A9A
one-dimensional model "or the "orthere is a uni"orm "lu o" sediment one-dimensional, time-dependent theory is applicable and use the
2
Et
hP
E X er"c 2 25E t1U2 6
e p
>E t % 5>%2436
-lso sho' that the hei$ht o" the allu#ial "an at the cli"" 5 P 86 is $i#en by
1U2
t XE and that the slope o" the allu#ial "an at the cli"" is $i#en by hh h and hh h 8 P 2 h
P8
h 8 P 2S 8
5>%2486
S8 P E P8 Et X
1U2
5>%2496
5>%2386
For the allu#ial "an beneath the San Gabriel ,ountains in 0asadena, 1ali"ornia,4 it is appropriate to ta!e h 8 P >88 m, 5hhUh 6 P8 P 8%83A, and t P 18 years% :hat is the correspondin$ transport coe""icient E O 0roblem >%48 The 1ullin$ model can also be applied to the erosion and deposition o" a "ault scarp% -ssume that a #ertical "ault scarp o" hei$ht h 8 "orms at t P 8 and P 8 and subse)uently erodes symmetrically% -t t P 8, h P h 8 "or \ 8 and h P 8 "or [ 8% For t [ 8, h P h 8 U2 at P 8, the re$ion \ 8 erodes and deposition occurs in [ 8% -ssume that both erosion and deposition are $o#erned by ()% 5>C2486 'ith E prescribed% Sho' that the hei$ht o" the topo$raphy h is $i#en by hP -lso sho' that slope at h8 % er"c 2 2 Et 5>%2316
P 8 is $i#en by h8 hh P h P8 5>%2326 1U2 25XE t6
2A2
Collateral Reading
-n earth)ua!e is !no'n to ha#e occurred >88 years a$o7 'ith h 8 P 2 m and 5hhUh 6 P8 P 8%A, 'hat is the #alue o" the transport coe""icient E O The morpholo$y o" sedimentary land"orms such as pro$radin$ ri#er deltas, allu#ial "ans, erodin$ "ault scarps, and erodin$ shorelines are o"ten in $ood a$reement 'ith solutions o" the heat e)uation% 9o'e#er, deri#ed #alues o" the transport coe""icient E ha#e considerable #ariability% This is not surprisin$ because submarine sediment transport is #ery di""erent "rom subaerial sediment transport% -lso, both are #ery dependent on climate, 'eather, and roc! type%
1ollateral ;eadin$ 1arsla', 9% S%, and J% 1% Jae$er 519A96, Conduction of 9eat in "olids, 2nd edition, * "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, * "ord, A18 p% 1ullin$, :% (% 9% 519486, -nalytical theory o" erosion, J( Geol% 48, 224C2>>% Fis!, 9% <%, (% ,cFarlan, 1%;% Eolb, and .% J% :ilbert 519A>6, Sedimentary "rame'or! o" the modern ,ississippi Delta, J( "edimen( Petrol% 2>, 34C99% Johnson, 9% 0%, and ;% .% 1arlson 519926, +ariation o" sea "loor depth 'ith a$eF - test o" models based on drillin$ results, Geophys( Res( Lett% 19, 1931C193>% .eeds, -% ;%, .% Enopo"", and (% G% Eausel 5193>6, +ariations o" upper mantle structure under the 0aci"ic *cean, "cience 184, 1>1C1>2% .ister, 1% ;% @%, J% G% Sclater, (% (% Da#is, 9% +illin$er, and S% <a$ihara 519986, 9eat "lo' maintained in ocean basins o" $reat a$eF &n#esti$ations in the north-e)uatorial 'est 0aci"ic, Geophys( J( Int% 182, 482C428% 0ollac!, 9% <%, S% J% 9urter, and J% ;% Johnson 519926, 9eat "lo' "rom the (arths interiorF -nalysis o" the $lobal data set, Rev( Geophys% 21, 243C 288% Sclater, J% G%, 1% Jaupart, and D% Galson 519886, The heat "lo' throu$h oceanic and continental crust and the heat loss o" the (arth, Rev( Geo2 phys( "pace Phys% 18, 249C211% Ste"an, J% 518916, /ber die Theorie der (isbildun$, insbesondere uber die (isbildun$ im 0olarmeere, nn( Physi, Chem% >2, 249C284% +ail, 0% ;%, ;% ,% ,itchum, and S% Thompson 519386, Seismic strati$raphy and $lobal chan$es o" sea le#el, in "eismic "tratigraphyD pplications to 9ydrocar$on E#ploration, 1% F% 0ayton, ed%, -merican -ssociation o" 0etroleum Geolo$ists, ,emoir 24, pp% 82C93%
Collateral Reading
2A2
:ri$ht, T% .%, D% .% 0ec!, and 9% ;% Sha' 519346, Eilauea la#a la!esF <atural laboratories o" study o" coolin$, crystalliBation and di""erentiation o" basaltic ma$ma, in %he Geophysics of the Pacific 1cean 0asin and its Margin, G% 9% Sutton, ,% 9% ,an$hnani, and ;% ,oberly, eds%, -merican Geophysical /nion, :ashin$ton, D% 1%, pp% 23AC298% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @urch"ield, J% D%, Lord :elvin and the ge of the Earth 5Science 9istory 0ublications, <e' =or!, 193A6, 248 pa$es% - historical account o" scienti"ic attempts to determine the a$e o" the (arth% The boo! "ocuses on Eel#ins in"luence and the debate bet'een physicists and $eolo$ists bet'een the mid-1888s and the early 1988s% 1arsla', 9% S%, and J% 1% Jae$er, Conduction of 9eat in "olids, 2nd edition 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, * "ord, 19A96, A18 pa$es% - classic te tboo! on the mathematical theory o" heat conduction in solids% &t describes "undamental mathematical techni)ues "or sol#in$ timedependent heat conduction problems in a #ariety o" $eometries% The boo! contains an e tensi#e compilation o" solutions to boundary #alue problems o"ten encountered in $eolo$ical and $eophysical applications%
A Gra#ity
A%1 &ntroduction The "orce e erted on an element o" mass at the sur"ace o" the (arth has t'o principal components% *ne is due to the $ra#itational attraction o" the mass in the (arth, and the other is due to the rotation o" the (arth% Gra#ity re"ers to the combined e""ects o" both $ra#itation and rotation% &" the (arth 'ere a nonrotatin$ spherically symmetric body, the $ra#itational acceleration on its sur"ace 'ould be constant% 9o'e#er, because o" the (arths rotation, topo$raphy, and internal lateral density #ariations, the acceleration of gravity $ #aries 'ith location on the sur"ace% The (arths rotation leads mainly to a latitude dependence o" the sur"ace acceleration o" $ra#ity% @ecause rotation distorts the sur"ace by producin$ an e3uatorial $ulge and a polar flattening, $ra#ity at the e)uator is about A parts in 1888 less than $ra#ity at the poles% The (arth ta!es the shape o" an o$late spheroid% The $ra#itational "ield o" this spheroid is the re"erence $ra#itational "ield o" the (arth% Topo$raphy and density inhomo$eneities in the (arth lead to local #ariations in the sur"ace $ra#ity, 'hich are re"erred to as gravity anomalies% The mass o" the roc! associated 'ith topo$raphy leads to sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies% 9o'e#er, as 'e discussed in 1hapter 2, lar$e topo$raphic "eatures ha#e lo'-density crustal roots% Just as the e cess mass o" the topo$raphy produces a positi#e $ra#ity anomaly, the lo'-density root produces a ne$a- ti#e $ra#ity anomaly% &n the mid-1888s it 'as obser#ed that the $ra#itational attraction o" the 9imalayan ,ountains 'as considerably less than 'ould be e pected because o" the positi#e mass o" the topo$raphy% This 'as the "irst e#idence that the crustCmantle boundary is depressed under lar$e mountain belts% - dramatic e ample o" the importance o" crustal thic!enin$ is the absence o" positi#e $ra#ity anomalies o#er the continents% The positi#e mass
anomaly associated 'ith the ele#ation o" the continents abo#e the ocean "loor is reduced or compensated by the ne$ati#e mass anomaly associated 'ith the thic!er continental crust% :e 'ill sho' that compensation due to the hydrostatic e)uilibrium o" thic! crust leads in the "irst appro imation to a Bero #alue "or the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly% There are mechanisms "or compensation other than the simple thic!enin$ o" the crust% -n e ample is the subsidence o" the ocean "loor due to the thic!enin$ o" the thermal lithosphere, as discussed in Section >C22% Gra#ity anomalies that are correlated 'ith topo$raphy can be used to study the "le ure o" the elastic lithosphere under loadin$% Short 'a#elen$th loads do not depress the lithosphere, but lon$ 'a#elen$th loads result in "le ure and a depression o" the ,oho% Gra#ity anomalies can also ha#e important economic implications% *re minerals are usually more dense than the country roc! in 'hich they are "ound% There"ore, economic mineral deposits are usually associated 'ith positi#e $ra#ity anomalies% ,a?or petroleum occurrences are o"ten "ound beneath salt domes% Since salt is less dense than other sedimentary roc!s, salt domes are usually associated 'ith ne$ati#e $ra#ity anomalies% -s 'e 'ill see in the ne t chapter, mantle con#ection is dri#en by #ariations o" density in the (arths mantle% These #ariations produce $ra#ity anomalies at the (arths sur"ace% Thus, measurements o" $ra#ity at the (arths sur"ace can pro#ide important constraints on the "lo' patterns 'ithin the (arths interior% 9o'e#er, it must be emphasiBed that the sur"ace $ra#ity does not pro#ide a uni)ue measure o" the density distribution 'ithin the (arths interior% ,any di""erent internal density distributions can $i#e the same sur"ace distributions o" $ra#ity anomalies% &n other 'ords, in#er- sions o" $ra#ity data are non-uni)ue% A%2 Gra#itational -cceleration ( ternal to the ;otationally Distorted (arth The $ra#itational "orce e erted on a mass m located at point 0 outside the (arth by a small element o" mass dm in the (arth is $i#en by 8e!tonAs la! of gravitation% -s sho'n in Fi$ure AC1, the $ra#itational attraction d"m in the direction "rom 0 to dm is $i#en by

>(4 Gravitational cceleration
999 999
d"m P
Gm dm , b2
5A%16
'here G is the universal gravitational constant G P 4%432 18 11 m2 !$ 1 s 2 and b is the distance bet'een dm and the point 0 % The in"initesimal
Fi$ure A%1 Force on a mass m due to the $ra#itational attraction o" an in"initesimal element o" mass dm in the (arth%
$ra#itational acceleration at 0 due to the attraction o" dm is the "orce per unit mass e erted on m in the direction o" 0 F d" d$m P m % 5A%26 m @y combinin$ ()uations 5AC16 and 5AC26 'e obtain G dm % 5A%26 b2 &" the distribution o" mass in the (arth 'ere !no'n e actly, the $ra#itational attraction o" the (arth on a unit mass outside the (arth could be obtained by summin$ or inte$ratin$ d$m o#er the entire distribution% Suppose, "or e ample, that the entire mass o" the (arth , 'ere concentrated at its center% The $ra#itational acceleration at a distance r "rom the center 'ould then be directed radially in'ard and, accordin$ to ()uation 5AC26, it 'ould be $i#en by G, 5A%>6 $m P 2 % r d$m P Follo'in$ the $enerally accepted si$n con#ention, 'e ta!e $m to be positi#e, e#en thou$h it is directed in the r direction% :e ne t determine the $ra#itational acceleration outside a spherical body 'ith a density distribution that is a "unction o" radius only, Q P Q5r 6% The $eometry is illustrated in Fi$ure AC2% &t is clear "rom symmetry considerations that the $ra#itational acceleration $m at a point 0 outside the mass
Fi$ure A%2 Geometry "or the calculation o" the $ra#itational acceleration at a point outside a spherically symmetric mass distribution%
distribution is directed radially in'ard and depends only on the distance r o" point 0 "rom the center o" the sphere% For con#enience, 'e let the line "rom 0 to * be the polar a is o" a spherical coordinate system r, W, Z% The $ra#itational acceleration at 0 due to an element o" mass dm located in the sphere at r , W , Z is directed alon$ the line "rom 0 to dm and is $i#en by ()uation 5AC26% The component o" this $ra#itational acceleration alon$ the line "rom 0 to * is G cos T dm% b2 The net radially in'ard $ra#itational acceleration at 0 is "ound by inte$ratin$ this e pression o#er the entire mass distributionF
]
$m P G
cos T dm % b2
5A%A6
The element o" mass dm is the product o" the #olume element d+ 'ith the density Q5r 6 at the location o" d+ dm P Q5r 6 d+% 5A%46
The element o" #olume can be e pressed in spherical coordinates as d+ P r

2
sin W dW dZ
dr %
5A%36 The inte$ral o#er the spherical mass distribution in ()uation 5ACA6 can thus be 'ritten $m P G
] ] a
X
2X
Q5r 6r 2 sin W cos T dZ
dW dr
b2
, 5A%86
'here a is the radius o" the model (arth% The inte$ral o#er Z is 2X, since the )uantities in the inte$rand o" ()uation 5AC86 are independent o" Z % To carry out the inte$ration o#er r and W , 'e need an e pression "or cos T% From the la' o" cosines 'e can 'rite b2 R r 2 r 2 cos T P % 2rb
5A%96
@ecause the e pression "or cos T in#ol#es b rather than W , it is more con#e- nient to re'rite ()uation 5AC86 so that the inte$ration can be carried out o#er b rather than o#er W % The la' o" cosines can be used a$ain to "ind an e pression "or cos W F cos W
R r2
b2 2rr
5A%186
@y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 5AC186 'ith r and r sin W dW

held constant, 'e "ind 5A%116
b db P rr %
/pon substitution o" ()uations 5AC96 and 5AC116 into ()uation 5AC86, 'e can 'rite the inte$ral e pression "or $m as $m P XG r2
]
8 a r Q5r
rRr
r r
r2 r 2 R 1 db dr b2 %
5A%126
The inte$ration o#er b $i#es > r
so that ()uation 5AC126 becomes

]
8 a
$m P >X G r2
]
dr r 5A%126
Q5r 6%
Since the total mass o" the model is $i#en by , P >X

a 8
dr r 5A%1>6
Q5r 6,
the $ra#itational acceleration is G, % 5A%1A6 r2 The $ra#itational acceleration o" a spherically symmetric mass distribution, at a point outside the mass, is identical to the acceleration obtained by concentratin$ all the mass at the center o" the distribution% (#en thou$h there are lateral density #ariations in the (arth and the (arths shape is distorted by rotation, the direction o" the $ra#itational acceleration at a point e ternal to the (arth is #ery nearly radially in'ard to'ard the (arths center o" mass, and ()uation 5AC1A6 pro#ides an e cellent "irst appro imation "or $m % $m P 0roblem A%1 For a point on the sur"ace o" the ,oon determine the ratio o" the acceleration o" $ra#ity due to the mass o" the (arth to the acceleration o" $ra#ity due to the mass o" the ,oon% The rotational distortion o" the (arths mass adds a small latitudedependent term to the $ra#itational acceleration% This term depends on the e cess mass in the rotational e)uatorial bul$e o" the (arth% The obser#ed latitude dependence o" $m can thus be used to determine this e cess mass% &n addition, this e""ect must be remo#ed "rom obser#ed #ariations in sur"ace $ra#ity be"ore the residual $ra#ity anomalies can properly be attributed to density anomalies in the (arths interior% The model 'e use to calculate the contribution o" rotational distortion to $ra#itational acceleration is s!etched in Fi$ure AC2% The (arth is assumed to be "lattened at the poles and bul$ed at the e)uator because o" its rotation 'ith an$ular #elocity ^% The mass distribution is assumed to be symmetrical about the rotation a is% @ecause o" the departure "rom spherical symmetry due to rotation, the $ra#itational acceleration at a point 0 outside the (arth has both radial and tan$ential components% The radial component is the sum o" G,Ur2 and the term $r due to rotational
distortion o" the mass distribution7 the tan$ential component $t is entirely due to the rotationally induced departure "rom spherical symmetry% Follo'in$ our pre#ious si$n con#ention both G,Ur 2 and $r are positi#e i" directed
in'ard% Since rotation modi"ies the other'ise spherically symmetric model (arth only sli$htly, $r and $t are small compared 'ith G,Ur2 %
The total $ra#itational acceleration is G, R$ r r2 P G, r2

2
R $t2
2
1U2
R2
G, r2
2 2 $ r R $r R $t
1U2
5A%146
18> 18>1
Gravity
Fi$ure A%2 Geometry "or calculatin$ the contribution o" rotational distortion to the $ra#itational acceleration%
&t is appropriate to ne$lect the )uadratic terms because the ma$nitudes o" $r
and $t are much less than G,Ur 2 % There"ore the $ra#itational acceleration is $i#en by G, r2 P P G,
2
R2
G, 1U2 $r r2 2 $r 1U2 1R G,Ur 2 $ r 1R G,Ur2
G, r2 G, r2
P r2
R$
r%
5A%136
()uation 5AC136 sho's that the tan$ential component o" the $ra#itational acceleration is ne$li$ible7 the net $ra#itational acceleration at a point 0 e ternal to a rotationally distorted model (arth is essentially radially in'ard to the center o" the mass distribution% The radial $ra#itational acceleration "or the rotationally distorted (arth model can be obtained by inte$ratin$ ()uation 5ACA6 o#er the entire mass distribution% :e can re'rite this e)uation "or $m by substitutin$ e pression 5AC96 "or cos T 'ith the result $m P G 2r2
]
2 r r2 r dm% R 2 1 b b r2
5A%186
The three distances appearin$ in the inte$ral o" ()uation 5AC186 r, r , and b are the sides o" the trian$le connectin$ *, 0 , and dm in Fi$ure AC2% &t is help"ul "or carryin$ out the inte$ration to eliminate b "rom the inte$rand in terms o" r, r , and the an$le c, 'hich is opposite the side o" len$th b in this trian$le% From the la' o" cosines 'e can 'rite b2 P r 2 R r 5A%196 'hich can be rearran$ed as r
2 2
2rr
cos c,
2r P 1R 2 b r r cos c
1U2
5A%286
/pon substitutin$ ()uation 5AC286 into ()uation 5AC186, 'e $et G $m P 2r 2

]
r
2
2r
1U2
1 R r2 r cos c 2 r 2r r 2 1R 1 2 1R 2 r r r cos c
dm% 5A%216
-n analytic e#aluation o" the inte$ral in ()uation 5AC216 is not possible% The inte$ration is complicated because both r and c #ary 'ith the position o" dm% 9o'e#er, the inte$ration can be made tractable by appro imatin$ the inte$rand 'ith a po'er series in r Ur and retainin$ terms only up 2 to 5r Ur6 % For 0 outside the mass distribution, r Ur \ 1% :e 'ill sho' that the e pansion in po'ers o" 5r Ur6 is e)ui#alent to an e pansion o" the $ra#itational "ield in po'ers o" aUr% This appro imation yields an e pression "or $m that is su""iciently accurate "or our purposes% /sin$ the "ormulas 51 R g6 2g 51 R g6 5A%226 'hich are appro imately #alid "or g \ 1, 'e "ind G $m P r2
]
1U2
5A%226
2 8 1 g R g2 R ,
2r 1R
2r 2 cos c R r2 1 2
sin c
dm% 5A%2>6
The inte$rations in ()uation 5AC2>6 can be carried out in terms o" 'ell-
!no'n physical properties o" a mass distribution% The "irst term is ?ust the inte$ral o" dm o#er the entire mass% The result is simply , % The inte$ral o" r cos c o#er the mass distribution is a "irst moment o" the distribution%
&t is by de"inition Bero i" the ori$in o" the coordinate system is the center o" mass o" the distribution% Thus ()uation 5AC2>6 becomes $m P G, 2G R > 2 r r
]
2 2 sin 2
dm%
5A%2A6
The "irst term on the ri$ht o" ()uation 5AC2A6 is the $ra#itational acceleration o" a spherically symmetric mass distribution% The second term is the modi"ication due to rotationally induced o$lateness o" the body% &" hi$her order terms in ()uations 5AC2>6 and 5AC226 had been retained, the e pansion $i#en in ()uation 5AC2A6 'ould ha#e been e tended to include terms proportional to r A and hi$her po'ers o" r 1 % :e 'ill no' e press the inte$ral appearin$ in ()uation 5AC2A6 in terms o" the moments o" inertia o" an a isymmetric body% :e ta!e 1 to be the moment o" inertia o" the body about the rotational or B a is de"ined by W P 8% This moment o" inertia is the inte$ral o#er the entire mass distribution o" dm times the s)uare o" the perpendicular distance "rom dm to the rotational 2 a is% The s)uare o" this distance is R y 2 so that 'e can 'rite 1 as
]
1 because
5 P
Ry
6 dm
r 2 sin2 W dm 5A%246

Pr 5A%236 y
sin W cos Z
Pr
sin W sin Z %
5A%286 The moment o" inertia about the 8, is - P

] ]
a is, 'hich is de"ined by W P XU2, Z P

2
5y r
RB
6 dm
5sin2 W sin2 Z
R cos2 W 6 dm
5A%296 because B by W P XU2, Z P XU2, is
Pr
cos W %
5A%286 Similarly, the moment o" inertia about the y a is, 'hich is de"ined
@ P
] ]
5 r
2 2
RB
6 dm
5sin2 W cos2 Z
R cos2 W 6 dm%
5A%216
For a body that is a isymmetric about the rotation or B a is, - P @% The addition o" ()uations 5AC246, 5AC296, and 5AC216 to$ether 'ith the assumption o" a isymmetry $i#es -R @ R 1 P 2
]
dm P 2- R 1%
2
5A%226 This e)uation e presses the inte$ral o" r
dm appearin$ in
()uation 5AC2A6 in terms o" the moments o" inertia o" the body% :e 'ill ne t deri#e an e pression "or the inte$ral o" r 2 sin2 cdm% @ecause o" the a ial symmetry o" the body there is no loss o" $enerality in lettin$ the line *0 in Fi$ure AC2 lie in the B plane% :ith the help o" ()uation 5AC226 'e re'rite the re)uired inte$ral as
]
sin2 c dm P
51 cos2 c6 dm
]
P -R
1 1 2
r 2 cos2 c dm%
5A%226
The )uantity r also
cos c is the pro?ection o" r
alon$ *0 % @ut this is
r cos c P 5A%2>6
cos Y R B sin Y,
'here Y is the latitude or the an$le bet'een *0 and the y plane% <ote that y has no pro?ection onto *0 , since 1P is in the B plane% :e use ()uation 5AC2>6 to re'rite the inte$ral o" r 2 cos2 c in the "orm
]
cos2 c dm P cos2 Y
dm dm

R sin2 Y
R2 cos Y sin Y 5A%2A6 For an a isymmetric body,

]
2
dm%
dm P
dm%
5A%246 This result and ()uation 5AC246 $i#e

]
2
dm P
R y 6 dm P
1%
5A%236
The inte$ral o" B 226

]
dm can be e#aluated by usin$ ()uations 5AC246 and 5AC

]
2 2 2
dm P
Ry y
RB
6 dm
6 dm 5
2
dm
Ry
6 dm 5A%286
1 1% 2 :ith mass symmetry about the e)uatorial plane 'e ha#e P -

]

dm P
cos W sin W cos Z dm P 8%
5A%296 Substitution o" ()uations 5AC236 to 5AC296 into ()uation 5AC2A6 yields
]
cos2 c dm P 2
1 2 1 cos2 Y R- 1 sin Y% 2 5A%>86
:hen ()uations 5AC226 and 5AC>86 are combined, 'e "ind, usin$ sin2 Y R cos2 Y P 1, that
]
sin2 c dm P - cos2 Y R 1 sin2 Y%
5A%>16 The $ra#itational acceleration is "inally obtained by substitutin$ ()uations 5AC226 and 5AC>16 into ()uation 5AC2A6F G, 2G51 -6 52 sin 2Y 16% 5A%>26 r2 2r > ()uation 5AC>26 is a simpli"ied "orm o" MacCullaghAs formula "or an a isymmetric body% The moment o" inertia about the rotational a is 1 is lar$er than the moment o" inertia about an e)uatorial a is - because o" the rotational "lattenin$ o" the body% &t is customary to 'rite the di""erence in moments o" inertia as a "raction J2 o" , a2 , that is $m P 1 - P J2 , a2 , 'here a is the (arths e)uatorial radius% &n terms o" J2 , $m is G, 2G, a2 J2 Y 16% 5A%>>6 r2 2 52 sin 2r > The (arths $ra#itational "ield can be accurately determined "rom the trac!in$ o" arti"icial satellites% The currently accepted #alues areF $m P a P 4238%123 !m 5A%>26
G, P 2%98488>>8 181> m2 s
>(5 Centrifugal
cceleration and the
cceleration of Gravity
24A
Fi$ure A%> 1entri"u$al acceleration at a point on the (arths sur"ace%
J2 P 1%882424A 18 2 % 5A%>A6 -lthou$h a satellite is acted upon only by the (arths $ra#itational acceleration, an ob?ect on the (arths sur"ace is also sub?ected to a centri"u$al acceleration due to the (arths rotation% A%2 1entri"u$al -cceleration and the -cceleration o" Gra#ity The "orce on a unit mass at the sur"ace o" the (arth due to the rotation o" the (arth 'ith an$ular #elocity ^ is the centrifugal acceleration $^ % &t points radially out'ard alon$ a line perpendicular to the rotation a is and passin$ throu$h 0 , as sho'n in Fi$ure AC>, and is $i#en by $^ P ^ 2 s, 5A%>46
'here s is the perpendicular distance "rom 0 to the rotation a is% &" r is the radial distance "rom 0 to the center o" the (arth and Y is the latitude o" point 0 , then s P r cos Y and $^ P ^ 2 r cos Y% The currently accepted #alue "or the (arths an$ular #elocity is ^ P 3%29211A 18
A 1
5A%>36 5A%>86
rad s
118 1181
Gravity
0roblem A%2 Determine the ratio o" the centri"u$al acceleration to the $ra#itational acceleration at the (arths e)uator% The $ra#itational and to centri"u$al accelerationso" o" a mass$% at the (arths sur"ace combine yield the acceleration $ra#ity @ecause $^ $m , it is appropriate to add the radial component o" the centri"u$al acceleration to $m to obtain $7 see ()uations 5AC146 and 5AC136% -s sho'n in Fi$ure AC >, the radial component o" centri"u$al acceleration points radially out'ard% &n a$reement 'ith our si$n con#ention that in'ard radial accelerations are positi#e, the radial component o" the centri"u$al acceleration is
2 2 $ r P $^ cos Y P ^ r cos Y%
5A%>96
There"ore, the acceleration o" $ra#ity $ is the sum o" $m in ()uation 5AC>>6 and $r F $P G, 2G, a2 r 2 J2 2r > 52 sin2 Y 16 ^ 2 r cos2 Y% 5A%A86
()uation 5ACA86 $i#es the radially in'ard acceleration o" $ra#ity "or a point located on the sur"ace o" the model (arth at latitude Y and distance r "rom the center o" mass% A%> The Gra#itational 0otential and the Geoid @y #irtue o" its position in a $ra#itational "ield, a mass m has gravitational potential energy% The ener$y can be re$arded as the ne$ati#e o" the 'or! done on m by the $ra#itational "orce o" attraction in brin$in$ m "rom in"inity to its position in the "ield% The gravitational potential + is the potential ener$y o" m di#ided by its mass% @ecause the $ra#itational "ield is conser2 vative, the potential ener$y per unit mass + depends only on the position in the "ield and not on the path throu$h 'hich a mass is brou$ht to the location% To calculate + "or the rotationally distorted model (arth, 'e can ima$ine brin$in$ a unit mass "rom in"inity to a distance r "rom the center o" the model alon$ a radial path% The ne$ati#e o" the 'or! done on the unit mass by the $ra#itational "ield o" the model is the inte$ral o" the product o" the "orce per unit mass $m in ()uation 5AC>>6 'ith the increment o" distance dr 5the acceleration o" $ra#ity and the increment dr are oppositely directed6F
]
+ P
G, r 2
2G, a 2 J2 2 > 52 sin Y 16 dr 2r
5A%A16 or G, G, a2 J2 52 sin 2Y 16% + P R 5A%A26 2r 2 r &n e#aluatin$ + , 'e assume that the potential ener$y at an in"inite distance "rom the (arth is Bero% The $ra#itational potential ad?acent to the (arth is ne$ati#e7 (arth acts as a potential 'ell% The "irst term in ()uation 5AC A26 is the $ra#itational potential o" a point mass% &t is also the $ra#itational potential outside any spherically symmetric mass distribution% The second term is the e""ect on the potential o" the (arth models rotationally induced oblateness% - gravitational e3uipotential surface is a sur"ace on 'hich + is a constant% Gra#itational e)uipotentials are spheres "or spherically symmetric mass distributions% 0roblem A%2 5a6 :hat is the $ra#itational potential ener$y o" a 1-!$ mass at the (arths e)uatorO 5b6 &" this mass "ell to'ard the (arth "rom a lar$e distance 'here it had Bero relati#e #elocity, 'hat 'ould be the #elocity at the (arths sur"aceO 5c6 &" the a#ailable potential ener$y 'as con#erted into heat that uni"ormly heated the mass, 'hat 'ould be the temperature o" the mass i" its initial temperature T8 P 188 E, c P 1 !J !$ 1 E 1 , Tm P 1A88 1 E, and . P >88 !J !$ O - comparison o" ()uations 5AC>>6 and 5ACA26 sho's that + is the inte$ral o" the radial component o" the $ra#itational acceleration $m 'ith respect to r% To obtain a gravity potential / 'hich accounts "or both $ra#itation and the rotation o" the model (arth, 'e can ta!e the inte$ral 'ith respect to r o" the radial component o" the acceleration o" $ra#ity $ in ()uation 5ACA86 'ith the result that
2 / P G, R G, a J252 sin 2 Y 16 r 2r 2 1 ^2 r 2 5A%A26 cos2 Y% 2 - gravity e3uipotential is a sur"ace on 'hich / is a constant% :ithin a "e' meters the sea sur"ace de"ines an e)uipotential sur"ace% There"ore, ele#ations abo#e or belo' sea le#el are distances abo#e or belo' a re"erence e)uipotential sur"ace% The re"erence e)uipotential sur"ace that de"ines sea le#el is called the geoid% :e 'ill no' obtain an e pression "or the $eoid sur"ace that is consistent 'ith our second-order e pansion o" the $ra#ity potential $i#en in ()uation 5AC A26% The #alue o" the sur"ace $ra#ity potential at the e)uator is "ound by
substitutin$ r P a and Y P 8 in ()uation 5ACA26 'ith the result G, /8 P a 1 1 1 R J2 a2 ^2 % 2 2 5A%A>6
The #alue o" the sur"ace $ra#ity potential at the poles must also be /8 because 'e de"ine the sur"ace o" the model (arth to be an e)uipotential sur"ace% :e substitute r P c 5the (arths polar radius6 and Y P XU2 into ()uation 5ACA26 and obtain /8 P G, 1 J2 a c c
2
5A%AA6
The flattening 5ellipticity6 o" this $eoid is de"ined by a c " % a The "lattenin$ is #ery sli$ht7 that is, " 1% &n order to relate the "lattenin$ " to J2 , 'e set ()uations 5ACA>6 and 5ACAA6 e)ual and obtain 1R
2 2 1 a J2 R 1 a ^ P 1 J2 a 2 c 2 G, c 2
5A%A46
5A%A36
Substitutin$ c P a51 " 6 and the ne$lectin$ )uadratic and hi$her order terms in " and J2 , because " 1 and J2 1, 'e "ind that 2 1 a2 ^ 2 " P J2 R % 5A%A86 2 2 G, Ta!in$ a2 ^ 2 UG, P 2%>4129 18 2 and J2 P 1%882424A 18 2 "rom ()uation 5AC>A6, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 5ACA86 that " P 2%2A>4 18 2 % ;etention o" hi$her order terms in the theory $i#es the more accurate #alue " P 2%2A281848 18 5A%A96
2
298%2A3222 &t should be emphasiBed that ()uation 5ACA86 is #alid only i" the sur"ace o" the planetary body is an e)uipotential% The shape o" the model $eoid is nearly that o" a spherical sur"ace7 that is, i" r8 is the distance to the $eoid, r8 a51 g6, 5A%486 'here g 1% @y settin$ / P /8 and r P r8 in ()uation 5ACA26, substitutin$ ()uation 5ACA>6 "or /8 and ()uation 5AC486 "or r8 , and ne$lectin$ )uadratic and hi$her order terms in " , J2 , a2 ^ 2 UG, , and g, 'e obtain gP 2 1 aZ2 ^ 2 2R 2 2 G, J sin2 Y% 5A%416
Fi$ure A%A Geoid hei$ht 5(G,946 abo#e re"erence ellipsoid :GS8> 5.emoine et al%, 19986%
The substitution o" ()uation 5AC416 into ()uation 5AC486 $i#es the appro imate model e)uation "or the $eoid as r8 P a 1 or r8 P a51 " sin2 Y6% 5A%426 2 1 a2 ^ 2 sin 2 Y J2 R 2 2 G, 5A%426
The nondimensional )uantity a2 ^ 2 UG, is a measure o" the relati#e importance o" the centri"u$al acceleration due to the rotation o" the (arth compared 'ith the $ra#itational attraction o" the mass in the (arth% The rotational contribution is about 8%22N o" the mass contribution% &n the precedin$ analysis 'e considered only terms linear in J2 and a2 ^ 2 UG, % &n order to pro#ide a re"erence $eoid a$ainst 'hich $eoid anomalies are measured, it is necessary to include hi$her order terms% @y con#ention, the ref2 erence geoid is a spheroid 5ellipsoid of revolution6 de"ined in terms o" the e)uatorial and polar radii by r 8
2cos 2
a2
2 sin 2 Y r8 P 1% 2 c
5A%4>6
11> 11>1
Gravity
The eccentricity e o" the spheroid is $i#en by a2 c2 e a2

1U2
P 52" " 2 61U2 %
5A%4A6
&t is the usual practice to e press the re"erence $eoid in terms o" the e)uatorial radius and the "lattenin$ 'ith the result r 8 or r8 P a 1 R 52" " 2 6 sin2 Y 51 " 62
1U2 2cos 2
a2
r82 sin2 Y P1 a2 51 " 62 %
5A%446
5A%436
&" ()uation 5AC436 is e panded in po'ers o" " and i" terms o" )uadratic and hi$her order in " are ne$lected, the result a$rees 'ith ()uation 5AC426% ()uation 5AC436 'ith a P 4238%123 !m and " P 1U298%2A3222 de"ines the re"erence $eoid% The di""erence in ele#ation bet'een the measured $eoid and the re"erence $eoid _< is re"erred to as a geoid anomaly% - map o" $eoid anomalies is $i#en in Fi$ure ACA% The ma imum $eoid anomalies are around 188 m7 this is about 8%AN o" the 21-!m di""erence bet'een the e)uatorial and polar radii% 1learly, the measured $eoid is #ery close to ha#in$ the spheroidal shape o" the re"erence $eoid% The ma?or $eoid anomalies sho'n in Fi$ure ACA can be attributed to density inhomo$eneities in the (arth% - comparison 'ith the distribution o" sur"ace plates $i#en in Fi$ure 1C1 sho's that some o" the ma?or anomalies can be directly associated 'ith plate tectonic phenomena% ( amples are the $eoid hi$hs o#er <e' Guinea and 1hileC0eru7 these are clearly associated 'ith subduction% The e cess mass o" the dense subducted lithosphere causes an ele#ation o" the $eoid% The ne$ati#e $eoid anomaly o#er 1hina may be associated 'ith the continental collision bet'een the &ndian and (urasian plates and the $eoid lo' o#er the 9udson @ay in 1anada may be associated 'ith post$lacial rebound 5see Section 4C186% The lar$est $eoid anomaly is the ne$ati#e $eoid anomaly o"" the southern tip o" &ndia, 'hich has an amplitude o" 188 m% <o satis"actory e planation has been $i#en "or this $eoid anomaly, 'hich has no sur"ace e pression% - similar une plained ne$ati#e $eoid anomaly lies o"" the 'est coast o" <orth -merica% The de"inition o" $eoid anomalies relati#e to the re"erence $eoid is some'hat arbitrary% The re"erence $eoid itsel" includes an a#era$in$ o#er density anomalies 'ithin the (arth% -n alternati#e approach is to de"ine $eoid anomalies relati#e to a hydrostatic $eoid% The (arth is assumed to ha#e a
Fi$ure A%4 ;elationship o" measured and re"erence $eoids and $eoid anomaly _ 8%
layered structure in terms o" density, but each layer is in hydrostatic e)uilibrium relati#e to the rotation o" the (arth% The anomaly map is si$ni"icantly di""erent "or the t'o approaches, but the ma?or "eatures remain una""ected% *ne o" the primary concerns in $eodesy is to de"ine topo$raphy and bathymetry% @oth are measured relati#e to Lsea le#el%M Sea le#el is closely appro imated by an e)uipotential sur"ace correspondin$ to a constant #alue o" / % -s 'e ha#e discussed, $eoid anomalies relati#e to a re"erence spheroidal sur"ace can be as lar$e as 188 m% Thus, i" 'e de"ine sea le#el by a $lobal spheroid 'e 'ould be in error by this amount% Topo$raphy 5and bathymetry6 in any local area must be measured relati#e to a sur"ace that appro imates the local sea le#el 5e)uipotential sur"ace6% 0roblem A%> -ssume a lar$e $eoid anomaly 'ith a horiBontal scale o" se#eral thousand !ilometers has a mantle ori$in and its location does not chan$e% @ecause o" continental dri"t the passi#e mar$in o" a continent passes throu$h the anomaly% &s there a si$ni"icant chan$e in sea le#el associated 'ith the passa$e o" the mar$in throu$h the $eoid anomalyO ( plain your ans'er% The anomaly in the potential o" the $ra#ity "ield measured on the re"erence $eoid _/ can be related directly to the $eoid anomaly _< % The potential anomaly is de"ined by _/ P /m8 /8 , 5A%486 'here /m8 is the measured potential at the location o" the re"erence $eoid and /8 is the re"erence #alue o" the potential de"ined by ()uation 5AC A>6% The potential on the measured $eoid is /8 , as sho'n in Fi$ure AC4% &t can be seen "rom the "i$ure that /8 , /m8 , and _< are related by /8 P /m8 R h/ hr _<,
r P r8
5A%496
because _<Ua 1% ;ecall "rom the deri#ation o" ()uation 5ACA26 that 'e obtained the potential by inte$ratin$ the acceleration o" $ra#ity% There"ore,
the radial deri#ati#e o" the potential in ()uation 5AC496 is the acceleration o" $ra#ity on the re"erence $eoid% To the re)uired accuracy 'e can 'rite h/ hr
rP r8
P $8 ,
5A%386
'here $8 is the re"erence acceleration o" $ra#ity on the re"erence $eoid% Just as the measured potential on the re"erence $eoid di""ers "rom /8 , the measured acceleration o" $ra#ity on the re"erence $eoid di""ers "rom $8 % 9o'e#er, "or our purposes 'e can use $8 in ()uation 5AC496 "or 5h/Uhr6r P r8 because this term is multiplied by a small )uantity _< % Substitution o" ()uations 5AC496 and 5AC386 into ()uation 5AC486 $i#es _/ P $8 _<% 5A%316 - local mass e cess produces an out'ard 'arp o" $ra#ity e)uipotentials and there"ore a positi#e _< and a ne$ati#e _/ % <ote that the measured $eoid essentially de"ines sea le#el% De#iations o" sea le#el "rom the e)uipotential sur"ace are due to lunar and solar tides, 'inds, and ocean currents% These e""ects are $enerally a "e' meters% The re"erence acceleration o" $ra#ity on the re"erence $eoid is "ound by substitutin$ the e pression "or r8 $i#en by ()uation 5AC426 into ()uation 5ACA86 and simpli"yin$ the result by ne$lectin$ )uadratic and hi$her order terms in J2 and a2 ^ 2 UG, % *ne "inds $8 P G, a2 2 1 R J2 cos 2 Y R a^2 5sin2 Y cos2 Y6% 2 5A%326 To pro#ide a standard reference acceleration of gravity a$ainst 'hich $ra#ity anomalies are measured, 'e must retain hi$her order terms in the e)uation "or $8 % Gra#ity anomalies are the di""erences bet'een measured #alues o" $ on the re"erence $eoid and $8 % @y international a$reement in 1988 the re"erence $ra#ity "ield 'as de"ined to be $8 P 9%388224331A51 R 8%88A2398>1> sin 2 Y R 8%8888222318 sin > Y R 8%8888881242 sin 4 Y R 8%8888888883 sin 8 Y6,
5A%326
'ith $8 in m s 2 % This is !no'n as the 1988 Geodetic Reference "ystem 5G;S6 5@B6 Formula% The standard re"erence $ra#ity "ield $i#en by ()uation 5AC326 is o" hi$her order in Y than is the consistent )uadratic appro imation
>(> Moments of Inertia
113 1131
used to speci"y both $8 in ()uation 5AC326 and r in ()uation 5AC436% The 8 suitable S& unit "or $ra#ity anomalies is mm s 2 % 0roblem A%A Determine the #alues o" the acceleration o" $ra#ity at the e)uator and the poles usin$ G;S 88 and the )uadratic appro imation $i#en in ()uation 5AC326% 0roblem A%4 @y ne$lectin$ )uadratic and hi$her order terms, sho' that the $ra#ity "ield on the re"erence $eoid can be e pressed in terms o" the $ra#ity "ield at the e)uator $e accordin$ to ^ 2 a2 2 2 5A%3>6 $8 P $e 1 R 2 2 sin Y % G, 2J :hat is the #alue o" the acceleration o" $ra#ity at a
0roblem A%3 distance b abo#e the $eoid at the e)uator 5b a6O
A%A ,oments o" &nertia ,ac1ulla$hs "ormula $i#en in ()uation 5AC>26 relates the $ra#itational acceleration o" an oblate planetary body to its principal moments o" inertia% Thus, 'e can use the "ormula, to$ether 'ith measurements o" a planets $ra#itational "ield by "lyby or orbitin$ spacecra"t, "or e ample, to constrain the moments o" inertia o" a planet% Since the moments o" inertia re"lect a planets o#erall shape and internal density distribution, 'e can use the #alues o" the moments to learn about a planets internal structure% For this purpose it is help"ul to ha#e e pressions "or the moments o" inertia o" some simple bodies such as spheres and spheroids% The principal moments o" inertia o" a spherically symmetric body are all e)ual, - P @ P 1 , because the mass distribution is the same about any a is passin$ throu$h the center o" the body% For simplicity, 'e 'ill determine the moment o" inertia about the polar a is de"ined by W P 8% For a spherical body o" radius a, substitution o" ()uations 5AC46 and 5AC 36 into ()uation 5AC246 $i#es
]
1P
2X
&nte$ration o#er the an$les Z
Q5r 6r > sin2 W dr 5A%3A6 and W results in

2X 8
dW dZ %
dZ
P 2X
X Z
and
sin2 W dW P
1 W 2
cos2 W cos
P
8
> ,
Table A%1 Calues of the &imensionless Polar Moment of Inertia, J 2 , and the Polar Flattening for the Earth, Moon, Mars, and Cenus
(arth 1U, a2 J2 w 1 , a2 1k -R @ 2 8%2283883 1%882424A x 18k2 ,oon 8%292A 2%823 x 18k> ,ars 8%244 8 1%948>A x 1 k2 +enus 8%22 8 >%>A8 x 1 k4
8 " w 2 5a R b6 a R b k c 2 2%2A281848 x 1 k2
1%2>3 x 18k2
4%>342 x 18k2
II
so that ()uation 5AC3A6 becomes 1P 8X 2
Q5r 6r > dr % 5A%346
For a spherical body 'ith a constant density Q8 , the inte$ration o" ()uation 5AC346 $i#es 8X Q8 a A % 5A%336 1P 1A @ecause the mass o" the sphere is > , P Xa2 Q8 , 2 the moment o" inertia is also $i#en by 5A%386
2 1 P , a2 % 5A%396 A The dimensionless polar moments o" inertia o" the (arth and ,oon are listed in Table AC1% The #alue 1U, a2 P 8%2283 "or the (arth is considerably less than the #alue 8%> that ()uation 5AC396 $i#es "or a constant-density spherical planet% This di""erence is clearly associated 'ith the (arths hi$h- density core% The #alue 1U, a2 P 8%292A "or the ,oon is close to the #alue "or a constant-density planet, but does not rule out a small 5radius less than about 288 !m6 metallic core% 0roblem A%8 1onsider a spherical body o" radius a 'ith a core o" radius rc and constant density Qc surrounded by a mantle o" constant density Qm % Sho' that the moment o" inertia 1 and mass , are $i#en by 8X A A A dQ r R Qm 5a r 5A%886 c 6e 1A c c >X 2 , P dQ r 2 R Qm 5a2 r 5A%816 c 6e% 2 c c Determine mean #alues "or the densities o" the (arths mantle and core $i#en 1P
1 P 8%8> 1823 !$ m2 , , P A%93 182> !$, a P 4238 !m, and rc P 2>84 !m% :e 'ill ne t determine the principal moments o" inertia o" a constant- density spheroid de"ined by r8 P 5a2 cos2 ac % W R c2 sin2 W61U2 5A%826
This is a rearran$ement o" ()uation 5AC4>6 'ith the colatitude W bein$ used in place o" the latitude Y% @y substitutin$ ()uations 5AC46 and 5AC36 into ()uations 5AC246 and 5AC296, 'e can 'rite the polar and e)uatorial moments o" inertia as
]
1PQ -PQ
2X
] ]
8
r8
8 2X
r
8
>
sin2 W dW dr
dZ
r8
5A%826
]
X
5sin2 W sin2 Z 5A%8>6
>
sin W
R cos2 W 6 dW dr
dZ ,
'here the upper limit on the inte$ral o#er r is $i#en by ()uation 5AC 826 and @ P - "or this a isymmetric body% The inte$rations o#er Z and r are strai$ht"or'ard and yield 2 1 P XQaA cA A
]
8 X
sin2 W dW 5a2 cos2 W R c2 sin2 W 6AU2
5A%8A6
]X 1 2 cos2 W sin W dW - P 1 R XQaA cA % 2 2 2 2 2 A 8 5a cos W R c sin W AU2 6
5A%846
The inte$rals o#er W can be simpli"ied by introducin$ the #ariable P cos W 5d P sin W dW , sin W P 51 2 61U2 6 'ith the result
1 2 51 2 6 d A A 1P XQa c A 1 dc2 R 5a2 c2 6 2 eAU2
5A%836
- P 1 R XQa c 2 A
A A
1 dc2
5a2
d c2 6
2 eAU2%
5A%886 From a comprehensi#e tabulation o" inte$rals 'e "ind

]
1
2 52a2 R c2 6
{c 2 R 5a 2 c2 6
2 } AU2
P 2
c> a2
5A%896
1 1
d {c 2 R 5a 2 c2 6
2 } AU2
2 1 % 2 c2 a2
5A%986
@y substitutin$ ()uations 5AC896 and 5AC986 into ()uations 5AC836 and 5AC 886, 'e obtain 8 XQa> c 5A%916 1A > - P XQa2 c5a2 R c2 6% 5A%926 1A These e pressions "or the moments o" inertia can be used to determine J2 "or the spheroid% The substitution o" ()uations 5AC916 and 5AC926 into the de"inition o" J2 $i#en in ()uation 5AC>26, to$ether 'ith the e)uation "or the mass o" a constant-density spheroid 1P , P yields J 2P
2 1 c % 1 A a2
>X 2 Qa c, 2
5A%926
5A%9>6
1onsistent 'ith our pre#ious assumption that J2 1 and 51 cUa6 1 this reduces to J2 P 2 c 1 A a P 2" % A 5A%9A6
()uation 5AC9A6 relates J2 to the "lattenin$ o" a constant-density planetary body% The de#iation o" the near-sur"ace layer "rom a spherical shape produces the di""erence in polar and e)uatorial moments o" inertia in such a body% For a planet that does not ha#e a constant density, the de#iation "rom spherical symmetry o" the density distribution at depth also contributes to the di""erence in moments o" inertia% &" the planetary sur"ace is also an e)uipotential sur"ace, ()uation 5ACA86 is #alid% Substitution o" ()uation 5AC9A6 into that relation $i#es " P or 1 a2 ^ 2 % 5A%936 2 G, These are the #alues o" the "lattenin$ and J2 e pected "or a constantdensity, rotatin$ planetary body 'hose sur"ace is a $ra#ity e)uipotential% *bser#ed #alues o" J2 and " are $i#en in Table AC1% For the (arth J2 U" P J2 P A a2 ^ 2 > G, 5A%946
8%2229 compared 'ith the #alue 8%> $i#en by ()uation 5AC9A6 "or a constantdensity body% The di""erence can be attributed to the #ariation o" density 'ith depth in the (arth and the de#iations o" the density distribution at depth "rom spherical symmetry% For the ,oon, 'here a constant-density theory 'ould be e pected to be #alid, J2 U" P 8%14% 9o'e#er, both J2 and " are )uite small% The obser#ed di""erence in mean e)uatorial and polar radii is 5a R b6U2 c P 2 !m, 'hich is small compared 'ith #ariations in lunar topo$raphy% There"ore the obser#ed "lattenin$ may be in"luenced by #ariations in crustal thic!ness% @ecause the ,oon is tidally coupled to the (arth so that the same side o" the ,oon al'ays "aces the (arth, the rotation o" the ,oon is too small to e plain the obser#ed #alue o" J2 % 9o'e#er, the present "lattenin$ may be a relic o" a time 'hen the ,oon 'as rotatin$ more rapidly% -t that time the lunar lithosphere may ha#e thic!ened enou$h so that the stren$th o" the elastic lithosphere 'as su""icient to preser#e the rotational "lattenin$% For ,ars, a2 ^ 2 UG, P >%A9 18 2 and J2 P 1%948 18 2 % From ()uation 5ACA86 the predicted #alue "or the dynamic "lattenin$ is A%22A 2 2 18 % This compares 'ith the obser#ed "lattenin$ o" 4%>342 18 % -$ain the di""erence may be attributed to the preser#ation o" a "ossil "lattenin$ associated 'ith a hi$her rotational #elocity in the past% The ratio o" J2 to the obser#ed "lattenin$ is 8%28237 this a$ain is considerably less than the #alue o" 8%> "or a constant-density planet "rom ()uation 5AC9A6% 0roblem A%9 -ssumin$ that the di""erence in moments o" inertia 1 is associated 'ith a nearsur"ace density Qm and the mass , is associated 'ith a mean planetary density Qf, sho' that J2 P 2 Qm "% A Qf 5A%986

Determine the #alue o" Qm "or the (arth by usin$ the measured #alues o" J2 , Qf, and " % Discuss the #alue obtained% 0roblem A%18 -ssume that the constant-density theory "or the moments o" inertia o" a planetary body is applicable to the ,oon% Determine the rotational period o" the ,oon that $i#es the measured #alue o" J2 % 0roblem A%11 Ta!e the obser#ed #alues o" the "lattenin$ and J2 "or ,ars and determine the correspondin$ period o" rotation% 9o' does this compare 'ith the present period o" rotationO
Fi$ure A%3 The $ra#itational attraction due to a sphere o" anomalous density _Q and radius R buried at a depth $ beneath the sur"ace%
A%4 Sur"ace Gra#ity -nomalies ,ass anomalies on and in the (arths crust are a primary source o" sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies% .et us "irst consider the sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies caused by buried bodies o" anomalous density% ( amples include localiBed mineral deposits that usually ha#e e cess mass associated 'ith them and i$neous intrusions that o"ten ha#e an associated mass de"iciency% The $ra#ity anomaly due to a body o" arbitrary shape and density distribution can be obtained by inte$ratin$ ()uation 5AC26 o#er the body% 9o'e#er, it is $enerally impossible to carry out the necessary inte$rals e cept "or the simplest shapes, and numerical methods are usually re)uired% -s a speci"ic e ample o" a buried body 'e consider a buried sphere o" radius ; 'ith a uni"orm density anomaly _Q, as sho'n in Fi$ure AC3% &t should be emphasiBed that the e""ecti#e density in determinin$ the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly caused by a buried body is the density di""erence bet'een the body and the surroundin$ roc!% From ()uation 5AC1A6, the $ra#itational acceleration due to the spherical mass anomaly at a distance r "rom its center 5r [ ;6 is $m P >XG;2 _Q % 2r 2 5A%996
This acceleration is directed to'ard the center o" the sphere i" _Q is positi#e 5see Fi$ure AC36% @ecause the $ra#itational acceleration due to the buried body is small compared 'ith (arths $ra#itational acceleration, the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly _$ is ?ust the #ertical component o" the sur"ace $ra#itational acceleration o" the body7 see ()uations 5AC146 and 5AC136% From Fi$ure 5AC36 'e can 'rite _$ $m cos W, 5A%1886
>(? "urface Gravity
nomalies
122 1221
Fi$ure A%8 The sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly resultin$ "rom a spherical body o" radius R 'hose center is at a depth $, as in ()uation 5AC1826%
'here W is indicated in the "i$ure% Gra#ity anomalies are measured positi#e do'n'ard% For a point on the sur"ace, cos W P b P r 5
2
b , R b2 61U2
5A%1816
'here is the horiBontal distance bet'een the sur"ace point at 'hich _$ is measured and the center o" the sphere and b is the depth to the spheres center% Substitutin$ ()uations 5AC996 and 5AC1816 into ()uation 5AC1886, 'e obtain _$ P >XG;2 _Qb >XG;2 _Q P 2r 2 5 2
2
b % R b2 62U2 5A%1826
The resultin$ $ra#ity anomaly is plotted in Fi$ure AC8% - speci"ic e ample o" a sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly caused by a density anomaly at depth is the $ra#ity anomaly o#er a salt dome o"" the Gul" coast o" the /nited States% - contour map o" the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly is $i#en in Fi$ure AC9a% ,easurements o" the $ra#ity on the cross section -- are $i#en in Fi$ure AC9b% The measurements are compared 'ith the theoretical $ra#ity anomaly computed "rom ()uation 5AC1826 ta!in$ b P 4 !m and >XG;2 _QU2b2 P 8%1 mm s 2 % -ssumin$ that salt has a density o" 2288 !$ m 2 and that the mean density o" the sediments is 2>88 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind that ; P >%8 !m% This 'ould appear to be a reasonable radius "or an e)ui#alent spherical salt dome%
Fi$ure A%9 5a6 1ontour map 58%81 mm s 2 contours6 o" the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly o#er a salt dome 12A miles southeast o" Gal#eston, Te as, near the outer ed$e o" the continental shel" 5<ettleton, 19A36% 5$6 ,easurements o" $ra#ity on section "rom 5a6 compared 'ith a theoretical "it based on ()uation 5AC1826%
0roblem A%12 - $ra#ity pro"ile across the 0yramid <o% 1 ore body near 0ine 0oint, <orth'est Territories, 1anada, is sho'n in Fi$ure AC18% - reasonable "it 'ith ()uation 5AC1826 is obtained ta!in$ b P 288 m and >XG;2 _QU2b2 P 8%884 mm s 2 % -ssume that the $ra#ity anomaly is caused by leadCBinc ore 'ith a density o" 24A8 !$ m 2 and that the country roc! has a density o" 24A8 !$ m 2 % (stimate the tonna$e o" leadCBinc ore, assumin$
>(? "urface Gravity
nomalies
12A 12A1
Fi$ure A%18 5a6 1ontour map 518 2 mm s 2 contours6 o" the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly o#er the 0yramid <o% 1 ore body 5Sei$el et al%, 19486% 5$6 Gra#ity measurements on section 00 "rom 5a6 compared 'ith a theoretical "it based on ()uation 5AC1826%
a spherical body% The tonna$e established by drillin$ in this ore body 'as 9%2 million tons% 0roblem A%12 Sho' that the $ra#ity anomaly o" an in"initely lon$ horiBontal cylinder o" radius ; 'ith anomalous density _Q buried at depth b beneath the sur"ace is _$ P 2XG;2 _Qb , 5 2 R b2 6 5A%1826
Fi$ure A%11 - buried sheet 0 o" e cess mass b per unit area%
'here is the horiBontal distance "rom the sur"ace measurement point to the point on the sur"ace directly o#er the cylinder a is% :hat is the ma imum $ra#ity anomaly caused by a lon$ horiBontal under$round tunnel o" circular cross section 'ith a 18-m radius dri#en throu$h roc! o" density 2888 !$ m 2 i" the a is o" the tunnel lies A8 m belo' the sur"aceO 0roblem A%1> 1alculate the $ra#ity anomaly "or a buried in"initely lon$ horiBontal line o" e cess mass i per unit len$th by ta!in$ the limit o" e pression 5AC1826 as ; 8 and _Q such that X;2 _Q i% The result is 2Gib _$ P 2 , 5A%18>6 R b2 'here is the horiBontal distance "rom the sur"ace obser#ation point to the point directly abo#e the line source% @y inte$ratin$ ()uation 5AC18>6, sho' that the $ra#ity anomaly o" a buried in"inite slab o" mass e cess _Q and thic!ness h is _$ P 2XGh_Q% 5A%18A6
<ote that the anomaly o" the in"inite slab depends only on its density e cess and thic!ness but not on its depth o" burial% 0roblem A%1A &nte$rate ()uation 5AC18>6 to "ind the $ra#ity anomaly, at P 8, o" the buried mass sheet sho'n in Fi$ure AC11% The sheet e tends in"initely "ar in the B direction and has an e cess density b per unit area% The sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly at P 8 is $i#en by _$ P 2GbW, 'here W is the an$le de"ined in Fi$ure AC11% 5A%1846
>(= 0ouguer Gravity Formula
123 1231
Fi$ure A%12 1oordinate system used to determine the $ra#itational attraction o" a circular dis! at a point alon$ its a is%
A%3 @ou$uer Gra#ity Formula &n the pre#ious section 'e 'ere concerned 'ith sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies caused by buried bodies o" anomalous density% -nother important source o" sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies is the $ra#itational e""ect o" the mass associated 'ith topo$raphy% &n $eneral this e""ect can be determined by direct inte$ration o" ()uation 5AC267 ho'e#er, such a procedure usually re)uires numerical calculations and is e tremely tedious% @ecause almost all topo$raphy has a relati#ely shallo' slope, 'e can deri#e an appro imate e pression "or the $ra#itational e""ect o" topo$raphy as 'ell as other shallo' density anomalies% To determine the $ra#itational attraction o" the topo$raphy immediately beneath an obser#er, 'e 'ill consider an obser#er 'ho is located a distance b abo#e the upper sur"ace o" a cylindrical dis! o" radius ; and thic!ness h, as illustrated in Fi$ure AC12% The obser#er is on the a is o" the dis! 'hose density Q depends on the #ertical coordinate y but not on the radial coordinate r, Q P Q5y6% @y symmetry, the net $ra#itational attraction at the position o" the obser#er due to a mass rin$ o" #ertical thic!ness dy and radial thic!ness dr is #ertically do'n'ard alon$ the a is o" the cylinder% -ccordin$ to ()uation 5AC26 it is $i#en by d$y P 52Xr dr dy65Q6G yR b 2 2 2 dr R 5y R b6 dr R 5y R b62 e1U2 % e
5A%1836
The #arious "actors in ()uation 5AC1836 are 2Xr dr dy, the #olume o" the rin$7 r 2 R 5y R b62 , the s)uare o" the distance bet'een the obser#er and an element o" the rin$7 and the )uantity in braces, the cosine o" the an$le W 5see Fi$ure AC126 re)uired to obtain the #ertical component o" the attraction o" an element o" the rin$% Thus, the #ertical component o" the $ra#itational attraction o" the entire dis! on the a is o" the dis! at a distance b abo#e its upper sur"ace is $i#en by
]
$y P 2XG
]
8
5 b R y6rQ5y6 dr dy % dr2 R 5b R y62 e2U2
5A%1886
:e can readily inte$rate ()uation 5AC1886 'ith respect to r to obtain

]
$y P 2XG
h 8
Q5y6 1
d;2
bR y dy% R 5b R y62 e1U2 5A%1896
-n appro imate result applicable to the situation o" slo'ly #aryin$ topo$- raphy and other shallo' density anomalies is obtained by ta!in$ the limit ; in ()uation 5AC1896, such that
]
$y P 2XG
h 8
Q5y6 dy%
5A%1186
This is the 0ouguer gravity formula% &t relates the sur"ace $ra#ity ; h anomaly at a point to the mass e cess or de"iciency beneath that point 5 8 Q dy is the mass per unit sur"ace area o" the circular dis!%6 The result is independent o" the distance b at 'hich the obser#er is abo#e the anomalous mass% ()uation 5AC1186 is a $ood appro imation as lon$ as the horiBontal scale o#er 'hich the density chan$es is lar$e compared 'ith both h and b% The @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula is particularly use"ul in obtainin$ the $ra#ity anomaly due to topo$raphy% &" topo$raphy has a hei$ht h and a density Qc , the resultin$ $ra#ity anomaly "rom ()uation 5AC1186 is _$ P 2XQc G9% This result is identical to the "ormula 'e deri#ed "or the $ra#ity anomaly o" a buried in"inite slab7 see ()uation 5AC18A6% :ith Qc P 2438 !$ m 2 the $ra#ity anomaly "or each !ilometer o" ele#ation is _$ P 1%12 mm s 2% &n deri#in$ the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula 'e ha#e assumed a planar $eometry% /sin$ this "ormula as a topo$raphic correction is a $ood appro imation only i" the 'a#elen$th o" the topo$raphy is small compared 'ith the radius o" the (arth% 5A%1116
>(@ Reductions of Gravity &ata
28A
0roblem A%14 - seamount 'ith a density o" 2988 !$ m 2 rests on the sea"loor at a depth o" A !m% :hat is the e pected sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly i" the seamount ?ust reaches the sea sur"aceO 5-ssume the 'idth to hei$ht ratio o" the seamount is lar$e and that it does not de"lect the sea"loor on 'hich it rests%6 0roblem A%13 &nte$rate ()uation 5AC1896 to sho' that the $ra#ity anomaly due to a #ertical cylinder o" constant anomalous density _Q on the a is o" the cylinder a distance b abo#e its upper sur"ace is _$ P 2XG_Q{h R 5b2 R ;2 61U2 d5b R h62 R ;2 e1U2 }% 5A%1126
0roblem A%18 - #olcanic plu$ o" diameter 18 !m has a $ra#ity anomaly o" 8%2 mm s 2 % (stimate the depth o" the plu$ assumin$ that it can be modeled by a #ertical cylinder 'hose top is at the sur"ace% -ssume that the 2 plu$ has density o" 2888 !$ m and the roc! it intrudes has a density o" 2888 !$ m 2 % 0roblem A%19 The lunar $ra#ity "ield has been determined by the trac!in$ o" orbitin$ spacecra"t% Fi$ure AC12 is a contour map o" the $ra#ity anomalies on the near side o" the ,oon at an altitude o" 188 !m abo#e the sur"ace% The most noticeable "eatures are the positi#e anomalies coincident 'ith the circular mare basins% These are the lunar mascons% Determine the sur"ace density o" the anomalous mass associated 'ith ,are Serenitatis centered at about 28 <, 13 (%
A%8 ;eductions o" Gra#ity Data Scientists measure $ra#ity usin$ a #ariety o" $ra#imeters% -lmost all these measurin$ de#ices are based on the simple principle that a sprin$ is de"lected as the $ra#itational acceleration actin$ on a mass attached to the sprin$ #aries% Gra#imeters can easily measure #ariations in the $ra#ity "ield o" 1 part in 183 or 8%881 mm s 2 % :hen a sur"ace $ra#ity measurement is made, a series o" corrections are applied in order to obtain the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly% First the re"erence $ra#ity "ield $8 $i#en by ()uation 5AC326 is subtracted out% This subtraction includes a latitude correction% &" the $ra#ity measurement is carried out at an ele#ation h, a correction is also applied to account "or the #ariation o" $ra#ity 'ith ele#ation7 this is !no'n as the elevation correction% /sin$ ()uation 5AC1A6, "or e ample, 'e
Gravity
Fi$ure A%12 Lunar gravity anomalies at an altitude of -BB ,m )"'ogren, -<==*( %he values are in -B and the contour interval is B(4 mm s 2 (
284
mm s
>(< Compensation
283
can relate the #alue o" the $ra#itational acceleration at an ele#ation h abo#e the re"erence $eoid to the #alue $8 on the re"erence $eoid by r2 2h $ P $8 5r R8 h62 1 , 5A%1126 8 r8 $8 'here r8 is the radial position o" the re"erence $eoid $i#en by ()uation 5AC436% There"ore the ele#ation correction _$h is _$h P 2h$8 % r8 5A%11>6
The _$h is added to the measured $ra#ity i" the measurement is made at a point abo#e the re"erence $eoid% :ith $8 P 9%38 m s 2 and r8 P 4238 !m the ele#ation correction at an ele#ation o" 1 !m is 2%83 mm s 2% *"ten this correction is re"erred to as the free2air correction% :hen a $ra#ity measurement has been corrected "or latitude and ele#ation, the result is a free2air gravity anomaly _$" a % -t short 'a#elen$ths "ree-air $ra#ity anomalies correlate stron$ly 'ith local topo$raphy% To remo#e the $ra#itational attraction o" the local topo$raphy, the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula is used% The 0ouguer gravity anomaly _$@ is $i#en by _$@ P _$" a 2XGQc h% 5A%11A6 This simple correction is e""ecti#e in remo#in$ topo$raphic in"luences i" the correct crustal density is chosen and i" the topo$raphy is not too steep% typical #alue "or the crustal density is Qc P 2438 !$ m 2 % &" steep topo$raphy is present near the measurement site, additional terrain corrections must be applied% 0roblem A%28 The sur"ace $ra#ity at a measurin$ site is 9%8822>2 m s 2 % The < and an ele#ation o" A>2%2 m% *btain the site has a latitude >2 22 14 "ree-air and @ou$uer $ra#ity anomalies%
A%9 1ompensation -lthou$h the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula is e""ecti#e in remo#in$ the $ra#itational in"luence o" local 5short 'a#elen$th6 topo$raphy, it is not e""ecti#e in remo#in$ the in"luence o" re$ional 5lon$ 'a#elen$th6 topo$raphy% The reason "or this has already been discussed in Section 2C 1>% - mountain or #alley 'ith a small horiBontal scale, say 18 !m, can be supported by the elastic lithosphere 'ithout de"lection% There"ore the presence o" the mountain or #alley does not in"luence the density distribution at depth% 9o'e#er,
122 1221
Gravity
Fi$ure A%1> Free-air 5$6 and @ou$uer 5c6 $ra#ity anomalies associated 'ith the topo$raphy $i#en in 5a6%
the load due to a mountain ran$e 'ith a lar$e horiBontal scale, say 1888 !m, de"lects the lithosphere do'n'ard% Since the ,oho is $enerally embedded in the lithosphere, it is also de"lected do'n'ard% @ecause crustal roc!s are li$hter than mantle roc!s, this results in a lo'-density LrootM "or the mountain ran$es 'ith a lar$e horiBontal scale% The mass associated 'ith the topo$raphy o" the mountains is compensated at depth by the lo'-density root% @ecause the @ou$uer $ra#ity correction "or topo$raphy does not account "or this ne$ati#e root, @ou$uer $ra#ity anomalies o#er mountain ran$es are stron$ly ne$ati#e% :e ha#e sho'n in ()uation 52C11A6 that the ne$ati#e mass o" the mountain root cancels the positi#e mass o" the mountain in the lon$-'a#elen$th limit% The @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula, ()uation 5AC1186, relates the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly to the net mass e cess or de"iciency beneath an obser#er% @ecause the condition o" isostasy 5hydrostatic e)uilib- rium6 $i#es no net mass di""erence, 'e e pect that lon$-'a#elen$th "ree-air $ra#ity anomalies o#er mountain ran$es are near Bero% This is in "act the case% -n e ample o" the "ree-air and @ou$uer $ra#ity anomalies associated 'ith a mountain ran$e is $i#en in Fi$ure AC1>% The "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is proportional to the short-'a#elen$th topo$raphy, but it does not sho' any structure associated 'ith the lon$-'a#elen$th topo$raphy% The @ou$uer correction remo#es the in"luence o" the short-'a#elen$th topo$raphy and smooths the pro"ile% 9o'e#er, the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly is stron$ly ne$- ati#e, re"lectin$ the ne$ati#e density root o" the lon$'a#elen$th topo$raphy%
>(-B %he Gravity Field of a Periodic Mass &istri$ution on a "urface
289
:e turn ne t to a )uantitati#e consideration o" the in"luence o" lithospheric "le ure on compensation and sur"ace $ra#ity anomalies% @e"ore doin$ so, ho'e#er, let us determine the sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly caused by a periodic density #ariation at depth% This 'ill allo' us to determine the sur"ace $ra#ity e""ect o" a displacement o" the ,oho% A%18 The Gra#ity Field o" a 0eriodic ,ass Distribution on a Sur"ace The @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula deri#ed in Section AC3 $i#es the #ertical component o" the $ra#itational acceleration due to a layer o" anomalous mass "or an obser#er located immediately abo#e the layer% This appro imate "ormula is #alid only i" the obser#ers hei$ht abo#e the mass layer is small relati#e to the layer thic!ness and the scale o" any horiBontal density #ariations in the layer% &n this section 'e are interested in determinin$ the $ra#itational acceleration due to a mass layer 'ith horiBontal density #ariations 'hen the obser#er is at a hei$ht abo#e the mass layer that is comparable to the scale o" the lateral density #ariations in the layer% For this purpose 'e 'ill consider the situation s!etched in Fi$ure AC1A% The mass is assumed to be concentrated in a layer o" ne$li$ible thic!ness at y P 8% The mass per unit area o" the layer b is
]
b P lim
h8 8
Q5y6 dy%
5A%1146
The layer e tends to in"inity in the positi#e and ne$ati#e B directions, and the sur"ace density o" mass is ta!en to #ary periodically in the direction, b P b8 sin 2X , l 5A%1136
'here b8 is the amplitude o" the sur"ace density #ariation and l is its 'a#elen$th% Just abo#e the sur"ace layer, at y P 8, the #ertical component o" the $ra#itational acceleration o" the layer is $i#en by the @ou$uer "ormula, ()uation 5AC1186, 2X at y P 8 % 5A%1186 l :e are interested in determinin$ ho' $y depends on y% The $ra#itational potential + associated 'ith a mass distribution satis"ies .aplaces e)uation outside the mass distribution% For the t'o-dimensional mass distribution considered here 'e can 'rite h2 + h2 + R P 8% 5A%1196 h 2 hy 2 $y P 2XGb8 sin
12> 12>1
Gravity
Fi$ure A%1A Gra#itational acceleration due to a sur"ace mass layer 'ith horiBontally #aryin$ density distribution%
The #ertical component o" the $ra#itational acceleration is related to the potential by h+ $y P % 5A%1286 hy Thus, i" 'e ta!e the deri#ati#e o" ()uation 5AC1196 'ith respect to y and substitute ()uation 5AC1286, 'e obtain h 2 $y h 2 $ y R P 8% h 2 2 hy 5A%1216
The #ertical component o" the $ra#itational acceleration also satis"ies .aplaces e)uation% :e can "ind $y by sol#in$ the di""erential ()uation 5AC1216 sub?ect to the boundary condition imposed by ()uation 5AC1186 and the re)uirement that $y $oes to Bero "or obser#ers in"initely "ar "rom the mass sheet, $y 5y 6 P 8% 5A%1226 :e ha#e already sol#ed .aplaces e)uation "or a hal"-space 'ith periodic boundary conditions in Section >C12% @y direct analo$y 'ith ()uation 5>C A86 'e can 'rite the solution to the problem o" this section as e2XyUl % 5A%1226 l The $ra#ity anomaly decays e ponentially 'ith distance 5y6 "rom the mass layer% The len$th scale "or the decay is lU2X% ()uation 5AC1226 pro#ides a "ormula "or the up'ard, or do'n'ard, continuation o" $ra#ity anomalies measured at a particular le#el abo#e an anomalous mass distribution% @ecause any "unction o" can be Fourier-analyBed into periodic contributions $y P 2XGb8 sin 2X
o" di""erent 'a#elen$ths, any obser#ed $y 5 6 can be continued to an arbitrary le#el by applyin$ ()uation 5AC1226 to the indi#idual Fourier components o" $y 5 6 and then reconstructin$ the ne' $y 5 6 by superposition o" the modi"ied components%
A%11 1ompensation Due to .ithospheric Fle ure &n Section 2C1> 'e considered the "le ure o" the lithosphere under periodic loadin$ associated 'ith the additional 'ei$ht o" topo$raphy% To simpli"y the analysis, 'e assumed periodic topo$raphy o" the "orm h P h8 sin 2X % l 5A%12>6
From ()uations 52C1186 and 52C1116 'e can 'rite the de"lection o" the lithosphere ' due to the loadin$ o" the topo$raphy as 'P h8 Qm D 2X 1R Qc $ l Qc
>
sin
2X , l
5A%12A6
'here Qc is the density o" the crust, Qm is the density o" the mantle, and D is the "le ural ri$idity o" the lithosphere% There are t'o contributions to the sur"ace "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly% The "irst is the contribution o" the topo$raphy% From the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula, ()uation 5AC1116, this is $i#en by _$t P 2XQc Gh8 sin 2X % l 5A%1246
The second is the contribution o" the de"lection o" the ,oho% The #ertical de"lection o" the ,oho is e)ual to the #ertical de"lection o" the lithosphere because the ,oho is assumed to be a compositional chan$e embedded in the lithosphere% The anomalous sur"ace mass density associated 'ith the de"lection o" the ,oho is b P 5Qc Qm 6' 5Qm Qc 6h8 P 5A%1236 Qm D 1R Qc $ Qc 2X l 2X l
>
sin
9o'e#er, the ,oho is buried at a mean depth bm % -ccordin$ly, the #ertical component o" the sur"ace $ra#itational "ield due to the de"lection o" the
,oho is obtained "rom ()uation 5AC1226, 2X G5Qm Qc 6h8 e 2X bm _$m P

Ul
2X sin l %
QZ m 1 R Qc $ Qc
2X l
>
5A%1286
The sur"ace "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is "ound by addin$ ()uations 5AC1246 and 5AC1286 'ith the result _$" a P _$t R _$m
o o o o P 2XQc Go 1 o
e 1R
2X bm Ul >
2X D 5Qm Qc 6$ l
o o o o
h sin 2X % 8 l From ()uation 5AC11A6 the sur"ace @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly is _$@ P 2X Qc Ge 2Xbm 1R D 2X 5Qm Qc 6$ l
Ul >
5A%1296
h8 sin
2X % l 5A%1286
For short-'a#elen$th topo$raphy, l 2X the "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is _$" a P 2XGQc h8 sin and the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly is _$@ P 8% 5A%1226 2X , l 5A%1226 D 5Qm Qc 6$
1U>
5A%1216
The mass o" the local topo$raphy is uncompensated, and the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly is Bero% For lon$-'a#elen$th topo$raphy, l 2X 5Qm D Q 6$ c
1U>
5A%12>6
Fi$ure A%14 1orrelation o" @ou$uer $ra#ity anomalies 'ith topo$raphy "or the /nited States 5Dorman and .e'is, 19326 compared 'ith ()uation 5AC 1286%
and the "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is _$" a, P 8, and the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly is 2X % 5A%1236 l -s sho'n in ()uation 52C11A6, the sur"ace topo$raphy is totally compensated% The condition o" isostasy, or total compensation, re)uires that the total mass in #ertical columns be e)ual% This is the condition o" hydrostatic e)uilibrium% &n terms o" the density distribution in the lithosphere this condition can be 'ritten as _$@ P 2XQc Gh8 sin
]
h 8
l bm , 5A%12A6 5A%1246
_Q5y6dy P 8%
5A%1286
@ecause this is the inte$ral that appears in the @ou$uer "ormula, ()uation 5AC1186, the "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly associated 'ith compensated topo$raphy is identically Bero% The correlation o" @ou$uer $ra#ity anomalies 'ith topo$raphy is sho'n as a "unction o" 'a#elen$th "or the /nited States in Fi$ure AC14% &t is seen that topo$raphy 'ith a 'a#elen$th less than about 188 !m is not compensated%
-lso included in Fi$ure AC14 is the predicted correlation o" the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly 'ith topo$raphy $i#en by ()uation 5AC1286% &n ma!in$ this comparison, 'e ha#e ta!en Qm P 2>88 !$ m 2 , Qc P 2388 !$ 2 m , bm P 28 !m, and T P d>DU5Qm Qc 6$e1U> PA, 18, 28, and A8 !m% -lthou$h there is considerable scatter 21 in the data, reasonable a$reement is obtained ta!in$ T 28 !m or D 18 < m% :ith ( P 48 G0a and m P 8%2A, this #alue o" D implies, "rom ()uation 52C326, that the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere is about 4 !m% - lar$e "raction o" the si$ni"icant topo$raphy in the /nited States is in the :est, 'here much o" the area has hi$h heat "lo' and acti#e #olcanism7 there"ore it is not too surprisin$ that the deri#ed thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere is small% The ratio o" the @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly _$@ to topo$raphy h as $i#en in Fi$ure AC14 is o"ten re"erred to as the admittance% This is a term used 'hen the correlation bet'een t'o )uantities is obtained as a "unction o" 'a#elen$th% &t must be emphasiBed that any correlation bet'een $ra#ity and topo$raphy in ancient terrains must be considered critically% (rosion eliminates topo$raphy on a 'ide ran$e o" time scales% &" a lithospheric plate is loaded by topo$raphy and that topo$raphy is subse)uently eroded, then, accordin$ to the theory $i#en here, the associated $ra#ity anomaly is eliminated% 9o'e#er, i" the thic!ness o" the lithosphere chan$es bet'een the time 'hen topo$raphy is created and 'hen it is remo#ed, isostatic displacements o" the ,oho can be preser#ed e#en thou$h the associated topo$raphy is remo#ed% The result is a $uried load that causes a $ra#ity anomaly% Se#eral re$ions in the /nited States ha#e si$ni"icant $ra#ity anomalies in areas o" #ery "lat topo$raphy% For e ample, the buried load belie#ed to be responsible "or the ori$in o" the ,ichi$an basin as discussed in Section 2C18 produces a stron$ sur"ace $ra#ity anomaly but no si$ni"icant sur"ace topo$raphy% A%12 &sostatic Geoid -nomalies &n the pre#ious section 'e sho'ed that mass anomalies in the crust and upper mantle that e tend o#er distances $reater than a "e' hundred !ilometers are completely compensated% :e 'ould li!e to learn ho' the mass de"iciencies that balance the topo$raphic mass e cesses in isostatically compensated re$ions are distributed 'ith depth% -lthou$h $ra#ity anomalies can tell us that a re$ion is isostatically compensated, they are not the best sources o" in"ormation on the dependence o" density on depth% This is because the net mass density b de"ined in ()uation 5AC1146 is identically Bero in re$ions o" isostatic compensation% The "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is appro imately proportional to b, accordin$ to the @ou$uer "ormula 5AC1186,
>(-4 Isostatic Geoid
nomalies
29A
and thus _$" a 8 "or isostatically compensated topo$raphy% The nearly Bero #alue o" _$" a in an isostatically compensated re$ion tells us only ; h that 8 _Qdy P 87 an in"inite number o" density distributions Q5y6 satis"y this inte$ral constraint% &n this section 'e sho' that $eoid anomalies, or perturbations in the (arths $ra#ity e)uipotential sur"ace, are nonBero in isostatically compensated re$ions and that they measure the dipole moment of the density dis2 tri$ution
]
h 8
_Q5y6y dy%
Thus they pro#ide additional in"ormation on the distribution o" density 'ith depth and on the mechanisms o" compensation in the lithosphere% To calculate the $eoid or $ra#ity e)uipotential o" topo$raphy and other shallo' density anomalies, 'e proceed as in Section AC3, 'here 'e deri#ed the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula "or such "eatures% ;ecall that the startin$ point o" that deri#ation 'as the determination o" the $ra#itational acceleration o" a cylindrical dis! at a point on the a is o" the dis! a distance $ abo#e the top sur"ace o" the dis! 5see Fi$ure AC126% .et us be$in by de#elopin$ an e pression "or the $ra#itational potential o" the dis! at the same point o" obser#ation% :e can "ind the $ra#itational potential o" the cylindrical dis! in Fi$ure AC12 by inte$ratin$ the "ormula "or the potential d/ o" a mass rin$ o" radius r, cross section dr dy, and density Q5y6 o#er the #olume o" the dis!% From the discussion in Section 5AC >6 it is clear that d/ is $i#en by G2Xr_Q5y6 dr dy d/ P 2 dr R 5y R b62 e1U2 5A%1296 because all the mass in the rin$ is at the same distance "rom the point on the a is at y P b% Thus, the e pression 5AC1296 "or the potential anomaly _/ on the a is o" the dis! a distance b abo#e its upper sur"ace is $i#en by
]
_/ P 2XG
h] ; 8 8 1U2
r_Q5y 6 dr dy % dr 2 R 5b R y62 e
5A%1>86
&nte$ration 'ith respect to r yields

]
_/ P 2XG
5b R y6} dy%
_Q5y6{d;2 R 5b R y62 e1U2 5A%1>16
:e a$ain assume that the density anomalies are slo'ly #aryin$ horiBontally and ta!e the limit ; % To do this, 'e e pand the ;-dependent term
1>8 1>81
Gravity
o" the inte$rand o" ()uation 5AC1>16 in po'ers o" 1U; usin$ the binomial theorem d;2 R 5b R y62 e1U2 P ; 1 R 5b R y 6 ;2 ; 1R 1 bR y 2 ; ()uation 5AC1>16 becomes
5 ]
8 2 1U2
R %
5A%1>26
_/ P 2XG ;
]
_Q5y6 dy
6
5y R b6_Q5y6 dy R %
5A%1>26
9o'e#er, the condition o" isostasy re)uires, "rom ()uation 5AC1286, that the "irst inte$ral in ()uation 5AC1>26 be Bero% There"ore ()uation 5AC1>26 reduces to
]
_/ P 2XG
h 8
y_Q5y6 dy%
5A%1>>6
The $ra#itational potential anomaly due to a shallo', lon$ 'a#elen$th isostatic density distribution is proportional to the dipole moment o" the density distribution beneath the point o" measurement% The anomaly in the $eopotential has been related to the $eoid anomaly in ()uation 5AC316% Substitution o" ()uation 5AC1>>6 into ()uation 5AC316 $i#es _A6
Geoid hei$ht anomalies associated 'ith lon$-'a#elen$th isostatic density anomalies are directly proportional to the dipole moment o" the density distribution% The dipole moment o" _Q5y6 is nonBero, and the "irst moment o" the density, that is, the net mass, is Bero "or isostatic density distributions% Thus obser#ed $eoid hei$ht anomalies are a direct measure o" the lo'est order nonBero moment o" the densityCdepth pro"ile% Geoid anomalies are directly measurable o#er oceanic areas because the sur"ace o" the ocean closely con"orms to the $eoid% -ccurate geoid height contour maps o#er oceanic areas ha#e been compiled by measurin$ sea sur"ace hei$hts 'ith satellite altime- ters and correctin$ "or the small disturbin$ e""ects o" currents, tides, etc% -n e ample is $i#en in Fi$ure AC 13% - comparison 'ith the satellite-deri#ed
'orld'ide $eoid anomaly map $i#en in Fi$ure ACA sho's that measurements o" sea sur"ace topo$raphy $i#e much more short-'a#elen$th detail% 0roblem A%21 Sho' that the result in ()uation 5AC1>A6 is independent o" the ori$in o" the coordinate y% 9&<TF /se the isostatic condition $i#en in ()uation 5AC1286%
A%12 1ompensation ,odels and *bser#ed Geoid -nomalies The density compensation re)uired by isostasy can be accomplished in se#eral 'ays% :e discuss three simpli"ied models "or compensation7 clearly, compensation in the lithosphere may be a comple combination o" these models% :e pre#iously discussed in Section 2C2 compensation by the depression o" the ,oho as a conse)uence o" topo$raphic loadin$% This is !no'n as iry compensation and is illustrated in Fi$ure AC18a% The density o" the crust Qc and the mantle Qm are assumed to be constant% The thic!ness o" continental crust 'ith Bero ele#ation, 'ith respect to sea le#el, is 9 7 crust 'ith an ele- #ation h has a crustal root o" thic!ness b% From the principle o" hydrostatic e)uilibrium 'e "ind Qc h bP Qm Qc % 5A%1>46
&" the hei$ht o" the topo$raphy is ne$ati#e and it is co#ered 'ith 'ater, then Qc Q bP h% 5A%1>36 Qm Qc ' Ta!in$ continental crust 'ith Bero ele#ation as the re"erence, the $eoid anomaly associated 'ith compensated positi#e topo$raphy "rom ()uation 5AC1>A6 is _86
'here ()uation 5AC1>46 has been used to substitute "or the thic!ness o" the root b% &n 'ritin$ ()uation 5AC1>86, 'e measured y positi#e do'n'ard "rom sea le#el% @ecause a crust o" thic!ness 9 'ith Bero ele#ation lyin$ abo#e a mantle o" density Qm is the re"erence state, the anomalous density o" positi#e topo$raphy is Qc , and the anomalous density o" a crustal root is Qc Qm %
Gravity
Fi$ure A%13 Geoid anomalies in meters $ased on satellite altimeter data( nomalies are relative to a spheroid !ith a P ?5=@(-5= ,m and f P -U4<@(4>=( %he contours are at 42m intervals )Marsh et al(, -<@?*(
298
>(-5 Compensation Models and 1$served Geoid nomalies
1>2 1>21
Fi$ure A%18 -iry 5a6 and 0ratt 5$6 models o" isostatic compensation%
For topo$raphy belo' sea le#el 5h ne$ati#e6 the $eoid anomaly is $i#en by _96
XG 5Qc Q' 6 29 h R $
The -iry $eoid anomaly based on ()uations 5AC1>86 and 5AC1>96 'ith Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qc P 2888 !$ m 2 , and 9 P 28 !m is $i#en in Fi$ure AC19 as a "unction o" ele#ation% - $eoid anomaly o" about A m is e pected "or each !ilometer o" ele#ated topo$raphy and a ne$ati#e anomaly o" less than 2 m is anticipated "or each !ilometer o" topo$raphy belo' sea le#el% The obser#ed $eoid anomaly across the -tlantic continental mar$in o" <orth -merica at >8%A < is sho'n in Fi$ure AC28a% This $eoid anomaly 'as obtained usin$ a radar altimeter "rom a satellite to determine the position o" the sea sur"ace% .et us assume that -iry isostasy is applicable across this passi#e continental mar$in and determine the predicted $eoid anomaly "rom ()uation 5AC1>96% &n ma!in$ the comparison sho'n in Fi$ure AC28a, 'e assumed Qc P 2888 !$ m 2 , Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , and 9 P 28 !m% The assumed density distribution correspondin$ to the obser#ed bathymetry is $i#en in Fi$ure AC28b% Guite $ood a$reement bet'een obser#ation and theory is obtained, e#en thou$h the 'a#elen$th o" the $eoid anomaly is relati#ely small% This is e#idence that passi#e continental mar$ins are close to isostatic e)uilibrium% 0roblem A%22 &t is sometimes a better appro imation to di#ide the con-
Fi$ure A%19 Geoid anomaly as a "unction o" topo$raphic ele#ation abo#e and belo' sea le#el% For 0ratt compensation Q8 P 2188 !$ m 2 and .2 P 2 188 !m% For -iry compensation Qm P 2288 !$ m , Qc P 2888 !$ m , and 9 P 28 !m%
Fi$ure A%28 5a6 *bser#ed $eoid anomaly across the -tlantic continental mar$in o" <orth -merica5$ at >8%A distribution < compared o" 'ith the predicted anomaly "rom ()uation 5AC1>96% 6 The density used in the calculation%
tinental crust into upper and lo'er crusts% &" the lo'er crust has a constant thic!ness b. and a density Qc. and the upper crust has a #ariable thic!ness 'ith a density Qc/ , determine the $eoid anomaly associated 'ith isostatically compensated positi#e topo$raphy%
>(-5 Compensation Models and 1$served Geoid nomalies
1>A 1>A1
0roblem A%22 1onsider the "ormation o" a sedimentary basin on the sea"loor% Suppose isostatic compensation is achie#ed by the displacement o" mantle material o" density Qm % Sho' that sediment thic!ness s is related to 'ater depth d by 5 Qm Q' 6 s P 5Qm Qs 6 5D d 6, 5A%1A86
'here D is the initial depth o" the sediment-"ree ocean% :hat is the ma i2 mum possible thic!ness o" the sediment i" Q P 2A88 !$ m , Q s m P 2288 !$ m 2 , and D P A !mO -n alternati#e model "or isostatic compensation uses horiBontal #ariations in density o#er a prescribed depth : % This is !no'n as Pratt compensation and is illustrated in Fi$ure AC18b% The #ariable density Qp is related to the ele#ation abo#e sea le#el by Qp P Q8 , : :Rh 5A%1A16
'here Q8 is the re"erence density correspondin$ to Bero ele#ation and : is re"erred to as the depth of compensation% For topo$raphy belo' sea le#el 5h ne$ati#e6 the #ariable density is $i#en by Q8 : R Q' h Qp P % :Rh 5A%1A26
-$ain ta!in$ continental crust 'ith Bero ele#ation as the re"erence, the $eoid anomaly associated 'ith compensated positi#e topo$raphy is _< P
]
2X G
Qp y dy R
]
8
5Qp Q8 6y dy
$ P
XG Q8 : h, $
5A%1A26
'here 'e ha#e used ()uation 5AC1A16 to eliminate Qp % Similarly, the $eoid anomaly o" compensated ne$ati#e topo$raphy is _< P 2X G $
5 ] h
8 5Q ' Q8 6y dy
Fi$ure A%21 Dependence o" the obser#ed $eoid anomalies on bathymetric anomalies across the 9a'aiian s'ell 51rou$h, 19386 and across the @ermuda s'ell 59a by and Turcotte, 19386 compared 'ith the predicted dependence "or crustal thic!enin$ 5-iry compensation6 and 0ratt compensation 'ith #arious depths o" compensation% ]
:
R P
5Qp Q8 6y dy 5A%1A>6
XG 5Q8 Q' 6: h% $
The $eoid anomaly is linearly dependent on the topo$raphy% :ith Q8 P 2 2188 and : P 188 !m, the $eoidCtopo$raphy ratio 5GT;6 P 4%4 m 1!$ m !m "or positi#e topo$raphy "rom ()uation 5AC1A26% Similarly, 'ith Q' P 2 1888 and these same #alues o" Q8 and : , the GT; P >%A m 1!$ m !m "or ne$ati#e topo$raphy "rom ()uation 5AC1A>6% The $eoid anomaly o" the 0ratt model is sho'n in Fi$ure AC19 as a "unction o" topo$raphic ele#ation% 9otspot s'ells are areas o" anomalously shallo' topo$raphy associated 'ith hotspot #olcanics 5see Section 1C46% T'o e amples are the 9a'aiian s'ell in the 0aci"ic *cean and the @ermuda s'ell in the -tlantic *cean% The dependence o" the obser#ed $eoid anomaly across each o" these s'ells as a "unction o" anomalous bathymetry is $i#en in Fi$ure AC21% *ne hypothesis "or the ori$in o" this anomalously shallo' topo$raphy is the thic!enin$ o" the oceanic crust% -ssumin$ a re"erence thic!ness o" the oceanic crust to be 9 P 4 !m 'ith Qc P 2988 !$ m 2 and Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 ,
the predicted $eoid anomaly "rom ()uation 5AC1>96 is $i#en in Fi$ure AC21% 1learly the obser#ed $eoid anomalies are much lar$er than those predicted by crustal thic!enin$% &n Fi$ure AC21 'e also compare the obser#ed $eoid anomalies across the 9a'aiian and @ermudas 'ells 'ith the predicted $eoid anomalies due to 0ratt compensation% The 0ratt $eoid anomaly is obtained "rom ()uation 5AC1A>6 'ith Q8 P 2288 !$ m 2 and : P 3A, 188, and 12A !m% :ithin the scatter o" the data, $ood a$reement is obtained "or 0ratt compensation 'ith a depth o" compensation o" about 188 !m% &" 'e accept the 0ratt model to be applicable, the conclusion is that the mantle roc!s beneath the 9a'aiian and @ermuda s'ells ha#e anomalously lo' densities to depths o" appro imately 188 !m% - third type o" isostatic compensation is thermal isostasy% This has been considered in Section >C22 and is rele#ant to the oceanic lithosphere% The oceanic lithosphere is created "rom hot mantle roc! 5temperature T 1 6 at an ocean rid$e% The lithosphere cools and thic!ens by heat trans"er to the sur"ace% -s the oceanic lithosphere cools its density increases7 as a result it subsides% :e re"er to this type o" subsidence as thermal isostasy% :ith the oceanic rid$e crest ta!en as the re"erence density distribution, the $eoid anomaly associated 'ith the subsidin$ thermally compensated oceanic lithosphere can be 'ritten, usin$ ()uation 5AC1>A6, as _C28A6 relatin$ density to temperature% The result is _C2896 "or the ocean "loor depth ' and ()uation 5>C 12A6 "or the temperature distribution in the lithosphere, 'e can obtain the "ollo'in$ simple "ormula "or the $eoid anomaly o#er a spreadin$ rid$eF 2X GQm T5T1 T8 6s _>%A < 5re"erenced to the rid$e crest6 compared 'ith the predicted anomaly "rom ()uation 5AC1A36%
1R
2Qm T5T1 T8 6 t% X5Qm Q' 6
5A%1A36
This $eoid anomaly is a linear "unction o" the a$e o" the sea"loor% Ta!in$ Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and T P 2 18 A 1 E , 'e "ind that the $eoid anomaly decreases at the constant rate o" 8%14 m ,yr 1 % The $eoid anomaly calculated "rom ()uation 5AC1A36 is compared 'ith a measured $eoid anomaly across the mid--tlantic rid$e in Fi$ure AC22% 1learly, $ood a$reement is obtained% 0roblem A%2> The mean $eoid hei$ht o#er the continents is #ery nearly e)ual to the mean $eoid hei$ht o#er the ocean basins% The positi#e $eoid anomaly associated 'ith the thic!er continental crust is nearly cancelled by the ne$ati#e $eoid anomaly associated 'ith the thic!er continental lithosphere% -ssume that the t'o contributions are e)ual and determine the thic!ness o" the continental lithosphere% -lso assume that the temperature pro"iles in both the oceanic and continental crusts are $i#en by ()uation 5>C 12>6% Ta!e Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Qc P 2888 !$ m 2 , 9 P 2A !m, y.* P 188 A 1 !m, T P 2 18 E , and the depth o" the ocean basins is A%A !m% <e$lect the contribution o" the ocean crust% 0roblem A%2A Determine the $eoid o""set across the "racture Bone considered in 0roblem >CA2 5illustrated in Fi$ure >C>46 assumin$ the applicability o" the hal"-space coolin$ model% /se the parameter #alues $i#en in 0roblem >CA2% &n Section >C13 'e introduced the plate coolin$ model as an alternati#e to the hal"-space coolin$ model% The $eoid anomaly associated 'ith the subsidin$, thermally compensated oceanic lithosphere as predicted by the plate model is obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 5>C1286 "or the temperature distribution into ()uation 5AC1A46% -"ter carryin$ out the necessary inte$rals
'e obtain
>(-6 Forces Re3uired to Maintain %opography and the Geoid
1>9 1>91
2X G _C2116% For lar$e times, t Us, the e)uilib.8 y2 rium #alue o" the $eoid _<e is $i#en by 2X GTQ1 5T1 T8 6 y2 TQ1 5T1 T8 6 .8 _<e P R 1 % $ 4 85Q1 Q' 6 5A%1A96 This is the predicted di""erence in the $eoid bet'een ocean rid$es and ocean basins% For the parameter #alues used abo#e and y.8 P 9A !m, 'e "ind _<e P 8%42 m7 'ith y.8 P 12A !m, 'e "ind _<e P 1>%9 m% -$ain, 'e appro imate the de#iation o" the $eoid "rom the e)uilibrium #alue by retainin$ the "irst terms o" the e pansions $i#en in ()uations 5>C 2116 and 5AC1A96 'ith the result _ 5Q1 Q' 6 R 1 >sX 2 t 2 2X 2 e p y.8 % 5A%1486
A%1> Forces ;e)uired to ,aintain Topo$raphy and the Geoid &n Section 2C2 'e determined the horiBontal "orce in the lithosphere re)uired to maintain di""erences in topo$raphy by inte$ratin$ the lithostatic pressure o#er the thic!ness o" the lithosphere% This problem 'as illustrated in Fi$ure 2C8% The resultin$ horiBontal stress component 'as $i#en in ()uation 52C136% :e 'ill no' sho' that this "orce di""erence is proportional to the di""erence in $eoid hei$ht bet'een the t'o points considered% :e consider a section o" continental crust and lithosphere as illustrated in Fi$ure AC22 'ith a #ertical distribution o" density Q5y6 to a depth o"
Fi$ure A%22 Force balance on a section o" continental crust and lithosphere%
compensation h7 re"erence lithosphere has a constant density Qm % &sostasy re)uires that

]
h 8
Q5y6 dy P bQm %
5A%1416
The horiBontal "orce 'ithin the continental crust F1 is obtained by inte$ratin$ the lithostatic pressure o#er the depth o" compensation 'ith the result t u
]
F1 P
]
Q5y y 6dy y dy%
5A%1426
The horiBontal "orce F2 in the re"erence lithosphere is F2 P

b 8
1 $Qm y dy P $Qm b2 % 2
5A%1426
The net horiBontal "orce on the lithosphere F; is F; P F1 k t F2 u ] h ]y y y d k 1 Q5y 6 dy y $Qm b2 % P$ 2 8 8
5A%14>6
The inte$ral in ()uation 5AC14>6 can be e#aluated usin$ the method o" inte$ration by parts, 'hich, in $eneral, $i#es
]
b a
" 5y6
d$ 5y 6 dy P " 5b6$5b6 k " 5a6$5a6 dy ]b d" 5y 6 dy% k $5y6 dy a

]
y 8
5A%14A6
&" 'e let " 5y6 P
Q5y y 6 dy y ,
$5y6 k y,
then usin$ ()uation 5AC14A6 to e#aluate the inte$ral in ()uation 5AC14>6 $i#es
]
h 8
t]
Q5y 6 dy dy P h
y y
]
8
Q5y6 dy
yQ5y6 dy% 5A%1446
The isostasy condition, ()uation 5AC1416, can be used to "urther simpli"y ()uation 5AC1446 'ith the result
]
h
t]
Q5y 6
8 8
dy P hbQm
8
yQ5y6 dy%
dy
5A%1436 /pon substitutin$ this result into ()uation 5AC14>6 'e "ind
t ]
8
F; P $ Qm
1 hb b2 2
yQ5y6 dy %
5A%1486
:e ne t e#aluate the di""erence in the $ra#itational potential bet'een sections 1 and 2 usin$ ()uation 5AC1>>6 and obtain
t]
_/ P /1 /2 P 2XG
]
h b
yQ5y6 dy
h h b
ydQ5y6 Qm e dy
h
t]
8
P 2XG
yQ5y6 dy Qm
1 hb b2 2
% 5A%1496
- comparison o" ()uations 5AC1486 and 5AC1496 usin$ ()uation 5AC316 $i#es $ $2 F; P _/ P _<% 5A%1386 2XG 2XG Thus, the horiBontal body "orce on the lithosphere is proportional to the sur"ace $eoid anomaly% -lthou$h this result 'as deri#ed "or a speci"ic con"i$u- ration, the result is $enerally #alid under the same conditions that ()uation 5AC1>>6 is #alid% For e ample, determine the rid$e push "orce on the oceanic lithosphere assumin$ the #alidity o" the plate coolin$ model% The di""erence in $eoid bet'een an ocean rid$e and the ad?acent ocean basin 'as $i#en in ()uation 5AC1A96% Substitution o" this into ()uation 5AC1386 $i#es the rid$e push "orce per unit rid$e len$thF 1 TQ 5T T 6 m 1 8 F;0 P $TQm 5T1 T8 6y.8 2 4 R 85Q Q 6 % m '
1A2 1A21
Collateral Reading
5A%1316
For the parameter #alues 'e ha#e 1used pre#iously and y.8 P 12A !m 'e 12 "ind that F P 2%>1 18 < m % &" this "orcestress is distributed uni"ormly ;0 o#er a 188-!m depth, the resultin$ compressional in the lithosphere is b P 2>%1 ,0a% 1ollateral ;eadin$ 1rou$h, S% T% 519386, Thermal ori$in o" midplate hot-spot s'ells, Geophys( J( Royal stron( "oc( AA, >A1C >49% Dorman, .% ,%, and @% T% ;% .e'is 519326, ( perimental isostasy% 2% &n#ersion o" the isostatic Greens "unction and lateral density chan$es, J( Geophys( Res( 33, 2848C2833% 9a by, :% F%, and D% .% Turcotte 519386, *n isostatic $eoid anomalies, J( Geophys( Res( 82, A>32CA>38% .emoine, F% G%, S% 1% Eenyon, J% E% Factor, ;% G% Trimmer, <% E% 0al#is, D% S% 1hinn, 1% ,% 1o , S% ,% Elos!o, S% @% .uthc!e, ,% 9% Torrence, =% ,% :an$, ;% G% :illiamson, (% 1% 0al#is, ;% 9% ;app, and T% ;% *lson 519986, The de#elopment o" the ?oint <-S- GSF1 and the <ational &ma$ery and ,appin$ -$ency 5<&,-6 Geopotential ,odel (G,94, <-S-UT0-1998C284841% ,arsh, J% G%, -% 1% @renner, @% D% @ec!ley, and T% +% ,artin 519846, Global mean sea sur"ace based on Seasat altimetry data, J( Geophys( Res( 91, 2A81C2A84% <ettleton, .% .% 519A36, Gra#ity sur#ey o#er a Gul" 1oast continental shel" mound, Geophysics 22, 428C4>2% Sei$el, 9% *%, 9% .% 9ill, and J% G% @aird 519486, Disco#ery case history o" the 0yramid ore bodies 0ine 0oint, <orth'est Territories, 1anada, Geophysics 22, 4>AC4A4% S?o$ren, :% .% 519336, .unar $ra#ity determinations and their implications, Phil( %rans( R( "oc( Lond( 28A, 219C 224% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @om"ord, G%, Geodesy, >th ed% 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19886, A41 pa$es% See collateral readin$ list "or 1hapter 2% Dobrin, ,% @%, Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting, 2rd ed% 5,cGra'- 9ill @oo! 1ompany, <e' =or!, 19346, 428 pa$es%
Collateral Reading
>89
- te tboo! on the "undamental principles and techni)ues o" $eophysical prospectin$% 0rincipal emphasis is on $ra#ity, ma$netic, and seismic techni)ues% *ne chapter deals 'ith electrical prospectin$ methods% The boo! is intended "or ad#anced under$raduate and $raduate students in $eolo$y, minin$ en$ineerin$, petroleum en$ineerin$, and mineral e ploration% Garland, G% D%, Introduction to Geophysics 5:% @% Saunders 1ompany, 0hiladelphia, 19396, >9> pa$es% - te tboo! on the physics o" the solid (arth suitable "or $raduate and ad#anced under$raduate students% &t e tensi#ely discusses seismolo$y, $ra#ity, ma$netism, heat trans"er, the (arths thermal state, and $eodynamics% There are appendi es 'ith basic data, problems at the end o" each chapter, and biblio$raphical citations to ori$inal research papers% Grant, F% S%, and G% F% :est, Interpretation %heory in pplied Geophysics 5,cGra'-9ill @oo! 1ompany, <e' =or!, 194A6, A8> pa$es% - basic te tboo! in applied $eophysics presentin$ the mathematical and physical "oundations "or interpretin$ obser#ational data in the areas o" seismolo$y, $ra#imetric and ma$netometric sur#eyin$, and electrical and electroma$netic e ploration% Si chapters on seismolo$y introduce seismic methods, elastic 'a#es in layered media, analysis o" seismic records, seismic interpretation, and re"lection and re"raction o" spherical 'a#es% Si chapters on $ra#ity and ma$netic methods co#er potential "ield theory, reduction and interpretation o" $ra#ity data, )uantitati#e interpretations o" $ra#ity and ma$netic anomalies, and roc! ma$netism% The "inal si chapters deal 'ith electrical conduction and electroma$- netic induction methods% 9eis!anen, :% -%, and F% -% +enin$ ,einesB, %he Earth and Its Gravity Field 5,cGra'-9ill @oo! 1ompany, <e' =or!, 19A86, >38 pa$es% *ne o" the "irst te tboo!s to discuss the (arths $ra#ity "ield and the in"ormation it pro#ides about the structure and mechanical properties o" the interior% 1hapters co#er the internal constitution o" the (arth, $ra#ity "ield, $ra#ity potential, e)uilibrium "i$ure, $ra#ity measurements, reduction o" $ra#ity measurements, isostasy, $ra#ity anomalies, physical $eodesy, de#iations "rom isostasy, and con#ection currents in the (arth% Eaula, :% ,%, n Introduction to Planetary Physics 5John :iley z Sons, <e' =or!, 19486, >98 pa$es% - basic te tboo! on planetary physics "or $raduate students% :hile se#eral chapters deal 'ith aspects o" the (arths interior, the emphasis is on all the terrestrial planets% &n addition to the standard topics such as $ra#ity, seismolo$y, and ma$netism, chapters also discuss the dynamics o" the
(arthC,oon system, the dynamics o" the solar system, the $eolo$y o" the ,oon and ,ars, remote sensin$ o" the planets, meteorites, and planetary ori$ins% (ach chapter contains problems "or the student% 0ic!, ,%, J% 0icha, and +% +ys!ocil, %heory of the EarthAs Gravity Field 5(lse#ier Scienti"ic 0ublishin$ 1ompany, -msterdam, 19326, A28 pa$es% - "undamental te tboo! on $ra#imetry "or $raduate students in solid (arth $eophysics and $eodesy% The co#era$e o" the sub?ect is e tensi#e and includes potential theory, relati#e measurements o" the acceleration o" $ra#ity, $ra#ity anomalies and their interpretations, $ra#imetry and the (arths internal structure, the $eoid, the (arths "i$ure, tides, and astronomical aspects% - len$thy appendi describes the mathematical techni)ues employed in the boo!% Stacey, F% D%, Physics of the Earth, 2rd ed% 5@roo!"ield 0ress, @risbane, 19926, A12 pa$es% - "undamental te tboo! on $eophysics "or $raduate and ad#anced under$raduate students% Topics include the (arth as a part o" the solar system, radioacti#ity and the a$e o" the (arth, the (arths rotation, $ra#ity, tides, seismolo$y, the (arths internal heat, $eoma$netism, paleoma$netism, and tectonics% There are tables o" use"ul data, appendi es on special topics, and problems "or the student% Tor$e, :%, Geodesy, 2nd ed% 5:alter de Gruyter, @erlin, 19916, 2A2 pa$es% - basic te tboo! on the theoretical aspects o" $eodesy% Sub?ects include the $ra#ity "ield o" the (arth, $eodetic re"erence systems, methods o" measurement, methods o" e#aluation, and $eodetic net'or!s%
1A> 1A>1
Collateral Reading
4 Fluid ,echanics
4%1 &ntroduction -ny material that "lo's in response to an applied stress is a fluid% -lthou$h solids ac)uire a "inite de"ormation or strain upon bein$ stressed, "luids de"orm continuously under the action o" applied "orces% &n solids, stresses are related to strains7 in "luids, stresses are related to rates of strain% Strains in solids are a conse)uence o" spatial #ariations or $radients in the displacements o" elements "rom their e)uilibrium positions% Strain rates in "luids are a result o" $radients in the #elocities or rates o" displacement o" "luid elements% +elocity $radients are e)ui#alent to strain rates, so stresses in "luids are related to #elocity $radients% The e)uation connectin$ stresses 'ith #elocity $radients in a "luid is !no'n as the rheolo$ical la' "or the "luid% The simplest "luid, and as a conse)uence the one most o"ten studied, is the 8e!tonian or linear fluid, in 'hich the rate o" strain or #elocity $radient is directly proportional to the applied stress7 the constant o" proportionality is !no'n as the viscosity% :e deal only 'ith <e'tonian #iscous "luids throu$h- out this chapter% <on-<e'tonian "luid beha#ior is discussed in 1hapter 3% Fluid mechanics is the science o" "luid motion% &t uses the basic principles o" mass, momentum, and energy conservation to$ether 'ith the rheolo$ical or constitutive la! "or the "luid to describe ho' the "luid mo#es under an applied "orce% ,any problems in#ol#in$ "luid mechanics arise in $eodynamics% *b#ious e amples in#ol#e "lo's o" $round'ater and ma$ma% Ground'ater "lo's throu$h under$round channels !no'n as a3uifers% &" the a)ui"ers are su""i- ciently deep and pass throu$h roc! su""iciently hot, hot sprin$s may result% &n areas o" acti#e volcanism the $round'ater may be heated abo#e the $oiling point and geysers result% &n some cases steam or #ery hot 'ater is trapped at depth7 such deposits may ser#e as reservoirs for geothermal po!er plants%
1A4 1A41
Fluid Mechanics
The circulation o" sea'ater throu$h the oceanic crust is similar in many respects to the "lo' o" $round'ater on land% Sea'ater can become so hot in passin$ throu$h crustal roc!s near an oceanic rid$e that su$marine hot springs de#elop% Geochemical studies sho' that ma$mas "lo'in$ "rom sur"ace #olcanoes ha#e in some cases ori$inated at depths o" 188 !m or more% Studies o" e - tinct #olcanoes sho' that the ma$ma "lo's throu$h volcanic conduits at shallo' depths% These conduits ha#e the "orm o" nearly circular pipes or t'o-dimensional channels% ,echanisms "or the "lo' o" ma$ma at depths e ceedin$ A !m are a sub?ect o" considerable contro#ersy% -lternati#e hypotheses in#ol#e propa$atin$ fractures, lar$e bodies o" ascendin$ ma$ma, and continuous conduits% &n terms o" $eodynamics, ho'e#er, one o" our principal interests is mantle convection% The "luid beha#ior o" the mantle is responsible "or plate tectonics and continental drift7 it plays a dominant role in determinin$ the thermal structure o" the (arth% -n understandin$ o" thermal convection is essential to the understandin$ o" "undamental $eodynamic processes% :hen a "luid is heated "rom 'ithin or "rom belo' and cooled "rom abo#e, thermal con#ection can occur% The hot "luid at depth is gravitationally unsta$le 'ith respect to the cool "luid near the upper sur"ace% 0uoyancy forces dri#e the con#ecti#e "lo'% *n many scales crustal roc!s appear to ha#e been "olded% Folding can be attributed to the "luid beha#ior o" these roc!s% - "luid instability can also e plain the "ormation o" salt domes due to the diapiric up!elling o" a buried layer o" salt% The salt is $ra#itationally unstable because o" its lo' density% 4%2 *ne-Dimensional 1hannel Flo's The mo#ement o" the plates o#er the sur"ace o" the (arth represents a "lo' o" mantle roc! "rom accretin$ plate boundaries to subduction Bones% complementary "lo' o" mantle roc! "rom subduction Bones to accretin$ plate boundaries must occur at depth% *ne model "or this counter"lo' assumes that it is con"ined to the asthenosphere immediately belo' the lithosphere% &nterpretations o" post$lacial rebound data su$$est the presence o" a thin 5about 188 !m thic!6, lo'-#iscosity re$ion beneath the oceanic lithosphere% &n addition, seismic studies sho' that there is a re$ion beneath the lithosphere in 'hich the seismic #elocities are lo' and the seismic 'a#es, particularly shear 'a#es, are attenuated% This layer, the seismic lo'-#elocity Bone, has a thic!ness o" about 288 !m% -lthou$h the presence o" a seismic lo'- #elocity Bone is not direct e#idence o" the e istence o" a lo'-#iscosity re$ion,
?(4 1ne2&imensional Channel Flo!s
1A3 1A31
Fi$ure 4%1 5a6 The "orce balance on a layer o" "luid in a channel 'ith an applied pressure $radient% 5$6 - typical #elocity pro"ile%
the physical circumstances responsible "or the reduction in seismic 'a#e speeds and the attenuation o" the 'a#es 5hi$h temperature, small amounts o" partial meltin$6 also "a#or the "ormation o" a lo'-#iscosity re$ion% -ny "lo' in an asthenosphere 'ould be appro imately horiBontal because o" the lar$e horiBontal distances in#ol#ed 5the dimensions o" lithospheric plates are thousands o" !ilometers6 compared 'ith the small #ertical dimension o" the re$ion% Thus 'e consider the one-dimensional "lo' o" a <e'tonian #iscous "luid in a channel bet'een parallel plates as a model "or asthenospheric "lo'% Fi$ure 4C1 is a s!etch o" a one-dimensional channel "lo'% The "luid mo#es 'ith #elocity u in the direction in a channel o" thic!ness h% The horiBontal #elocity #aries only 'ith the #ertical coordinate7 that is, u P u5y6, 'here y is the distance "rom the upper boundary 5y P 86% The "lo' may occur as a result o" either an applied horiBontal pressure gradient 5p8 p1 6Ul 5l is the horiBontal len$th o" a section o" the channel, p1 is the pressure at the entrance to the section, and p8 is the pressure at the section e it6 or the prescribed motion o" one o" the 'alls 5'here 'e assume that the upper boundary y P 8 has the $i#en speed u P u8 and the lo'er boundary y P h is motionless6% The "lo' may also be dri#en by a combination o" a pressure $radient and a prescribed 'all #elocity% -s a result o" the shear, or $radient in the #elocity pro"ile, a shear stress n 5"orce per unit area6 is e erted on horiBontal planes in the "luid and at the channel 'alls% For a <e'tonian "luid 'ith constant viscosity D the shear stress at any location in the channel is $i#en by n PD du % dy 54%16
The shear stress de"ined in ()uation 54C16 is the tan$ential stress on a sur"ace 'hose outer normal points in the y direction% The #iscosity o" a
Table 4%1 %ransport Properties of "ome Common Fluids at 1A C and tmospheric Pressure
+iscosity D 50a s6 -ir :ater ,ercury (thyl alcohol 1arbon tetrachloride *li#e oil Glycerine 1%38 18 A 1%1> 18 2 1%A8 18 2 1%2> 18 2 1%8> 18 2 8%899 2%22
Einematic +iscosity m 5m2 s 1 6 1%>A 18A 1%1> 184 1%14 183 1%38 18 4 4%A 18 3 1%88 18 > 28 1%8A 1
Thermal Di""usi#ity s 5m2 s 1 6 2%82 18A 3 1%>8 18 4 >%2 18 9%9 18 8 8%> 18 8 9%2 18 8 9%8 8 18
0randtl <umber 0r 8%32 8%1 8%828 13%2 3%3 1,138
18,888
<e'tonian "luid is the constant o" proportionality bet'een shear stress and strain rate or #elocity $radient% The more #iscous the "luid, the lar$er the stress re)uired to produce a $i#en shear% The #iscosities o" some common "luids are listed in Table 4C1% The S& unit o" #iscosity is the 0ascal second 50a s6% The ratio DUQ 5Q is the density o" the "luid6 occurs "re)uently in "luid mechanics% &t is !no'n as the ,inematic viscosity m o" a "luid D mP % 54%26 Q The )uantity D is the dynamic #iscosity% The S& unit o" !inematic #iscosity is s)uare meter per second 5m2 s 1 6% The !inematic #iscosity is a di""usi#ity, similar to the thermal di""usi#ity s% :hile s describes ho' heat di""uses by molecular collisions, m describes ho' momentum di""uses% The ratio o" m to s is a dimensionless )uantity !no'n as the Prandtl num$er, 0r m 0r % 54%26 s - "luid 'ith a small 0randtl number di""uses heat more rapidly than it does momentum7 the re#erse is true "or a "luid 'ith a lar$e #alue o" 0r% Table 4C1 also lists the !inematic #iscosities, thermal di""usi#ities, and 0randtl numbers o" a #ariety o" "luids% The "lo' in the channel in Fi$ure 4C1 is determined by the e3uation of motion% This is a mathematical statement o" the force $alance on a layer o" "luid o" thic!ness ay and horiBontal len$th l 5see Fi$ure 4C16% The net pressure force on the element in the direction is 5p1 p8 6 ay%
This is the "orce per unit depth o" the channel in the direction normal to the plane in Fi$ure 4C1% Since the shear stress as 'ell as the #elocity is a "unction only o" y, the shear "orce on the upper boundary o" the layer in the direction is n 5y6l, and the shear "orce on the lo'er boundary o" the layer in the n 5y R ay6l P n 5y6 R dn ay l% dy direction is 54%>6
The net "orce on the layer must be Bero% This $i#es dn 5p1 p8 6 ay R n 5y6 R l n 5y6l P 8, ay dy 'hich in the limit ay 8 becomes 5p1 p8 dn P % 6 dy l 54%A6
54%46
The ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C46 is the horiBontal pressure $radient in the channel dp 5p1 P 54%36 p8 6 d l in terms o" 'hich the e)uation o" motion can be 'ritten dn dp P % dy d 54%86
:ith p1 [ p8 , a pressure di""erence tendin$ to mo#e the "luid in the positi#e direction, the pressure $radient dpUd is ne$ati#e% The pressure drop in a channel is o"ten e pressed in terms o" a hydraulic head 9 $i#en by 9 5p1 p8 6 % Q$
54%96
The hydraulic head is the hei$ht o" "luid re)uired to hydrostatically pro#ide the applied pressure di""erence p1 p8 % -n e)uation "or the #elocity can be obtained by substitutin$ the e pression "or n "rom ()uation 54C16 into ()uation 54C86% :e obtain D &nte$ration o" this e)uation $i#es uP 1 dp 2 y R c1 y R c2 % 2D d 54%116 d2 u dp P % d dy 2 54%186
Fi$ure 4%2 *ne-dimensional channel "lo's o" a constant #iscosity "luid%
To e#aluate the constants, 'e must satis"y the boundary conditions that u P 8 at y P h and u P u8 at y P 8% These boundary conditions are !no'n as no2slip $oundary conditions% - #iscous "luid in contact 'ith a solid boundary must ha#e the same #elocity as the boundary% :hen these boundary conditions are satis"ied, ()uation 54C116 becomes 1 5y 2 hy6 u8 y R u % dp u 2D P 8 h d 54%126
&" the applied pressure $radient is Bero, p1 P p8 or dpUd P 8, the solution reduces to the linear #elocity pro"ile u P u8 1 y % h 54%126
This simple "lo', s!etched in Fi$ure 4C2a, is !no'n as Couette flo!% &" the #elocity o" the upper plate is Bero, u8 P 8, the #elocity pro"ile is 1 dp 5y 2 hy6% u P 2D d 54%1>6
:hen 'e re'rite this in terms o" distance measured "rom the centerline o" the channel y , 'here h y P y , 2 54%1A6
Fi$ure 4%2 /nidirectional "lo' o" a constant thic!ness layer o" #iscous "luid do'n an inclined plane%
'e "ind uP 1 dp 2D d y
2
h2 >
54%146
The #elocity pro"ile is a parabola that is symmetric about the centerline o" the channel, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C2$% 0roblem 4%1 Sho' that the mean #elocity in the channel is $i#en by h2 dp uf P 12D d R u8 % 2 54%136
0roblem 4%2 Deri#e a $eneral e pression "or the shear stress n at any location y in the channel% :hat are the simpli"ied "orms o" n "or 1ouette "lo' and "or the case u8 P 8O 0roblem 4%2 a ma imum% Find the point in the channel at 'hich the #elocity is
0roblem 4%> 1onsider the steady, unidirectional "lo' o" a #iscous "luid do'n the upper "ace o" an inclined plane% -ssume that the "lo' occurs in a layer o" constant thic!ness h, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C2% Sho' that the #elocity pro"ile is $i#en by sin T5h2 y 2 6, u P Q$ 2D 54%186
'here y is the coordinate measured perpendicular to the inclined plane 5y P h is the sur"ace o" the plane6, T is the inclination o" the plane to the horiBontal, and g is the acceleration o" $ra#ity% First sho' that dn P Q$ sin T, dy 54%196
Fi$ure 4%> +elocity pro"ile associated 'ith the asthenospheric counter"lo' model%
and then apply the no-slip condition at y P h and the free2surface condition, n P 8, at y P 8% :hat is the mean #elocity in the layerO :hat is the thic!ness o" a layer 'hose rate o" "lo' do'n the incline 5per unit 'idth in the direction perpendicular to the plane in Fi$ure 4C26 is GO
4%2 -sthenospheric 1ounter"lo' *ne model "or the "lo' in the mantle associated 'ith the mo#ement o" the sur"ace plates is a counterflo! immediately beneath the lithosphere, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C>% The lithosphere is assumed to be a ri$id plate o" thic!ness h. mo#in$ 'ith #elocity u8 % @eneath the lithosphere is an asthenosphere o" thic!ness h and uni"orm #iscosity D% -t the base o" the asthenosphere 'e assume that the mantle is stationary7 that is, u P 8% The boundary conditions u P 8 at y P h and u P u8 at y P 8 'ere satis"ied in 'ritin$ ()uation 54C126 so that this e)uation $i#es the "lo' in the asthenosphere% Conservation of mass re)uires that the "lo' o" material in the R direction in the lithosphere must be balanced by a counter"lo' in the asthenosphere% For this model the net horiBontal "lo' as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C> is Bero% Guantitati#ely this can be 'ritten
]
u8 h. R
h 8
u dy P 8,
54%286
'here the "irst term is the flu# of material in the lithosphere and the second term is the "lu o" material in the asthenosphere 5per unit distance perpendicular to the plane o" the "i$ure6% @y substitutin$ ()uation 54C126 into
?(5
sthenospheric Counterflo!
142 1421
Fi$ure 4%A The asthenospheric counter"lo' model re)uires the sea"loor to rise 'ith distance "rom a rid$e in order to supply the pressure re)uired to dri#e the return "lo' to'ard the rid$e in the asthenosphere%
()uation 54C286 and inte$ratin$, 'e obtain u8 h 2 P 8, 54%216 h d p u8 h. R 2 12D d 'here dpUd is the horiBontal pressure $radient in the asthenosphere% :e can sol#e ()uation 54C216 "or the pressure $radient that satis"ies the counter"lo' condition dp 12Du8 h. 1 P R % 54%226 d h2 h 2 Substitution o" this result into ()uation 54C126 $i#es the #elocity pro"ile in the asthenosphere, y u P u8 1 h R4 h. 1 y2 R h 2 y h2 h
`
54%226
This #elocity pro"ile is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C>7 it is independent o" the #iscosity% The shear stress on the base o" the lithosphere n.- due to the counter"lo' in the asthenosphere can be e#aluated directly usin$ ()uations 54C16 and 54C226% The result is 2Du8 n.- P h h 2R 2 . % h 54%2>6
The minus si$n in ()uation 54C2>6 indicates that the asthenosphere e erts a dra$ "orce on the base o" the lithosphere tendin$ to oppose its motion% For D P > 1819 0a s 5a possible #alue "or the #iscosity o" the asthenosphere6, h. P 188 !m, h P 288 !m, and u8 P A8 mm yr 1, 'e $et 2%2 ,0a "or the ma$nitude o" the shear stress on the base o" the lithosphere "rom ()uation 54C2>6% The asthenospheric counter"lo' considered in this section re)uires that
the pressure in the asthenosphere increase 'ith 7 that is, p must increase in the direction o" seafloor spreading% This increase in pressure 'ith distance "rom a rid$e could only be pro#ided by a hydrostatic head associated 'ith topo$raphy7 that is, the ocean "loor 'ould ha#e to rise 'ith distance "rom the rid$e% The situation is s!etched in Fi$ure 4CA% The pressure in the asthenosphere a distance b beneath the rid$e is $i#en by the hydrostatic "ormula as p P Q' $' R Q$5'r ' R b6, 54%2A6 'here Q' is the density o" sea'ater, ' is the depth o" the ocean a distance "rom the rid$e, Q is the mantle density, and 'r is the depth o" the ocean at the rid$e% @y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54C2A6 'ith respect to , 'e can relate the slope o" the sea"loor to the horiBontal pressure $radient in the asthenosphereF 54%246 dp P 5Q Q 6$d' % ' d d - positi#e dpUd re)uires a ne$ati#e d'Ud or an ocean depth that decreases 'ith % @y combinin$ ()uations 54C226 and 54C246, 'e can sol#e "or the slope o" the sea"loor re)uired by the asthenospheric counter"lo' model% :e "ind d' 12Du8 P h. d 5Q Q' 6$h2

R h
1 2
54%236
For Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , Q P 2288 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , and the other parameter #alues $i#en abo#e, the slope o" the sea"loor is d'Ud P 3%2 18 > % -cross the 'idth o" the 0aci"ic *cean, P 18,888 !m, this 'ould $i#e a decrease in depth o" 3%2 !m% 9o'e#er, no systematic decrease in ocean depth as one mo#es to the north'est in the 0aci"ic has been obser#ed% The pressure $radient re)uired to dri#e the asthenospheric counter"lo' 'ould also result in a $ra#ity anomaly% :e can determine the #alue o" the anomaly _$ usin$ the @ou$uer $ra#ity "ormula, ()uation 5AC1116, 'hich combined 'ith ()uation 54C236 $i#es d5_$ 6 d P h. 2>X GDu8 $h2 h R 1 2

54%286
For the precedin$ e ample 'e "ind that d_$Ud P 18 18 s 2 % -cross the 'idth o" the 0aci"ic this $i#es a $ra#ity anomaly o" 3%2 mm s 2 , 'hich also has not been obser#ed% :e conclude, there"ore, that the shallo' counter"lo' model "or mantle con#ection is not correct and that si$ni"icant con#ecti#e "lo's occur beneath the asthenosphere%
?(6 Pipe Flo!
14A 14A1
Fi$ure 4%4 0oiseuille "lo' throu$h a circular pipe%
0roblem 4%A For an asthenosphere 'ith a #iscosity D P > 1819 0a s and a thic!ness h P 288 !m, 'hat is the shear stress on the base o" the lithosphere i" there is no counter"lo' 5hpUh P 86O -ssume u8 P A8 mm yr 1 and that the base o" the asthenosphere has Bero #elocity% 0roblem 4%4 -ssume that the base stress obtained in 0roblem 4CA is actin$ on 4888 !m o" lithosphere 'ith a thic!ness o" 188 !m% :hat tensional stress in the lithosphere 5h. P 188 !m6 must be applied at a trench to o#ercome this basal dra$O
4%> 0ipe Flo' :ith subse)uent applications to "lo's in a)ui"ers and #olcanic conduits in mind, 'e ne t consider #iscous "lo' throu$h a circular pipe% The pipe has a radius ; and a len$th l, as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C4% The "lo' is dri#en by the pressure di""erence 5p1 p8 6 applied bet'een the sections a distance l apart% :e assume that the #elocity o" the "luid alon$ the pipe u depends only on distance "rom the center o" the pipe r% The "orm o" the #elocity pro"ile u5r6 can be "ound by 'ritin$ a "orce balance on a cylindrical control volume o" radius r and len$th l, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C4% The net pressure "orce on the ends o" the cylindrical control #olume is 5p1 p8 6Xr 2 7 this is a "orce alon$ the cylinder a is in the direction o" "lo'% Since there can be no net "orce on the control #olume i" the "lo' is steady, this pressure "orce must be balanced by the shear "orce actin$ on the cylindrical sur"ace o" the control #olume% The shear stress on the cylindrical sur"ace n 5r6 e erts a net frictional force 2Xrln 5r6 on the control #olume 5n is a ne$ati#e )uantity6% The "orce balance e)uation is thus Xr 2 5p1 p8 6 P 2Xrln or 54%296
144 1441
Fluid Mechanics
r dp, n P2 d
54%286
'here dpUd is the pressure $radient alon$ the pipe 5()uation 54C366% &n the cylindrical $eometry in Fi$ure 4C4, the shear stress n is directly proportional to the radial $radient o" the #elocity u n PD du % dr 54%216
-s in ()uation 54C16, the #iscosity D is the constant o" proportionality% @y substitutin$ ()uation 54C216 into ()uation 54C286, 'e obtain an e pression "or the slope o" the #elocity pro"ile, du r dp P , dr 2D d 'hich can be inte$rated to $i#e uP 1 dp 2 2 r 6% 5; >D d 54%226 54%226
:e used the condition u P 8 at r P ; in obtainin$ ()uation 54C226% The #elocity pro"ile in the pipe is a parabaloid o" re#olution7 it is !no'n as Poiseuille flo!% The ma imum #elocity in the pipe uma occurs at r P 8% From ()uation 54C226 it is $i#en by ; dp uma P % >D d
2
54%2>6
@ecause dpUd is ne$ati#e 'hen p1 [ p8 , uma is a positi#e )uantity% The volumetric flo! rate G throu$h the pipe is the total #olume o" "luid passin$ a cross section per unit time% The "lo' throu$h an annulus o" thic!ness dr and radius r occurs at the rate 2Xrdru5r67 G is the inte$ral o" this o#er a cross section
]
GP
; 8
2Xru dr%
54%2A6
/pon substitutin$ ()uation 54C226 into ()uation 54C2A6 and carryin$ out the inte$ration, 'e $et X; > dp GP % 8D d 54%246
&" 'e di#ide G by the cross-sectional area o" the pipe X;2 , 'e obtain the
mean #elocity uf in the pipe
;2 dp uf P % 8D d 54%236
@y comparin$ ()uations 54C2>6 and 54C236, 'e see that 1 uma % 54%286 2 The mean and ma imum #elocities in the pipe are directly proportional to the pressure $radient and in#ersely proportional to the #iscosity% This result is #alid as lon$ as the "lo' is laminar% &t is o"ten con#enient in "luid mechanics to 'or! in terms o" dimensionless varia$les% The relation bet'een the mean #elocity in the pipe and the pressure $radient d()uation 54C236e can be put into standard dimensionless "orm by introducin$ t'o )uantitiesF a dimensionless pressure $radient or friction factor " and the Reynolds num$er ;e% The "riction "actor is de"ined as uf P " >; dp , Quf2 d 54%296
and the ;eynolds number is $i#en by Quf ;e D , D 54%>86
'here D P 2; is the pipe diameter% /sin$ ()uations 54C296 and 54C>86, 'e can re'rite ()uation 54C236 as 4> " P ;e % 54%>16 The in#erse dependence o" the "riction "actor on the ;eynolds number in laminar "lo' is sho'n in Fi$ure 4C3% -t su""iciently hi$h ;eynolds numbers, obser#ed pressure drops become considerably hi$her than those $i#en by laminar theory% The "lo' in the pipe becomes unsteady 'ith random eddies% This is !no'n as tur$ulent flo!% The )ualitati#e di""erence bet'een laminar and turbulent "lo' is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C8% The principal ad#anta$e o" the "ormulation o" the problem in nondimensional "orm is that the transition to tur$ulent flo! occurs at ;e 2288 independent o" the pipe radius, "lo' #elocity, or type o" "luid considered 5#iscosity and density6% The mean #elocity correspondin$ to the 1 transition ;eynolds number o" 2288 is 22 mm s "or 'ater 'ith a #iscosity o" 18 2 0a s "lo'in$ in a 8%1-m-diameter pipe% This illustrates that most "lo's o" ordinary li)uids and $ases are in the turbulent re$ime% <o theoretical e)ui#alent to the <e'tonian relationship bet'een shear
Fi$ure 4%3 Dependence o" the "riction "actor f on the ;eynolds number ;e "or laminar "lo', "rom ()uation 54C>16, and "or turbulent "lo', "rom ()uation 54C>26%
Fi$ure 4%8 &llustration o" the di""erence bet'een 5a6 laminar and 5$ 6 turbulent "lo'% .aminar "lo' is steady, and the "luid "lo's parallel to the 'allsF lateral transport o" momentum ta!es place on a molecular scale% Turbulent "lo' is unsteady and has many time-dependent eddies and s'irls% These eddies are much more e""ecti#e in the lateral transport o" momentum than are molecular processes% There"ore, the "riction "actor 5pressure drop6 in turbulent "lo' is lar$er at a prescribed ;eynolds number 5"lo' #elocity6%
stress and rate o" strain as $i#en in ()uation 54C16 or ()uation 54C216 e ists "or turbulent "lo'% &t is "ound empirically that " P 8%214> ;e
1U>
54%>26
in the turbulent "lo' re$ime% This result is also sho'n in Fi$ure 4C3 alon$ 'ith the transition "rom laminar to turbulent "lo'% 0roblem 4%3 Determine the ;eynolds number "or the asthenospheric "lo' considered in 0roblem 4CA% @ase the ;eynolds number on the thic!ness o" the "lo'in$ layer and the mean #elocity 5u 8 P A8 mm yr 1 and Q P 2288 !$ m 2 6% This problem illustrates that the #iscosity o" mantle roc! is so hi$h that the ;eynolds number is $enerally small%
?(>
rtesian 3uifer Flo!s
149 1491
Fi$ure 4%9 - semicircular a)ui"er 'ith a circular cross section 5a toroid6% - hydrostatic head $ is a#ailable to dri#e the "lo'%
4%A -rtesian -)ui"er Flo's <aturally occurrin$ sprin$s are usually due to the "lo' o" $round'ater "rom a hi$h ele#ation to a lo' ele#ation% The "lo' ta!es place throu$h an a3uifer or permea$le formation% Fi$ure 4C9 sho's an idealiBed model o" an a)ui"er in the shape o" a semicircle o" radius ; , a "orm su$$ested by the $eometry o" porous layers in "olded sedimentary roc!% The entrance o" the a)ui"er lies a distance b abo#e the e it, and its cross section is assumed to be circular 'ith radius ;% The hydrostatic pressure head a#ailable to dri#e "lo' throu$h the a)ui"er is Q$b, 'here Q is the density o" 'ater% Since the o#erall len$th b6, the dri#in$ pressure o" the a)ui"er is X; 5; $radient is dp Q$b ds P X; , 54%>26
'here s is distance alon$ the a)ui"er% The #olumetric "lo' rate produced by this pressure $radient can be calculated "rom ()uation 54C246 i" the "lo' throu$h the a)ui"er is laminar% The result o" substitutin$ ()uation 54C>26 into ()uation 54C246, identi"yin$ dpUds as dpUd , is GP Q$b; > % 8D; 54%>>6
&" the "lo' is turbulent, 'e can determine G by usin$ the empirical relation 54C>26 bet'een " and ;e% The "irst step is to recast ()uation 54C>26 into dimensional "orm usin$ the de"initions o" " and ;e% :e "ind >; dp P 8%214> D Quf2 Quf2 d ;
1U>
54%>A6
The result o" rearran$in$ ()uation 54C>A6 so as to determine uf is uf P > 21U> >U3
`
>U3
1 dp Qd
;AU3
Q D
1U3
% 54%>46
8%214>
@ecause G is X;2 uf, 'e obtain the #olumetric "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er "or turbulent "lo' by multiplyin$ ()uation 54C>46 by X;2 and substitutin$ "or 51UQ6 5dpUd 6 "rom ()uation 54C>26% *ne "inds G P 3%484 $b ;
>U3
Q D
1U3
;19U3 %
54%>36
0roblem 4%8 - sprin$ has a "lo' o" 188 liters per minute% The entrance to the sprin$ lies 2 !m a'ay "rom the outlet and A8 m abo#e it% &" the a)ui"er supplyin$ the sprin$ is modeled accordin$ to Fi$ure 4C9, "ind its cross-sectional radius% :hat is the a#era$e #elocityO &s the "lo' laminar or turbulentO 4%4 Flo' Throu$h +olcanic 0ipes -nother e ample o" naturally occurrin$ pipe "lo' is the "lo' o" ma$ma throu$h #olcanic conduits o" nearly circular cross section% The up'ard "lo' o" ma$ma is dri#en by the natural buoyancy o" the li$hter ma$ma relati#e to the denser surroundin$ roc!% -t a depth h the lithostatic pressure in the roc! is Qs $h, 'here Qs is the roc! density% -t the same depth the hydrostatic pressure in a stationary column o" ma$ma is Ql $h, 'here Ql is the ma$ma density% -ssumin$ that the lithostatic and hydrostatic pressures are e)ual in the pipe, the pressure $radient a#ailable to dri#e the ma$ma up to the sur"ace is 5Qs Ql 6$% The assumption o" e)ual lithostatic and hydrostatic pressures in the pipe is e)ui#alent to assumin$ that the 'alls o" the pipe are "ree to de"orm as the ma$ma is dri#en up'ard% The #olumetric "lo' G dri#en by this pressure $radient throu$h a #olcanic pipe o" radius ; is, "rom ()uation 54C246, X 5Qs Ql 6$ ; > GP , 54%>86 8 D i" the "lo' is laminar% From ()uation 54C>46 and G PX;2 uf, the #olumetric "lo' "or turbulent conditions is G P 1>%8 Q d5Qs Ql 6 ;19U3 $ e>U3
2U3 l
D1U3
54%>96
?(= Conservation of Fluid in %!o &imensions
131 1311
Fi$ure 4%18 Flo' across the sur"aces o" an in"initesimal rectan$ular element%
0roblem 4%9 Determine the rate at 'hich ma$ma "lo's up a t'odimensional channel o" 'idth d under the buoyant pressure $radient 5Qs Ql 6$% -ssume laminar "lo'%
4%3 1onser#ation o" Fluid in T'o Dimensions :e no' e tend our studies o" #iscous "luid "lo' to t'o dimensions% :e consider a $eneral "lo' in the y plane 'ith the correspondin$ velocity com2 ponents u and #% The spatial #ariations o" these t'o #elocity components are constrained by the need to conser#e "luid% :e consider a rectan$ular control #olume 'ith dimensions a and ay, as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C18% The "lo' rate per unit area in the direction at is u% The "lo' rate per unit area at R a is hu u5 R a 6 P u R a % 54%A86 h The net "lo' rate out o" the re$ion bet'een and R a per unit area normal to the direction is hu uR a u P hu a % 54%A16 h h Similarly, "lo' in the y direction 5#ertically do'n'ard6 yields a net #olume "lo' per unit area normal to the y direction out o" the re$ion bet'een y and y R ay $i#en by h# h# #R ay # P ay% 54%A26 hy hy To "ind the net rate at 'hich "luid "lo's out o" the rectan$ular re$ion
Fi$ure 4%11 0ressure "orces actin$ on an in"initesimal rectan$ular "luid element%
sho'n in Fi$ure 4C18, 'e must combine the "lo's in the t'o directions% The net out'ard "lo' rate in the direction is 5huUh 6 a times the area o" the "ace across 'hich the "lo' occurs, 'hich is ay multiplied by a unit dimension in the direction normal to the dia$ram% The net out'ard "lo' rate in the direction is thus 5huUh 6 a ay% Similarly the net out'ard "lo' rate in the y direction is 5h#Uhy6 ay a % The total net out'ard "lo' rate per unit area o" the rectan$le is hu h# R % h hy &" the "lo' is steady 5time-independent6, and there are no density #ariations to consider, then there can be no net "lo' into or out o" the rectan$le% The conservation of fluid or continuity e3uation is hu h# R h hy P 8% 54%A26
This is the "orm o" the continuity e)uation appropriate to an incompressi$le fluid% 4%8 (lemental Force @alance in T'o Dimensions The "orces actin$ on the control #olume in Fi$ure 4C18 must be in balance% &ncluded in the "orce balance are the pressure "orces, viscous forces, and gravity force% :e ne$lect the inertial force associated 'ith the acceleration o" a "luid element% This is appropriate "or the slo' motion o" #ery #iscous or hi$h 0randtl number "luids% The (arths mantle beha#es as a hi$hly #iscous "luid on $eolo$ic time scales% The #iscosity o" the mantle is about 18 21 0a s7 its density and thermal di""usi#ity are about >888 !$ m 2 and 1 mm2 s 1 %
Thus the 0randtl number o" the (arths mantle is about 18 22 % The balance o" pressure, #iscous, and $ra#ity "orces and the ne$lect o" inertial "orces are e)ui#alent to the application o" 8e!tonAs second la! of motion to a "luid element 'ith the ne$lect o" its acceleration% &t is also e)ui#alent to a statement o" momentum conser#ation% The pressure "orces actin$ on an in"initesimal rectan$ular element o" "luid are illustrated in Fi$ure 4C11% @ecause pressure is "orce per unit area, p ay 5times a unit len$th in the direction normal to the plane o" the "i$ure6 is the "orce actin$ to the le"t on the "ace o" the rectan$le located at , "or e ample% 0ressure "orces act perpendicular to sur"aces and are directed into the #olume enclosed by the sur"ace% The net pressure "orce on the element in the direction per unit area o" the "luid element is p 5 6 a y p5 R a 6 a y dp5 R a 6 p5 6e P , a ay a 'hich by #irtue o" a simple Taylor series e pansion is hp % h Thus, only i" there is a pressure $radient in the direction 'ill there be any net pressure "orce on the "luid element in this direction% &" there is no such pressure #ariation, the pressure "orces on opposite sides o" the element 'ill simply cancel each other and there 'ill be no net e""ect% Similarly, the net pressure "orce on the element in the y direction per unit area o" the element is hp % hy The gravitational $ody force on a "luid element is its mass times the ac2 celeration of gravity% The mass o" the "luid element in Fi$ure 4C11 is Q a ay 5times a unit len$th in the third dimension6 and, accordin$ly, Q$ is the "orce o" $ra#ity per unit area o" the element 5and per unit len$th in the third dimension6% :e assume that $ra#ity acts in the positi#e y direction% Thus the net $ra#itational "orce per unit area o" the element is in the y direction and is Q$% *nly the #iscous "orces actin$ on the element in Fi$ure 4C11 remain to be discussed% These are sho'n in Fi$ure 4C12% +iscous "orces on the element act both parallel and perpendicular to the sur"aces% The )uantities n y and ny are viscous shear stresses, that is, #iscous "orces per unit area that act parallel to the sur"aces o" the element, and n and nyy are viscous normal
?(@ Elemental Force 0alance in %!o &imensions
132 1321
54%A>6
Fi$ure 4%12 +iscous "orces actin$ on an in"initesimal t'o-dimensional rectan$ular "luid element%
stresses, that is, #iscous "orces per unit area that act perpendicular to the elements sur"aces% The stresses are considered positi#e in the directions sho'n in the "i$ure% The si$n con#ention adopted here "or the #iscous stresses n is standard in the "luid mechanics literature7 it is opposite to the si$n con#ention adopted in 1hapters 2 and 2 "or the stresses b% 1learly, i" there is to be no net tor3ue about the center o" the "luid element, then n
y
P ny %
54%AA6
The net #iscous "orce in the direction per unit cross-sectional area o" the element is n 5 R a 6 ay n 5 6 ay ny 5y R ay 6 a ny 5y 6 a R , a ay a ay 'hich, 'ith a Taylor series e pansion, simpli"ies to hn h R h ny % hy
Similarly, the net #iscous "orce in the y direction per unit cross-sectional area o" the element is h ny y hn y R % hy h For an ideal <e'tonian #iscous "luid, the #iscous stresses are linearly
proportional to the #elocity $radients% The $eneraliBation o" ()uation 54C16 to t'o dimensions yields n nyy hu h h# P 2D hy P 2D
y
?(@ Elemental Force 0alance in %!o &imensions
13A 13A1
54%A46 54%A36 hu hy R h# h , 54%A86
ny P n
PD
'here D is a$ain the dynamic #iscosity% &" # P 8 and u P u5y6, then n and nyy are Bero and du ny P n y P D , 54%A96 dy 'hich is identical to ()uation 54C16% The total normal stress is the sum o" the pressure and the #iscous stress7 that is, b P pn P p 2D byy hu h h# P p nyy P p 2D % hy 54%416 54%486
The minus si$ns in "ront o" n and nyy in these e)uations are the result o" the opposite si$n con#entions adopted "or b and n % The #iscous stress is the only contribution to the shear stress% :hen 'e use ()uations 54CA46 to 54CA86 to re'rite the e pressions already deri#ed "or the #iscous "orces on a small rectan$ular "luid element, 'e "ind that the #iscous "orces in the and y directions per unit crosssectional area o" the element are, "or constant #iscosity, h 2u h2 u h2 # 2D 2 R D R h hy 2 h hy and h2 # 2D 2 R D hy h2 # h2 u R 2 hy h h
`
respecti#ely% @oth these e pressions can be "urther simpli"ied by usin$ the continuity e)uation% @y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54CA26, 'e obtain
2 h2 # h u P h hy h 2 h 2u h2 # P 2% hy h hy
54%426 54%426
/sin$ ()uations 54C426 and 54C426 "or the mi ed partial deri#ati#es, 'e arri#e at ` h2u h2 u D R h 2 hy 2 and D h 2 # h 2# R h 2 hy 2
`
as the e pressions "or the net #iscous "orces per unit cross-sectional area in the and y directions, respecti#ely% :e determine the "orce balance e)uations "or an incompressible "luid 'ith #ery lar$e #iscosity under$oin$ steady "lo' in t'o dimensions by addin$ the pressure, $ra#ity, and #iscous "orces to$ether and e)uatin$ their sum to Bero% For the direction 'e obtain hp h 2u h 2 u 8P RD R 2 , h 2 hy h and "or the y direction the e)uation is hp # 8P R Q$ R hy D h2 h
2
54%4>6
h2 # R hy 2
54%4A6
Gra#ity acts only in the y direction, o" course% To eliminate the hydrostatic pressure #ariation in ()uation 54C4A6, 'e introduce 0 P p Q$y% 54%446 The pressure 0 is the pressure $enerated by "luid "lo'% Substitution o" ()uation 54C446 into ()uations 54C4>6 and 54C4A6 yields h0 8P h h2 u h2u RD R 2 h 2 hy
`
54%436
`
h0 h2 # h2 # 8P RD R 2 % hy h 2 hy 4%9 The Stream Function
54%486
:e can satis"y the incompressible continuity e)uation in t'o dimensions i" 'e introduce a stream function Z de"ined such that hZ uP hy 54%496
?(< %he "tream Function
>22
hZ % 54%386 h Substitutin$ ()uations 54C496 and 54C386 into ()uation 54CA26 yields #P
2 2 h Z R h Z h hy hy h
P8
54%316
because the order o" di""erentiation is interchan$eable% Substitutin$ ()uations 54C496 and 54C386 into ()uations 54C436 and 54C486 $i#es h0 8P RD h h 2Z h2Z R hy 2 2 h hy
`
54%326
`
h0 h2 Z h 2Z 8P RD R hy h 2 hy 2 h
54%326
:e can eliminate the pressure "rom these e)uations and obtain a sin$le di""erential e)uation "or Z i" 'e ta!e the partial deri#ati#e o" ()uation 54C 326 'ith respect to y and the partial deri#ati#e o" ()uation 54C326 'ith respect to and add% The result is 8P h>Z h> Z h> y R 2 R % h > h 2 hy 2 hy > 54%3>6
This is the $iharmonic e3uation% &n terms o" the Laplacian operator 2 ,
2
h2 P
h2 , hy 2
54%3A6
'e can 'rite the biharmonic e)uation "or the stream "unction in the "orm >Z P 8% 54%346 For t'o-dimensional "lo's o" a #ery #iscous "luid the stream "unction satis"ies the biharmonic e)uation% The stream "unction can be $i#en a physical interpretation in terms o" the #olumetric "lo' rate bet'een any t'o points in an incompressible, steady, t'odimensional "lo'% 1onsider t'o points - and @ separated by an in"initesimal distance as, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C12% The "lo' across -@ can be calculated "rom the "lo's across -0 and 0 @ because conser#ation o" mass re)uires Bero net "lo' into or out o" the in"initesimal trian$le 0 -@% The #olumetric "lo' rate across -0 into the trian$le per unit distance normal to the "i$ure is u ay7 similarly the "lo' rate across 0 @ out o" the trian$le is # a % The
138 1381
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%12 +olumetric "lo' rate bet'een points
and 0%
net "lo' rate out o" 0 -@ is thus u ay R # a 7 this must be e)ual to the #olumetric "lo' rate 5per unit distance in the third dimension6 into 0 -@ across -@% &n terms o" the stream "unction, u ay R # a can be 'ritten u ay R # a P hZ hZ ay R a P dZ% hy h 54%336
Thus, the small di""erence dZ is the #olumetric "lo' rate bet'een any t'o points separated by the in"initesimal distance as% &" the points are separated by an arbitrary distance, the inte$ral o" dZ bet'een the points
]
@
dZ P Z@ Z-
54%386
$i#es the #olumetric "lo' rate bet'een the points7 that is, the di""erence bet'een the #alues o" the stream "unction at any t'o points is the #olumetric rate o" "lo' across any line dra'n bet'een the points% The absolute #alue o" the stream "unction is arbitrary7 only the di""erences in Z bet'een points has physical si$ni"icance% 0roblem 4%18 Determine the stream "unction "or the $eneral onedimensional channel "lo' discussed in Section 4C2% Find Z "or the asthenospheric counter"lo' model in Section 4C2% Discuss the physical meanin$ o" Z in all these cases%
4%18 0ost$lacial ;ebound &mportant in"ormation on the "luid beha#ior o" the (arths mantle comes "rom studies o" the dynamic response o" the mantle to loading and unloading at the sur"ace% ,ountains depress the underlyin$ crustCmantle boundary as
Fi$ure 4%1> Subsidence due to $laciation and the subse)uent post$lacial rebound%
discussed in Section 2C2% 9o'e#er, mountain buildin$ is so slo' that dynamic e""ects can be ne$lected7 that is, the mantle beneath a mountain is in essential hydrostatic e)uilibrium throu$hout the li"e cycle o" the mountain% The $ro'th and meltin$ o" ice sheets, on the other hand, occur su""iciently "ast so that dynamic e""ects are important in the ad?ustment o" the mantle to the chan$in$ sur"ace load% The thic! ice sheet that co#ers Greenland has depressed the sur"ace se#eral !ilometers so that it is belo' sea le#el in places% The load o" the ice sheet has "orced mantle roc! to "lo' laterally, allo'in$ the (arths sur"ace beneath the ice to subside% Durin$ the last $reat ice a$e Scandina#ia 'as co#ered 'ith a thic! ice sheet that caused considerable subsidence o" the sur"ace% :hen the ice sheet melted about 18,888 years a$o the sur"ace rebounded% The rate o" rebound has been determined by datin$ ele#ated beaches% :e 'ill no' sho' ho' these data can be used to determine the solid-state #iscosity o" the mantle% The process o" subsidence and rebound under the loadin$ and unloadin$ o" an ice sheet is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C1>% To determine the response o" the (arths mantle to the remo#al o" an ice
load, 'e consider the "lo' in a semi-in"inite, #iscous "luid hal"-space 5y [ 86 sub?ected to an initial periodic sur"ace displacement% :e assume the initial displacement o" the sur"ace is $i#en by 'm P 'mo cos 2X Ul, 54%396
'here l is the 'a#elen$th and 'm l% The displacement o" the sur"ace ' leads to a horiBontal pressure $radient due to the hydrostatic load similar to that $i#en in ()uation 54C246% :hen the sur"ace is displaced up'ard 5ne$ati#e '6, the pressure is positi#e% This corresponds to a positi#e load, and "luid is dri#en a'ay "rom this re$ion as the displacement decreases% :hen the sur"ace is displaced do'n'ard 5positi#e '6, the pressure is ne$ati#e% This corresponds to the case 'hen a load has been remo#ed and "luid is dri#en into this re$ion as the displacement decreases% The return o" the sur"ace to an unde"ormed 5' P 86 state is $o#erned by the #iscous "lo' in the hal"-space% The "lo' can be determined by sol#in$ the biharmonic e)uation "or the stream "unction% Since the initial sur"ace displacement is o" the "orm cos 2X Ul, it is reasonable to anticipate that Z must also #ary periodically 'ith in a similar "ashion% 9o'e#er, since Z and ' are not simply related, it is a priori uncertain 'hether Z #aries as cos 2X Ul, sin 2X Ul, or some combination thereo"% &t turns out that Z is directly proportional to sin 2X Ul7 'e assume this at the outset to simpli"y the discussion% 9o'e#er, it 'ould only re)uire some additional al$ebra to carry throu$h the solution assumin$ that Z is an arbitrary combination o" sin 2X Ul and cos 2X Ul% Thus 'e apply the method o" separation o" #ariables and ta!e 2X Z P sin = 5y6, 54%886 l 'here = 5y6 is to be determined% @y substitutin$ this "orm o" Z into the biharmonic e)uation 54C3>6, 'e obtain d> = dy > 2 2X l
2
d2 = R dy 2
2X l
>
= P 8%
54%816
Solutions o" the constant coe""icient di""erential e)uation "or = are o" the "orm = e p5my6% 54%826 &" 'e substitute this "unction "or = in ()uation 54C816, 'e "ind that m is a solution o" m 2
>
2X l
m2 R
2X l
>
P m2
2X l
u 2 2
P8
54C826 or 2X mP % l These t'o #alues o" m pro#ide t'o possible solutions "or = e p 2X y l and e p 2X y l % 54%8>6
@ecause the di""erential e)uation "or = is o" "ourth order, these t'o solutions are incomplete% T'o additional solutions are re)uired% &t can be #eri"ied by direct substitution that 2X y 2X y ye p and ye p l l also satis"y ()uation 54C816% The $eneral solution "or = is the sum o" these "our solutions7 it can be 'ritten Z P sin 2X 5-e 2XyUl l
2XyUl
R @ye 54%8A6
R 1 e2XyUl R Dye2XyUl 6,
'here the "our arbitrary constants -, @, 1 , and D are determined by the appropriate boundary conditions% :e "irst re)uire the solution to be "inite as y so that 1 P D P 8% The "ormula "or the stream "unction simpli"ies to Z P sin 2X 2XyUl e 5- R 0y6% l 54%846
The #elocity components u and # can be obtained by di""erentiatin$ Z accordin$ to ()uations 54C496 and 54C386% :e "ind u P sin and #P 2X 2X 2XyUl cos 5- R @y6% l l e 54%886 2X 2XyUl 2X e 5- R @y6 @ l l 54%836
@ecause the part o" the mantle that beha#es as a "luid is o#erlain 'ith a ri$id lithosphere, 'e "orce the horiBontal component o" the #elocity to be Bero at y P '7 that is, 'e apply the no-slip condition at the upper boundary o" the "luid hal"-space% 9o'e#er, because the #ertical displacement o" this
boundary is small, ' l, it is appropriate to apply this condition at y P 8% @y settin$ u P 8 at y P 8 in ()uation 54C836, 'e "ind that @ P and Z P - sin uP2X l
2
2Xl 1R 2Xy l
54%896
2XyUl
54%986 54%916 % 54%926
2X ye2XyUl sin l 2X 2X 2Xy 2XyUl #P1 cos e R l l l
2X l
To e#aluate the "inal constant -, 'e must e)uate the hydrostatic pressure head associated 'ith the topo$raphy ' to the normal stress at the upper boundary o" the "luid hal"-space% The "ormer )uantity is Q$', and the latter, "rom ()uation 54C416, is p 2D5h#Uhy6% @ecause the sur"ace displacement is small, it is appropriate to e)uate these stresses Q$' P p 2Dh# hy at y P 8% 54%926
To apply condition 54C926, 'e must "irst calculate the pressure and the displacement at y P 8% The pressure can be "ound by insertin$ e pression 54C916 "or u into the horiBontal "orce balance 54C4>6% *ne obtains hp P 2D- 2X h l 2X l
2 2
sin
2X , l to $i#e
54%9>6
at y P 8% This can be inte$rated 'ith respect to p P 2Dcos 2X , l
54%9A6
at y P 8% :e also need 5h#Uhy6 at y P 8 "or ()uation 54C926% This is easily "ound by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54C926 'ith respect to y and then e#aluatin$ the result at y P 8% :e $et h# hy 1ondition 54C926 thus simpli"ies to 2D2X
2
P 8%
yP8
54%946
'
y P 8
cos
2X Q$ l l
54%936
The sur"ace displacement ' is related to the #elocity "ield by the "act that the time deri#ati#e o" ' is ?ust the #ertical component o" the sur"ace #elocity h' ht
yP '
P #y P '%
54%986
-$ain, because the #ertical displacement o" the sur"ace is small 5' l6, 'e can 'rite h' ht From ()uation 54C926 'e ha#e 2X 2X #y P 8 P - cos l l so that h' ht
yP 8
P #y P 8 %
yP8
54%996
54%1886
P-
2X 2X cos l l
54%1816
@y combinin$ ()uations 54C936 and 54C1816, 'e "ind that ' at y P 8 satis"ies h' lQ$ l$ P ' P ' % ht >XD >Xm 54%1826
This can be inte$rated, 'ith the initial condition ' P 'm at t P 8, to $i#e ' P 'm e p lQ$t l$ t P 'm e p % >XD >Xm 54%1826
The sur"ace displacement decreases e ponentially 'ith time as "luid "lo's "rom re$ions o" ele#ated topo$raphy to re$ions o" depressed topo$raphy% ()uation 54C1826 can be re'ritten as ' P 'm e
tUn
r
54%18>6
'here nr , the characteristic time "or the e ponential rela ation o" the initial displacement, is $i#en by nr P >XD P >Xm % Q$l $l 54%18A6
The #iscosity o" the mantle can be estimated "rom ()uation 54C18A6 once the rela#ation time "or post$lacial rebound has been determined%
18> 18>1
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%1A (le#ated beach terraces on *V ster$ransholm, (astern Gotland, S'eden% The contempory upli"t rate is about 2 mm yr 1 % 50hoto$rapher and copyri$ht holder, -rne 0hilip, +isby, S'eden7 courtesy &G10 0ro ?ect (costrati$raphy%6
0roblem 4%11 Sho' that the constant o" inte$ration - in the abo#e post- $lacial rebound solution is $i#en by l -P 2X
2
Q$'m 8 tUn r e % 2D
54%1846
Guantitati#e in"ormation on the rate o" post$lacial rebound can be obtained "rom elevated $each terraces% :a#e action o#er a period o" time erodes a beach to sea le#el% &" sea le#el drops or i" the land sur"ace is ele#ated, a "ossil beach terrace is created, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C1A% The a$e o" a "ossil beach can be obtained by radioacti#e datin$ usin$ carbon 1> in shells and dri"t'ood% The ele#ations o" a series o" dated beach terraces at the mouth o" the -n$erman ;i#er in S'eden are $i#en in Fi$ure 4C14% The ele#ations o" these beach terraces are attributed to the post$lacial rebound o" Scandi- na#ia since the meltin$ o" the ice sheet% The ele#ations ha#e been corrected "or chan$es in sea le#el% The upli"t o" the beach terraces is compared 'ith the e ponential time dependence $i#en in ()uation 54C18>6% :e assume that upli"t be$an 18,888 years a$o so that t is measured "or'ard "rom that time to the present% :e also assume that 'm8 P 288 m 'ith 28 m o" upli"t to
Fi$ure 4%14 /pli"t o" the mouth o" the -n$erman ;i#er, S'eden, as a "unction o" time be"ore the present compared 'ith the e ponential rela ation model, ()uation 54C18>6, "or !m8 P 288 m less 28 m o" upli"t yet to occur, nr P >>88 years, and an initiation o" the upli"t 18,888 years a$o%
occur in the "uture7 that is, 'e ta!e ' P 28 m at t P 18> years, the present% The solid line in Fi$ure 4C14 is obtained 'ith nr P >>88 years% ( cept "or the earliest times, there is )uite $ood a$reement 'ith the data% This #alue o" the rela ation time can be used to obtain a #iscosity "or the mantle usin$ ()uation 54C18A6% For the $laciation o" Fennoscandia, a reasonable #alue "or the 'a#elen$th is l P 2888 !m% Ta!in$ Q P 2288 !$ m 2 and $ P 18 m s 2 alon$ 'ith nr P >>88 years, 'e "ind that D P 1%11821 0a s% :e ha#e considered only the response to a spatially periodic sur"ace displacement% @ecause the problem is linear, solutions can be superimposed in order to consider other distributions o" sur"ace displacement% 9o'e#er, more complete studies o" post$lacial rebound include the "le ural ri$idity o" the elastic lithosphere and a depth-dependent mantle #iscosity% &" the ice sheets continue to melt durin$ the period o" rebound, the sea le#el 'ill increase, and this must be ta!en into account% -#ailable rebound data includin$ chan$es in sea le#el are included on a 'orld'ide basis% These studies re)uire numerical solutions, and the results o" one such e""ort are summariBed in Table 4C2% :e see that the mean mantle #iscosity is in $ood a$reement 'ith the #alue 'e obtained usin$ the appro imate analytic solution% 0roblem 4%12 The ice sheet o#er 9udson @ay, 1anada, had an estimated thic!ness o" 2 !m% -t the present time there is a ne$ati#e "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly in this re$ion o" 8%2 mm s 2 %
Table 4%2 &istri$ution of Ciscosity in the Mantle from Postglacial Re$ound "tudies
;e$ion .ithosphere -sthenosphere Depth 5!m6 8C188 188C13A 13AC28>8 Dynamic +iscosity 50a s6 (lastic > 1819 1821
Table 4%2
ppro#imate &ip
-rc 1entral 1hile <orthern 1hile Southern 1hile 9onshu &BuC@onin Ja#a <e' 9ebrides ;yu!yu :est &ndies
ngles of "u$duction at "everal Island rcs

Dip -n$le A 28 28 28 48 38 38 >A A8
a% -ssumin$ that the ice 5density o" 1888 !$ m 2 6 'as in isostatic e)uilib rium and displaced mantle roc! 'ith a density o" 2288 !$ m 2 , determine the depression o" the land sur"ace 'm 8 % b% -ssumin$ that the ne$ati#e "ree-air $ra#ity anomaly is due to incomplete rebound, determine ' at the present time% c% -pplyin$ the periodic analysis $i#en abo#e, determine the mantle #iscosity% -ssume that the ice sheet melted 18,888 years a$o and that the appropriate 'a#elen$th "or the 9udson @ay ice sheet 'as A888 !m% d% Discuss the di""erence bet'een the #iscosity obtained in 5c6 and that obtained "or Scandina#ia%
4%11 -n$le o" Subduction -s discussed in Section 2C13, the oceanic lithosphere bends in a continuous manner as it is subducted at an ocean trench% The $ra#itational body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere is directed #ertically do'n'ard% :e mi$ht e pect that under this body "orce the lithosphere 'ould bend throu$h 98 and descend #ertically do'n'ard into the mantle% 9o'e#er, obser#ations indicate that the oceanic lithosphere strai$htens out a"ter subduction and descends
?(--
ngle of "u$duction
183 1831
Fi$ure 4%13 Forces actin$ on a descendin$ lithosphere%
Fi$ure 4%18 +iscous corner "lo' model "or calculatin$ induced "lo' pressures on a descendin$ lithosphere%
at a "inite an$le o" dip W% 5This 'as discussed in Section 1C> and illustrated in Fi$ure 1C96% The appro imate dip an$les associated 'ith subduction at se#eral ocean trenches are $i#en in Table 4C2% *ne e planation "or 'hy the lithosphere descends at an an$le other than 98 is that pressure "orces due to the induced "lo's in the mantle balance the $ra#itational body "orces% This problem is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C13% The pressure "orces are due to the mantle "lo' induced by the motion o" the descendin$ lithosphere7 they are "lo' pressures relati#e to the hydrostatic pressure% The dip o" a subductin$ lithosphere is thus a conse)uence o" the balance bet'een the $ra#itational tor)ue and the li"tin$ pressure tor)ue% The pressure "orces actin$ on a descendin$ lithosphere can be calculated usin$ the t'o-dimensional #iscous corner "lo' model in Fi$ure 4C18% The trench is located at P 8% &t is assumed that the sur"ace y P 8, \ 8
188 1881
Fluid Mechanics
mo#es 'ith constant speed / to'ard the trench7 the sur"ace y P 8, [ 8 is stationary% The descendin$ lithosphere is the line e tendin$ "rom the ori$in do'n'ard at the dip an$le to the positi#e a is7 the #elocity parallel to this line is / % Distance measured alon$ this line is r% The line di#ides the #iscous mantle into t'o cornersF the arc corner and the oceanic corner% The motion o" this line #iscously dri#es a "lo' in the arc corner% The #elocities o" the dippin$ line and the sur"ace induce a "lo' in the oceanic corner% :e 'ill sol#e "or the motions in both corners and determine the "lo' pressures on the dippin$ line% The stream "unctions "or the corner "lo's in Fi$ure 4C18 are solutions o" the biharmonic ()uation 54C3>6% For the corner "lo' $eometry, 'e can 'rite Z in the "orm y Z P 5- R @y6 R 51 R Dy6 , 54%1836 arctan 'here -, @, 1 , and D are constants 'hose #alues are determined by boundary conditions% The problem in Fi$ure 4C18 has t'o stream "unctions 'ith distinct #alues o" these constants because the arc and oceanic corners ha#e di""erent an$les and di""erent conditions on their boundin$ lines% &t can be #eri"ied by direct substitution that ()uation 54C1836 is a solution o" the biharmonic ()uation 54C3>6% To do this, it is help"ul to recall that h y arctan hy and h arctan h y 1 51 R y 2 U 6 y P 2 R y2 % P
2
1 51 R y 2 U
1
26
R y2 54%1886
y
2
54%1896
The #elocity components correspondin$ to the stream "unction o" ()uation 54C1836 "ollo' "rom ()uations 54C496 and 54C386F y u P @ D arctan R 51 y R Dy6
2
R y2 54%1186
# P - R 1 arctan
R 51
R Dy6
y R y2 %
54%1116
The pressure can be "ound by substitutin$ ()uation 54C1186 into ()ua-
tion 54C436 and inte$ratin$ the resultin$ e pression "or h0 Uh % -lternati#ely, ()uations 54C486 and 54C1116 can be used, in 'hich case 'e inte$rate an e pression "or h0 Uhy, obtainin$ 2D51 R 0 P Dy 6 % 54%1126 2 5 R y26 The pressure $i#en by ()uation 54C1126 is the pressure relati#e to the hydrostatic pressure, that is, pressure associated 'ith "lo'% General e pressions "or the constants o" inte$ration are some'hat complicated7 so 'e e#aluate them "or a particular #alue o" the dip an$le% -s an e ample 'e choose a dip o" XU>, representati#e o" the ;yu!yu arc% The boundary conditions "or the arc corner are u P # P 8 on y P 8, [ 8, or y 54%1126 arctan P 8, and u P # P / 2U2 on y P , or y X arctan P % 54%11>6 > -pplication o" these conditions leads to the "ollo'in$ e pressions "or the constants 1 and D in the arc cornerF X/ 2 54%11A6 1P 252 X 2 U>6 / 252 X U26 DP % 54%1146 52 X 2 U>6 Thus the pressure in the arc corner is D/ 2 {X R 5> X 6y } 0arc corner P % 54%1136 52 X 2 U>65 2 R y 2 6 &" 'e e#aluate this e pression on P y and note that r 2 PyP 54%1186 2 on the dippin$ line, 'e "ind that the "lo' pressure on the top o" the descendin$ slab is >D/ % 54%1196 0 P P 8%AA8D/ 2 52 X U>6r r The ne$ati#e #alue o" the "lo' pressure on the top o" the descendin$ slab $i#es the e""ect o" a suction force tendin$ to li"t the slab a$ainst the "orce o" $ra#ity% The pressure "orce #aries as 1Ur alon$ the upper sur"ace o" the slab
and there"ore has a sin$ularity in this idealiBed model as r 8% 9o'e#er, the lifting tor3ue on the slab is the inte$ral o" the product r0 o#er the upper sur"ace o" the slab% The li"tin$ tor)ue per unit distance alon$ the top o" the slab is a constant7 the tor)ue on the slab is thus proportional to its len$th% The boundary conditions "or the oceanic corner are u P /, # P 8 on y P 8, \ 8, or y arctan P X, 54%1286 and u P # P / 2U2 on y P , or arctan y P X % > 54%1216
@y substitutin$ ()uations 54C1186 and 54C1116 into ()uations 54C1286 and 54C1216, 'e "ind 2 / 2 1P 59X 2 U> 26 51 R 2XU26 / 59X 2 U> 26 2X 2 2X 9X 2 R 2 >
`
54%1226 DP 2 2R 2 1 R 2X 2 % 54%1226 The "lo' pressure in the oceanic corner is "ound by substitutin$ these #alues o" 1 and D into ()uation 54C1126% :hen the resultin$ e pression is e#aluated on the dippin$ line, 'e obtain ` > 8%>42D/ D/ 2X 2 0 P P 54%12>6 2 r 9X U> 2 r "or the "lo' pressure on the bottom o" the descendin$ slab% The positi#e #alue o" 0 means that the induced pressure on the bottom o" the slab also e erts a li"tin$ tor)ue on the slab% The tor)ue per unit distance alon$ the slab is a constant% The net li"tin$ tor)ue on the slab is the sum o" the tor)ues e erted by pressures on the top and bottom o" the slab% comparison o" ()uations 54C1196 and 54C12>6 sho's that the tor)ue e erted by the suction pressure in the arc corner "ar out'ei$hs the li"tin$ e""ect o" pressure on the bottom o" the slab% 0roblem 4%12 1alculate the #elocities in the arc and oceanic corners "ormed by a slab descendin$ into the mantle 'ith speed / and dip an$le XU>%
?(-4 &iapirism
0roblem 4%1> Deri#e e pressions "or the li"tin$ tor)ues on the top and bottom o" a slab descendin$ into the mantle 'ith speed / at a dip an$le o" 48 % 4%12 Diapirism
191 1911
&n the pre#ious t'o sections 'e applied the e)uations o" slo' #iscous "lo' to the mantle% :e no' turn to se#eral problems in#ol#in$ the "lo' o" crustal roc!s% :e "irst consider diapirism, or the buoyant up'ellin$ o" relati#ely li$ht roc!% -s the li$hter roc! rises into the hea#ier o#erlyin$ roc!, a diapir o" the li$hter roc! is "ormed% *ne e ample o" diapirism is the "ormation o" a salt dome, 'hich occurs because salt is less dense than other typical sedimentary roc!s% The process o" salt dome "ormation is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C19% &nitially a layer o" salt is deposited at the sur"ace by e#aporation o" sea- 'ater 5Fi$ure 4C19a6% Subse)uent sedimentation buries this layer under other hea#ier sedimentary roc!s such as shales and sandstones 5Fi$ure 4C 19b6% -t shallo' depths the stren$th o" the salt layer is su""icient to pre#ent $ra#itational instability "rom inducin$ "lo'% -s the depth o" the salt layer increases 'ith the "urther deposition o" sediments, the temperature o" the salt increases because o" the $eothermal $radient% Thermally acti#ated creep processes then allo' the salt to "lo' up'ard to be replaced by the hea#ier o#erlyin$ sedimentary roc!s% (#entually the up'ard "lo' o" the salt creates a series o" salt domes% Fi$ure 4C28 is a photo$raph o" salt domes in the ]a$ros ,ountains o" &ran% Salt domes are important in the search "or $as and oil% The de"ormation o" the roc!s abo#e salt domes results in the "ormation o" impermeable traps "or the up'ard mi$ratin$ oil and $as% ,any oil and $as "ields are "ound abo#e salt domes% There are other e amples o" diapirism in crustal roc!s% &n mountain belts hi$h heat "lo' and #olcanism heat lo'er crustal roc!s to su""iciently hi$h temperatures so that they can "reely "lo' by solid-state creep processes% &" the heated roc!s at depth are li$hter than the o#erlyin$ roc!s, the deeper roc!s 'ill "lo' up'ard to "orm diapirs in a manner similar to the "ormation o" salt domes% :hen the mountain belt is subse)uently eroded, the diapirism is e#ident in the sur"ace metamorphic roc!s% :e apply the same type o" analysis as 'as used in our study o" post$lacial rebound to in#esti$ate diapirism% The $eometry o" the problem is sho'n in Fi$ure 4C21% - "luid layer 'ith a thic!ness b and a density Q1 o#erlies a second "luid layer also o" thic!ness b but 'ith a density Q2 % @oth "luid layers ha#e the same #iscosity D% The upper boundary o" the top layer and the lo'er
192 1921
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%19 Diapiric "ormation o" salt domes due to the $ra#itational instability o" a li$ht salt layer buried beneath hea#ier sedimentary roc!s%
boundary o" the bottom layer are ri$id sur"aces% @ecause 'e are interested in the case o" instability, 'e ta!e Q1 [ Q2 % The $ra#itational instability o" hea#y "luid o#erlyin$ li$ht "luid is !no'n as the Rayleigh/%aylor insta$ility% The undisturbed inter"ace bet'een the superposed "luid layers is ta!en ri$id to be at y P 8% Thus, y P b and y P b are the upper and lo'er boundaries, respecti#ely% -s a conse)uence o" the $ra#itational instability, the inter"ace bet'een the "luids distorts and motions occur in the "luid layers% The displacement o" the disturbed "luid inter"ace is denoted by '% :e assume that ' is $i#en by ()uation 54C396% The stream "unction Z1 "or the "lo' in the upper "luid layer has the "orm o" ()uation 54C8A6, 'hich 'e re'rite here usin$ hyperbolic "unctions instead o" the e ponentials Z1 P sin 2X l -1 cosh 2Xy 2Xy R @1 sinh l l
Fi$ure 4%28 Satellite photo$raph o" salt domes 5dar! circular areas6 in the ]a$ros ,ountains o" &ran 5<-S- STS 8>3C1A1C82A6%
Fi$ure 4%21 The ;aylei$hCTaylor instability o" a dense "luid o#erlyin$ a li$hter "luid%
R 11 y cosh
2Xy 2Xy R D1 y sinh l l
54%12A6
Similarly, the stream "unction Z2 "or the lo'er layer is Z2 P sin 2Xy 2Xy R @ 2 sinh l l l 2Xy 2Xy % R 12 y cosh R D 2 y sinh l l - 2 cosh 2X
54%1246
The #elocity components in the layers are "ound by di""erentiatin$ these e)uations "or Z1 and Z2 accordin$ to ()uations 54C496 and 54C386F 2X u1 P sin 2X l l -1 R 11 y R lD1 2X sinh 2X y l
19> 19>1
Fluid Mechanics
R @1 R D 1 y R #1 P 2X l cos 2X l
l11 2X
cosh
2X y l 2Xy l
54%1236
5-1 R 11 y6 cosh
2Xy R 5@1 R D1 y6 sinh l 2X u2 P sin 2X l l - 2 R 12 y R lD 2 2X 2X y sinh 2X y l
54%1286
R @ R D y R l12 cosh 2 2 l 2X 2X 2X 2Xy 5- 2 R 12 y6 cosh #2 P cos l l l 2Xy R 5@ 2 R D 2 y6 sinh % l
54%1296
54%1286
-mon$ the boundary conditions 'e ha#e "or e#aluatin$ the constants o" inte$ration are the no-slip conditions on y P b, u1 P #1 P 8 u2 P #2 P 8 on on y P b y P b, 54%1216 54%1226
and continuity o" u and # across the inter"ace% For small displacements o" the inter"ace, ' l, it is appropriate to re)uire continuity o" u and # at the undisturbed location o" the inter"ace, y P 8% Thus 'e re)uire u1 P u2 and #1 P #2 on y P 8% 54%1226 @y applyin$ these boundary conditions to ()uations 54C1236 to 54C1286, 'e obtain l12 l11 P @2 R 2X 2X -1 P -2 @1 R -1 b11 R lD 1 l11 2X b P @1 bD 1 R tanh l 2X 2X 54%1246 5@1 bD 1 6 tanh 2Xb P -1 b11 l 54%1236 54%12>6 54%12A6
- 2 R b12 R 5@ 2 R bD 2 6 tanh
lD 2 l12 2X b P @ 2 bD 2 tanh l 2X 2X 2Xb P - 2 b12 % l
54%1286 54%1296
Shear stress must also be continuous across the inter"ace bet'een the "luid layers% For ' l and "or e)ual #iscosities across the inter"ace this condition can be 'ritten h u1 h #2 hy R h #1 h P h u2 hy R h on y P 8, 54%1>86
'here ()uation 54CA86 has been used "or the shear stress% Since # is continuous at y P 8, so is h#Uh , and ()uation 54C1>86 simpli"ies to h u1 h u2 P hy hy ()uation 54C1>16 re)uires that -1 R lD R 2X or, 'ith - 1 P - 2 , D 1 P D 2% 54%1>26
1
on
y P 8%
54%1>16
lD P 2X
RD
1
-2R
lD R 2X
lD
2
2X
54%1>26
@y subtractin$ ()uations 54C1236 and 54C1296 and combinin$ the result 'ith the di""erence bet'een ()uations 54C1246 and 54C1286, 'e obtain 8 P 511 R 12 6 1 R 2Xb 2Xb 2Xb coth tanh l l l % 54%1>>6 ()uation 54C1>>6 can be satis"ied "or arbitrary 2XbUl only i" 11 P 12 % 54%1>A6
&" 'e add ()uations 54C1236 and 54C1296 and ma!e use o" ()uation 54C1>A6, 'e also deduce that
@1 P @2 %
54%1>46
@y usin$ ()uations 54C1>A6 and 54C1>46 to simpli"y ()uation 54C12>6, 'e $et l11 % 54%1>36 2X -ll the constants o" inte$ration can no' be determined in terms o" @1 P -1 by sol#in$ ()uations 54C1246, 54C1236, and 54C1>36% -"ter some al$ebraic manipulation 'e "ind that the stream "unction in the upper layer is Z1 P -1 sin 2Xy 2X cosh l l 2X y l 2Xb 2Xy R -1 sin tanh sinh l b 2Xb l l y 2X y l 2X y R cosh sinh b l 2Xb l l 1 R 2Xb sinh52XbUl6 cosh52XbUl6 1 sinh52XbUl6 cosh52XbUl6 l 2Xb
2
tanh
2Xb l
54%1>86
The e pression "or Z2 is obtained by replacin$ y 'ith y in ()uation 54C 1>86% The solution "or the stream "unction can be used to obtain an e)uation "or the motion o" the inter"ace% The time rate o" chan$e o" the inter"ace displacement h'Uht must be e)ual to the #ertical component o" the "luid #elocity at the inter"ace% &" this condition 'ere not satis"ied, a #oid 'ould be created bet'een the "luid layers% @ecause the inter"ace displacement is small, this condition can be 'ritten h' P #yP8 % 54%1>96 ht The #ertical #elocity # can be e#aluated by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54C1>86 'ith respect to % &" this is done, and the result e#aluated at y P 8, 'e can re'rite ()uation 54C1>96 as h' 2X -1 2X P ht l cos l % 54%1A86
Fi$ure 4%22 The buoyancy "orce associated 'ith the displacement o" the inter"ace%
To eliminate the constant -1 "rom the e)uation o" motion o" the inter"ace, 'e need to incorporate an essential aspect o" the physics o" the problem into the analysis% This is the buoyancy "orce brou$ht into play by the displacement o" the inter"ace% Fi$ure 4C22 compares t'o columns o" "luid, one 'ith the inter"ace in the undisturbed location and the other 'ith the inter"ace displaced do'n'ard% @ecause o" the inter"ace displacement, "luid o" density Q1 replaces "luid o" density Q2 bet'een y P 8 and y P '% The additional 'ei$ht o" this "luid 5Q1 Q 2 6$' is "elt as a normal stress or pressure on the disturbed inter"ace% &t must be balanced by the net normal stress on the inter"ace due to "lo' pressure and normal #iscous stress% &t is su""icient to determine these stresses on y P 8 because o" the small inter"ace displacement% -ccordin$ to ()uation 54CA36 the normal #iscous stress on y P 8 is 2D5h#Uhy6yP8 % @y di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54C1>86 'ith respect to and y and e#aluatin$ the result on y P 8, 'e see that this )uantity is Bero% Thus the buoyancy "orce per unit area due to the displacement o" the inter"ace is balanced solely by the net "lo' pressure e erted on the inter"ace% This condition can be 'ritten 5Q1 Q2 6$' P 502 01 6yP8 % 54%1A16 ()uation 54C1A16 pro#ides a second relationship bet'een ' and the "lo' "ield that allo's us to relate ' to -1 and thereby con#ert ()uation 54C1A86 into an e)uation "or '% The "lo' pressure on y P 8 in the upper layer can be "ound by substitutin$ ()uation 54C1>86 into ()uation 54C326 'ith the result 2D-1 501 6y P 8 P b 2X l l R 2Xb sinh 1 cosh 1 2X b l cosh
2
`
2X b l
sinh
2X b l
2X b l
l 2Xb
tanh 2Xb l
cos
2X % l
54%1A26
@y carryin$ throu$h the same procedure usin$ Z2 , 'e "ind 502 6yP8 P 501 6y P 8 % ()uation 54C1A16 becomes 5Q1 Q2 6$' P 2501 6y P 8 % 54%1A>6 ()uation 54C1A>6 sho's that 'ith a hea#y "luid abo#e a li$ht one 5Q1 [ Q2 6, a do'n'ard displacement o" the inter"ace 5' [ 86 causes a ne$ati#e pressure in the upper "luid layer% This tends to produce a "urther do'n'ard displacement o" the inter"ace leadin$ to instability o" the con"i$uration% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 54C1A26 into ()uation 54C1A>6, 'e $et >D-1 2X 2X 5Q1 Q2 6$' P cos l l b l 1 R 2Xb sinh52XbUl6 cosh52XbUl6 1 sinh52XbUl6 cosh52XbUl6 l 2Xb
2
54%1A26
2Xb tanh l
`1
54%1AA6
@y sol#in$ this e)uation "or -1 and substitutin$ the resultin$ e pression into ()uation 54C1A86, 'e "inally arri#e at h ' 5Q1 Q2 6$b P ht >D
l 2Xb
2
b tanh 2X l
sinh
2Xb l
Z 1 cosh2Xbl
2X b l
l 2Xb
sinh
2X b l
1 cosh
'% 54%1A46
The solution o" this e)uation is ' P '8 etUna , 'ith na P >D 5Q1 Q2 6$b 54%1A36
Fi$ure 4%22 Dimensionless $ro'th time o" a disturbance as a "unction o" dimensionless 'a#e number "or the ;aylei$hCTaylor instability%
l 2Xb
2Xb
2
sinh 2X b l
2X b
tanh
1 2X b cosh l
2Xb l
sinh
Z 1 cosh 2Xb l
54%1A86 The )uantity na is the $ro'th time 5"or Q1 [ Q2 6 o" a disturbance% &ts #alue depends on the 'a#elen$th l o" the inter"ace distortion% Fi$ure 4C 22 is a plot o" the dimensionless $ro'th time 5Q1 Q2 6$bna U>D as a "unction o" the dimensionless disturbance 'a#e number 2XbUl% &" hea#y "luid lies on top 5Q1 [ Q2 6, the inter"ace is al'ays unstable7 that is, na [ 8% &" li$ht "luid lies on top 5Q1 \ Q2 6, na is ne$ati#e "or all l and the inter"ace is stable% &t can be sho'n "rom ()uation 54C1A86 that "or lar$e 'a#elen$ths, 2>D Q 6$b
2
na
5Q
1
l 2Xb
54%1A96
For #ery small 'a#elen$ths, na >D 5Q 1 Q2 6$b 2X b % l 54%1486
These asymptotic beha#iors o" na can be seen in Fi$ure 4C22% :hen the hea#y "luid lies on top and the con"i$uration is unstable, the disturbance 'ith the shortest time constant $ro's and dominates the instability% The 'a#elen$th that $i#es the smallest #alue "or na is l P 2%A48b% 54%1416
The rate o" $ro'th o" this dominant disturbance is obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 54C1416 into ()uation 54C1A86 'ith the result na P 12%8>D % 5Q 1 Q2 6$b 54%1426
The instability ta!es lon$er to $ro', the more #iscous the "luids and the smaller the density di""erence% -lthou$h 'e ha#e considered only the stability problem "or small displacements, 'e e pect that the 'a#elen$th o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ small disturbance closely corresponds to the spacin$ bet'een "ully de#eloped diapirs% - map #ie' sho'in$ the distribution o" salt domes in the north o" Germany is $i#en in Fi$ure 4C2>% The depth to the salt layer is about A !m, and the spacin$ o" the salt domes is about 18 to 1A !m, in $ood a$reement 'ith ()uation 54C1416% 0roblem 4%1A - layer o" salt at a depth o" 2 !m 'ith a density o" 21A8 !$ m 2 lies beneath sediments 'ith a density o" 2488 !$ m 2 % The salt layer is !no'n to ha#e doubled the amplitude o" its instability in 188,888 years% (stimate the e)ui#alent #iscosity o" the system% 0roblem 4%14 Suppose that the 448-!m density discontinuity in the mantle corresponds to a compositional chan$e 'ith li$hter roc!s lyin$ abo#e more dense ones% (stimate the minimum decay time "or a disturbance to this boundary% -ssume Q P >888 !$ m 2 , _Q P 188 !$ m 2 , and D P 1821 0a s% 0roblem 4%13 Discuss ho' you 'ould modi"y the analysis o" the pre#ious section to account "or a #iscosity di""erence bet'een the t'o "luid layers% 4%12 Foldin$ Folding o" crustal roc! occurs on all scales% *n the lar$est scale, "oldin$ results in a series o" parallel mountain ran$es% This 'as illustrated in Fi$- ure 1C>1% *n this lar$e scale a "old that is conca#e up'ard is re"erred to as
?(-5 Folding
281 2812
Fi$ure 4%2> Distribution o" salt domes in northern Germany%
a synclinorium% ;oc!s "olded in this manner are usually sedimentary roc!s, and youn$er roc!s are ordinarily "ound in the "le ure "ormed o" older roc!s% -lso on this lar$e scale a "old 'hose "lan!s di#er$e do'n'ard is re"erred to as an anticlinorium% (rosion o" lar$e-scale "olds o"ten results in a valley and ridge topography such as that "ound in 0ennsyl#ania and :est +ir$inia 5see Fi$ure 1C>26% &n this case the #alleys are the result o" the erosion o" shales, 'hereas the rid$es are composed o" more resistant sandstones% Folds are "ound in both sedimentary and metamorphic roc!s on scales ran$in$ do'n to a "e' centimeters% Foldin$ occurs under a 'ide #ariety o" conditions, but it is o"ten associated 'ith compressional tectonics% T'o important )uestions concernin$ "oldin$ are 'hy does the roc! de"orm and 'hy does it de"orm in such a manner as to produce "olds% &t is perhaps surprisin$ that at relati#ely lo' temperatures sedimentary roc!s "lo' to produce "olds rather than "racture% -lthou$h the rheolo$y o" "olded sedimentary roc!s is
282 2822
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%2A 5a 6 1ompression o" a uni"orm medium% This type o" compression can o"ten be identi"ied in roc!s by the "lattenin$ o" spherical inclusions% 5$ 6 Foldin$ o" a layered medium composed o" stron$ 5competent6 and 'ea! 5incompetent6 members under compression%
not "ully understood, pressure solution creep is thou$ht to play an important role% Sedimentary roc!s are o"ten saturated 'ith 'ater% The solu$ility o" minerals such as )uartB in the 'ater is a "unction o" pressure as 'ell as temperature% :hen di""erential stresses are applied to the roc!, the minerals dissol#e in re$ions o" hi$h stress and are deposited in re$ions o" lo' stress% The result is a de"ormation o" the roc!% 0ressure solution creep o" sedimentary roc!s can result in a linear relationship bet'een stress and rate o" strain and, there"ore, a <e'tonian "luid beha#ior% - #iscosity can be determined% - more detailed discussion o" pressure solution creep is $i#en in the ne t chapter% Folded sedimentary or metamorphic roc!s usually ha#e a pree istin$ layered structure% There usually is considerable #ariation in the material properties o" ad?acent layers 'hen "oldin$ occurs% &" a uni"orm medium is sub?ected to compression, it 'ill be uni"ormly s)ueeBed, as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C2Aa% 9o'e#er, i" the medium is composed o" a series o" 'ea! and stron$ layers, "oldin$ 'ill occur, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C2A$% The stron$ layers are re"erred to
?(-5 Folding
282 2822
Fi$ure 4%24 -n elastic plate o" thic!ness h is embedded bet'een t'o #iscous "luids 'ith #iscosity D% -n end load 0f is applied to the elastic plate until it buc!les 5"olds6%
as bein$ competent7 an e ample is a limestone% The 'ea! layers are re"erred to as bein$ incompetent 7 an e ample is a sandstone% &t should be noted that stren$th and resistance to erosion are not necessarily related% *ne approach to the )uantitati#e study o" "oldin$ is to consider an elas2 tic 5competent6 layer o" thic!ness h embedded bet'een t'o semiin"inite <e'tonian #iscous "luids 5incompetent6% -n end load 0f on the elastic layer may cause it to buc!le7 ho'e#er, its de"ormation 'ill be restricted by the con"inin$ "luids% This problem is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C24% :e ha#e already considered the de"ormation o" a thin elastic plate under end loadin$ in Section 2C11% The applicable di""erential e)uation is ()uation 52C3>6% The #ertical component o" the normal stress due to "lo' in the "luids abo#e and belo' the plates can be used to determine the "orce per unit area )5 6 on the plate% The "luids occupy semi-in"inite hal"-spaces% :e assume that the de"ormation o" the plate is $i#en by ' P 'm cos52X Ul6etUna % 54%1426
@ecause the plate "orms the boundaries o" the "luid hal"-spaces, these boundaries ha#e sinusoidally #aryin$ shapes% This situation is identical 'ith the one 'e encountered in our study o" post$lacial rebound in Section 4C18% :e can use the results o" that section to ad#anta$e here% @y symmetry, the solutions abo#e and belo' the plate are identical% :e consider the solution belo' the plate and measure y positi#e do'n'ard "rom the base o" the plate, as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C24% The appropriate solution o" the biharmonic e)uation is ()uation 54C8A6% The condition that the #elocities be "inite as y a$ain re)uires 1 P D P 8% The ri$idity o" the elastic plate re)uires that u P 8 on the plate, and because 'e a$ain assume ' l, this boundary condition can be applied at y P 8% There"ore ()uation 54C986 is applicable in the "luid belo' the plate% From ()uation 54C9A6, the pressure 0b on the base o" the plate 5e#aluated at y P 86 is $i#en
28> 28>2
Fluid Mechanics
by
0b P 2- D 2X l 2X l
cos
2X % l
54%14>6
This can be re'ritten in terms o" ' by usin$ ()uation 54C1816 h' % 54%14A6 ht The pressure 0T actin$ do'n'ard on the top o" the plate is related to the pressure 0b actin$ up'ard on the base o" the plate by 0b P 2D 0T 5 6 P 0b 5 6% 54%1446 This is a conse)uence o" the symmetry o" the "lo's abo#e and belo' the plate7 'e "ound an identical result C ()uation 54C1A26 C in the pre#ious section% There is no normal #iscous stress on the plate because h#Uhy #anishes on y P 8 accordin$ to ()uation 54C946% Thus the net normal stress on the plate is ) P 0T 0b P 20b % @y substitutin$ ()uation 54C14A6 into this e)uation, 'e obtain 2X h'5 , t6 )5 , t6 P >D % 54%1486 ht l :ith the "orce per unit area actin$ on the elastic plate no' determined, 'e can 'rite the e)uation "or the de"lection o" the plate C ()uation 52C3>6 C as h> ' h2 ' 2X h' D R 0f P >D , 54%1496 h > h 2 l ht 'here D, you recall, is the "le ural ri$idity o" the plate7 see ()uation 52C326% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 54C1426 into 54C1496, 'e "ind >D na P % 54%1386 2 2X 2X f 0 l D l The 'a#elen$th correspondin$ to the smallest #alue o" na is obtained by settin$ the deri#ati#e o" na 'ith respect to l e)ual to Bero7 the result is 2D 1U2 % 54%1316 0f This is the 'a#elen$th o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ disturbance% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 52C326 "or D into 54C1316 and 'ritin$ l P 2X 0f P bh, 54%1326 54%1436
Fi$ure 4%23 Dependence o" the thic!ness o" the dominant member in a "old on the 'a#elen$th o" the "old compared 'ith ()uation 54C1326% Data points are "rom 1urrie et al% 519426%
'here b is the stress in the elastic layer associated 'ith the end load, 'e $et l P Xh ( b51 m 2 6
1U2
54%1326
&t is e pected that 'hen "olds de#elop in an elastic layer o" roc! surrounded by roc! e hibitin$ "luid beha#ior, the initial 'a#elen$th o" the "olds has the dependence on the thic!ness o" the elastic layer and the applied stress $i#en by ()uation 54C1326% The obser#ed dependence o" "old 'a#elen$th on the thic!ness o" the dominant member o" a "old is $i#en in Fi$ure 4C23 "or a 'ide #ariety o" "olds% ( cellent a$reement 'ith ()uation 54C1326 is obtained "or b51 m 26U( P 18 2 % For ( P A8 G0a and m P 8%2A "or sedimentary roc!s, this $i#es b P A28 ,0a% -lthou$h this is a hi$h stress, it is li!ely to be about the same as the compressional stren$th o" many sedimentary roc!s 'hen they are buried to a depth o" 2 to A !m% -s the amplitude o" a "old increases, its 'a#elen$th decreases some'hat, and the bendin$ stress in the elastic member e ceeds the yield strength o" the roc!% The elastic member then either "ractures or plastically yields at the 1 points o" ma imum bendin$ moment that are at P 2 nl, n P 8, 1, 2, % % % % &" plastic $ending occurs, an angular or chevron fold 'ould be e pected, as
illustrated in Fi$ure 4C28a% Folds 'ith nearly strai$ht limbs o" this type are o"ten obser#ed% - "urther analysis o" this type o" plastic bendin$ is $i#en in the ne t chapter% -lthou$h many obser#ed "olds e hibit a plastic de"ormation in the dominant or competent member o" the "old, there are many other cases in 'hich a rounded structure is obser#ed% For a rounded "old such as that illustrated in Fi$ure 4C28$ the dominant member has probably also been de"ormed in a "luidli!e manner% -n alternati#e approach to the theory o" "oldin$ is to assume that the competent layer is a <e'tonian "luid 'ith a #iscosity D1 % &t is embedded bet'een t'o semi-in"inite "luids 'ith a #iscosity D8 , and D1 D8 % This mechanism, "irst proposed by ,aurice @iot, is o"ten re"erred to as the 0iot theory of folding% To analyBe the #iscous "oldin$ problem, it is necessary to de#elop the theory "or the bendin$ o" a "ree or isolated plate o" #iscosity D% :e "ollo' the deri#ation "or the bendin$ o" a "ree elastic plate $i#en in Section 2C9% ;ecall that the !ey aspect o" that deri#ation 'as the determination o" the bendin$ moment , $i#en by ()uation 52C416F , P
]
hU2 hU2
b y dy%
54%13>6
The lon$itudinal stress b in a #iscous plate is $i#en by ()uation 54C486% For a "ree plate, byy must #anish on its sur"aces, and i" the plate is thin, 'e can ta!e byy P 8 throu$hout the plate, as in the elastic plate deri#ation% From ()uation 54C416 'ith byy P 8 'e obtain p P 2D h# % hy 54%13A6
The incompressible continuity ()uation 54CA26 $i#es h#Uhy P huUh , and 'e can re'rite ()uation 54C13A6 as hu p P 2D % h 54%1346
@y substitutin$ ()uation 54C1346 into ()uation 54C486 in order to eliminate the pressure, 'e obtain hu b P >D % 54%1336 h This is the relationship bet'een the bendin$ stress b and the rate o" lon$itudinal strain huUh "or a thin #iscous plate% &t is analo$ous to ()uation 52C4>6, 'hich relates the "iber stress b to the strain g in a thin elastic plate%
Fi$ure 4%28 5a 6 -n$ular or che#ron "olds near 1opiapo in -tacama 0ro#ince, northern 1hile% The "olded resistant layers o" silty limestone alternate 'ith less resistant but more competent layers o" sandstone 5E% Sa$erstrom A42, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey%6 5$ 6 ;ounded "old in amphibolite near Salmon ;i#er, &daho 5:% @% 9amilton 233, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ery%6
()uation 54C13>6 "or the bendin$ moment in the #iscous plate becomes
]
, P >D
hU2
hU2
hu y dy% h
54%1386
@y direct analo$y 'ith ()uation 52C386 the rate o" strain huUh is $i#en by hu h2 ' Py 2 % 54%1396 h h ht The si$n o" this e)uation is opposite to that o" ()uation 52C386, since the rate o" strain huUh and the strain rate gj ha#e opposite si$ns% &" 'e substitute ()uation 54C1396 into 54C1386 and carry out the inte$ration, 'e $et Dh2 h 2 ' % 54%1886 2 h 2 ht /pon substitutin$ the second deri#ati#e 'ith respect to o" 54C1886 into 52C486, 'e obtain the $eneral e)uation "or the bendin$ o" a thin #iscous plate, Dh2 h A ' h2 ' 0f P ) % 54%1816 2 h > ht h 2 Solutions o" this e)uation $i#e the #ertical displacement ' o" a #iscous plate as a "unction o" time% -s a speci"ic e ample, consider a "ree #iscous plate o" len$th . embedded at one end 'ith a concentrated load +a applied at its other end, as in Fi$ure 2C13% Since 0f P ) P 8, ()uation 54C1816 reduces to , P Dh2 h A ' P 8% 2 h > ht &nte$ratin$ t'ice 'ith respect to yields 54%1826
Dh2 h 2 ' P , P "1 5t6 R "2 5t6, 54%1826 2 2 h ht 'here "1 5t6 and "2 5t6 are constants o" inte$ration that can depend on time% @ecause the o#erall tor)ue balance $i#en in ()uation 52C386, , P +a 5 .6, " 1 P + a ()uation 54C1826 thus ta!es the "orm Dh2 h 2 ' P +a R +a .% 2 h 2 ht 54%1846 "2 P +a .% 54%18>6
must also be applicable to the #iscous plate, 'e can identi"y "1 and "2 as 54%18A6
:e inte$rate this e)uation t'ice more 'ith respect to and satis"y the boundary conditions "or an embedded plate, ' P h'Uh P 8 at P 8, to $et Dh2 h ' +a P 2 ht 2
2
54%1836
- "inal inte$ration 'ith respect to time and application o" the initial condition ' P 8 at t P 8 $i#es 'P 2 +a 2 . 2 t% 2 Dh 2 54%1886
- comparison o" ()uations 54C1886 and 52C826 sho's that the de"lection o" the #iscous plate has the same spatial dependence as the de"lection o" the elastic plate% This is a $eneral correspondence bet'een the beha#ior o" #iscous and elastic plates% 9o'e#er, althou$h the de"lection o" the elastic plate is time-independent, the de"lection o" the #iscous plate increases linearly 'ith time% :e return no' to the #iscous "oldin$ problem by considerin$ the buc!- lin$ o" a #iscous plate contained bet'een t'o semi-in"inite #iscous "luids% &" the appro imation byy P 8 that 'e made in our deri#ation o" the bendin$ moment o" a "ree #iscous plate is to be applicable to this situation, the plate #iscosity D1 must be much lar$er than the #iscosity D8 o" the surroundin$ hal"-spaces% &n this case, ()uation 54C1816 $o#erns the timedependent displacement o" the plate, 'hich 'e can ta!e to be o" the "orm 54C1426% The responses o" the semi-in"inite "luids to the de"ormation o" the #iscous plate are identical 'ith their responses to the bendin$ o" an elastic plate% There- "ore the "orce per unit area on the #iscous plate is $i#en by ()uation 54C1486% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 54C1486 into 54C1816, 'e obtain D1 h2 h A ' h2 ' 8X D8 h ' 0f P % h 2 2 h > ht l ht :ith ' $i#en by ()uation 54C1426 'e must ha#e 1 2l >X 2 2 % na P 0f X D8 R 2l2 D1 h
t u
54%1896
54%1986
The 'a#elen$th correspondin$ to the smallest #alue o" na is obtained by settin$ the deri#ati#e o" na 'ith respect to l e)ual to Bero7 the result is l P 2Xh 1 D1 4 D8
1U2
54%1916
This is the 'a#elen$th o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ mode% - comparison o"
this result 'ith the obser#ed dependence o" the 'a#elen$th o" the competent layer on its thic!ness $i#en in Fi$ure 4C23 sho's $ood a$reement "or D1 UD8 P 3A8% 0roblem 4%18 &n the e amples o" "oldin$ ?ust considered 'e assumed that the competent roc! adhered to the incompetent roc!% &" the layers are "ree to slip, sho' that the 'a#elen$th o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ disturbance in an elastic layer o" roc! contained bet'een t'o semi-in"inite #iscous "luids is $i#en by l P Xhd(Ub51 m 2 6e1U2 % 54%1926 The free slip condition is e)ui#alent to a Bero shear stress condition at the boundaries o" the elastic layer% 0roblem 4%19 &n the "oldin$ e amples, 'e assumed that the competent roc! adhered to the incompetent roc!% &" the layers are "ree to slip, sho' that the 'a#elen$th o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ disturbance in a "luid layer o" #iscosity D1 contained bet'een t'o semi-in"inite "luids o" #iscosity D8 , D1 D8 , is $i#en by l P 2Xh5D1 U4D8 61U2 % 54%1926 The "ree slip condition is e)ui#alent to a Bero shear stress condition at the boundaries bet'een the layers% 0roblem 4%28 - marble plate 8%1 m thic! and 2 m lon$ is simply supported at its ends, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C29% &n 1A8 years the center has sa$$ed 2 mm% -ssumin$ that the plate beha#es as a <e'tonian "luid, deter mine the #iscosity o" the marble 5Q P 2288 !$ m 2 6%
?(-6 "to,es Flo!
0roblem 4%21 - marble plate 8%2 m thic! and A m lon$ is embedded at one end% &n 288 years the "ree end has sa$$ed A mm, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C28% -ssumin$ the plate beha#es as a <e'tonian "luid, determine the #iscosity o" the marble 5Q P 2288 !$ m 2 6% 4%1> Sto!es Flo'
211 2112
- solid body 'ill rise or "all throu$h a "luid i" its density is di""erent "rom the density o" the "luid% &" the body is less dense, the buoyancy "orce 'ill cause it to rise7 i" the body is more dense, it 'ill "all% &" the "luid is #ery #iscous, the ;eynolds number ;e based on the siBe o" the body, the #elocity at 'hich the body mo#es throu$h the "luid, and the #iscosity o" the "luid 'ill be small% &n the limit ;e 1 inertia "orces can be ne$lected, and ()uations 54CA26, 54C436, and 54C486 are applicable% &" the body has a spherical shape, a relati#ely simple solution can be obtained in the limit o" a #ery #iscous "luid% The resultin$ "lo' is !no'n as "to,es flo!% This problem has a number o" $eolo$ical applications% *ne is to obtain an estimate "or the #elocity o" ma$mas as they rise throu$h the lithosphere% ,any basaltic la#a "lo's contain #enoliths, chun!s o" solid roc! that 'ere entrained in the ma$ma as it rose throu$h the lithosphere% The solid enoliths are carried 'ith the ma$ma 'hen it is erupted on the (arths sur- "ace% @ecause the #iscosity o" the ma$ma and the density di""erence bet'een the enolith and ma$ma can be estimated, the siBe o" the lar$est obser#ed enolith can be used to estimate the ma$ma ascent #elocity% Sto!es solution can also be used to estimate the siBe o" a mantle hetero$eneity that can be entrained in mantle "lo's% *ne model "or the ascent o" ma$ma in the mantle is that ma$ma LbubblesM rise under the buoyancy "orce% Sto!es solution can be used to estimate the rate o" ma$ma ascent as a "unction o" the siBe o" the ma$ma bubble% .et us deri#e an e pression "or the #elocity o" ascent or descent / o" a spherical body in a constant-#iscosity "luid 'ith a di""erent density% :e "irst calculate the net "orce or dra$ e erted by the "luid on the sphere and then e)uate this "orce to the buoyancy "orce responsible "or the spheres motion% For the purpose o" calculatin$ the dra$ on the sphere due to its steady motion throu$h the L"luidM 'e can consider the sphere to be "i ed and ha#e the "luid mo#e past the sphere% :e 'ill not discuss the transient period durin$ 'hich the sphere accelerates to its "inal steady or terminal #elocity% The sphere o" radius a is centered at the ori$in o" a spherical coordinate system 5r, W, Y6, as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C21% The "luid approaches the sphere at B P 'ith #elocity / in the B direction% The #iscosity o" the "luid is
212 2122
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%21 Steady "lo' o" a #iscous "luid past a sphere%
D% The "lo' is clearly a isymmetric about the B a is% Thus, neither the #elocity nor the pressure p o" the "luid depends on the aBimuthal an$le Y% &n addition there is no aBimuthal component o" "luid motion7 that is, the only nonBero components o" "luid #elocity are the radial #elocity ur and the meridional #elocity uW , as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C21% The continuity e)uation and the e)uations o" motion "or the slo', steady, a isymmetric "lo' o" a #iscous incompressible "luid are, in spherical polar coordinates 'ith uY P 8, 1 h 2 1 h 5r ur 6 R 5sin WuW 6 2 r hr r sin W hW hp 1 h hu 8P RD 2 r2 r hr r hr hr 1 h h ur 2ur R sin W 2 2 r sin W hW hW r 2 h 5uW sin W6 r 2 sin W hW 1 hp 1 2 h uW h 8P R r r 2 hr hr r hW D 8P R 1 r 2 sin h h uW sin W W hW hW
54%19>6
54%19A6
2 h ur uW 2 2 r hW r sin2 W %
54%1946
These are the a isymmetric e)ui#alents o" ()uations 54CA26, 54C436, and 54C486% :e must obtain a solution sub?ect to the condition that the "luid #elocity approaches the uni"orm #elocity / in the B direction as r % The radial and meridional components o" the uni"orm #elocity are / cos W and / sin W, respecti#ely% There"ore 'e can 'rite ur / cos W and uW / sin W as r % 54%1936 :e must also satis"y the no-slip #elocity boundary condition on r P a ur P uW P 8 on r P a% 54%1986
The nature o" the boundary conditions su$$ests that 'e try a solution o" the "orm ur P " 5r6 cos W W% and uW P $5r6 sin 54%1996
&" 'e substitute ()uations 54C1996 into 54C19>6 to 54C1946, 'e obtain 1 d $P 5r 2 " 6 54%2886 2r dr h p D cos W 2 d" d >5" R $6 8P R r hr r2 dr dr 54%2816 h p D sin W 2 d$ d 8P R r dr dr hW r 25" R $6 % 54%2826 :e can eliminate the pressure by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 54C2816 'ith respect to W and subtractin$ the deri#ati#e o" ()uation 54C2826 'ith respect to r to obtain 1 d d" >5" R $6 8P 2 r2 dr r2 r dr d 1 d 2 d$ 25" R $6 R % 54%2826 dr r dr r dr r The solutions o" ()uations 54C2886 and 54C2826 "or the "unctions " and $ can be "ound as simple po'ers o" r% Thus 'e let " P cr n , 54%28>6
21> 21>2
Fluid Mechanics
'here c is a constant% ()uation 54C2886 $i#es $P c5n R 26 rn%
54%28A6
@y substitutin$ ()uations 54C28>6 and 54C28A6 into 54C2826, 'e "ind that n must satis"y n5n R 265n 265n R 16 P 8 or n P 8, 2, 2, 1%
54%2846 54%2836
The "unctions " and $ are thus linear combinations o" r 8 , r 2 , r 2 , and r 1 c2 c " P c 1R 2 R 2 R c> r 2 54%2886 r r c2 c $ P c1 R 2 2 2c> r2 , 54%2896 2r 2r 'here c1 , c2 , c2 , and c> are constants% The #elocity components ur and uW are $i#en by ur P c 1 R uW P c2 c 2 cos W R 2 r2 r R c> r c R c2 c2 2c r 2 sin W% 1 > 2r 2 2r c1 P / and c> P 8% 54%2186 54%2116
Since ur and uW must satis"y conditions 54C1936 as r , it is clear that 54%2126
The no-slip condition on r P a, ()uation 54C1986, re)uires a2 / 2a/ c2 P % 2 2 The "inal e pressions "or ur and uW are c2 P a2 2a ur P / 1 2 R 2r 2r a2 2a uW P / 1 2 >r >r
`
54%2126
cos W sin W%
54%21>6 54%21A6
The pressure associated 'ith this "lo' can be "ound by substitutin$ ()uations 54C21>6 and 54C21A6 into 54C1946 and inte$ratin$ 'ith respect to W pP 2Da/ cos W% 2r2 54%2146
@oth pressure "orces and #iscous "orces act on the sur"ace o" the sphere% @y symmetry, the net "orce on the sphere must be in the ne$ati#e B direction% This net "orce is the dra$ D on the sphere% :e "irst calculate the contribution o" the pressure "orces to the dra$% The pressure "orce on the sphere acts in the ne$ati#e radial direction% The component o" this "orce in the ne$ati#e B direction is, per unit area o" the sur"ace, 2D/ cos2 W% 54%2136 2a The pressure dra$ Dp is obtained by inte$ratin$ the product o" this "orce per unit area 'ith the sur"ace area element 2Xa2 sin W dW o#er the entire sur"ace o" the sphere p cos W P
]
Dp P 2XDa/
X 8
sin W cos2 W dW P 2XDa/% 54%2186
:e ne t compute the net #iscous dra$ D# on the sphere% The #iscous stresses actin$ on an area element o" the spheres sur"ace are the radial #iscous stress nrr h ur 5nrr 6r P a P 54%2196 hr r P a 2D and the tan$ential stress nrW h uW 5nrW 6r P a P D r hr r R 1 h ur r hW %
rPa
54%2286
@y substitutin$ ()uations 54C21>6 and 54C21A6 into these e pressions, 'e "ind that the #iscous stresses on the sur"ace o" the sphere are 5nrr 6r P a P 8 54%2216 2D/ sin W 5nrW 6r P a P % 54%2226 2a The nonBero tan$ential stress nrW is a "orce per unit area in the W direction% The component o" this "orce per unit area in the ne$ati#e B direction is 2D/ sin2 W % 54%2226 2a The #iscous dra$ D# is "ound by inte$ratin$ the product o" this )uantity 'ith the sur"ace area element 2Xa2 sin W dW o#er the entire sur"ace o" the sphere nrW sin W P
]
D# P 2XDa/
X 8
sin2 WdW P >XDa/%
54%22>6
The total dra$ on the sphere is the sum o" the pressure dra$ and the #iscous dra$ D P Dp R D# P 4XDa/% 54%22A6
This is the 'ell-!no'n Sto!es "ormula "or the dra$ on a sphere mo#in$ 'ith a small constant #elocity throu$h a #iscous incompressible "luid% Sto!es resistance la' is o"ten 'ritten in dimensionless "orm by normaliBin$ the dra$ 'ith the product o" the pressure 2 1 Q" / 2 5Q" is the density o" the "luid6 and the cross-sectional area o" the sphere Xa2 % The dimensionless drag coefficient cD is thus D 12 2> cD 1 P P , 54%2246 2 2 5Q" / a6UD ;e Q / Xa 2 " 'here the ;eynolds number is $i#en by ;e P Q" / 52a6 % D 54%2236
The Sto!es dra$ "ormula can be used to determine the #elocity o" a sphere risin$ buoyantly throu$h a "luid by e)uatin$ the dra$ to the $ra#itational dri#in$ "orce% &" the density o" the sphere Qs is less than the density o" the "luid Q" , the net up'ard buoyancy "orce accordin$ to -rchimedes principle is > 2 F P 5Q" Qs 6$ Xa % 54%2286 2 :e set this e)ual to the dra$ on the sphere 4XDa/ and sol#e "or the up'ard #elocity / to obtain 25Q Qs 6$ a2 /P " % 54%2296 9D &t should be emphasiBed that this result is #alid only i" the ;eynolds number is less than 1% For lar$er #alues o" the ;eynolds number the "lo' o" a "luid about a sphere becomes )uite comple % +ortices are $enerated, and the "lo' becomes unsteady% The measured dependence o" the dra$ coe""icient "or a sphere on ;eynolds number is $i#en in Fi$ure 4C22% This dependence applies to any type o" "luid as lon$ as it is incompressible% Fi$ure 4C22 also sho's the result "or Sto!es "lo' "rom ()uation 54C2246% :e see that Sto!es "lo' is a #alid appro imation "or ;e \ 1% The sharp drop in the dra$ coe""icient at ;e P 2 18A is associated 'ith the transition to turbulent "lo'% The dependence o" cD on ;e "or a sphere $i#en in Fi$ure 4C22 is similar to the dependence o" " on ;e "or pipe "lo' $i#en in Fi$ure 4C3% &n terms o" the
Fi$ure 4%22 Dependence o" the dra$ coe""icient CD "or a sphere on ;eynolds number% The solid line is the measured dependence, and the dashed line is the result "rom Sto!es "ormula, ()uation 54C2246%
dra$ coe""icient, the up'ard #elocity o" a sphere "rom ()uations 54C 2246, 54C2236, and 54C2296 is $i#en by
t
/P
u
8 a$ 5Q" Qs 61U2 2 c D Q"
54%2286
The dra$ coe""icient can be obtained "rom the #alue o" the ;eynolds number and Fi$ure 4C22% :e can no' obtain an estimate "or the #elocity o" ma$ma ascent throu$h the lithosphere% ;e"ractory peridotite enoliths 'ith a ma imum dimension o" about 8%2 m ha#e been "ound in the basaltic la#as erupted in 1881 at 9ualalai +olcano, 9a'aii% These solid enoliths 'ere entrained in the la#a as it "lo'ed throu$h the lithosphere% -n upper limit on the siBe o" the enoliths that can be entrained is obtained by settin$ the relati#e #elocity / e)ual to the "lo' #elocity o" the ma$ma% - reasonable estimate "or the #iscosity o" the basaltic ma$ma is 18 0a s% -lso assumin$ Qs Qm P 488 !$ m 2 1 and a P 8%1A m, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 54C2296 that / P 2 m s 518%8 !m per hr6% The correspondin$ #alue o" the ;eynolds number "rom ()uation 54C 2236 'ith Q" P 2388 !$ m 2 is 2>2% There"ore the Sto!es "ormula is only appro imately #alid% /sin$ ()uation 54C2286 and the empirical correlation $i#en in Fi$ure 4C22, 'e "ind / P 8%83 m s 1 and ;e P 38% This is still
)uite a hi$h #elocity% &t indicates that ma$ma can penetrate a 188-!m-thic! lithosphere in about 22 hr% &t is also o" interest to determine 'hether a body 'ith a di""erent density 'ill be entrained in mantle con#ection% Ta!in$ a typical mantle #elocity to be 18 mm yr 1 , _Q P 188 !$ m 2 , D P 1821 0a s, and $ P 18 m s 2 , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 54C2296 that spherical bodies 'ith radii less than 28 !m 'ill be entrained in mantle "lo's% The conclusion is that siBable inhomo$eneous bodies can be carried 'ith the mantle roc!s durin$ mantle con#ection% *ne model "or ma$ma mi$ration is that siBable ma$ma bodies mo#e throu$h the mantle because o" the di""erential buoyancy o" the li)uid% The #elocity o" a spherical bubble o" lo'-#iscosity "luid mo#in$ throu$h a hi$h#iscosity "luid because o" buoyancy is $i#en by a2 $ 5Q" Qb 6 , 2D"
/P
54%2216
'here Qb is the density o" the "luid in the bubble, Q" is the density o" the surroundin$ "luid, and D" is the #iscosity o" the ambient "luid% See 0roblem 4C 22 "or an e planation o" the di""erence bet'een ()uations 54C2216 and 54C 2296% Ta!in$ a P 8%A !m, Q" Qb P 488 !$ m 2 , and D P 1821 0a s, 'e "ind that / P 8%814 mm yr 1 % (#en "or a relati#ely lar$e ma$ma body the mi$ration #elocity is about 12 orders o" ma$nitude smaller than that deduced "rom the entrainment o" enoliths% -nother order o" ma$nitude calculation also sho's that this calculated #elocity is unreasonably small% -t a #elocity o" 8%814 mm yr 1 it 'ould ta!e the ma$ma body about 18 Gyr to mi$rate 188 !m% This is clearly an unreasonable len$th o" time% &t is also necessary that a ma$ma body reach the (arths sur"ace 'ithout solidi"ication i" sur"ace #olcanism is to occur% -n order o" ma$nitude estimate o" the time it ta!es to solidi"y a ma$ma body o" a minimum dimension a is the thermal time constant a2 Us% &" 'e ta!e a time o" 22 hr deri#ed abo#e "rom enolith entrainment and s P 1 mm2 s 1, 'e estimate the minimum dimension o" a ma$ma body that penetrates the lithosphere to be 18 cm% &" ma$ma does not penetrate the lithosphere by diapirism, an alternati#e mechanism must be "ound% *ne possibility that has been proposed is hydro"racturin$% .i)uid under pressure can "racture roc!% &t has been su$$ested that the pressure caused by the di""erential buoyancy o" ma$ma can result in the propa$ation o" a "racture throu$h the lithosphere alon$ 'hich the ma$ma mi$rates% 0roblem 4%22 The Sto!es dra$ D on a sphere can only depend on the
Fi$ure 4%22 &llustration o" the plume model%
#elocity o" the sphere / , its radius a, and the #iscosity D and density Q o" the "luid% Sho' by dimensional analysis that D P" Q/ 2 a2 Q/ a , D 54%2226
'here f is an arbitrary "unction% @ecause the e)uations o" slo' #iscous "lo' are linear, D can only be directly proportional to / % /se this "act to$ether 'ith ()uation 54C2226 to conclude that D D/ a% 54%2226
0roblem 4%22 1onsider a spherical bubble o" a lo'-#iscosity "luid 'ith density Qb risin$ or "allin$ throu$h a much more #iscous "luid 'ith density Q" and #iscosity D" because o" a buoyancy "orce% For this problem the appropriate boundary conditions at the sur"ace o" the sphere, r P a, are ur P 8 and nrW P 8% /sin$ ()uations 54C2186, 54C2116, and 54C2286 sho' that a ur P / 1 R cos W r 1a uW P / 1 sin W% 2r 54%22>6 54%22A6
@y inte$ratin$ ()uation 54C1946, sho' that on r P a, pP

]
D" / cos W% a h ur hr
54%2246
The dra$ "orce is obtained by carryin$ out the inte$ral D P 2Xa2

X 8
p 2D"
cos W sin W dW%

rPa
54%2236
Sho' that D P >XD" a/, 54%2286
and demonstrate that the terminal #elocity o" the bubble in the "luid is a2 $ 5Q" Qb 6 % 2D"
/P
54%2296
4%1A 0lume 9eads and Tails - simple steady-state model "or the ascent o" a plume head throu$h the mantle is $i#en in Fi$ure 4C22% The plume head is modeled as a spherical diapir 'hose #elocity is $i#en by the Sto!es "lo' solution% The mantle roc! in the plume head is hotter, less dense, and less #iscous than the surroundin$ mantle roc!% :e utiliBe the solution to 0roblem 4C22 and 'rite the terminal #elocity / o" the ascendin$ spherical diapir "rom ()uation 54C 2296 as /P a2 $ 5Qm Qp 6 , 2Dm 54%2>86
'here a is the radius o" the diapir, Qp is the density o" the hot plume roc!, Qm is the density o" the surroundin$ roc!, and Dm is the #iscosity o" the surroundin$ mantle roc!% :e ta!e Tp to be the mean temperature o" the plume roc! and T1 to be the temperature o" the surroundin$ mantle roc!% From ()uation 5>C1326 'e 'rite Qp Qm P Qm Tm 5Tp T1 6% 54%2>16 Substitution o" ()uation 54C2>16 into 54C2>86 $i#es a2 $ Qm T# 5Tp T1 6 , /P 2Dm as the ascent #elocity o" the plume head%
54%2>26
?(-> Plume 9eads and %ails
The plume tail is modeled as a cylindrical pipe and the buoyancy dri#en #olume "lu Gp o" plume roc! is $i#en by ()uation 54C>86 X 5Qm Qp 6$ ; Gp P
>
221 2212
Dp
54%2>26
'here ; is the radius o" the plume tail and Dp is the #iscosity o" the plume roc!% - measure o" the stren$th o" a plume is the buoyancy "lu @, 'hich is de"ined by @ P Gp 5Qm Qp 6% - combination o" ()uations 54C2>16, 54C2>26, and 54C2>>6 $i#es X $; > Q2 5Tp T1 62 2 # mT % @P 8 Dp The total heat "lu in a plume G9 is related to the #olume "lu by G9 P Qm cp 5Tp T1 6Gp , 54%2>46 'here cp is the speci"ic heat at constant pressure% - combination o" ()uations 54C2>16, 54C2>>6, and 54C2>46 $i#es G9 P cp @ % T# 54%2>36 54%2>>6
54%2>A6
This relation can be used to con#ert a plume buoyancy "lu to a heat "lu % &n our steady-state model the plume head neither $ains nor loses "luid7 this re)uires that the mean "lo' #elocity in the plume tail e)uals the ascent #elocity o" the plume head / % Thus 'e ha#e Gp P X; 2 /% 54%2>86
*nce the plume "lu @ has been speci"ied alon$ 'ith the other parameters, the radius o" the plume tail ; can be determined "rom ()uation 54C 2>A6, the heat "lu in the plume "rom ()uation 54C2>46, the ascent #elocity o" the plume head / "rom ()uation 54C2>86, and the radius o" the plume head "rom ()uation 54C2>26% -s 'e pointed out in Section 1C4, hotspots that are attributed to mantle plumes are associated 'ith topo$raphic s'ells% The 9a'aiian s'ell 'as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C28% The buoyancy "lu associated 'ith a mantle plume can be determined "rom the rate o" hotspot s'ell "ormation% :e hypothesiBe that the e cess mass associated 'ith the s'ell is compensated by the mass de"icit o" the hot 5li$ht6 plume roc! impin$in$ on the base o" the lithosphere% Thus the buoyancy "lu @ associated 'ith the plume is $i#en by @ P 5Qm Q' 6- s up , 54%2>96
'here Qm is the mantle density, Q' is the 'ater density 5assumin$ the s'ell is co#ered by 'ater6, - s is the cross-sectional area o" the s'ell in a #ertical cross section perpendicular to the plume trac!, and up is the plate speed relati#e to a L"i edM hotspot re"erence "rame% -s a speci"ic e ample consider the 9a'aiian hotspot% From Fi$ure 1C19 'e 2ha#e up P 98 mm yr 1 , "rom Fi$ure 1C28 'e ha#e - s P 1%12 2 2 !m , and ta!in$ Qm Q P 2288 !$ m 'e "ind @ P 3%> 18 !$ s 1% ' 1 1 A 1 Ta!in$ cp P 1%2A !J !$ E and T# P 2 18 E , the plume heat "lu "rom 1N ()uation 54C2>36 G9 P 2 1811 :7 this represents sli$htly less than o" the total sur"ace heat "lu % The radius o" the 9a'aiian plume ; can be 2 1 obtained "rom ()uation 54C2>A6% Ta!in$ @ P 3%> 18 !$ s , Dp P 1819 0a A 1 2 s, T T P 288 E, T P 2 18 E , Q P 2288 !$ m , and $ P 9%8 m 1 # m p s 2 , 'e "ind that the plume radius ; P 8> !m% This is relati#ely small and e plains 'hy plumes are #ery di""icult to obser#e seismically% From ()uations 54C2>16 and 54C2>>6 and the parameter #alues $i#en abo#e, the #olume "lu in the 9a'aiian plume Gp P 12 !m2 yr 1 % &t is o" interest to compare this #olume "lu 'ith the #olume "lu o" basalt G# re)uired to create the 9a'aiian &slands and seamount chain% &t is estimated that G# P 8%1 !m2 yr 1 , thus it 'as necessary to melt only about 1N o" the plume "lu to $enerate the hotspot #olcanics at 9a'aii% From ()uation 54C2>86 'e "ind that the mean ascent #elocity in the plume / P 8%A> m yr 1 % The buoyancy "lu es "or "orty-three mantle plumes are $i#en in Table 4C>% 2 1 The total buoyancy "lu "or these plumes @ P A8%A 18 !$ s % Ta!in$ 1 1 A 1 cp P 1%2A !J !$ E and T# P 2 18 12 E , the total plume heat "lu "rom ()uation 54C2>36 G9 P 8%2>> 18 :% This represents A%AN o" the total $lobal heat "lo' G P >%>2 1812 :% &n Section >C22 'e estimated that the basal heatin$ o" the oceanic and continental lithosphere Gm P 1%A8 1812 :% Thus our deri#ed plume heat "lu is only 1AN o" the total heat "lu associated 'ith the basal heatin$ o" the lithosphere% This missin$ heat "lu can be attributed either to plumes that impin$e on the base o" the lithosphere but are too small to ha#e a sur"ace e pression or to secondary mantle con#ection in#ol#in$ the lo'er part o" the lithosphere% The relationship bet'een the ;Keunion hotspot and the "lood basalt pro#ince o" the Deccan Traps 'as illustrated in Fi$ure 1C22% This basalt pro#ince is associated 'ith the plume head that initiated the plume tail responsible "or the plume trac! that no' terminates in the ;Keunion hotspot% :e no' estimate the )uantitati#e aspects o" the ;Keunion mantle plume and plume head% From Table 4C>, the present buoyancy "lu o" the ;Keunion plume @ P
Table 4%> Calues of the 0uoyancy Flu# %hree 9otspot "!ells

9otspot -"ar, (thiopia -scenscion -ustralia, (ast -Bores @a ?a, 1ali"ornia @ermuda @ou#et @o'ie Seamount 1anary &slands 1ape +erde 1aroline &slands 1roBet Dar"ur Disco#ery Seamount (ast -"rican (aster &sland (thiopia Fernando Galapa$os &slands Great ,eteor Seamount 9a'aii 9o$$ar ,ountains, -l$eria &celand Juan de FucaU1obb Seamount Juan FernandeB Eer$uelen .ouis#ille ,acDonald Seamount ,ar)uesas &slands ,artin ,eteor 0itcairn &slands ;Keunion Samoa San Feli St% 9elena Tahiti Tasman, 1entral Tasman, (ast Tibesti, 1had Tristan de 1unha +ema Seamount =ello'stone Total
ssociated !ith Forty2
0, @uoyancy Flu 5182 !$ s--1 6 1%2 8%9 8%9 1%1 8%2 1%2 8%> 8%4 1%8 1%8 1%4 8%A 8%> 8%> 8%4 2%2 1%8 8%3 1%8 8%> 3%> 8%4 1%> 8%2 1%4 8%> 2%8 2%4 >%8 8%4 8%> 2%A 1%> 1%4 2%8 8%> >%4 8%9 8%9 8%2 1%1 8%> 1%A A8%A
22> 22>2
Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%2> 9eat balance on a small cylindrical shell in a circular pipe%
1%> 182 !$ s 1 % :ith the same parameter #alues used be"ore 'e "ind "rom ()uation 54C2>26 that the radius o" the plume conduit ; P AA !m7 "rom ()uations 54C2>16 and 54C2>>6 'e "ind that the #olume "lu Gp P 2%2 !m2 yr 17 and "rom ()uation 54C2>86 'e "ind that the mean ascent #elocity in the plume / P 8%22 m yr 1 % :e ma!e the assumption that the stren$th o" the ;Keunion plume has remained constant "or the last 48 ,yr that it has been acti#e% Ta!in$ Dm P 1821 0a s, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 54C2>26 that the radius o" the plume head a P 224 !m% The correspondin$ #olume o" the plume head +09 P 1%2 188 !m2 % The #olume o" basalts in the Deccan Traps +@ 1%A 184 !m2 % Thus it 'as necessary to melt about one percent o" the plume head to "orm the "lood basalts o" the Deccan Traps% This is the same melt "raction that 'e pre#iously obtained "or the #olcanics o" the 9a'aiian hotspot% -ssumin$ that the #olume "lu o" the ;Keunion plume Gp P 2%2 !m2 yr 1 and has remained constant o#er the 48 ,yr li"etime o" the plume, the total #olume "lu throu$h the plume tail has been 1%2 188 !m2 % This is essentially e)ual to the #olume o" the plume head% For the ascent 1 #elocity ,yr "or o" the plume head / e)ual to 8%22 m yr , it 'ould ta!e about 12 the plume head to ascend "rom the coreCmantle boundary to the (arths sur"ace% 0roblem 4%2> Determine the radius o" the plume conduit, the #olume "lu , the heat "lu , the mean ascent #elocity, and the plume head #olume "or the -Bores plume% -ssume that Tp T1 P 288 E, T# P 2 18 A E 1 , Dp P 1819 0a s, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Dm P 1821 0a s, and cp P 1%2A !J !$ 1 E 1 % 0roblem 4%2A Determine the radius o" the plume conduit, the #olume "lu , the heat "lu , the mean ascent #elocity, and the plume head #olume "or the Tahiti plume% -ssume that Tp T1 P 288 E, T# P 2 18 A E 1 , Dp P 1819 0a s, Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , Dm P 1821 0a s, and cp P 1%2A !J !$ 1 E 1 %
?(-? Pipe Flo! !ith 9eat
ddition
4%14 0ipe Flo' 'ith 9eat -ddition
22A 22A2
:e no' turn to problems in#ol#in$ both "luid "lo' and heat trans"er% -s our "irst e ample 'e 'ill treat the "lo' in a pipe 'ith heat addition or heat loss, a situation rele#ant to the heatin$ o" 'ater in an a)ui"er% :e consider the heat balance on a thin cylindrical shell o" "luid in the pipe% The thic!ness o" the shell is ar, and its len$th is a , as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C 2>% The heat conducted out o" the cylindrical sur"ace at r R ar per unit time is 2X5r R ar6 a )r 5r R ar6, 'here )r 5r R ar6 is the radial heat flu# at r R ar% The heat conducted into the shell across its inner cylindrical sur"ace is 2Xra )r 5r6 per unit time% @ecause ar is small, 'e can e pand )r 5r R ar6 as )r 5r R ar6 P )r 5r6 R h )r ar R % hr
@y ne$lectin$ hi$her po'ers o" ar, 'e can 'rite the net rate at 'hich heat is conducted into the cylindrical shell throu$h its inner and outer sur"aces as 2Xa dr)r 5r6 5r R ar6)r 5r R ar6e h) P 2Xa r r R ) r ar% hr
54%2A86
&n cylindrical coordinates, the radial heat "lu )r is related to the radial temperature $radient hT Uhr by Fouriers la' o" heat conduction 5see 0rob- lem >C216, hT )r P ! , hr 54%2A16
'here ! is the thermal conducti#ity o" the "luid% ( pression 54C2A86 "or the net e""ect o" radial heat conduction can thus be re'ritten in terms o" the temperature as h2 T hT 2Xa ar! r 2 R hr hr
`
% R a by the #elocity
The amount o" heat con#ected out o" the shell at u5r6 per unit time is $i#en by 2Xr aruQcT 5 R a 6,
and the amount o" heat con#ected into the shell at by 2Xr aruQcT 5 6%
per unit time is $i#en
@y usin$ the "irst t'o terms o" a Taylor series e pansion "or T 5 R a 6, 'e "ind that the net rate at 'hich "luid carries heat out o" the shell is hT 2Xr aruQcdT 5 R a 6 T 5 6e P 2Xr aruQc h a % 54%2A26 &" the "lo' is steady so that the temperature o" the "luid does not chan$e 'ith time and i" a ial heat conduction is unimportant compared 'ith ad#ection o" heat by the "lo', the net e""ects o" radial heat conduction and a ial heat ad#ection must balance% There"ore 'e can e)uate the ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C2A26 'ith the modi"ied "orm o" the ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C 2A86 to obtain hT Quc h P! h 2 T 1 hT R r hr hr2
`
54%2A26
@y e)uatin$ a ial heat ad#ection to radial heat conduction, 'e also tacitly assumed that viscous dissipation or frictional heating in the "luid is ne$li$ible% :e can determine the temperature distribution in the pipe usin$ ()uation 54C2A26 "or the laminar "lo' considered in Section 4C>% The #elocity as a "unction o" radius can be e pressed in terms o" the mean #elocity uf by combinin$ ()uations 54C226 and 54C236 to $i#e
t
u P 2uf 1 r ;
54%2A>6
:e consider the case in 'hich the 'all temperature o" the pipe T' is chan$- in$ linearly alon$ its len$th7 that is, T' P 11 R 12 , 54%2AA6
'here 11 and 12 are constants% -ccordin$ly, 'e assume that the temperature o" the "luid is $i#en by T P 11 R 12 R W5r6 P T' R W5r6% 54%2A46 5&n this situation, the net contribution o" a ial heat conduction to the heat balance o" a small cylindrical shell #anishes identically%6 Thus W is the di""erence bet'een the "luid temperature and the 'all temperature% Substitution
o" ()uations 54C2A>6 and 54C2A46 into 54C2A26 yields r 2Qcuf 1 ;

1 2
d2 P! W dr2
1 dW R r dr % 54%2A36
The boundary conditions are T P T' and )r P 8 at r P 8% 54%2A96 at rP; 54%2A86
The latter condition is re)uired because there is no line source or sin! o" heat alon$ the a is o" the pipe% 1ondition 54C2A86 is satis"ied i" WrP; P 8, 54%2486
and 1ondition 54C2A96, 'ith the aid o" Fouriers la' 54C2A16, becomes dW dr P 8%
rP8
54%2416
The solution o" ()uation 54C2A36 that satis"ies these boundary conditions is Qcuf11 ;2 r2 r> WP 2> 2 R > % 8! ; ; 54%2426
The heat "lu to the 'all )' can be "ound by substitutin$ ()uation 54C 2426 into Fouriers la' 54C2A16 and e#aluatin$ the result at r P ;% *ne "inds )' P 21 Qcuf;11 % 54%2426 The heat "lu is thus a constant, independent o" % &" 11 is positi#e, the 'all temperature increases in the direction o" "lo', and heat "lo's throu$h the 'all o" the pipe into the "luid% &" 11 is ne$ati#e, the 'all temperature decreases in the direction o" "lo', and heat "lo's out o" the "luid into the 'all o" the pipe% The heat "lu to the 'all can be e pressed in a con#enient 'ay by introducin$ a heat transfer coefficient h bet'een the 'all heat "lu and the e cess "luid temperature accordin$ to )' P h5Tf T' 6 P hWf, 54%24>6 'here the o#erbar represents an a#era$e o#er the cross section o" the pipe% The a#era$e is 'ei$hted by the "lo' per unit area, that is, the #elocity
throu$h an annular area at radius r% Thus the "lo'-'ei$hted a#era$e e cess "luid temperature is
2 2X ; 8 W ur 11Qcuf11 ; Wf P dr P % 54%24A6 X; 2 uf >8! @y combinin$ ()uations 54C2426 to 54C24A6, 'e "ind that the heat trans"er coe""icient "or laminar "lo' in a circular pipe is
>8! , 54%2446 11D 'here D P 2; is the pipe diameter% ()uation 54C2446 is #alid only "or ;eynolds numbers less than about 2288% -t hi$her #alues o" the ;eynolds number the "lo' is turbulent% The "luid mechanics literature commonly introduces a dimensionless measure o" the heat trans"er coe""icient !no'n as the 8usselt num$er <u% For pipe "lo' 'ith heat addition, hP 8 P P >%24% ! 11 54%2436
The <usselt number measures the e""iciency o" the heat trans"er process% &" the temperature di""erence Tf T' 'ere established across a stationary layer o" "luid o" thic!ness D and thermal conducti#ity !, the conducti#e heat "lu )c 'ould be ! 5Tf T' 6 )' ! )c P % 54%2486 Dh P D Thus the <usselt number can be 'ritten )' %24 times more e""icient than conducti#e heat transport throu$h an e)ui#alent stationary "luid layer across 'hich the same temperature di""erence is applied% 0roblem 4%24 1onsider unidirectional "lo' dri#en by a constant horiBontal pressure $radient throu$h a channel 'ith stationary plane parallel 'alls, as discussed in Section 4C2% Determine the temperature distribution in the channel, the 'all heat "lu , the heat trans"er coe""icient, and the <usselt number by assumin$, as in the pipe "lo' problem abo#e, that the temperature o" both 'alls and the "luid #aries linearly 'ith distance alon$ the channel% =ou 'ill need the "orm o" the temperature e)uation in t'o dimensions that balances horiBontal heat ad#ection a$ainst #ertical heat conduction, as $i#en in ()uation 5>C1A46%
?(-=
3uifer Model for 9ot "prings
4%13 -)ui"er ,odel "or 9ot Sprin$s
229 2292
:e can use the results o" the pre#ious section to study the heatin$ o" 'ater "lo'in$ throu$h an a)ui"er surrounded by hot roc!s% :e a$ain consider the semicircular a)ui"er 'ith circular cross section illustrated in Fi$ure 4C9% &" 'e balance the heat con#ected alon$ the a)ui"er a$ainst the heat lost or $ained by conduction to the 'alls, 'e can 'rite dTf X;2 Qcuf P 2X;h5T ds f T 6, 54%2386
'
'here s is the distance measured alon$ the a)ui"er "rom the entrance, uf is the mean #elocity in the a)ui"er, Tf is the "lo'-a#era$ed temperature o" the a)ui"er "luid, and T' is the temperature o" the a)ui"er 'all roc!% :e assume laminar "lo' so that the heat trans"er coe""icient h is $i#en by ()uation 54C 2446% The coordinate s can be related to the an$le Y 5see Fi$ure 4C96 by sP;
Y%
54%2316 :e assume that the 'all temperature o" the a)ui"er can be related to the local $eothermal $radient c by T' P ; 54%2326
c sin Y R T8 ,
'here T8 is the sur"ace temperature and c is constant% ()uation 54C2326 assumes that the "lo' in the a)ui"er does not a""ect the temperature o" the ad?acent roc!% Substitution o" ()uations 54C2446, 54C2316, and 54C2326 into 54C2386 yields ;2 Qcuf dTf ;
>8 f T 6% P !5; c sin Y R T8 54%2326 dY 11
This e)uation can be simpli"ied throu$h the introduction o" the P Eeclet num$er 0e de"ined by Qcuf 0e P ; % 54%23>6 ! The 0Keclet number is a dimensionless measure o" the mean #elocity o" the "lo' throu$h the a)ui"er% &t is related to the dimensionless parameters ;e and 0r already introduced% Since the thermal di""usi#ity s is !UQc, 0e can be 'ritten as uf 0e P 54%23A6 ; % s
228 Fluid Mechanics /sin$ the de"inition o" the ;eynolds number ;e in ()uation 54C>86 and the 2282
0randtl number 0r in ()uation 54C26 'e can "urther re'rite ()uation 54C 23A6 as 1 uf2; 1 0e P m P ;e 0r% 2 m s 2 54%2346
The simpli"ication o" ()uation 54C2326 is also "acilitated by the introduction o" a dimensionless temperature W de"ined by Tf T8 WP % c;
54%2336
:ith ()uations 54C23>6 and 54C2336 'e can put 54C2326 into the "orm 11 ; dW R W P sin Y% 0e >8 ; dY 54%2386
This is a linear "irst-order di""erential e)uation that can be inte$rated usin$ an integrating factor% :ith the boundary condition that the 'ater enterin$ the a)ui"er is at the sur"ace temperature, Tf P T8 or W P 8 at Y P 8, the solution can be 'ritten WP sin Y >8; 11; 0e
t >8 ;

cos Y R e p >8; 1R 11; 0e

2
>8 ; Y u 11 ; 0e
1
11 ; 0e
54%2396
The nondimensional temperature We at the e it o" the a)ui"er, Y P X, is $i#en by

h
We P
; X e p >8 11 ;0e R 1
i
2
>8 ; 11 ; 0e
54%2886
1R
>8; 11; 0e
The nondimensional e it temperature is plotted as a "unction o" ; 0eU; in Fi$ure 4C2A% &t is seen that the e it temperature o" the hot spring is a ma imum "or ; 0eU; P A% Thus, "or $i#en #alues o" all parameters other than uf, there is a particular "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er that ma imiBes the e it temperature o" the 'ater% The ma imum e it temperature is about one-hal" the ma imum 'all temperature at the base o" the a)ui"er because We P 1U2 corresponds to Tfe P T8 2 R 1 c; , and T' at Y P XU2 is T8 Rc; 5T8 c; 6%
To better understand 'hy there is a ma imum e it temperature, 'e 'ill sho' the mean temperature o" the 'ater in the a)ui"er as a "unction o" position in Fi$ure 4C24 "or three "lo' rates% The dimensionless 'all or roc!
Fi$ure 4%2A Dependence o" the nondimensional temperature at the e it o" the hot sprin$ on the nondimensional "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er%
temperature, W' P T' T8 , c;
54%2816 P 1, "or e ample,
is also $i#en in the "i$ure% For a lo' "lo' rate, ; 0eU; the
'ater temperature "ollo's the 'all temperature o" the lar$e heat trans"er, and the e it temperature is lo'% Forbecause #ery slo' "lo', ;0eU; 8, the 'ater temperature e)uals the 'all temperature W P W' P sin Y, the e it temperature e)uals the entrance temperature, and there is no hot sprin$% For a hi$h "lo' rate, ;0eU; P 1A, "or e ample, there is #ery little heat trans"er, and the 'ater does not heat up% &n the limit ;0eU; the 'ater temperature e#ery'here in the a)ui"er e)uals the entrance temperature, and there is no hot sprin$% The case o" ma imum e it temperature, ;0eU; P A and We P 8%A2 is also sho'n in Fi$ure 4C24% -lthou$h the analysis $i#en here has been $reatly simpli"ied, the results are applicable to the more $eneral problem in 'hich the temperature distribution in the roc! throu$h 'hich the a)ui"er passes must also be determined% This re)uires a solution o" .aplaces e)uation% -lso, the transition to turbulence must be considered% The more complete solutions re)uire numerical methods% 9o'e#er, the results sho' that the ma imum temperature to e pect "rom a hot sprin$ is about one-hal" the temperature obtained by e trapolatin$ the re$ional $eothermal $radient to the base o" the a)ui"er, similar to the result obtained here% 0roblem 4%23 +eri"y by is the solution o" 54C2386% direct substitution that ()uation 54C2396
0roblem 4%28 The results o" this section 'ere based on the assumption o"
Fi$ure 4%24 Dimensionless mean 'ater temperature in the a)ui"er as a "unction o" position "or three nondimensional "lo' rates% The dashed line is the dimensionless a)ui"er 'all temperature%
a laminar heat trans"er coe""icient "or the a)ui"er "lo'% @ecause this re)uires ;e \ 2288, 'hat limitation is placed on the 0Keclet numberO
4%18 Thermal 1on#ection -s discussed in Section 1C1>, plate tectonics is a conse)uence o" thermal con#ection in the mantle dri#en lar$ely by radio$enic heat sources and the coolin$ o" the (arth% :hen a "luid is heated, its density $enerally decreases because o" thermal e pansion% - "luid layer that is heated "rom belo' or "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e has dense cool "luid near the upper boundary and hot li$ht "luid at depth% This situation is $ra#itationally unstable, and the cool "luid tends to sin! and the hot "luid rises% This is thermal con#ection% The phenomenon is illustrated in Fi$ure 1C41% -ppropriate "orms o" the continuity, "orce balance, and temperature e)uations "or t'o-dimensional "lo' are re)uired "or a )uantitati#e study o" thermal con#ection% Density #ariations caused by thermal e pansion lead to the buoyancy "orces that dri#e thermal con#ection% Thus it is essential to account "or density #ariations in the $ra#itational body "orce term o" the conser#a- tion o" momentum or "orce balance e)uation% &n all other respects, ho'e#er, the density #ariations are su""iciently small so that they can be ne$lected% This is !no'n as the 0oussines3 appro#imation% &t allo's us to use the incompressible conser#ation o" "luid e)uation 54CA26% The "orce balance e)ua-
?(-@ %hermal Convection
tions 54C4>6 and 54C4A6 are also applicable% 9o'e#er, to account "or the buoyancy "orces, 'e must allo' "or small density #ariations in the #ertical "orce balance, ()uation 54C4A6, by lettin$ Q P
222 2222
Q8
Q ,
54%2826 'here Q8 is a re"erence density and Q can then be 'ritten
Q8 % ()uation 54C4A6
`
hp h2 h2 # # 8P R Q8 $ R Q $ R R 2 % h 2 hy hy D :e can eliminate the hydrostatic pressure correspondin$ to the re"erence density by introducin$ 0 P p Q8 $y
54%2826
54%28>6
as in ()uation 54C446% The horiBontal and #ertical e)uations o" motion, ()uations 54C4>6 and 54C2826, become h0 h 2 u h 2u 8P RD R 2 h 2 hy h
h0 8P R Q $R hy D
54%28A6
`
h2 # h2 # R 2 % h 2 hy
54%2846
Density #ariations caused by temperature chan$es are $i#en by ()uation 5>C1396 Q P Q8 T# 5T T8 6, 54%2836 'here T# is the #olumetric coe""icient o" thermal e pansion and T8 is the re"erence temperature correspondin$ to the re"erence density Q8 % Substitution o" ()uation 54C2836 into ()uation 54C2846 $i#es h0 h2 h2# # 8P RD R 2 hy h 2 hy
`
$Q8 T# 5T T8 6%
54%2886
The last term in this e)uation is the buoyancy "orce per unit #olume% The $ra#itational buoyancy term depends on temperature% Thus the #elocity "ield cannot be determined 'ithout simultaneously sol#in$ "or the temperature "ield% There"ore 'e re)uire the heat e)uation that $o#erns the #ariation o" temperature%
Fi$ure 4%23 9eat transport across the sur"aces o" an in"initesimal rectan$ular element by con#ection%
The ener$y balance must account "or heat transport by both conduction and con#ection% 1onsider the small t'o-dimensional element sho'n in Fi$ure 4C23% Since the thermal ener$y content o" the "luid is QcT per unit #olume, an amount o" heat QcT u ay is transported across the ri$ht side o" the element by the #elocity component u in the direction% This is an ener$y "lo' per unit time and per unit depth or distance in the dimension perpendicular to the "i$ure% &" QcT u is the ener$y "lu at , then QcT u R hUh 5QcT u6 a is the ener$y "lo' rate per unit area at R a % The net ener$y ad#ected out o" the elemental #olume per unit time and per unit depth due to "lo' in the direction is thus h 5QcT u6 a QcT u R h P h 5QcT u6 a ay% h
QcT u ay 54%2896
The same analysis applied in the y direction $i#es h { QcT # } ay QcT # a QcT # R hy P h 5QcT #6 a ay hy 54%2986
"or the net rate at 'hich heat is ad#ected out o" the element by "lo' in the y direction per unit depth% Thus, the net rate o" heat ad#ection out o" the element by "lo' in both directions is
?(-@ %hermal Convection
22A 22A2
h h 5QcT u6 R 5QcT #6 a ay h hy per unit depth% :e ha#e already deri#ed the e pression "or the net rate at 'hich heat is conducted out o" the element, per unit depth, in ()uation 5>C >967 it is
2 2 ! h T R h T h 2 hy 2
a ay%
1onser#ation o" ener$y states that the combined transport o" ener$y out o" the elemental #olume by conduction and con#ection must be balanced by the chan$e in the ener$y content o" the element% The thermal ener$y o" the "luid is QcT per unit #olume% Thus, this )uantity chan$es at the rate h 5QcT 6 a ay ht per unit depth o" "luid% @y combinin$ the e""ects o" conduction, con#ection, and thermal inertia, 'e obtain h h2T h2 T 5QcT 6 ! R ht hy 2 h 2 R
`
h 5QcuT 6 R h 5Qc#T 6 P 8% h hy
54%2916
@y treatin$ Q and c as constants and notin$ that h 5uT 6 R h 5#T 6 P u hT R #hT R T hu R h# h hy h hy h hy hT hT Pu R# h hy
54%2926
5the last step "ollo'in$ as a conse)uence o" the continuity e)uation6 and s P !UQc, 'e "inally arri#e at the heat e)uation "or t'o-dimensional "lo's hT hT hT Ps Ru R# ht h hy h 2T h 2 T R % hy 2 h 2
`
54%2926
&n deri#in$ ()uation 54C2926, 'e ha#e ne$lected some "actors that contribute to a $eneral ener$y balance but are ne$li$ible in our present application% These include "rictional heatin$ in the "luid associated 'ith the resistance to "lo' and compressional heatin$ associated 'ith the 'or! done by pressure "orces in mo#in$ the "luid% :e ha#e already deri#ed and used simpli"ied "orms o" this e)uation in Section >C28%
Fi$ure 4%28 T'o-dimensional cellular con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo'%
4%19 .inear Stability -nalysis "or the *nset o" Thermal 1on#ection in a .ayer o" Fluid 9eated "rom @elo' The layer o" "luid illustrated in Fi$ure 4C28 is heated "rom belo'7 that is, its upper sur"ace y P bU2 is maintained at the relati#ely cold re"erence temperature T8 and its lo'er boundary y P bU2 is !ept at the relati#ely hot temperature T1 5T1 [ T8 6% :e assume that there are no heat sources in the "luid% @uoyancy "orces tend to dri#e con#ection in the "luid layer% Fluid near the heated lo'er boundary becomes hotter and li$hter than the o#erlyin$ "luid and tends to rise% Similarly, "luid near the colder, upper boundary is denser than the "luid belo' and tends to sin!% 9o'e#er, the motion does not ta!e place "or small temperature di""erences across the layer because the "luids #iscous resistance to "lo' must be o#ercome% :e use the e)uations o" the precedin$ section to determine the conditions re)uired "or con#ection to occur, such as the minimum temperature di""erence% &n the absence o" con#ection, that is, "or T1 T8 su""iciently small, the "luid is stationary 5u P # P 86, and 'e can assume that a steady 5hUht P 86 conducti#e state 'ith hUh P 8 e ists% The ener$y e)uation 54C2926 then simpli"ies to d 2 Tc P 8, dy 2 54%29>6
'here the subscript c indicates that this is the conduction solution% The solution o" ()uation 54C29>6 that satis"ies the boundary conditions T P T8 at y P bU2 and T P T1 at y P RbU2 is the linear temperature pro"ile Tc P T1 R T8 5T1 T8 6 R 2 54%29A6 b y%
&" one ima$ines $radually increasin$ the temperature di""erence across the layer 5T1 T8 6, the stationary conducti#e state 'ill persist until T1 T8
?(-< Linear "ta$ility
nalysis for the 1nset of %hermal Convection
reaches a critical #alue at 'hich e#en the sli$htest "urther increase in temperature di""erence 'ill cause the layer to become unstable and con#ection to occur% Thus, at the onset of convection the "luid temperature is nearly the conduction temperature pro"ile and the temperature di""erence T , T
223 2232
T Tc P T
5T1 R T8 6 5T1 T8 6 2 y, b

54%2946
is arbitrarily small% The con#ecti#e #elocities u , # in"initesimal 'hen motion "irst ta!es place%
are similarly
The "orm o" the ener$y e)uation that pertains to the onset o" con#ec tion can be 'ritten in terms o" T by sol#in$ ()uation 54C2946 "or T and substitutin$ into ()uation 54C2926% *ne $ets hT
# 5T1 R u hT R # hT R ht hy T8 6 h b
Ps
h2 T h 2
2 h ` T
54%2936
hy 2
@ecause T , u , # are small )uantities, the nonlinear terms u hT Uh and # hT Uhy on the le"t side o" ()uation 54C2936 are much smaller than the remainin$ linear terms in the e)uation% Thus they can be ne$lected and ()uation 54C2936 can be 'ritten as
hT # R 5T1 T8 6 P s ht b
h2 T h
2
2 h ` T
54%2986
hy 2
The ne$lect o" the nonlinear terms, the terms in#ol#in$ products o" the small )uantities u , # , and T , is a standard mathematical approach to problems o" stability% *ur analysis "or the conditions in the "luid layer at the onset o" con#ection is !no'n as a lineari+ed sta$ility analysis% &t is a #alid approach "or the study o" the onset o" con#ection 'hen the motions and the thermal disturbance are in"initesimal% To summariBe, the e)uations "or the small perturbations o" temperature T , #elocity u , # , and pressure 0 'hen the "luid layer becomes unstable are h h# hu
R 2282 hy
228
Fluid Mechanics
P8
2 2 h0 u 8P RD h uRh ` h h 2
54%2996 54%2886
hy 2
h0 h 2# h 2 # Q T $T R 8P R 8 # h 2 hy 2 hy D h2 T hT h2 T # R 5T1 T8 6 P s % ` ht b h 2 R hy 2
54%2816
54%2826
From the second term on the ri$ht side o" the #ertical "orce balance e)uation 54C2816, it is seen that 'e ha#e ta!en the buoyancy "orce at any point in the layer to depend only on the departure o" the "luid temperature "rom the basic conduction temperature at the point% The conduction temperature pro"ile o" the stationary state is the re"erence temperature pro"ile a$ainst 'hich buoyancy "orces are determined% ()uations 54C2996 to 54C2826 are sol#ed sub?ect to the "ollo'in$ boundary conditions% :e assume that the sur"aces y P bU2 are isothermal and that no "lo' occurs across them7 that is, T P# 54%2826

P8
on
b yP
&" the boundaries o" the layer are solid sur"aces, then u
P8
b on yP % 2 54%28>6
This is the no-slip condition re)uirin$ that there be no relati#e motion bet'een a #iscous "luid and a boundin$ solid sur"ace at the solidC"luid inter"ace% &" the sur"aces y P bU2 are "ree sur"aces, that is, i" there is nothin$ at y P bU2 to e ert a shear stress on the "luid, u need not #anish on the boundaries% &nstead, the shear stress ny must be Bero on y P bU2% From ()uation 54CA86 this re)uires hu hy
h#
P8
on
b yP % 2
54%28A6
h P 8 on y
1onditions 54C28A6 can be simpli"ied e#en "urther because #
P bU2 "or any and conse)uently h# Uh 8 on y P bU2% The "ree sur"ace boundary conditions are there"ore hu P8 hy
on
b yP % 2
54%2846
- simple analytic solution can be obtained "or the lineariBed stability prob-
lem i" the "ree sur"ace conditions 54C2846 are adopted% :e once a$ain introduce the stream "unction de"ined in ()uations 54C 496 and 54C386% Thus the conser#ation ()uation 54C2996 is automatically satis"ied, and ()uations 54C2886 to 54C2826 can be 'ritten
h0 8P h
2 h h2 Z ` Z R h 2 hy hy 2
54%2836
`
h0 8P D hy Q $T T R 8 #
h2 Z h
2
h 2 Z R hy 2 h
54%2886
hZ h 2T h2T hT R 1 5T T 6 ` 1 8 b ht Ps R % h h 2 hy 2
54%2896
(liminatin$ the pressure "rom 54C2836 and 54C2886 yields h> Z
8P D
h> Z
h Z ` R 2
>
Q8 $T#
hT h
>
R2
hy
hy >
54%2186
The problem has no' been reduced to the solution o" t'o simultaneous partial di""erential e)uations 54C2896 and 54C2186 "or the t'o #ariables Z and T % @ecause these e)uations are linear e)uations 'ith constant coe""icients, 'e can sol#e them by the method o" separation o" #ariables% The boundary conditions 54C2826 and 54C2846 are automatically satis"ied by solutions o" the "orm Z T
PZ PT
8 8
cos cos
5Xy6 2X sin b l 5Xy6 b cos 2X l
t eT
54%2116 54%2126
t eT %
The #elocity and temperature perturbations described by these e)uations are horiBontally periodic disturbances 'ith 'a#elen$th l and ma imum ampli tudes Z8 and T8 % The #alue o" T determines 'hether or not the disturbances 'ill $ro' in time% For T positi#e, the disturbances 'ill ampli"y, and the heated layer is con#ecti#ely unstable% For T ne$ati#e, the disturbances 'ill decay in time, and the layer is stable a$ainst con#ection% :e can determine T by substitutin$ ()uations 54C2116 and 54C2126 into ()uations 54C 2896 and 54C2186% :e "ind ` 2 2 b 2 s>X s X R T R l2
5T1
8
T8 62X
l b
8
54%2126 D >X 2 X 2 R 2 l2 b
`2
Z8 P
2X
8
Q8 $T# T % l 54%21>6
The disturbance amplitudes Z8 and T8 can be eliminated "rom these e)uations by di#ision, yieldin$ an e)uation that can be sol#ed "or T % The gro!th rate T is "ound to be T
s Q8 $ T# b2 5T1 T8 6 P>X b2 b Ds 5 X 2 R >X2 b2 l2

`6
>X 2 b2 R l2
2 2 l2
X26 2 54%21A6
The dimensionless $ro'th rate T b2 Us is seen to depend on only t'o )uantities, 2XbUl, a dimensionless 'a#e number, and a dimensionless combination o" parameters !no'n as the Rayleigh num$er ;a Q8 $T# 5T1 T8 6b2 ;a P % Ds &n terms o" the ;aylei$h number 'e can 'rite ()uation 54C21A6 as T b2 s P ;a
>X 2 b2 >X 2 b2 2 2 6 l2 5X R l2 % >X 2 b262 2 5X R l2
54%2146
54%2136
The $ro'th rate is positi#e and there is instability i" ;a [ 5X 2 R

>X 2 b2 6 2 l2 >X 2 b 2 l2
54%2186
The $ro'th rate is ne$ati#e and there is stability i" ;a is less than the ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C2186% 1on#ection ?ust sets in 'hen T P 8, 'hich occurs 'hen 5X 2 R ;a ;acr P
>X 2 b2 2
2 l 22 >X l2b
54%2196
The critical value of the Rayleigh num$er ;acr mar!s the onset o" con#ection% &" ;a \ ;acr , disturbances 'ill decay 'ith time7 i" ;a [ ;acr , perturbations 'ill $ro' e ponentially 'ith time% -ccordin$ to ()uation 54C2196, the critical ;aylei$h number is a "unction o" the 'a#elen$th o" the disturbance% Fi$ure 4C29 sho's ho' ;acr depends on 2XbUl% &" the ;aylei$h number and disturbance 'a#elen$th are such that
Fi$ure 4%29 1ritical ;aylei$h number ;acr "or the onset o" con#ection in a layer heated "rom belo' 'ith stress-"ree boundaries as a "unction o" dimensionless 'a#e number 2X$Ul%
the point lies abo#e the cur#e, the perturbation o" 'a#elen$th l is unsta- ble7 i" the point lies belo' the cur#e, con#ection cannot occur 'ith disturbances o" 'a#elen$th l% For e ample, i" ;a P 2888, all disturbances 'ith 8%8 % 2XbUl % A%> are con#ecti#ely unstable% 9o'e#er, con#ection cannot occur "or 2XbUl % 8%8 and 2XbUl z A%>% Fi$ure 4C29 sho's that there is a minimum #alue o" ;acr % &" ;a lies belo' the minimum #alue, all disturbances decay, the layer is stable, and con#ection cannot occur% The #alue o" 2XbUl at 'hich ;acr is a minimum can be obtained by settin$ the deri#ati#e o" the ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C2196 'ith respect to 2XbUl e)ual to Bero% *ne obtains
o
h ;acr P o >XZ2 b2 l2
2 `
>XZ2 b2 l2
2X b 2 l
2X b l
2 X R
>X2 b2 2 X R l2
2 2 >X b l2
`2
2Xb o l 54%2286
` 2
P8
or 2Xb X P % l 2 54%2216
The #alue o" the 'a#elen$th correspondin$ to the smallest #alue o" the critical ;aylei$h number is l P 2 2 b% 54%2226 Substitution o" this #alue "or the 'a#elen$th bac! into ()uation 54C2196 $i#es the minimum critical ;aylei$h number min5;acr 6 P 23X > P 4A3%A% > 54%2226
The re)uirement that ;a e ceed ;acr "or con#ection to occur can be restated in a number o" more physical 'ays% *ne can thin! o" the temperature di""erence across the layer as ha#in$ to e ceed a certain minimum #alue or the #iscosity o" the "luid as ha#in$ to lie belo' a critical #alue be"ore con#ection sets in% &" ;a is increased "rom 8, "or e ample, by increasin$ T1 T8 , other )uantities remainin$ "i ed, con#ection sets in 'hen ;a reaches 4A3%A 5"or heatin$ "rom belo' 'ith stress-"ree boundaries6, and the aspect ratio o" each con#ection cell is 2, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C28% The minimum #alue o" ;acr and the disturbance 'a#elen$th "or 'hich ;acr ta!es the minimum #alue must be determined numerically "or no-slip #elocity boundary conditions% For that case, min ;acr P 1383%8 and l P 2%814b% The linear stability analysis "or the onset o" con#ection can also be carried out "or a "luid layer heated uni"ormly "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e% The lo'er boundary is assumed to be insulatin$7 that is, no heat "lo's across the boundary% *nce a$ain the "luid near the upper boundary is cooler and more dense than the "luid beneath% There"ore buoyancy "orces can dri#e "luid motion pro#ided they are stron$ enou$h to o#ercome the #iscous resistance% This type o" instability is directly applicable to the (arths mantle because the interior o" the (arth is heated by the decay o" the radioacti#e elements and the near-sur"ace roc!s are cooled by heat conduction to the sur"ace% These near-sur"ace roc!s are cooler and more dense than the hot mantle roc!s at depth% The appropriate ;aylei$h number "or a "luid layer heated
"rom 'ithin is ;a9 P T# 8 Q2 $ 9 , bA !Ds 54%22>6
'here 9 is the rate o" internal heat $eneration per unit mass% For no-slip #elocity boundary conditions, the minimum critical ;aylei$h number is 2332, and the associated #alue o" 2XbUl is 2%427 "or "ree-slip conditions, min ;acr P 843%8, and the associated #alue o" 2XbUl is 1%39% :e can estimate the #alue o" this ;aylei$h number "or the mantle o" the (arth% @ased on the post$lacial rebound studies, 'e ta!e D P 1821 0a s% 1 1 For the roc!properties 'e ta!e ! P > : m E , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and T# P 2 18 A E 1 % :e assume $ P 18 m s 2 and an a#era$e density Q8 P >888 !$ m 2 % @ased on our discussion o" the distribution o" heat 12 1 sources in the mantle 5see 1hapter >6 'e ta!e 9 P 9 18 : !$ % &" con#ection is restricted to the upper mantle, it is reasonable to ta!e b P 388 !m% :e "ind that ;a9 P 2 184 % &" 'e apply the same #alues to the entire mantle and ta!e b P 2888 !m, 'e "ind that ;a9 P 2 189 % &n either case the calculated #alue "or the ;aylei$h number is much $reater than the minimum critical #alue% &t 'as essentially this calculation that led -rthur 9olmes to propose in 1921 that thermal con#ection in the mantle 'as responsible "or dri#in$ continental dri"t% 0roblem 4%29 (stimate the #alues o" the ;aylei$h numbers "or the mantles o" ,ercury, +enus, ,ars, and the ,oon% -ssume heat is $enerated internally at the same rate it is produced in the (arth% /se the same #alues "or D, !, s, and T# as used abo#e "or the (arths mantle% *btain appropriate #alues o" Q8 , $, and b "rom the discussion in 1hapter 1% 0roblem 4%28 1alculate the e act minimum and ma imum #alues o" the 'a#elen$th "or disturbances that are con#ecti#ely unstable at ;a P 2888% 1onsider a "luid layer heated "rom belo' 'ith "ree-slip boundary conditions% 0roblem 4%21 Formulate the linear stability problem "or the onset o" con#ection in a layer o" "luid heated "rom 'ithin% -ssume that the boundaries are stress-"ree% Ta!e the upper boundary to be isothermal and the lo'er boundary to be insulatin$% 1arry the "ormulation to the point 'here the solution to the problem depends only on the inte$ration o" a sin$le ordinary di""erential e)uation "or the stream "unction sub?ect to appropriate boundary conditions%
2>> 2>>2
Fluid Mechanics
4%28 - Transient @oundary-.ayer Theory "or Finite--mplitude Thermal 1on#ection
The linear stability theory $i#en in the pre#ious section determines 'hether thermal con#ection occurs% 9o'e#er, it is not use"ul in determinin$ the structure o" the con#ection 'hen the ;aylei$h number e ceeds the critical #alue% @ecause it is linear, the stability analysis cannot predict the ma$nitude o" finite2 amplitude convective flo!s% To do this, it is necessary to sol#e the "ull nonlinear e)uations, 'hich, in $eneral, can only be done numerically% &n the "ollo'in$, ho'e#er, 'e present appro imate solutions that are #alid 'hen the ;aylei$h number is lar$e and con#ection is #i$orous% For lar$e #alues o" the ;aylei$h number, a con#ectin$ "luid layer o" thic!ness b heated "rom belo' is lar$ely isothermal% @y symmetry, the isothermal core temperature Tc o" the bul! o" the "luid is $i#en by Tc P T8 R 21 5T1 T8 6, 54%22A6
'here the upper boundary is maintained at the temperature T8 and the lo'er boundary at the temperature T1 % The thermal $radient bet'een the cold upper boundary at temperature T8 and the core at temperature Tc occurs across a thin thermal $oundary layer ad?acent to the upper boundary% The thermal $radient bet'een the core at temperature Tc and the hot lo'er boundary at temperature T1 occurs across a thin thermal boundary layer ad?acent to the lo'er boundary% :e "irst consider a $oundary2layer sta$ility approach to the thic!enin$ thermal boundary layers% :e assume that initially the isothermal core "luid is in contact 'ith the boundaries o" the "luid layer% Subse)uently the "luid ad?acent to the hot lo'er boundary is heated "ormin$ a hot thermal boundary layer and the "luid ad?acent to the cold upper boundary layer is cooled "ormin$ a cold thermal boundary layer% The boundary layers thic!en until they become $ra#itationally unstable and separate "rom the boundaries% The hot lo'er boundary layer ascends into the isothermal core heatin$ it, and the cold upper boundary layer descends into the isothermal core coolin$ it% The end o" the boundary-layer $ro'th is determined by a stability analysis o" the boundary layers similar to the stability analysis o" a "luid layer carried out in the pre#ious section% The process is then assumed to repeat% The transient $ro'th o" the t'o thermal boundary layers can be described by the one-dimensional heat conduction analysis o" Section >C1A% &nitially, at t P 8, the core "luid 'ith temperature Tc is assumed to be in contact 'ith the boundaries% Subse)uently, conducti#e heat losses to the sur"ace result
in the de#elopment o" thin thermal boundary layers% @ecause o" symmetry 'e consider only the $ro'th o" the cold thermal boundary layer ad?a- cent to the upper boundary% The results can be directly applied to the hot thermal boundary layer ad?acent to the lo'er boundary% The temperature distribution in the cold thermal boundary layer as a "unction o" time "rom ()uation 5>C1126 is yZ Tc T P er"c % Tc T8 2 st 54%2246
?(4B %ransient 0oundary2Layer %heory
2>A 2>A2
- similar e pression can be 'ritten "or the thic!enin$ hot boundary layer on the lo'er boundary% The thic!ness o" the thermal boundary layer "rom ()uation 5>C11A6 is yT P 2%225st61U2 % 54%2236
The thic!ness increases 'ith the s)uare root o" time since the boundary layer 'as established% The basic assumption in this approach is that a linear stability analysis can be applied to the boundary layers% :e assume that the boundary layers thic!en until the stability condition is satis"ied, at 'hich time they brea! a'ay "rom the boundary sur"aces to be replaced by isothermal core "luid and the process repeats% The brea!a'ay condition is assumed to be $i#en by the stability analysis "or a "luid layer de#eloped in Section 4C19% The applicable ;aylei$h number, $i#en by an e pression similar to ()uation 54C2146, is based on the boundary-layer thic!ness, i%e%, b in ()uation 54C2146 is replaced by yT "rom ()uation 54C2236% -lso the rele#ant temperature di""erence is Tc T8 P
,cr ,cr 1 5T1 2
T8 6,
54%2286
"rom ()uation 54C22A6% The critical #alue o" the ;aylei$h number ;ayT $i#es a critical #alue "or the boundary layer thic!ness yT
2 Q8 T# $ 5T1 T8 6y T ,cr % 2Ds
;ayT ,cr P
54%2296
The critical #alue o" this ;aylei$h number "or "ree-sur"ace boundary conditions is ;ayT ,cr P 4A3%A% From ()uations 54C2236 and 54C2296, the time at 'hich boundary layer brea!a'ay occurs tc is $i#en by tc P 2Ds;ayT ,cr 2U2 % A%28s Q 8T #$5T 1 T8 6 1 54%2286
The mean heat "lo' ) across the "luid layer durin$ the time tc "rom ()uation 5>C1136 is 2! 5Tc T8 6 !5T1 )f P 54%2216 T8 6 P 5Xstc 61U2 5Xstc 61U2 The combination o" ()uations 54C2286 and 54C2216 $i#es
t
1U2 Q8 T #$ 5T 1 T 68 % 2Ds;ayT ,cr
)f P 1%21!5T1 T8 6
54%2226
The <usselt number 6 b /pon substitutin$ ()uations 54C2226 and 54C22>6 into ()uation 54C 2226, 'e obtain ;a ;ayT ,cr
`1U2
54%22A6
'here ;a is the ;aylei$h number based on the "ull layer thic!ness $ and the o#erall temperature di""erence 5T1 T8 6 as de"ined in ()uation 54C2146% :e "ind that the <usselt number is proportional to the ;aylei$h number to the one-third po'er% :ith ;ayT ,cr P 4A3%A 'e "ind <u P 8%128;a1U2 % -lthou$h this is an appro imate solution, the dependence o" the <usselt number on the ;aylei$h number is $enerally #alid "or #i$orous thermal con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo' 'ith "ree-sur"ace boundary conditions% &t is o" interest to apply this boundary-layer stability analysis directly to the problem o" thermal con#ection in the upper mantle% The depth o" deep earth)ua!es associated 'ith the descendin$ lithosphere at ocean trenches 5about 448 !m6 pro#ides a minimum thic!ness "or the con#ectin$ part o" the mantle% :e assume that mantle con#ection is restricted to the upper 388 !m o" the mantle and e#aluate the ;aylei$h number in ()uation 54C2146, 'ith b P 388 !m, Q8 P 2388 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , T# P 2 18 A E 1 , T1 T8 P1A88 54%2246
E, s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and D P 1821 0a s7 'e obtain ;a P A%3 18A % The mean sur"ace heat "lu )f is $i#en by )f P ! 5T1 T8 6 b 8%128!5T1 T8 6 ;a1U2 b

 : m 1 E 1 , 'e "ind )f P 8A m: m 2 % This is remar!ably close to the the (arths mean sur"ace heat "lo' o" 83 m: m 2 $i#en in Section >C>% 9o'e#er, such e cellent a$reement must be considered "ortuitous% ()uation 54C2286 "or the time at 'hich boundary-layer brea!a'ay occurs can be re'ritten usin$ ;ayT ,cr P4A3%A as % 54%2286 s;a2U2 Substitutin$ the #alues $i#en abo#e "or upper mantle con#ection 'e "ind tc P A8%A ,yr% This is about one-hal" the mean a$e o" subduction $i#en in Fi$ure >C24% The boundary-layer stability approach can also be applied to a "luid layer that is heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e% &n this case there is only a sin$le thermal boundary layer on the upper boundary o" the "luid layer% The mean heat "lo' out o" the upper boundary )f is related to the heat $eneration per unit mass in the layer 9 by )f P Q8 9 b% 54%2296 -pplyin$ ()uations 54C4286 and 54C2216 to the upper boundary layer only, 'e ha#e )f P 2%42!5T1 T8 6 tc P 22%2b2
Q 8 T $ # 5T
8
T 6
u1U2
54%2>86
Ds;ayT ,cr
'here T1 is no' the temperature o" both the lo'er boundary and the isothermal core% @y combinin$ ()uations 54C2296 and 54C2>86, 'e can sol#e "or the temperature o" the isothermal core 'ith the result T1 T8 P Q8 9 b 2%42!
2U>
Ds;ayT ,cr Q8 T # $
1U>
54%2>16
'here T1 T8 is also the temperature rise across the "luid layer% The e""iciency 'ith 'hich con#ection cools the "luid layer can be assessed by comparin$ the temperature rise across the internally heated layer $i#en
by ()uation 54C2>16 'ith that 'hich 'ould be obtained i" all the internally $enerated heat 'ere remo#ed only by conduction 5T1c T8 6% The dimensionless temperature ratio, T1 T8 , 54%2>26 WP T1c T8 is thus a measure o" con#ecti#e e""iciency "or the internally heated "luid layer% The smaller W is, the more e""icient con#ection is in remo#in$ the heat produced in the "luid% :ithout con#ection, the temperature rise across the layer 'ould be 5see Section >C46 Q8 9 b2 % 54%2>26 2! @y substitutin$ ()uations 54C2>16 and 54C2>26 into 54C2>26 'e "ind that T1c T8 P W P 8%93 ;ayT ,cr ;a9
1U>
54%2>>6
'here ;a9 is the ;aylei$h number de"ined "or a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin in ()uation 54C22>6% The nondimensional temperature di""erence bet'een the isothermal core and the upper boundary decreases as con#ection becomes more #i$orous 'ith increasin$ ;aylei$h number% Ta!in$ ;ayT ,cr P 4A3%A 'e "ind W P >%91;a9
1U>
54%2>A6
-$ain, the dependence o" the dimensionless temperature on ;aylei$h number is $enerally #alid "or a #i$orously con#ectin$ "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e 'ith "ree sur"ace boundary conditions, althou$h the constant o" proportionality is model dependent% The dimensional temperature o" the isothermal core is $i#en by
2 2 T1 T8 P phb W P 2%>Ap9 b ;a 1U> % 2! ! 9
54%2>46
The boundary layer stability analysis "or thermal con#ection in a uni"ormly heated "luid layer cooled "rom abo#e can be applied to thermal con#ection that occurs throu$hout the 'hole mantle% For this case 'e ta!e b P 2888 !m% @ased on the discussion in 1hapter > 'e assume 9 P 9 18 12 : 1 A 1 2 !$ % :e also ta!e T# P 2 18 E , Q8 P >388 !$ m , $ P 18 m 2 1 1 2 1 s ,! P > : m E , s P 1 mm s , and D P 18 21 0a s and obtain ;a9 P 2 189 "rom ()uation 54C22>6% From ()uation 54C2>46 and these parameter #alues 'e ha#e T1 T8 P 918 E% This is about a "actor o" 2 too lo'%
?(4-
"teady2"tate 0oundary2Layer %heory
2>9 2>92
Fi$ure 4%>8 @oundary-layer structure o" t'o-dimensional thermal con#ection cells in a "luid layer heated "rom belo'%
The boundary-layer stability results ?ust discussed $i#e episodic bursts o" con#ection% This is clearly )uite di""erent than the steady-state subduction that occurs on the (arth% 9o'e#er, as discussed in Section 1C28, episodic subduction has been proposed to e plain the $lobal resur"acin$ that occurred on +enus about A88 ,a a$o%
4%21 - Steady-State @oundary-.ayer Theory "or Finite--mplitude Thermal 1on#ection :e 'ill no' de#elop a thermal boundary-layer analysis o" #i$orous steady con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo'% :e 'ill limit our considerations to #ery lar$e 0randtl numbers so that the inertia terms in the momentum e)uations can be ne$lected% The boundary layer structure and coordinate system are illustrated in Fi$ure 4C>8% The "lo' is di#ided into cellular t!o2dimensional rolls o" 'idth lU27 alternate rolls rotate in opposite directions% The entire "lo' "ield is hi$hly #iscous% *n the cold upper boundary a thin thermal boundary layer "orms% :hen the t'o cold boundary layers "rom ad?acent cells meet, they separate "rom the boundary and "orm a cold descendin$ thermal plume% Similarly, a hot thermal boundary layer "orms on the lo'er boundary o" the cell% :hen t'o hot boundary layers meet "rom ad?acent cells, they "orm a hot ascendin$ plume% The buoyancy "orces in the ascendin$ and descendin$ plumes dri#e the "lo'% The core o" each cell is a nearly isothermal #iscous rotational "lo'% -s pointed out in
2A8 2A82
Fluid Mechanics
our discussion o" the boundary-layer stability analysis, symmetry re)uires that the temperature Tc in the nearly isothermal core must be the mean o" the t'o boundary temperatures and ()uation 54C22A6 applies% :e no' carry out a )uantitati#e calculation "or the #elocities in the "luid layer and the amount o" heat transported by the motions% -lthou$h an e act solution "or the steady-state boundary-layer model re)uires numerical methods, 'e can obtain an analytic solution by ma!in$ a number o" appro imations% The results 'ill then be compared 'ith more ri$orous solutions% :e "irst obtain the structure o" the cold thermal boundary layer ad?acent to the upper boundary o" the "luid layer% For this calculation 'e let y P 8 be the upper boundary and measure y positi#e do'n'ard% :e also let be the horiBontal coordinate and let P 8 be at the center o" the ascendin$ plume 5Fi$ure 4C>86% To obtain an analytic solution, 'e assume that the horiBontal "luid #elocity at the upper boundary is a constant u8 % The horiBontal "luid #elocity is actually Bero at P 8 and lU2 and increases to a ma imum near P lU>% The constant #elocity u8 is an a#era$e o" the actual horiBontal #elocity on the upper boundary% :e ha#e already sol#ed "or the thermal structure o" this boundary layer in Section >C14% From ()uation 5>C 12>6 the temperature distribution in the cold thermal boundary layer is Tc T Tc T8 P er"c 54%2>36 y u8
1U2
2 s
-s discussed pre#iously in Section >C14, a direct association can be made bet'een the cold thermal boundary layer o" a thermal con#ection cell and the thic!enin$ oceanic lithosphere% @y inte$ratin$ the sur"ace heat "lu 5>C 1236 across the 'idth o" the cell, that is, "rom P 8 to P lU2, 'e obtain the total rate rate o" heat "lo' G out o" the top o" the cell per unit distance alon$ the a is o" the roll, G P 2!5Tc T8 6 u8 l
1U2
54%2>86
2Xs -t the boundary bet'een t'o cells the cold thermal boundary layers "rom t'o ad?acent cells turn throu$h 98 to "orm a cold, symmetrical descendin$ thermal plume% This process is directly analo$ous to the subduction o" the oceanic lithosphere at an ocean trench 5althou$h lithospheric subduction is not a symmetrical process6% @ecause #ery little heat conduction can occur durin$ this transition "rom a thermal boundary layer to a thermal plume, the distribution o" temperature in the ne'ly "ormed plume is the same as in the boundary layer% -s in the case o" the horiBontal #elocity in the cold boundary layer, 'e assume that the #ertical 5descendin$6 #elocity in the
cold plume is a constant #8 % 9o'e#er, the #elocity #8 may di""er "rom the #elocity u8 % Since the con#ected heat in the plume ?ust a"ter its "ormation must e)ual the con#ected heat ?ust be"ore its "ormation, the thic!ness o" the plume relati#e to the boundary layer must be in the ratio u8 U#8 % There"ore the temperature distribution in the plume ?ust as it is "ormed is $i#en by Tc T Tc To P er"c
t
#8 2u8 2
2 u8
1U2
u,
54%2>96
sl
'ith a similar e pression "or the other hal" o" the symmetrical plume "ormed "rom the ad?acent cell% -s the plume descends alon$ the boundary bet'een t'o ad?acent cells, its temperature distribution can be obtained by usin$ the temperature $i#en in ()uation 54C2>96 as the initial temperature distribution in .aplaces solution o" the heat conduction e)uation C see ()uation 5>C1A36% .aplaces solution "or a time-dependent problem can be applied to the descendin$ plume by identi"yin$ t as yU#8 % This is anala$ous to our use o" a timedependent solution o" the heat conduction e)uation "or the structure o" the cold sur"ace thermal boundary layer 5see Section >C146% &n that problem 'e identi"ied t as Uu8 % The temperature distribution in the descendin$ plume can be used to calculate the total do'n'ard $ra#itational body "orce on the plume due to its ne$ati#e buoyancy relati#e to the isothermal core% The do'n'ard buoyancy "orce per unit #olume on an element o" the plume is Q8 $T# 5Tc T 6% Thus
]
"b P Q8 $T#
lU2
5Tc T 6 d
54%2A86
is the do'n'ard buoyancy body "orce per unit depth and per unit distance alon$ the roll a is on one-hal" o" the cold plume% &t is appropriate to replace the inte$ral across the "inite 'idth o" the plume 'ith the in"inite inte$ral, since T Tc at the ed$e o" the plume7 see, "or e ample, ()uation 5>C2846 "or a similar chan$e o" limits% The total do'n'ard buoyancy body "orce Fb on the descendin$ plume is obtained by inte$ratin$ "b alon$ the #ertical e tent o" the plume "rom y P 8 to y P b7 that is,
]
Fb P
b 8
"b dy,
54%2A16
'here Fb is a "orce per unit len$th o" the plume alon$ the roll a is% The inte$ral in ()uation 54C2A86 is proportional to the heat content o" a slice o" the plume o" thic!ness dy% Since no heat is added to the descendin$ plume alon$ its len$th, this heat content is a constant% This also "ollo's "rom the "act that the inte$ral o" the temperature distribution $i#en by .aplaces solution is a constant independent o" t 5see Section >C216% There"ore, the buoyancy body "orce on the plume per unit depth "b is independent o" y and Fb P "b b% 54%2A26
@ecause "b is a constant, 'e can e#aluate it any'here alon$ the plume, that is, at any depth, by carryin$ out the inte$ration in ()uation 54C2A86% This is most con#eniently done ?ust a"ter the plume "orms, 'here ()uation 54C2>96 pro#ides an e pression "or the temperature in the plume% Substitution o" ()uation 54C2>96 into 54C2A86 'ith P lU2 yields
]
"b P Q8 $T# 5Tc T8 6

8
er"c 1U2
#6 8 2u8
1U2
2u8 sl
u sl P 2Q8 $T# 5Tc T8 6 8 #8 2u8 u sl P 2Q8 $T# 5Tc T8 6 8 #8 2Xu8
]
8
er"cB dB 54%2A26
1U2
Thus the total do'n'ard $ra#itational body "orce Fb on one-hal" o" the symmetrical plume is u8 sl Fb P "b b P 2Q8 $T# b5Tc T8 6 #8 2Xu8
1U2
% 54%2A>6
So "ar 'e ha#e considered only the cold thermal boundary layer and plume% 9o'e#er, the problem is entirely symmetrical, and the structures o" the hot thermal boundary layer and plume are identical 'ith their cold counterparts 'hen Tc T8 is replaced by Tc T1 % The total up'ard body "orce on the ascendin$ hot plume is e)ual to the do'n'ard body "orce on the cold descendin$ plume and is $i#en by ()uation 54C2A>6% Determination o" the #iscous "lo' in the isothermal core re)uires a solution o" the biharmonic e)uation% 9o'e#er, an analytic solution cannot be obtained "or the boundary conditions o" this problem% There"ore 'e appro imate the core "lo' 'ith the linear #elocity pro"iles sho'n in Fi$ure 4C >17
Fi$ure 4%>1 .inear #elocity pro"iles used to model the core "lo' in a con#ection cell% The areas under the trian$les are e)ual to conser#e "luid%
that is, 'e ta!e u P u8 1 2 y b l % 54%2AA6 54%2A46
# P #8 1 > To conser#e "luid, 'e re)uire
#8 l Pu 8 b% 54%2A36 2 This balance is also illustrated in Fi$ure 4C>1% &t must be emphasiBed that the assumed #elocity pro"iles do not satis"y the re)uired boundary conditions on the #elocity components% For e ample, the condition u P 8 at P 8, lU2 is not satis"ied% 9o'e#er, the assumed pro"iles are reasonable appro imations to the actual "lo' near the center o" the cell% The shear stress on the #ertical boundaries o" the core "lo' is $i#en by ()uation 54CA86 as h# nc# P D P D>#8 , 54%2A86 h l and the shear stress on the horiBontal boundaries is $i#en by nch P D 2u hu P D 8% h5y6 b 54%2A96
The deri#ati#e 'ith respect to y occurs in ()uation 54C2A96, since the deri#ati#e must be in the direction o" the out'ard normal to the sur"ace% For the horiBontal area at the top o" the cell this is the ne$ati#e y direction% The rate at 'hich 'or! is done on each #ertical boundary by the shear stress is bnc# #8 per unit distance parallel to the roll a is% The rate o" doin$ 'or!
2A> 2A>2
Fluid Mechanics
is the product o" "orce and #elocity7 see also ()uation 5>C2>26% The rate at 'hich 'or! is done on each horiBontal boundary is 5lU26nch u8 % The rate at 'hich the buoyancy "orce does 'or! on each o" the plumes is Fb #8 % The rate at 'hich 'or! is done on the plumes by the $ra#itational body "orces must e)ual the rate at 'hich 'or! is done on the boundaries by the #iscous "orces7 this $i#es 2Fb #8 P 2bnc# #8 R lnch u8 % 54%2486 Substitution o" ()uations 54C2A>6, 54C2A86, and 54C2A96 into ()uation 54C 2486 yields Q8 $T# u8 5Tc T8 6 sl 2Xu8
1U2
2 2#8 D u2 R Dl 8 l % 2b2
54%2416
-"ter eliminatin$ the core temperature usin$ ()uation 54C2>46 and the #ertical #elocity usin$ ()uation 54C2A36, 'e sol#e "or the horiBontal #elocity and obtain
3U2 l 2U2
u8 P
2b
b 51 R
2U2 14b>
l>
;a 2 X
54%2426
'here the ;aylei$h number ;a appropriate to a "luid layer heated "rom belo' has been de"ined in ()uation 54C2146% 9a#in$ determined the mean #elocity alon$ the upper boundary o" the cell, 'e can no' "ind the total rate o" heat "lo' throu$h the cell G "rom ()uation 54C2>86 GP ! 5T1 T8 6
l AU2 2b
21U2 X 2U2 51 R
l> 61U2 14b>
;a1U2 %
54%2426
The <usselt number <u is de"ined as the ratio o" the heat "lo' rate 'ith con#ection G to the heat "lo' rate by conduction Gc in the absence o" con#ection dsee also ()uation 54C2226e 6
/pon substitutin$ ()uations 54C2426 and 54C24A6 into ()uation 54C24>6,
'e obtain
2U2
 14b>
The aspect ratio o" the cells, that is, the ratio o" the horiBontal 'idth to the #ertical thic!ness, lU2b, remains unspeci"ied% -ccordin$ to linear stability theory, the aspect ratio o" the most rapidly $ro'in$ is disturbance lU52b6 P 27 see ()uation 54C2226% 9o'e#er, "or "inite-amplitude con#ection 'e determine the aspect ratio "or 'hich the <usselt number is a ma imum% This is the aspect ratio o" the cells that is most e""ecti#e in transportin$ heat across the "luid layer at a "i ed #alue o" the ;aylei$h number% :e there"ore re)uire h;a1U2 % 54%2486
54%2496
54%2386
&t is o" interest to compare this result 'ith that obtained usin$ the transient boundary-layer theory $i#en in ()uation 54C2246% @oth appro imate solutions $i#e the same po'er la' dependence o" the <usselt number on the ;aylei$h number but the numerical constants di""er by about a "actor o" t'o, 8%128 #ersus 8%29>% <umerical calculations sho' that the #alue o" this constant should be 8%22A% &t is appropriate to apply the steady-state, boundary-layer analysis o" thermal con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo' to the problem o" thermal con#ection in the upper mantle% -s be"ore 'e ta!e b P 388 !m, Q8 P 2388 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , T# P 2 18 A E 1 , T1 T8 P 1A88 E, s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and D P 1821 0a s and "rom ()uation 54C2146 a$ain "ind that ;a P A%3 18A % The mean sur"ace heat "lu )f is $i#en by )f P 2G !5T1 T8 6 2Gc 6;a 1U2 % 54%2316
Fi$ure 4%>2 The boundary-layer structure o" t'o-dimensional thermal con#ection cells in a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e%
d1ompare 'ith ()uation 54C2236e% :ith the abo#e parameter #alues and ! P > : m 1 E 1 , )f is 288 m: m 2 % This is 2 about 2%2 times lar$er than the obser#ed mean heat "lo' o" 83 m: m % From ()uation 54C 1 2496 the mean horiBontal #elocity u is 8> mm yr % This is about t'ice 8 the mean sur"ace #elocity associated 'ith plate tectonics% The steady-state boundary-layer theory can also be applied to a "luid layer that is heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e% The "lo' is a$ain di#ided into counterrotatin$, t'o-dimensional cells 'ith dimensions b and lU2% cold thermal boundary layer "orms on the upper boundary o" each cell% :hen the t'o cold boundary layers "rom ad?acent cells meet, they separate "rom the boundary to "orm a cold descendin$ thermal plume% 9o'e#er, "or the "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin there is no heat "lu across the lo'er boundary% There"ore no hot thermal boundary layer de#elops on the lo'er boundary, and there are no hot ascendin$ plumes bet'een cells% This "lo' is illustrated in Fi$ure 4C>2% &n the boundary-layer appro imation, 'e can assume that all "luid that is not in the cold thermal boundary layers and plumes has the same temperature T1 % The temperature T1 is not !no'n a priori and must be determined as part o" the solution to the con#ection problem% The temperature distribution in the upper cold thermal boundary layer is $i#en by ()uation 54C2>36, and the total rate at 'hich heat "lo's out o" the top o" each cell G is $i#en by ()uation 54C2>86% &n the layer there is a uni"orm heat production 9 per unit mass% Thus, the total heat production in a cell is Q8 9 blU2% @ecause 'e assume a steady state, G must e)ual the rate o" heat $eneration in the cell Q8 9 bl 2 P 2!5T1 T8 6 u8 l 2Xs
1U2
54%2326
The calculation o" the total buoyancy "orce on the descendin$ cold plume is also the same as in the pre#ious problem7 Fb is $i#en by ()uation 54C 2A>6% This problem, ho'e#er, has only the sin$le plume% The rate o" doin$ 'or! on the boundaries is the same as in the pre#ious problem% 9o'e#er, the ener$y input comes only "rom the sin$le plume% @y e)uatin$ the rate o" ener$y input to a cell to the rate o" doin$ 'or! on the boundaries, 'e "ind Q8 $T# 5T1 T8 6u8 sl 2Xu8
1U2 2 2 >#8 D u8 R Dl % l b2
54%2326
Substitution o" ()uation 54C2A36 to eliminate #8 and ()uation 54C2326 to eliminate T1 T8 yields u8 P s
l 2b 2 1U2 ;a 9 ,
2b 51 R 54%23>6
l>6 1U2 14b>
'here the ;aylei$h number "or a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin has been de"ined in ()uation 54C22>6% :e can sol#e "or the temperature o" the core T1 by substitutin$ ()uation 54C23>6 into ()uation 54C2326F T1 T8 P X 2
1U2
Q8 9 b 2 !
l 1 R
>
1U> 14b> 1U2
;a 1U> ,
9
2b
54%23A6
'here T1 T8 is also the temperature rise across the "luid layer% To assess the e""iciency 'ith 'hich con#ection cools the "luid layer 'e a$ain introduce the dimensionless temperature ratio W de"ined in ()uation 54C2>26% This is the ratio o" the temperature di""erence across the layer 'ith con#ection to the temperature di""erence 'ithout con#ection, the latter 'as $i#en in ()uation 54C2>26% @y substitutin$ ()uation 54C23A6 into ()uation 54C2>26, 'e "ind W P 52X6
1U2
1R
l> 14b>
1U>
l 61U2 5 2b
;a 9
1U>
54%2346
The dimensionless temperature ratio W is a "unction o" the cell aspect ratio lU2b% The cell aspect ratio that minimiBes W is "ound by settin$ hW P 8% h5lU2b6 54%2336
This $i#es l P 1, 2b 54%2386
the same #alue that 'as obtained "or the layer heated "rom belo'% :ith an aspect ratio o" unity, the horiBontal #elocity and dimensionless temperature ratio are s 1U2 u8 P 8%2A> ;a9 54%2396 b and W P 2%98;a 9
1U>
54%2886
The nondimensional temperature di""erence bet'een the isothermal core and the upper boundary decreases as con#ection becomes more #i$orous 'ith increasin$ ;aylei$h number% :e compare this result 'ith that obtained usin$ the transient boundary-layer analysis $i#en in ()uation 52C2>>6% -$ain both appro imate solutions $i#e the same po'er la' dependence o" the nondimensional temperature di""erence on the ;aylei$h number but the numerical constants a$ain di""er by about a "actor o" t'o, >%91 #ersus 2%98% &t is a$ain o" interest to apply the steady-state boundary-layer analysis o" thermal con#ection in a uni"ormly heated "luid layer cooled "rom abo#e to the problem o" thermal con#ection in the 'hole mantle% :e a$ain ta!e b P 2888 !m, 9 P 9 18 12 : !$ 1 , Q8 P >388 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , ! P > : m 1 E 1 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , and D P 1821 0a s and "rom ()uation 54C22>6 "ind that ;a9 P 2 189 % ()uations 54C2>16, 54C2>26, and 54C2886 $i#e T1 T8 P AA8 E% This is about a "actor o" > lo'% From ()uation 54C 2396 'e "ind that u8 P 218 mm yr 1 , 'hich is about a "actor o" > too hi$h% The parameteriBations o" <usselt number and nondimensional temperature obtained abo#e ha#e been "or "ree-slip sur"ace boundary conditions% ,ost laboratory e periments are carried out 'ith no-slip sur"ace boundary conditions because 'alls are re)uired to con"ine the "luid% For a "luid layer heated "rom belo' 'ith no-slip 'all boundary conditions it is "ound e perimentally that <u P 8%121;a8%2 , and "or a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin and cooled "rom abo#e, WP A%9A 8%22 % ;a9 54%2826 54%2816
These results are similar to those obtained abo#e%
0roblem 4%22 -n e cellent appro imation to the <usselt numberC ;aylei$h number relation "or a "luid layer heated "rom belo' as in ()uation 54C2816 can be deri#ed "rom the WC;a relation in ()uation 54C2826 "or an internally heated "luid layer as "ollo's% :rite <u as ) f <u P % ! 5T1 T8 6Ub 54%2826
&denti"y )f, the heat "lu throu$h the upper boundary 'ith Q8 9 b, the total rate o" heat $eneration in the internally heated layer% Ta!e T1 T8 e)ual to t'ice the temperature rise across the internally heated con#ectin$ layer% ;e'rite ()uation 54C2826 as 6
(liminate 9 "rom ()uation 54C28>6 by usin$ ()uations 54C2>16, 54C 2>26, and 54C2826% &ntroduce the ;aylei$h number "or heated-"rom-belo' con#ection based on the temperature di""erence Tc T8 % =ou should obtain <u P 8%12;a8%2 , an almost identical result 'ith ()uation 54C2816% 0roblem 4%22 1onsider con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo'% The mean sur"ace heat "lu )f is trans"erred throu$h the cold thermal boundary layer by conduction% There"ore 'e can 'rite ! 5Tc T8 6 , 54%2846 a 'here a is a characteristic thermal boundary layer thic!ness% Sho' that )f P a P 1%3;a 1U2 % 54%2836 b 1alculate a "or an upper mantle con#ection cell $i#en the parameter #alues used in the discussion in this section% 0roblem 4%2> &n 'hat 'ays are sur"ace plates and descendin$ slabs di""erent "rom the thermal boundary layers and descendin$ plumes o" t'odimensional con#ection cells in layers o" ordinary #iscous "luids heated "rom belo' or "rom 'ithinO 0roblem 4%2A Suppose that con#ection e tends throu$h the entire mantle and that 18N o" the mean sur"ace heat "lo' ori$inates in the core% &" the sur"ace thermal boundary layer and the boundary layer at the coreC mantle inter"ace ha#e e)ual thic!nesses, ho' does the temperature rise across 54%28A6
the lo'er mantle boundary layer compare 'ith the temperature increase across the sur"ace thermal boundary layerO 0roblem 4%24 -pply the t'o-dimensional boundary-layer model "or heated- "rom-belo' con#ection to the entire mantle% 1alculate the mean sur"ace heat "lu , the mean horiBontal #elocity, and the mean sur"ace thermal boundary layer thic!ness% -ssume T1 T P 2888 E, b P 2888 !m, ! P > : m 1E 1 , 8 s P 1 mm2 s 1 , T# P 2 18 A E 1 , $ P 18 m s 2 , and Q8 P >888 !$ m 2 % 4%22 The Forces that Dri#e 0late Tectonics &n Section 4C21 'e sa' that thermal con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom 'ithin has many similarities to mantle con#ection% The thermal boundary layer ad?acent to the cooled upper sur"ace can be directly associated 'ith the oceanic lithosphere% The separation o" the boundary layer to "orm a cold descendin$ plume is associated 'ith the subduction o" the lithosphere at an ocean trench% Just as the $ra#itational body "orce on the cold plume dri#es the con#ecti#e "lo', the $ra#itational body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere at a trench is most li!ely important in dri#in$ plate tectonics% The $ra#itational body "orce Fb1 on the descendin$ lithosphere due to its temperature de"icit relati#e to the ad?acent mantle can be e#aluated 'ith ()uation 54C2A>6% @ecause o" the ri$idity o" the lithosphere, u8 P #8 % This also "ollo's "rom ()uation 54C2A36 "or an aspect ratio lU2b P 1% The e)uation "or Fb1 is thus sl 1U2 Fb1 P 2Q8 $T# b5Tc T8 % 54%2886 2Xu8 6 &n usin$ this e pression, 'e ha#e ne$lected the heatin$ o" the descendin$ lithosphere by "riction, as discussed in Section >C23% - principal uncertainty in e#aluatin$ the $ra#itational body "orce is the depth o" the con#ection cell b7 this is e)ui#alent to the len$th o" the descendin$ lithosphere beneath trenches% @ased on the distribution o" earth)ua!es that e tend to a depth o" about 388 !m, 'e ta!e b P 388 !m% -lso ta!in$ Q8 P 2288 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m 2 s , T# P 2 18 A E 1 , Tc T8 P 1288 E, s P 1 mm2 s 1 , u8 P A8 mm yr 1, and l P >888 !m, 'e obtain Fb1 P 2%2 1812 < m 1 % This is a "orce per unit len$th parallel to the trench% -nother "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere is due to the ele#ation o" the oli#ineCspinel phase chan$e 5see Section >C296% The position o" the phase chan$e boundary in the descendin$ lithosphere is s!etched in Fi$ure 4C>2% The phase chan$e occurs at a depth in the surroundin$ mantle 'here the temperature is Tos % @ecause the descendin$ lithosphere is colder than the
?(44 %he Forces that &rive Plate %ectonics
AAA
Fi$ure 4%>2 (le#ation o" the oli#ineCspinel phase chan$e in the descendin$ lithosphere contributes to the do'n'ard body "orce%
mantle, the phase chan$e occurs at lo'er pressure or shallo'er depth in the slab% @ecause the temperature o" the descendin$ lithosphere Ts at the depth 'here the mantle phase chan$e occurs depends on position Ts P Ts 5 6, the phase chan$e boundary ele#ation hos also depends on position hos 5 6% The do'n'ard $ra#itational body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere due to the phase boundary ele#ation Fb2 is thus
]
Fb2 P $_Qos
hos 5 6 d , 54%2896 s
P8
'here _Qos is the positi#e density di""erence bet'een the phases% The ele#ation o" the phase boundary is $i#en by hos P i 5Tos Ts 6 , Q8 $ 54%2986
'here i is slope of the Clapeyron curve 5dpUdT 6% Substitution o" ()uation 54C2986 into 54C2896 yields Fb2 i _Qos P Q
8
P s
5Tos Ts 6 d 54%2916
P8
The inte$ral in ()uation 54C2916 is the inte$rated temperature de"icit in the descendin$ lithosphere at the depth in the mantle 'here the oli#ineC spinel phase chan$e occurs% This can be e#aluated usin$ the boundary-layer model discussed pre#iously% &n calculatin$ "b in ()uation 54C2A26, 'e "ound that the inte$rated temperature de"icit per unit depth o" the descendin$ plume is a constant% &ts #alue, "rom ()uation 54C2A26, 'ith u8 P #8 ,
444
is
Fluid Mechanics
"bUQ8 $T# or 25Tc T8 6 sl 2Xu8

1U2
/sin$ this "or the #alue o" the inte$ral in ()uation 54C2916, 'e "ind Fb2 P
25Tc T8 6i _Qos sl Q8 2Xu8
1U2
54%2926
:ith _Qos P 238 !$ m 2 , i P > ,0a E 1 , andthe other parameter #alues $i#en abo#e, 'e obtain Fb2 P 1%4 1812 < m 1 % The body "orce due to ele#ation o" the oli#ineCspinel phase chan$e is about hal" the body "orce due to thermal contraction% The total body "orce on the descendin$ lithosphere is Fb P >%9 1812 < m 1 % This "orce is o"ten re"erred to as trench pull% &" the "orce is transmitted to the sur"ace plate as a tensional stress in an elastic lithosphere 'ith a thic!ness o" A8 !m, the re)uired tensional stress is 1 G0a, clearly a #ery hi$h stress% - "orce is also e erted on the sur"ace plates at ocean rid$es% The ele#ation o" the rid$es establishes a pressure head that dri#es the "lo' horiBontally a'ay "rom the center o" the ascendin$ plume% This ridge push can also be thou$ht o" as gravitational sliding% - component o" the $ra#itational "ield causes the sur"ace plate to slide do'n'ard alon$ the slope bet'een the rid$e crest and the deep ocean basin% The "orce e erted on a sur"ace plate due to the ele#ation o" an ocean rid$e can be e#aluated "rom the "orce balance in Fi$ure 4C>>% :e consider the horiBontal "orces on a section o" the ocean, lithosphere, and underlyin$ mantle, as sho'n in the "i$ure% -ll pressure "orces are re"erenced to the rid$e crest 5y P 86% The 'ater layer abo#e the rid$e crest has a constant depth and e erts no net horiBontal "orce% The inte$rated horiBontal "orce on the base o" the lithosphere F1 can be determined "rom the e)uilibrium o" section ;1 D o" the mantle% The net horiBontal pressure "orce on ;D, FA , must e)ual F1 % The "orce FA is easily obtained by inte$ratin$ the lithostatic pressure beneath the rid$e crestF
]
FA P F1 P
]
'Ry. 8
Qm $y dy,
54%2926
'here Qm is the mantle density% This can be re'ritten as F1 P $ 'here 54%29A6

' 8
Qm y dy R $
y.
Qm 5' R yf6 dyf, 54%29>6
yf P y '%
Fi$ure 4%>> 9oriBontal "orces actin$ on a section o" the ocean, lithosphere, and mantle at an ocean rid$e%
The inte$rated pressure "orce on the upper sur"ace o" the lithosphere F2 is e)ual to F> , the net pressure "orce on 0, because the section o" 'ater R 0 must be in e)uilibrium% Thus 'e can inte$rate the hydrostatic pressure in the 'ater to obtain
]
F2 P F> P
'
Q' $y dy,
54%2946
'here Q' is the 'ater density% The horiBontal "orce F2 actin$ on the section o" lithosphere 0C is the inte$ral o" the pressure in the lithosphere 0.
]
F2 P 'here
y. 8
0. dyf,
]
yf 8
54%2936
0. P Q' $' R
Q. $ dyf
54%2986
and Q. is the density in the lithosphere% Substitutin$ ()uation 54C2986 into ()uation 54C2936 $i#es
]
F2 P
y. 8
Q' $' R
]yf
Q. $ 8
dyf dyf%
54%2996
The net horiBontal "orce on the lithosphere ad?acent to an ocean rid$e F; is obtained by combinin$ ()uations 54C29>6, 54C2946, and 54C2996
]
F; P F1 F2 F2 P $
]
y. 8
'
5Qm Q' 6y dy
]
yf
R$
5Qm Q' 6' R Qm yf Q. dyf dyf 8 %
54%>886
888
Fluid Mechanics ] yf
8
:e substitute the isostatic relation "rom ()uation 5>C28>6 and the identity Qm yf P to $i#e
] '2 F; P $5Qm Q' 6 R 2 $ ]
y.
Qm dyf
54%>816
5 ]
8
5Q. Qm 6 dyf
yf 8
5Q. Qm 6 dyf dyf
'2 P $5Qm Q' 6 2

]
5
R$
8 yf
dyf % 5Q. Qm 6 dyf
54%>826
-s in ()uation 5>C2846 the limit y. has been replaced by because the inte$rals are con#er$ent% Substitution o" ()uations 5>C28A6 and 5>C12>6 and 1 u B P yf 8 2 s yields ' F; P $5Qm Q' 6 R $Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 2 ] ] >s er"cB dB dB, 54%>8>6 u8 8 B 'here T1 is the mantle temperature% The repeated inte$ral o" the complementary error "unction has the #alue 1U>% @y substitutin$ "or ' "rom ()uation 5>C2896, 'e "inally arri#e at 2 Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 s F; P $Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 1 R u8 5Qm Q' 6 X 2 Q T 5T T 6 P $Qm T# 5T1 T8 6 1 R m # 1 8 st, 5Qm Q' 6 X 54%>8A6
2 1U2
54%>826
'here t is the a$e o" the sea"loor% The horiBontal "orces re)uired to maintain topo$raphy 'ere deri#ed in Section AC1> and the resultin$ rid$e push "orce "or the plate coolin$ model 'as $i#en in ()uation 5AC1316% The $eoid anomaly _< associated 'ith
Fi$ure 4%>A Frictional heatin$ in 1ouette "lo'%
the hal"-space coolin$ model 'as $i#en in ()uation 5AC1A36% Substitution o" ()uation 5AC1A36 into ()uation 54C>8A6 $i#es F; P $ 2 _< % 2XG 54%>846
This result 'as pre#iously $i#en in ()uation 5AC1386% From ()uation 54C>8A6 the "orce due to the ele#ation o" the ocean rid$e is proportional to the a$e o" the lithosphere% Ta!in$ $ P 18 m s 2 , Qm P 2 2288 !$ m ,A Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , s P 1 mm2 s 1 , T1 T8 P 1288 E, and 1 T# P 2 18 E , 'e12 "ind that the total rid$e push on 188 ,yr old oceanic lithosphere is 2%9 18 < m 1 % This is a "orce per unit len$th parallel to the rid$e% This rid$e push "orce is in )uite $ood a$reement 'ith the #alue obtained in Section AC1> "or the plate coolin$ model 'ith y.8 P 12A !m% The "orce in the e)uilibrated ocean basin 'as "ound to be 2%>1 1812 < m 1 % ;id$e push is thus an order o" ma$nitude smaller than trench pull% 9o'e#er, trench pull may be mostly o""set by lar$e resisti#e "orces encountered by the descendin$ lithosphere as it penetrates the mantle% The net "orce at the trench is probably comparable to rid$e push% 4%22 9eatin$ by +iscous Dissipation Throu$hout the discussion in this chapter 'e ha#e ne$lected the e""ects o" viscous dissipation or "rictional heatin$% &n this section 'e 'ill calculate the temperature rise and the heat "lu produced by #iscous dissipation in a simple 1ouette "lo' 5see Section 4C26 bet'een plane parallel 'alls, as sho'n in Fi$ure 4C>A% The #elocity pro"ile y 54%>836 u P u8 1 h
181 818
Fluid Mechanics
is produced by the constant shear stress, n PD Du8 du P P n8 , d5y6 h 54%>886
applied at the upper sur"ace 5y P 86 o" the channel% The deri#ati#e 'ith respect to y occurs in ()uation 54C>886 because the outer normal to a horiBontal area at the upper boundary o" the "luid points in the ne$ati#e y direction% The rate at 'hich shear "orces do 'or! on the entire "luid layer, per unit horiBontal area, is $i#en by the product o" the shear stress n8 and the #elocity o" the upper boundary u8 , that is, D8 % u2 h &" 'e a#era$e this o#er the entire "luid layer, 'e $et D8 u2 , h2 the rate o" shear heatin$ per unit #olume% This heatin$ rate per unit #olume is constant because the shear stress is constant and the #elocity pro"ile is linear% For e ample, 'e could ha#e calculated the rate at 'hich shear "orces do 'or! on the "luid in the lo'er hal" o" the channel, Du2 U2h, upon 8 a#era$in$ this o#er the appropriate #olume o" "luid, unit horiBontal area hU2, 'e still $et 8Du2 Uh2 "or the #olumetric heatin$ rate due to #iscous dissipation% This #olumetric heatin$ rate can be identi"ied 'ith the internal #olumetric heat production rate Q9 in ()uation 5>C126 to obtain the e)uation "or the temperature distribution in the channel ! d2 T D 8u2 P % dy 2 2 h 54%>896
- strai$ht"or'ard inte$ration o" this e)uation 'ith the boundary conditions T P T8 at y P 8 and T P T1 at y P h $i#es y
5 6
8 2 2 Du8 y 2 T P T8 R Du T1 T8 R h 2!
2! h2
54%>186
This can be 'ritten in the con#enient dimensionless "orm WP T8 T P y

5
1R
Du2 8 U2!
y2
2 Du8 U2!
T1 T8
?(45 9eating $y Ciscous &issipation
T1 T8
h2
T1 T8
111 111
54%>116
The temperature distribution in the channel is $o#erned by the sin$le dimensionless parameter
2 Du 8 U % 2! 5T1 T8 6
This can be 'ritten as 1U2 times the product o" the 0randtl number 0r and a dimensionless parameter !no'n as the Ec,ert num$er, (
2 u 8 , cp 5T1 T8 6
54%>126
'here cp is the speci"ic heat at constant pressure% Thus 'e can 'rite
2 1 8Du 0r( P U2! 2 5T1 T8 6
54%>126
and WP y
1 R 0r( h 2
y2 2 h
0r( % 2
54%>1>6
The dimensionless temperature W is plotted in Fi$ure 4C>4 "or se#eral #alues o" 0r (% The conduction pro"ile in the absence o" "rictional heatin$ is the strai$ht line "or 0r( P 8% The temperatures in e cess o" this linear pro"ile are a conse)uence o" #iscous dissipation% The slopes o" the temperature pro"iles indicate that so much heat is $enerated by "riction 'hen 0r( P > that heat "lo's out o" the channel at both boundaries% <ormally, 'ith T1 [ T8 , heat "lo's into the channel at the lo'er boundary% The e cess temperature due to "rictional heatin$ We is obtained by subtractin$ the linear pro"ile "rom ()uation 54C>1>6 We P 0r( 2 y h 1 y % h 54%>1A6
The ma imum e cess temperature is "ound by di""erentiatin$ We 'ith respect to yUh and settin$ the result to Bero% The ma imum We occurs at yUh P 1U2 and 0r( ma P % 54%>146 We 8 The up'ard heat "lu at the upper boundary )8 is "ound by usin$ Fouriers la' C ()uation 5>C16 C and ()uation 54C>186 )8 P ! dT dy ! P h
5
yP8
Du2 T1 T8 R 8 % 2!
54%>136
Fi$ure 4%>4 Dimensionless temperature distribution in a "rictionally heated 1ouette "lo'%
The e cess up'ard heat "lu )e at y P 8 is clearly

2 Du 8 % 54%>186 2h &" all the "rictionally $enerated heat "lo'ed out o" the upper boundary, )e 'ould e)ual Du2 8 Uh7 hal" the shear heatin$ in the channel "lo's out throu$h the lo'er boundary% The ratio o" the e cess heat "lo'in$ throu$h the upper boundary )e to the heat "lu 'ithout #iscous dissipation )c P !5T1 T8 6Uh is )e 1 P 0r(% 54%>196 )c 2
)e P
:e can use the results o" this section to )uanti"y the e""ects o" "rictional heatin$ in an asthenospheric shear "lo',"or e ample% :ith D P > 1819 0a s, u8 P A8 mm yr 1, ! P > : m 1 E 1 , and T1 T8 P 288 E, 'e "ind 0r(U2 P 8%8>% Thus the ma imum additional temperature rise due to shear heatin$ 'ould be 1N o" the temperature rise across the asthenosphere or about 2 E in this e ample7 see ()uation 54C>146% The e cess heat "lu to the sur"ace 'ould be >N o" the heat conducted across the asthenosphere in the absence o" dissipation% These results sho' that "rictional heatin$ e""ects in mantle shear "lo's are $enerally small% 9o'e#er, they can be important, especially i" the #iscosity is lar$er than assumed in our numerical e ample% :e discuss "rictional heatin$ a$ain in 1hapter 8 in connection 'ith thermally acti#ated creep on a "ault Bone% 0roblem 4%23 Sho' that hal" o" the "rictionally $enerated heat "lo's out
?(46 Mantle Recycling and Mi#ing
o" the lo'er boundary o" the channel in the 1ouette "lo' e ample in this section% 0roblem 4%28 1onsider "rictional heatin$ in a 1ouette "lo' 'ith an isothermal upper boundary and an insulated lo'er boundary% Determine the temperature pro"ile in the channel and the e cess up'ard heat "lo' at the upper boundary due to the shear heatin$% :hat is the temperature o" the lo'er boundary as a conse)uence o" the "rictional heatin$O 1ompare the temperature rise across this channel 'ith the ma imum temperature rise in a channel 'ith e)ual 'all temperatures%
121 212
4%2> ,antle ;ecyclin$ and ,i in$ The plate tectonic cycle is an inherent component o" mantle con#ection% The sur"ace plates are the lithosphere and the lithosphere is the upper thermal boundary layer o" mantle con#ection cells% The oceanic lithosphere is created at mid-ocean rid$es and is recycled bac! into the mantle at subduction Bones% ,id-ocean rid$es mi$rate o#er the sur"ace o" the (arth in response to the !inematic constraints o" plate tectonics% ,antle roc! ascends passi#ely beneath an ocean rid$e in response to sea"loor spreadin$ and becomes partially molten due to the decrease in pressure on ascent% The ma$ma percolates throu$h the residual solid and then solidi"ies to "orm the oceanic crust, 'ith an a#era$e thic!ness o" 4 !m% The result is a t'o-layer structure "or the ri$id oceanic lithosphere% The upper part o" the lithosphere is the solidi"ied ma$ma o" the oceanic crust and the lo'er part is the complementary residual solid in the upper mantle% The residual solid also has a #ertical strati"ication% The uppermost mantle roc! is hi$hly depleted in the lo'-meltin$-temperature basaltic component, and it $rades into undepleted mantle o#er a depth ran$e o" A8 !m% &sotopic and trace element studies o" mid-ocean rid$e basalts 5,*;@6 sho' that they are remar!ably uni"orm and systematically depleted in incompatible trace elements 'ith respect to bul! (arth #alues% This indicates that, on a#era$e, the mantle source o" ,*;@ is a 'ell-stirred depleted chemical reser#oir on the scale at 'hich it is sampled by mid-ocean rid$e processes% 9o'e#er, hetero$eneities do persist in this reser#oir, as indicated by #ariations in ,*;@% .ar$e-scale hetero$eneities are e#ident in #ariations be- t'een a#era$e -tlantic *cean ,*;@ and a#era$e &ndian *cean ,*;@% &n addition, small-scale hetero$e- neities are e#ident in de#iations "rom a#era$e ,*;@% These hetero$eneities
1>1 >1>
Fluid Mechanics
are most e#ident 'hen the mantle is sampled locally, as it is at youn$ 0aci"ic *cean seamounts% The depleted mantle source o" ,*;@ is complementary to the enriched continental crust% &ncompatible elements are partitioned into the continents by the #olcanic processes responsible "or the "ormation o" the continents7 this occurs primarily at island arcs% :hen the oceanic lithosphere is subducted, the oceanic crust is partially melted7 the resultin$ enriched ma$mas ascend to the sur"ace and "orm island-arc #olcanoes lea#in$ a more stron$ly depleted oceanic lithosphere% The complementary nature o" the continental crust and the ,*;@ source reser#oir re)uires that this depleted oceanic lithosphere, "rom 'hich the continental crust has been e tracted, be mi ed into the ,*;@ source re$ion% -tomic di""usion plays a role in the homo$eniBation o" the mantle only on scales o" a meter or less because the solid-state di""usion coe""icient is so small% +alues o" the rele#ant di""usion coe""icients are estimated to be in the ran$e D P 18 18 18 28 m2 s 1 % *#er the a$e o" the (arth, >%A 189 yr, the correspondin$ ran$e o" di""usion len$ths is 8%2C8%82 m% :e conclude that the subducted lithosphere is mi ed bac! into the mantle by con#ection, but that di""usi#e mi in$ is si$ni"icant only on small scales% This process o" con#ecti#e homo$eniBation is !no'n as !inematic mi in$ and has been e tensi#ely studied in polymer science% The mantle is composed o" a matri o" discrete, elon$ated layers o" subducted oceanic lithosphere% (ach layer has its o'n isotopic, chemical, and a$e identity% The older the layer the more it 'ill ha#e been elon$ated by mantle "lo's7 on a#era$e, the older layers 'ill be thinner% The mantle thus has the appearance o" a marble ca!e% The marble ca!e comprises the enriched oceanic crust, 'hich has been partially depleted by subduction Bone #olcanism, and the complementary, hi$hly depleted upper mantle% -ppro imately the upper 48 !m o" the lithosphere is processed by the plate tectonic cycle% :e "irst as! the )uestionF :hat "raction o" the mantle has been processed by the plate tectonic cycle since the (arth 'as "ormedO :e consider the t'o limitin$ cases o" layered mantle con#ection 5abo#e a depth o" 448 !m6 and 'hole mantle con#ection% To simpli"y the analysis 'e assume that the rate at 'hich mass is ,j processed into a layered structure at ocean rid$es is constant, and that the subducted roc! is uni"ormly distributed throu$hout the mantle 5upper mantle6% :e de"ine ,p to be the primordial unprocessed mass in the mantle reser#oir% The rate o" loss o" this primordial mass by processin$ at ocean
rid$es is $i#en by d,p ,p j P , , 54%>286 dt ,m 'here ,m is the mass o" the mantle participatin$ in the plate tectonic con#ecti#e cycle C the 'hole mantle "or 'hole mantle con#ection and the upper mantle "or layered mantle con#ection% The ratio ,p 5t6U,m is the "raction o" the mantle reser#oir that has not been processed at an ocean rid$e% /pon inte$ration 'ith the initial condition ,p P ,m at t P 8 'e obtain ,p P ,m e 'here ,m 54%>226 ,j is the characteristic time "or processin$ the mantle in the plate tectonic is $i#en by cycle% The processin$ rate ,j dS ,j P Qm hp , 54%>226 dt 'here Qm is the mantle density, hp is the thic!ness o" the layered oceanic lithosphere structure, and dSUdt is the rate at 'hich ne' sur"ace plate area is created 5or subducted6% Ta!in$ dSUdt P 8%881A m2 s 1 5see Fi$ure >C246, 2 hp P 48 !m, and Qm P 2288 !$ m , 'e obtain P 1%41 183 !$ s 1 % ,j For layered mantle con#ection 5,m P 1%8A 182> !$6 the characteristic time "or processin$ the mantle "rom ()uation 54C>226 is np P 2 Gyr7 "or 'hole mantle con#ection np P 8 Gyr% The "raction o" primordial unprocessed mantle ,p U,m obtained "rom ()uation 54C>216 is $i#en as a "unction o" time t in Fi$ure 4C>3 "or both layered and 'hole mantle con#ection% For layered mantle con#ection 18%AN o" the upper mantle is unprocessed at the present time 'hile "or 'hole mantle con#ection A3N is unprocessed% This analysis 'as carried out assumin$ a constant rate o" recyclin$% -s sho'n in Section >CA the rate o" radioacti#e heat $eneration in the (arth 9 'as hi$her in the past% To e tract this heat "rom the (arths interior, the rate o" plate tectonics 'as probably also hi$her in the past% The time dependence o" the radioacti#e heat $eneration as $i#en in Fi$ure >C> can be appro imated by the relation np P 9 P 98 el5te
t6 tUnp
54%>216
54%>2>6
'here 98 is the present rate o" heat production, te is the present #alue o" the time t, and l is the a#era$e decay constant "or the mi ture o" radioacti#e
Fi$ure 4%>3 Fraction o" the mantle reser#oir that has not been processed by the plate tectonic cycle Mp UMm durin$ a period o" time t% 5a 6 :hole mantle con#ection% 5$ 6 .ayered mantle con#ection% The dashed lines are "or a constant processin$ rate and the solid lines are a rate that decreases e ponentially 'ith time%
Fi$ure 4%>8 &llustration o" the !inematic stretchin$ o" a passi#e layer o" material in a uni"orm shear "lo'% 5a 6 &nitially at t P 8 the layer is #ertical and has a thic!ness a8 and a len$th h% 5$ 6 -t a subse)uent time t the layer has been stretched in the horiBontal "lo' to reduced thic!ness a and an increased len$th L%
isotopes in the mantle% From the results $i#en in Fi$ure >C> 'e ta!e l P 2%33 18 18 yr 1% -ssumin$ that the rate ,j at 'hich mass is processed into a layered structure at ocean rid$es is proportional to the rate o" heat $eneration $i#en in ()uation 54C>2>6 'e 'rite ,j P ,j 8 el5te 54%>2A6 'here ,j 8 is the present rate o" processin$% Substitution o" ()uation 54C>2A6 into ()uation 54C>286 $i#es d,p ,j dt ,p ,m
8 t6
el5te t6 %
54%>246
&nte$ration o" ()uation 54C>246 'ith the initial condition ,p P ,m at t P 8 $i#es 1 ,p P ,m e p 5e lte el5te t66 , np8 l 'here np8 P ,m ,j
8
54%>236
54%>286
is a$ain the characteristic time "or processin$ the mantle in the plate tectonic cycle% For layered mantle con#ection 'e a$ain ha#e np8 P 2 Gyr and "or 'hole mantle con#ection 'e ha#e np8 P 8 Gyr% :ith l P 2%33 18 18 yr 1 , the "raction o" primordial unprocessed mantle ,p U,m obtained "rom ()uation 54C>236 is $i#en as a "unction o" time t in Fi$ure 4C>3 "or both layered and 'hole mantle con#ection% For layered mantle con#ection 1N o" the upper mantle is unprocessed at the present time 'hile "or 'hole mantle con#ection 22N is unprocessed% The time-dependent processin$ is more e""icient, as e pected% 9o'e#er, in all cases substantial "ractions o" the mantle reser#oir ha#e been processed by the plate tectonic cycle% The layered oceanic lithosphere is subducted bac! into the mantle at oceanic trenches% The cold subducted lithosphere is heated by conduction "rom the surroundin$ mantle on a time scale o" A8 ,yr% The heated and so"tened subducted lithosphere is then entrained in the mantle con#ecti#e "lo's and is sub?ected to the "luid de"ormation% :ith the assumption that the subducted layered lithosphere beha#es passi#ely, it is sub?ect to !inematic mi in$% :e ne t )uanti"y the rate o" !inematic mi in$ in the mantle% :e consider the problem o" layer stretchin$% -s stated be"ore, 'e hypothesiBe that the subducted oceanic crust becomes entrained in the con#ectin$ mantle and is de"ormed by the strains associated 'ith thermal con#ection% Einematic mi in$ can occur by both shear strains and normal strains% :e "irst consider the thinnin$ o" a passi#e layer in a uni"orm shear "lo'% &nitially 'e ta!e the one-dimensional channel "lo' 51ouette "lo', see Fi$ure 4C2a6 o" 'idth h as illustrated in Fi$ure 4C>8% The passi#e layer has an initial 'idth a8 and is assumed to be #ertical 'ith a len$th .% The linear #elocity pro"ile "rom ()uation 54C126 is u P gj5h y6, 54%>296
'here the strain rate gj P u8 Uh% -t a subse)uent time t the top o" the layer
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Fluid Mechanics
Fi$ure 4%>9 &llustration o" the !inematic stretchin$ o" a passi#e layer o" material in a uni"orm sta$nation point "lo'% The con#er$in$ #ertical "lo' is $i#en by ()uation 54C>2A6 and the di#er$in$ horiBontal "lo' is $i#en by ()uation 54C>2>6% 5a 6 &nitially at t P 8 the passi#e horiBontal layer has a thic!ness a8 % 5$ 6 -t a subse)uent time t the layer has been stretched and its thic!ness has been reduced to a%
has mo#ed a distance u8 t 'hile the bottom boundary remains in place% The total len$th o" the strip is no' . P hd1 R 5gjt62 e1U2 % 54%>286 9o'e#er, to conser#e the mass o" material in the strip 'e re)uire ha8 P .a% Substitution o" ()uation 54C>286 into 54C>216 $i#es a 1 P % a8 d1 R 5gjt62 e
1U2
54%>216
54%>226
-nd "or lar$e strains, gjt 1, this becomes a P 5gjt6 1 % a8 54%>226
/sin$ ()uation 54C>226 'e can determine ho' lon$ it ta!es to thin the subducted oceanic crust 5a8 P 4 !m6 to a thic!ness a P 18 mm% For 'hole 1 14 1 s mantle con#ection 'e ta!e P A8 mm yr U2884 !m P A%A 18 gj and "ind that t P 2%A 18> Gyr% For layered mantle con#ection 'e ta!e gj P A8 mm yr 1 U448 !m P 2%> 18 1A s 1 and "ind that t P 3%9 182 Gyr% 1learly this type o" mi in$ is #ery ine""icient% &n the relati#ely comple "lo's associated 'ith mantle con#ection, normal strains may also be important "or mi in$% -n idealiBed "lo' that illustrates normal strain is the t'o-dimensional sta$nation point "lo' illustrated in
Fi$ure 4C>9% &n this "lo' u P gj # P gjy, 54%>2>6 54%>2A6
'here u is the -component o" #elocity and # is the y-component o" #elocity% The strain rate gj is independent o" time% &n the upper hal"space 5y [ 86 there is a uni"orm do'n'ard "lo' and in the lo'er hal"space 5y \ 86 there is a uni"orm up'ard "lo'% These #ertical "lo's con#er$e on y P 8% There is a complementary di#er$ent horiBontal "lo'% &n the ri$ht hal"-space 5 [ 86 there is a uni"orm di#er$ent "lo' to the ri$ht% &n the le"t hal"-space there is a uni"orm di#er$ent "lo' to the le"t% This steady sta$nation "lo' satis"ies the $o#ernin$ continuity ()uation 54C A26 and "orce balance e)uations 54C436 and 54C486% 0roblem 4%29 *btain the stream "unction correspondin$ to the t'odimensional sta$nation point "lo' $i#en in ()uations 54C>2>6 and 54C>2A6% Sho' that this stream "unction satis"ies the biharmonic ()uation 54C3>6% :e a$ain consider the thinnin$ o" a passi#e layer by the sta$nation point "lo'% The This passi#e layer initially occupies the re$ion a8 U2 y a8 U2% de"ormation o" this layer is uni"orm in direction and the chan$e o" the layer thic!ness a 'ith time is $i#en by 1 da P #5a6 P gja% 2 dt &nte$ration 'ith the initial condition a P a8 at t P 8 $i#es a P a8 e
2gjt
54%>246
54%>236 The sta$nation point "lo' stretches and thins the passi#e layer% :ith normal strains the passi#e layer thins e ponentially 'ith time% <ormal strains are much more e""ecti#e in layer thinnin$ than shear strains% @ased on ()uation 54C>236, 'e can determine ho' lon$ it ta!es "or normal strains to thin the subducted oceanic crust 5a8 P 4 !m6 to a thic!ness o" 18 mm% :e a$ain ta!e gj P A%A 18 14 s 1 "or 'hole mantle con#ection and "ind t P 288 ,yr% For layered mantle con#ection 'e ta!e gj P 2%> 18 1A s 1 and "ind t P 88 ,yr% Thus, normal strains can thin the oceanic lithosphere to thic!nesses that can8 be homo$eniBed by di""usion in reasonable len$ths o" $eolo$ical time 518 yr6% The "irst )uestion that arises in discussin$ the $eolo$ical implications o" the mi in$ hypothesis is 'hether there is direct obser#ational e#idence o" an imper"ectly mi ed mantle% -llHe$re and Turcotte 519846 ar$ued that the
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Lmarble ca!e structureM associated 'ith imper"ect mi in$ can be seen in hi$h-temperature peridotites 5also called oro$enic lherBolite massi"s6, 'hich represent samples o" the (arths mantle% Typical locations include @eni @ousera in ,orocco, ;honda in Spain, and .herB in France% These roc!s consist primarily o" depleted lherBolite% (mbedded in this matri are bands o" pyro enite comprisin$ a "e' percent o" the massi"% Trace element studies o" these bands indicate that they 'ere ori$inally basaltic in composition% These characteristics led to the postulate that the bands are "ormer samples o" oceanic crust that ha#e been subducted and de"ormed by con#ecti#e shear be"ore emplacement into their current locations% The bands ran$e in thic!ness "rom a "e' meters to a "e' centimeters and some ha#e been e tensi#ely "olded% (ssentially, no stripes are "ound 'ith thic!nesses o" 1 cm or less, probably because stripes o" this 'idth ha#e been destroyed by di""usi#e processes% -ccordin$ to this hypothesis, they ha#e under$one A to 4 orders o" ma$nitude o" thinnin$ "rom an initial thic!ness o" 4 !m% Fi$ure 4CA8 illustrates some e amples% Further e#idence "or the marble ca!e structure o" the mantle comes "rom eclo$itic enoliths associated 'ith basaltic #olcanism and !imberlites% &n some !imberlites, diamonds are "ound in the eclo$ite nodules% These Leclo$iticM diamonds ha#e been "ound to ha#e carbon isotope ratios characteristic o" sediments% - number o" authors ha#e su$$ested that subducted carbonates are one source o" diamonds% GraphitiBed diamonds ha#e been "ound in the pyro enite bands o" the @eni @ousera hi$h-temperature peridotite in ,orocco% These obser#ations are completely consistent 'ith the hypothesis that sediments are entrained in the subducted oceanic crust% Durin$ con#ecti#e mi in$ in the deep interior some carbonate sediments are trans"ormed to diamonds as the oceanic crust in 'hich they are embedded is stretched and thinned% 1ollateral ;eadin$ -llHe$re, 1% J%, and D% .% Turcotte 519846, &mplications o" a t'ocomponent marble-ca!e mantle, 8ature 222, 122C123% 1urrie, J% @%, 9% :% 0atnode, and ;% 0% Trump 519426, De#elopment o" "olds in sedimentary strata, Geol( "oc( m( 0ull( 32, 4AAC43>% 1ollateral ;eadin$ -cheson, D% J%, Elementary Fluid &ynamics 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, * "ord, 19986, 293 pa$es%
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Fi$ure 4%A8 1ccurrences of pyro#enite layers in the 0eni 0ousera high2temperature peridotite, Morocco( Grey, pyro#eniteH !hite, lher+olite !ith foliation( )a * 1ccurrences in an outcrop !ith no foldingH )$ */)d *, occurrences !ith folding and $oudinage(
A22
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This is an intermediate le#el te tboo! that co#ers a broad ran$e o" topics in "luid dynamics% Topics o" particular interest include the <a#ierCSto!es e)uations, #ery #iscous "lo's, and "luid instabilities% @atchelor, G% E%, n Introduction to Fluid &ynamics 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19436, 41A pa$es% - modern classic on the "undamentals o" "luid mechanics 'ritten "or the student 'ith a $ood "oundation in applied mathematics and a "amiliarity 'ith #ector analysis and tensor notation% The topics co#ered include the physical properties o" "luids, !inematics o" "lo' "ields, e)uations $o#ernin$ the motions o" "luids, "lo's o" a uni"orm incompressible #iscous "luid, "lo's at lar$e ;eynolds numbers 5boundarylayer theory6, and the theory o" irrotational "lo's% Discussions o" lo' ;eynolds number "lo's are particularly use"ul "or $eolo$ical applications% ,any sections contain challen$in$ e ercises "or the student% 1athles, .% ,%, %he Ciscosity of the EarthAs Mantle 50rinceton /ni#ersity 0ress, 0rinceton, <e' Jersey, 193A6, 284 pa$es% - research mono$raph describin$ ho' the #iscosity o" the mantle has been in"erred "rom the $eolo$ical data on upli"t and subsidence o" the (arths sur"ace in response to the meltin$ o" the last $reat ice sheets that co#ered 1anada, Fennoscandia, and Siberia and the addition o" this 'ater to the oceans% The boo! presents the basic theory necessary "or modelin$ the (arths isostatic ad?ustment to these 0leistocene load redistributions as that o" a sel"-$ra#itatin$, #iscoelastic sphere% The $eolo$ical data are re#ie'ed and applied to the models to in"er a mantle 'ith a nearly uni"orm #iscosity o" -B 21 0a s% 1handrase!har, S%, 9ydrodynamic and 9ydromagnetic "ta$ility 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19416, 4A2 pa$es% - classic treatise on the stability o" "luids sub?ected to ad#erse distributions o" temperature and density, an$ular #elocity, an$ular momentum, shear, $ra#ity, and capillarity% The onset o" thermal con#ection in "luid layers heated "rom belo' is treated 'ith particular completeness and ri$or% The re)uired le#el o" mathematical e pertise is hi$h% The student should be "amiliar 'ith #ector analysis, tensor notation, and partial di""erential e)uations% Faber, T% (%, Fluid &ynamics for Physicists 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 199A6, >>8 pa$es% This is a comprehensi#e treatment o" the "undamentals o" "luid dynamics at a moderately ad#anced le#el% &t co#ers a 'ide #ariety o" topics 'ith many applications%
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Furbish, D% J%, Fluid Physics in Geology 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, <e' =or!, 19936, >34 pa$es% This is a relati#ely ad#anced le#el te tboo! that treats a 'ide #ariety o" problems in "luid mechanics 'ith $eolo$ical applications% @oth "luid "lo's and "lo's in porous media recei#e attention% Johnson, -% ,%, Physical Process in Geology 5Freeman, 1ooper, San Fran- cisco, 19386, A33 pa$es% - basic te tboo! on mechanics and its applications to $eolo$ical problems% (mphasis is placed on the de#elopment o" "le ure theory "rom the "undamental principles $o#ernin$ the beha#ior o" elastic materials% Theories o" plate and beam bendin$ are applied to the $eolo$ical problem o" "oldin$% Stresses and "ailure criteria are discussed in the conte t o" understandin$ patterns o" "aults, ?oints, and di!es% - "inal chapter deals 'ith the rheolo$y and "lo' o" ice, la#a, and debris% There are e ercises "or the student and the mathematical le#el is not demandin$ $i#en the nature o" the sub?ect% Johnson, -% ,%, "tyles of FoldingD Mechanics and Mechanisms of Folding of 8atural Elastic Materials 5(lse#ier, -msterdam, 19336, >84 pa$es% - specialiBed boo! detailin$ the research o" the author and his collea$ues on "oldin$% ,any o" the chapters are indi#idual research papers pre#iously published in #arious ?ournals% 1hapter 1 re#ie's the literature on "oldin$% 1hapter 2 discusses the "oldin$ o" bedded sandstones in -rches <ational ,onument, /tah, and attempts to understand these "olds usin$ @iots theory "or buc!lin$ #iscous layers% The ne t se#eral chapters discuss more sophisticated attempts to model the obser#ed characteristics o" "olds includin$ their !in!-li!e and che#ron-li!e appearances% .amb, 9%, 9ydrodynamics, 4th edition 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19226, 328 pa$es% - classic treatise on the "undamentals o" hydrodynamics, the dynamics o" in- #iscid "luids% The ma?or sub?ects include the e)uations o" motion, irrotational "lo's motions o" a li)uid in t'o and three dimensions, motions o" solids throu$h a li)uid, #orte motions, tidal 'a#es, sur"ace 'a#es, 'a#es o" e pansion, e""ects o" #iscosity, and rotatin$ li)uid masses% The le#el o" mathematical sophistication is hi$h% .an$lois, :% (%, "lo! Ciscous Flo! 5,acmillan 1ompany, <e' =or!, 194>6, 229 pa$es% - boo! on lo' ;eynolds number "luid dynamics "or the applied mathematician% Familiarity 'ith di""erential e)uations and multiple inte$rals is assumed% The "irst chapter introduces cartesian tensors that are used
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2>2 >2>
Collateral Reading
e tensi#ely throu$hout the te t% 1hapter 2 discusses the basic e)uations and boundary conditions o" #iscous "lo' theory% ;emainin$ chapters treat e act solutions o" the e)uations, pipe "lo', "lo' past a sphere, plane "lo', rotary "lo', and lubrication theory% ;amber$, 9%, Gravity, &eformation and the EarthAs Crust 5-cademic 0ress, .ondon, 19436, 21> pa$es% - te tboo! on laboratory and theoretical modelin$ o" $eolo$ic structures resultin$ "rom tectonic de"ormation o" the crust% The role o" $ra#ity in tectonics is emphasiBed% -mon$ the problems discussed are dome structures, buc!lin$ o" horiBontal layers, buc!lin$ o" the crust, spreadin$ and "oldin$, buoyant rise o" ma$ma, subsidin$ bodies, and isostatic ad?ustment% -n easily readable, relati#ely nonmathematical discussion o" the dynamics o" $ra#ity tectonics% Schlichtin$, 9%, 0oundary Layer %heory, 4th edition 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 19486, 3>3 pa$es% - classic te tboo! on boundary-layer phenomena 'ritten principally "or en$ineers% The "irst part o" the boo! discusses the "undamentals o" #iscous "luid "lo' and introduces the concept o" a boundary layer% ( act solutions o" the <a#ierCSto!es e)uations o" motion are presented "or "lo's in pipes and channels and other $eometries% - chapter is de#oted to #ery slo' motions and introduces the hydrodynamic theory o" lubrication and 9eleCSha' "lo', both topics ha#in$ applications in $eophysics% - number o" chapters discuss boundary-layer theory in $reat detail, includin$ thermal boundary layers in "orced and natural "lo's% *ther sections deal 'ith turbulence and turbulent boundary layers% - reasonable de$ree o" mathematical sophistication is re)uired% Tritton, D% J%, Physical Fluid &ynamics, 2nd edition 51larendon 0ress, * "ord, 19886, A19 pa$es% This is an outstandin$ introductory te tboo! in "luid mechanics% The author is a $eophysicist, there"ore many o" the topics co#ered are directly rele#ant to $eodynamics% 0ipe and channel "lo's, "lo's past circular cylinders, and "ree con#ecti#e "lo's are treated% The basic e)uations are introduced 'ith concepts o" similarity% +iscous "lo's, strati"ied "lo's, "lo's in rotatin$ "luids, turbulence, double di""usi#e con#ection, and dynamical chaos are considered in depth% :hite, F% ,%, Ciscous Fluid Flo! 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 193>6, 32A pa$es% - te tboo! "or senior under$raduate or "irst-year $raduate students in en$ineerin$ dealin$ 'ith the analysis o" #iscous "lo's% - !no'led$e o" basic "luid mechanics, #ector notation, and di""erential e)uations is assumed%
Collateral Reading
The "irst t'o chapters co#er the properties o" "luids and the basic e)uations $o#ernin$ their beha#ior% 1hapters 2 and > discuss methods o" analysis o" laminar "lo's% 1hapter A treats the stability o" laminar "lo's and their transition to turbulence% 1hapter 4 deals 'ith incompressible turbulent "lo's, 'hile the "inal chapter co#ers compressible laminar and turbulent boundary layers% 0roblems are $i#en at the end o" each chapter%
2A2 A2A
3 ;oc! ;heolo$y
3%1 &ntroduction -t atmospheric pressure and room temperature most roc!s are brittle7 that is, they beha#e nearly elastically until they "ail by "racture% 1rac!s or "ractures in roc! alon$ 'hich there has been little or no relati#e displacement are !no'n as 'oints% They occur on all scales in both sedimentary and i$neous roc!s% Joints are commonly "ound in sets de"inin$ parallel or intersectin$ patterns o" "ailure related to local stress orientations% The brea!do'n o" sur"ace roc!s by erosion and 'eatherin$ is o"ten controlled by systems o" ?oints alon$ 'hich the roc!s are particularly 'ea! and susceptible to disinte$ration and remo#al% These processes in turn enhance the #isibility o" the ?ointin$% &$neous roc!s o"ten de#elop ?oints as a result o" the thermal stresses associated 'ith coolin$ and contraction% 1olumnar ?ointin$ in basaltic la#a "lo's 5Fi$ure 3C16 and parallel ?ointin$ in $ranitic roc!s 5Fi$ure 3C26 are e amples% Faults are "ractures alon$ 'hich there has been relati#e displacement% Faults also occur on all scales7 e amples o" "aults ha#e already been $i#en in Fi$ures 1CA8 and >C2>$ and another e ample is $i#en in Fi$ure 3C 2% The mechanical aspects o" "aultin$ are discussed in the ne t chapter% -lthou$h "racture is important in shallo' crustal roc! at lo' temperatures and pressures, there are many circumstances in 'hich roc! beha#es as a ductile material% &n determinin$ the transition "rom brittle to ductile beha#ior, pressure, temperature, and strain rate are important% &" the con- "inin$ pressure o" roc! is near the brittle stren$th o" the roc!, a transition "rom brittle to ductile beha#ior 'ill occur% To model this beha#ior o" crustal and mantle roc!s, it is o"ten appropriate to use an idealiBed elastic/perfectly plastic rheology% -n elasticCper"ectly plastic material e hibits a linear elastic
=(- Introduction
A29
beha#ior until a yield stress is reached% The material can then be de"ormed plastically an unlimited amount at this stress% -t temperatures that are a si$ni"icant "raction o" the melt temperature the atoms and dislocations in a crystalline solid become su""iciently mobile to result in creep 'hen the solid is sub?ected to de#iatoric stresses% -t #ery lo' stresses di""usion processes dominate, and the crystalline solid beha#es as a <e'tonian "luid 'ith a #iscosity that depends e ponentially on pressure and the in#erse absolute temperature% -t hi$her stresses the motion o" dislocations becomes the dominant creep process resultin$ in a non-<e'tonian or nonlinear "luid beha#ior that also has an e ponential pressure and in#erse absolute temperature dependence% ,antle con#ection and continental dri"t are attributed to these thermally acti#ated creep processes% The e ponential dependence o" the rheolo$y on the in#erse absolute temperature is particularly important in understandin$ the role o" mantle con#ection in transportin$ heat% The temperature dependence o" the rheolo$y acts as a thermostat to re$ulate the mantle temperature% -ny tendency o" the mean mantle temperature to increase is o""set by an associated reduction in mantle #iscosity, an increase in con#ecti#e #i$or, and a more e""icient out'ard transport o" heat% Similarly, a decrease in mantle temperature tends to increase mantle #iscosity, reduce con#ecti#e "lo' #elocities, and decrease the rate o" heat trans"er% -s a result o" the sensiti#e "eedbac! bet'een mean mantle temperature and rheolo$y, relati#ely small chan$es in temperature can produce lar$e chan$es in heat "lu , and the temperature is conse)uently bu""ered at a nearly constant #alue% 1reep processes are also important in the lo'er lithosphere, 'here they can rela elastic stresses% Such beha#ior can be modeled 'ith a rheolo$ical la' that combines linear elasticity and linear 5<e'tonian6 or nonlinear #iscosity% - material that beha#es both elastically and #iscously is !no'n as a viscoelastic medium% +iscoelastic rela ation can be used to determine the thic!ness o" the elastic upper part o" the lithosphere% Foldin$ is e#idence that crustal roc!s also e hibit ductile beha#ior under stress% ( amples o" "oldin$ ha#e been $i#en in Fi$ure 4C28% Pressure solution creep is a mechanism that can account "or the ductility o" crustal roc!s at relati#ely lo' temperatures and pressures% The process in#ol#es the dissolution o" minerals in re$ions o" hi$h pressure and their precipitation in re$ions o" lo' pressure% -s a result creep o" the roc! occurs%
282 828
Roc, rheology
Fi$ure 3%1 1olumnar ?ointin$ in a basalt due to thermal contraction in the De#ils 0ostpile <ational ,onument, 1ali"ornia 5/ni#ersity o" 1olorado, @oulder6%
3%2 (lasticity -t lo' stress le#els and relati#ely hi$h strain rates, roc! beha#es elastically% The linear relations bet'een components o" stress and strain associated 'ith elastic de"ormation ha#e been $i#en in ()uations 52C16 to 52C26 or 52C>6 to 52C46% The elastic beha#ior o" a crystalline solid arises "rom the interatomic "orces maintainin$ each atom in its lattice position% These "orces resist any attempt to mo#e the atoms "arther apart or closer to$ether% &" the crystalline lattice is compressed, the interatomic "orces resist the compression7 i" the crystalline lattice is placed under tension, the interatomic "orces resist the e pansion% This situation is illustrated in Fi$ure 3C>, 'hich sho's the ener$y
=(4 Elasticity
292 929
Fi$ure 3%2 *rdo#ician diabase sill 'ith coolin$ ?oints, ;odeo, San Juan 0ro#ince, -r$entina 5photo$raph courtesy o" ;ichard -llmendin$er6%
o" a crystal lattice / as a "unction o" the separation o" the atoms b% :hen the atoms are in"initely "ar apart, the ener$y o" the lattice is Bero% .on$ran$e attracti#e "orces C "or e ample, the electrostatic 1oulomb "orces bet'een ions o" opposite si$n C act to reduce the separation bet'een atoms7 they cause the ener$y o" the lattice to decrease 'ith decreasin$ lattice spacin$% The repulsi#e "orces that come into play at short ran$e pre#ent the atoms "rom approachin$ too closely7 they cause the lattice ener$y to increase 'ith decreasin$ lattice spacin$% The total ener$y o" the lattice is the sum o" these t'o contributions% &t e hibits a minimum #alue /8 'hen the lattice spacin$ has its e)uilibrium #alue b8 % There are no "orces on the atoms o" the lattice 'hen they occupy their e)uilibrium positions% The ener$y /8 is !no'n as the $inding or cohesive energy o" the lattice% &t is the ener$y re)uired to brea! up the lattice and disperse its atoms to in"inity% The compressibility c o" a solid pro#ides a direct measure o" these interatomic "orces because it $i#es the pressure re)uired to chan$e the #olume, or lattice spacin$, o" the solid% &n the case o" ionic solids such as sodium chloride 5<a1l6 'e can deri#e a simple "ormula connectin$ lattice spacin$, lattice ener$y, and compressibility because o" the relati#ely simple lattice
282 828
Roc, rheology
Fi$ure 3%2 *""sets o" trees in an orchard caused by the m P 3%A Guatemala 1ity earth)ua!e February >, 1934% This earth)ua!e resulted in the deaths o" 22,888 people 5/%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey6%
Fi$ure 3%> .attice ener$y G as a "unction o" lattice spacin$ $%
structures o" such solids and the !no'n character o" the attracti#e ener$y resultin$ "rom ionic bondin$% Fi$ure 3CA sho's the con"i$uration o" the <a1l lattice% (#ery ion is surrounded by si nearest nei$hbors o" opposite si$n7 this is the coordination num$er "or the <a1l lattice% The nearest nei$hbor distance bet'een <aR and 1l ions is b% The atomic #olume, that is, the
=(4 Elasticity
212 121
Fi$ure 3%A .attice structure o" <a1l%
#olume per atom, is b2 % Since there are t'o atoms per molecule in <a1l, the molecular #olume + , or #olume per molecule, is + P 2b2 % &t is standard practice to characteriBe a lattice by its molecular or molar properties% To deri#e the "ormula connectin$ c, b8 , and /8 "or an ionic solid, 'e recall the de"inition o" compressibility pro#ided in ()uation 52CA86% 1ompressibil- ity is the ratio o" the "ractional chan$e in #olume d+ U+ caused by a chan$e in pressure dp to the pressure chan$e, that is, cP 1 d+ % + dp 53%26 53%16
The reciprocal o" the compressibility is the bul! modulus E 1 dp E P+ % c d+ 53%26
;ecall that 'e consider a decrease in #olume to be a positi#e )uantity% Thus 'ith dp [ 8, d+ is positi#e and c is also a positi#e )uantity% The 'or! done by the pressure "orces in compressin$ an elastic solid an amount d+ is pd+ 7 this 'or! is stored as elastic strain ener$y d/ in the crystal lattice, that is, pd+ P d/ or d/ % 53%A6 d+ /pon substitutin$ this e pression "or the pressure into ()uation 53C26, 'e obtain pP 53%>6
1 d2 / P+ , c d+ 2
53%46
'here / is the lattice ener$y per molecule ?ust as + is the molecular #olume% @y ta!in$ the deri#ati#e o" ()uation 53C16 'ith respect to the spacin$ b, 'e obtain d+ P 4b2 db and 1 1 d2 / P % c 18b db2 The compressibility c8 is the #alue o" c at p P 8 'hen the e)uilibrium lattice spacin$ is b8 % Thus 'e ha#e 1 1 P c8 18b8 d2 / db2
bPb8
53%36
53%86
53%96
The e)uilibrium bul! modulus is directly proportional to the second deri#ati#e o" the lattice ener$y per molecule 'ith respect to the lattice spacin$% :e need a model o" the lattice potential ener$y in order to calculate 2 d /Udb2 % For an ionic lattice such as <a1l 'e can 'rite /P 53%186 2B 2 e>Xg8 b R @e
bUs
'here the "irst term is the attracti#e Coulom$ energy o" the lattice, the second term is an appro imate representation o" the short-ran$e repulsi#e potential, B is the number o" electron char$es e on each ion, g8 is the permitti#ity o" "ree space, and -, @, and s are constants% The char$e on an electron e is 1%482 18 19 coulomb and g8 P 8%8A 18 12 "arad m 1 % The constant -, !no'n as the Madelung constant, depends only on lattice structure and can be calculated "or any ionic lattice% For <a1l, - is 1%3>34 and B P 1% The calculation o" - is strai$ht"or'ard% The 1oulomb ener$y o" an <aR ion and a 1l ion separated by a distance b is e2 U>Xg8 b% The 1oulomb ener$y o" any ion pair is $i#en by a similar "ormula employin$ the appropriate separation distance and usin$ a plus si$n "or ions o" the same si$n% Since the re$ular $eometrical structure o" the lattice allo's any separation distance to be calculated in terms o" $, the 1oulomb ener$y o" any ion pair can be 'ritten as a positi#e or ne$ati#e multiple o" e2 U>Xg8 b% Thus, the total ener$y obtained by summin$ the 1oulomb potential ener$ies bet'een any one ion and all other ions in the lattice can be 'ritten in the "orm e2 -U>Xg8 b%
The second deri#ati#e o" ()uation 53C186 'ith respect to lattice spacin$ b $i#es d2 / db2 P
2 1 2B 2 e@ b8 Us % 2 R 2e >Xg8 b8 s
bPb8
53%116
The constants @ and s can be eliminated "rom this e pression by notin$ that d/Udb is Bero at the e)uilibrium spacin$ b P b8 d/ db P 8P
bPb8
B 2 e2 - 1 @ b8 Us e >Xg8 b2 s 8
53%126
and / P /8 , the lattice potential ener$y per molecule, at b P b8 /8 P ()uation 53C126 yields @e
b Us 8
B 2 e 2 R @e b8 Us % >Xg8 b8
53%126
P /8 R
B 2 e2 , >Xg8 b8
53%1>6
'hich, to$ether 'ith ()uation 53C126, $i#es >X g8 b2 B 2 e2 % s P 2 2 8 /8 R B e >Xg8 b8 / R 8 2/8 R

BZ2 eZ2 >X g8 b8 B 2 e2 >Xg8 b8
53%1A6
@y combinin$ ()uations 53C96, 53C116, 53C1>6, and 53C1A6, 'e obtain >X g8 > c8 P 18b 8 2 B e2 'hich, upon rearran$ement, $i#es /8 P 9+8 R c8 2c8 R 9+8
B2e 2 >Xg8 b8 >X g8 b8 B 2 e2 -
53%146
53%136
2 'here, "rom ()uation 53C16, +8 is the e)uilibrium molecular #olume 2b8 % ()uation 53C136 pro#ides a means o" calculatin$ the bindin$ ener$y per molecule in an ionic solid "rom basic in"ormation on lattice structure and measurements o" density and compressibility% @ecause the bindin$ ener$y is the ener$y re)uired to disperse the lattice, 'e can compare the prediction o" this e)uation 'ith independent thermodynamic determinations o" /8 % For <a1l 'e ha#e already noted that - P 1%3>34 and B P 1% &n addition,
Table 3%1 Elastic and "tructural &ata for Computing the Lattice 0inding Energies of "everal 1#ides
1rystal @e* ,$* 1a* ]n* C 518C28 m2 6 12%33 18%43 23%82 22%3> 1%884 1%3>8 1%3>8 1%98A c 518C12 0aC1 6 >%424 4%2A> 9%A22 3%199
c8 P >%24 18 11 0a 1 % Since the density o" <a1l is 2142 !$ m2 2 and its A molecular 'ei$ht is A8%>>8, its molar #olume is 2%382 18 m % 5 mole o" a substance has a mass e)ual to its molecular 'ei$ht times 18 2 !$%6 @ecause a mole o" <a1l contains -#o$adros number 5<8 P 4%822 1822 6 29 o" molecules, its molecular #olume is +8 P >%>84 18 m2 % :ith +8 $i#en 18 2 by 2b 'e "ind b8 P 2%82 18 m% :hen these #alues o" c8 , +8 , b8 , B, and 18 - are substituted intoA ()uation J 1 1 53C136, 'e obtain 1 /8 P 1%242 18 8 molecule P 3%4 18 J mole P 348 !J mole % Thermodynamic data 1 $i#e 332 !J mole "or the bindin$ ener$y o" <a1l% There is $ood a$reement bet'een the calculated and measured #alues o" bindin$ ener$y "or ionic crystals because the "orces bet'een the ions in the lattice are short-ran$e repulsi#e "orces and 1oulomb "orces% 9o'e#er, other "orces not accounted "or in this theory are important in the lattices o" o ides and silicates% These "orces include #an der :aals "orces, co#alent bonds, and dipole and hi$her order multipole "orces% The "orces associated 'ith co#alent bondin$ are $enerally the most important o" the nonionic "orces% Theoretical estimates o" lattice bindin$ ener$y must include the ener$y in these bonds% 0roblem 3%1 1ompute the bindin$ ener$y o" 1s1l% /se c8 P A%9A 18 11 0a 1 , Q8 P 2988 !$ m 2 , and - P 1%3423% The molecular 'ei$ht o" 1s1l is 148%24, and thermodynamic data $i#e /8 P 448 !J mole 1 % 0roblem 3%2 1alculate the bindin$ ener$ies o" the o ides @e*, ,$*, 1a*, and ]n* usin$ the data in Table 3C1% -ccount only "or the 1oulomb and repulsi#e ener$ies% 0roblem 3%2 - theoretical estimate o" the stren$th o" a crystalline solid is its bindin$ ener$y per unit #olume% (#aluate the stren$th o" "orsterite i" its bindin$ ener$y is 182 !J mole 1 and its mean atomic #olume is 4%24 18 4 m2 mole 1 % The presence o" $rain boundaries and dislocations 'ea!ens a crystalline solid considerably belo' its theoretical stren$th%
The atoms o" a crystalline solid do not, o" course, occupy "i ed lattice positions% The lattice sites are the mean locations o" the atoms, 'hich oscillate about their e)uilibrium positions% The ener$y in these oscillatory motions is the internal thermal ener$y o" the solid% The temperature o" a crystalline solid is a measure o" its internal ener$y and the #i$or o" the oscillations o" its atoms% The oscillations o" the atoms in a crystalline solid are a conse)uence o" the interatomic "orces tendin$ to bind the atoms to their lattice sites% &n their e)uilibrium positions the atoms e perience no net "orce% 9o'e#er, the displacement o" an atom "rom its lattice site results in a "orce on the atom tendin$ to restore it to its e)uilibrium position% To a "irst appro imation, that is, "or small e cursions o" an atom "rom its e)uilibrium location, the restorin$ "orce is linearly proportional to the displacement o" the atom and results in simple harmonic motion o" the atom about its e)uilibrium position% -s "or the thermal ener$y o" a lattice, consider the atoms as bein$ interconnected by elastic sprin$s 'ith linear restorin$ "orces% The lattice thermal ener$y resides in the !inetic ener$y o" the oscillatin$ atoms and the elastic strain ener$y or potential ener$y o" the sprin$s% The e)uation o" simple harmonic motion o" an atom about its e)uilibrium position is, in one dimension, m d 2 R !f P 8, dt 53%186 'here m is the mass o" the atom, is its displacement "rom the e)uilibrium position 5 P 86, and !f is the Lsprin$ constant,M a measure o" the stren$th o" the interatomic restorin$ "orces% The "orce on the atom is !f 7 it al'ays points in the direction o" the e)uilibrium position P 8% - solution "or the position and #elocity 5# P d Udt6 o" the atom is 2Xt n 2Xt # P #8 cos , n P
8 2
sin
53%196 53%286
'here the period n o" the oscillation is $i#en by n P 2X m !f

1U2
,
8
53%216 are
and the ma imum #elocity #8 and ma imum displacement related accordin$ to #8 P 2X n

8
!f
1U2
8%
53%226
The period o" the oscillation n is !no'n as the Einstein period7 its reciprocal is the Einstein fre3uency% 1 The instantaneous !inetic ener$y o" the atom is 2 m# 2 % The !inetic ener$y #aries bet'een 8, 'hen the atom is at the "arthest point o" its e cursion, and 1 m# 2 'hen the atom is passin$ throu$h its e)uilibrium position% 8The 2 mean !inetic ener$y o" the atom durin$ a sin$le oscillation period is
] 1 m# 2 m n 2 8 m#2 P # dt P 2 2n 8 2n !f m# 2 ]
8 n
cos2
2X t n
dt
8 % 53%226 > > The mean !inetic ener$y is one-hal" the ma imum !inetic ener$y% To obtain the potential ener$y o" the atom, 'e need only inte$rate the product o" the "orce actin$ on the atom !f 'ith the in"initesimal displacement d "rom the e)uilibrium position to any location % The instantaneous potential ener$y o" the atom is ] 1 f 2 f , 5 ! 6 d P !
53%2>6
8
'here the minus si$n in "ront o" the inte$ral accounts "or the "act that the "orce and the displacement are in opposite directions% The potential ener$y #aries bet'een 8, 'hen the atom is passin$ throu$h its e)uilibrium position, and 1 !f 2 , 'hen the atom is "arthest a'ay "rom the ori$in% The 8 2 mean potential ener$y o" the atom durin$ an oscillatory cycle is 1f ! 2
2
!f
n
dt 53%2A6
2n 8 ]n f 2X t !f 2 ! 2 8 P sin2 dt P 8 % n > 2n 8
The mean potential ener$y is one-hal" the ma imum potential ener$y% comparison o" ()uations 53C226 and 53C2A6 sho's that the mean !inetic and potential ener$ies o" the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator are e)ual% The total instantaneous ener$y o" the atom is 1 m# 2 R 1 !f P 2 2
2
1 2
m# 2 cos2
8
2Xt
n 1 2Xt R 8!f 2 sin2 2 n 1f 2 2 2Xt P ! 8 cos R sin2 2 n 1 1 P !f 2 8 P 8
2Xt n 2
m#2 %
53%246
()uation 53C246 is a statement o" conser#ation o" ener$y% -t any point in its oscillation, the ener$y o" the atom is di#ided bet'een !inetic and potential ener$ies, but the sum o" these ener$ies is al'ays a constant% &n an actual lattice, an indi#idual atom can oscillate in any o" three basic ortho$onal directions% Einetic and potential ener$ies can be associated 'ith #ibrations in each o" the three directions% There are thus si contributions to the total ener$y o" an atom7 the atom is said to ha#e si de$rees o" "reedom% <ot all the atoms in the lattice oscillate 'ith the same amplitude% There is a spectrum o" #ibrational amplitudes or ener$ies, as 'e 'ill discuss in more detail in the ne t section% 9o'e#er, accordin$ to the principle o" e3uipartition of energy, 'hen an a#era$e is ta!en o#er all the atoms o" a lattice, the ener$ies associated 'ith the si de$rees o" "reedom are all e)ual and each 1 is $i#en by 2 !T , 'here ! is @oltBmanns constant 5! P 1%2884 18 22 J E 1 6 and T is the absolute temperature% - proo" o" the #alidity o" the e)uipartition principle re)uires the solution o" the SchroVdin$er e)uation "or the )uantum mechanical beha#ior o" atoms% The internal ener$y o" the solid per unit mass e is there"ore $i#en by 45 eP
1 2! T
25! <8 6 2!T 2;T P , P ,a m T 5m<8 6
53%236
'here ; P <8 ! is the uni#ersal $as constant 5; P 8%21>A18 J mole 1 E 1 6 and ,a P m<8 is the mean mass o" -#o$adros number o" atoms in the crystal, that is, the mean atomic 'ei$ht% The speci"ic heat o" the solid c is de"ined to be the chan$e in internal ener$y 'ith temperature de % 53%286 dT From ()uations 53C236 and 53C286 the speci"ic heat c o" a crystalline solid is ; cP2 % 53%296 ,a cP This is the la! of &ulong and Petit7 it is a $ood appro imation "or all crystalline solids at moderate temperatures% -s an e ample, consider "orsterite, ,$2 Si*> , 'hose molecular 'ei$ht is 1>8%32% The mass o" a mole o" "orsterite is 1>8%32 18 2 !$% @ecause a mole o" "orsterite contains 3<8 atoms, the mean 'ei$ht o" <8 atoms is 28%1 18 2 2 1 !$% Thus ,a e)uals 28%1 18 !$ mole , and c, accordin$ to ()uation 53C 296, is 1%2> 182 J !$ 1 E 1 % The measured #alue o" c at standard conditions o" temperature and pressure is 8>8 J !$ 1 E 1 % 0roblem 3%> -ccordin$ to the la' o" Dulon$ and 0etit the speci"ic heats
282 828
Roc, rheology
Fi$ure 3%4 The asymmetry o" the lattice potential ener$y about its minimum results in the e pansion and contraction o" solids 'ith chan$es in temperature%
o" solids should di""er only because o" di""erences in ,a % 1alculate ,a and c "or ,$Si*2 and ,$*% The measured #alues o" c at standard conditions o" 1 temperature and pressure are 81A J !$ 1 E 1 "or ,$Si*2 and 92> J !$ 1 E "or ,$*% 0roblem 3%A *btain an order o" ma$nitude estimate "or the sprin$ constant ,J associated 'ith the interatomic "orces in a silicate crystal such as (b, 'here ( is =oun$s modulus and b is the "orsterite by assumin$ ,J a#era$e interatomic spacin$% =oun$s modulus "or "orsterite is 1%A 1811 0a% *btain a #alue "or b by assumin$ b2 is the mean atomic #olume% The density 2 o" "orsterite is 2288 !$ m % (stimate the ma imum amplitude o" #ibration o" an atom in a "orsterite crystal at a temperature o" 288 E% 9o' does it compare 'ith the mean interatomic spacin$O :hat is the (instein "re)uency at this temperatureO The sprin$ constant may also be estimated "rom the compressibility o" "orsterite usin$ ,J 2bUc, 'here the "actor o" 2 arises "rom the relation bet'een "ractional #olume chan$es and "ractional chan$es in len$th% 9o' does this estimate o" ,J compare 'ith the pre#ious oneO The compressibility o" "orsterite is 8%8 18 11 0a 1 % &" the atoms o" a crystalline solid 'ere per"ect harmonic oscillators, the amplitudes o" their #ibrations 'ould increase 'ith increasin$ temperature, but the mean distances bet'een the atoms 'ould remain constant7 that is, there 'ould be no chan$e in #olume 'ith temperature% The thermal e pansion o" a crystalline solid is thus a direct conse)uence o" the anharmonicity in the #ibrations o" its atoms% The anharmonicity o" the thermal motions is,
in turn, a result o" the asymmetry o" the lattice potential ener$y about its minimum #alue% - )ualitati#e understandin$ o" the phenomenon o" thermal e pansion can be obtained "rom Fi$ure 3C4 'hich sho's the potential ener$y o" a lattice / as a "unction o" the spacin$ b o" its atoms, as in Fi$ure 3C>% The minimum in the potential ener$y cur#e $i#es the e)uilibrium lattice spacin$ b8 at Bero temperature% -t any nonBero #alue o" temperature, the thermal ener$y 2!T is partitioned e)ually bet'een the !inetic and potential ener$ies o" the atoms% Thus the potential ener$y o" the lattice e ceeds the Bero temperature lattice potential ener$y /8 by 2!T U2% -ccordin$ly, the lattice spacin$ can lie bet'een b- and b@ , as sho'n in Fi$ure 3C4, 'here b- and b@ are the #alues o" the lattice spacin$ at the intersections o" the lattice potential ener$y cur#e 'ith the ener$y /82 R 2 !T % The mean lattice spacin$ b1 is b1 P
1 5b2
R b@ 6%
53%286 1learly, because the potential ener$y cur#e is s!e'ed about its minimum, b1 e ceeds b8 7 that is, the lattice e pands 'ith increasin$ temperature% &" the lattice potential ener$y cur#e 'ere symmetric about its minimum, b1 'ould e)ual b8 and there 'ould be no chan$e in mean lattice spacin$, or #olume o" the crystalline solid, 'ith temperature% *ne can deri#e a simple e pression "or the mean lattice spacin$ in terms o" the s!e'ness o" the lattice potential ener$y "unction% Su""iciently near the minimum in the / #ersus b cur#e, the lattice ener$y can be 'ritten as a po'er series / P /8 R aa2 " a2 , 'here a P b b8 % - positi#e #alue o" " ensures o" the minimum than it intersections o" the potential are obtained by substitutin$ 'ith the result 53%226 53%216
that the ener$y rises more steeply to the le"t does to the ri$ht o" this point% The 2 ener$y "unction 'ith the !T 2 ener$y /8 R this #alue o" the ener$y in ()uation 53C216
2 2 !T
P aa2 " a2 %
53%226
The solutions o" ()uation 53C226, correct to "irst order in " 5the asymmetry
in the potential "unction is assumed to be small6, are 2!T 2!T 1U2 R " >a2 2a 2!T 1U2 2!T a@ P R" % 2a >a2 a- P The mean lattice spacin$ is thus b1 P 1 1 5b- R b@ 6 P 5b- b8 R b@ b8 6 R b8 2 2 1 2" !T P 5a- R a@ 6 R b8 R b8 % 2 >a2 P 53%2>6 53%2A6
53%246
The lattice e pands 'ith increasin$ temperature i" " is a nonBero positi#e )uantity, as is the case "or the potential in Fi$ure 3C4% The linear coe""icient o" thermal e pansion, 1 h b1 , 53%236 Tl P b8 hT is one-third o" the #olumetric thermal e pansi#ity T# C see ()uation 5>C13A6 C so that 2 h b T# P b 1 % 53%286 8 hT @y substitutin$ ()uation 53C246 into ()uation 53C286, 'e obtain T# P 9!" % >a2 b8 53%296
The thermal e pansion coe""icient o" a crystalline solid is directly proportional to the s!e'ness o" the lattice potential ener$y "unction about its minimum7 to this order o" appro imation it is also independent o" temperature% The coe""icients a and " in the e pansion o" / about its e)uilibrium #alue /8 can be determined "or an ionic solid "rom the e act e pression "or the lattice potential ener$y C ()uation 53C186% - Taylor series e pansion o" the ri$ht side o" ()uation 53C186 in po'ers o" 5b b8 6 yields, 'ith the help o" ()uation 53C126,
5
/ P /8 R 5b b8 62
5
B 2 e2 - @e b8 Us R 2 2s2 >Xg8 b8 @e b8 Us % 4s2
B 2 e2 R 5b b8 62 >Xg8 b>
8
53%>86
=(5 &iffusion Creep
- comparison o" ()uations 53C216, 53C226, and 53C>86 enables us to identi"y a and " as B 2 e2 @eb8 Us aP R 2 2s2 >Xg8 b 8 B 2 e2 @e b8 Us " P R % > >Xg8 b 4s2 8
>1> 1>1
53%>16 53%>26
@y substitutin$ "or @e b8 Us and s "rom ()uations 53C1>6 and 53C1A6, and by usin$ 53C146 "or c8 and 53C136 "or /8 , 'e "ind aP "P 9b8 c8 53%>26
t u
2 4c8 %
B 2 e2 2>Xg 8 b> c 2
8 8
2c8 R 9+82
>X g8 b8 B 2 e2 -
53%>>6 /pon substitutin$ these e pressions "or a and " into ()uation 53C296, 'e can 'rite the e)uation "or the thermal e pansi#ity o" an ionic crystalline solid as B 2 e2 ! T# P 214Xg b + 2
8 8 8
2c8 R 9+8
>X g8 b8 B 2 e2 -
4c8 2 % 53%>A6
18 For <a1l 'e ha#e seen that B P 1, - P 1%3>34, m, b8 P 2%82 18 +8 P >%>84 18 29 m2 , and c8 P >%24 18 11 0a 1 % :hen these #alues 1 A are used in ()uation 53C>A6, 'e obtain T# P 2%24 18 E % This is an estimate o" the Bero temperature #alue o" thermal e pansi#ity% The measured #alue o" the coe""icient o" thermal e pansion o" <a1l at 288 E is about A times lar$er7 at 188 E the measured #alue o" T# is only 2 times lar$er%
0roblem 3%4 1alculate the thermal e pansi#ity o" 1s1l "rom the data contained in 0roblem 3C1% The elastic beha#ior o" a crystalline solid is limited to relati#ely lo' temperatures T and pressures p% -t hi$her #alues o" T and p other microscopic physical processes occur that allo' the solid to creep% :e no' proceed to discuss these other de"ormation mechanisms% 3%2 Di""usion 1reep -t #ery lo' stress le#els, creep de"ormation in roc!s occurs predominantly by di""usion% &iffusion creep results "rom the di""usion o" atoms throu$h
the interiors o" crystal $rains 'hen the $rains are sub?ected to stress% -s a result o" the di""usion, the $rains de"orm leadin$ to roc! strain% :e 'ill deri#e an e pression "or the dependence o" strain rate on stress usin$ a simple model "or a crystalline solid% *ur result 'ill sho' that di""usion creep leads to a <e'tonian "luid beha#ior% - #iscosity "or the solid also 'ill be deri#ed% Di""usion can also occur alon$ $rain boundaries% &n some cases this process dominates o#er di""usion throu$h the interiors o" $rains% :hen $rain boundary di""usion controls crystal de"ormation, the process is !no'n as Co$le creep% &n the pre#ious section 'e described ho' the mean !inetic ener$y associ2 ated 'ith the thermal motions o" atoms in a crystal lattice is 2 !T per atom, 1 correspondin$ to 2 !T "or #ibrations in each o" the three ortho$onal directions% &ndi#idual atoms ha#e !inetic ener$ies that are distributed about this mean7 some atoms ha#e hi$her !inetic ener$ies than the mean, and some ha#e lo'er ener$ies% The number o" atoms per unit #olume dnY 'ith !inetic ener$ies bet'een Y and Y R dY is $i#en by dnY P Y 2X nY1U2 e p dY, 2U2 !T 5X!T 6 53%>46
'here n is the total number o" atoms per unit #olume% This is the Ma#!ell/ 0olt+mann distri$ution o" ener$y7 it has a 'ide application to all "orms o" matter% 0roblem 3%3 +eri"y that the total number o" atoms per unit #olume in the ,a 'ellC@oltBmann distribution is n by inte$ratin$ ()uation 53C >46 o#er all ener$ies bet'een 8 and % 0roblem 3%8 The a#era$e !inetic ener$y Yf o" an atom in a crystalline solid is $i#en by ] 1 f Y P Y % 53%>36 Y dn n 8 2 +eri"y that the ,a 'ellC@oltBmann distribution $i#es Yf P 2 !T by carryin$ out the inte$ration% (ach atom in the crystalline solid is bound to its lattice site by the interatomic "orces discussed in the pre#ious section% -n atom is e""ecti#ely in a potential 'ell7 i" its !inetic ener$y e ceeds the potential ener$y barrier Y8 con"inin$ it to its lattice position, it is able to escape the site and mo#e else'here in the lattice% &n the conte t o" the one-dimensional simple harmonic oscillator model, an atom 'hose #ibrational amplitude 8 matches the lattice spacin$ b must certainly be considered to ha#e escaped "rom its
site in the lattice% The barrier potential ener$y Y8 can thus be e)uated 'ith 1 f 2 the ma imum potential ener$y 2 ! b o" such an atom Y8 P
1 f 2 2! b %
53%>86 The sprin$ constant o" the interatomic "orces is a measure o" the barrier potential ener$y% The (instein period o" an atom 'ith su""icient ener$y to escape its lattice site can be related to Y8 by sol#in$ ()uation 53C>86 "or !f and substitutin$ into 53C216% The result is n P 2Xb m 2Y8
1U2
53%>96
The number o" atoms per unit #olume in a crystal that ha#e !inetic ener$ies $reater than Y8 , nY8 , can be "ound by inte$ratin$ ()uation 53C>46 "rom Y P Y8 to Y P
]
nY8 P
Y8
2X n dnY P 5X!T 62U2
Y8
Y1U2 e p
Y dY% !T 53%A86
@y introducin$ s P 5YU!T 61U2 , 'e can re'rite this e)uation as nY8 P

5
>n X 1U2
]
5
Y8 1U2 6 !T
s 2 es ds,
6
53%A16
'hich can be inte$rated by parts to $i#e 2n 2 nY8 P 1U2 5ses 6 X Y Pn 2 8 X!T

5
8 61U2 5 !T Y
R
8 61U2 5 !T Y
dse
s2
1U2
Y8 U!T
Y R er"c 8 !T
1U2
% 53%A26
The ratio nY8 Un is the "raction o" the atoms in a crystalline solid that ha#e su""icient ener$y to ?ump the potential barrier bet'een lattice sites% @ecause most lattice sites are occupied, the potential barrier Y8 must $reatly e ceed 2 the a#era$e !inetic ener$y o" the atoms 2 !T % Thus, Y8 U!T 1, and 'e can simpli"y the e pression "or nY8 Un by usin$ the asymptotic "ormula "or the complementary error "unction, er"c Y8 !T
1U2
!T XY8
1U2 Y8 U!T
53%A26
'hich is #alid 'hen the ar$ument o" er"c is lar$e compared 'ith unity% &t is clear "rom ()uation 53CA26 that the second term in 53CA26 is much
smaller
than the "irst and can be ne$lected 'hen Y8 U!T 1% The simpli"ied "ormula "or nY8 is there"ore nY8 P 2n Y8 X!T
1U2 Y8 U!T
53%A>6
The "raction o" hi$h ener$y atoms is a #ery sensiti#e "unction o" temperature throu$h its e ponential dependence on the in#erse absolute temperature% -t any "inite temperature, some atoms ha#e enou$h ener$y to escape "rom their lattice sites7 there"ore, some lattice positions 'ill be empty% These open lattice sites are !no'n as vacancies% - #acancy is one "orm o" a point defect in a crystal% *ther types o" point de"ects are interstitial atoms that do not "it into the re$ular lattice structure and impurity atoms% +acancies play an essential role in di""usion processes% .et us ma!e the reasonable assumption that the number o" #acancies per unit #olume n# in a crystal lattice is e)ual to the number o" atoms that ha#e su""icient ener$y to o#ercome the potential barrier% From ()uation 53CA>6 'e can there"ore 'rite n# P nY8 P 2n Y8 X!T
1U2 Y8 U!T
53%AA6
&" the lattice site ad?acent to an atom is unoccupied, the atom can ?ump into the site 'hen its ener$y e ceeds the potential ener$y barrier Y8 % The site ori$inally occupied by the atom becomes a #acancy% &n e""ect, the #acancy has ?umped into the ad?acent lattice site% :e are interested in the rate at 'hich #acancies mi$rate or di""use throu$h a lattice because 'e shall see that the "lo' o" #acancies "rom one re$ion o" a crystal to another can de"orm the crystal and lead to creep% The "re)uency r#,R 'ith 'hich a $i#en #acancy ?umps into the ad?acent lattice site in the R direction is the product o" the probability that the atom in that site has the re)uisite barrier ener$y, nY8 Un, and the "re)uency 'ith 'hich the atom mo#es to'ard the #acancy, 1U4n 5in an (instein period n the atom can mo#e in any one o" si directions6F n Y8 r#,R P % 53%A46 4n n @y substitutin$ ()uation 53CAA6 "or nY8 and 53C>96 "or n into 53CA46, 'e obtain Y8 2 Y U!T 1U2 r#,R P 53%A36 e 8 % 4Xb Xm!T The presence o" a #acancy actually reduces the potential ener$y barrier a$ainst an ad?acent atom ?umpin$ into the #acant site% 9o'e#er, this e""ect has not been ta!en into account in this appro imate analysis% .et us assume that a small $radient o" #acancy density e ists in the crystal
Fi$ure 3%3 Di""usion o" a minor species in a crystalline solid% &nitially 5a6 all atoms o" minor species - are to the le"t o" the dashed line% +acancies are denoted by un"illed spaces% -"ter a time that is o" the order o" an (instein period multiplied by n# Un, a si$ni"icant "raction o" the atoms 'ill ha#e randomly ?umped into ad?acent #acancies% This is illustrated in 5$6 'ith arro's denotin$ the directions in 'hich atoms ha#e ?umped in order to create the #acancies% The "urther mi$ration o" atoms into #acant lattice sites is illustrated in 5c6 and 5d 6% Species - 'ill e#entually become randomly mi ed%
in the direction% The number o" #acancies per unit #olume is n# 5 6% The number o" #acancies on the plane o" atoms at per unit area is n# 5 6b% The number o" #acancies on the ad?acent plane o" atoms at R b per unit area is n# 5 R b6b% The net rate o" "lo' o" #acancies "rom the plane o" atoms at to the plane o" atoms at R b is, per unit area, J#, P r#,R n# 5 6b r#, n# 5 R b6b% 53%A86 The deri#ation o" r#,R leadin$ to ()uation 53CA36 could ?ust as easily ha#e been applied to the ?ump "re)uency o" a #acancy into an ad?acent lattice site in the direction, r#, % Thus r#,R P r#, and ()uation 53CA86 can be 'ritten n# 5 R b6 n# 5 6 J#, P b2 r#,R % 53%A96 b
&" the spacin$ b bet'een the planes o" atoms is small compared 'ith the scale o" #ariation o" n# , it is a $ood appro imation to 'rite n# 5 R b6 n# 5 6 53%486 b P d dn# %
The e pression "or the #acancy "lu can there"ore be 'ritten dn# J#, P b2 r#,R % d 53%416
The "lu o" #acancies by di""usion is directly proportional to the $radient o" the #acancy number density% The minus si$n in ()uation 53C 416 means that #acancies di""use "rom re$ions o" hi$h #acancy concentration to'ard re$ions o" lo' #acancy density 5the #acancy density $radient points in the direction o" increasin$ #acancy concentration6% The ma$nitude o" the constant o" proportionality in ()uation 53C416 is the diffusion coefficient D# "or #acancies D# P b2 r#,R % &n terms o" the di""usion coe""icient, the #acancy "lu can be 'ritten J#, P D# dn# , d 53%426 53%426
a "orm !no'n as Fic,As first la! of diffusion% @y substitutin$ ()uation 53C A36 into 53C426, 'e "ind that the #acancy di""usion coe""icient is $i#en by Y8 b D# P
1U2
2 Xm!T e
Y U!T
8
4X
53%4>6
So "ar 'e ha#e discussed only the di""usion o" #acancies in a crystal lattice% &" a lattice predominantly made up o" atoms o" species @ contains a small nonuni"orm concentration o" atoms o" species -, the e istence o" #acancies 'ill allo' the atoms o" species - to mi$rate or di""use throu$h the lattice, a process illustrated in Fi$ure 3C3% &nitially all atoms o" minor species - are to the le"t o" the dashed line 5Fi$ure 3C3a6% +acancies are denoted by blan! spaces% -"ter a time that is o" the order o" the product o" the (instein period and the ratio n# Un, a si$ni"icant "raction o" the #acancies 'ill ha#e been "illed by atoms that ha#e randomly ?umped "rom ad?acent lattice sites% This is illustrated )ualitati#ely in Fi$ures 3C3bCd% -rro's denote the directions in 'hich atoms ha#e ?umped% -s a result o" the random mi$ration o" atoms, species - becomes more e#enly distributed in the re$ion% &n Fi$ure 3C3d there are as many atoms o" species - to the ri$ht o" the dashed line as there are to the le"t% There"ore, an initially ordered distribution o" minor species - 5all atoms o" species - to the le"t o" the dashed line6 has become disordered 5atoms o" species - randomly distributed throu$hout the re$ion6% The entropy o" the system has increased, and the process cannot be re#ersed% Di""usion is an irre#ersible phenomenon%
To )uantitati#ely describe the di""usion o" a nonuni"ormly distributed minor species -, 'e need to determine the "re)uency r-,R 'ith 'hich a $i#en atom o" species - ?umps into a #acant lattice site in the R direction% The "re)uency is the product o" three "actorsF the probability that the atom has the re)uisite ener$y, n-,Y8 Un- 5n- is the number density o" atoms o" species - and n-,Y8 is the number o" atoms o" species - per unit #olume 'ith ener$y in e cess o" Y8 6, the probability that the ad?acent lattice site is empty n# Un, and the "re)uency 'ith 'hich the atom mo#es to'ard the ad?acent lattice site in the R direction, 1U4n , n# 1 % 53%4A6 n 4n The "raction o" atoms o" any species 'ith ener$y in e cess o" the barrier ener$y Y8 depends only on temperature 5see ()uation 53CAA66% -ccordin$ly, 'e can e)uate the number density ratios n-,Y8 n P Y8 53%446 n nand 'rite r-,R as n nY8 r-,R P # % 53%436 n 4n n r-,R P /pon comparin$ ()uations 53CA46 and 53C436, 'e see that the "re)uency "actors r-,R and r#,R are related by n 53%486 r-,R P # r#,R % n The "re)uency 'ith 'hich a minor species atom ?umps in the R direction is smaller, by the "actor n# Un, than the "re)uency 'ith 'hich a #acancy ?umps% The reason "or this is that a minor species atom ?umps in the R direction only 'hen there is a #acancy in the ad?acent position, 'hile a #a- cancy ma!es the ?ump 'ith an atom in the ad?acent position% The li!elihood that a #acancy is in the ad?acent site is much smaller than the chance that an atom occupies the position% :e no' assume that a concentration $radient o" minor species - e ists in a crystal in the direction% The number o" atoms o" species - on the plane o" atoms at per unit area is n- 5 6b% The number o" atoms o" species - on the ad?acent plane o" atoms at R b per unit area is n- 5 R b6b% The net rate o" "lo' o" atoms o" species - "rom the plane o" atoms at to the plane o" atoms at R b is, per unit area, J-, P r-,R n- 5 6b r-, n- 5 R b6b P br-,R {n- 5 R b6 n- 5 6}, 53%496 n-,Y8 n-
>8> 8>8
'here 'e ha#e used the "act that r-,R P r-, ?ust as r#,R P r#, % @y usin$ ()uation 53C486, 'e can re'rite the e)uation "or the "lu o" minor species atoms as J-, P b2 n # r#,R n n - 5 R b6 n % 5 6 b 53%386
Roc, rheology
&" the spacin$ b bet'een planes o" atoms is small compared 'ith the scale o" #ariation o" n- , it is a $ood appro imation to 'rite n- 5 R b6 n- 5 6 53%316 b P d dn%
/pon substitutin$ ()uation 53C316 into 53C386, 'e obtain dnb2 n # r#,R % 53%326 d n ,inor species atoms di""use do'n their concentration $radient in accordance 'ith Fic!s "irst la'% The di""usion coe""icient "or the atoms D is $i#en by b2 n# n D P 53%326 r#,R P # D# % n n &n terms o" D, the "lu o" minor species atoms is J-, P dn% 53%3>6 d @y combinin$ ()uations 53CAA6, 53C4>6, and 53C326, 'e put the di""usion coe""icient "or atoms in the "orm J-, P D DP Y8 b 2Y8 2X 2 !T m
1U2 2Y8 U!T
53%3A6
-n alternati#e e pression "or D employs the $as constant ;, the mean atomic 'ei$ht ,a , and the barrier ener$y per mole (8 P <8 Y8 , D P (8 b 2(8 2 2X ;T ,a
1U2 2(8 U;T
53%346
&n $eneral, the di""usion coe""icient is a "unction o" both temperature T and pressure p, a dependence o"ten e pressed in the "orm D P D8 e p (a R p+a , ;T 53%336
'here (a is the acti#ation ener$y per mole, +a is the acti#ation #olume per mole, and D8 is the "re)uency "actor% The term p+a ta!es account o" the e""ect o" pressure in reducin$ the number o" #acancies and increasin$ the
Table 3%2 Properties of "everal Elements Including &iffusion Coefficient Parameters &8 and Ea for the Given Radioactive Isotope
-luminum -tomic mass Density, !$ m 2 ,elt temperature, E Speci"ic heat, J !$ 1 E 1 &sothermal compressibility, 0a 1 +olume coe""icient o" thermal e pansion, E 1 Di""usin$ radioacti#e isotope Fre)uency "actor, D8 , m2 s 1 -cti#ation ener$y, (a , !J mole 1 24%98 2388 922 988 11 1%28 18 A 3%A 18 -123 1%3 18 > 1>2 1opper 42%AA 8948 12A4 28A 8%32 18 11 A A 18 1u43 3%8 18 A 211 ,a$nesium 2>%28 13>8 922 1813 2%8 1811 3%A 18 A ,$28 1%A 18 > 124 Silicon 28%89 2228 1482 382 1%8 1811 8%9 18 A Si21 1%8 18 1 >48
=(5 &iffusion Creep A41
A8A 8A8
potential ener$y barrier bet'een lattice sites% <ote that ()uation 53C336 ne$lects the temperature dependence o" the "re)uency "actor% :e can also account "or both the temperature and pressure dependences o" the di""usion coe""icient by the e)uation D P D8 e
aT
m UT
Roc, rheology
53%386
'here Tm is the melt temperature o" the crystalline solid% The ratio T UTm is re"erred to as the homologous temperature% The pressure dependence o" the di""usion coe""icient is accounted "or throu$h the pressure dependence o" the melt temperature% The parameters in ()uation 53C336, (a , +a , and D8 , or the ones in 53C 386, a, Tm , and D8 , are usually empirically determined% Di""usion coe""icients "or many crystalline solids can be obtained by usin$ radioacti#e isotopes as tracers% The di""usion o" the radioacti#e isotope throu$h the crystal can be monitored and the di""usion coe""icient thereby determined% Di""usion coe""icient parameters "or se#eral elements are $i#en in Table 3C2% 0roblem 3%9 1onsider the one-dimensional di""usion o" radioacti#e tracer atoms initially absent "rom a crystalline solid but deposited uni"ormly at time t P 8 on the sur"ace P 8 o" the semi-in"inite solid% The number o" radioacti#e atoms deposited at t P 8 is 1 per unit sur"ace area% Sho' that the concentration o" radioacti#e atoms n 5number per unit #olume6 in the solid must satis"y the di""usion e)uation hn h2 n P D 2% ht h 53%396
()uation 53C396 can be obtained by "irst deri#in$ the e)uation o" conser#ation o" tracer atoms hn hJ P , ht h 53%886
'here 'e assume that tracer atoms di""use in the direction only% The actual decay o" the tracer atoms has been i$nored in "ormulatin$ the mass balance% Sol#e ()uation 53C396 sub?ect to the initial and boundary conditions n 5 , t P 86 P 8
]
8
53%816 53%826
n 5 , t6 d P 1%
Table 3%2 Model &ata for &etermining the &iffusion Coefficient from a Radioactive %racer E#periment
1ounts per Second A828 2988 2A8A 129A A38 Section Thic!ness 518C4 m6 18> 118 181 98 94
Fi$ure 3%8 Di""usion o" atoms in a cubic crystal o" dimension h due to the application o" a horiBontal compressi#e stress and a #ertical tensional stress% The shape o" the crystal a"ter the di""usion o" a sur"ace layer o" atoms is illustrated by the dashed lines% The si "aces o" the cube are denoted by , 0, C, &, E, and F%
Sho' that n 5 , t6 is $i#en by n 5 , t6 P 2 1 % e p >Dt 5XDt61U2 53%826
:e sol#ed a similar heat di""usion problem in Section >C21% Determine the di""usion coe""icient "or the laboratory data summariBed in Table 3C2% The data 'ere obtained by depositin$ a thin layer o" tracer atoms on an -& sur"ace, annealin$ "or 28 hours, and then sectionin$% :e no' consider ho' the di""usion o" atoms in a crystal in the presence o" di""erential stress can result in creep% Di""usion creep is illustrated in Fi$ure 3C8% - crystal is initially a cube o" dimension h% The crystal is sub?ected
to a compressional stress b in the direction and an e)ual tensional stress b in the y direction% These stresses cause atoms to di""use "rom the crystal "aces - and 1 to the crystal "aces @ and D% -lternati#ely 'e can consider the e)ui#alent process o" #acancy di""usion in the opposite direction% :hen a layer o" atoms has been remo#ed "rom "aces - and 1 and added to "aces @ and D, the strain in the direction is g P 2bUh, and the strain in the y direction is gyy P 2bUh% &t should also be noted that atoms di""use a'ay "rom "aces - and 1 to'ard "aces ( and F 5on 'hich no stresses are applied, bBB P 86 and di""use a'ay "rom "aces ( and F to'ard "aces @ and D% There 'ill be no net loss or $ain o" atoms on "aces ( and F so that gBB P 8% @ecause o" the application o" a compressional stress on "ace - 5and "ace 1 6 the number density o" #acancies is decreased "rom n# to n#- % Similarly, the application o" a tensional stress on "ace @ 5and "ace D6 increases the number density o" #acancies "rom n# to n#@ % The number density o" #acancies on "aces ( and F remains n# because no stress is applied% The di""erence in #acancy densities on the "aces o" the cube results in a "lu o" #acancies "rom "aces @ and D to "aces - and 1 and a correspondin$ "lu o" atoms "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces @ and D% The "lu es o" #acancies 5per unit area and time6 "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces @ and D are, "rom ()uation 53C426, D 2 5n#@ n#- 6% J#,-@ P J#,-D P J#,1 @ P J#,1 D # h P 53%8>6 &n 'ritin$ ()uations 53C8>6, 'e ha#e used n#D P n#@ and n#1 P n#- and the "act that hU 2 is the mean distance bet'een ad?acent "aces o" the cube% Similarly, the "lu es o" #acancies "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces ( and F and "rom "aces ( and F to "aces @ and D are J#,-( P J#,-F P J#,1 ( P J#,1 F P D# h D# h 2 5n#@ n# 6% 53%846 2 5n# n#- 6 53%8A6
J#,( @ P J#,( D P J#,F @ P J#,F D P
The area o#er 'hich each "lu occurs is h2 U 2, and the strain associated 'ith the trans"er o" each #acancy is b2 Uh2 % The rates o" strain in the and
y directions are there"ore $i#en by

2 b2 h gjyy P 2 5J#,-@ R J#,-D R J#,1 @ R J#,1 D h 2 R J#,( @ R J#,( D R J#,F @ R J#,F D 6 53%836
gj
2 b2 h 5J#,-@ R J#,-D R J#,1 @ R J#,1 D h2 2 R J#,-( R J#,-F R J#,1 ( R J#,1 F 6%
53%886
The "lu es can be eliminated "rom these strain rate e pressions by substitution o" ()uations 53C8>6 to 53C846% &" in addition 'e use the "act that n P 1Ub2 , 'e obtain >D# yy P 2 52n #@ n #- n # 6 gj nh 53%896 >D# # R #@ #- 6% P 2 5n n 2n nh 53%986 :e must no' speci"y ho' the #acancy densities n#- and n#@ gj that dri#e di""usion depend on the applied stresses% The isotropic #acancy density in the absence o" an applied stress n# is $i#en by ()uation 53CAA6% @y direct analo$y 'ith the 'ay pressure a""ects the di""usion constant 5see ()uation 53C3366 the stresses at the crystal boundaries modi"y the #acancy density accordin$ to (8 X;T (8 X;T
1U2
n#- P 2n n#@ P 2n
5(8 R b +a 6 e p ;T e p 5(8 b +a 6 ;T %
53%916 53%926
1U2
&" the applied stress is su""iciently small, then b+a U;T 1, and 'e can 'rite n# b +a P eb+a U;T 1 ;T n# b +a n# @ P eb+a U;T 1 R % n# 53%9>6 ;T 53%926
@y substitutin$ ()uations 53C326, 53C926, and 53C9>6 into ()uations 53C896 and 53C986, 'e obtain gj P gjyy P
12+a D b% ;T h2
53%9A6
Di""usion creep, also re"erred to as 9erring/8a$arro creep, results in a linear relationship bet'een strain rate and stress% - <e'tonian "luid e hibits a linear relationship bet'een stress and #elocity $radient7 "rom ()uation 54C A46 'e ha#e hu n P 2D % 53%946 h &n our creep analysis 'e ha#e b P b P n and usin$ ()uation 52C826 'e 'rite hu h h' h h' hg P P P gj % P h h ht ht h ht 53%936 Substitution o" ()uation 53C936 into ()uation 53C946 $i#es b P 2Dgj %
53%986 From ()uations 53C9A6 and 53C946 the #iscosity o" the crystalline solid is $i#en by DP ;T h2 2>+a D % 53%996
@y substitutin$ "or the di""usion coe""icient "rom ()uation 53C336, 'e can re'rite the "ormula "or the #iscosity associated 'ith di""usion creep as DP or usin$ ()uation 53C386 ;T h2 aTm e p 53%1816 2>+a D8 T % The <e'tonian #iscosity o" di""usion creep is stron$ly temperature and pressure dependent% The temperature dependence o" the pree ponential "actor in ()uations 53C1886 and 53C1816 is #irtually insi$ni"icant 'hen compared 'ith the hi$hly sensiti#e dependence o" the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature% @ecause o" the dominance o" the e ponential "actor, D decreases mar!edly 'ith an increase in temperature% The di""usion creep #iscosity increases 'ith pressure, as can be seen directly in ()uation 53C 1886% @ecause Tm increases 'ith pressure, the dependence o" D on p is also inherent in ()uation 53C1816% So "ar in our discussion o" di""usion creep 'e ha#e assumed that the atoms di""use throu$h the interiors o" mineral $rains% 9o'e#er, di""usion occurs alon$ $rain boundaries as 'ell% &" the di""usion coe""icient "or $rain boundary DP (a R p +a ;T h2 e p , 2>+a D8 ;T 53%1886
di""usion o" #acancies D#b is much lar$er than the coe""icient "or di""usion o" #acancies throu$h the interiors o" $rains, $rain boundary di""usion may be the dominant manner in 'hich creep occurs% For the di""usion o" #acancies alon$ $rain boundaries the "lu es o" #acancies "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces @ and D 5see Fi$ure 3C86 are, "rom ()uation 53C426, J#,-@ P J#,-D P J#,1 @ P J#,1 D P D# b 5n#@ n#- 6, h 53%1826
'here h is the mean distance o" di""usion alon$ the boundary% The speci"ication o" constant #alues o" n#@ , n#- , etc%, on the $rain boundaries is only an appro imation because di""usion occurs alon$ these same boundaries% The "lu es o" #acancies "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces ( and F and "rom "aces ( and F to "aces @ and D are, accordin$ to ()uation 53C426, J#,-( P J#,-F P J#,1 ( P J#,1 F P D# b 5n n#- 6 h # 53%1826 D#b 5n #@ n # 6% h
J#,( @ P J#,( D P J#,F @ P J#,F D P
53%18>6
The area o#er 'hich each "lu occurs is ha, 'here a is the 'idth o" the $rain boundary% -s be"ore, the strain associated 'ith the trans"er o" each #acancy is b2 Uh2 % There"ore, 'e can 'rite the net strain rates as 'e did pre#iously in ()uations 53C836 and 53C886 in the "orm b2 gjyy P 2 ha5J#,-@ R J#,-D R J#,1 @ R J#,1 h
D
R J#,( @ R J#,( D R J#,F @ R J#,F D 6 53%18A6 gj P b2 ha5J#,-@ R J#,-D R J#,1 @ R J#,1 h2

D
R J#,-( R J#,-F R J#,1 ( R J#,1 F 6%
53%1846
/pon substitution o" ()uations 53C1826 to 53C18>6 into 53C18A6 and 53C 1846, 'e obtain e pressions "or the strain rates that are analo$ous to those o" ()uations 53C896 and 53C986 gjyy P gj >aD#b 52n#@ n#- n# 6 h2 n >aD P 2 #b 5n# R n#@ 2n#- 6% h n 53%1836 53%1886
:e can "urther simpli"y these e)uations, as 'e did pre#iously, by substitutin$ the "ormulas "or n#- Un# and n#@ Un# "rom ()uations 53C926 and 53C9>6% &n addition, 'e can introduce a di""usion coe""icient "or $rain boundary di""usion o" atoms Db , by analo$y 'ith ()uation 53C326, as n Db P # D#b % 53%1896 n The strain rates can then be 'ritten 12+a aDb b% 53%1186 gj P gjyy ;T h2 P Grain boundary creep, or 1oble creep, also yields a linear relationship bet'een rate o" strain and stress% The associated #iscosity, "rom ()uation 53C986, is ;T h2 DP % 53%1116 2>+a aDb The $rain boundary di""usion coe""icient is also o" the "orm $i#en in ()uation 53C336, that is, ( R p+a Db P Db8 e p a , 53%1126 ;T so that the #iscosity o" $rain boundary creep can be 'ritten ;T h2 (a R p+a e p 53%1126 % 2>+a aDb8 ;T The dependence o" #iscosity on temperature and pressure 'hen di""usion ta!es place alon$ $rain boundaries is the same as 'hen di""usion occurs throu$h the interiors o" $rains% The ma$nitude o" the ratio aDb UhD determines 'hether $rain boundary or intra$ranular di""usion dominates% DP 3%> Dislocation 1reep &n the pre#ious section 'e sa' ho' the mi$ration o" #acancies in crystalline solids leads to creep de"ormation% &n this section 'e e plain ho' the mi$ration o" dislocations also results in subsolidus creep% &islocations are imper"ections in the crystalline lattice structure% -lthou$h dislocations can be "ound in many comple "orms, they can all be obtained by the superposition o" t'o basic types% These are the ed$e and scre' dislocations% -n ed$e dislocation in a cubic lattice is illustrated in Fi$ure 3C9% - plane o" atoms is present in part o" the crystal% The end o" the plane, indicated by the solid circle in Fi$ure 3C9, de"ines the line o" atoms perpendicular to the "i$ure that is the edge dislocation% The dislocation de"orms the crystal
=(6 &islocation Creep
A3A 3A3
Fi$ure 3%9 Side #ie' o" an ed$e dislocation in a cubic lattice% The ed$e dislocation is the line o" atoms at the end o" the additional plane o" atoms in the upper part o" the crystal% The ed$e dislocation, denoted by the solid circle, is perpendicular to the plane o" the "i$ure% T'o @ur$ers circuits are also sho'n% The one in the lo'er part o" the "i$ure does not include the dislocation and is closed% The @ur$ers circuit in the upper part o" the "i$ure includes the ed$e dislocation% The ten steps in the t'o circuits are numbered, and the upper circuit does not close% The #ector de"inin$ the lac! o" closure b{ is the @ur$ers #ector "or this dislocation%
lattice and produces stresses in it as a result% The ad?acent planes o" atoms are in compression abo#e the dislocation and in tension belo' it% Dislocations are de"ined in terms o" the 0urgers vector, 'hich is a measure o" the relati#e atomic motion 5slip6 that occurs 'hen a dislocation line passes throu$h a lattice% The sur"ace that traces the motion o" a dislocation line is the glide surface, and such sur"aces are usually planar% Speci"ication o" the @ur$ers #ector and the line direction "ully de"ines a dislocation% The @ur$ers #ector is determined by a @ur$ers circuit% @ur$ers circuit that does not include a dislocation is illustrated in the lo'er part o" Fi$ure 3C9% The ten steps on the circuit are numbered, and the circuit closes% - @ur$ers circuit that includes the ed$e dislocation is sho'n in the upper part o" Fi$ure 3C9% -$ain the ten steps on the circuit are numbered, but the circuit does not close% The #ector de"inin$ the lac! o" closure is the @ur$ers #ector b % For
A8A 8A8
Roc, rheology
Fi$ure 3%18 - scre' dislocation in a cubic lattice constitutes a de"ormation that is out o" the plane o" atoms illustrated% The t'o atoms denoted by solid circles are essentially part o" a second plane% The @ur$ers circuit indicated by the numbered steps naturally mo#es into this second plane% There"ore in order to close the circuit the @ur$ers #ector b{ must be perpendicular to the plane o" atoms sho'n%
the simple cubic lattice 'ith a sin$le ed$e dislocation |b | P b% The @ur$ers #ector o" an ed$e dislocation lies in the plane o" the @ur$ers circuit% The scre! dislocation is an out-o"-the-plane de"ormation o" the crystal, as indicated in Fi$ure 3C18% The appropriate @ur$ers circuit is also sho'n% -"ter the circuit that includes the scre' dislocation is completed, a displacement perpendicular to the plane o" the circuit is re)uired to close the circuit% Thus the @ur$ers #ector is perpendicular to the plane o" the @ur$ers circuit% &" the @ur$ers circuit 'ere continued, it 'ould "orm a second circuit lyin$ mainly in the layer o" atoms behind the one illustrated be"ore endin$ on a third layer% The "urther continuation o" the @ur$ers circuit 'ould constitute a spiral motion "rom one layer to another% @ecause this spiral motion resembles the threads on a scre', this out-o"-the-plane crystal de"ormation is called a scre' dislocation i" the dislocation line is parallel to the @ur$ers #ector% &" the dislocation line is perpendicular to the @ur$ers #ector, it is an ed$e dislocation% ,ost dislocations ha#e both ed$e and scre' components% The t'o principal 'ays in 'hich dislocations can contribute to creep are throu$h dislocation clim$ and dislocation slip% :e "irst consider dislocation climb, as illustrated in Fi$ure 3C11 "or a pair o" ed$e dislocations% The pro-
cess o" dislocation climb "or an ed$e dislocation re"ers to either a len$thenin$ or a shortenin$ o" the e tra plane o" atoms de"inin$ the dislocation% The dislocation line mo#es by the addition o" atoms% This is not a mass-conser#in$ motion because it re)uires the di""usion o" atoms "rom else'here in the lattice% For a crystal under horiBontal compression and #ertical tension, the ed$e dislocation de"ined by the additional #ertical plane o" atoms tends to shorten and the ed$e dislocation de"ined by the e tra horiBontal plane o" atoms tends to len$then% -s a result, compressional strain occurs in the horiBontal direction, and e tensional strain occurs in the #ertical direction% Fi$ure 3C11 sho's ho' the di""usion o" the atoms $, c, and d "rom the e tra #ertical plane to the e tra horiBontal plane results in the de"ormation% The dislocation de"ined by the e tra #ertical plane o" atoms climbs as a result o" the process% The di""usion o" atoms bet'een dislocations is caused by the mi$ration o" #acancies as discussed in the pre#ious section% Thus the analysis de#eloped "or di""usion creep can also be applied to the len$thenin$ and shortenin$ o" crystals by dislocation climb% Dislocation slip is illustrated in Fi$ure 3C12 "or an ed$e dislocation% The process in#ol#es the trans"er o" an ed$e dislocation to an ad?acent plane o" atoms as the result o" a shear stress applied to the crystal% This motion conser#es mass so that di""usion o" atoms throu$h the lattice is not re)uired% Shear strain occurs as the dislocation s'eeps across the lattice% Dislocation slip is a thermally acti#ated process dri#en by a shear stress actin$ on the dislocation% @ecause di""usion throu$h the lattice structure is not re)uired, dislocation slip is a more rapid process than dislocation climb% There are many alternati#e )uantitati#e "ormulations "or dislocation creep% -ll types o" dislocation creep are thermally acti#ated processes, at relati#ely lo' stress le#els, so the rheolo$y is e ponentially dependent on the in#erse absolute temperature and the pressure% -$ain the ,a 'ellC@oltBmann distribution $i#es the number o" atoms that ha#e su""icient ener$y to o#ercome the interatomic bonds restrictin$ the motion o" a dislocation% Di""erent "ormulations yield di""erent po'er-la' relations bet'een strain rate and stress7 ho'e#er, all are non-<e'tonian% -s an e ample o" one approach 'e assume that dislocations act as sources and sin!s o" #acancies ?ust as $rain boundaries do in di""usion creep% ()uation 53C9A6 can then be used to relate the strain rate gj or gjyy to the stress b i" the $rain siBe h is replaced by the mean spacin$ bet'een dislocations hd gj P gjyy P 12+a D b% ;T h2 d 53%11>6
=(6 &islocation Creep
A9A 9A9
The mean spacin$ bet'een dislocations is related to the #olume density o"
dislocations nd by
hd P nd
1U2
53%11A6
The dislocation density, or alternati#ely hd , depends on stress and many other "actors% /nder a 'ide ran$e o" conditions, b G , 53%1146 b 'here b is the ma$nitude o" the @ur$ers #ector "or the dislocations and G is the shear modulus% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 53C1146 into ()uation 53C11>6, 'e obtain 12+a D 2 yy P gj P gj 53%1136 ;T b2 G 2 b as the relation bet'een strain rate and stress "or dislocation creep% -lthou$h dislocation creep $i#es a non-<e'tonian "luid beha#ior, an e""ecti#e #iscosity De"" can still be de"ined 5usin$ ()uation 53C9866 as the ratio o" stress to t'ice the strain rate b ;T b2 G2 1 De"" P P % 53%1186 2>+a D b 2 2gj hd P @y substitutin$ ()uation 53C336 "or the di""usion coe""icient into 53C 1186, 'e can re'rite De"" as ;T b2 G2 1 e p De"" P 2>+a D8 b 2 (a R p+a % ;T 53%1196
The e""ecti#e #iscosity o" dislocation creep is in#ersely proportional to the s)uare o" the stress7 it is also proportional to the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature and the pressure% The stress dependence o" De"" "or dislocation creep "acilitates de"ormation in re$ions o" hi$h stress%
Fi$ure 3%11 The process o" dislocation climb% @ecause o" the di""usion o" the atoms $, c, and d "rom the e tra #ertical plane o" atoms to the additional horiBontal plane o" atoms, the crystal is shortened in the # direction and len$thened in the y direction% This is the result o" the tensional stress in the y direction and the compressional stress in the # direction that dri#es the di""usion o" atoms bet'een the t'o dislocations%
Fi$ure 3%12 The process o" dislocation slip "or an ed$e dislocation in#ol#es the trans"er o" the dislocation to ad?acent planes o" atoms as the result o" an applied shear stress%
3%A Shear Flo's o" Fluids 'ith Temperature- and Stress-Dependent ;heolo$ies :e ha#e seen in the pre#ious sections that the #iscosities o" both di""usion creep and dislocation creep are directly proportional to the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature% Thus, the #iscosity o" the mantle has this stron$ temperature dependence no matter 'hich o" these mechanisms controls the subsolidus de"ormation o" the mantle% &n addition, i" dislocation creep is the dominant mechanism, and 'e conclude this is li!ely to be the case in the ne t section, the e""ecti#e #iscosity o" the mantle 'ill be stress dependent as 'ell% &t is important then to consider ho' the stron$ temperature dependence and possible stress dependence o" mantle #iscosity in"luence con-
=(> "hear Flo!s of Fluids
#ection and shear "lo' in the mantle% To do this, let us "irst consider the e"- "ects o" temperature- and stress-dependent rheolo$ies on some o" the simple "lo's 'e discussed in 1hapter 4% :e 'ill be$in 'ith an e ample o" the channel "lo' o" a "luid 'ith stress-dependent #iscosity% :e 'ill then de#ote the rest o" the section to the more important e""ects o" stron$ly temperaturedependent #iscosity% The rheolo$ical la' $i#en in ()uation 53C1136 is a particular e ample o" non-<e'tonian de"ormation !no'n as po'er-la' creep in 'hich strain rate is proportional to a po'er n o" the stress% The manner in 'hich such a non<e'tonian rheolo$y in"luences "luid motion can be readily illustrated by the simple e ample o" the "lo' o" a po'er-la' "luid in a channel% :e consider a channel o" thic!ness h 'ith stationary 'alls at y P hU2% The "lo' is dri#en by a pressure di""erence p1 p8 o#er the channel len$th .% The shear stress n in the "luid satis"ies ()uation 54C46 dn P p8 6 dy 5p1 . % 53%1286
424 242
For a po'er-la' "luid, the shear stress and #elocity $radient, or strain rate, are related by du P 11 n n , dy 53%1216
'ith n P 1, 2, A, 3, % % % and 11 a positi#e constant% @ecause the shear duUdy can be positi#e or ne$ati#e in a "lo', n cannot be an e#en inte$er% /pon sol#in$ ()uation 53C1216 "or n and substitutin$ into ()uation 53C 1286, 'e $et 1 d 11
1Un
du dy
1Un
P p8 6
5p1 .
53%1226
dy
- sin$le inte$ration 'ith the symmetry condition duUdy P 8 at y P 8 yields du P 11 dy p 1 p8

n
yn %
53%1226
. - second inte$ration 'ith the boundary condition u P 8 at y P hU2 $i#es uP 11

nR1
p1 p8 .
h 2
nR1
5n R 16
4>4 >4>
Roc, rheology
53%12>6
The mean #elocity in the channel is 2 uf P h

]
8 hU2
u dy P
11 p1 p8 5n R 26 .
h 2
nR1
53%12A6 and the ratio o" the #elocity to the mean #elocity is u nR2 2y P 1 uf nR1 h
5
nR1
53%1246
+elocity pro"iles "or n P 1 5<e'tonian6, 2, and A are $i#en in Fi$ure 3C 12% :e see that "or increasin$ #alues o" n, the $radients o" the #elocity become lar$e near the 'alls 'here the shear stress is a ma imum% nearly ri$id core "lo' de#elops 'here the shear stress is lo'% The e""ecti#e #iscosity o" the po'er-la' "luid is proportional to n 1 n % For lar$e n, the #iscosity is hi$h 'here n is small and lo' 'here n is lar$e% @ecause n is small in the center o" the channel, the "luid is hi$hly #iscous there% <ear the 'alls 'here n is hi$h, De"" is lo', and the #elocity $radients are lar$e% The plu$-"lo' appearance o" the #elocity pro"iles "or lar$e n is a conse)uence o" the stress dependence o" the e""ecti#e #iscosity% 0roblem 3%18 Sho' that the e""ecti#e #iscosity De"" "or the channel "lo' o" a po'er-la' "luid is $i#en by De"" n P duUdy p1 p8 h2 2y . >5n R 26uf h
1n
53%1236
or De"" P De"" ,'all 2y h

1n
53%1286
'here De"" ,'all is the #alue o" De"" at y P hU2% 0lot De"" UDe"" ,'all as a "unction o" yUh "or n P 1, 2, and A% @ecause o" its rele#ance to shear "lo' in the asthenosphere, 'e ne t consider the in"luence o" a #iscosity 'ith an e ponential dependence on the in#erse absolute temperature on the 1ouette "lo' in Section 4C2% ;ecall that 1ouette "lo' ta!es place in an in"initely lon$ channel 'hose upper boundary 5y P 86 mo#es 'ith #elocity u1 relati#e to its stationary lo'er boundary 5y P h6% There is no applied pressure $radient alon$ the channel% :e assume that the upper 'all is maintained at temperature T8 'hile the lo'er 'all is !ept at temperature T1 5T1 [ T8 6% &" account is ta!en o" heatin$
Fi$ure 3%12 +elocity pro"iles in a channel "or po'er-la' "luid rheolo$ies 'ith n P 1 5<e'tonian6, 2, and A%
by #iscous dissipation in the shear "lo', the temperature dependence o" the #iscosity couples the temperature T 5y6 and #elocity pro"iles in the channel% @oth )uantities T 5y6 and u5y6 must be determined simultaneously because one depends on the other% The #elocity depends on T throu$h the dependence o" D on T and T depends on u because "rictional heatin$ depends on the shear in the #elocity pro"ile% For simplicity, 'e 'ill "irst treat a situation in 'hich shear heatin$ is ne$li$ible% This allo's us to 'rite the solution "or the temperature in the channel as the simple linear pro"ile y T P T8 R 5T1 T8 6 53%1296 h independent o" u5y6% :e assume that the #iscosity has the "orm $i#en in ()uation 53C1886 and that the channel is thin enou$h so that the e""ect o" pressure on #elocity is unimportant% :e also consider the temperature dependence o" the pree ponential "actor as ne$li$ible compared 'ith the temperature dependence o" the e ponential "actor and 'rite D P 1 e(a U;T , 53%1286
'here 1 is a constant% The shear stress n , 'hich is a constant in the absence o" a horiBontal pressure $radient, is $i#en by
(a U;Tdu % n P Ddu dy P 1 e dy
53%1216
/pon substitutin$ "or T "rom ()uation 53C1296, 'e obtain an e)uation "or duUdy by rearran$in$ ()uation 53C1216 du n P e p dy 1
5 6
(a U;
53%1226
y T8 R 5T1 T8 6 h
The solution "or the #elocity pro"ile is "ound as the inte$ral o" ()uation 53C1226% The inte$ration can be carried out analytically i" 'e assume that the temperature di""erence T1 T8 is small compared 'ith T8 % The ar$ument o" the e ponential "actor in ()uation 53C1226 can then be appro imated as 5(a U;T8 6
n
1R ;T8
5T1 T8 6 y T8 h
(a o
1R
5T1 T8 6 y T8 h , 53%1226
so that ()uation 53C1226 becomes du n (a (a 5T1 T8 6 y % P e p e p dy 1 ;T 82 h ;T8 53%12>6 /pon inte$ratin$ this e)uation 'ith the boundary condition u P 8 on y P h, 'e "ind uP n h;T 2 2(a T8 R (a 8 e p 1 (a 5T1 T8 T1 6 2 ;T 8 t u (a 5T1 8 T8 6 y e p 1 % 1 h ;T 2
53%12A6
@y "urther re)uirin$ that u P u1 at y P 8, 'e can re'rite the #elocity pro"ile in the some'hat simpler "orm
;T
2
h y
u P u1
e p
(a 5T1 T8 6
8
e p
n (a 5T1 T8 6 o
2 ;T 8
53%1246
The shear stress and the #elocity o" the upper boundary are related by 1 (a 5T1 T8 6 n h;T 2 8 u1 P
e p
(
a
; T
8
Fi$ure 3%1> +elocity pro"iles "or 1ouette "lo' in a channel 'ith a linear temperature pro"ile% The "luids #iscosity is proportional to the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature% The dimensionless temperature di""erence across the channel 5%1 %8 6U%8 is 8%A% Ea UR%8 is the dimensionless acti#ation ener$y parameter% The top 'all 5y P 86 is cold 5% P %8 6, and the bottom 'all 5y P h6 is hot 5% P %1 6% t
1e p
(a 5T1 T8 6
u
2 ;T 8
53%1236
+elocity pro"iles uUu1 #ersus yUh are sho'n in Fi$ure 3C1> "or 5T1 T8 6UT8 P 8%A and (a U;T8 P 8, 18, 28, and 28% :e 'ill see that the lar$er #alues o" (a U;T8 are representati#e o" the upper mantle7 T8 can be thou$ht o" as the temperature at the base o" the ri$id lithosphere 'hile T1 is the tem perature at the base o" the asthenosphere% The reasonable #alues T8 P 888 1 and T1 P 1288 1 $i#e 5T1 T8 6UT8 P A88U1832 8%A% :hen the "luid #iscosity is independent o" temperature 5(a U;T8 P 86, the #elocity pro"ile is linear% -s the #iscosity becomes increasin$ly temperature dependent 5lar$er #alues o" (a U;T8 6, the shear in the #elocity pro"ile is con"ined to pro$ressi#ely narro'er re$ions near the lo'er boundary 'here the "luid is hottest and the #iscosity is the smallest% For the lar$e #alues o" (a U;T8 typical o" the mantle, most o" the "luid in the channel mo#es at the #elocity o" the upper boundary 'hile the reduction in #elocity occurs in
a relati#ely hot lo' #iscosity layer ad?acent to the lo'er boundary% The upper part o" the channel beha#es as a nearly ri$id e tension o" the o#erlyin$ lithosphere, that
484 848
is, it is really part o" the lithosphere, 'hile the lo'er part o" the channel is a hi$h shear, lo' #iscosity asthenosphere% The #iscosity #ariation in the channel can be determined "rom ()uation 53C1296 and 53C1286% The constant 1 can be eliminated by re"erencin$ the #iscosity to its #alue at the upper boundary D8 % From ()uation 53C1286 D8 is $i#en by D8 P 1 e(a U;T8 and 1 is 1 P D8 e The #iscosity can thus be 'ritten D P D8 e p (a T8 1 ;T8 T 5 1R
6
( U;T a 8
Roc, rheology
53%1286
53%1296
(a P D8 e p ;T8
T1 T8 y T8 h
% 53%1>86
The #iscosity pro"iles DUD8 #ersus yUh are sho'n in Fi$ure 3C1A "or 5T1 T8 6UT8 P 8%A and (a U;T8 P 8, 18, 28, and 28% The lar$e reduction in #iscosity in the hot lo'er portion o" the channel that occurs "or the hi$her #alues o" (a U;T8 is apparent% 0roblem 3%11 Determine the shear stress in the channel% -ssume (a U;T8 P 28, 5T1 T8 6UT8 P 8%A, u1 P A8 mm yr 1 , h P 188 !m, and D8 P 182> 0a s% 0roblem 3%12 1onsider an ice sheet o" thic!ness h lyin$ on bedroc! 'ith slope T, as sho'n in Fi$ure 3C14% The ice 'ill creep slo'ly do'nhill under the "orce o" its o'n 'ei$ht% Determine the #elocity pro"ile u5y6 in the ice% The #iscosity o" ice has the temperature dependence $i#en in ()uation 53C 1286% -ssume that the temperature pro"ile in the ice is linear 'ith the sur"ace temperature T8 5at y P 86 and the bedroc!Cice inter"ace temperature T1 5at y P h6% -ssume that there is no meltin$ at the base o" the ice sheet so that the no-slip condition applies7 that is, u P 8 at y P h, and utiliBe the appro imation $i#en in ()uation 53C1226% Frictional heatin$ can ha#e dramatic conse)uences on the shear "lo' o" a "luid 'ith a stron$ly temperature-dependent #iscosity% - simple channel "lo' model su""ices to demonstrate the e""ects% :e a$ain consider a situation in 'hich "lo' is dri#en by a shear stress n applied at the upper mo#in$ boundary 5y P 86 o" a channel 'hose lo'er sur"ace 5y P h6 is "i ed% :ith no pressure $radient alon$ the channel, n is a constant, independent o" y, as
Fi$ure 3%1A +iscosity pro"iles "or 1ouette "lo' 'ith temperature-dependent #iscosity%
be"ore% &n the present e ample 'e insulate the lo'er boundary o" the channel so that all the e cess heat in the "luid is $enerated internally solely by #iscous dissipation% The heat $enerated by "riction in the "lo' escapes throu$h the upper boundary o" the channel 'hose temperature is maintained at T8 % ()uation 54C>896 $o#ernin$ the temperature in a "rictionally heated shear "lo' is #alid e#en 'hen #iscosity is temperature dependent% The temperature in the channel is thus the solution o" ! d2 T n2 R P 8, D dy 2 53%1>16
to$ether 'ith the boundary conditions T P T8 dT P8 dy on on yP8 y P h% 53%1>26 53%1>26
:ith D $i#en by ()uation 53C1286, 'e can re'rite the temperature e)uation
Fi$ure 3%14 -n ice sheet o" thic!ness h on bedroc! slopin$ at an$le T% The ice 'ill creep do'nhill under its o'n 'ei$ht%
as d2 T n 2 (a U;T R e P 8% dy 2 !1 53%1>>6
()uations 53C1>26 to 53C1>>6 de"ine a nonlinear boundary #alue problem "or temperature because o" the dependence o" the "rictional heatin$ term on e p5(a U;T 6% :e can sol#e "or T 5y6 analytically i" 'e only consider situations 'herein "rictional heatin$ produces small temperature increases% Thus 'e set T P T8 R T 53%1>A6 'here T T8 % The in#erse o" the temperature, 'hich appears in the e ponent o" the shear heatin$ term, is appro imately $i#en by T R
1
P 5T8 R T
P8T
T T8
d2 T dy 2
T81 1
T % T8
53%1>46
/pon substitutin$ ()uations 53C1>A6 and 53C1>46 into 53C1>>6, 'e $et 2 R !1 e
5(a U;T 6 5( T U;T 2 6
8
P 8%
53%1>36
:hile the temperature rise due to "rictional heatin$ 5T UT8 is small 8 U;T 2 6, may be )uite 16, the associated decrease in #iscosity, e p5 ( T a lar$e because 5(a U;T UT8 65T UT 8 6 can be lar$e% 1onsider T 8 P 8%A and (a U;T8 P 28, "or e ample% The boundary conditions on the temperature rise T are T P8 53%1>86 dT

on
yP8
dy
P8
on
y P h%
53%1>96
The solution "or T dimensionless
can be "acilitated by introducin$ the
#ariables (a T WP
;T 82
y yf % P h
53%1A86
The e)uation "or the dimensionless temperature rise W and its associated d2 W n 2 h2 (a 5(a U;T8 6 W boundary conditions are R e P 8, 53%1A16 2 dyf !1 ;T 2 e
8
yf P 8 yf P 1%
53%1A26 53%1A26
WP8 dW
on
P8 on The dimensionless coe""icient o" eW in ()uation 53C1A16 is !no'n as the 0rin,man num$er @r @r P n 2 h2 (a e
5(a U;T8 6
53%1A>6
!1 ;T82 &n terms o" the @rin!man number, the di""erential e)uation "or the dimensionless temperature increase is simply 'ritten as d2 W R @reW P 8% dyf2 53%1AA6
The entire temperature distribution in the "rictionally heated shear "lo' is uni)uely determined by the sin$le dimensionless parameter @r% The @rin!man number has a simple physical interpretation% The heat $enerated per unit horiBontal area o" the channel at the temperature T8 is n 2h % 1 e(a U;T8 The conducti#e heat "lu produced by a temperature rise ;T82 U(a across the channel is ! 5;T82 U(a 6 , h 'here the temperature increase ;T 2 U(a is ?ust 'hat is re)uired to reduce 8 the #iscosity by the "actor e% The @rin!man number, also sometimes !no'n as the Gruntfest num$er, is the ratio o" these t'o heat "lo's% Gualitati#ely, @r measures the ability o" the "luid to conduct a'ay the "rictionally $enerated heat% To sol#e "or W, 'e ma!e the substitution Y P eW % 53%1A46
@y di""erentiatin$ this e pression, 'e "ind dY dW dW dy P eW P Y dy dyf f f 1 dY dW P % Y dyf dyf d 1 dY 53%1A36
or
53%1A86
Thus 'e can re'rite ()uation 53C1AA6 as P @rY%
53%1A96 dyf Y dyf - rearran$ement o" this e)uation yields 1 dY d 1 dY P @r Y dyf dy Y f dyf 'hich can be inte$rated to $i#e 1 dY Y dyf
2
dY , dyf
53%1486
P 2@rY R c1 ,
53%1416
'here c1 is a constant o" inte$ration% @ecause dWUdyf is Bero on yf P 1 "rom ()uation 53C1A26, so is dYUdyf, and the constant c1 must be c1 P 2@rY516, 'here Y516 is Y at yf P 1% The e)uation "or Y is thus 1 } 1U2 % dY Y P {2@r5Y516 Y6 dyf 53%1426 53%1426
The ar$ument o" the s)uare root is al'ays positi#e7 that is, Y516 Y% This is because W516 W, a result that "ollo's "rom the boundary conditions on W and ()uation 53C1AA6% The cur#ature o" W #ersus yf is al'ays ne$ati#e accordin$ to ()uation 53C1AA6% Thus W increases "rom 8 on yf P 8 to a ma imum #alue W516 on yf P 1 'here dWUdyf P 8% ()uation 53C1426 can be inte$rated by 'ritin$ it in the "orm dyf P dY Ye } Y{ 2@rdY516
1U2
53%14>6
&nte$ration o" this e)uation yields yf P 1 d2@rY516e1U2 ln c2

1U2 1U2 {2@rdY516 Ye } d2@rY516e {2@rdY516 Ye } 1U2 R d2@rY516e1U2
53%14A6
'ith c2 a constant% From boundary condition 53C1A26 and ()uation 53C1A46, 'e must ha#e Y P 1 on yf P 8% Thus the ar$ument o" the lo$ in ()uation 53C14A6 must be 1 'hen Y P 1% This determines the constant c2 and leads to the e pression yf P d2@rY516e
1U2 1U2 1U2
ln
{2@rdY516 Ye} d2@rY516e 1U2 } {2@rdY516 Ye R d2@rY516e1U2 % 53%1446
1U2 1U2 R d2@rY516e {2@rdY516 1e } {2@rdY516 1e} 1U2 d2@rY516e1U2
-n e)uation "or Y516, the e ponential o" the ma imum temperature rise in the channel, can be "ound by settin$ yf P 1 in this e)uation% The result is d2@rY516e1U2 1U2 {2@rdY516 1e } 1U2 R d2@rY516e P ln 53%1436 d2@rY516e1U2 {2@rdY516 1e} 1U2 This can be rearran$ed in the "orm Y516 P 1 or dY516e1U2 P cosh @rY516 2
1U2 e
1
2@rY516
1 e 2@rY516 R1
53%1486
53%1496
()uation 53C1496 is a transcendental e)uation "or Y516 as a "unction o" the @rin!man number% The ma imum temperature increase in the channel W516 is simply ln Y516% The most strai$ht"or'ard 'ay to calculate Y516 is to re'rite ()uation 53C1496 as @r P 2 cosh
2% @rY516 1U2 2 @rY516 2
53%1386
@r can be calculated directly "rom ()uation 53C1386 "or any $i#en #alue o" d@rY516U2e1U2 % Thus, one assumes a #alue o" the latter parameter, calculates @r, and then determines Y516% The ma imum temperature W516 calculated in this 'ay is sho'n in Fi$ure 3C13 as a "unction o" @r% For @r P 8, there is no motion in the channel and W516 P 8% -s @r increases "rom Bero, by increasin$ the shear stress applied to the upper 'all o" the channel, "or e ample, W516
Fi$ure 3%13 ,a imum temperature W516 in a "rictionally heated 1ouette "lo' 'ith temperature-dependent #iscosity and an adiabatic lo'er boundary as a "unction o" the @rin!man number @r% There are t'o solutions, one on the subcritical branch and the other on the supercritical branch, "or e#ery #alue o" @r bet'een 8 and @rc P 8%88%
increases% &n "act, by usin$ Taylor series e pansions o" cosh and ln, one "inds "rom ()uation 53C1496 that W516 increases as W516
1 @r 2
53%1316
"or @r 1% -s @r or the applied shear stress increases, the "luid ad?acent to the upper 'all o" the channel mo#es "aster, resultin$ in a lar$er shear and an increase in "rictional heatin$% 9o'e#er, as the upper 'all o" the channel is pulled increasin$ly "ast, a point is reached 'here an increase in the applied shear stress is no lon$er re)uired% &n "act, lar$er #elocities and hi$her temperatures can be achie#ed by reducin$ the applied stress or @r% Thus, there are t'o distinct types o" shear "lo' in the channel% For the class o" "lo's re"erred to as subcritical, W516 increases 'ith increasin$ @r% For supercritical "lo's, W516 increases 'ith decreasin$ @r% The turnin$ point in Fi$ure 3C13, 'here @r e)uals its ma imum #alue @rc , separates the states on the lo'er subcritical branch o" the W516 #ersus @r cur#e "rom the solutions alon$ the upper supercritical branch% Fi$ure 3C13 sho's that there are multiple solutions to the channel shear "lo' 'ith "rictional heatin$ and temperature-dependent #iscosity% For any
#alue o" @r bet'een 8 and @rc P 8%88 t'o possible "lo's e ist, one on the subcritical branch and one on the supercritical branch% For the same #alue o" applied shear stress there are t'o "lo's, one ha#in$ considerably hi$her temperatures and #elocities than the other% 9o'e#er, "or a $i#en #elocity o" the upper 'all, or a prescribed temperature at the lo'er 'all, there is a uni)ue "lo'% Fi$ure 3C13 also indicates that there are no steady channel "lo's "or too lar$e an applied stress, that is, @r [ @rc % -ctually, a more e act analysis sho's that there is a second turnin$ point at hi$h temperature and a third branch alon$ 'hich W516 a$ain increases 'ith @r% There is there"ore a channel "lo' "or any #alue o" @r, but the temperatures alon$ the third or hot branch are so lar$e as to be physically unrealiBable, that is, the material in the channel 'ould melt lon$ be"ore reachin$ the hi$h temperatures o" the hot branch% Thus, application o" too lar$e a stress to the upper 'all, that is, a stress $i#in$ @r [ @rc , leads to an instability phenomenon !no'n as thermal runa!ay% Shear heatin$ produces such lar$e temperatures 'hen @r e ceeds @rc that meltin$ occurs% There ha#e been su$$estions that thermal runa'ay mi$ht occur under certain situations in the mantle, "or e ample, in the asthenosphere or in the slip Bone at the top o" a descendin$ slab% 9o'e#er, such possibilities must be re$arded as speculati#e at the present time% The e istence o" subcritical and supercritical solutions to shear "lo' 'ith #iscous dissipation and temperature-dependent #iscosity can be understood as "ollo's% *n the subcritical branch there is relati#ely little "rictional heatin$ and only small increases in temperature% There"ore, 'hen the applied shear stress is increased, a subcritical "lo' responds as the "lo' o" a constant #iscosity "luid 'ould C the shear duUdy and the amount o" #iscous dissipation both increase% @ecause o" the increased heatin$, the temperature o" the "luid rises and its #iscosity drops% This reduces the increase in shear stress some'hat 5n P D duUdy6, but the decrease in #iscosity is su""iciently small so that the increase in the shear duUdy dominates% *n the supercritical branch lar$e temperature increases occur due to "rictional heatin$% +iscous dissipation and temperature decrease 'ith an increase in shear stress because the #iscosity #ariation 'ith temperature is the controllin$ "actor and D must increase "or n to increase% This is only possible 'ith a reduction in temperature% 0roblem 3%12 1ompute the stress that $i#es a @rin!man number e)ual to the #alue at the turnin$ point o" Fi$ure 3C13% -ssume (a U;T8 P 28, h P 188 !m, D8 P 182> 0a s, T8 P 1832 E, and ! P > :m 1 E 1 % :hat is the temperature o" the lo'er boundary "or this #alue o" the stressO
Fi$ure 3%18 The strain rate and stress associated 'ith post$lacial rebound gj r and br , superimposed on the strain rate and stress associated 'ith mantle con#ection gj m and bm "or 5a6 a linear rheolo$y and 5$6 a cubic rheolo$y%
0roblem 3%1> 1alculate the heat "lu throu$h the upper boundary "or the channel "lo' 'ith a mo#in$ isothermal upper 'all and a stationary insulated lo'er 'all% 1onstruct a plot o" the heat "lu as a "unction o" the @rin!man number% The heat "lu throu$h the upper 'all is due entirely to heat $enerated "rictionally in the channel% This heat ultimately deri#es "rom the 'or! done in mo#in$ the upper boundary% /se this principle to deri#e a "ormula "or the #elocity o" the upper 'all% 1onstruct a plot o" the #elocity o" the upper boundary as a "unction o" @r% Deri#e e pressions "or the heat "lu throu$h the upper boundary, the #elocity o" the upper boundary, and the temperature o" the lo'er boundary at the turnin$ point% 1alculate numerical #alues "or these )uantities "or the parameters $i#en in the pre#ious problem%
3%4 ,antle ;heolo$y &n Sections 3C2 and 3C> 'e discussed t'o "undamental mechanisms "or the subsolidus de"ormation o" roc!s C di""usion creep and dislocation creep% :e do not !no' 'hich o" these mechanisms $o#erns "lo' in the mantle7 althou$h, as the "ollo'in$ discussion illustrates, 'e can ma!e some in"ormed $uesses% &" di""usion creep pertains, the mantle beha#es as a <e'tonian "luid% &" dislocation creep applies, the mantle is a po'er-la' "luid 'ith n appro imately e)ual to 2% :hile it is important to understand the rheolo$y o" the mantle, it is not crucial that 'e be able to distin$uish bet'een a rheolo$ical la' 'ith n P 1 and one 'ith n P 2 to obtain a )ualitati#ely correct picture o" "lo' in the mantle% To be sure, i" the mantle #iscosity 'ere the stress-dependent
=(? Mantle Rheology
e""ecti#e #iscosity o" dislocation creep, mantle motions 'ould be )uantitati#ely di""erent "rom those o" a <e'tonian "luid% 9o'e#er, the temperature and pressure dependences o" the #iscosity, 'hich are identical "or di""usion creep and dislocation creep, are much more important in controllin$ mantle motions than is any possible stress dependence o" mantle #iscosity% *ne source o" in"ormation on the rheolo$y o" the mantle is the study o" post$lacial rebound data% -s discussed in Section 4C18, these data ha#e been interpreted in terms o" a <e'tonian "luid mantle 'ith a #iscosity o" about 1821 0a s% -lthou$h the mathematical analysis 'ould be more comple , the rebound data could alternati#ely be interpreted in terms o" a non-<e'tonian "luid mantle 'ith a po'er-la' rheolo$y% The in"erred #iscosity o" the mantle 'ould then be the stress-dependent e""ecti#e #iscosity in ()uation 53C1196% To properly interpret post$lacial rebound data, it must be realiBed that the mantle "lo' associated 'ith the rebound phenomenon is superimposed on the circulation associated 'ith mantle con#ection% This superposition o" strain rates and stresses is illustrated in Fi$ure 3C18 "or both linear and cubic rheolo$ies% The mantle con#ection strain rate and stress are denoted by gjm and bm , and the rebound strain rate and stress are gjr and br % The total strain rate and stress gj and b are gj P gjr R gjm 53%1326 b P br R bm % For the linear rheolo$y b P Dgj, so that br R bm P D5gjr R gjm 6% 53%13A6 @ut the strain rate and stress o" mantle con#ection are separately related by bm P Dgjm % 53%1346 @y subtractin$ ()uation 53C1346 "rom 53C13A6, 'e "ind that br P Dgjr or DP br % gjr 53%1336 53%1386 53%13>6
333 333
53%1326
&n the case o" a <e'tonian mantle, the #iscosity in"erred "rom the ratio o" rebound stress to rebound strain rate is the actual mantle #iscosity% For the po'er-la' rheolo$y 'ith n P 2, total strain rate and total stress are related by gj P 1 b 2 or gjm R gjr P 1 5bm R br 62 P 1 b2
m
53%1396
1R
br bm
53%1886
&" br is small compared 'ith bm , 'e can appro imate the ri$ht side o" ()uation 53C1886 as gjm R gjr 1m 1 R 2 br bm b2
2 2 P 1b m R 21 b m br %
53%1816
The strain rate and stress o" mantle con#ection also satis"y the rheolo$ical la'
2 gjm P 1 b m % 53%1826
/pon subtractin$ ()uation 53C1826 "rom 53C1816, 'e obtain

2 gjr P 521 b m 6br % 53%1826
The e""ecti#e #iscosity "or mantle con#ection is De"" ,m P bm 1 P 2% gjm 1 bm 53%18>6
The e""ecti#e #iscosity correspondin$ to the rebound strain rate and stress is De"" ,r P br 1 1 P De"" ,m % P 2 gjr 21 bm 2 53%18A6
&n the non-<e'tonian case, the strain rate and stress o" post$lacial rebound de"ine an e""ecti#e #iscosity that is one-third o" the e""ecti#e #iscosity associated 'ith mantle con#ection%
=(? Mantle Rheology
393 939
Fi$ure 3%19 *bser#ed dependence o" strain rate on stress "or oli#ine at a temperature o" 1>88 1% 5-shby and +errall, 19386%
- typical strain rate "or mantle con#ection is obtained by di#idin$ a #e locity o" A8 mm yr 1 by a depth o" 388 !m7 one $ets gjm P 2%2 18 1A s 1 % The product o" this strain rate 'ith the <e'tonian #iscosity o" 18
21
0a s in"erred "rom post$lacial rebound data $i#es a mantle con#ection stress o" 2%2 ,0a% &" the mantle is non-<e'tonian and 1821 0a s is the #alue o" De"" ,r , the e""ecti#e #iscosity o" mantle con#ection is 2 times lar$er, and the mantle con#ection stress is 4%9 ,0a% 1onsiderin$ the many uncertainties in#ol#ed in deducin$ the #iscosity and stress le#el in the mantle, a "actor o" 2 uncertainty associated 'ith the rheolo$ical la' is not too serious% Studies o" post$lacial rebound $i#e important in"ormation on the rheolo$y o" the mantle, but it is doubt"ul that they can discriminate bet'een a linear and a third-po'er rheolo$y% -nother important source o" in"ormation on mantle rheolo$y is laboratory studies o" creep% Since oli#ine is the primary mineral in the mantle, studies o" the hi$h-temperature creep o" oli#ine are particularly rele#ant% The measured dependence o" strain rate gj or gjyy on stress in dry oli#ine at a temperature o" 1>88 1 is $i#en in Fi$ure 3C19% The relation gj P
gjyy
11
b2 e
U;T
53%1846 'ith 11 P >%2 18A ,0a 2 s 1 and (a P A22 !J mol 1 is also sho'n% The data are 'ell represented by this cubic po'er-la' rheolo$y% 5The e - perimental data in Fi$ure 3C19 'ere "it by an e)uation that ne$lects the 'ea! temperature dependence o" the pree ponential constant% &n addition,
Table 3%> Rheological Parameter Calues of Geologic Materials

,aterial &ce 9alite Dry )uartBite :et )uartBite .imestone ,aryland diabase 11 5,0aCn SC1 6 8%8 18A 9%A 18 1 4%3 1812 >%> 182 >%8182 A%2 182 n (a 5!J molC1 6 2 48%3 A%A 98%2 4%A 248 2%4 228 2%1 218 2 2A4
Table 3%A Parameter Calues for &iffusion Creep and &islocation Creep in a &ry Gpper Mantle ):arato and .u, -<<5*
Guantity 0ree ponential "actor , s Stress e ponent n Grain siBe e ponent m 1 -cti#ation ener$y (a , !J mol 2 -cti#ation #olume +a , m mol 1
1
Di""usion 1reep 8%3 18 1 2%A 288 4 18 4

1A
Dislocation 1reep 2%A 1822 2%A 8 A>8 2 18 A
*ther rele#ant parameter #alues are G P 88 G0a, b P 8%A nm, and ; P 8%21>> J E 1 mol 1 %
the data do not account "or the e""ect o" pressure on creep%6 The a$reement o" the data 'ith the theoretical relation "or dislocation creep is ta!en as e#idence that dislocation creep is the dominant de"ormation mechanism o#er the ran$e o" strain rates considered in the laboratory% &t should be emphasiBed, ho'e#er, that the smallest strain rate studied in the laboratory, appro imately 18 8 s 1 , is some 3 orders o" ma$nitude lar$er than mantle strain rates% <e#ertheless, the theoretical basis "or ()uation 53C1846 is reasonably sound so that its e trapolation to mantle strain rates should be ?usti"ied% *ther $eolo$ic materials ha#e been "ound to creep nonlinearly 'hen de"ormed at hi$h temperature in the laboratory% Table 3C> lists the #alues o" the rheolo$ical parameters in the relation gj P gjyy P 11 bn e
(
a
U;T
53%1836 "or ice, halite, and se#eral crustal roc!s includin$ )uartBite under 'et and dry conditions, limestone, and ,aryland diabase% 0roblem 3%1A 1alculate the stresses re)uired to de"orm oli#ine and the crustal roc!s listed in Table 3C> at the constant rate gj P 18 1A s 1 "or
a series o" temperatures bet'een 388 and 1288 1, and construct a plot o" b #s% T % 1ompute the e""ecti#e #iscosities o" these materials and plot De"" #s T % -ssume that ()uation 53C18>6, 'ith parameter #alues determined by laboratory creep tests, is applicable at the #ery lo' strain rate o" 18 1A s 1 % ( periments and theory indicate that a $eneral "orm o" the relationship bet'een strain gj and de#iatoric stress b #alid "or both di""usion and dislocation creep is $i#en by gj G b P gjyy P n
b h
e p
(a R p +a , ;T 53%1886
'here - is the pree ponential "actor, G is the shear modulus, h is the $rain siBe, and $ is the lattice spacin$% 0resently pre"erred #alues "or di""usion creep are n P 1 and m P 2%A and "or dislocation creep n P 2%A and m P 8% This relation is in )uite $ood a$reement 'ith our deri#ed theoretical relations, ()uation 53C9A6 "or di""usion creep and ()uation 53C1136 "or dislocation creep, 'ith the di""usion coe""icient $i#en by ()uation 53C336% The parameter #alues "or di""usion creep and dislocation creep in a dry upper mantle are $i#en in Table 3CA% -n important )uestion is 'hether di""usion creep or dislocation creep is the applicable de"ormation mechanism in the upper mantle% The transition bet'een di""usion creep and dislocation creep occurs 'hen, "or a $i#en stress, the strain rates $i#en by the t'o mechanisms are e)ual% &n $eneral, "or a $i#en stress, the de"ormation mechanism 'ith the lar$er strain rate pre#ails% :e can delineate the re$imes o" applicability o" ri#al de"ormation mechanism, by usin$ a de"ormation map, 'hich $i#es stress as a "unction o" temperature "or se#eral #alues o" strain rate% - de"ormation map "or a dry upper mantle 'ith p P 8, based on ()uation 53C1886 and the parameter #alues in Table 3CA, is $i#en in Fi$ure 3C28% The di""usion creep #alues are based on a $rain siBe h P 2 mm7 this is a typical #alue "or mantle roc!s "ound in diatremes and in ophiolites% Dislocation creep is the applicable de"ormation mechanism "or hi$h stress le#els and hi$h temperatures, 'hile di""usion creep is dominant "or lo' stress le#els and lo' temperatures% /ncertainties in "lo' la' parameters lead to uncertainties o" about an order o" ma$nitude in de"ormation maps% Typical #alues o" gj and T "or mantle con#ection are gj P 18 1A s 1 and T P 1488 E7 these #alues locate the solid circle in Fi$ure 3C28 and correspond to b P 8%A ,0a% This point clearly "alls in the dislocation creep "ield o" the upper mantle de"ormation map% The $eneraliBed strain rateCde#iatoric stress relation, ()uation 53C1886,
Fi$ure 3%28 De"ormation map "or a dry upper mantle% The de#iatoric stress b is $i#en as a "unction o" temperature % "or se#eral strain rates gj % The dashed line separates the dislocation creep re$ime "rom the di""usion creep re$ime% The solid circle represents a typical condition "or mantle con#ection%
can be used to $enerate a $eneraliBed #iscosity relation #alid "or both di""usion and dislocation creepF DP1 'here 1P 1 G 2 h b b G
1n
e p
(a R p +a , ;T
m
53%1896
53%1986
and the coe""icient 1 depends upon both the ri$idity G and the $rain siBe h% For di""usion creep 'ith n P 1, $rain siBe h P 2 mm, and parameter #alues "rom Table 3CA 'e ha#e (a R p+a D P 11 e p , 53%1916 ;T 'ith 11 P >%8A 1811 0a s% For dislocation creep 'ith n P 2%A and parameter #alues "rom Table 3CA 'e ha#e G 2%A (a R p+a D P 12 e p , 53%1926 ;T b
Fi$ure 3%21 Dependence o" the #iscosity o" a dry upper mantle on temperature is $i#en "or se#eral stress le#els% The solid line is "or di""usion creep7 the #iscosity is not dependent on stress le#el% The dashed lines are "or dislocation creep illustratin$ the dependence on the stress le#el% The solid circle represents a typical condition "or mantle con#ection%
'ith 12 P 1%1> 18 12 0a s% The #iscosities "rom ()uations 53C1916 and 53C1926 are $i#en in Fi$ure 3C21 as a "unction o" temperature "or shallo' upper mantle conditions 5p P 86% The result "or di""usion creep 5solid line6 is independent o" stress and results "or dislocation creep 5dashed lines6 are $i#en "or b P 18A and 184 0a% For b P 184 0a de"ormation is due to dislocation creep "or the entire ran$e o" temperatures considered% For b P 18A 0a de"ormation is due to dislocation creep "or T [ 1>1A E and to di""usion creep "or T \ 1>1A E% For b P 18> 0a de"ormation is due to di""usion creep "or the entire ran$e o" temperatures considered% Typical upper mantle #iscosity and temperature #alues are D P 2 1828 0a s and T P 1488 E7 this condition 5"illed circle in Fi$ure 3C216 lies in the dislocation creep "ield 'ith b P 18A 0a% :e ha#e seen in Section 3C2 that the temperature and pressure dependences o" the di""usion coe""icient and there"ore the strain rate could be
'ritten in the "orm e instead o" e

d5(a Rp+a 6U;T e aTm UT
@y e)uatin$ the e ponents o" these e pressions, 'e obtain (a R p+a % ; @ecause p P Q$y, 'e can re'rite this as aTm P a;Tm P (a R Q$+a y% 53%1926
53%19>6
/pon di""erentiatin$ 'ith respect to depth, treatin$ (a and +a as constants, 'e $et a; dTm +a P % 53%19A6 Q$ dy :e can substitute ()uation 53C19A6 into 53C1926 and sol#e "or a to obtain (a aP y 53%1946 T ; m
dTm dy
&" 'e appro imate the meltin$ temperature by the linear pro"ile Tm P Tm8 R y dTm , dy 53%1936
'here Tm8 is the meltin$ temperature at the sur"ace, the parameter a is appro imately (a a % 53%1986 ;Tm8 For oli#ine, (a is A22 !J mol
1
and Tm8 is 21>8 E7 the parameter a is thus
29%>% - reasonable #alue "or the increase o" the oli#ine melt temperature 1 2 'ith depth in the upper mantle is 2 E !m %A :ith Q P 'e 1 2A88 !$ m 2 "ind that +a in the upper mantle is 1%2 18 m mol "rom ()uation 53C19A6% This is in $ood a$reement 'ith the empirically determined #alue o" 1%2> 18 A m2 mol 1 "or oli#ine% 0roblem 3%14 1alculate mantle #iscosity as a "unction o" depth assumin$ D e p{5(a R p+a 6U;T }% /se (a P A22 !J mol 1 and +a P 1%2> 18 A m2 mol 1 % <ormaliBe the #iscosity to the #alue 1821 0a s at a depth o" 1A8 !m% -ssume that a sin$le rheolo$ical la' applies o#er the entire depth o" the mantle and that all rheolo$ical parameters and the mantle stress are
=(= Rheological Effects on Mantle Convection
A93
constant 'ith depth% -ssume also that there are no #iscosity chan$es across phase transitions% /se the models "or T and p as "unctions o" depth in the mantle de#eloped in Section >C28% -re your calculated #alues o" D consistent 'ith the conclusion "rom post$lacial rebound studies that #iscosity does not increase substantially across the mantleO &" not, 'hich o" the assumptions 'ould you chan$e in order to obtain a #iscosity that is more nearly constant 'ith depthO 3%3 ;heolo$ical (""ects on ,antle 1on#ection &n 1hapter 4 'e studied thermal con#ection in a <e'tonian "luid 'ith constant "luid properties% :e de#eloped a boundary-layer theory "or con#ection at hi$h ;aylei$h number and sho'ed that the boundary layer that $re' ad?acent to the upper cold boundary o" the "luid 'as similar in structure to the oceanic lithosphere% -lso, #elocities obtained "rom the boundary-layer analysis 'ere in reasonably $ood a$reement 'ith the #elocities o" the sur"ace plates% &n this chapter 'e ha#e sho'n that the mantle is li!ely to be a non<e'tonian "luid 'ith an e""ecti#e #iscosity dependent on the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature and the pressure% &t is important to consider ho' this rheolo$y a""ects mantle con#ection% The studies o" the precedin$ sections ha#e indicated that the po'er-la' rheolo$y 'ith n 2 is li!ely to ha#e a relati#ely minor in"luence, 'hile the stron$ temperature dependence is certain to ha#e important e""ects% For e ample, the temperature dependence o" the rheolo$y allo's the lithosphere to de#elop ri$idity as a conse)uence o" the cold temperatures in the sur"ace thermal boundary layer% 9o'e#er, the ri$idity o" the lithosphere has been incorporated into our analysis o" its thermal e#olution in Section >C14, and this same thermal de#elopment has been applied to the "luid boundary layer in Section 4C19% Thus, this e""ect o" temperature-dependent rheolo$y does not directly mod- i"y the a$e dependences o" such measurable )uantities as oceanic heat "lo', ocean "loor topo$raphy, and the oceanic $eoid% *ne 'ay in 'hich the ri$idity o" the lithosphere has an important in"luence on mantle con#ection is by inhibitin$ subduction% - cold "luid boundary layer 'ill separate "rom the upper boundary and sin! more readily than an elastic plate% Thus the aspect ratios o" mantle con#ection cells are $enerally lar$er than those o" cells in a constant #iscosity "luid% &n 1hapter 4 'e "ound that the aspect ratios o" con#ection cells in constant #iscosity "luids 'ere near unity% Table 3C4 lists appro imate #alues o" the aspect ratios o" con#ection cells associated 'ith the ma?or tectonic plates "or con#ection restricted to
848 484
Roc, rheology
Table 3%4
ppro#imate
0late 0aci"ic <orth -merican South -merican &ndian <aBca
spect Ratios of Mantle Convection Cells

/pper ,antle 1on#ection 1> 11 11 8 4 :hole ,antle 1on#ection 2%2 2%4 2%4 2%1 1%4
Fi$ure 3%22 The closest approach o" the $eotherm to the solidus in the upper mantle leads to a 'ea! #iscosity minimum%
the upper mantle and "or 'hole mantle con#ection% @ecause the $ra#itational instability o" the lithosphere is inhibited by its ri$idity, the aspect ratios o" mantle con#ection cells are lar$er than unity% &" there are thermal boundary layers else'here in the mantle, "or e ample, at the mantleCcore inter"ace, the temperature dependence o" D 'ould produce stron$ #iscosity #ariations across such layers% @ecause a coreCmantle boundary layer 'ould be hotter than the o#erlyin$ mantle, the #iscosity in such a boundary layer 'ould be si$ni"icantly reduced% 0lumes represent another situation in 'hich localiBed temperature contrasts could cause lar$e associated #ariations in mantle #iscosity% The lo'ered #iscosity in a hot narro' mantle plume 'ould "acilitate the up'ellin$ o" plume material in the surroundin$ more #iscous mantle% ,antle plumes could ori$inate by a ;aylei$hCTaylor or $ra#itational instability o" hot, li$ht, and relati#ely in- #iscid material in a mantleCcore boundary layer% &t is possible that the mantle is di#ided into upper and lo'er con#ection systems% Such a di#ision could be caused by a chan$e in mantle composition%
=(@ Mantle Convection and the Cooling of the Earth
- compositional boundary 'ould act as a barrier to thermal con#ection so that separate upper and lo'er mantle con#ection systems 'ould be e pected% - thermal boundary layer 'ould de#elop bet'een the systems, and the lo'er mantle 'ould be e pected to ha#e a si$ni"icantly hi$her temperature than the upper mantle% -ssociated 'ith the hi$her temperature 'ould be a lo'er #iscosity% 9o'e#er, the post$lacial rebound data, 'hich su$$est that the mantle has a nearly uni"orm #iscosity, ar$ue a$ainst separate upper and lo'er mantle con#ection systems% The nearly uni"orm #iscosity o" the mantle can be understood in terms o" its stron$ temperature and pressure dependences% The increase o" temperature 'ith depth in the mantle tends to decrease mantle #iscosity 'ith depth% 9o'e#er, the increase o" pressure 'ith depth tends to increase mantle #iscosity 'ith depth% These competin$ e""ects cancel each other, thereby producin$ a mantle 'ith nearly constant #iscosity% The #iscosity o" the mantle can also be understood by considerin$ the relation bet'een the mantle $eotherm and its solidus, as indicated by ()uation 53C1816% Fi$ure 3C22 is a s!etch o" the $eotherm, the solidus, and the #iscosity pro"ile% The rapid increase in temperature across the sur"ace thermal boundary layer brin$s the $eotherm closer to the solidus as depth increases% The lar$e associated decrease o" #iscosity 'ith depth corresponds to the decrease in #iscosity bet'een the hi$hly #iscous, essentially ri$id lithosphere and the underlyin$ mantle% :ith a "urther increase in depth, T rises alon$ an adiabat that increases sli$htly less steeply 'ith depth than does the solidus% The ratio Tm UT there"ore has a 'ea! minimum in the upper mantle, and accordin$ to ()uation 53C1816 so does the #iscosity% The re$ion o" the 'ea! #iscosity minimum may be associated 'ith the asthenosphere, a Bone that may decouple the lithosphere "rom the underlyin$ mantle by a lar$e shear in the mantle #elocity% The #elocity shear 'ould be a direct conse)uence o" the reduction o" #iscosity in a re$ion o" constant shear stress% 3%8 ,antle 1on#ection and the 1oolin$ o" the (arth The amount o" heat escapin$ throu$h the (arths sur"ace at the present time is due to the heat no' bein$ $enerated by the decay o" radioacti#e isotopes in the (arth and to the coolin$ o" the (arth% The decrease in the temperature o" the (arths interior 'ith time is a conse)uence o" the decay o" its radio$enic heat sources% For e ample, 2 billion years a$o the rate o" heat production 'as about t'ice as $reat as it is today 5see Section >C A6% -s the heat $eneration decreases, the temperature o" the con#ectin$ mantle also decreases% The stron$ temperature dependence o" the mantles
838 383
888 888
rheolo$y causes its #iscosity to increase, and it con#ects less #i$orously to transport the reduced amount o" internally $enerated heat% &n this section 'e de#elop a simple model o" mantle coolin$ by the con#ection o" a "luid 'ith stron$ly temperature-dependent #iscosity that allo's us to estimate the rate o" decrease o" mantle temperature 'ith time and the relati#e contributions o" coolin$ and heat production to the present sur"ace heat "lo'% -n upper limit to the rate at 'hich the (arths temperature is decreasin$ 'ith time can be obtained by attributin$ the entire sur"ace heat "lo' to the coolin$ o" the (arth% The heat lost throu$h the (arths sur"ace is the product o" its sur"ace area >Xa2 'here a is the (arths radius, 'ith its mean sur"ace heat "lu )f% The thermal ener$y o" the (arth is the product o" > its mass Xa2 Qf, 'here Qf is the (arths mean density, 'ith its mean 2 speci"ic heat cf and its mean temperature Tf% /pon e)uatin$ the rate o" heat "lo' throu$h the sur"ace to the rate o" decrease o" the (arths thermal ener$y, 'e obtain >Xa2 )f P cf or dTf 2) P f % dt aQf cf

Roc, rheology
> 2
dT f Xa2 Qf dt
53%1996
53%2886
:ith )f P 83 m: m 2 , Qf P AA28 !$ m 2 , cf P 928 J !$ 1 E 1 , and aP f Udt P 2A> E Gyr1 % The 4231 !m, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 53C2886 that dT actual rate o" coolin$ o" the (arth must be smaller than this because a si$ni"icant "raction o" the sur"ace heat loss comes "rom radioacti#e heat $eneration% &n order to determine the actual rate o" mantle coolin$, it is necessary to relate the temperature o" the con#ectin$ mantle T1 to its #olumetric rate o" heat production Q9 % The temperature o" an internally heated con#ectin$ layer has been discussed in Section 4C21% :e apply the considerations o" that section to the mantle and combine ()uations 54C22>6, 54C2>26, 54C2>26, and 54C2886 to obtain 2! 5T1 T8 6 Q9 b2 ! sD P 2%98 TQ2 $9 bA
1U>
53%2816
'here T8 is the sur"ace temperature and b is the depth o" the mantle% This is the e)uation connectin$ mantle temperature and heat production% 9o'e#er, it is not as simple as it appears at "irst $lance because the mantle #iscosity D is a stron$ "unction o" T1 % From ()uation 53C1286 'e can 'rite (a
=(@ Mantle Convection and the Cooling of the Earth
D P Dr e p
;T1
53%2826 989
898
'here Dr is a constant o" proportionality% @y substitutin$ ()uation 53C2826 into 53C2816, 'e $et 2! 5T1 T8 6 Q9 b2 ! sDr P 2%98 TQ2 $9 bA
1U>
(a e p >;T1 % 53%2826
The radioacti#e heat sources in the mantle decay e ponentially 'ith time accordin$ to 9 P 98 e
l5tt8 6
53%28>6
'here 98 is the present rate o" heat production, t8 is the present #alue o" the time t, and l is the a#era$e decay constant "or the mi ture o" radioacti#e isotopes in the mantle, see ()uation 5>C86% -s 9 decreases, T1 must also decrease to maintain the balance o" heat production and con#ecti#e heat transport e pressed by ()uation 53C2826% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 53C 28>6 into 53C2826, 'e obtain 2! 5T1 T8 6 Q98 b2 P 2%98
1U> ! sDr TQ2 $98 bA (a 2l5t t8 6 e p e p % >;T1 >
53%28A6 This e)uation $i#es the dependence o" the mantle temperature on time% &t can be simpli"ied considerably by notin$ that the present mantle temperature T18 must satis"y the e)uation at t P t8 2! 5T18 T8 6 ! sDr 8 P 2%9 2 Q98 b TQ2 $98 bA
1U>
e p
(a % >;T18 53%2846
The di#ision o" ()uation 53C28A6 by ()uation 53C2846 yields T1 T8 T18 T8 P e p 1 (a 53%2836 1
>; T1 T18 2l e p 5t t8 6 % >
:e can "ind the mantle coolin$ rate by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 53C2836 'ith respect to timeF dT1 1 1 dt T18 T8 Pe p (a T18 1
>; T1
2l (a dT1 e p 5t t8 6 2 > >;T 1 dt (a 1 2l Re p 1 >; T1 T18 > 2l e p 5t t8 6 % >
53%2886
:e can re'rite this e)uation by usin$ ()uation 53C2836 to substitute "or the e ponential "actorsF dT1 1 dt T18 T8 P (a T1 T8 2 T18 T8 >;T 1 dt T 2l T1 % 8 T > T18 8 dT1 53%2896
- "urther rearran$ement yields dT1 ( 2l 1 R a 2 5T1 T8 6 P 5T1 T8 6% dt > >;T 1 53%2186 The second term in the brac!ets on the le"t side o" ()uation 53C2186 is much lar$er than unity because the term is appro imately (a U>;T1 5T8 T1 6, a )uantity 'e ha#e estimated to be about 18% The appro imate mantle coolin$ rate is there"ore 2 dT1 ;T 1 P 2l % 53%2116 dt (a The present coolin$ rate is dT1 ;T2 18 % 5t P t8 6 P 2l dt (a 53%2126
The rate at 'hich the mantle is coolin$ is independent o" its thic!ness, its present rate o" heat $eneration, and the re"erence #iscosity% - numerical estimate o" the mantle coolin$ rate based on ()uation 53C2126 depends on only three reasonably 'ell-!no'n mantle parametersF l, T18 , and (a U;T18 % From the discussion o" Section 3C4 'e ta!e (a U;T18 P 28% The considerations in Section >C28 $i#e a mean mantle temperature T18 P 18 1 22A8 E, and "rom Section >CA 'e obtain l P 2%33 18 yr % The coolin$ rate is "ound to be 42 E Gyr 1 % From ()uation 53C2886, this coolin$ rate contributes 21 m: m 2 to the mean sur"ace heat "lo' o" 83 m: m 2 % Thus the coolin$ o" the (arth is responsible "or about 2AN o" the (arths heat loss, 'hile 3AN is attributable to radio$enic heatin$% There is little room "or uncertainty in this conclusion% The mantle cools at a relati#ely
slo' rate because its temperature is bu""ered by the stron$ temperature dependence o" its #iscosity% -s the rate o" heat production in the mantle decreases, less #i$orous con#ection is re)uired to transport the heat to the (arths sur"ace% -s a result the re)uired ;aylei$h number is less% 9o'e#er, the ;aylei$h number is in#ersely proportional to the mantle #iscosity, and this #iscosity is an e ponential "unction o" the in#erse absolute temperature% There"ore only a relati#ely small decrease in temperature su""ices to produce the re)uired increase in #iscosity, decrease in ;aylei$h number, and decrease in con#ecti#e heat "lu % 0roblem 3%13 The 'ay in 'hich subsolidus con#ection 'ith temperaturedependent #iscosity re$ulates the (arths thermal history can be )uantitati#ely assessed usin$ the "ollo'in$ simple model% -ssume that the (arth can be characteriBed by the mean temperature and that ()uation 53C2886 Tf $i#es the rate o" coolin$% .et the model (arth be$in its thermal e#olution at time t P 8 'ith a hi$h temperature Tf586 and cool therea"ter% Disre$ard the heatin$ due to the decay o" radioacti#e isotopes and assume that the (arth cools by #i$orous subsolidus con#ection% Sho' that the mean sur"ace heat "lo' )f can be related to the mean temperature by )f P 8%3>! Q$T# Ds
1U2 >U2 5Tf T8 6 %
53%2126 /se ()uations 54C2146 and 54C2236 and assume that the total temperature drop dri#in$ con#ection is t'ice the di""erence bet'een the mean temperature Tf and the sur"ace temperature T8 % Follo'in$ ()uation 53C1886, assume that the #iscosity is $i#en by D P 1 Tf e p 53%21>6 and 'rite the coolin$ "ormula as dTf dt P 2%2s a Q$T # 1s
1U2
(a ;Tf
Tf e p
(a % 2;Tf
53%21A6
()uation 53C21A6 'as obtained assumin$ 5Tf T8 6>U2 Tf >U2 , a #alid f simpli"ication since T T % &nte$rate the coolin$ "ormula and sho' 8 that (i (a 2;Tf (i (a 2;Tf58 6 P 2%2s Q$T# a 1s
1U2
t 53%2146
'here (i is the e ponential inte$ral% 1alculate and plot Tf UTf 586 #ersus t
Table 3%3 Calues of the E#ponential Integral Ei)# * P I f C )eCt Ut *
dt(
-# 8 8%81 8%82 8%82 8%8> 8%8A 8%18 8%28 8%28 8%>8 8%A8 8%48 8%38 8%88 8%98 1%8 1%2 1%> 1%4 1%8 2%8 2%A 2%8 2%A >%8 >%A A%8 4 3 8 9 18 (i5# 6 >%81392 2%21>31 2%89912 2%48124 2%24388 1%42281 8%82134 8%28243 8%18>33 8%>A>22 8%34988 1%84>91 1%2>3>8 1%42281 1%89A12 2%>>289 2%88321 2%48A22 >%2>983 >%9A>22 3%83233 9%92282 12%92A22 19%42883 23%92238 >8%18A2> 8A%98934 #eC (i5# 6
1%222>1 1%1818A 1%1A234 1%121>3
"or representati#e #alues o" the parameters in ()uation 53C2146% Discuss the role o" the temperature dependence o" the #iscosity in the coolin$ history% <oteF The e ponential inte$ral (i is distinct "rom the e ponential inte $ral (1 de"ined in 0roblem >C2A and listed in Table 8C>% (i5 6 is " 5e t Ut6 dt, 'here " indicates that the path o" inte$ration e cludes the ori$in and does not cross the ne$ati#e real a is% &n addition, should be positi#e% +alues o" (i5 6 are $i#en in Table 3C3%
=(< Crustal Rheology
929 292
Fi$ure 3%22 1ompaction and de"ormation o" sand $rains by pressure solution% 5a6 &nitially unde"ormed $rains 'ith nearly point contacts% 5$6 De"ormed $rains 'ith 'idened contacts due to minerals enterin$ solution% The thic! lines represent $rain $ro'th on "ree sur"aces caused by mineral precipitation%
3%9 1rustal ;heolo$y <ear-sur"ace roc!s e hibit not only brittle beha#ior resultin$ in ?oints and "aults, but also "luidli!e de"ormation, as e#idenced by the occurrence o" "olds at all spatial scales% Foldin$ can be attributed to either plastic de"ormation or "luid beha#ior7 there is obser#ational e#idence o" both% 0lastic de"ormation is discussed in Section 3C11% &n this section 'e are concerned 'ith ho' relati#ely cool crustal roc!s can beha#e as a "luid% The te tures o" many "olded roc!s indicate that the de"ormation that led to the "oldin$ 'as the result o" di""usi#e mass trans"er% 9o'e#er, studies o" metamorphic reactions in the roc!s sho' that the temperature at the time o" "oldin$ 'as only a small "raction o" the solidus temperature% There"ore the de"ormation could not ha#e been the result o" the thermally acti#ated di""usion o" atoms discussed in the pre#ious section% &nstead, it is in"erred that the rate o" di""usi#e mass transport 'as enhanced by the presence o" an inter$ranular "luid "ilm throu$h a process !no'n as pressure solution in 'hich material is "orced into solution in re$ions o" hi$h pressure or stress and is precipitated in re$ions o" lo' pressure or stress% 0ressure solution creep is similar to 1oble creep in that they both in#ol#e mass transport alon$ inter$ranular boundaries% -n e ample o" de"ormation due to pressure solution is the compaction
9>9 >9>
o" sediments% 1onsider the collection o" )uartB sand $rains sho'n in Fi$ure 3C22a% The pore spaces bet'een the sand $rains are assumed to be "illed 'ith 'ater% -s lon$ as the sand $rains are more dense than 'ater, the e cess mass o" the $rains must be supported on the contacts bet'een the $rains and the pressure on the contacts e ceeds the pressure in the 'ater% The actual pressure at the contacts depends on their area and the elastic response o" the $rains% @ecause the pressure on the contacts is hi$her, )uartB tends to dissol#e on the contacts and be deposited on the "ree sur"aces o" the $rains 'here the pressure is lo'er% &n e""ect, silica di""uses throu$h the inter$ranular "ilm o" 'ater "rom the contacts 'here it dissol#es to the "ree sur"aces 'here it precipitates% This process o" solution and precipitation leads to the structure in Fi$ure 3C22$, 'hich is 'ell documented in sandstones% 0ressure solution is belie#ed to play an important role in the continuum de"ormation o" a 'ide #ariety o" crustal roc!s% &ts occurrence has been #eri"ied in many "olded crustal roc!s% -s lon$ as 'ater is present alon$ $rain boundaries, it can act as a sol#ent "or the minerals constitutin$ the $rains% The dissol#ed minerals then di""use alon$ the $rain boundaries "rom re$ions o" hi$h stress 'here the solubility is hi$h to re$ions o" lo' stress 'here the solubility is lo'% The di""usion o" the dissol#ed minerals results in creep% 0ressure solution creep can be dealt 'ith )uantitati#ely in a manner analo$ous to the 'ay in 'hich $rain boundary di""usion creep 'as treated in Section 3C2% :e a$ain consider a cubic crystal 'ith an initial dimension h sub?ected to a compressi#e stress b in the direction and a tensional stress b in the y direction, as sho'n in Fi$ure 3C8% :e assume that the crystal is completely surrounded by a 'ater "ilm in 'hich the minerals o" the crystal can dissol#e% &n the absence o" an applied de#iatoric stress there is an e)uilibrium concentration o" minerals or solute 1s8 in the 'ater "ilm7 1s8 5!$ o" solute per !$ o" solution6 depends on both pressure and temperature% @ecause the mass "raction o" solute is a small )uantity, the e)uilibrium number density o" solute ns8 can be calculated "rom ns8 P Qe 1 s8 , ,s 53%2136
Roc, rheology
'here Qe is the density o" the sol#ent 5'ater6 and ,s is the molecular mass o" the solute% &n the presence o" an applied de#iatoric stress b, the solute concentration 1s is 1s P 1s8 R 1s 53%2186
'here the stress dependence o" 1s
is $i#en by the empirical relation b % b s 5T 6 53%2196
1s P
The "unction bs 5T 6 has the appro imate #alue o" 288 ,0a "or the solubility increases o" silica in 'ater at A88 1% ()uation 53C2196 sho's that under compression, that is, minerals dissol#e, and decreases under tension, that is, minerals precipitate% The number density o" solute ns under the action o" an applied stress is ns P ns8 R ns P
Qe ,s
51s8 R 1 s 6 Qe b % , s bs 53%2286
P ns8 R
The solute number densities at the "aces o" the crystal in Fi$ure 3C8 are there"ore Qe b n - P n 1 P n s8 R 53%2216 ,s b s Q b n @ P n D P n s8 e 53%2226 ,s bs n( P nF P ns8 % 53%2226 The "lu es o" solute molecules throu$h the "luid "ilm surroundin$ the crystal "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces @ and D are, by analo$y 'ith ()uation 53C1826, J-@ P J-D P J1 @ P J1 D Ds P 5n- n@ 6 h Q b Q b Ds ns8 e P ns8 R e ,s b s ,s b s h Ds 2Qe b , P h ,s b s
53%22>6
'here Ds is the di""usion coe""icient "or the solute in the sol#ent% Similarly, the "lu es o" solute molecules "rom "aces - and 1 to "aces ( and F , and "rom "aces ( and F to "aces @ and D, are, by analo$y 'ith ()uations 53C1826 and 53C18>6, Ds J-( P J-F P J1 ( P J1 F 5n - n ( 6 h P Ds P ns8 R Qe b n s8 h ,s b s
D s Qe b h ,s bs Ds 5n( n@ 6 h
53%22A6
J( @ P J( D P JF @ P JF D P P
Ds ns8 n Qe b s8 h ,s bs D s Qe b % P h ,s b s The area o#er 'hich $rain boundary% The b2 Uh2 P 1Uns h2 , There"ore, by analo$y net strain rates as
53%2246
each "lu occurs is ha, 'here a is the 'idth o" the strain associated 'ith the trans"er o" each atom is 'here ns is the number density o" the solute% 'ith ()uations 53C18A6 and 53C1846, 'e can 'rite the
gjyy P 2ha 5J-@ R J-D R J1 @ R J1 D R J( @ n s h R J( D R JF @ R JF D 6 53%2236 ha 5J-@ R J-D R J1 @ R J1 D R J-( gj P n s h2 R J-F R J1 ( R J1 F 6%
53%2286
@y substitutin$ ()uations 53C22>6 to 53C2246 into 53C2236 and 53C2286, 'e obtain 12aQe Ds gj P gjyy b, 53%2296 h2 Q b P
s s
'here Qs is the solute density ,s ns % Strain rate is linearly proportional to applied stress in pressure solution creep% Thus the de"ormation is e)ui#alent to that o" a <e'tonian "luid 'ith a #iscosity Dps P h2 Qs bs % 2>aQe Ds
53%2286
2 For the pressure creep o" )uartB at A88 1 'e m, solution ta!e h P 2 18 2 Ds P 2%> 18 8 m2 s 1 , a P 18 9 m, Qs P 2388 !$ m 2 , Qe P 1888 !$ m 14 , and bs P 288 ,0a% The calculated #alue o" the #iscosity is Dps P 1%1 18 0a s, a #ery lo' #iscosity "or crustal roc!s at a temperature o" A88 1% &t should be emphasiBed that there are many uncertainties in the application o" ()uation 53C2286% The #alue o" the di""usion coe""icient 'e used 'as determined in bul! e periments and its rele#ance to $rain boundary "ilms is in )uestion% The #alue 'e used "or the 'idth o" the $rain boundary is only an estimate% <e#ertheless, pressure solution creep is clearly an important
=(-B Ciscoelasticity
de"ormation mechanism "or crustal roc!s and it can e plain #iscous "oldin$ o" roc!s at )uite lo' temperatures% 3%18 +iscoelasticity Seismic shear 'a#es propa$ate throu$h the (arths mantle 'ith relati#ely little attenuation% There"ore 'e conclude that the mantle is an elastic solid% 9o'e#er, 'e ha#e sho'n conclusi#ely that the crystalline solid beha#es as a #iscous "luid on $eolo$ical time scales as short as the 18> yr characteristic o" post$lacial rebound% The mantle beha#es as an elastic solid on time scales o" the order o" 1 to 18> seconds but beha#es as a #iscous "luid on time scales o" 1811 to 1813 seconds% - material that beha#es elastically on short time scales and #iscously on lon$ time scales is !no'n as a #iscoelastic material% The ,a 'ell model o" a #iscoelastic material consists o" a material in 'hich the rate o" strain gj is the superposition o" a linear elastic strain rate gje produced by the rate o" chan$e o" stress and a linear #iscous strain rate gj" produced by the stress bj b% 1onsider such a medium sub?ected to the unia ial stress b% The elastic strain o" the material as $i#en by ()uation 52C1>6 is b ge P , 53%2216 ( 'here, it 'ill be recalled, ( is =oun$s modulus% The rate o" strain o" a <e'tonian #iscous "luid sub?ected to a de#iatoric normal stress b is $i#en by ()uation 54C486 as d g" hu b P P % 53%2226 dt h 2D The minus si$n connectin$ gj" and huUh arises "rom our si$n con#ention that treats compressi#e strains as positi#e% The total strain g is the sum o" the elastic and "luid strains g P ge R g" % 53%2226
939 393
The total rate o" strain is there"ore the sum o" gj" "rom ()uation 53C2226 and the time deri#ati#e gje o" 53C2216 dg 1 1 db P bR % dt 2D ( dt 53%22>6
This is the "undamental rheolo$ical la' relatin$ strain rate, stress, and rate o" chan$e o" stress "or a ,a 'ell #iscoelastic material% .et us consider 'hat 'ill happen i" 'e suddenly apply a strain g8 to this
#iscoelastic medium at t P 8 and maintain the strain constant "or t [ 8% Durin$ the #ery rapid application o" strain the time deri#ati#e terms in ()uation 53C22>6 dominate and the material beha#es elastically% There"ore, the initial stress b8 at t P 8 is b8 P (g8 % 53%22A6
Subse)uently, there is no chan$e in the strain, dgUdt P 8, and ()uation 53C22>6 reduces to 1 8P b R 1 db 53%2246 2D ( dt or db ( P dt% b 2D 53%2236
This e)uation can be inte$rated 'ith the initial condition b P b8 at t P 8 to $i#e b P b8 e p (t % 2D 53%2286
The stress rela es to 1Ue o" its ori$inal #alue in a time n#e P 2D % ( 53%2296
This is !no'n as the viscoelastic rela#ation time% The rela ation time "or the asthenosphere can be estimated by ta!in$ D P > 1819 0a s and ( P 38 G0a 'ith the result n#e P 24 years% -s e pected, this time is intermediate bet'een the periods o" seismic 'a#es and the times associated 'ith post$lacial rebound% -n e ample o" an instantaneous application o" strain is the coseismic displacement on a "ault% This displacement occurs in a "e' seconds, and a chan$e in the re$ional state o" stress occurs% &" the temperature o" the roc! is su""iciently hi$h, this stress is rela ed by solid-state creep processes% 0roblem 3%18 Determine the response o" a ,a 'ell #iscoelastic material to the sudden application o" a stress b8 at time t P 8 assumin$ that the stress is maintained constant "or t [ 8% :hat is the initial #alue o" the strain g8 O Describe 'hat 'ill happen i" the stress is remo#ed at time t P t1 [ 8% 0roblem 3%19 -nother model o" #iscoelastic beha#ior is the Eel#in model, in 'hich the stress b in the medium "or a $i#en strain g and strain rate gj
=(-B Ciscoelasticity
is the superposition o" linear elastic and linear #iscous stresses, be and b" % Sho' that the rheolo$ical la' "or the Eel#in #iscoelastic material is b P g( R 2D
999 999
dg % 53%2>86 dt Sho' also that the response o" the Eel#in #iscoelastic material to the sudden application o" a stress b8 at time t P 8 is b g P 8 51 e tUn#e 6% 53%2>16 ( -ssume that b P b8 "or t [ 8% :hile stresses decay e ponentially 'ith time in a ,a 'ell material sub?ected to constant strain, strain rela es in the same 'ay in a Eel#in material sub?ected to constant stress% 0roblem 3%28 GeneraliBe the rheolo$ical la', ()uation 53C22>6, "or a ,a 'ell #iscoelastic material to a three-dimensional state o" stress and strain by appropriately combinin$ the linear elastic e)uations 52C>6 to 52C46 'ith the linear #iscous e)uations 54C486 and 54C416 and the ob#ious e tension o" the #iscous e)uations to the third dimension% /se the idea that strain components add and stress components are identical to sho' that bj 1 m 1 5bj 2 R bj 2 6 R 5b1 p6 gj1 P ( ( 2D 53%2>26 bj 2 m 1 5bj 1 R bj 2 6 R 5b2 p6 gj2 P ( ( 2D 53%2>26 gj2 P 'here bj 2 m 1 5bj 1 R bj 2 6 R 5b2 p6 ( ( 2D 53%2>>6
pP
1 2 5b1
R b2 R b2 6%
53%2>A6
Determine the stresses and strains in a ,a 'ell #iscoelastic medium in a state o" unia ial strain g2 P 8, g1 P g2 8% -ssume that a stress b2 P b8 is suddenly applied at t P 8 and that b2 P b8 "or t [ 8% -ssume also that there is no pre"erred horiBontal direction, that is, ta!e b1 P b2 % 0ro#e that (t 52m 16 b1 P b2 P b8 1 R e p 4D51 m 6 51 m 6 53%2>46 b 252m 16 (t g2 P 8 51 2m 6 2 R e p % 51 m 6 4D51 m 6 ( 53%2>36 Discuss the beha#ior o" the ,a 'ell material in the limits t 8 and t %
- simple #iscoelastic model can be used to determine i" the elastic stresses in the lithosphere are rela ed by subsolidus creep% :e assume that rela ation o" lithospheric stresses occurs by dislocation creep, and, accordin$ly, 'e modi"y the rheolo$ical la' "or the ,a 'ell solid by usin$ the stress- dependent e""ecti#e #iscosity De"" "or dislocation creep% From the rate o" strain-stress relation "or dislocation creep, ()uation 53C 1846, 'e can 'rite the e""ecti#e #iscosity as De"" P 1 211 b 2 e(a U;T % 53%2>86
/pon substitutin$ ()uation 53C2>86 into 53C22>6, 'e obtain the #iscoelastic relation dg 1 db % 53%2>96 P 11 b 2 e (a U;T R ( dt dt :e a$ain consider the case in 'hich a constant strain is applied instantaneously at t P 8 'ith the resultant initial stress b8 % Since the strain is constant, ()uation 53C2>96 reduces to 8 P 11 b 2 e R or
db P (11 e (a U;T dt, b2 'hich can readily be inte$rated to yield (a U;T
1 db ( dt
53%2A86
53%2A16
1U2
bP
1 R 2(1 te (a U;T 2 b8 2 2(1 1 b 2 8 1

2 211 b8
53%2A26
The time nr "or the stress b8 to rela to one-hal" o" its ori$inal #alue is nr P e(a U;T % 53%2A26
&" 'e base De"" on the initial stress b8 , De"" ,8 e(a U;T , 53%2A>6
then the stress rela ation time can be 'ritten 2D nr P e"" ,8, 53%2AA6 ( 'hich is closely analo$ous to ()uation 53C2296 "or the #iscoelastic rela ation time o" a ,a 'ell material% -ccordin$ to ()uation 53C2A26, the stress rela ation time is a stron$ "unction o" temperature, the rheolo$ical parameters, and the initial stress% Fi$ure
Fi$ure 3%2> The temperature at 'hich an initial stress rela es to one-hal" o" its ori$inal #alue as a "unction o" time "or se#eral #alues o" the initial stress% The solid cur#es are "or a dry oli#ine rheolo$y, and the dashed ones are "or a 'et oli#ine%
3C2> illustrates these dependences "or t'o dry 2 sets 1 o" rheolo$ical parametersF 1 A oli#ine "or 'hich 11 P >%2 18 ,0a s , ( P A22 !J mol , and 'et a oli#ine "or 'hich 11 P A%A 18> ,0a 2 s 1 , (a P 298 !J mol 1 % &n addition 'e assumed ( P 3 18> ,0a% For rele#ant $eolo$ical times 5say 183 years6 and stress le#els 5say 188 ,0a6, si$ni"icant stress rela ation does not occur at temperatures less than about 43A 1 "or dry oli#ine or >3A 1 "or 'et oli#ine% Thus, i" the dry oli#ine rheolo$y controls creep, the base o" the elas tic lithosphere is de"ined by the 43A 1 isotherm7 i" the 'et oli#ine rheolo$y pertains, the appropriate isotherm is >3A 1% The thic!ness or base o" the elastic oceanic lithosphere y( . can there"ore be determined as a "unction o" its a$e t by usin$ ()uation 5>C12A6 "or the thermal structure% @y choosin$ T8 P 8 1, and T1 P 1288 1, 'e obtain y( . P 25st61U2 er" 53%2A46 "or dry oli#ine and y( . P 25st61U2 er" 53%2A36
1 >3A 1288 1 43A 1288
P 1%85st61U2
P 8%485st61U2
"or 'et oli#ine% -t depths in the thermal lithosphere $reater than y( . , elastic stresses are relie#ed by solid-state creep processes on $eolo$ically si$ni"icant
Fi$ure 3%2A Thic!nesses o" the oceanic lithosphere "rom "le ure studies at ocean trenches, islands, and rid$es as a "unction o" a$e o" the oceanic lithosphere at the time o" loadin$ 51almant et al%, 19986% The s)uares are data "or the -tlantic *cean, diamonds "or the &ndian *cean, and trian$les "or the 0aci"ic *cean% The solid line cur#e de"ines the base o" the elastic lithosphere "or the dry oli#ine rheolo$y, and the dashed cur#e $i#es the base "or the 'et oli#ine rheolo$y%
time scales% 9o'e#er, the roc! still has su""icient ri$idity so that the strain is small compared to unity and the lo'er thermal lithosphere is able to maintain its inte$rity% The predicted thic!nesses o" the oceanic elastic lithosphere "or the t'o rheolo$ies are compared 'ith obser#ations in Fi$ure 3C2A% The data 'ere obtained "rom studies o" lithospheric "le ure at ocean trenches and under the loads o" islands, and "rom correlations o" ocean rid$e topo$raphy 'ith $ra#ity% -lthou$h there is considerable scatter, the obser#ed thic!ness o" the oceanic elastic lithosphere does appear to increase 'ith its a$e% The predicted elastic lithosphere thic!nesses are lar$er than the obser#ed thic!- nesses, especially "or the #ery old lithosphere% The model thic!ness "or a 'et oli#ine rheolo$y "its the data much better than does that "or a dry oli#ine rheolo$y% (lastic stresses in the lithosphere are apparently rela ed at e#en lo'er temperatures than predicted by our particular 'et oli#ine rheolo$ical "ormula%
=(-- Elastic/Perfectly Plastic 0ehavior
182 1821
Fi$ure 3%24 De"ormation o" a solid e hibitin$ an elasticCplastic trans"ormation%
3%11 (lasticC0er"ectly 0lastic @eha#ior -t lo' con"inin$ pressures roc! beha#es as a brittle material7 that is, it "ractures 'hen a lar$e stress is applied% 9o'e#er, 'hen the con"inin$ pressure approaches a roc!s brittle stren$th, a transition "rom brittle or elastic beha#ior to plastic beha#ior occurs, as sho'n in Fi$ure 3C24% The elasticC plastic trans"ormation ta!es place 'hen the stress e ceeds a critical #alue !no'n as the yield stress b8 % &n the plastic re$ime the material yields and de"orms irre#ersibly7 upon loadin$, the stressCstrain history "ollo's path -@ in Fi$ure 3C237 upon unloadin$, path @1 is "ollo'ed% The unloadin$ history "ollo's a path essentially parallel to the initial elastic stressCstrain line and results in an unreco#erable amount o" strain associated 'ith the plastic yieldin$% &n $eneral, the de"ormation o" a material e hibitin$ an elasticCplastic transition depends on its entire loadin$ history% Temperature also has a stron$ in"luence on elasticCplastic de"ormation% &n particular, the yield stress usually decreases 'ith increasin$ temperature% ,ost studies o" elasticCplastic beha#ior $enerally assume that the stressCstrain cur#es are independent o" the rate o" application o" the load% Thus, the stressC strain relation is ta!en to be time independent% -n idealiBed representation o" the beha#ior ?ust described is the elastic/ perfectly plastic rheolo$y, in 'hich the material beha#es elastically at stresses less than the yield stress b8 and de"orms 'ithout limit at the yield stress, as sho'n in Fi$ure 3C28% *n loadin$, the material "ollo's the stressCstrain path -@1 % -lon$ -@ the linear elastic relation b P (g applies% *n @1 b P b8 , and g can be arbitrarily lar$e% /pon unloadin$, the material beha#es
18> 18>1
Roc, rheology
Fi$ure 3%23 StressCstrain history "or loadin$ and unloadin$ o" an elasticC plastic material%
Fi$ure 3%28 The stressCstrain relation "or an elasticCper"ectly plastic material%
elastically in a manner una""ected by the plastic "lo'7 that is, it "ollo's path 1 D, 'hich is parallel to -@% :hen the applied stress is reduced to Bero, the elastic strain g P b8 U( is reco#ered, but the plastic strain -D remains% The elasticCper"ectly plastic rheolo$y is compared in Fi$ure 3C29 'ith laboratory studies o" the de"ormation o" dunite at a con"inin$ pressure o" A88 ,0a and a temperature o" 888 1% Dunite is a representati#e mantle roc!, and its rheolo$ical beha#ior is in $ood a$reement 'ith the elasticCper"ectly
18A 18A1
Fi$ure 3%29 The elasticCper"ectly plastic rheolo$y is compared 'ith the e perimentally obser#ed stressCstrain beha#ior o" dunite at a con"inin$ pres sure o" A88 ,0a and a temperature o" 888 1%
plastic model% - typical con"inin$ pressure re)uired "or the brittleCplastic trans"ormation in roc! is A88 ,0a% This corresponds to a depth o" 13 !m in roc! o" a#era$e density 2888 !$ m 2 % -t depths $reater than this, plastic yieldin$ is e pected at lar$e de#iatoric stress le#els% &n the case o" unia ial loadin$ the yield condition "or plastic de"ormation is b P b8 % &n the case o" three-dimensional stress, ho'e#er, the yield condition is more complicated% There are t'o criteria that are in $eneral use% The %resca or ma#imum shear stress criterion states that a solid yields 'hen the ma imum shear stress reaches a critical #alue b % :e noted in Section 2C> that the ma imum shear stress in a three-dimensional state o" stress is onehal" the di""erence bet'een the minimum and ma imum principal 1 stresses, b2 6% Thus the Tresca yield condition is 2 5b1 b P
1 2 5b1
b2 6%
53%2A86
@ecause this must reduce to the yield condition "or unia ial stress 'hen b2 P b2 P 8, "or e ample, 'e can 'rite b P
1 2 b1
P 21 b8 %
53%2A96
The "inal "orm o" the Tresca condition is there"ore b8 P b1 b2 % 53%2486 The von Mises criterion asserts that plastic yieldin$ occurs 'hen b
2
P 5b1 b2 62 R 5b1 b2 62 R 5b2 b2 62 %
53%2416 The ri$ht side o" ()uation 53C2416 is a stress in#ariant7 that is, its #alue is
184 1841
unchan$ed by the replacement o" b1 , b2 , and b2 'ith the #alues b , byy , and bBB appropriate to any coordinate system% This criterion must also reduce to the condition b8 P b1 'hen b2 P b2 P 8 so that
2 2 b 2 P 2b1 P 2b 8 %
Roc, rheology
53%2426
Thus the #on ,ises criterion is

2 2b8 P 5b1 b2 62 R 5b1 b2 62 R 5b2 b2 62 %
53%2426 0roblem 3%21 Determine the shear stress at 'hich an elasticCper"ectly plastic material yields in pure shear usin$ 5a6 the Tresca criterion and 5b6 the #on ,ises criterion% 0roblem 3%22 1onsider an elasticCper"ectly plastic material loaded in plain strain 5see Section 2C46 'ith g2 P 8 and b2 P 8% /se the #on ,ises criterion to determine the #alue o" b1 at 'hich yieldin$ occurs, and determine the associated #alue o" g1 % 0roblem 3%22 1onsider the state o" stress b P byy P bBB P b and b y P by P n, b B P bB P byB P bBy P 8% Determine the yield conditions on the basis o" the Tresca and #on ,ises criteria% 9o' does hydrostatic loadin$ a""ect plastic yieldin$O :e no' apply the elasticCper"ectly plastic rheolo$y to the bendin$ o" a plate% The purely elastic bendin$ o" a plate has been discussed in 1hapter 2% The stress distribution in an elastic plate is $i#en by ()uations 52C 4>6 and 52C386 b (y d2 ' P % 1m2 d 2 53%24>6
The stress increases linearly 'ith distance y "rom the center o" the plate% The plate bends elastically until the stresses at the sur"ace o" the plate, y P hU2, become su""iciently lar$e "or plastic yieldin$ to occur% :e denote the #alue o" b at 'hich yieldin$ "irst ta!es place by b ,8 % The #alue o" b ,8 can be determined in terms o" the yield stress b8 "rom the Tresca or #on ,ises criteria% The principal stresses in the plate are b , byy , and bBB % :e recall that byy P 8 and gBB P 8 in the t'o-dimensional bendin$ o" a plate% These conditions $i#e bBB P #b % Thus the three principal stresses in the plate, arran$ed in the order b1 b2 b2 , are
183 1831
b1 P b 8%
b2 P bBB P m b
b2 P byy P 53%24A6
@y substitutin$ ()uation 53C24A6 into the Tresca criterion 53C2486, 'e $et b
,8
P b8 %
53%2446 For the #on ,ises criterion 'e "ind b

,8
b8 % 51 m R m 2 61U2
53%2436
For m P 8%2A, the #on ,ises criterion $i#es a #alue o" b ,8 that is only 8N lar$er than the #alue obtained "rom the Tresca criterion% The plate cur#ature correspondin$ to the onset o" plasticity is $i#en by ()uation 53C24>6 ,8 2 d ' 2b 51 m P 2 2 6 d % 53%2486 (h The correspondin$ #alue o" the bendin$ moment 'hich "ollo's "rom ()uation 52C316 is % 53%2496 4 &" the bendin$ moment in the plate e ceeds ,8 , the elastic solution is no lon$er #alid because plastic de"ormation occurs% .et us consider the state o" stress in the plate 'hen , [ ,8 % :e assume as 'e did "or purely elastic bendin$ that trans#erse sections o" the plate remain plane% There"ore the strain is still a linear "unction o" the distance y "rom the center o" the plate, and ()uation 52C386, 'hich is a purely $eometrical result, remains #alid% The interior part o" the plate 'here strains are small remains elastic, but the outer parts de"orm plastically% &n the elastic part o" the plate, |y | \ y8 , the "iber stress is proportional to the lon$itudinal strain and the strain is proportional to y, so that stress is also proportional to y% &n the plastic part o" the plate, |y | [ y8 , the stress has the constant #alue b ,8 % The stress distribution b is thus y8 y h 2 ,8 P b
,8 h 2
P b
,8
188 1881
Roc, rheology
P b P b
,8 ,8
y y8
y8 y y8 h y y 8 2
53%2386
The bendin$ moment "or the partially plastic plate is obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 53C2386 into ()uation 52C416 and inte$ratin$ 'ith the result
5 ]
, P 2 P b
y8
8 2 ,8 h
,8
y y dy R y8
2 >y8 % 2h2
hU2
y8
,8 y
dy 53%2316
>
:hen y8 P 8, the plate is entirely plastic% The ma imum or critical bendin$ moment ,c correspondin$ to this case is ,c P b
,8 h 2
>
53%2326
This is the ma imum bendin$ moment that the plate can transmit% The bendin$ moment at the onset o" plasticity ,8 correspondin$ to y8 P hU2 is related to the ma imum bendin$ moment by ,8 P
2 2 ,c %
53%2326 The bendin$ moment in the plate can be increased A8N beyond the elastic limit be"ore the ma imum bendin$ moment is reached% Stress distributions "or #arious bendin$ moments are $i#en in Fi$ure 3C28% The cur#ature o" the plate is related to the hal"-'idth o" the elastic core y8 and the yield stress b ,8 by ()uation 53C24>6, 'hich $i#es d2 ' b P d 2
,8 51 2
6 (y8
53%23>6
/pon eliminatin$ y8 "rom ()uations 53C2316 and 53C23>6, 'e $et d2 ' b ,8 51 m 2 6 P , d 2 2 2 2, 1U2 ( >h b
,8
53%23A6
a result that relates the cur#ature o" the plate to the bendin$ moment% This is the elasticCper"ectly plastic e)ui#alent o" ()uation 52C316% -t the onset o" plasticity d2 ' d
2 8
2b 2 6
,8 51
,8 h
53%2346
(h
4D
Fi$ure 3%28 Stress pro"iles across a bendin$ plate "or #arious #alues o" the moment% 5a6 (lastic bendin$% 5$6 *nset o" plasticity, b P b ,8 at y P hU2% 5c6 0artially plastic bendin$, y8 P 8%2A>h% 5d6 Totally plastic bendin$, y8 P 8%
'here the "le ural ri$idity D has been de"ined in ()uation 52C326% /sin$ this result, 'e can put ()uation 53C23A6 in the con#enient "orm d2 ' d 2 d2 ' d 2 P 2
8
2, ,8
1U2
53%2336
This dependence o" the plate cur#ature on bendin$ moment is $i#en in Fi$ure 3C21% The cur#ature approaches in"inity as the bendin$ moment approaches the critical #alue ,c P 1%A,8 % This rapid increase in cur#ature is re"erred to as a plastic hinge% Fi$ure 2C2A sho's that some ocean trench pro"iles are in $ood a$reement 'ith the elastic theory "or the bendin$ o" plates% 9o'e#er, some are not, as illustrated by the pro"ile across the Ton$a trench $i#en in Fi$ure 3C22% This
Fi$ure 3%21 Dependence o" the nondimensional plate cur#ature on the ratio o" the bendin$ moment to the bendin$ moment at the onset o" plasticity%
pro"ile is compared 'ith the predicted elastic pro"ile $i#en by ()uation 52C 1A96 ta!in$ b P 48 !m and 'b P 8%2 !m% The obser#ed pro"ile has a much lar$er cur#ature in the trench than the one predicted by elastic theory% &" 'e attribute this additional cur#ature to plastic hin$in$, the analysis $i#en abo#e predicts that the e cess cur#ature 'ill de#elop 'here the bendin$ moment is a ma imum% This occurs at P 2 8 b accordin$ to ()uation 52C1486% There"ore 'e predict that a plastic hin$e 'ould de#elop at P 48 !m% This prediction a$rees 'ith the obser#ations%
0roblem 3%2> 1onsider a lon$ circular cylinder o" elasticCper"ectly plastic material that is sub?ected to a tor)ue T at its outer sur"ace r P a% The state o" stress in the cylinder can be characteriBed by an aBimuthal shear stress n % Determine the tor)ue "or 'hich an elastic core o" radius c remains% -ssume that the yield stress in shear is b8 % &n the elastic re$ion the shear stress is proportional to the distance "rom the a is o" the cylinder r% :hat is the tor)ue "or the onset o" plastic yieldin$O :hat is the ma imum tor)ue that can be sustained by the cylinderO
Collateral Reading
111 1111
Fi$ure 3%22 *bser#ed pro"ile across the Ton$a trench compared 'ith an elastic plate pro"ile assumin$ #b P 48 !m and 'b P 8%2 !m%
1ollateral ;eadin$ -shby, ,% F%, and ;% -% +errall 519386, ,icromechanisms o" "lo' and "racture and their rele#ance to the rheolo$y o" the upper mantle, Phil( %rans( Roy( "oc( London 288-, A9C9A% 1almant, S%, J% Francheteau, and -% 1aBena#e 519986, (lastic layer thic!enin$ 'ith a$e o" the oceanic lithosphereF - tool "or prediction o" the a$e o" #olcanoes or oceanic crust, Geophys( J( Int( 188, A9C43% Gri$$s, D% T%, F% J% Turner, and 9% 1% 9eard 519486, De"ormation o" roc!s at A88 1 to 888 1, Geol( "oc( m( Memoir 39, 29C18>% Earato, S% &%, and 0% :u 519926, ;heolo$y o" the upper mantleF - synthesis, "cience 248, 331C338% 1ollateral ;eadin$ 9ill, ;%, %he Mathematical %heory of Plasticity 5* "ord /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19A86, 2AA pa$es% - "undamental te tboo! "or en$ineers and applied mathematicians on the theory o" plasticity% The student should be "amiliar 'ith elasticity theory, cartesian tensors, and hyperbolic di""erential e)uations% The boo! presents the "oundations o" plasticity theory, solutions o" elasticC plastic problems includin$ bendin$ and torsion o" beams and bars, plane strain and slip-line theory, steady t'o-dimensional problems includin$ sheet- dra'in$ and sheet-e trusion, nonsteady t'odimensional problems such as indentation and hardness tests, problems 'ith a ial symmetry, and plastic anisotropy% 9ull, D%, and D% J% @acon, Introduction to &islocations, 2rd edition 50er$a- mon 0ress, * "ord, 198>6, 2AA pa$es% -n account o" the $eometry, properties, and beha#ior o" dislocations in crystals "or ad#anced under$raduate students in metallur$y, en$ineerin$,
and physics% The "irst part o" the boo! describes the $eometry, mo#e- ment, and elastic properties o" dislocations to$ether 'ith a discussion o" the methods o" obser#in$ and studyin$ them% This is "ollo'ed by a description o" the more detailed "eatures o" dislocations in speci"ic structuresF "ace-centered cubic, he a$onal close-pac!ed, body-centered cubic, ionic, layer and super-lattice structures% *ther topics include ?o$s and the intersection o" dislocations, ori$in and multiplication o" dislocations, dislocation arrays and crystal boundaries, stren$th o" annealed crystals, and stren$thenin$ by dislocations% <adai, -%, %heory of Flo! and Fracture of "olids, Colume 4 5,cGra'9ill, <e' =or!, 19426, 38A pa$es% This classic 'or! on the de"ormation o" solids emphasiBes problems in 'hich temperature and the time rate o" permanent de"ormation play an important role% 0art 1, on the principles o" mechanical 'or!, contains three chapters dealin$ 'ith the theory o" thermoelasticity, mechanical 'or! associated 'ith small "inite strain, and e tremum principles o" 'or!% The ne t si chapters, 'hich comprise part 2, discuss elasticity and #iscosity, plane strain and plane stress, a ially symmetric stress distributions, and the bendin$ o" plates and #iscoelastic beams% 0art 2 contains "i#e chapters on subsidence and post$lacial upli"t, thermal stresses and strains, residual stress, and "lo' o" a $enerally #iscous substance throu$h a cylindrical tube% The ne t t'o parts discuss the theory o" per"ectly loose and o" $enerally plastic substances and the creep o" metals at ele#ated temperatures% The "inal part is a selection o" problems in $eomechanics% <icolas, -%, and J% 0% 0oirier, Crystalline Plasticity and "olid "tate Flo! in Metamorphic Roc,s 5John :iley and Sons, .ondon, 19346, >>> pa$es% - te tboo! on the mechanics o" de"ormation o" minerals and roc!s% ,a?or chapter headin$s include structural analysis in metamorphic roc!s, elements o" solid mechanics and physical metallur$y, "lo' and annealin$ processes in crystals, plastic de"ormation o" roc!-"ormin$ minerals, de#elopment o" te tures and pre"erred orientations by plastic "lo' and recrystalliBation, strain analysis o" "ield structures, interpretation o" structures, te tures, and pre"erred orientations in peridotites, lar$e- scale "lo' in peridotites, and upper mantle $eodynamics% 0oirier, J% 0%, Introduction to the Physics of the EarthAs Interior 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19916, 24> pa$es% This is an ad#anced le#el treatise on the physics o" the (arths interior 'ith an emphasis on mineral physics% Sub?ects co#ered include the thermo-
112 1121
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Collateral Reading
dynamics o" solids, elastic moduli, lattice #ibrations, e)uations o" state, meltin$, and transport properties% 0oirier, J% 0%, Creep of Crystals 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 198A6, 248 pa$es% This is an e cellent and broad treatment o" solid-state creep processes% Di""usion and dislocation mechanisms are considered alon$ 'ith the role o" 'ater, dynamic recrystalliBation, superplasticity, and trans"ormation plasticity% 0ra$er, :%, and 0% G% 9od$e, Jr%, %heory of Perfectly Plastic "olids 5John :iley and Sons, <e' =or!, 19A16, 24> pa$es% -n introduction to the mathematical theory o" the beha#ior o" per"ectly plastic solids 'ritten "or senior under$raduate or $raduate students in en$ineerin$ and applied mathematics% Follo'in$ an introduction to the basic concepts o" plasticity, the boo! treats trusses and beams, includin$ the "le ure o" elasticCplastic beams, torsion o" cylindrical and prismatic bars, problems in#ol#in$ plane strain, and e tremum principles% 0rob- lems are $i#en at the end o" each chapter% ;analli, G%, Rheology of the Earth, 2nd edition 51hapman and 9all, .ondon, 199A6, >12 pa$es% - re"erence 'or! that pro#ides a comprehensi#e co#era$e o" the de"ormation and "lo' o" (arth materials "rom both the continuum mechanics and the microphysical #ie'points% The "undamental principles o" elasticity, #iscous "lo', and plasticity are co#ered% The atomic bases "or de"ormation are introduced includin$ #acancies, di""usion, dislocations, and recrystalliBation% The concept o" de"ormation maps is introduced% :eertman, J%, and J% ;% :eertman, Elementary &islocation %heory 5,acmillan 1ompany, <e' =or!, 194>6, 212 pa$es% - boo! on dislocation theory "or ad#anced under$raduate students% @asic calculus and #ector analysis are re)uired% - lar$e number o" problems are $i#en% The main sub?ects are description o" a dislocation, the stress "ield around a dislocation, "orces on a dislocation, dislocation reactions in crystals, dislocation multiplication, t'innin$, 0eierls "orce, ima$e "orces, and interactions 'ith point de"ects% :ert, 1% -%, and ;% ,% Thomson, Physics of "olids, 2nd edition 5,cGra'9ill, <e' =or!, 19386, A22 pa$es% - boo! "or ad#anced under$raduate en$ineerin$ students on basic solid-state physics% The treatment is )uantitati#e, but the mathematical analysis is on an intermediate le#el% The "irst part o" the boo! discusses the crystal structure o" solids and the properties that depend on structure% Topics include the $eometry o" per"ect crystals, imper"ections in
112 1121
11> 11>1
Collateral Reading
crystals, heat capacity, #acancies and interstitials, point de"ects, di""u- sion, phase dia$rams, and dislocations% The second part deals 'ith the electronic structure o" solids and co#ers metals, ionic crystals, co#alent crystals, molecular crystals, and the physical properties o" semiconductors% The remainin$ chapters are applications o" electronic structure to the electrical and ma$netic properties o" metals, semiconductors, and ionic crystals% The sub?ects co#ered are transport properties and speci"ic heat o" metals, semiconductor de#ices, electroma$netic and dielectric beha#ior o" solids, diama$netism, parama$netism, and "erroma$netism% 0roblems are $i#en at the end o" each chapter%
8 Faultin$
8%1 &ntroduction -t lo' temperatures and pressures roc! is a brittle material that 'ill "ail by "racture i" the stresses become su""iciently lar$e% Fractures are 'idely obser#ed in sur"ace roc!s o" all types% :hen a lateral displacement ta!es place on a "racture, the brea! is re"erred to as a "ault% Sur"ace "aults occur on all scales% *n the smallest scale the o""set on a clean "racture may be only millimeters% *n the lar$est scale the sur"ace e pression o" a ma?or "ault is a broad Bone o" bro!en up roc! !no'n as a "ault $ou$e7 the 'idth may be a !ilometer or more, and the lateral displacement may be hundreds o" !ilometers% (arth)ua!es are associated 'ith displacements on many "aults% Faults loc!, and a displacement occurs 'hen the stress across the "ault builds up to a su""icient le#el to cause rupture o" the "ault% This is !no'n as stic,/ slip beha#ior% :hen a "ault stic!s, elastic ener$y accumulates in the roc!s around the "ault because o" displacements at a distance% :hen the stress on the "ault reaches a critical #alue, the "ault slips and an earth)ua!e occurs% The elastic ener$y stored in the ad?acent roc! is partially dissipated as heat by "riction on the "ault and is partially radiated a'ay as seismic ener$y% This is !no'n as elastic re$ound% Fault displacements associated 'ith the lar$est earth)ua!es are o" the order o" 28 m% The relati#e motions o" the ri$id plates are o"ten accommodated on ma?or "aults% -t ocean trenches, the oceanic lithosphere is bein$ subducted beneath an ad?acent oceanic or continental lithosphere alon$ a dippin$ "ault plane% The con#er$ence o" the t'o lithospheres results in thrust "aultin$ and the occurrence o" most o" the 'orlds $reat earth)ua!es% These earth)ua!es occur re$ularly in order to accommodate the continuous subduction process%
114 1141
Faulting
@ecause the sur"ace e pression o" these "aults is at the base o" an ocean trench, they are di""icult to study in detail% -t accretional plate mar$ins, e tensi#e normal "aultin$ occurs on the "lan!s o" the ocean rid$es% The lithosphere at ocean rid$es is thin and 'ea!, so the resultin$ earth)ua!es are small% Se$ments o" the ocean rid$e system are connected by trans"orm "aults% Stri!eCslip "aultin$ occurs on these "aults% The San -ndreas "ault is a ma?or stri!eCslip "ault that is a plate boundary in the continental lithosphere% This "ault has $ood sur"ace e posure and has been e tensi#ely studied7 it is discussed in detail in Section 8C8% ( tensi#e "aultin$ o" all types occurs in Bones o" continental collision% The $reat earth)ua!es that ta!e place throu$hout 1hina are associated 'ith the broad Bone o" de"ormation resultin$ "rom the collision bet'een the &ndian and (urasian plates% Further to the 'est the e tension o" this Bone o" continental collision causes e tensi#e seismicity in Tur!ey, as discussed in Section 8C9%
8%2 1lassi"ication o" Faults :e pre#iously discussed the classi"ication o" "aults in Section 1C12% 9ere 'e pro#ide )uantitati#e de"initions o" the di""erent types o" "aults in terms o" the relati#e ma$nitudes o" the principal stresses% @ecause #oids cannot open up deep in the (arth, displacements on "aults occur parallel to the "ault sur"ace% For simplicity 'e assume that the "ault sur"ace is planar7 in "act, "aultin$ o"ten occurs on cur#ed sur"aces or on a series o" sur"aces that are o""set "rom one another% :e 'ill "irst consider thrust "aultin$, 'hich occurs 'hen the oceanic lithosphere is thrust under the ad?acent continental 5or oceanic6 lithosphere at an ocean trench% Thrust "aultin$ also plays an important role in the compression o" the lithosphere durin$ continental collisions% &dealiBed thrust "aults are illustrated in Fi$ure 8C1% 1ompressional stresses cause displacement alon$ a "ault plane dippin$ at an an$le c to the horiBontal% -s a result o" the "aultin$, horiBontal compressional strain occurs% Thrust "aults can "orm in either o" the t'o con?u$ate $eometries sho'n in Fi$ure 8C1a and b% The ele#ated bloc! is !no'n as the hanging !all, and the depressed bloc! is called the foot !all% The up'ard mo#ement o" the han$in$ 'all is also re"erred to as reverse faulting% :e assume that the stresses in the , y, and B directions are the principal stresses% The #ertical component o" stress byy is the o#erburden or lithostatic pressure
@(4 Classification of Faults
113 1131
Fi$ure 8%1 Thrust "aultin$% T'o con?u$ate thrust "aults 'ith dip an$les c are sho'n in 5a6 and 5$6% The principal stresses illustrated in 5c6 are all compressional 'ith ma$nitudes b [ bBB [ byy %
byy P Q$y%
58%16
The #ertical de#iatoric stress _byy is Bero% To produce the thrust "aults in Fi$ure 8C1, a compressional de#iatoric stress applied in the direction _b is re)uired, _b The horiBontal compressional stress, b P Q$y R _b , 58%26 [ 8% 58%26
there"ore e ceeds the #ertical lithostatic stress b [ byy % 58%>6
For the "ault $eometry sho'n in Fi$ure 8C1 it is appropriate to assume that there is no strain in the B direction% &n this situation o" plane strain 'e can use ()uation 52C>>6 to relate the de#iatoric stress component _bBB to _b _bBB P m _b % 58%A6 The de#iatoric stress in the B direction is also compressional, but its ma$nitude is a "actor o" m less than the de#iatoric applied stress% There"ore the horiBontal compressional stress, bBB P Q$y R _bBB P Q$y R m _b , 58%46
118 1181
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%2 <ormal "aultin$% T'o con?u$ate normal "aults 'ith an$le o" dip c are sho'n in 5a6 and 5$6% The principal stresses illustrated in 5c6 ha#e ma$nitudes related by byy [ bBB [ b %
e ceeds the #ertical stress byy , but it is smaller than the horiBontal stress b % Thrust "aults satis"y the condition b [ bBB [ byy %
58%36 The #ertical stress is the least compressi#e stress% Just as thrust "aultin$ accommodates horiBontal compressional strain, normal "aultin$ accommodates horiBontal e tensional strain% <ormal "aultin$ occurs on the "lan!s o" ocean rid$es 'here ne' lithosphere is bein$ created% <ormal "aultin$ also occurs in continental ri"t #alleys 'here the lithosphere is bein$ stretched% -pplied tensional stresses can produce normal "aults in either o" the t'o con?u$ate $eometries sho'n in Fi$ure 8C2% The displacements on the "ault planes dippin$ at an an$le c to the hori- Bontal lead to horiBontal e tensional strain% <ormal "aultin$ is associated 'ith a state o" stess in 'hich the #ertical component o" stress is the lithostatic pressure byy P Q$y and the applied de#iatoric horiBontal stress _b is tensional _b The horiBontal stress, b P Q$y R _b , 58%96 \ 8% 58%86
is there"ore smaller than the #ertical stress, byy [ b % 58%186
The plane strain assumption is a$ain appropriate to the situation in Fi$ure 8C2, and ()uation 58CA6 is applicable% 1onse)uently, the de#iatoric stress
Fi$ure 8%2 Stri!e-slip "aultin$% T'o con?u$ate stri!e-slip "aults inclined at an an$le Z to the direction o" the principal stress b are sho'n in 5a6 and 5$6% The principal stresses illustrated in 5c6 are related by bBB [ byy [ b %
in the B direction _bBB is also tensional, but its ma$nitude is a "actor o" m smaller than the de#iatoric applied stress% The total stress, bBB P Q$y R m _b , 58%116 is smaller than byy but lar$er than b % <ormal "aults satis"y the condition byy [ bBB [ b , 58%126
'here the #ertical stress is the ma imum compressi#e stress% @oth thrust "aults and normal "aults are also !no'n as dipCslip "aults because the displacement alon$ the "ault ta!es place on a dippin$ plane% - stri!eCslip "ault is a "ault alon$ 'hich the displacement is strictly horiBontal% Thus there is no strain in the y direction% The situation is one o" plane strain 'ith the nonBero strain components con"ined to the horiBontal plane% +ertical #ie's o" t'o con?u$ate stri!eCslip "aults are sho'n in Fi$ure 8C2% The "ault planes ma!e an an$le Z 'ith respect to the direction o" the principal stress b % The "ault illustrated in Fi$ure 8C2a is ri$ht lateral and the one in Fi$ure 8C2b is le"t lateral% The state o" stress in stri!eCslip "aultin$ consists o" a #ertical lithostatic stress byy P Q$y and horiBontal de#iatoric principal stresses that are compressional in one direction and tensional in the other% The case sho'n in Fi$ure 8C2 has _b *ne can also ha#e _b [8 _bBB \ 8% 58%1>6 \8 _bBB [ 8% 58%126
*ne horiBontal stress 'ill thus be lar$er than byy 'hile the other 'ill be smaller% For the situation $i#en by ()uation 58C126 'e ha#e bBB [ byy [ b , 'hile ()uation 58C1>6 $i#es b [ byy [ bBB % 58%146 58%1A6
For stri!eCslip "aultin$, the #ertical stress is al'ays the intermediate stress% - special case o" stri!eCslip "aultin$ occurs 'hen |_b | P |_bBB | P n8 % 58%136 This is the situation o" pure shear discussed in Section 2C3% The stress n8 is the shear stress applied across the "ault% &n pure shear the an$le Z is >A % The displacement on an actual "ault is almost al'ays a combination o" stri!eCslip and dipCslip motion% 9o'e#er, one type o" motion usually dominates% 8%2 Friction on Faults Displacements on "aults accommodate a substantial "raction o" the strain occurrin$ in the upper crust% These displacements sometimes occur in a continuous manner at tectonic #elocities o" tens o" millimeters per year% This type o" displacement is re"erred to as fault creep% 9o'e#er, it is much more common "or the displacements on "aults to occur durin$ earth)ua!es% @et'een earth)ua!es the "ault remains loc!ed% This is !no'n as stic!Cslip beha#ior% - simple model "or the stic!Cslip beha#ior o" a "ault is illustrated in Fi$ure 8C>% :e assume that the beha#ior o" the "ault is uni"orm 'ith depth and ne$lect the "orces at the bases o" the ad?acent plates% Fi$ure 8C>a sho's the situation a"ter a ma?or earth)ua!e 'hen the "ault loc!s% The stress across the "ault is n" d , the "rictional stress that is operati#e on the "ault at the end o" "aultin$% - uni"orm relati#e #elocity u8 is applied at a distance b "rom the "ault, and the shear strain increases 'ith time accordin$ to g5t6 P u8 tU5>b6 C see ()uation 52C1826 C "or e ample, as sho'n in Fi$ure 8C>b% The shear stress on the "ault as a "unction o" time t since the last displacement on the "ault is there"ore Gu8 t n P n" d R , 58%186 2b 'here G is the shear modulus 5see ()uation 52C>966% The loc!ed "ault can transmit any shear stress less than the static "rictional stress n" s % :hen
@(5 Friction on Faults
121 1211
Fi$ure 8%> Stic!Cslip beha#ior and elastic rebound on a "ault%
this stress is reached, slip occurs% There"ore, the time t P t 'hen the ne t displacement occurs on the "ault is t P
2b 5n" s n" d 6% Gu8
58%196
The slip on the "ault $enerates an earth)ua!e% The displacement on the "ault durin$ the earth)ua!e occurs in a "e' seconds so that the ed$es o" the plates can be assumed to be stationary durin$ this time% The accumulated shear strain g P u8 t U>b is reco#ered by the plates in a process !no'n as elastic re$ound% The resultin$ displacement on the "ault _' is 2g52b6 C see ()uation 52C9>6 C or _' P 2g52b6 P >b 5n u8 t >b
P G
2b
"s
n 6%
"d
58%286 The )uantity n" s n" d is the stress drop on the "ault durin$ the earth)ua!e% -"ter the earth)ua!e, the "ault loc!s and the cycle repeats, as sho'n in Fi$ure 8C>c% The displacement on a "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e can be measured "rom the sur"ace rupture% - typical #alue "or a lar$e earth)ua!e is A m% &t is di""icult to determine the stress drop durin$ an earth)ua!e% (stimates o"
Fi$ure 8%A - bloc! o" mass m on an inclined sur"ace% The an$le W is increased until the bloc! slips% The component o" the $ra#itational "orce mg normal to the sur"ace is mg cos W, the component parallel to the sur"ace is mg sin W%
stress drops durin$ lar$e earth)ua!es ran$e "rom n" s n" d P 1 to 188 ,0a% Ta!in$ G "or crustal roc!s e)ual to 28 G0a, 'e "ind "rom ()uation 58C286 that the distance b lies in the ran$e 3A m to 3%A !m% The static "rictional stress is the stress on the "ault 'hen earth)ua!e rupture initiates on the "ault% Durin$ rupture, slip is occurrin$ on the "ault and the shear stress on the "ault is the dynamic "rictional stress% Stic!Cslip beha#ior occurs as lon$ as the static "rictional stress n" s is $reater than the dynamic "rictional stress n" d , n" s [ n" d % ( tensi#e laboratory studies ha#e been carried out to determine 'hen slip 'ill initiate on a contact sur"ace% - simple e ample is a bloc! o" mass m sittin$ on an inclined sur"ace as illustrated in Fi$ure 8CA 5see also 0roblem 2C186% The an$le W is increased until the bloc! be$ins to slip% The normal stress that the bloc! e erts on the sur"ace is bn P m$ cos W 58%216
'here - is the contact area o" the bloc!% The "rictional shear stress on the sur"ace re)uired to !eep the bloc! "rom slippin$ is n" P m$ sin W % 58%226
Slip 'ill occur 'hen n" P n" s , the static "rictional stress% /nder a 'ide #ariety o" conditions it is "ound e perimentally that n" s P "s bn , 58%226
'here "s is the coefficient of static friction% This relation is !no'n as mon2 tonAs la!% The $reater the normal stress, the harder it is to initiate slidin$%
Fi$ure 8%4 - shear stress 'ith ma$nitude |n | P fs bn must be applied across a "ault to initiate slidin$ 'hen there is a normal compressi#e stress bn actin$ on the "ault%
The coe""icient o" "riction depends 'ea!ly on the types o" material in contact but is independent o" the normal stress% The concept o" "riction 'as discussed brie"ly in Section 2C2% 0roblem 8%1 -ssumin$ -montons la' to be applicable 'ith "s P 8%8, determine the an$le W at 'hich the bloc! illustrated in Fi$ure 8CA 'ill be$in to slip% -montons la' is $enerally #alid 'hen t'o rou$h sur"aces are in contact or 'hen a $ranulated material such as a "ault $ou$e is present bet'een the sur"aces% The la' can be applied to a nearly planar "racture or "ault, as s!etched in Fi$ure 8C4% - shear stress n" s $i#en by ()uation 58C226 must be applied parallel to the "ault to cause slidin$ 'hen the t'o sides o" the "ault are pressed to$ether by the normal stress bn % .aboratory data on the ma imum shear stress to initiate slidin$ are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C3 "or a 'ide #ariety o" roc!s includin$ $ranites, $abbros, limestones, and sandstones at normal stresses up to 188 ,0a% -lthou$h there is considerable scatter, $ood a$reement is obtained "or ma "s P 8%8A% The presence o" 'ater throu$hout much o" the (arths crust a""ects the "rictional beha#ior o" a "ault% The pressure o" 'ater on a "ault is re"erred to as the pore pressure p' % The e""ecti#e normal stress actin$ on a 'et "ault is the actual normal stress less the pore pressure% There"ore on a 'et "ault -montons la' can be 'ritten |n | P "s 5bn p' 6% 58%2>6 &" the 'ater is "reely connected 'ith the sur"ace and there are no "lo' losses, the 'ater pressure is the hydrostatic pressure p' P Q' $y% @ecause the density o" 'ater Q' is considerably less than the density o" roc!s, the hydrostatic pressure is $enerally 2A to A8N o" the o#erburden or lithostatic pressure% &n some cases, ho'e#er, 'ater is trapped, and the pore pressure can nearly
Fi$ure 8%3 ,a imum shear stress to initiate slidin$ as a "unction o" normal stress "or a #ariety o" roc! types% The linear "it de"ines a ma imum coe""icient o" static "riction ma fs e)ual to 8%8A% Data "rom @yerlee 519336%
e)ual or e#en e ceed the o#erburden pressure% &n these cases the shear stress resistin$ motion on a "ault is lo'% &t is clear "rom ()uation 58C2>6 that the in?ection o" "luid can reduce the "rictional resistance to an earth)ua!e on a "ault% There are many instances in 'hich "luids pumped at hi$h pressures into 'aste disposal 'ells ha#e induced small earth)ua!es% :hen pumpin$ ended, the earth)ua!es ceased% &t has been su$$ested that lar$e earth)ua!es could be pre#ented by the in?ection o" "luids on ma?or "aults% The "luid pressure 'ould reduce the ma imum shear stress re)uired "or an earth)ua!e% Displacement on the "ault 'ould be accommodated throu$h a lar$e number o" small earth)ua!es rather than a "e' lar$e earth)ua!es% The conse)uences o" inducin$ a lar$e earth)ua!e ha#e so "ar pre#ented a lar$escale test o" this su$$estion%
@(6
nderson %heory of Faulting
8%> -nderson Theory o" Faultin$
12A 12A1
:e no' combine the results o" the pre#ious t'o sections and determine the an$le o" dip c o" normal and thrust "aults in terms o" the coe""icient o" static "riction "s % -s in Section 8C2 'e assume that the horiBontal stresses b and bBB and the #ertical stress byy are principal stresses and that the "ault is a plane dippin$ at an an$le c 5see Fi$ures 8C1 and 8C26% :e a$ain assume that the #ertical stress byy is the lithostatic pressure and that b is the sum o" the lithostatic pressure and a tectonic de#iatoric stress _b , byy P Q$y b P Q$y R _b % 58%2A6 58%246
For thrust "aultin$ _b is positi#e, and "or normal "aultin$ it is ne$ati#e% To apply -montons la', it is necessary to relate b and byy to bn and n % The $eometry is illustrated in Fi$ure 8C8% @y comparin$ this "i$ure 'ith Fi$ure 2C11, 'e see that bn and n can be "ound "rom ()uations 52CA26 and 52CA>6 by e)uatin$ b1 and b2 in those e)uations 'ith b and byy 7 the result is bn P 1 5b 58%2362 n P 21 5b R byy 6 R
2 1
5b
byy 6 cos 2W 58%286
byy 6 sin 2W,
'here W is the an$le o" the "ault 'ith respect to the #ertical, W P XU2 c% /pon substitutin$ ()uations 58C2A6 and 58C246 into 58C236 and 58C 286, 'e "ind that the normal and tan$ential stresses on the "ault are bn P Q$y R n P _b 2 _b 2 51 R cos 2W6 58%296 58%286
sin 2W%
&" 'e include the e""ect o" pore pressure on the "ault, these stresses are related by -montons la' in the "orm o" ()uation 58C2>6% Substitution o" ()uations 58C296 and 58C286 into ()uation 58C2>6 yields _b _b sin 2W P "s Q$y p' R 2 2 58C216 51 R cos 2W6 ,
'here the upper si$n applies to thrust "aults 5_b [ 86 and the lo'er si$n to normal "aults 5_b \ 86% ;earran$ement o" ()uation 58C216 $i#es an e pression "or the tectonic stress _b in terms o" the an$le o" the "ault
Fi$ure 8%8 0rincipal stresses and normal and tan$ential stresses on a dipC slip "ault%
'ith the #ertical _b 2"s 5Q$y p' 6 P % sin 2W "s 51 R cos 2W6 58%226
1ontinental crustal roc!s contain many pree istin$ ?oints and "aults% :e hypothesiBe that under a tectonic stress these pree istin$ Bones o" 'ea!ness 'ill be reacti#ated to "orm a dipCslip "ault at an an$le re)uirin$ the minimum #alue o" the tectonic stress% &n other 'ords, thrust "aultin$ and normal "aultin$ 'ill occur at an$les that minimiBe |_b |% The an$le W that $i#es the minimum #alue o" |_b | in ()uation 58C226 is determined by settin$ d_b UdW P 8 'ith the result 1% tan 2W P "s This can be re'ritten in terms o" c as tan 2c P 1 % "s 58%226
58%2>6
The upper si$ns in these e)uations apply to thrust "aults and the lo'er si$ns to normal "aults% Fi$ure 8C9 sho's ho' the dip an$les o" normal and thrust "aults depend on the coe""icient o" "riction% Thrust "aults dip less steeply than normal "aults% The tectonic stresses correspondin$ to these an$les o" dip are obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 58C226 into ()uation 58C226 _b 2"s 5Q$ y p' 6 P % 1U2 2 51 R " s 6 "s 58%2A6
-$ain, the upper si$ns are used "or thrust "aults and the lo'er si$ns "or normal "aults% Fi$ure 8C18 sho's ho' the tectonic stress computed "rom ()uation 58C2A6 #aries 'ith the coe""icient o" "riction on normal and thrust "aults "or the case p' P Q' $y, Q P 2388 !$ m 2 , Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , and y P A !m% Thrust "aultin$ re)uires some'hat lar$er stresses, in
Fi$ure 8%9 Dependence o" the an$le o" dip c on the coe""icient o" "riction fs "or normal and thrust "aults%
Fi$ure 8%18 Dependence o" the de#iatoric stress on the coe""icient o" static "riction "or thrust and normal "aults 'ith p' P Q' gy, Q P 2,388 !$ m 2 ,Q' P 1,888 !$ m 2 , g P 18 m s 2 , and y P A !m%
absolute ma$nitude, than does normal "aultin$% @ased on laboratory measurements, a typical #alue "or the coe""icient o" "riction 'ould be "s P 8%8A 5see Fi$ure 8C36% From ()uation 58C2>6 the correspondin$ an$le o" dip "or a thrust "ault is c P 2>%8 % -t a depth o" A !m the de#iatoric stress "rom Fi$ ure 8C18 is _b P 28A ,0a% The an$le o" dip o" a normal "ault is c P 4A%2 ,
128 1281
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%11 Deep structure o" the :ind ;i#er thrust "ault, :yomin$, is obtained by deep crustal seismic re"lection pro"ilin$ 5@re'er et al%, 19886%
and the tectonic stress is _b P 4A ,0a% The deri#ation o" the an$le o" dip o" dipCslip "aults $i#en abo#e 'as de#eloped by (% ,% -nderson and is o"ten re"erred to as the -nderson theory o" "aultin$% -s an e ample o" a ma?or thrust "ault, let us consider the :ind ;i#er thrust "ault in :yomin$% The structure o" this "ault, determined usin$ seismic re"lection pro"ilin$, is illustrated in Fi$ure 8C117 it is essentially the same as the structure sho'n in Fi$ure 8C1% The ele#ated bloc! is responsible "or the upli"t o" the :ind ;i#er ,ountains% This is a ran$e o" mountains 228 !m lon$ and 38 !m 'ide7 the hi$hest pea! has an ele#ation o" >243 m% The mountains are cored by 0recambrian roc! 'ith an a$e o" 2%3 Ga7 they are representati#e o" the deep crust% 1learly there has been considerable upli"t and erosion% The depressed bloc! to the 'est o" the :ind ;i#er thrust "ault is responsible "or the "ormation o" the Green ;i#er basin% This is a sedimentary basin 'ith lar$e petroleum reser#es% The basin has a ma imum depth o" about 12 !m% The :ind ;i#er ,ountains are one o" a series o" .aramide ran$es in :yomin$ 'ith an a$e o" A8 to 38 ,a% They are clearly the result o" crustal compression 'ith the compressional strain bein$ accommodated on a series o" ma?or thrust "aults that are responsible "or the "ormation o" the mountain ran$es and the ad?acent sedimentary basins% *n the :ind ;i#er thrust "ault there has been at least 21 !m o" crustal shortenin$ and 12 !m o" #ertical upli"t% The seismic pro"ilin$ illustrated in Fi$ure 8C11 clearly traces the "ault to a depth o" 2> !m and possibly as deep as 24 !m% *#er this depth ran$e the an$le o" dip is nearly constant 'ith an a#era$e #alue o" 2A % -ssumin$ that the -nderson theory o" "aultin$ is applicable, the coe""icient o" "riction correspondin$ to this an$le o" dip is "s P 8%24 "rom ()uation 58C2>6% -lthou$h this #alue "or the coe""icient o" "riction is considerably less than that obtained in laboratory e periments, this lo'er #alue is probably applicable to the lar$e-scale de"ormations associated 'ith a ma?or thrust "ault% -
@(6
nderson %heory of Faulting
129 1291
substantial pore pressure could help e plain the reduced #alue o" "s % :ith "s P 8%24, the an$le o" dip o" a normal "ault is AA %Typical an$les o" dip "or the sur"ace e posures o" normal "aults are AA to 4A % 0roblem 8%2 /sin$ the -nderson theory o" "aultin$ "or the stri!eCslip "ault illustrated in Fi$ure 8C2 sho' that cot 2Z P "s % 58%246 \
9ere the upper si$n applies i" _b [ 8 and the lo'er si$n applies i" _b 8% 0ro#e that this result is independent o" the ratio _bBB U_b %
0roblem 8%2 - number o" criteria ha#e been proposed to relate the brittle "racture o" roc! to the state o" stress% *ne o" these is the Coulom$/ 8avier criterion, 'hich states that "ailure occurs on a plane 'hen the shear stress n attains the #alue |n | P S R Dbn , 58%236
'here S is the inherent shear stren$th o" the roc! and D is the coe""icient o" internal "riction% 1onsider a t'o-dimensional state o" stress 'ith principal stresses b1 and b2 and sho' that |n | Dbn has a ma imum #alue "or a plane 'hose normal ma!es an an$le W to the lar$er principal stress $i#en by tan 2W P 58%286 1 %
Sho' also that the )uantity |n | Dbn "or this plane is |n | Dbn P
1 2
5b1 b2 651 R D2 61U2 1 5b1 R b2 6 D% 2 58%296
-ccordin$ to the 1oulombC<a#ier criterion, "ailure 'ill occur i" this )uantity e)uals S7 that is, the "ailure criterion ta!es the "orm b1 {51 R D2 61U2 D} b2 {51 R D2 61U2 R D} P 2S% 58%>86 :hat is the compressi#e stren$th o" the roc! in terms o" D and S O From ()uation 58C286 it is seen that W must e ceed >A , so that the direction o" shear "racture ma!es an acute an$le 'ith b1 % The 1oulombC<a#ier criterion is "ound to be reasonably #alid "or i$neous roc!s under compression%
128 1281
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%12 Stren$th en#elope "or the oceanic lithosphere% The solid lines are the stren$th o" the lithosphere "or the -nderson theory o" "aultin$ "rom ()uation 58C2A6% The dashed lines are the stresses associated 'ith solidstate creep in the lithosphere "rom ()uation 53C1926%
8%A Stren$th (n#elope The -nderson theory o" "aultin$ can also be used to "ind a stren$th en#elope "or the lithosphere% For e ample, let us consider the oceanic lithosphere% :e assume that the "ailure stress in the upper part o" the lithosphere is $i#en by the -nderson theory o" "aultin$ "rom ()uation 58C2A6% :e e#aluate this e)uation by ta!in$ the "luid pressure to be hydrostatic so that p' P Q' $y, Q P 2288 !$ m 2 , Q' P 1888 !$ m 2 , and the coe""icient o" "riction "s P 8%4, and sho' by the solid lines in Fi$ure 8C12 the resultin$ tectonic stresses _b as a "unction o" depth "or compressional and tensional "ailures% :e "urther assume that the "ailure stress in the lo'er part o" the oceanic lithosphere is $i#en by the solid-state creep la' "or the mantle "rom ()uation 53C1926% To determine a stress, 'e must speci"y the temperature, pressure, and strain rate% :e assume a linear thermal $radient dT Udy P 2A E !m 1 and ne$lect the pressure dependence at the shallo' depths considered% The resultin$ stress en#elopes due to solid-state creep are $i#en as the dashed lines in Fi$ure 8C12 "or t'o strain rates, gj P 18 12 s 1 and gj P 18 1> 1 s %
@(? %hrust "heets and Gravity "liding
121 1211
Fi$ure 8%12 1ompressional strain o" continental crust can be accommodated by the emplacement o" a thrust sheet - o#er the ad?acent brittle upper crust @% The stippled re$ion o" the lo'er crust 1 is de"ormed plastically to about t'ice its ori$inal thic!ness%
&n de"inin$ the stren$th en#elopes "or the oceanic lithosphere $i#en in Fi$ure 8C12, 'e assume that the lo'er o" the "rictional stress or the creep stress determines the stren$th% :e see that the ma imum stren$th is at a depth o" about 28 !m "or the conditions considered% The ma imum compressional stress _b is about 1288 ,0a and the ma imum tensional stren$th _b is about >A8 ,0a% The total compressional "orce Fc that can be transmitted by the oceanic lithosphere is thearea under the cur#e in Fi$ure 8C12 and is appro imately 2%2 1812 < m 1 % Similarly, the total tensional "orce F 1T that can be transmitted by the oceanic lithosphere is about 8 1812 < m 12 % 1 1 &n Section 4C21 'e estimated that the Lrid$e pushM "orce F; P12 2%9 18 < m and that the ma imum Ltrench pullM "orce F@ P >%9 18 < m % 9o'e#er, as noted in that section, the trench pull "orce is lar$ely balanced by resisti#e "orces encountered by the descendin$ lithosphere so that the net "orce in the oceanic lithosphere is probably comparable to the rid$e-push "orce% The stren$th o" the oceanic lithosphere, as 'e ha#e determined it, is su""icient to transmit this "orce throu$h old oceanic lithosphere% 8%4 Thrust Sheets and Gra#ity Slidin$ Displacements on thrust "aults are an important mechanism "or accommodatin$ compressional strain in the continental crust% -nother mechanism is the emplacement o" lon$ thin thrust sheets as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C12% The continental crust is split into t'o parts, the upper brittle part o" the crust - is o#erthrust o#er the ad?acent upper brittle crust @% The lo'er part o" the continental crust 1 is compressed plastically to about t'ice its ori$inal thic!ness% The o#erthrust brittle crust constitutes a thrust sheet% The mechanics o" thrust sheet emplacement can be studied 'ith the idealiBed 'ed$e-shaped model sho'n in Fi$ure 8C1>% :e assume that isostasy applies to the thrust sheet% The an$les i and c are there"ore related by cP Qc i, Qm Qc 58%>16
'here 'e ha#e also assumed that the an$les are small so that tan c c and
122 1221
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%1> - 'ed$e-shaped model o" a thrust sheet%
tan i i% - horiBontal static "orce balance on a section o" the thrust sheet o" len$th l leads to the conclusion that the net horiBontal "orce on the base o" the thrust sheet must e)ual the sum o" the lithostatic pressure and the tectonic stress _b inte$rated o#er the thic!ness o" the sheet at P l 5see Fi$ure 8C1>6% The latter )uantity, denoted by F1 , is
]
F1 P P
cl il
5il R y6Qc $ dy R
cl
il
_b
dy 58%>26
Qc $ 5i R c62 l2 R _b 5i R c6l% 2
Substitution o" ()uation 58C>16 into 58C>26 $i#es F1 P

2 Qc $ Qm 2 2 i l R _b 2 Qm Qc
Qm il% Qm Qc
58%>26
To calculate the horiBontal "orce actin$ on the base o" the thrust sheet, 'e need to determine the normal and shear stresses on the basal "ault% The lithostatic stress on the basal plane at a horiBontal distance "rom the ape o" the 'ed$e is Qc $5i R c6 % Since the an$les i and c are small, bn on the basal plane is appro imately e)ual to the lithostatic pressure bn P Qc $5i R c6 P Qc Qm i$ % 5Qm Qc 6 58%>>6
The normal stresses on the basal plane e ert a "orce 'hose horiBontal component is
]
8 l 2 2 2 b n c d P Q Qm $ i l ,
58%>A6
25Qm Qc 62 'here 'e ha#e used the small an$le appro imation sin c c% -montons la', ()uation 58C226, $i#es the shear stress actin$ on the basal "ault durin$
emplacement o" the thrust sheet n P "s Qc Qm i$ % 5Qm Qc 6 58%>46
The shear stresses on the basal plane e ert a "orce 'hose horiBontal component is ]l " QQ n d P s 2c m , 58%>36 i $l 8 25Qm Qc 6 'here the small an$le appro imation cos c 1 has been used% The "orce balance on the thrust sheet is obtained by e)uatin$ e pression 58C>26 to the sum o" ()uations 58C>A6 and 58C>36 'ith the result _b P l$ Qc 5"s i 6 % 2 58%>86
&" the "riction coe""icient "s is $reater than the slope i o" the thrust sheet, a compressi#e tectonic stress is re)uired to emplace it% *n the other hand, i" the coe""icient o" "riction is less than the slope i o" the thrust sheet, the $ra#itational body "orce on the base o" the thrust sheet su""ices "or emplacement% This is gravitational sliding% The -ppalachian ,ountains in the southeastern /nited States appear to be cored by a ma?or thrust sheet some 2A8 !m or more in 'idth% The -ppalachians are the remnants o" a ma?or mountain belt that resulted "rom a continental collision 'hen the proto--tlantic *cean 5&apetus6 closed% This ocean 'as created durin$ the late 0recambrian by the ri"tin$ o" a supercontinent% &n the early 1ambrian a trench system de#eloped o"" 'hat is no' the east coast o" the /nited States% ;emnants o" the resultin$ island arc are seen in the 1arolina slate belt 5see Fi$ure 8C1A6% The closure o" the proto--tlantic 'as completed in the 1arboni"erous and 0ermian 5at about 2A8 to 288 ,a6% The suture bet'een proto--"rica and proto-<orth -merica is belie#ed to lie east o" the 1arolina slate belt% -pparently durin$ the continental collision, crystalline roc!s o" proto-"rica and the island arcs 'ere o#erthrust to the north'est o#er proto<orth -merica as a ma?or thrust sheet% The structure, as obtained "rom deep crustal seismic re"lection pro"ilin$, is illustrated in Fi$ure 8C1A% @ecause the thrust sheet has been displaced a considerable distance, it is also re"erred to as an allochthonous sheet% The +alley and ;id$e pro#ince to the north'est is composed o" sediments that 'ere pushed ahead o" the sheet% The crystalline roc!s o" the @lue ;id$e pro#ince are separated "rom the sedimentary roc!s o" the +alley and ;id$e pro#ince by the Great Smo!y thrust "ault% This "ault, 'hich dips relati#ely steeply near the sur"ace but "lattens rapidly at depth,
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%1A Cross section of the ppalachian Mountains of the southeastern Gnited "tates sho!ing the emplacement of an allochthonous thrust sheet from the southeast )Coo, et al(, -<=<*(
4>4
@(= Earth3ua,es
12A 12A1
Fi$ure 8%14 Dependence o" the tectonic stress re)uired "or emplacement o" the -ppalachian thrust sheet on the coe""icient o" "riction%
is the basal "ault o" the thrust sheet% The @re#ard "ault that separates the crystalline roc!s o" the &nner 0iedmont pro#ince "rom the crystalline roc!s o" the @lue ;id$e pro#ince is a thrust "ault in the thrust sheet% &" the thrust sheet has a 'idth l P 2A8 !m and a ma imum thic!ness o" 1A !m, a 'ed$e model o" the sheet has i R c P 2%>2 % From ()uation 58C >16 'ith Qc P 2488 !$ m 2 and Qm P 2288 !$ m 2 , 'e "ind that i P 8%32 and c P 2%38 % The tectonic stress re)uired to emplace the thrust sheet is obtained "rom ()uation 58C>86% The dependence o" this tectonic stress on the coe""icient o" "riction is $i#en in Fi$ure 8C14% :e see that $ra#itational slidin$ 'ill occur i" "s \ 8%81237 reasonable stress le#els re)uire #ery lo' #alues "or the coe""icient o" "riction% Seismic studies indicate that much o" the thrust sheet in the southern -ppalachians is underlain by a thin layer o" sediments% These sediments apparently pro#ide a Bone o" 'ea!ness and a lo' coe""icient o" "riction% - thrust sheet that is emplaced o#er a Bone o" 'ea!ness is also !no'n as a dEecollement% 0roblem 8%> 1onsider the stability o" the roc! slope s!etched in Fi$ure 8C 13 a$ainst slidin$ alon$ the plane -@% -ssume -montons la' is applicable and sho' that the condition "or slope stability is tan c \ "s % 8%3 (arth)ua!es :e ha#e pre#iously discussed the earth)ua!e cycle in terms o" stic!Cslip beha#ior and elastic rebound% This beha#ior 'as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C 58%>96
124 1241
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%13 - roc! slope 'ith a potential slide sur"ace c to the horiBontal%
0 ma!in$ an an$le
>% Due to tectonic motion, shear stress builds up on a loc!ed "ault until the "ailure stress is reached% -t this time an earth)ua!e occurs and the accumulated stress is relie#ed% Durin$ an earth)ua!e, the displacement on the "ault ta!es place in a "e' seconds% The earth)ua!e propa$ates alon$ the "ault at a #elocity near the speed o" sound in the roc! 5a "e' !ilometers per second6% The displacement on the "ault $enerates seismic 'a#es that propa$ate throu$h the surroundin$ roc!% - si$ni"icant "raction o" the stored elastic ener$y $oes into the seismic 'a#es7 the remainder is dissipated as heat by "riction on the "ault% To illustrate the earth)ua!e cycle, 'e 'ill consider the simple slider-bloc! model illustrated in Fi$ure 8C18% - bloc! o" roc! o" mass m rests on a sur"ace% The contact area represents the "ault that 'ill rupture to produce an earth)ua!e% The mass is pressed a$ainst the sur"ace by a normal "orce Fn % :e ta!e the normal stress on the "ault to be the lithostatic pressure so that Fn P Q$h-, 58%A86 'here h is the mean depth o" the "ault bein$ considered% The mass o" the bloc! m is $i#en by m P Q-2U2 % 58%A16 This is a cube 'ith a linear dimension -1U2 % :e assume that the bloc! is bein$ pulled alon$ the sur"ace by a constant- #elocity dri#er plate, the constant #elocity is u8 % The dri#er plate is attached to the bloc! by a sprin$ 'ith a sprin$ constant !% This sprin$ "orce must be balanced by a resistin$ shear "orce on the sur"ace% This sur"ace shear "orce Fn is $i#en by Fn P ! , 58%A26 'here is the e tension o" the sprin$% &n our model the sprin$ represents the accumulation o" elastic strain in the roc! ad?acent to the "ault% The bloc! in our model interacts 'ith the sur"ace throu$h "riction, 'hich pre#ents the
@(= Earth3ua,es
u8 #
123 1231
, m Fn Fn
Fi$ure 8%18 Slider-bloc! model "or "ault beha#ior% The dri#er plate e tends the sprin$ at a constant #elocity u8 until the sprin$ "orce ,# e)uals the static "riction "orce Fn % -t this time slip occurs and the cycle repeats%
bloc! "rom slidin$ 5or a model earth)ua!e "rom occurrin$6 until a critical pullin$ "orce Fn s is reached% The bloc! stic!s and the "orce in the sprin$ increases until it e)uals the "rictional resistance to slidin$ on the sur"ace, and then slip occurs% The e tension o" the sprin$ is analo$ous to the elastic strain in the roc! ad?acent to a "ault% The slip is analo$ous to an earth)ua!e on a "ault% This is stic,/slip beha#ior% The stored elastic strain in the sprin$ is relie#ed7 this is elastic re$ound, as pre#iously discussed in Section 8C2% :hen the bloc! Lstic!sM the e tension o" the sprin$ is related to the constant #elocity u8 o" the dri#er plate by P u8 t, 'here t is the time since the last slip e#ent% From ()uation 58C186 the shear stress on a "ault is $i#en by G n P , 58%A26 2b 'here b is the distance "rom the "ault 'here the uni"orm #elocity is applied% For a "ault it is appropriate to assume that this distance is appro imately e)ual to the linear dimension o" the "ault -1U2 % Ta!in$ b P -1U2 and usin$ ()uation 58CA26 'e can 'rite an e pression "or the shear "orce on the "aultF G -1U2 % 58%A>6 2 Thus "rom ()uations 58CA26 and 58CA>6 'e ha#e an e pression "or our model sprin$ constantF Fn P n - P G-1U2 % 58%AA6 2 -ssumin$ that the slip condition is $i#en by -montons la', ()uation !P
128 1281
Faulting
58C226, the static condition "or the onset o" slidin$ is !

s
P "s Fn %
58%A46
This is the e tension o" the sprin$ s re)uired to initiate slip% Substitution o" ()uations 58CA86 and 58CAA6 into ()uation 58CA46 sho's that the accumulated displacement on the "ault is $i#en by 2"s Q$ h-1U2 % 58%A36 G This is the displacement that 'ould occur on the "ault i" the shear stress on the "ault 'as reduced to Bero% *nce the bloc! in Fi$ure 8C18 starts to slip, there is still a "rictional "orce resistin$ the motion% The simplest representation o" this resistance is throu$h a dynamic coe""icient o" "riction "d de"ined by
s
Fn P "d Fn %
58%A86
For stic!Cslip beha#ior to occur, the static coe""icient o" "riction must be $reater than the dynamic coe""icient o" "riction, "s [ "d % :hen "s \ "d , stable slidin$ occurs and the bloc! is pulled alon$ the sur"ace at the #elocity u8 % *nce slidin$ be$ins the e)uation o" motion "or the bloc! is d2 R ! P "d Fn % 58%A96 dt2 Slidin$ is analo$ous to an earth)ua!e and it relie#es the accumulated strain in the sprin$ in analo$y to elastic rebound% Substitution o" ()uations 58CA16, 58CAA6, and 58CA86 into ()uation 58CA96 $i#es m 2Q- d2 R G dt2 P 2"d Q$h-1U2 % G 58%486
&n 'ritin$ ()uation 58C486 'e assumed that the loadin$ #elocity o" the dri#er plate u8 is so slo' that it can be ne$lected durin$ the slidin$ o" the bloc!% This is reasonable because an earth)ua!e lasts only a "e' tens o" seconds, 'hereas the inter#al bet'een earth)ua!es on a "ault is typically hundreds o" years or more% To study the motion o" the bloc!, 'e introduce the "ollo'in$ nondimensional #ariables YP S P "s "d T Pt G 2Q1U2
G 2"s Q$h-1U2
/P
u "s $h
G 2Q
1U2
58%416
'here u P d Udt% &n terms o" these #ariables, the condition "or the initiation o" slip $i#en by ()uation 58CA36 becomes S P1 and the e)uation o" motion 58C486 becomes d2 S 1 RS P % 2 dT Y 58%426 58%426
:e assume that slip starts at T P 8 'ith S P 1 as $i#en by ()uation 58C 426% &t is also appropriate to assume that the initial slip #elocity is Bero so that / PdSUdT P 8 at T P 8% The solution o" ()uation 58C426 that satis"ies these conditions is 1 1 S P R 1 cos T 58%4>6 Y Y and the slip #elocity is $i#en by 1 / P dS dT P 1 sin T % Y 58%4A6
Slidin$ ends at T P Ts P X 'hen dSUdT is a$ain Bero% :hen the #elocity is Bero the "riction ?umps to its static #alue, pre#entin$ "urther slip% The position o" the bloc! at the end o" slip is S P 52UY6 1 so that the total nondimensional displacement o" the bloc! durin$ the slip e#ent is 2 1 1P2 11 % 58%446 _S P Y Y &" Y P "s U"d is only sli$htly lar$er than 1, then _S is small and only a "raction o" the stress 5strain6 is lost in the slip e#ent% &" "d 8, 'e ha#e Y and _S P 2% @ecause the dynamic "riction is small, ener$y is conser#ed and the ener$y associated 'ith the e tension o" the sprin$ S P 1 is con#erted to ener$y associated 'ith the compression o" the sprin$ S P 1% This type o" o#ershoot is rarely seen in actual earth)ua!es% 0roblem 8%A &n the slider-bloc! model, 'hat #alue o" Y $i#es Bero residual e tension o" the sprin$ S P 8O From ()uation 58C4A6 the ma imum nondimensional slip #elocity /ma occurs at T P XU2 and is $i#en by /ma P dS dT P 1
ma
1 % Y
58%436
The dependences o" S and / on T durin$ slip are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C19 "or Y P 1%2A% For this case _S P 8%> and /ma P 8%2%
1 K 0 X 2 X
k1
dK G L d%
Fi$ure 8%19 Dependence o" the nondimensional slider-bloc! position K and #elocity dKUd% on time % durin$ a slip e#ent as $i#en by ()uations 58C4>6 and 58C4A6 "or Y P 1%2A%
-"ter the slip e#ent is completed, the sprin$ a$ain e tends due to the #elocity u8 o" the dri#er plate% The nondimensional #elocity o" e tension /8 "rom ()uation 58C416 is u8 /8 P
1U2
! % 58%486
"s $ m
The nondimensional time be"ore the ne t slip e#ent _Te obtained "rom ()uations 58C446 and 58C486 is _Te P _S e 2 1 P 1 % /8 /8 Y 58%496
-t the end o" this time another slip e#ent occurs and the cycle repeats% Slip e#ents occur periodically% 0roblem 8%4 The sprin$ "orce on the slider bloc! in Fi$ure 8C18 at the time o" slip initiation is "s Fn % :hat is the sprin$ "orce on the slider bloc! at the end o" slipO 0roblem 8%3 5a6 Sho' that the 'or! done by the dri#er plate durin$ a stress accumulation phase is 2m2 $2 "d 5"s "d 6% : P ! 5b6 Sho' that this is also the 'or! re)uired durin$ this time i" there is stable slidin$, i%e%, i" the bloc! mo#es at the #elocity u8 'ith F P "d "n % :e 'ill no' use these results to appro imate the actual beha#ior o" a "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e cycle% :e "irst relate the displacement on a "ault durin$
an earth)ua!e _' to the displacement o" the slider bloc! usin$ ()uations 58C416 and 58C446 'ith the result _' P >" Q$h-1U2 "d 2"s Q$h-1U2 1 _S P s % "s G G 58%386 The ma imum slip #elocity on the "ault uma "rom ()uations 58C416 and 58C436 is 2Q G
1U2
uma P "s $h 58C316
/ma P "s $h
2Q G
1U2
"d % "s
The stress on the "ault ?ust prior to the earth)ua!e "rom ()uations 58C226 and 58CA86 is n" s P "s Q$h% The stress on the slider bloc! is proportional to the nondimensional e tension o" the sprin$ S % 0rior to a slip e#ent S P 1 and the chan$e in S , _S , is $i#en by ()uation 58C446% :e conclude that the "raction o" the initial stress on a "ault that is lost durin$ an earth)ua!e is e)ual to _S and the stress drop on the "ault due to the earth)ua!e _n is $i#en by _n P n" s _S P 2"s Q$h 1 "d , "s 58%326
'here _n is de"ined to be a positi#e )uantity% -s an e ample, let us ta!e the mean depth o" the "ault to be h P A !m, Q P 2A88 !$ m 2 , and $ P 9%8 m s 2 and "ind "rom ()uation 58CA86 that the mean normal stress on the "ault bn is 12> ,0a% To speci"y the static "rictional stress on the "ault 'e must choose a coe""icient o" static "riction and ta!e "s P 8%8A% From ()uation 58C226 'e "ind that the static "rictional stress on the "ault n" s is 4%2 ,0a% This is the stress on the "ault ?ust prior to rupture% *ur choice o" such a lo' #alue "or the coe""icient o" static "riction re)uires an e planation% -s discussed in Section 8C2, a typical #alue o" "s "rom laboratory e periments is 8%8A% 9o'e#er, as 'e 'ill sho', such a hi$h #alue "or "s re)uires lar$e stress drops in earth)ua!es that are not consistent 'ith obser#ations% *ne e planation "or this lo' #alue o" "s is a hi$h pore pressure o" 'ater on "aults% -s seen in ()uation 58C2>6, a hi$h pore pressure p' can $reatly reduce the coe""icient o" static "riction on a "ault% :e must also choose a #alue "or the ratio o" static to dynamic "riction Y%
-$ain, #alues "or the dynamic coe""icient o" "riction are contro#ersial% Slip #elocities on "aults are hi$h and they cannot be simulated in the laboratory% :e assume Y P 1%1 and "ind "rom ()uation 58C326 that the stress drop in the earth)ua!e _n is 1%22 ,0a, independent o" the area o" rupture -% :e 'ill sho' that obser#ations con"irm this% The residual stress on the "ault a"ter an earth)ua!e is n" d P n" s _n P A ,0a% :e 'ill no' consider an earth)ua!e o" a speci"ied siBe% .et the rupture area - P 188 !m2 so that the characteristic linear dimension -1U2 is 18 !m% For the parameter #alues $i#en be"ore and G P 2 1818 0a 'e "ind "rom ()uation 58C386 that the displacement on the "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e _' is 8%82 m% From ()uation 58C316 'e "ind that the ma imum slip #elocity on the "ault durin$ rupture uma is 8%1 m s 1 % This is a typical slip #elocity on a "ault durin$ an earth)ua!e% The displacements o" the roc!s ad?acent to a "ault $enerate seismic 'a#es durin$ an earth)ua!e% These 'a#es are o" t'o typesF body 'a#es that propa$ate throu$h the interior o" the (arth and sur"ace 'a#es that propa$ate alon$ the sur"ace% There are t'o types o" body 'a#esF 0 or compressional 'a#es and S or shear 'a#es% Displacements in compressional 'a#es are in the direction o" propa$ation and displacements in shear 'a#es are perpendicular to the direction o" propa$ation% There are also t'o types o" sur"ace 'a#esF .o#e and ;aylei$h 'a#es% Sur"ace 'a#es are similar to 'ind-dri#en 'a#es on an ocean% The $round motions caused by seismic 'a#es are the primary cause o" dama$e 'hen an earth)ua!e occurs% @ecause the displacements in sur"ace 'a#es are restricted to a thin sur"ace layer, they are primarily responsible "or earth)ua!e dama$e% 0rior to the de#elopment o" the seismo$raph in about 1988 the only measure o" the stren$th o" an earth)ua!e 'as the "elt intensity% -n earth)ua!e 'as )uanti"ied in terms o" the e""ects it had on people, buildin$s, and the en#ironment in the immediate #icinity o" the rupture% - typical "elt intensity scale 5the modi"ied ,ercalli6 is $i#en in Table 8C1% The ma imum "elt intensities are usually "ound near the "ault 'here the earth)ua!e occurs7 "elt intensities decrease 'ith distance "rom the "ault% The "elt intensity is in"luenced by the type and depth o" soil7 it is $enerally hi$her on deep, loose soils% @ecause the application o" the "elt intensity scale is sub?ecti#e, care must be ta!en in its use% The de#elopment o" the seismo$raph made it possible to introduce a )uantitati#e measure o" earth)ua!e siBe% The magnitude m o" an earth)ua!e is obtained "rom the measured sur"ace displacements at seismic stations% The ma$nitude scale 'as ori$inally de"ined in terms o" the amplitude o" $round motions at a speci"ied distance "rom an earth)ua!e% Typically, the surface
Table 8%1 %ypical Felt Intensity "cale

& && &&& &+ + +& +&& +&&& &S S S& <ot "elt% Felt by a "e' people% 9an$in$ ob?ects s'ay% :indo's and doors rattle% Sleepers 'a!en% :indo's and $lass'are bro!en% Di""icult to stand% @ranches bro!en "rom trees% 1rac!s in $round C $eneral panic% .ar$e landslides C most masonry structures destroyed% <early total destruction%
Table 8%2 %ypical Ma#imum Felt Intensities and Felt &istances for Earth3ua,es of Prescri$ed Magnitude )m*
,a$nitude 5m6 2 2 > A 4 3 8 ,a imum Felt Distance Felt &ntensity 5!m6 &C&& &&&C&+ + +&C+&& +&&& &SCS S& 8 1A 88 1A8 228 >88 488
!ave magnitude ms is based on the motions $enerated by sur"ace 'a#es 5.o#e and ;aylei$h 'a#es6 'ith a 28-s period, and the $ody !ave magnitude mb is based on the motions $enerated by body 'a#es 50 and S 'a#es6 ha#- in$ periods o" 4%8 s% The ma$nitude scale is a popular measure o" earth)ua!e stren$th because o" its lo$arithmic basis, 'hich allo's essentially all earth- )ua!es to be classi"ied on a scale o" 8C18% /n"ortunately, the t'o ma$nitude scales, ms and mb , are not e)ual "or a $i#en earth)ua!e% -lso, ma$nitudes are sensiti#e to the paths that seismic 'a#es tra#erse and to conditions in the source re$ion and near the seismic station% &n addition, di""erent types o" earth)ua!es $enerate di""erent sur"ace displacements% Thus, published ma$- nitudes "or a $i#en earth)ua!e can di""er by 18N or more% -n alternati#e approach to the )uanti"ication o" the siBe o" an earth)ua!e is the seismic moment M de"ined by
, P G-_'%
58%326
This seismic moment is the product o" the shear modulus G o" the roc! in 'hich the "ault is embedded, the "ault rupture area -, and the mean displacement across the "ault _' durin$ the earth)ua!e% The seismic moment is a measure o" the strain released durin$ the earth)ua!e and is determined "rom seismo$rams recorded at a lar$e number o" seismic stations% -lthou$h the accepted measure o" the siBe o" an earth)ua!e is the seismic moment, the ma$nitude scale has recei#ed such 'ide acceptance that a moment magnitude m has been empirically de"ined in terms o" the seismic moment , usin$ the relation lo$ , P 1%Am R 9%1% 58%3>6 This de"inition is consistent 'ith the de"inition o" the sur"ace 'a#e ma$nitude but not 'ith the de"inition o" the body 'a#e ma$nitude% &t is standard practice to use lon$-period 5A8C288 s6 body andUor sur"ace 'a#es to directly determine the seismic moment , , and ()uation 58C3>6 is used to obtain a moment ma$nitude% &n the remainder o" our discussion o" earth)ua!es 'e 'ill consider only the moment ma$nitude% The moment ma$nitude can be related to the total ener$y in the seismic 'a#es $enerated by the earth)ua!e (s throu$h the empirical relation lo$ (s P 1%Am R >%8, 58%3A6
'here (s is in ?oules% Table 8C2 relates the moment ma$nitude o" an earth)ua!e to the "elt intensity and the "elt distance% -$ain, this is an appro imate relation since the "elt intensity 'ill depend on the depth o" the earth)ua!e as 'ell as its ma$nitude% -lso, the "elt intensity o" an earth)ua!e o" a $i#en ma$nitude #aries "rom one location to another% &n terms o" the simple slider-bloc! model, the seismic moment "or a model earth)ua!e is obtained by substitutin$ the displacement _' "rom ()uation 58C386 into the de"inition o" the seismic moment $i#en in ()uation 58C 326 'ith the result , P >"s Q$h-2U2 1 "d % "s 58%346
This result predicts that the seismic moment is proportional to the rupture area - raised to the 2U2 po'er% The seismic moments o" a lar$e number o" earth)ua!es are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C28 as a "unction o" the s)uare root
Fi$ure 8%28 Dependence o" the seismic moment M on the s)uare root o" the rupture area 1U2 "or a lar$e number o" earth)ua!es 59an!s, 19336% The solid line is the prediction $i#en by ()uation 58C346 ta!in$ fs P 8%8A, Q P 2A88 !$ m 2 , g P 9%8 m s 2 , h P A !m, and fs Ufd P Y P 1%1%
o" the rupture area% This "i$ure also sho's the prediction o" ()uation 58C 346 "or "s P 8%8A, Q P 2A88 !$ m 2 , $ P 9%8 m s 2 , h P A !m, and "s U"d P Y P 1%1% The correspondin$ stress drop "rom ()uation 58C326 is 1%22 ,0a% The prediction o" the slider bloc! model is in $ood a$reement 'ith the obser#ed moments and rupture areas o" earth)ua!es% For the earth)ua!e considered pre#iously 5-1U2 P 18 !m6, the moment , "rom ()uation 58C346 is 2%22 1818 J% From ()uation 58C3>6, the correspondin$ moment ma$nitude m is 4%13% 1> -nd "rom ()uation 58C3A6 the radiated elastic 'a#e ener$y (s P 1%22 18 J% :e can estimate the elastic ener$y released in an earth)ua!e usin$ the slider-bloc! model% From ()uations 58CAA6 and 58CA36, the ener$y stored in
the sprin$ prior to the earth)ua!e is (s P 1 ! 2

2 s
"s2 Q2 $2 h2 -2U2 % G
2
58%336
From ()uation 58C386 the ener$y in the sprin$ a"ter the earth)ua!e is (r P 1 !5 2
s 2 2 2 2 2U2 2"d _'6 2 P "s Q $ h 1 "s G
58%386 The ener$y released in the model earth)ua!e is >" " Q2 $ 2 h2 -2U2 " _( P (s (r P s d 1 d % "s G 58%396 For the earth)ua!e 'ith -1U2 P 18 !m, 'e "ind _( P >%12 181> J% This is hi$her than the seismic radiated ener$y $i#en be"ore, as e pected% &n our simple slider-bloc! model the elastic ener$y lost in a slip e#ent $oes into "rictional heatin$ on the slippin$ sur"ace% &n a real earth)ua!e a "raction o" the lost ener$y is radiated in seismic 'a#es and the remainder is con#erted to heat by "riction on the "ault% 0roblem 8%8 1ompute the 'a#e ener$y released in a ma$nitude 8%A earth)ua!e and compare it 'ith the amount o" heat lost throu$h the sur"ace o" the (arth in an entire year% 0roblem 8%9 Data on the "re)uency 'ith 'hich earth)ua!es o" a $i#en ma$nitude occur can be summariBed by the "ormula d< 2%83m6, P A%2A 183 e p5 dm 58%886
'here d< is the number o" earth)ua!es per year 'ith ma$nitude bet'een m and m R dm% /se ()uations 58C3A6 and 58C886 to sho' that the rate o" ener$y release (j 12 by earth)ua!es 'ith ma$nitudes lyin$ bet'een m1 and m2 is (j 12 5J yr 1 6 P 3%2A 1812 {e1%2Am2 e1%2Am1 }% 58%816 &" the lar$est earth)ua!es to occur ha#e ma$nitude 8%A, compute the yearly release o" 'a#e ener$y% 9o' does this compare 'ith the ener$y released by a sin$le ma$nitude 8%A earth)ua!eO :hat do you conclude about the relati#e contributions o" lar$e numbers o" small earth)ua!es and small numbers o" lar$e earth)ua!es to the yearly release o" seismic ener$yO
8%8 San -ndreas Fault
@(@ "an Fault
ndreas
1>3 1>31
.et us no' turn our attention to t'o ma?or stri!eCslip "aults% First consider the San -ndreas "ault, 'hich stretches almost the entire len$th o" the state o" 1ali"ornia, as sho'n in Fi$ure 8C21% -lon$ much o" its len$th the motion on the "ault is primarily stri!eCslip% The San -ndreas is reco$niBed as a ma?or boundary bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates% &" the "ault is to accommodate the relati#e motion bet'een these t'o plates by stri!eC slip motion, it must lie on a small circle about the pole o" rotation that de"ines the relati#e motion bet'een the t'o plates% T'o small circles dra'n about the pole o" rotation $i#en in Table 1C4 are compared 'ith the trend o" the "ault in Fi$ure 8C21% The small circles are in e cellent a$reement 'ith the trend o" the "ault alon$ much o" its len$th% This is stron$ e#idence that a lar$e "raction o" the relati#e motion bet'een the 0aci"ic and <orth -merican plates occurs on the San -ndreas "ault% Studies o" the relati#e motion bet'een the t'o plates $i#e a relati#e #elocity o" >4 mm yr 1 5see Section 1C86% The San -ndreas "ault appears to be di#ided into "our distinct sections that e hibit )uite di""erent beha#ior% Some sections o" the "ault e hibit little seismic acti#ity7 the "ault appears to be loc!ed, and strain is bein$ accumulated% The accumulated strain on these sections is relie#ed in $reat earth- )ua!es% *n other sections o" the "ault, small earth)ua!es and aseismic creep relie#e at least a "raction o" the accumulatin$ strain% The northern terminus o" the "ault is near 1ape ,endocino at the triple ?unction o" the 0aci"ic, <orth -merican, and Juan de Fuca plates% northern loc!ed section e tends about 288 !m "rom 1ape ,endocino to near ;ed'ood 1ity% - "ault brea! 'ith sur"ace displacements o" about > m 'as reported alon$ the entire len$th o" this section in the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e% There has been no reported "ault creep or earth)ua!es on this section since 1984% - central "ree section e tends some 288 !m "rom ;ed'ood 1ity to near 1holame% Fault creep and small earth)ua!es re$ularly occur on this section o" the "ault% Sur"ace displacements durin$ the 1984 earth)ua!e e tended some 188 !m into this section, but the ma$nitude o" the sur"ace displacement 'as considerably less than in the northern loc!ed section% The rate o" "ault creep on this section o" the "ault is 28 to 28 mm yr 1% This is less than the 1 >4 mm yr relati#e plate #elocity $i#en in Section 1C8% - southern loc!ed section o" the "ault e tends some 2A8 !m "rom near 1holame to near San @ernardino% There 'ere reports o" "ault brea!s alon$ the entire len$th o" this section durin$ the 18A3 southern 1ali"ornia earth-
1>8 1>81
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%21 Sur"ace trace o" the loc!ed and "ree sections o" the San -ndreas "ault% -lso sho'n are t'o small circles dra'n about the pole o" rotation "or the motion o" the 0aci"ic plate relati#e to the <orth -merican plate%
)ua!e% Since then there ha#e been no reports o" earth)ua!es or "ault creep on this section% The cur#ature o" the "ault north o" San @ernardino probably plays an important role in the beha#ior o" the "ault in this section% The con#er$ence o" the plates at this bend in the "ault re)uires a thrustin$ component, and the result is the upli"t associated 'ith the Trans#erse ;an$es, a series o" mountain belts in this area% South o" San @ernardino, the San -ndreas "ault splays o"" into a series o"
"aults% Small and moderate earth)ua!es and "ault creep occur on a number o" these "aults, and it appears that this section o" the "ault is not loc!ed% &t is consistent 'ith our present !no'led$e o" the San -ndreas "ault to postulate that displacements on the loc!ed sections o" the "ault occur durin$ $reat earth)ua!es% (arth)ua!es on the t'o loc!ed Bones occur at di""erent times, possibly alternately, and the central "ree section is a transition Bone bet'een the t'o loc!ed Bones% The documented history o" $reat earth)ua!es on the San -ndreas "ault is relati#ely short7 the San Francisco earth)ua!e on -pril 18, 1984, 'as certainly a $reat earth)ua!e, 'ith an estimated sur"ace 'a#e ma$nitude ms o" 8%2A% @ased on the sur"ace o""sets $i#en in Fi$ure 2C23, 'e ta!e the mean displacement on the "ault in this earth)ua!e to be _' P > m alon$ a 288-!m len$th o" the "ault% For a rupture depth o" 1A !m, the rupture area - is 2888 !m2 % :ith G P 2 1818 0a, the seismic moment , o" this earth)ua!e "rom ()uation 58C326 is 2%4 1828 J% From ()uation 58C3>6, the correspondin$ moment ma$nitude m is 3%4% @ecause #ery "e' seismic records are a#ailable to estimate the sur"ace 'a#e ma$nitude, the moment ma$nitude is the pre"erred ma$nitude #alue "or this earth)ua!e% &" the "ull relati#e plate #elocity o" u8 P >4 mm yr 1 'as accommodated on the San -ndreas "ault, the > m o" displacement durin$ the 1984 earth)ua!e 'ould represent 98 years o" accumulated strain% 9o'e#er, tectonic displacements associated 'ith the 0aci"icC<orth -merican plate boundary occur throu$hout the 'estern /nited States% &n particular, other important "aults in 1ali"ornia accommodate a "raction o" the relati#e motion bet'een the plates% @ased on $eodetic obser#ations, it is estimated that about 2A mm yr 1 or 48N o" the total motion is accommodated directly on the San -ndreas "ault% :ith this rate o" strain accumulation, the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e represents 11> years o" accumulated strain% There is recorded e#idence o" a lar$e earth)ua!e in northern 1ali"ornia in 1828, but it has not been documented that this earth)ua!e accommodated ma?or displacements on the northern loc!ed section o" the "ault% - $reat earth)ua!e occurred on the San -ndreas "ault north o" .os -n$eles on January 9, 18A3% &t is $enerally accepted that this 'as a $reat earth)ua!e on the southern loc!ed section, althou$h there 'ere no direct obser#ations o" sur"ace displacements% Studies o" apparent stream o""sets attributed to this earth)ua!e indicate a mean displacement _' o" 3 m and a ma$nitude ms 8%2% - second $reat historic earth)ua!e occurred on this section on December 8, 1812% Sieh et al% 519896 dated the displaced layers o" sediments in ri#erbeds ad?acent to this southern loc!ed section and concluded that $reat earth)ua!es had occurred on this section in the years
@(@ "an Fault
ndreas
1>9 1>91
1A8 1A81
Faulting
1>88 1A, 12>4 13, and 1188 4A% The mean inter#al bet'een these "i#e earth)ua!es is 198 years7 the lon$est inter#al 'as 222 years and the shortest 'as >A% 2888, the inter#al since the last $reat earth)ua!e is mm 1>2 years and &n the accumulated strain, assumin$ a relati#e #elocity o" 2A 1 yr , 'ould result in a slip o" A m i" relie#ed by a $reat earth)ua!e% -lthou$h $reat earth)ua!es occur on the southern loc!ed section o" the San -ndreas "ault "airly re$ularly, they are certainly not periodic% This beha#ior can be attributed to the comple interactions bet'een the San -ndreas "ault and the many other ma?or "aults in the re$ion that ha#e lar$e earth)ua!es% The 0ar!"ield section o" the San -ndreas "ault ?ust north o" the southern loc!ed section has a particularly interestin$ history o" seismicity% Durin$ the past 1A8 years, earth)ua!es 'ith m 4 ha#e occurred 'ith remar!able re$ularity% (#ents occurred in 18A3, 1881, 1981, 1922, 192>, and 1944% The mean inter#al bet'een these earth)ua!es is 22 years and the shortest is 12 years and the lon$est is 22 years% The prediction that an m 4 earth)ua!e 'ould occur on this section prior to 1992 'ith a 9AN probability led to a massi#e instrumentation o" the "ault7 the predicted earth)ua!e had not yet occurred in 2881% -$ain, 'e ha#e an e ample o" earth)ua!es on a ma?or "ault occurrin$ "airly re$ularly, but certainly not periodically% The ma$nitudes o" earth)ua!es associated 'ith the San -ndreas "ault system are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C22 as a "unction o" latitude "or the period "rom 1888 to 2888% (arth)ua!es 'ith a ma$nitude o" A or lar$er that occurred 'ithin 188 !m o" the "ault are included% The e tent o" the 1984 "ault brea! and the di#ision o" the "ault into sections are indicated% The reportin$ bias e#ident in the data can be attributed to the lar$e increase in the number o" seismo$raphs since 19A8, 'hich has $reatly impro#ed the recordin$ o" earth)ua!es% Despite the #ariations in the )uality o" the data some clear trends are discernible% The most ob#ious is the reduction in the number o" small and intermediate siBe earth)ua!es ad?acent to the northern loc!ed section "ollo'in$ the 1984 earth)ua!e% The "irst intermediate siBe earth)ua!e to occur 'as the *ctober 13, 1989, .oma 0rieta earth)ua!e 5m P 3%16% &n direct contrast, a number o" intermediate siBe earth)ua!es occurred in this re$ion prior to the 1984 earth)ua!e% They include one in the Santa 1ruB mountains in 184A 5m 4%A6, 9ay'ard in 1848 5m 4%86, +aca#ille in 1892 5m 4%86, and ,are &sland in 1898 5m 4%A6% There appears to ha#e been a systematic acti#ation o" seismic acti#ity prior to the $reat 1984 earth)ua!e% The reduction in seismic acti#ity "ollo'in$ the 1984 earth)u!e is stron$ e#idence that the stress le#el in the elastic lithosphere ad?acent to the northern loc!ed section o" the San -ndreas "ault 'as
@(@ "an ndreas si$ni"icantly reduced by theFault 1984 earth)ua!e%
1A1 1A11
@(@ "an ndreas Fault
Fi$ure 8%22 Earth3ua,es !ithin -BB ,m of the "an ndreas fault !ith magnitudes greater than m P > that occurred from -@@B to 4BBB are given as a function of latitude( %he solid line sho!s the surface rupture of the -<B? earth3ua,e( %he letters locate the :ern County ) *, "an Fernando )0*, Landers )C*, 8orthridge )&*, and 9ector Mine )E* earth3ua,es( %he free and loc,ed sections of the fault are located $y the dashed lines(
442
1A2 1A21
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%22 The comple tectonic situation in Tur!ey% The -natolian plate is bounded on the north by the <orth -natolian "ault and on the east by the (ast -natolian "ault%
.et us no' turn our attention to the seismic acti#ity ad?acent to the southern loc!ed section o" the San -ndreas "ault as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C 22% <o $reat earth)ua!e has occurred on this section since 18A3% - si$ni"icant number o" intermediate siBe earth)ua!es ha#e occurred ad?acent to this section since 19A2% These include the July 21, 19A2, Eern 1ounty earth)ua!e 5m P 3%A6, the February 9, 1931, San Fernando earth)ua!e 5m P 4%36, the June 28, 1992, .anders earth)ua!e 5m P 3%26, the January 13, 199>, <orthrid$e earth)ua!e 5m P 4%36, and the *ctober 14, 1999, 9ector ,ine earth)ua!e 5m P 3%16% &ndicated by letters in Fi$ure 8C 22, these e#ents may be indicati#e o" a systematic seismic acti#ation precedin$ the ne t $reat earth)ua!e on the southern loc!ed section o" the San -ndreas "ault% 8%9 <orth -natolian Fault -nother e ample o" a ma?or stri!eCslip "ault is the <orth -natolian "ault in Tur!ey% This "ault is the site o" a remar!able series o" ma?or earth)ua!es that be$an in 19297 the earth)ua!es s'ept alon$ almost the entire 1888-!m len$th o" the "ault "rom east to 'est% The tectonic settin$ o" the <orth -natolian "ault is considerably more comple than that o" the San -ndreas "ault% Tur!ey "orms part o" the broad collisional Bone that e tends "rom southern (urope throu$h -sia to &ndia% The tectonics o" Tur!ey can be at least partially understood i" a ma?or part o" it is assumed to consist o" a small plate, the -natolian plate, as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C22% The collision bet'een the
@(< 8orth
natolian Fault
44A
Table 8%2 Characteristics of a "eries of Earth3ua,es !ith Magnitudes Greater than = along the 8orth naMtolian Fault
Date December 24, 1929 December 28, 19>2 <o#ember 24, 19>2 February 1, 19>> ,ay 24, 19A3 July 22, 1943 -u$ust 13, 1999 m 3%8 3%1 3%2 3%2 3%8 3%1 3%> .en$th o" @rea! 5!m6 248 A8 248 188 >8 88 188 *""set 5m6 3%A 1%3 >%A 2%A 1%4A 2%48 2%A
-rabian plate and the (urasian plate is 'ed$in$ the -natolian plate to'ard the 'est% The <orth -natolian "ault "orms the northern boundary o" the plate and the (ast -natolian "ault the southeastern boundary% The 'est- erly mo#ement o" the plate causes ri$ht-lateral stri!eCslip displacements on the <orth -natolian "ault and le"t-lateral stri!eCslip displacements on the (ast -natolian "ault% Subduction o" the -"rican plate occurs at a series o" arcuate trenches alon$ the southern boundary o" the -natolian plate% The "ounderin$ o" the -"rican plate may result in tensional stresses in the -natolian plate land'ard o" the trenches% These stresses may also contribute to the 'est'ard mo#ement o" the -natolian plate% To the 'est and east o" the -natolian plate the tectonics o" the broad collisional Bone become e#en more comple % To the east o" the -natolian plate the con#er$ence bet'een the -rabian and the (urasian plates is accommodated in a broad Bone o" compression% The 'estern part o" the -natolian plate mer$es into an e tensi#e Bone o" e tensional tectonics in 'estern Tur!ey and Greece% @ecause o" the comple ity, plate tectonics pro#ides relati#ely poor constraints on the relati#e #elocity across the <orth -natolian "ault% This relati#e #elocity is estimated to be about 1A mm yr 1 % The ma$nitude o" earth)ua!es associated 'ith the <orth -natolian "ault system are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C2> as a "unction o" lon$itude "or the period 1888 to 2888% -lso included are the sur"ace brea!s associated 'ith a series o" lar$e earth)ua!es that ha#e occurred since 1929% The dates, ma$nitudes, len$ths o" the sur"ace brea!s, and o""sets "or these earth)ua!es are summariBed in Table 8C2% The "irst and lar$est o" these earth)ua!es 'as the (rBincan earth)ua!e o" December 24, 1929, 'ith a ma$nitude o" 3%8% The sur"ace brea! e tended "rom near the ?unction o" the <orth and (ast -natolian "aults some 2A8 !m
1A> 1A>1
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%2> (arth)ua!es on and ad?acent to the <orth -natolian "ault 'ith ma$nitudes $reater than m P A that occurred "rom 1888 to 2888 are $i#en as a "unction o" lon$itude% The solid lines are the sur"ace ruptures o" the se)uence o" lar$e earth)ua!es that occurred on the <orth -natolian "ault bet'een 1929 and 1999%
@(-B "ome Elastic "olutions for "tri,e/"lip Faulting
to the 'est% This e#ent 'as "ollo'ed on December 28, 19>2, by an earth)ua!e on a more northerly branch o" the "ault near the 'estern end o" the 1929 sur"ace brea!% -nother lar$e earth)ua!e occurred on the northerly branch on <o#ember 24, 19>2, e tendin$ the sur"ace brea! 248 !m to the 'est% This 'as "ollo'ed on February 1, 19>>, by another lar$e earth)ua!e that e tended the sur"ace brea! another 198 !m to the 'est% T'o lar$e earth)ua!es occurred in 19A3 and 1943 near the 'estern termination o" the 19>> sur"ace brea!% The propa$atin$ se)uence 'as e tended to the 'est by the -u$ust 13, 1999, &Bmit earth)ua!e 'ith a sur"ace brea! o" 188 !m% This earth)ua!e !illed close to 28,888 people% The propa$ation o" seismic acti#ity alon$ the "ault can be attributed to the trans"er o" stress "rom a section o" the "ault on 'hich an earth)ua!e has occurred to an ad?acent section% This beha#ior is )uite di""erent "rom that on the San -ndreas "ault% Fault creep occurs on the <orth -natolian "ault at &smetpasa, 'hich is located mid'ay alon$ the sur"ace rupture o" the February 1, 19>>, ma$nitude
1AA 1AA1
3%2 earth)ua!e% @et'een 1938 and 1988 the rate o" "ault creep 'as close to 18 mm yr 1 % This obser#ation o" "ault creep is in contrast to the San -ndreas "ault system, 'here "ault creep apparently occurs on sections o" the "ault 'here $reat earth)ua!es do not occur% The "ault creep on the <orth -natolian "ault and on the San -ndreas "ault are the only 'ell-documented e amples o" aseismic "ault creep at this time% 8%18 Some (lastic Solutions "or Stri!eCSlip Faultin$ &n this section 'e 'ill consider t'o mathematical solutions o" the e)uations o" elasticity that are applicable to displacements durin$ an earth)ua!e on a stri!eCslip "ault% The models are idealiBed, but they illustrate some important aspects o" the problem% &n the "irst e ample 'e determine the strain "ield caused by a displacement on a "ault% :e consider the hal"-space y [ 8 in 'hich there is initially a uni"orm shear stress b B,8 as sho'n in Fi$ure 8C2Aa% - t'o-dimensional crac! that e tends "rom the sur"ace to a depth y P a is then introduced at P 8% The introduction o" the crac! causes the displacements sho'n in Fi$ure 8C2Ab% The resultin$ strain "ield models the strain due to an earth)ua!e on a stri!eCslip "ault% :e assume that the only nonBero component o" displacement is 'B in the B direction% -"ter the introduction o" the crac! there are t'o nonBero components o" shear stressF b B 5and bB 6 and byB 5and bBy 6% To simpli"y the analysis, 'e ne$lect the "rictional stress on the "ault a"ter the earth)ua!e has occurred and assume b B P 8 on P 8, 8 y a% The displacement and stress "ields in this t'o-dimensional problem are independent o" B%
1A4 1A41
Faulting
Fi$ure 8%2A The displacement "ield due to "aultin$ on a model stri!eCslip "ault% The sur"ace is at y P 8 and the "ault is at # P 8, 8 y a% Displacements are in the + direction% 5a6 &nitially the hal"-space y [ 8 is in a state o" uni"orm shear stress b B,8 % 5$6 -"ter the introduction o" the crac! the shear stress on the crac! is Bero 5b B P 86 and there is a displacement across the crac!%
The determination o" the stresses, strains, and displacements in the hal"space y [ 8 re)uires that 'e deri#e the di""erential e)uation e pressin$ the e)uilibrium o" "orces on a small element o" material% Fi$ure 8C24 sho's a small rectan$ular parallelepiped in the hal"-space 'ith those nonBero stress components that e ert "orces in the B direction% @ecause the net "orce in the B direction on this small #olume element must be Bero, 'e can 'rite {b B 5 R a , y6 b B 5 , y6} ay aB R {byB 5 , y R ay6 byB 5 , y6} a aB P 8%
58%826
/pon e pandin$ b B 5 R a , y6 and byB 5 , y R ay6 in a Taylor series, per- "ormin$ the indicated subtractions and di#idin$ by a ayaB, 'e obtain the
@(-B "ome Elastic "olutions for "tri,e/"lip Faulting
1A3 1A31
Fi$ure 8%24 The nonBero stress components that e ert "orces in the + direction on a small rectan$ular parallelepiped in the hal"-space o" the model stri!eCslip "aultin$ problem o" Fi$ure 8C2A%
e)uation o" e)uilibrium in the "orm hb B h byB R P 8% h hy 58%826
@oth b B and byB are related to the deri#ati#es o" the displacement 'B % From ()uations 52C1826, and 52C>96, 'e obtain b
B
PG
h 'B h
byB P G
h 'B % hy
58%8>6
Substitution o" ()uation 58C8>6 into 58C826 yields h 2 'B h 2 'B R P 8% h 2 hy 2 58%8A6
The displacement 'B satis"ies .aplaces e)uation% The solution "or the displacement prior to the introduction o" the crac! is simply b B ,8 'B P % 58%846 G -"ter the introduction o" the crac! the solution to .aplaces e)uation must satis"y the boundary conditions h 'B hy P 8 at y P 8 58%836
1A8 1A81
Faulting
h 'B P8 h 'B P 8 b 'B
at at
B ,8
P 8, P 8, as
8\y\a a\y %
58%886 58%896 58%986
The "irst condition "ollo's "rom ()uation 58C8>6 and the "act that the shear stress byB must be Bero at the sur"ace y P 8% The second condition comes "rom ()uation 58C8>6 to$ether 'ith the #anishin$ o" the shear stress b B on the crac!% The third condition is a conse)uence o" the o#erall $eometry and the "act that the crac! does not e tend belo' y P a% Finally, the "ourth condition is a re)uirement that the displacement "ar "rom the crac! e)ual the initial displacement% The solution o" .aplaces e)uation that satis"ies conditions 58C836 to 58C 986 can only be obtained by usin$ the mathematical theory o" comple #ariables% :e introduce the comple #ariable ] accordin$ to ] P yR i , 58%916
1% The real and ima$inary parts o" any "unction o" ] are 'here i is solutions o" .aplaces e)uation% To sol#e the model stri!eCslip "aultin$ problem, 'e must de#ise a "unction o" ] 'hose real or ima$inary part satis"ies ()uations 58C836 to 58C986% The "unction that does this is 'B P b
B ,8
2 &m { 5] a 2 61U2 },
58%926
'here &m denotes the ima$inary part o" the comple "unction% :e can immediately #eri"y that conditions 58C896 and 58C986 are satis"ied% *n the plane P 8, ] P y and :B becomes 'B P b
B ,8
2 &m { 5y a 2 61U2 }%
58%926
This is clearly Bero "or y [ a because 5y 2 a2 61U2 is a real number% The sur"ace displacement is obtained by settin$ ] P i in ()uation 58C926 'ith the result 'B P b
B ,8 } &m{5 2 a 2 61U2 G b B ,8 P &m{ i5 2 R a2 61U2 } G b B ,8 2 1U2 P ;e{ 5 2 R a 6 } G b B ,8 2 P 5 R a2 61U2% G
58%9>6
The plus si$n is "or [ 8, the minus si$n is "or \ 8, and ;e denotes the real part o" a comple "unction% &n the limit this reduces to b 'B B ,8 % 58%9A6 G Thus conditions 58C896 and 58C986 are indeed satis"ied by ()uation 58C926% To chec! the other t'o conditions, 'e need to di""erentiate 'B 'ith respect to and y% The deri#ati#es o" the comple )uantity 5] 2 a2 61U2 are obtained by usin$ the chain rule as "ollo's h h] d 5] 2 a2 61U2 P 5] 2 a2 61U2 h h d] i] P 2 5] a2 61U2 h hy 5] 2 a2 61U2 P h] d 5] 2 a2 61U2 hy d] ] % P 2 5] a2 61U2
58%946
58%936
From ()uations 58C926, 58C946, and 58C936 'e obtain h 'B hy h 'B h P b b
B ,8
G
B ,8
5] 2 a2 61U2 ;e ] 5] a2 61U2
2
58%986 % 58%996
*n y P 8 'e ha#e ] P i and ()uation 58C986 becomes h 'B i b B ,8 P &m 2 a2 61U2 5 hy G b B ,8 i P &m 2 G i5 R a2 61U2 b B ,8 P &m P 8% G 5 2 R a2 61U2 There"ore condition 58C836 is satis"ied% *n 58C996 becomes h 'B h P b
B ,8
58%1886
P 8, ] P y and ()uation
;e
y % 5y 2 a2 61U2
58%1816
This is clearly Bero 'hen 8 \ y \ a because 5y 2 a2 61U2 is an ima$inary number% Thus 1ondition 58C886 is satis"ied%
The shear stresses in the hal"-space a"ter the introduction o" the crac! are obtained by combinin$ ()uations 58C8>6, 58C986, and 58C996 b
B
Pb
B,8
;e &m
] 5] 2 a2 61U2 ] 2 1U2 % a 6 5]
2
58%1826 58%1826
byB P b *n the plane
B,8
P 8 the stresses are b

B
P8
byB
8y\a b B ,8 y y[a P 2 5y a2 61U2 Z b B , 8 y 8y\a P 2 5a y 2 61U2 P8 y [ a%
58%18>6
58%18A6
-s y , byB 8 and b B b B,8 on the plane o" the crac!% @oth components o" shear stress are in"inite at the crac! tip P 8, y P a% This stress sin$ularity is typical o" crac! problems% *n the sur"ace y P 8, ] P i , and the stresses accordin$ to ()uations 58C1826 and 58C1826 are b b B P 2 B ,8 58%1846 5 R a2 61U2 byB P 8% 58%1836 -s 'e a$ain "ind b B b B,8 % :e can use the solution obtained abo#e to determine the sur"ace displacement caused by a displacement on a stri!eCslip "ault% 0rior to the introduction o" the crac! the sur"ace displacement is $i#en by ()uation 58C846% -"ter the crac! is introduced the sur"ace displacement is $i#en by ()uation 58C 9>6% The sur"ace displacement caused by the introduction o" the crac! _'B is the di""erence bet'een ()uations 58C9>6 and 58C846
B ,8 2 d5 R a2 61U2 | |e% G Thus, the displacement across the "ault 5crac!6 is
_'B P b
58%1886
2ab B ,8 G and the coseismic displacement as a "unction o" the distance can be 'ritten 2 1U2 _' B 8 | | % _'B P 1R 2 2 a a _'B8 P
58%1896 "rom the "ault 58%1186
Fi$ure 8%23 Sur"ace displacements durin$ the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e as a "unction o" distance "rom the San -ndreas "ault compared 'ith the predicted displacements "rom ()uation 58C1186 "or _'B8 P 2%2 m and a P 4 !m%
The prediction o" ()uation 58C1186 "or the dependence o" coseismic sur"ace displacement on distance "rom the "ault is compared 'ith data "rom the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e in Fi$ure 8C23% ,easurements o" sur"ace displacement at se#eral distances "rom the San -ndreas "ault are sho'n by the circles, 'hile the solid cur#e is a plot o" ()uation 58C1186 'ith _'B8 P 2%2 m and a P 4 !m% For G P 28 G0a, these #alues o" _'B8 and a correspond to a shear stress b B,8 P 8 ,0a% @ecause earth)ua!es occur on the San -ndreas "ault to depths o" 12 to 1A !m, this #alue o" a is probably too small by about a "actor o" 2% This disa$reement can be attributed in part to the assumption that b B P 8 "or the entire depth o" the "ault a"ter an earth)ua!e% -s discussed be"ore, a nonBero residual stress is e pected because o" "riction on the "ault% The stress drop durin$ the earth)ua!e, thou$h )uite lo', is probably reasonably accurate% 1oseismic horiBontal displacements associated 'ith the m P 3%2 .anders 51ali"ornia6 earth)ua!e o" June 28, 1992, obtained "rom synthetic aperture radar inter"erometry 5&<S-;6 are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C28 as a "unction o" distance "rom the rupture% The &<S-; pattern used to obtain these displacements 'as $i#en in Fi$ure 2C28% The sur"ace displacements durin$ this earth)ua!e 'ere primarily ri$ht-lateral stri!eC slip% The obser#ed displacement data in Fi$ure 8C28 are compared 'ith the predicted displacements "rom ()uation 58C1186 "or _'B8 P 2 m and a P A !m% For G P 28 G0a,
Fi$ure 8%28 Sur"ace displacements durin$ the 1992 m P 3%2 .anders earth)ua!e as a "unction o" the distance # "rom the "ault% 0ositi#e distances are to the northeast and ne$ati#e distances to the south'est% The data points are "rom the synthetic aperture radar inter"erometry ima$e in Fi$ure 2C28 5,assonnet et al%, 19926% The solid line $i#es the predicted displacements "rom ()uation 58C1186 'ith _ !B8 P 2 m and a P A !m%
these #alues o" _'B8 and a correspond to a shear stress b B,8 P 4 ,0a "rom ()uation 58C1896% These e amples illustrate ho' sur"ace displacements can be obtained 'hen "aultin$ occurs on a speci"ied "ault% The coseismic sur"ace displacements associated 'ith an earth)ua!e are o"ten measured by $eodetic methods% &" the "ault plane is !no'n "rom the location o" earth)ua!es, then #arious distributions o" displacement on the "ault can be considered until the sur- "ace displacements are matched% The distributed displacements on the "ault are !no'n as dislocations% The application o" this approach re)uires e - tensi#e numerical calculations% For an earth)ua!e in#ol#in$ only local displacements, this procedure may be reasonably success"ul in determinin$ the distribution o" strain and the chan$e in stress associated 'ith the earth- )ua!e% 9o'e#er, "or #ery lar$e plate boundary earth)ua!es such as the 1984 San Francisco earth)ua!e, displacements are e pected to occur throu$hout the lithosphere% .et us no' consider a t'o-dimensional model "or the cyclic accumulation and release o" stress and strain on a stri!eCslip "ault located at P 8 and accommodatin$ horiBontal motion in the B direction bet'een t'o lithospheric plates o" thic!ness b, as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C29% The initial situation sho'n in Fi$ure 8C29a corresponds to a time a"ter a ma?or earth)ua!e 'hen the shear stress and shear strain associated 'ith the interaction bet'een the ad?acent plates ha#e been reduced to Bero by both the main shoc! and the rela ation e""ects o" a"tershoc!s% The plates are sub?ect to a uni"orm relati#e
Fi$ure 8%29 The displacement "ield due to the stic!Cslip beha#ior o" t'o lithospheric plates o" thic!ness $ slidin$ past each other% 5a6 &nitially there is no stress but the "ault at # P 8 is loc!ed to a depth a% 5$6 The plates are displaced but no displacement occurs on the loc!ed part o" the "ault% 5c6 The loc!ed part o" the "ault "ails and the plates are uni"ormly displaced 'ith respect to each other and the stress is Bero% The cycle repeats%
motion parallel to the "ault% :e assume that the "ault is loc!ed to a depth a and that no stress is transmitted across the "ault at $reater depths% The base o" each plate is also assumed to be stress-"ree% The shear stress and shear strain accumulate as a result o" the relati#e motion and ma imiBe in the #icinity o" the "ault, as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C29b% :hen the "ailure stress is reached on the loc!ed "ault, an earth)ua!e occurs% The earth)ua!e relie#es the stress in the immediate #icinity o" the loc!ed "ault and trans"ers stress to the lo'er plastic portion o" the "ault% The stresses on this deeper Bone are relie#ed by plastic "lo', a process that may be responsible "or the decayin$ se)uence o" a"tershoc!s that "ollo's a ma?or earth)ua!e% &n our model 'e assume that the accumulated stresses are totally relie#ed "ollo'- in$ the a"tershoc! se)uence, as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C29c% ( cept "or the "inite displacement on the plate boundary the state o" Bero shear stress and
Bero shear strain is identical 'ith that illustrated in Fi$ure 8C29a% The cyclic process is then repeated% -s in the pre#ious e ample there is only one nonBero component o" displacement 'B and t'o nonBero components o" shear stress b B 5and bB 6 and byB 5and bBy 6% The displacement 'B satis"ies .aplaces e)uation 58C 8A6% &nitially the displacement and shear stresses are Bero7 a"ter strain has accumulated the re)uired boundary conditions are h 'B P8 hy 'B P 8 h 'B P8 h at y P 8, at at P 8, P 8, b 8\y\a a \ y \ b% 58%1116 58%1126 58%1126
The "irst condition is the #anishin$ o" the shear stress byB at the sur"ace and at the base o" the plate% ()uation 58C1126 re)uires the displacement to be Bero on the loc!ed portion o" the "ault% The third condition is the #anishin$ o" the shear stress b B on the plastic part o" the "ault% The solution to this problem in terms o" the comple #ariable ] P y R i is
o o
'B P - ;e ln o 58C11>6
X] o sin 2b R
2 X] sin
Xa 2 sin 2b
1U2 2b
sin
Xa 2b
oo o o o o , oo
'here - is a constant o" inte$ration% The comple , cos ] , and ln ] are $i#en by sin ] P sin y cosh cos ] P cos y cosh 1 ln ] P ln5y 2 R 2
components o" sin ] 58%11A6 58%1146 % 58%1136
R i cos y sinh i sin y sinh

2 1
6 R i tan
*n the sur"ace, y P 8 and ] P i , the displacement is

o
'B P - ln
sinh
X 2b R
2 X sinh
sin
2b R Xa 2b
2 Xa sin
1U2 2b
% 58%1186
-t lar$e distances "rom the "ault, X U52b6 1, the sur"ace displacement becomes
Fi$ure 8%28 Sur"ace #elocity uB as a "unction o" distance # "rom the San -ndreas "ault in southern 1ali"ornia% The data points are a compilation o" #elocity measurements usin$ G0S, +.@&, and sur"ace trian$ulation 5a"ter Shen et al%, 19946% The solid cur#e is "rom ()uation 58C1286 ta!in$ the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere $ P 3A !m, the depth o" the loc!ed por1 at # P 12A tion o" the "ault a P 18 !m, and re)uirin$ uB P 22 mm yr !m%
X 'B - ln 2 sinh 2b sin Xa 2b
sin
ln eX
U2b
ln
Xa 2b 58%1196
-X % 2b
The t'o shear stress components are "ound by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 58C11>6 'ith the result b h 'B P
B
G h
X GP &m 2b
o oo
cos 2b sin
2 X ]
X]
oo
58%1286
2 1U2 2b Xa
sin 2b
byB P G
h 'B X GP ;e hy 2b
cos
X] 2b 2 X] 2b
sin2 sin
Xa 2b
1U2
58%1216 *n the sur"ace, y P 8, ] P i , the shear stress is b P XG2b sinh2 cosh X2b
X 2b
R sin2
Xa 2b
1U2
58%1226
and byB is Bero on y P 8 as re)uired by condition 58C1116% -t lar$e distances "rom the "ault, X U52b6 1, the shear stress becomes XGX XG- b B,8 % 58%1226 bB ctnh 2b 2b 2b Far "rom the "ault the sur"ace shear stress is a constant% The constant o" inte$ration - is related to the shear stress applied across the "ault at lar$e distances "rom the "ault% -t the "ault, P 8, the sur"ace shear stress is $i#en by b
B
X Gb B ,8 P % 2b sin5XaU2b6 sin5XaU2b6
58%12>6
For small #alues o" aUb the stress is stron$ly concentrated near the "ault% &t is o" interest to compare the results o" this analysis 'ith the measured sur"ace #elocities in the #icinity o" the San -ndreas "ault% *bser#ed #elocity #ectors "or $eodetic stations in southern 1ali"ornia 'ere $i#en in Fi$ure 2C 23% These #elocities 'ere obtained usin$ $lobal positionin$ system 5G0S6 and #ery lon$ baseline inter"erometry 5+.@&6 obser#ations% The obser#ed sur"ace #elocities as a "unction o" distance "rom the San -ndreas "ault are $i#en in Fi$ure 8C28% The #elocity on the "ault trace is ta!en to be Bero and the distances measured perpendicular to the "ault are positi#e to the northeast and ne$ati#e to the south'est% +elocities on the 0aci"ic plate are positi#e 5to the north'est6 and #elocities on the <orth -merican plate are ne$ati#e 5to the southeast6% The theoretical "ormula "or the sur"ace #elocity parallel to a stri!eCslip "ault as a "unction o" the distance "rom the "ault uB 5 6 is obtained by ta!in$ the time deri#ati#e o" sur"ace displacement $i#en in ()uation 58C1186% The result is h 'B duB P P ht dt
o
ln
sinh
2b R
2 X sinh
sin
2b R Xa 2b
2 Xa sin
1U2 2b
@(-- "tress &iffusion
58%12A6 -t lar$e distances "rom the "ault, ()uation 58C1196 indicates that
143 1431
d- X % 58%1246 dt 2b The model parameter d-Udt can be related to the relati#e #elocity ur across the San -ndreas "ault by re)uirin$ the displacement rate h'B Uht to e)ual ur U2 at a distance r "rom the "ault% &" 'e assume that r is su""iciently lar$e so that ()uation 58C1246 is #alid, 'e can 'rite uB ur P 2
o
h 'B ht
P
r
X r d% 2b dt
o
58%1236
Substitution o" ()uation 58C1236 into ()uation 58C12A6 $i#es uBP sinh bur ln X r
X R 2b
sinh
2 X
sin
2b Xa 2b
2 Xa sin
1U2 2b
% 58%1286
To compare this result 'ith the data "rom the San -ndreas "ault, let the thic!ness o" the elastic lithosphere b P 3A !m and the depth o" the loc!ed portion o" the "ault a P 18 !m% :e assume that the relati#e #elocity across the San -ndreas "ault determined "rom plate tectonic studies, >4 mm yr 1 , is applied at a distance r P 12A !m "rom the "ault% The theoretical rate o" strain accumulation usin$ these parameters and ()uation 58C1286 is compared 'ith the obser#ations in Fi$ure 8C28% :e see that reasonable a$reement bet'een theory and e periment is obtained% The cyclic strain accumulation and release is restricted to the immediate #icinity o" the "ault% :e pre#iously reached this same conclusion in Section 8C4 usin$ a more appro imate analysis% &n the ne t section 'e su$$est that this restriction is due to the interaction o" the elastic lithosphere 'ith the #iscous asthenosphere% 8%11 Stress Di""usion The interaction o" the #iscous asthenosphere 'ith the o#erlyin$ elastic lithosphere causes the cyclic strains on a ma?or stri!eCslip "ault to be damped 'ith distance "rom the "ault% The e""ect can be demonstrated by the simple model illustrated in Fi$ure 8C21% -n elastic lithosphere o" thic!ness h. o#erlies a <e'tonian #iscous asthenosphere o" thic!ness ha % The "ault, located at P 8 stri!es in the B direction% The cyclic beha#ior o" the "ault is modeled by a periodic displacement applied to the elastic lithosphere at P 8% To
Fi$ure 8%21 ,odel "or determinin$ the dampin$ o" cyclic strains on a "ault by the interaction o" an elastic lithosphere o" thic!ness h. 'ith a <e'tonian #iscous asthenosphere o" thic!ness ha % The "ault is at P 8 and stri!es in the + direction%
simpli"y the analysis, 'e ne$lect the #ertical #ariation o" the displacement 'B. in the lithosphere% :e also assume that there are no #ariations alon$ the stri!e o" the "ault, that is, hUhB P 8% Thus 'e ta!e 'B. P 'B. 5 6% The partial di""erential e)uation $o#ernin$ the beha#ior o" the lithosphere can be deri#ed by carryin$ out a "orce balance on a section o" the lithosphere o" 'idth d and unit len$th in the B direction, as illustrated in Fi$ure 8C22% The displacement o" the lithosphere parallel to the stri!e o" the "ault $i#es rise to the elastic shear stresses b B on the #ertical boundaries o" the element and the #iscous shear stress nyB on its base% The balance o" "orces on the element in the B direction $i#es nyB d R {b B 5 R d 6 b B 5 6}h. P 8 or nyB P h. h b B % 58%1286 h @ecause the elastic shear stress is related to the stri!e displacement by b
B
58%1296
PG
h 'B . , h
58%1216
'here G is the shear modulus o" the lithosphere 5see ()uations d2C182e and d2C>9e6, 'e can re'rite the "orce balance e)uation as h 2 'B . % 58%1226 nyB P h. G h 2 To relate the #iscous shear stress in the asthenosphere to 'B. , 'e assume that the #elocity at the base o" the asthenosphere is Bero and that the #iscous
@(-- "tress &iffusion
149 1491
Fi$ure 8%22 The "orce balance on a section o" the lithosphere o" 'idth d# and unit len$th parallel to the stri!e o" the "ault%
"lo' in the asthenosphere can be appro imated by the linear 1ouette "lo' considered in Section 4C2% From ()uations 54C16 and 54C126, D h 'B . nyB P , 58%1226 ha ht 'here D is the #iscosity o" the asthenosphere% Substitution o" this e pression into ()uation 58C1226 yields h 'B . ht P ha h. G hZ2 'B . D h
2
58%12>6
@oth the displacement o" the lithosphere and unsteady one-dimensional heat conduction are $o#erned by the one-dimensional di""usion e)uation 5see Section >C126% The e""ecti#e di""usi#ity "or the displacement o" the lithosphere is e)ual to ha h. GUD% The spatial dampin$ o" cyclic displacements on the "ault by the lithosphereC asthenosphere interaction can be demonstrated by sol#in$ ()uation 58C12>6 "or an applied periodic displacement at P 8 o" the "orm 'B. P 'B.,8 cos ^t, 58%12A6
'here ^ is the circular "re)uency o" the applied displacement% The solution to the analo$ous heat conduction problem has pre#iously been obtained in Section >C1>% @y appropriate modi"ications o" ()uation 5>C896, 'e "ind that
the displacement o" the lithosphere is $i#en by

5
'B. P 'B.,8 e p
5
^D 2ha h. G ^D G 2h a h.
1U2
cos ^t
1U2
58%1246
The amplitude o" the displacement o" the lithosphere decreases e ponentially 'ith distance "rom the "ault7 the displacement is damped to 1Ue o" its #alue at the "ault in a distance ds $i#en by ds P 2ha h. G ^D
1U2
58%1236
To estimate ds , 'e ta!e ha P 188 !m, h. P 28 !m, G P 28 G0a, and D P > 1819 0a s% The "re)uency o" the applied displacement at the "ault is related to the period n by ^ P 2XUn % -s a typical time inter#al bet'een 9 1 $reat earth)ua!es 'e ta!e n P 1A8 years7 this $i#es ^ P 1%22 18 % From s ()uation 58C1236 'e "ind ds P A8 !m, 'hich a$rees 'ith #alues 'e estimated earlier in the chapter% -lthou$h this solution is appro imate and only periodic #ariations at the "ault ha#e been considered, more e act numerical calculations #eri"y that "ault displacements are damped a "e' hundred !ilometers "rom the "ault by the interaction bet'een the elastic lithosphere and the #iscous asthenosphere% - ma?or earth)ua!e on one part o" a plate boundary is there"ore unli!ely to chan$e the stress si$ni"icantly on "aults on other parts o" the plate boundary% Thus $reat earth)ua!es are unli!ely to tri$$er other $reat earth)ua!es at lar$e distances%
8%12 Thermally -cti#ated 1reep on Faults *n near-sur"ace "ault Bones the concept o" a coe""icient o" "riction is li!ely to be applicable% 9o'e#er, many "aults e tend deep into the lithosphere, 'here they are li!ely to beha#e plastically% &n this section 'e consider the steady-state creep on deep "ault Bones% :e pre#iously su$$ested in Section >C23 that "rictional heatin$ may be important on such "ault Bones% There"ore our analysis includes heatin$ due to #iscous dissipation% Fi$ure 8C22 illustrates the one-dimensional model 'e 'ill use to determine the structure o" the shear Bone "ormed bet'een t'o hal"-spaces mo#in$ in opposite directions parallel to the inter"ace plane P 8 'ith total relati#e #elocity u8 % The center o" the shear Bone is the plane P 8, and | | measures the distance normal to the "ault% Su""iciently "ar "rom the "ault the #elocity
@(-4 %hermally Faults
ctivated Creep on
131 1311
Fi$ure 8%22 *ne-dimensional model "or the structure o" a "ault Bone on 'hich there is steady-state creep%
u approaches u8 U2% Frictional heatin$ produces a temperature anomaly in the shear Bone7 the temperature T "ar "rom the "ault plane must decrease linearly 'ith distance "rom the "ault in order to conduct a'ay the heat $enerated by "riction in the shear Bone% The temperature 'ill ha#e a ma imum #alue T1 at the center o" the shear Bone% The symmetry o" the model re)uires that T be symmetric and u be antisymmetric about P 87 T and u depend only on in this steady one-dimensional problem% :e assume that dislocation creep 'ith an e""ecti#e #iscosity De"" $i#en by ()uation 53C1196 $o#erns the de"ormation in the shear Bone% The #iscosity in the shear Bone is substantially lo'er than it is "ar "rom the "ault because o" the stron$ temperature dependence o" De"" and the temperature anomaly due to "rictional heatin$ in the shear Bone% The reduced #iscosity in the shear Bone "acilitates the decouplin$ o" the oppositely mo#in$ hal"-spaces and concentrates the shear into a relati#ely narro' re$ion around the "ault% The e)uations $o#ernin$ the temperature and #elocity in "rictionally heated shear "lo's 'ith temperature-dependent #iscosity ha#e already been discussed in Section 3CA% From ()uation 53C1286 'e !no' that the shear stress n in the shear Bone is a constant i" there is no pressure $radient alon$ the "ault plane% :e $roup all the pree ponential )uantities in the #iscosity ()uation 53C1196 e cept "or the shear stress and the temperature into a constant
132 1321
Faulting ; ; ;
Table 8%> Calues of the E#ponential Integral E1 )# * P

# 8 8%81 8%82 8%82 8%8> 8%8A 8%18 8%28 8%28 8%>8 8%A8 8%48 8%38 8%88 8%98 1%8 1%2 1%> 1%4 1%8 2%8 2%A 2%8 2%A >%8 >%A A%8 4 3 8 9 18 28 E1 5 # 6 >%82392 2%2A>31 2%9A912 2%48124 2%>4398 1%82292 1%2224A 8%98A48 8%38228 8%AA933 8%>A>28 8%23233 8%21848 8%24818 8%21928 8%1A8>1 8%11422 8%88421 8%84>31 8%8>898 8%82>91 8%8128A 8%88493 8%88238 8%88283 8%8811A 2%4888 18 > 1%1A>8 18> 2%3444 18A 1%2>>3 18A >%1A38 184 11 9%82AA 1 8 #e E1 5# 6
)eCt Ut * dt
8%32244 8%3A881 8%3842A 8%88383 8%82A28 8%82989 8%8A211 8%83141 8%884>9 8%8982> 8%98334 8%91A42 8%9A>23
1 and 'rite the e)uation "or De"" as De"" P 1 T e(a U;T % n2 58%1286
Since n is a constant, the e""ecti#e #iscosity #aries only 'ith T and primarily 'ith the e ponential o" the in#erse absolute temperature% The di""erential e)uation "or the temperature is ()uation 53C1>167 'ith
n P De"" duUd this e)uation ta!es the "orm d2 T du 58%1296 d 2 R n d P 8% @ecause the shear stress is constant, ()uation 58C1296 can be inte$rated to $i#e dT ! R n u P 8% 58%1>86 d The constant o" inte$ration is Bero because u P 8 at P 8 and symmetry re)uires dT Ud P 8 at P 8% Substitution o" n P De"" duUd in ()uation 58C1>86 yields ! dT u du P , ! 58%1>16 De""
2 ( U;T a
'hich can be "urther modi"ied usin$ ()uation 58C1286 "or De"" to d u2 2 P !n 1T e dT % 58%1>26
()uation 58C1>26 can be inte$rated analytically usin$ the e ponential inte$ral "unction (1 "irst introduced in 0roblem >C2A to obtain u2 P 2! n 2 (a (1 ;T1 1 (1 (a ;T , 58%1>26
'here the constant o" inte$ration has been e#aluated by lettin$ u P 8 and T P T1 at the center o" the shear Bone% The e ponential inte$ral "unction is tabulated in Table 8C> and plotted in Fi$ure 8C2>% &n the limit , u u8 U2, T decreases, and (1 5(a U;T 6 (1 56 P 8 5Table 8C>6% Thus ()uation 58C1>26 $i#es (1 ;T1 , 58%1>>6 1 a relation that can be used to calculate the ma imum temperature at the center o" the shear Bone as a "unction o" the total relati#e #elocity across the shear Bone, the shear stress, and the rheolo$ical properties% &n 1hapter 3 'e noted that (a U;T1 1% -n appro imate "ormula "or the e ponential inte$ral o" a lar$e )uantity is
8
u2
8! n 2 P
(a
(a ( 1 ;T1
;T1 ( U;T a 1 (a e
58%1>A6
5see Table 8C>6% There"ore, ()uation 58C1>>6 can be appro imated by u2 8 8!n2;T1 (a U;T1 e % 1 (a 58%1>46
Fi$ure 8C2A sho's ho' the ma imum temperature at the center o" a mantle shear Bone depends on the relati#e #elocity across the Bone "or se#eral #alues o" shear stress% The cur#es 'ere dra'n usin$ ()uation 58C 1>46 'ith ! P >%2 : m 1 E 1 , ; P 8%21> J E 1 mol 1 , 1 P 189 0a2 s E 1 , and (a P A22 !J mol 1 % Temperatures o" about 1288 E are re)uired i" dislocation creep is to accommodate relati#e #elocities o" tens o" millimeters per year across mantle shear Bones under applied shear stresses o" about 1 ,0a% -n e)uation "or the temperature distribution in the shear Bone can be obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 58C1>26 into ()uation 58C1>86F dT 2 P n 2 d !1
1U2
(1
(a ;T1
(1
(a ;T
1U2
% 58%1>36
This e)uation is sub?ect to the condition T P T1 at P 8% &t can be inte$rated numerically or analytically i" t'o appro imations are made% First, 'e assume that the ar$uments o" the e ponential inte$ral "unctions are lar$e compared 'ith 1% :e can then use the appro imation contained in ()uation 58C1>A6 and 'rite dT 2 1U2 P n 2 d !1 ;T1 (a U;T1 ;T (a U;T e e (a (a &" 'e then 'rite W P T1 T and assume W T1 , 'e can appro imate ()uation 58C1>86 by dW
1U2
1U2
58%1>86
n P !
2! ;T1 n 2 e 1 (a
(a U;T1
{1 e
2 1U2 (a WU;T1
% 58%1>96
From ()uation 58C1>46 'e reco$niBe that the "irst )uantity in brac!ets 2 on the ri$ht side o" this e pression is 8 u U>7 thus 'e can simpli"y ()uation 58C 1>96 to
2 dW n u8 {1 e (a WU;T1 } 1U2 % P d 2!
58%1A86
This e)uation can be inte$rated analytically by ma!in$ the substitution sPe and 'e "ind
(a WU;T12
58%1A16
Fi$ure 8%2> The e ponential inte$ral%
n u8 ds P d % 1U2 s51 s6 (a 2!;T 12 The inte$ral o" ()uation 58C1A26 yields T P T1 R n u8 ( a ;T 12 ln sech2 2 (a >!;T 1 ,
58%1A26
58%1A26
'here the constant o" inte$ration has been chosen to satis"y T P T1 , W P 8, s P 1 on P 8% @y substitutin$ ()uation 58C1A26 into ()uation 58C 1>86, 'e obtain the #elocity distribution in the shear Bone as uP &n the limit , sech and n u8 (a >!;T 12
n u8 (a 2e U>!;T 21
u8 n u8 ( a tanh 2 >!;T 12
58%1A>6
134 1341
Collateral Reading
Fi$ure 8%2A Dependence o" the temperature at the center o" a shear Bone on the relati#e #elocity across the shear Bone "or se#eral #alues o" the applied shear stress%
-lso, as
dT n u8 d % 2! n u8 ( a 1 tanh 2 >!;T 1
and u u 8% 2 0roblem 8%18 De"ine the hal"-'idth o" the shear Bone at 'hich u P 8%95u8 U26%
as the #alue o"
a% *btain an e pression "or the hal"-'idth "rom ()uation 58C1A>6% b% :hat is the hal"-'idth o" the shear Bone i" u8 P 188 mm yr 1 and n P 18 ,0aO /se the #alues o" 1 , (a , and ! $i#en pre#iously% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @re'er, J% -%, S% @% Smithson, J% (% *li#er, S% Eau"man, and .% D% @ro'n 519886, The .aramide oro$enyF (#idence "rom 1*1*;0 deep crustal
seismic pro"iles in the :ind ;i#er mountains, :yomin$, %ectonophysics 42, 14AC189% @yerlee, J% 519336, Friction o" roc!s, in E#perimental "tudies of Roc, Friction !ith pplication to Earth3ua,e Prediction, J% F% (#ernden, ed%, pp% AAC 33 5/%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey, ,enlo 0ar!, 1ali"ornia6% 1oo!, F% -%, D% S% -lbau$h, .% D% @ro'n, S% Eau"man, J% (% *li#er, and ;% D% 9atcher 519396, Thin-s!inned tectonics in the crystalline southern -ppalachians7 1*1*;0 seismic re"lection pro"ilin$ o" the @lue ;id$e and &nner 0iedmont, Geology 3, A42CA43% 9an!s, T% 1% 519336, (arth)ua!e stress drops, ambient tectonic stresses and stresses that dri#e plate motions, Pure ppl( Geophys% 11A, >>1C>A8% ,assonnet, D%, ,% ;ossi, 1% 1armona, F% -dra$na, G% 0eltBer, E% Fei$i, and T% ;abauts 519926, The displacement "ield o" the .anders earth)ua!e mapped by radar inter"erometry, 8ature 24>, 128C1>2% Shen, ]% E%, D% D% Jac!son, and @% S% Ge 519946, 1rustal de"ormation across and beyond the .os -n$eles basin "rom $eodetic measurements, J( Geo2 phys( Res% 181, 23, 9A3C23, 988% Sieh, E%, ,% Stui#er, and D% @rillin$er 519896, - more precise chronolo$y o" earth)ua!es produced by the San -ndreas "ault in southern 1ali"ornia, J( Geophys( Res% 9>, 482C422% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @ullen, E% (%, n Introduction to the %heory of "eismology, 2rd edition 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19426, 281 pa$es% - classic introductory te tboo! on seismolo$y% The "irst ei$ht chapters pro#ide the essential bac!$round theory on the mechanics o" de"ormable media and the transmission o" seismic 'a#es sub?ect to #arious boundary conditions% This is "ollo'ed by three chapters dealin$ 'ith the $atherin$ and treatment o" instrumental data on earth)ua!es% The remainin$ parts o" the boo! apply the theory and obser#ational results to a #ariety o" problems includin$ the structure o" the (arths interior, lon$-period oscillations o" the (arth, earth)ua!e occurrence, nuclear e plosions, and e traterrestrial seismolo$y% 9obbs, @% (%, :% D% ,eans, and 0% F% :illiams, n 1utline of "tructural Geology 5John :iley and Sons, <e' =or!, 19346, A31 pa$es% -n introductory te tboo! on structural $eolo$y "or under$raduate students co#erin$ the mechanical aspects o" roc! de"ormation, stress, strain, the response o" roc!s to stress, the micro"abric o" de"ormed roc!s, crystal de"ects, microscopic mechanisms o" de"ormation, unde"ormed roc!
138 1381
Collateral Reading
structures, "oldin$, "eatures o" "olded roc!s, "oliations, lineations, brittle de"ormation, ?oints, "aults, "ield methods, and structural associations o" the (arth% - "e' o" the chapters ha#e problems 'ith ans'ers $i#en in an appendi % Jae$er, 1%, Roc, Mechanics and Engineering 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, .ondon, 19396, A22 pa$es% - te tboo! about the physical and mechanical properties o" roc!s and the en$ineerin$ applications o" roc! mechanics% 0art 1 discusses the de#elopment o" roc! mechanics and the $eolo$ists input to this science% 0art 2 deals 'ith roc! properties, in situ residual stresses, strains and "ailure o" roc! masses, theoretical approaches to determinations o" stressC strain "ields, and e""ects o" interstitial 'ater% 0art 2 co#ers applications to roc! slopes and roc! slides, $alleries, tunnels, mines, under$round e - ca#ations, and dams% 0art > describes case histories o" accidents, dam disasters, and roc! slides% .ay, T%, and T% 1% :allace, Modern Glo$al "eismology 5-cademic 0ress, San Die$o, 199A6, A13 pa$es% This is a comprehensi#e treatment o" seismolo$y and earth)ua!es at a moderately ad#anced le#el% Topics include body 'a#es, sur"ace 'a#es, "ree oscillations, seismic sources, (arth structure, and earth)ua!e mechanics% ;amsay, J% G%, Folding and Fracturing of Roc,s 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 19436, A48 pa$es% - boo! outlinin$ the basic theories o" stress, strain, the properties o" roc!s, and roc! de"ormation in $eolo$y% 1hapter 1 introduces the methods used to analyBe the orientation o" structures% 1hapters 2 to 4 de#elop the analysis o" stress and strain "rom "irst principles% The #arious types o" "olds in roc!s are described in 1hapter 3 'ith an analysis o" their "ormation and a discussion o" their $eneral tectonic en#ironment% The "inal three chapters treat the de"ormation o" linear structures, "oldin$ o" obli)uely inclined sur"aces, and structural comple ities associated 'ith the superposition o" t'o systems o" "olds% ;eid, 9% F%, The mechanics o" the earth)ua!e, in %he California Earth3ua,e of pril -@, -<B?, Report of the "tate Earth3ua,e Investigation Com2 mission, +olume 2 51arne$ie &nstitution o" :ashin$ton, :ashin$ton, D%1%, 19186, 192 pa$es% - detailed account o" the $reat earth)ua!e and its seismic record% 0art 1 describes the shoc!, its time and ori$in, permanent $round displacements, the nature o" the actin$ "orces, shearin$ mo#ements in the "ault Bone, #ibratory mo#ements and their e""ects, and the in"luence o" the
Collateral Reading
"oundation on the apparent intensity% 0art 2 summariBes instrumental records o" the earth)ua!e "rom obser#atories around the 'orld% There is an appendi on the theory o" the seismo$raph% ;ichter, 1% F%, Elementary "eismology 5:%9% Freeman, San Francisco, 19A86, 348 pa$es% - "undamental, relati#ely nonmathematical te tboo! on seismolo$y 'ritten "or the $eolo$ist and en$ineer% 0art 1 describes the nature o" earth)ua!es and obser#ations o" them% The ma?or topics include the character o" earth)ua!e motion, descriptions o" important earth)ua!es, "oreshoc!s, a"tershoc!s, earth)ua!e s'arms, earth)ua!e e""ects on buildin$s, e""ects on $round and sur"ace 'ater, intensity, #olcanic earth)ua!es, tectonic earth)ua!es, "aultin$, seismo$raph theory, elasticity, seismic 'a#es, deep-"ocus earth)ua!es, ma$nitude, statistics, ener$y, micro- seisms, and earth)ua!e ris!% 0art 2 discusses earth)ua!es in 1ali"ornia, <e' ]ealand, Japan, Tai'an, and other re$ions% -n e tensi#e set o" tables $i#es mathematical details and use"ul seismic data% ScholB, 1% 9%, %he Mechanics of Earth3ua,es and Faulting 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19986, >29 pa$es% This is an e cellent intermediate le#el treatment o" roc! mechanics and earth)ua!es% Sub?ects include approaches to brittle "ailure, "riction, structure o" "aults, )uanti"ication o" earth)ua!es, the seismic cycle, and earth)ua!e prediction%
139 1391
9 Flo's in 0orous ,edia
9%1 &ntroduction Fluids such as 'ater, steam, petroleum, and natural $as o"ten mi$rate throu$h the (arths crust% &" these "lo's occur throu$h open "ractures, they can be studied usin$ the channel "lo' theory de#eloped in 1hapter 4% &n many cases, ho'e#er, "lo's in the (arths crust occur throu$h a matri o" interconnectin$ passa$es pro#ided by lar$e numbers o" small "ractures or throu$h the #oids o" naturally porous roc!s% &" the scale o" the "lo' system is lar$e compared 'ith the scale o" the interconnected passa$es, it is o"ten appropriate to consider "lo' throu$h a uni"orm porous medium% Sand is an e ample o" a naturally porous material% @ecause o" the irre$ular shapes o" sand particles there is a considerable #oid or pore space bet'een them% The "raction o" the #olume made up o" pore space is !no'n as the porosity Y% .oose sand is particularly porous, Y >8N, 'hile oil sands ha#e porosities in the ran$e o" 18 to 28N% +alues o" Y "or some porous roc!s, "or e ample, sandstone and limestone, are listed in Table 2C2% -s noted be"ore, roc!s that are not naturally porous can still be appro imated as porous media i" they are e tensi#ely "ractured% The distribution o" "ractures must be reasonably uni"orm and the separation o" "ractures small compared 'ith the scale o" the o#erall "lo'% Fluids can "lo' throu$h a porous medium under the in"luence o" an applied pressure $radient% &n 1hapter 4 'e sho'ed that, "or laminar "lo', the "lo' rate in channels and pipes is linearly proportional to the pressure $radient and in#ersely proportional to the #iscosity% This is also the result obtained "or many porous medium "lo's% The resistance o" a porous medium to "lo' depends on the siBe, number, and LtortuosityM o" the "luid path'ays throu$h the solid matri % - measure o" this resistance is the permea$ility ! o" the medium% The #iscous "lo' theory in 1hapter 4 can be used to determine
<(4 &arcyAs La!
492
the permeability "or idealiBed models o" porous media% 9o'e#er, the permeability o" actual roc!s must be determined in the laboratory or by "ield e periments% &n this chapter 'e de#elop the theory o" "lo' throu$h porous media and consider a number o" $eolo$ical applications% 1alculations "or the "lo' o" $round'ater ha#e many important implications% &n the immediate #icinity o" a coolin$ intrusion the $round'ater may boil, leadin$ to hot sprin$s, $eysers, and $eothermal reser#oirs% These processes are responsible "or many mineral deposits because minerals dissol#e "reely in hot $round'ater and precipitate 'hen the temperature drops or boilin$ occurs% ,odels o" "lo' in porous media can also be applied to problems in#ol#in$ the mi$ration o" ma$ma%
9%2 Darcys .a' &n many applications the "lo' throu$h a porous medium is linearly proportional to the applied pressure $radient and in#ersely proportional to the #iscosity o" the "luid% This beha#ior is !no'n as &arcyAs la!, an empirical relationship credited to 9enry Darcy, 'ho carried out e periments on the "lo' o" 'ater throu$h #ertical homo$eneous sand "ilters in 18A4% For a onedimensional $eometry in 'hich the #olumetric "lo' rate per unit area u is dri#en by the applied pressure $radient dpUd , Darcys la' ta!es the "orm ! dp uP , Dd 59%16
'here ! is the permeability o" the medium and D is the dynamic #iscosity o" the "luid% The #olumetric "lo' rate per unit area u has the dimensions o" #elocity, and it is re"erred to as the &arcy velocity% 9o'e#er, because it represents #olume "lo' rate per unit area o" the medium, and the pores or crac!s occupy only a small "raction o" this area, u is not the actual #elocity o" the "luid in the small channels% &t is the a#era$e #elocity per unit area% The permeability characteriBes the resistance o" the porous medium to "lo' throu$h it% The more permeable the medium is, that is, the lar$er ! is, the smaller is the pressure $radient re)uired to dri#e a $i#en "lo'% The S& unit "or permeability is s)uare meter, m2 % Typical #alues "or the natural permeabilities o" some $eolo$ic materials are $i#en in Table 9C1% 1oarse $ra#el is hi$hly permeable, 'hile un"ractured homo$eneous $ranite is #irtually impermeable% Darcys la' is sometimes 'ritten in terms o" the
182 1821
Flo!s in Porous Media
Table 9%1 %ypical Calues for the 8atural Permea$ilities of Geologic Materials
0ermeability , 5m2 6
18 3 8
1lassi"ication
,aterial Gra#el
18 189 18 18 1811 18 12 1812 181> 181A 18 14 1813 1818 18 19 18 28
0er#ious Sand Semiper#ious Sandstone .imestone &mper#ious Granite
hydraulic head 9 de"ined in ()uation 54C96 !Q$ d9 d9 uP P E , D d d 59%26
'here E !Q$UD is !no'n as the hydraulic conductivity% The "orm o" Darcys la' $i#en in ()uation 59C26 is used "re)uently in applications to $round'ater "lo'% Darcys la' is applicable to "lo' throu$h a solid matri only i" se#eral conditions are satis"ied% First, the scale o" the porosity must be small compared 'ith the other characteristic dimensions o" the "lo' situation% For e ample, i" a sedimentary layer o" thic!ness h is made up o" particles 'ith a mean diameter b, the condition b h is re)uired "or Darcys la' to be #alid% -lternati#ely, i" the porosity o" the layer is due to interconnected "ractures, the dimensions and spacin$ o" the "ractures must be small compared 'ith the thic!ness h% The second condition is that the "lo' in the indi#idual channels must be laminar% This condition, discussed in Section 4C>, places an upper limit on the dimensions o" the porosity and the "lo' rate o" the "luid% -lthou$h Darcys la' is an empirical statement, it can be deri#ed theoretically "or se#eral simple models o" the channel con"i$uration 'ithin the solid matri % 0roblem 9%1 To deri#e an up'ard "lo' in a porous medium, it is clear that pressure must increase more rapidly 'ith depth y than it does 'hen the
<(5 Permea$ility Models
49A
"luid is motionless% /se this idea to ?usti"y 'ritin$ Darcys la' "or #ertical "lo' in a porous medium in the "orm ! dp #P Q$ , D dy 59%26
'here # is the #ertical Darcy #elocity 5positi#e in the direction o" increasin$ depth6, Q is the "luid density, and $ is the acceleration o" $ra#ity% 1onsider a porous medium lyin$ on an impermeable sur"ace inclined at an an$le W to the horiBontal% Sho' that Darcys la' "or the do'nslope #olumetric "lo' rate per unit area ) is ! dp )P Q$ sin W , D ds 59%>6
'here s is the do'nslope distance and ) is positi#e in the direction o" s% 0roblem 9%2 1onsider an unconsolidated 5uncemented6 layer o" soil completely saturated 'ith $round'ater7 the 'ater table is coincident 'ith the sur"ace% Sho' that the up'ard Darcy #elocity |# | re)uired to fluidi+e the bed is 51 Y6 !$5Qs Q' 6 |# | P , 59%A6 D the the the the
'here Y is the porosity, Qs is the density o" the soil particles, and Q' is 'ater density% The condition o" a "luidiBed bed occurs 'hen pressure at depth in the soil is su""icient to completely support 'ei$ht o" the o#erburden% &" the pressure e ceeds this critical #alue, "lo' can li"t the soil layer% 9%2 0ermeability ,odels
&dealiBed models "or the $eometrical con"i$uration o" the channels in a porous medium allo' us to deri#e Darcys la' usin$ #iscous "lo' theory% ( plicit relationships "or the permeability are obtained% - #ariety o" models can be used to appro imate the structures o" di""erent materials% - sandstone may be appro imated by a matri o" closely pac!ed spheres, 'hile "ractured #olcanic roc! may be modeled 'ith a re$ular 5or random6 matri o" thin channels% :e do not consider alternati#e microscopic models in detail because they di""er by $eometrical "actors that are o" order one% - typical model "or the microscopic structure o" a porous material is a cubic matri o" circular tubes% The matri has a dimension b, and the tubes ha#e a diameter a, as illustrated in Fi$ure 9C1% (ach cube has a tube on each o" its 12 ed$es7 1U> o" a tube o" diameter a and len$th b lies 'ithin the
18> 18>1
Fi$ure 9%1 -n idealiBed model o" a porous medium% 1ircular tubes o" diameter a "orm a cubical matri 'ith dimensions $%
cube on each o" these ed$es% Thus the e)ui#alent o" three tubes o" diameter a and len$th b lie 'ithin the cube% The porosity is there"ore $i#en by Y P 2X a 2
2
b 2X a2 P % b2 > b2
59%46
:e assume that the sides o" the cubes lie in the , y, and B directions% /nder an applied pressure $radient, dpUd , "luid "lo's throu$h the tubes that are parallel to the a is% &" the "lo' throu$h the tubes is laminar, the mean #elocity in the tubes ufc is $i#en by ()uation 54C236 a2 dp ufc P % 22D d 59%36 To obtain the mean #elocity per unit area, the Darcy #elocity u, consider a s)uare 'ith dimensions b lyin$ perpendicular to the direction 'ith corners lyin$ on the a es o" "our tubes% *ne-"ourth o" the cross-sectional area o" each tube lies 'ithin the s)uare% Thus the e)ui#alent o" the #olumetric "lo' rate throu$h a sin$le tube X5a2 U>6ufc "lo's across the area b2 % The Darcy #elocity is there"ore $i#en by uP X a2 Y uf uf , 2 c c >b P 2 59%86
'here ()uation 59C46 has been used to eliminate a2 Ub2 % @y combinin$ ()uations 59C36 and 59C86, 'e obtain b Y dp uP % 32XD d
2 2
59%96
*ur simple model predicts a linear relationship bet'een the Darcy #elocity
Fi$ure 9%2 9oriBontal one-dimensional "lo' in a con"ined porous a)ui"er% The "lo' is dri#en by the indicated drop in head%
and the pressure $radient in accordance 'ith Darcys la'% - comparison o" ()uations 59C16 and 59C96 sho's that the permeability ! is $i#en by !P b2 Y 2 X a> P % 32X 128 b2 59%186
The permeability is a "unction o" the $eometry o" the connected porosity% Ta!in$ a P 1 mm and b P 8%1 m, 'e "ind that ! P 2%>A 18 12 m2 % The 2 porosity is only 2%24 18 N7 the mean #elocity in a sin$le tube is 1%23 18> times lar$er than the Darcy #elocity% 0roblem 9%2 -ssume that a porous medium can be modeled as a cubic matri 'ith a dimension b7 the 'alls o" each cube are channels o" thic!ness a% 5a6 Determine e pressions "or the porosity and permeability in terms o" b and a% 5b6 :hat is the permeability i" b P 8%1 m and a P 1 mmO
9%> Flo' in 1on"ined -)ui"ers Ground'ater "lo' o"ten ta!es place in a layer o" porous sedimentary roc! bounded abo#e and belo' by impermeable strata% The channel "ormed by this layerin$ is !no'n as a confined porous a3uifer% 1onsider onedimensional "lo' throu$h a con"ined a)ui"er 'ith a constant crosssectional area -, as s!etched in Fi$ure 9C2% For this "lo' the pressure p is a constant o#er the area p P p5 6% The Darcy #elocity u is $i#en by ()uation 59C167 a uni"orm #elocity pro"ile, u P u5 6, is obtained% There is no re)uirement that the Darcy #elocity in a porous medium satis"y a no-slip condition at the boundaries% The no-slip condition is #alid on the microscopic scale o" indi#idual channels, but not on the macroscale o" the a)ui"er% The #olumetric "lo' rate G throu$h the a)ui"er is the product o" the Darcy #elocity 'ith the cross-sectional area !- dp G P u- P % D d 59%116
@ecause the "lo' rate G is a constant independent o" , the pressure $radient is a ne$ati#e constant7 thus the pressure decreases linearly 'ith % For a porous a)ui"er 'ith the circular cross-section and semicircular $eometry pre#iously considered in Section 4CA, the pressure $radient is $i#en by ()uation 54C>26, and the #olumetric "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er can be 'ritten GP
!;2 Q$b , D;
59%126
'here X; is the len$th o" the a)ui"er and b is the ele#ation o" the entrance o" the a)ui"er relati#e to the e it% 0roblem 9%> -ssume that the model ?ust described is applicable to an artesian sprin$ 5a sprin$ dri#en by a topo$raphic head6% &" a topo$raphic head o" 48 m dri#es 'ater throu$h the a)ui"er at the rate 8%2 18 A m2 s 1 , determine the permeability o" the a)ui"er i" its area is 2 m2 and the distance "rom source to e it is 2 !m% 0roblem 9%A 1onsider one-dimensional "lo' throu$h a con"ined porous a)ui"er o" total thic!ness b and cross-sectional area -% Suppose the a)ui"er consists o" < layers, each o" thic!ness bi 5i P 1, % % %, < 6 and permeability !i 5i P 1, % % %, < 6% Determine the total "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er i" all the layers are sub?ected to the same dri#in$ pressure $radient% :hat is the uni"orm permeability o" an a)ui"er o" thic!ness b that deli#ers the same "lo' rate as the layered a)ui"er 'hen the t'o are sub?ected to the same pressure $radientO :e ne t consider the dra'do'n o" 'ater into a 'ell that completely penetrates a con"ined a)ui"er, as illustrated in Fi$ure 9C2% The 'ell is considered to be a sin! "or the "lo' in the a)ui"er that is uni"orm, horiBontal, and radially in'ard to'ard the 'ell% The radial Darcy #elocity in this cylindri- cally symmetric "lo' is ur % The radial distance "rom the 'ell is r, and ur is positi#e in the direction o" increasin$ r% Darcys la' "or one-dimensional "lo', ()uation 59C16, can be $eneraliBed to apply to the radial "lo' o" this problem i" 'e replace the pressure $radient in ()uation 59C16 by the radial pressure $radient dpUdr% :e can there"ore 'rite ! dp ur P D dr or, in terms o" the hydraulic head 9 , 59%126
Fi$ure 9%2 - model "or the 'ithdra'al o" 'ater "rom a 'ell penetratin$ a con"ined a)ui"er%
!Q$ d9 ur P % D dr
59%1>6
&" the thic!ness o" the a)ui"er is h, the #olume "lo' rate o" 'ater across a cylindrical sur"ace o" radius r is Gr P 2Xrhur % 59%1A6
<ote that Gr is ne$ati#e "or radially in'ard "lo'% The substitution o" ()uation 59C1>6 into ()uation 59C1A6 $i#es 2Xh!Q$r d9 Gr P % 59%146 D dr 1onser#ation o" mass re)uires that Gr be independent o" r7 the same amount o" "luid must cross each cylindrical sur"ace per unit time% Thus |Gr | is the #olumetric "lo' rate into the 'ell, and ()uation 59C146 is a "irst-order, total di""erential e)uation relatin$ the hydraulic head 9 to the radial position r% :e inte$rate this e)uation to $i#e 9 98 P ZDGr r ln , 2Xh!Q$ r8 59%136
'here 98 is a prescribed hydraulic head at a radial position r8 59 P 98 at r P r8 6% &t is not possible to prescribe the ambient hydraulic head as r because ()uation 59C136 e hibits a lo$arithmic sin$ularity% The radial position r8 is ta!en to be the distance to 'here the a)ui"er is bein$ char$ed% The hydraulic head at the 'ell 9' is obtained by settin$ r P r' 5the 'ell radius6 in ()uation 59C136 'ith the result DGr r 9' P 98 ln ' % 2Xh!Q$ r8 59%186
188 1881
:e can rearran$e this e)uation to yield an e pression "or Gr in terms o" the hydraulic heads 98 and 9' Gr P 2X h! Q$ 598 9' 6 % r' D ln r8 59%196
-s a typical numerical e ample 'e ta!e 98 9' P 18 m, h P 1 m, r' P 2 8%1 m, r8 P 1 !m, ! P 18 11 m2 ,the #iscosity o" 'ater D P 18 0a s, 2 2 2 the density o" 'ater Q P 18 !$ m , and $ P 18 The "lo' rate to > m 2s % the 'ell, "rom ()uation 59C196, is |Gr | P 4%8 18 m s 1 % 0roblem 9%4 1onsider the dra'do'n o" a 'ell penetratin$ a con"ined porous layer saturated 'ith $as% The $eometry is identical 'ith that o" Fi$ure 9C2% Darcys la' in the "orm o" ()uation 59C126 is #alid "or the uni"orm "lo' o" $as to'ard the 'ell% @ecause the $as is compressible, both its density Q and pressure p #ary 'ith radial distance r "rom the 'ell% The mass "lo' rate o" $as ,r crossin$ a cylindrical sur"ace o" radius r and hei$ht h must be constant to conser#e mass% -ssume that the per"ect $as e)uation o" state p P Q;T applies, 'here T is the $as temperature and ; is the $as constant, and that the $as "lo' is isothermal% Sho' that the pressure distribution in the $as reser#oir is
2 2 p r p P 8
,r D;T Xh! ln r8
59%286
and that the mass "lo' rate into the 'ell is 5p 2 p 2 6 8 X h! ' ,r P % ' D;T ln r r8 59%216
-ssume that the pressures p8 at r P r8 and p' at r P r' are maintained constant durin$ e ploitation o" the reser#oir% <ote that ,r is ne$ati#e "or "lo' to'ard the 'ell% 9%A Flo' in /ncon"ined -)ui"ers &n many cases the "lo' in an a)ui"er 'ith an impermeable lo'er boundary has a "ree upper sur"ace% This upper sur"ace is the !ater ta$le and is o"ten re"erred to as a phreatic surface% -n a)ui"er in 'hich the "luid has a "ree sur"ace is !no'n as an unconfined a3uifer% .et us consider a one-dimensional "lo' in an uncon"ined a)ui"er 'ith a horiBontal lo'er boundary, as sho'n in Fi$ure 9C>% @elo' the phreatic sur- "ace the porous medium is saturated 'ith 'ater7 abo#e the "ree sur"ace there
Fi$ure 9%> *ne-dimensional "lo' throu$h an uncon"ined a)ui"er%
is no $round'ater% :e denote the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace abo#e the lo'er boundary by h5 6 and assume that it is a slo'ly #aryin$ "unction o" 7 that is, 'e assume dhUd 1% &n this case 'e can relate the horiBontal pressure $radient in the saturated portion o" the a)ui"er to the #ariation o" h by dp dh % 59%226 P Q$ d d This is !no'n as the &upuit appro#imation% The hydraulic head is the thic!ness o" the 'ater layer% This appro imation brea!s do'n 'hen t'odimensional "lo' de#elops in the saturated part o" the layer% T'odimensional "lo' 'ill occur i" the slope o" the "ree sur"ace, dhUd , becomes o" order unity% The Darcy #elocity in the 'ater-saturated re$ion is "ound by substitutin$ ()uation 59C226 into ()uation 59C16 !Q$ dh uP % D d 59%226
The Darcy #elocity depends on because h is a "unction o" , but it is uni"orm o#er the thic!ness o" the saturated Bone% The total rate o" "luid "lo' G per unit 'idth at position in the a)ui"er is !Q$ dh G P u5 6h5 6 P h % D d 59%2>6
1onser#ation o" mass re)uires that the "lo' throu$h the a)ui"er G be constant% Thus ()uation 59C2>6 can be considered as a di""erential e)uation "or h as a "unction o" % -ssumin$ that h P h8 at P 8, 'e inte$rate this e)uation to $i#e h P h2 8 2GD !Q$
1U2
59%2A6
The phreatic sur"ace in the Dupuit appro imation is a parabola% The "ree sur"ace hei$ht is Bero at the do'nstream distance
8
!Q$h2 8 % 2DG
59%246
Fi$ure 9%A /ncon"ined "lo' throu$h a porous dam% The Dupuit parabola C is the solution i" 5h8 h1 6Uh8 1% The actual phreatic sur"ace 0 lies abo#e the Dupuit parabola resultin$ in a seepa$e "ace 0C%
9o'e#er, the Dupuit appro imation brea!s do'n as 8 because dhUd % -s a speci"ic e ample, consider the "lo' throu$h the porous rectan$ular dam illustrated in Fi$ure 9CA% The dam is constructed "rom material 'ith a permeability !% The 'idth o" the dam is ', the hei$ht o" the 'ater behind the dam is h8 , and the hei$ht o" the 'ater in "ront o" the dam is h1 % The dam and the reser#oirs behind and in "ront o" the dam are assumed to lie on an impermeable stratum% From ()uation 59C2A6 the "lo' o" 'ater G throu$h the dam is !Q$ 2 GP 5h 8 h2 59%236 1 6% 2D' This is !no'n as the &upuit/Fuchheimer discharge formula% Since the Dupuit appro imation has been used in the deri#ation o" ()uation 59C236, it mi$ht be e pected to be #alid only i" 5h8 h1 6 h8 7 ho'e#er, 'e 'ill sho' that this result is #alid "or an arbitrary #alue o" h1 % &" h1 is a small "raction o" h8 , the actual phreatic sur"ace -@ lies abo#e the Dupuit parabola, as illustrated in Fi$ure 9CA% This results in a seepage front @1 on the do'nstream "ace o" the dam% &" h1 is a small "raction o" h8 , the Darcy #elocity components u and uy are o" the same ma$nitude in the porous dam% 9o'e#er, Darcys la' is still #alid "or the indi#idual #elocity components, and the horiBontal component u is $i#en by ! hp u P , Dh 59%286
'here p P p5 , y6% :e inte$rate this e)uation o#er the rectan$ular cross
section o" the dam, 8 \

]
8 '
\ ' and 8 \ y \ h8 , 'ith the result ! u dy d P D

]
8 h8
]
8
h8
]
8
'
hp d dy% h
59%296
The orders o" inte$ration on the t'o sides o" the e)uation can be interchan$ed 'ithout a""ectin$ the result% 9o'e#er, the "lo' o" 'ater at a #alue o" is
]
GP
h8
u dy,
59%286
and G is a constant independent o" % :e also note that

]
' 8
hp d P p1 5y6 p8 5y6, h
59%216
'here p1 5y6 is the pressure distribution at P ' and p8 5y6 is the pressure distribution at P 8% Substitution o" ()uations 59C286 and 59C216 into ()uation 59C296 yields ! GP D'
]
8 h8
p8 dy
h8
p1 dy %
59%226
The pressure distributions are $i#en by p8 P Q$5h8 y6 p1 P Q$5h1 y6 P 8 59%226 8 \ y \ h1 59%2>6
h1 \ y\ h8
so that the inte$rals appearin$ in ()uation 59C226 are

] ]
8 h8 h8
p8 dy P
1 2 Q $h 8 2
59%2A6 59%246
1 2 p1 dy P Q $h1 % 2
The substitution o" ()uations 59C2A6 and 59C246 into 59C226 once a$ain yields ()uation 59C236% Thus the DupuitCFuchheimer dischar$e "ormula is #alid "or all #alues o" the ratio h1 Uh8 % 0roblem 9%3 The base o" an uncon"ined a)ui"er is inclined at an an$le W to the horiBontal% /se ()uation 59C>6 and the Dupuit appro imation to deri#e an e pression "or the "lo' rate G i" the "ree sur"ace is at a constant hei$ht h abo#e the base%
Fi$ure 9%4 /ncon"ined "lo' throu$h a strati"ied porous dam%
0roblem 9%8 1onsider the uncon"ined "lo' throu$h the strati"ied porous dam s!etched in Fi$ure 9C4% -ssume that the hei$ht o" the 'ater in "ront o" the dam h1 e ceeds the thic!ness a o" the layer 'ith permeability !2 and that the phreatic sur"ace lies totally in material 'ith permeability !1 % Sho' that the "lo' rate throu$h the dam is $i#en by GP !1 Q$ 2 5h h2 6 1 R 2D'
8 1
2a !2 5h8 R h1 6
!1 1
% 59%236
Do not use the Dupuit appro imation% The Dupuit appro imation can be used to consider the dra'do'n o" a 'ell penetratin$ an uncon"ined a)ui"er, as s!etched in Fi$ure 9C3% The radial Darcy #elocity ur in the Dupuit appro imation can be obtained "rom a $eneraliBation o" ()uation 59C226 ur P !Q$ dh % D dr 59%286
The "lo' rate throu$h a cylindrical sur"ace o" hei$ht h5r6 and radius r is Gr P 2Xrhur P 2X!Q$ dh , rh D dr 59%296
'here Gr is positi#e i" the "lo' is radially out'ard% 1onser#ation o" mass re)uires Gr to be constant% :e inte$rate ()uation 59C296 'ith the condition that h P h8 at r P r8 and obtain DGr r h2 h2 ln % 8 P X!Q$ r8 59%>86
&" the 'ell has a radius r' and the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace at the 'ell
Fi$ure 9%3 Dra' do'n o" a 'ell penetratin$ an uncon"ined a)ui"er%
is h' , 'e "ind "rom ()uation 59C>86 that the "lo' to the 'ell is X ! Q$5h2 h2 6 8 ' Gr P % D ln5r' Ur8 6 -$ain r8 is the distance to 'here the a)ui"er is bein$ rechar$ed% 0roblem 9%9 Determine the "lo' rate into the 'ell "or the case h8 P 18 m, h' P 1 m, ! P 18 12 m2 , D P 18 2 0a s, r8 P A !m, and r' P 8%1 m% 1alculate the shape o" the phreatic sur"ace% So "ar 'e ha#e limited our discussion to steady "lo's% To deal 'ith "lo's in 'hich the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace and the "lo' rate throu$h the a)ui"er #ary 'ith time t, 'e need to de#elop a continuity or conser#ation o" mass e)uation% :e continue to assume the #alidity o" the Dupuit appro imation and consider one-dimensional "lo' throu$h an element o" the uncon"ined a)ui"er bet'een and R a , as sho'n in Fi$ure 9C8% The "lo' rate into the element per unit distance perpendicular to the plane in Fi$ure 9C8 is u5 , t6h5 , t6% Similarly, the "lo' rate out o" the element is u5 R a , t6h5 R a , t6% The net rate o" "lo' out o" the element is u5 R a , t6h5 R a , t6 u5 , t6h5 , t6 h 5uh6 a % h &" the "lo' out o" the element is not e)ual to the "lo' into the element, the hei$ht o" the "ree sur"ace must chan$e, since the "luid is assumed to be incompressible% &" the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace chan$es "rom h5t, 6 to h5t R at, 6 in time at, the chan$e in the #olume o" "luid in the element is hh Ydh5t R at, 6 h5t, 6e a Y a at% ht
59%>16
Fi$ure 9%8 *ne-dimensional "lo' throu$h an element o" an uncon"ined a)ui"er%
The "actor Y is re)uired because the "luid only "ills the pore space in the matri % 1onser#ation o" "luid re)uires that the net "lo' out o" the element in time at e)uals the decrease in "luid #olume in the element so that hh h R ht h 5uh6 P 8% Substitution o" the Darcy #elocity "rom ()uation 59C226 yields Y hh !Q$ h P ht DY h h hh % h 59%>26
59%>26
This nonlinear di""usion e)uation is o"ten re"erred to as the 0oussines3 e3ua2 tion% &" the #ariation in h is small, 'e can 'rite h P h8 R h , 59%>>6 'here h8 is constant and |h | h8 % Substitution o" ()uation 59C>>6 into 59C>26 and ne$lectin$ the term that is )uadratic in h yields h h ht P ! Q$ h8 h 2 h % DY h
2
59%>A6
This process o" lineariBation is identical 'ith that pre#iously carried out in Section 4C19% ()uation 59C>A6 is identical in "orm 'ith the $o#ernin$ e)uation "or the one-dimensional, unsteady conduction o" heat $i#en in ()uation 5>C486% - #ariety o" solutions o" this di""usion e)uation can be obtained usin$ the methods introduced in 1hapter >% -s an e ample, consider ho' a speci"ied periodic #ariation o" h at P 8, h Ps h 59%>46

cos ^t,
causes the 'ater table to "luctuate at distances [ 8 in a semi-in"inite uncon"ined a)ui"er% The #ariation in h could be due to the in"luence o" annual runo"" "rom a mountain ran$e on the 'ater table in an ad?acent arid re$ion% <otin$ that !Q$h8 UYD in the porous "lo' problem is e)ui#alent to s in the heat conduction problem, the solution $i#en in ()uation 5>C896 can be appropriately modi"ied to yield e p h P h s ^ DY 2!Q$h8 ^DY cos ^t 2!Q$h8
59%>36
The amplitude o" the periodic "luctuation in the phreatic sur"ace decreases to 1Ue o" the applied #alue in a distance
e
2!Q$ h8 ^DY
1U2
59%>86
Ta!in$ Y P 8%1, ! P 18 11 m2 , ^ P 2 18 3 s 1 5a period o" 1 year6, D P 18 2 0a s, and h8 P 188 m, 'e "ind that e P 1 !m% :e see that the in"luence o" a chan$e o" hydraulic head propa$ates o#er a relati#ely short distance% 0roblem 9%18 The hydraulic head at P 8 is increased "rom h8 to h8 R_h at t P 85_h h8 6% Determine the "lo' into the uncon"ined a)ui"er that occupies the re$ion [ 8% 0roblem 9%11 -t t P 8 the phreatic sur"ace in an uncon"ined a)ui"er in the re$ion [ 8 has a hei$ht h8 % For t [ 8 there is a constant dischar$e G8 5per unit len$th6 "rom the a)ui"er at P 8% -ssumin$ that |_h| h8 sho' that the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" t and is $i#en by ! Q$h8 Y h P h8 2G8 Dt 'here vP DY 2 !Q$h8 t
1U2 1U2
1 2 v er" v e v , X 59%>96
0roblem 9%12 -t t P 8 the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace in an uncon"ined a)ui"er is h P h1 "or . . and h P h8 "or | | [ .5h1 h8 h8 6% Sho' that the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" and t "or
Fi$ure 9%9 Draina$e o" 'ater out o" a ban! due to the sudden chan$e in the 'ater le#el in the channel%
t [ 8 is h h8 P 5h1 h8 6 5. 6 DY er" !Q$h8 t 2 2 5. R 6 DY 1U2 R er" % 2 !Q$h8 t

1U2
59%A86
0roblem 9%12 For t 8 there is a steady "lo' G8 in an uncon"ined a)ui"er in the re$ion [ 8% From ()uation 59C2A6 the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace is 2DG8 , 59%A16 h2 P h2 8 !Q$ 'here h8 is the hei$ht o" the sur"ace at P 8% -t time t P 8 the hei$ht at P 8 is chan$ed "rom h8 to h1 , |h8 h1 | h8 % Sho' that the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace at subse)uent times is h P h2 R 5h2 h2 6 er" v 59%A261 8 1 2DG8 !Q$ ,
'here v P 51U26 5DYU!Q$hft61U2 and hf is a suitably de"ined a#era$e hei$ht% 0roceed by reco$niBin$ that h2 also satis"ies a lineariBed di""usion e)uation 'hen there are small chan$es in the s)uare o" the 'ater table hei$ht% &t is ad#anta$eous to sol#e "or h2 rather than h because the initial condition, ()uation 59CA16, is $i#en in terms o" h2 % Sho' that the "lo' into the channel
Fi$ure 9%18 <umerical similarity solution o" the nonlinear @oussines) e)uation "or 'ater seepa$e into a channel "rom an ad?acent ban! a"ter a sudden decrease in 'ater le#el in the channel% The dimensionless 'ater sur"ace hei$ht is sho'n as a "unction o" the similarity #ariable "or f586 P 8 and 8%A 5solid lines6% The numerical solution is compared 'ith the appro imate lineariBed solution d()uation 59CA96e 5dashed cur#e6 "or f586 P 8%A%
at
P 8, is 1 h2 6 ! Q$Y G P G8 5h2 1 2 8 XDhf t

1U2
59%A26
- number o" solutions o" the nonlinear @oussines) e)uation 59C>26 can also be "ound% First consider the problem illustrated in Fi$ure 9C9% -t time t P 8, Fi$ure 9C9a, the 'ater table in a channel and the ad?acent porous ban! is at a hei$ht h8 abo#e a horiBontal, impermeable bed% -t time t P 8R, Fi$ure 9C9b, there is a sudden drop in the 'ater le#el in the channel to a hei$ht h1 , and it remains at this #alue "or t [ 8% :ater drains "rom the a)ui"er into the channel, and the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace drops, Fi$ure 9C9c% The re)uired initial and boundary conditions "or this problem are h58, t6 P h1 h5, t6 P h8 h5 , 86 P h8 % 59%A>6 :e noted be"ore that the lineariBed "orm o" the @oussines) e)uation is identical 'ith the e)uation $o#ernin$ the one-dimensional, unsteady conduction o" heat% The boundary conditions "or this problem are identical 'ith those used "or the instantaneous heatin$ or coolin$ o" a semiin"inite hal"-space considered in Section >C1A% There"ore it is not surprisin$ that the
198 1981
similarity #ariable used "or that problem C see ()uation 5>C946 C can also be used "or this problem 5notin$ the correspondence bet'een s and !Q$h8 UDY6 vP DY !Q$h8 t
1U2
59%AA6
&n addition it is con#enient to introduce the dimensionless 'ater sur"ace hei$ht "P h % h8 59%A46
&n terms o" " and v the @oussines) e)uation 59C>26 becomes 2vd" P d " d" % dv dv dv h1 h8 59%A36
From ()uations 59CA>6 and 59CAA6 the necessary boundary conditions are " 586 P " 56 P 1% 59%A86
:hile it is not possible to obtain an analytic solution o" ()uation 59C A36, a solution can be obtained by numerical inte$ration% The results o" such an inte$ration are $i#en in Fi$ure 9C18 "or " 586 P 8 and 8%A% &" ()uation 59CA36 is lineariBed as discussed be"ore, the solution is " P " 586 er"c v% 59%A96
This result is #alid in the limit " 586 1 5see 0roblem 9C186% The appro imate result "rom ()uation 59CA96 is compared 'ith the numerical inte$ration o" ()uation 59CA36 in Fi$ure 9C18 "or " 586 P 8%A% ;easonably $ood a$reement is obtained, e#en thou$h the lineariBation condition is not satis"ied% The "act that 'e ha#e obtained a similarity solution sho's that the shape o" the phreatic sur"ace #aries 'ith position and time in a sel"-similar manner7 that is, h depends only on Ut1U2 % &t must be noted, ho'e#er, that this is only true "or su""iciently lar$e times% For small times dhUd is o" order unity, and the Dupuit appro imation used in deri#in$ ()uation 59C >26 is #iolated% 0roblem 9%1> For the problem in Fi$ure 9C9 sho' that the rate at 'hich 'ater seeps into the channel G per unit distance alon$ the channel is GP
Yh1 2t1U2
! Q$h81U2 DY
" 586, 59%486
'here "
586 is d" Udv at v P 8%
- similarity solution o" the @oussines) e)uation can also be obtained "or the lateral spreadin$ o" a linear mound o" $round'ater% The mound o" $round'ater 'ill di""use out'ard in much the same 'ay that a pulse o" heat di""uses% The latter problem 'as studied in Section >C21% Just as the total amount o" heat 'as conser#ed in ()uation 5>C1A96, the total amount o" "luid must be conser#ed in this problem% &" the initial #olume o" 'ater per unit distance parallel to the linear mound is +1 , conser#ation o" "luid re)uires that ] 8 +1 , 59%416 hd P 2Y 8 'here h P h5 , t6 is the hei$ht o" the mound abo#e an impermeable plane and 8 5t6 is the hal"-'idth o" the mound at its base% :e sho' that the spreadin$ "luid mound has a 'ell-de"ined "ront, 'hich 'e denote by 8 7 that is, h 8 "or | | [ 8 % The "luid mound spreads symmetrically so that hal" the "luid is in the re$ion 8 \ \ 8 % Just as 'e introduced similarity #ariables to sol#e the thermal di""usion problem, 'e can also introduce similarity #ariables "or this problem% The similarity #ariables rele#ant to the spreadin$ o" the $round'ater mound are " P vP 12! Q$Yt D+12
2 2DY 2!Q$+1 t 1U2
h %
59%426 59%426
1U2
The @oussines) e)uation 59C>26 must be re'ritten in terms o" these #ariables% The re)uired partial deri#ati#es are hh ht h h h P 1 D+12
1U2
2t 12!Q$Yt hh D+ 2 1 P h 12!Q$Yt d" d " % dv dv
d" R " v dv
2U2
59%4>6
2U2
2 DY2 2 !Q$+1 t
59%4A6
Substitution o" these e pressions into ()uation 59C>26 $i#es " d2 " dv 2 R d" dv
2
Rv
d" dv
R " P 8%
59%446
Substitution o" the nondimensional #ariables into the conser#ation o" "luid condition, ()uation 59C416, yields
]
8
v8
" dv P 1,
59%436
'here v8 is $i#en by ()uation 59C426 'ith P 8 % -n analytic solution that is symmetric about v P 8 and that satis"ies ()uations 59C446 and 59C436 is " P 22U2 2 1 v 2 22U2 |v | v8 P 21U2 % 59%486
The shape o" the phreatic sur"ace at any $i#en time is parabolic% ()uation 59C486 sho's that " P 8 "or |v | P v8 P 21U2 % Thus v P v8 de"ines the "luid "ront or ma imum hal"-'idth o" the spreadin$ mound% There is no "luid in the re$ion |v | [ v8 % The actual position o" the "luid "ront as a "unction o" time "ollo's "rom ()uation 59C426 9! Q$ +1 t P 1U2 2DY2 /pon combinin$ ()uations 59C426, 59C426, and 59C486, 'e obtain the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" position and timeF
2 2D+ 1 22!Q$Yt 1U2
59%496
hP
2 2DY 9!Q$+ 1t
2U2
6
2
% 59%386
-t t P 8 the "luid mound has Bero thic!ness and in"inite hei$ht% 9o'e#er, the total #olume o" 'ater is "inite and e)ual to +1 per unit distance alon$ the mound% 0roblem 9%1A Sho' that the ma imum hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" is hma P and that this occurs at time tma P 2DY2 2 % 2!Q$+1 59%326 1 +1 2 2Y 59%316
0roblem 9%14 .et h8 be the hei$ht o" the laterally spreadin$ $round'ater mound at P 8 and t P t8 % .et the hal"-'idth o" the mound at its base be
l8 at t P t8 % Sho' that the hei$ht o" the mound at is $i#en by h8 1 R 4!Q$ h8 t DYl2 8
1U2
P 8 and t P t8 R t
&n addition, demonstrate that the hal"-'idth o" the mound at its base at time t P t8 R t is 4!Q$ h8 t 1U2 % l8 1 R DYl2 8 :e ne t determine the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace h as a "unction o" and t 'hen 'ater is introduced at P 8 at a constant #olumetric rate G1 per unit 'idth% For t \ 8, h is Bero7 "or t [ 8, there is a constant input o" 'ater at P 8% 9al" o" the "luid "lo's to the ri$ht into the re$ion [ 8, and hal" "lo's to the le"t% From ()uation 59C2>6 'e can 'rite the "lo' rate to the ri$ht at P 8R as ! Q$ hh h D h
P8R
1 P G1 % 2
59%326
The 'ater table hei$ht h5 , t6 is the solution o" the @oussines) e)uation 59C>26 that satis"ies condition 59C326% *nce a$ain 'e introduce similarity #ariables% The appropriate similarity #ariables "or this problem are " P vP ! Q$Y 2 Dt G1
1U2
h
1U2
59%3>6 % 59%3A6
2 YD !Q$G1 t2
-side "rom numerical "actors these #ariables are the same as the ones in ()uations 59C426 and 59C426 i" 'e replace +1 Ut in those e)uations by G1 % The introduction o" these similarity #ariables into the @oussines) e)uation yields " d2 " dv 2 R d" dv
2
2 d" 1 R v " P 8% 2 dv 2
59%346
The boundary condition at
P 8R $i#en in ()uation 59C326 becomes " d" dv 1 P % 2 59%336
vP8R
The solution o" this problem, unli!e that o" the pre#ious one, re)uires a
Fi$ure 9%11 The nondimensional hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace f as a "unction o" the similarity #ariable v "or "luid in?ection at a constant rate "rom the plane # P 8%
numerical inte$ration% -s 'as the case "or the spreadin$ mound o" $round'ater, there is a "luid "ront, and " P 8 "or v [ v8 % -t the "lo' "ront ()uation 59C346 yields 2 d" P v8 % 59%386 dv vPv8 2 The numerical solution o" ()uation 59C346 sub?ect to conditions 59C336 and 59C386 is $i#en in Fi$ure 9C11% The #alue o" v8 is 1%18, and the actual position o" the "luid "ront "rom ()uation 59C3A6 is !Q$ G1 t2
8
P 1%18
1U2
Y2 D P 8 is G21Dt !Q$Y
1U2
59%396
The hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace at h

P8
P 8%82
59%886
0roblem 9%13 &" "luid is in?ected alon$ a plane at P 8 at a rate o" 8%1 m2 s 1 , ho' hi$h is the phreatic sur"ace at the point o" in?ection ho' 2 11 and 2 "ar has the "luid mi$rated i" D P 18 0a s, Y P 8%1, ! P 18 m , Q P 1888 !$ m 2 , and t P 18A sO To sol#e problems in#ol#in$ unsteady horiBontal radial "lo' to'ard or a'ay "rom a #ertical line, 'e need to $eneraliBe the @oussines) e)uation to cylindrical or polar coordinates% :e do this by "irst deri#in$ a "luid conser#ation e)uation "or radial "lo'% The chan$e in #olume o" "luid bet'een r and r R ar due to a chan$e in the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace occurrin$ in the time inter#al t to t R at is hh 2XrY{h5t R at6 h5t6} ar P 2XrY at ar% ht
The net "lo' out o" the cylindrical element in time at is {Gr 5r R ar6 Gr 5r6} at P h Gr ar at, hr
'here Gr is the rate at 'hich "luid "lo's across a cylindrical sur"ace o" hei$ht h and radius r% 1onser#ation o" "luid re)uires that any net out"lo' "rom the cylindrical element be balanced by a drop in hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace in the element% This enables us to 'rite h Gr hh R 2XrY P 8% hr ht @y substitutin$ "or Gr in terms o" h "rom ()uation 59C296, 'e obtain hh !Q$ h hh P rh % ht DYr hr hr 59%826 59%816
:e "irst deri#e a similarity solution o" this e)uation "or the radial spreadin$ o" a mound o" 'ater% - #olume o" 'ater +8 is introduced at time t P 8 alon$ the #ertical line at r P 8% The "luid spreads radially out'ard7 at any time t [ 8, the re$ion r [ 8 must contain the ori$inal amount o" "luid% Thus 'e can 'rite the "luid conser#ation condition
]
2XY
r8 8
rh dr P +8 %
59%826
The inte$ration e tends only to r P r8 because, as be"ore, the 'ater mound has a "luid "ront at r P r8 7 that is, h P 8 "or r [ r8 % The appropriate similarity #ariables "or this problem are " P qP >! Q$t D+8
1U2
h
1U>
59%8>6 r% 59%8A6
DY 2 >!Q$+8 t
The introduction o" these #ariables into ()uation 59C826 yields " d2 " d" R 2 dq dq
]
8 2
" d"
d" R q R 2" P 8% q dq dq 1 , 2X
59%846
The nondimensional "luid conser#ation e)uation becomes

q8
q" dq P
59%836
'here q8 is the #alue o" q correspondin$ to r P r8 % :e can "ind an analytic solution "or the a isymmetric spreadin$ o" a $round'ater mound, ?ust as
'e did "or the spreadin$ o" the linear $round'ater mound% The solution o" ()uation 59C846 that satis"ies ()uation 59C836 is 2 1 q X 2 1U2 " P 1 % |q | q8 P X 2 X 59%886 The actual position o" the "luid "ront as a "unction o" time "ollo's "rom the #alue o" q8 and ()uation 59C8A6 14!Q$+8 t r8 P 1U> XDY2 @y combinin$ ()uations 59C8>6, 59C8A6, and 59C886, 'e obtain the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" position and timeF hP D+8 >X!Q$t
1U2
59%896
X DY 2 14!Q$+ 8t
1U2
r2 % 59%986
0roblem 9%18 Sho' that the ma imum hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" r is +8 h ma P 59%916 2XYr 2 and that this occurs at time tma P XDY2 r> % >!Q$+8 59%926
0roblem 9%19 .et h8 be the hei$ht o" the spreadin$ a isymmetric $round'ater mound at r P 8 and t P t8 % .et the ma imum radius o" the mound at its base be b8 at t P t8 % Sho' that the hei$ht o" the mound at r P 8 and t P t8 R t is $i#en by h8 1 R 8!Q$ h8 t 2 DYb8
1U2
&n addition, demonstrate that the ma imum radius o" the mound at its base at time t P t8 R t is 1U> 8!Q$ h8 t % b8 1 R 2 DYb8 -n e act solution o" the nonlinear di""usion e)uation "or the hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace as a "unction o" position and time is also possible 'hen 'ater is introduced at r P 8 at a constant #olumetric rate G8 % For t \ 8, h
is Bero "or all r7 "or t [ 8, there is a constant input o" 'ater at r P 8% The boundary condition on the "lo' rate "rom ()uation 59C296 is 2X!Q$rh hh G 8 D hr ! Q$ DG8
1U2
<(? Geometrical Form of Colcanoes
28A 28A2
as r 8%
59%926
The appropriate similarity #ariables "or this problem are " P qP h

1U>
59%9>6 r% 59%9A6
DY 2 !Q$G8 t2
-side "rom numerical "actors, these #ariables can be obtained "rom the ones in ()uations 59C8>6 and 59C8A6 by replacin$ +8 Ut in those e)uations 'ith G8 % The introduction o" these #ariables into ()uation 59C826 yields " d2 " dq2 R d" dq
2
" d" q dq
q d" 2 dq
P 8,
59%946
'hile the boundary condition at r P 8 "rom ()uation 59C926 becomes q" d" 1 dq 2X as q 8% 59%936
- numerical solution is re)uired "or this problem% There is a "luid "ront at q P q8 and " P 8 "or q [ q8 % From ()uation 59C946 'e can re'rite the condition " P 8 at the "luid "ront as d" dq
qPq8
1 P q8 % 2
59%986
The numerical solution o" ()uation 59C946 sub?ect to the conditions $i#en in ()uations 59C936 and 59C986 is $i#en in Fi$ure 9C12% The #alue o" q8 is 1%14, and the position o" the "luid "ront "rom ()uation 59C9A6 is there"ore !Q$ G8 t2 r8 P 1%14
1U>
DY2
59%996
The hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace is lo$arithmically sin$ular as r 8% This is the same sin$ularity as 'e "ound "or the steady "lo' problem in ()uation 59C>86% 9%4 Geometrical Form o" +olcanoes The shapes o" many #olcanoes are remar!ably a isymmetric and similar% lar$e "raction o" the composite #olcanoes that ma!e up the #olcanic lines
Fi$ure 9%12 The nondimensional hei$ht o" the phreatic sur"ace f as a "unction o" the similarity #ariable q "or a line source releasin$ "luid at a constant rate at r P 8%
Fi$ure 9%12 ,ount Fu?i in Japan%
ad?acent to ocean trenches ha#e near-constant "lan! slopes and are conca#e up'ard near their summits% -n e ample, ,ount Fu?i, in Japan, is sho'n in Fi$ure 9C12% There are, ho'e#er, a number o" phenomena that can produce nonsymmetrical edi"ices% ( amples include parasitic centers o" #olcanism on the "lan!s o" a #olcano, $lacial and other types o" erosion, and e plosi#e eruptions% *ne model "or the $eometrical "orm o" #olcanoes assumes that the #olcanic edi"ice is a uni"orm porous medium and that the sur"ace o" the #olcano is a sur"ace o" constant hydraulic head% The #olcano is the constructional sum o"
Fi$ure 9%1> The mechanism by 'hich a sur"ace "lo' e tends a #olcanic edi"ice% 5a6 ,a$ma penetrates the permeable edi"ice searchin$ "or the path o" least resistance to the sur"ace% 5$6 The ma$ma reaches the sur"ace at the point o" least resistance% 5c6 The sur"ace "lo' e tends the edi"ice%
many small la#a "lo's% (ach "lo' passes throu$h the interior porosity o" the edi"ice, "lo's onto the sur"ace, and e tends the porous matri o" the edi"ice as it solidi"ies% The 'ay in 'hich these "lo's e tend the edi"ice is illustrated )ualitati#ely in Fi$ure 9C1>% -t the be$innin$ o" an eruption, ma$ma reaches the center o" the base o" the edi"ice throu$h a #olcanic pipe% Studies o" $round'ater mi$ration indicate that #olcanoes are permeated by "ractures7 presumably these are thermal contraction crac!s "ormed durin$ the solidi"ication o" indi#idual "lo's% &n some #olcanoes the permeability is dominated by radial ri"t Bones "rom 'hich most eruptions emanate% :e assume that the ma$ma is dri#en throu$h the pree istin$ matri o" channels in search o" the least resistant path to the sur"ace o" the #olcano% This is illustrated in Fi$ure 9C1>a% &n Fi$ure 9C1>b the ma$ma reaches the sur"ace "ollo'in$ the path o" minimum hydraulic resistance% The ma$ma continues to "lo' to the sur"ace "ollo'in$ this path creatin$ a sur"ace "lo' that e tends the #olcanic edi"ice 5Fi$ure 9C1>c6% /pon solidi"ication, there 'ill be an increase in the resistance to "lo' alon$ this path, and the ne t eruption 'ill "ollo' a di""erent path and occur at another point on the sur"ace% &" a #olcano $ro's too tall, "lan! eruptions 'ill 'iden it7 i" a #olcano $ro's too 'ide, summit eruptions 'ill increase its ele#ation% The e)ual resistance to "lo' re)uires that the #olcano $ro' a isymmetrically% The "lo' o" ma$ma throu$h the #olcanic edi"ice is essentially the same
288 2882
as the "lo' o" $round'ater throu$h an uncon"ined a)ui"er% :e assume that the sur"ace o" the #olcano is a sur"ace o" constant hydraulic head, ?ust as the phreatic sur"ace in an uncon"ined a)ui"er is% :e "urther assume that the slope o" the #olcano is small so that the Dupuit appro imation can be made% :hen the ma$ma reaches the sur"ace, it e tends the matri instead o" "illin$ the pore space% Thus it is necessary to set Y P 1 in the mass conser#ation e)uation 59C816 and in the nonlinear di""usion e)uation 59C826% The similarity solution "or the shape o" the phreatic sur"ace 'hen "luid is introduced at r P 8 at a constant rate G8 is directly applicable to this problem% The similarity pro"ile "or the phreatic sur"ace $i#en in Fi$ure 9C12 is there"ore also the predicted $eometrical "orm "or #olcanoes% The similarity pro"ile yields an actual #olcano shape h P h5r6 throu$h the scalin$ "actors in ()uations 59C9>6 and 59C9A6% These scalin$ "actors can be ad?usted to $i#e the best "its possible to actual #olcanoes% The predicted "orm is compared 'ith a cross section o" ,ount Fu?i in Fi$ure 9C1A% &n $eneral the a$reement is satis"actory% <ear the base o" the #olcano the obser#ed pro"ile is more rounded7 this can be attributed to deposits o" allu#ium% The theoretical pro"ile is not e pected to be appropriate near the summit 'here it is sin$ular and 'here the Dupuit appro imation is not #alid% The radius o" the #olcano is e)ui#alent to the radial position o" the "luid "ront $i#en by ()uation 59C996 'ith Y P 1% From ()uations 59C9>6, 59C9A6, 59C986, and 59C996 'ith Y P 1, the "lan! slope o" the #olcano at its base is hh hr P 8%A8
rPr8
D !Q$
2U>
G8 % t1U2
1U>
59%1886
The ne$ati#e product o" ()uations 59C996 and 59C1886 de"ines a re"erence hei$ht "or the #olcano e)ual to hr P 8%432 DG8 !Q$
1U2
59%1816
@ecause the re"erence hei$ht is independent o" time, the theory predicts that #olcanoes $ro' primarily by increasin$ their radii% - series o" predicted #olcanic pro"iles are compared 'ith the cross sections o" si #olcanoes "rom the #olcanic line in the 'estern /nited States in Fi$ure 9C14% Good a$reement is obtained% &t appears that #olcanoes do, in "act, $ro' mainly by increasin$ their radii% Just as 'e ha#e applied the similarity solution "or a line source o" "luid in an uncon"ined a)ui"er to the determination o" #olcano shapes, 'e can also apply the similarity solution "or a planar source o" "luid to the determination o" the $eometrical "orm o" #olcanic rid$es% The similarity "orm o" the cross
<(? Geometrical Form of Colcanoes 321
Fi$ure 9%1A Comparison of the similarity solution for the constant hydraulic head volcanic surface )circles* !ith a cross section of Mount Fu'i, Japan )solid line*(
218 2182
Fi$ure 9%14 Topo$raphic pro"iles across se#en #olcanoes "rom the #olcanic line in the 'estern /nited States7 RC;ainier, "CShasta, C-dams, 0C @a!er, 9C9ood, LC.assen, "tCSt% 9elens% Four theoretical pro"iles are also included%
section o" a #olcanic rid$e is there"ore $i#en in Fi$ure 9C13% The trans"ormation e)uations 59C3>6 and 59C3A6 can be used to con#ert this similarity pro"ile into actual pro"iles o" h P h5 6% The scale "actors in these e)uations can be ad?usted to $i#e the best possible "its to obser#ed rid$e cross sections% - number o" linear #olcanic rid$es rise abo#e the sea"loor% Typical bathymetric pro"iles across the 9a'aiian, :al#is, and <inety (ast ;id$es are compared 'ith predicted pro"iles "rom the similarity solution in Fi$ure 9C13% ;easonably $ood a$reement is obtained%
9%3 ()uations o" 1onser#ation o" ,ass, ,omentum, and (ner$y "or Flo' in 0orous ,edia So "ar 'e ha#e considered one-dimensional or a isymmetric "lo's that only re)uire Darcys la' and a simple mass balance e)uation "or their solution% &n this and subse)uent sections 'e are concerned 'ith both one- and t'o-dimensional "lo's in 'hich there is also a transport o" heat% Thus, in addition to Darcys la', 'e re)uire di""erential e)uations "or conser#ation o" mass and ener$y in t'o dimensions% :e pre#iously deri#ed the rele#ant e)uations "or a #iscous incompressible "luid in 1hapter 47 these e)uations can be applied to "lo's in porous media 'ith minor modi"ications% 1onser#ation o" mass "or the "lo' o" a #iscous incompressible "luid in t'o
<(= E3uations of Conservation of Mass, Momentum, and Energy for Flo! in Porous Me3d2ia2
Fi$ure 9%13 0athymetric profiles across the )a* 9a!aiian, )$* .alvis, and )c* 8inety East ridges( %heoretical profiles predicted $y the similarity solution are also sho!n(
212 2122
dimensions re)uires that ()uation 54CA26 be satis"ied% This e)uation can also apply to "lo's in porous media i" the solid matri cannot de"orm and i" the "luid is incompressible hu h# R P 8% 59%1826 h hy The #elocity components in this e)uation are the Darcy #elocities% -lthou$h the Darcy #elocity components are not the actual "luid #elocities in the microscopic channels o" the porous medium, they are e)ui#alent to the #elocity components o" an ordinary #iscous "luid inso"ar as their transport o" such )uantities as mass and heat are concerned% This is apparent "rom the de"inition o" the Darcy #elocity as the #olumetric "lo' rate per unit area o" the entire medium% The Darcy #elocity is an a#era$e #elocity o#er an area element in a porous medium% The a#era$e is de"ined in such a 'ay that it accounts "or the transport o" heat across the area element as 'ell as the transport o" mass% The ener$y e)uation "or a t'o-dimensional "lo' o" an incompressible "luid in a porous medium can be 'ritten Qm cpm hT ht R Q" c p " u
2 2
hT h
R#
hT hy 59%1826
P lm
h T h T R , 2 h hy 2
'hich is a $eneraliBation o" ()uation 54C2926% The "luid and the solid matri are assumed to ha#e the same temperature T % The di""usion o" heat by conduction occurs throu$h the entire medium, and the appropriate #alue o" the thermal conducti#ity appearin$ on the ri$ht side o" ()uation 59C 1826 must be a #olumetric a#era$e o#er the "luid-"illed pores and the solid matri % :e ha#e used the symbol lm "or this a#era$e thermal conducti#ity o" the medium to a#oid con"usion 'ith the symbol "or permeability% @ecause a substantial "raction o" the medium is made up o" the solid matri , 'hich is usually a better conductor o" heat than the "luid, it is $enerally a $ood appro imation to assume that lm is the thermal conducti#ity o" the solid matri % Thermal ener$y is stored in both the "luid-"illed pores and the solid matri % There"ore the thermal inertia term on the le"t side o" ()uation 59C 1826 is also a #olumetric a#era$e% The ad#ection terms on the le"t side o" the e)uation use the "luid density Q" and the "luid speci"ic heat cp" because only the "luid transports heat% To complete the "ormulation o" the problem, 'e re)uire Darcys e)uations "or the horiBontal and #ertical components o" the Darcy #elocity% These 'ere $i#en in ()uations 59C16 and 59C26%
9%8 *ne-Dimensional -d#ection o" 9eat in a 0orous ,edium 1onsiderable obser#ational e#idence indicates that ma$ma bodies induce lar$e-scale motions o" $round'ater in the surroundin$ roc!s% - substantial "raction o" the hot sprin$s 'ith e it temperatures $reater than about A8 1 is belie#ed to be the direct result o" this type o" hydrothermal circulation% The intrusion heats the $round'ater, 'hich becomes less dense and rises% <ear the (arths sur"ace the 'ater cools and becomes more dense% &t can then sin! and rechar$e the a)ui"ers and porous roc! in the #icinity o" the intrusion% The 'ater is reheated, and the cycle repeats% -n analysis o" the complete hydrothermal con#ection system re)uires the solution o" a coupled set o" nonlinear di""erential e)uations in at least t'o dimensions% This problem is considered in subse)uent sections% 9ere, ho'e#er, 'e study only the up'ellin$ "lo' abo#e the intrusion% - one-dimensional solution is obtained "or the dependence o" temperature on depth, and this is compared 'ith measurements o" the subsur"ace temperature in the Steamboat Sprin$s, <e#ada, hydrothermal system% :e simpli"y ()uations 59C1826 and 59C1826 "or steady onedimensional up"lo' and obtain d# P8 dy Q" c p " # dT d2 T P lm 2 % dy dy 59%18>6 59%18A6
From the "irst o" these e)uations # is a constant, and ()uation 59C18A6 can be immediately inte$rated to $i#e Q" cp" #T P lm dT R c1 % dy 59%1846
The constant o" inte$ration c1 can be determined "rom the conditions at $reat depth 'here up'ellin$ "luid has the uni"orm reser#oir temperature Tr % There"ore as y , 'e must ha#e dT Udy 8 and T Tr % This $i#es c1 P Q" cp" #Tr and d Q" cp" #5T Tr 6 P lm 5T Tr 6% dy The rearran$ement o" ()uation 59C1886 in the "orm d5T Tr 6 59%1896 5T Tr 6 P Q " cp " # lm dy 59%1886 59%1836
and the inte$ration o" ()uation 59C1896 $i#es the result T Tr Q " cp " y ln P c2 #l or
m
59%1186
T Tr P c 2 e p
Q" c p " y % # lm
59%1116
-s y , the ri$ht side o" this e)uation approaches Bero because # is ne$ati#e "or up"lo' and T Tr % To e#aluate the inte$ration constant c2 , 'e set T P T8 at the sur"ace y P 8 and "ind c2 P T8 Tr % 59%1126 The temperature as a "unction o" depth is there"ore $i#en by Q" c p " T P Tr 5Tr T8 6 y % 59%1126 # lm e p :e no' apply this result to measurements o" temperature #ersus depth in the Steamboat Sprin$s, <e#ada, hydrothermal system% Steamboat Sprin$s in southern :ashoe 1ounty, <e#ada, is an area o" hot sprin$s and some $eyserin$% ( tensi#e recent #olcanics in the immediate #icinity su$$est that this thermal system is associated 'ith a solidi"yin$ ma$ma body, althou$h there is no direct e#idence o" the presence o" the ma$ma body% 0robably the best in"ormation on the horiBontal e tent o" the hydrothermal system comes "rom measurements o" the $round'ater temperature at the 'ater table% - contour map o" this temperature "or the Steam- boat Sprin$s area is $i#en in Fi$ure 9C18% 'ell-de"ined thermal anomaly e ists 'ith a horiBontal e tent o" A to 18 !m% The dar! areas are re$ions 'here boilin$ hot sprin$s occur% The bottom temperatures lo$$ed durin$ the drillin$ o" a 'ell ad?acent to the hot sprin$s are sho'n in Fi$ure 9C19% This 'ell 'as located about 48 m "rom the nearest boilin$ sprin$% -lso sho'n in Fi$ure 9C19 is the temperature pro"ile $i#en by ()uation 59C1126% &n ma!in$ this comparison, 1 'e ha#e Tr P14A 1, lm P 2%2A : m 18 E 1, Q 1 P 1888 2 ta!en T8 P 18 1, 2 1 !$ m , cp" P >%18A 18 J !$ E , and # P 4%3 18 m s " % This #alue o" the Darcy #elocity $i#es a predicted near-sur"ace thermal structure that is in $ood a$reement 'ith obser#ations% &t is o" interest to see ho' this #elocity compares 'ith the obser#ed dischar$e o" the thermal system% The appro imately 38 hot sprin$s associated 'ith the Steamboat Sprin$s thermal system dischar$e 'ater at a rate o" about 2%22 18 2 m2 s 1 % 9o'e#er, $eochemical studies indicate that a lar$e "raction o" the dischar$e o" the system reaches Steamboat 1ree! directly 'ithout bein$ "ed throu$h
Fi$ure 9%18 Ground'ater temperature 5 16 in the Steamboat Sprin$s, <e#ada, hydrothermal system% The solid areas are the re$ions o" boilin$ hot sprin$s and $eysers%
Fi$ure 9%19 Temperature as a "unction o" depth in the Steamboat Sprin$s hydrothermal system% The data are "rom the GS-2 'ell 5:hite, 19486 and the solid line is "rom ()uation 59C1126%
the hot sprin$s% @ased on these $eochemical studies the total dischar$e o" the 1 system is estimated to be 3%12 18 28 m2 s %1 -ssumin$ that our deri#ed Darcy #elocity o" ma$nitude 4%3 18 m s is correct, the total area
re)uired to dischar$e 3%12 18 2 m2 s 1 is 1%1 !m2 % This indicates that ascendin$ "lo' is con"ined to relati#ely restricted thermal plumes near the re$ions o" boilin$ hot sprin$s% &" the "lo' is dri#en by the buoyancy o" the hot 'ater, 'e can use this Darcy #elocity to estimate the permeability o" the system% ;ecall that the buoyancy "orce results "rom the small decrease in density that occurs upon heatin$ Q" P Q"8 T" Q"8 5Tr T8 6, 59%11>6 'here Q"8 is the density o" the 'ater at temperature T8 and T" is the #olume coe""icient o" thermal e pansion o" 'ater% /pon substitutin$ ()uation 59C 11>6 into Darcys la', ()uation 59C26, 'e obtain ! dp ! #P Q"8 $ T" Q"8 $5Tr T8 D dy D 6%
59%11A6
&" 'e assume that the pressure $radient in e cess o" the hydrostatic #alue is ne$li$ible in the up'ellin$ "lo', 'e obtain ! # P T" Q"8 $5Tr T8 6% D

59%1146
Ta!in$ # P 4%3 18 8 m s 1 as obtained abo#e, Tr T8 P 1AA E, T" P 18 2 E 1 , and D P 1%22 18 > 0a s, 'e "ind that the re)uired permeability is 1A ! P A%3A 18 m2 , a lo' #alue% This calculation sho's that the buoyancy o" the hot 'ater can easily dri#e the "lo'% &t should be emphasiBed that these calculations are only appro imately #alid% Se#eral important "ault Bones are associated 'ith the Steamboat Sprin$s system, so the #alidity o" the porous "lo' model is )uestionable% -lso, only the ascendin$ "lo' has been considered% This is only part o" the hydrothermal system% &n the ne t section 'e 'ill consider the complete hydrothermal circulation pattern "or con#ection in a "luid-saturated porous layer heated "rom belo'% 0roblem 9%28 1alculate the sur"ace heat "lu "or the steady onedimensional up'ellin$ o" "luid throu$h a porous medium% -ssume that temperature is uni"orm at $reat depth% 9o' does the sur"ace heat "lo' compare 'ith the heat carried up'ard by the "luid at $reat depthO /se the parameter #alues $i#en pre#iously to estimate the total rate at 'hich heat is bein$ brou$ht to the sur"ace by the Steamboat Sprin$s $eothermal system% 0roblem 9%21 1onsider the up'ellin$ o" a mi ture o" 'ater and steam in a porous medium% @ecause o" the cold temperatures near the sur"ace,
<(< %hermal Convection in a Porous Layer
the mi ture 'ill reach a le#el 'here all the steam must abruptly condense% There 'ill be a phase char$e inter"ace 'ith up'ellin$ 'ater ?ust abo#e the boundary and up'ellin$ steam and 'ater ?ust belo' it% Sho' that the temperature $radient immediately abo#e the inter"ace 5dT Udy62 is lar$er than the temperature $radient ?ust belo' the inter"ace 5dT Udy61 by the amount .Qs #s , 'here . is the latent heat o" the steamC'ater phase chan$e, Qs is the density o" the steam, and #s is the up'ellin$ Darcy #elocity o" the steam%
213 2132
9%9 Thermal 1on#ection in a 0orous .ayer &n Section 4C19 'e considered the onset o" thermal con#ection in a "luid layer heated "rom belo'% 9ere 'e treat the analo$ous problem "or a layer o" "luid-saturated porous material contained bet'een impermeable isothermal boundaries% The upper boundary, y P 8, is maintained at temperature T8 , and the lo'er boundary, y P b, is !ept at temperature T1 5T1 [ T8 6% The temperature $radient across the layer must e ceed a critical #alue be- "ore con#ection 'ill occur% 0rior to the onset o" con#ection the temperature distribution is $i#en by the conduction solution 5()uation 54C29A66 Tc P T8 R T1 T8 y% b
59%1136
-t the onset o" con#ection the temperature di""erence T T Tc is arbitrarily small% The components o" the Darcy #elocity u , # are similarly in"initesimal 'hen motion "irst ta!es place% -s in Section 4C19 'e adopt the @oussines) appro imation and consider the "luid to be incompressible e cept "or the buoyancy term in Darcys la' "or the #ertical Darcy #elocity component% Thus the ener$y e)uation 59C1826 can be 'ritten in terms o" T accordin$ to hT Qm c p m ht R Q" c p " u

hT h
hT R#

5T1 T8 6 b
hy h T
2
h2 T R hy 2 % 59%1186
R Q" c p " #

P lm
Since T , u , and # are small )uantities, the nonlinear terms u hT Uh and # hT Uhy on the le"t side o" ()uation 59C1186 can be ne$lected% The appropriate "orms o" ()uations 59C16, 59C26, 59C1826, and 59C1186 "or the small perturbations o" temperature T , #elocity u , # , and pressure p can be
218 2182 'rit-
ten hu
h#
P8
59%1196
hy
5T1 T8 6 hT h2T h2 T R R Q" c p " # P h 2 hy 2 ht l m b
Qm c p m
59%1286
! hp P Dh 59%1216 u
! hp P R T" Q" $T % hy
59%1226
These e)uations must be sol#ed sub?ect to the boundary conditions # P T P 8 at y P 8, b because the boundaries are isothermal and impermeable% -s 'as sho'n in Section 4C19, the critical condition "or the onset o" con#ection can be obtained by settin$ hUht P 8% Thus ()uation 59C1286 can be 'ritten 5T1 T8 6 h 2T h2T R Q" c p " # % 59%1226 P lm h 2 b hy 2 The pressure perturbation can be eliminated "rom these e)uations by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 59C1216 'ith respect to y and ()uation 59C1226 'ith respect to and subtractin$% The result is h u hy
h#
! T " Q" $ h T P D h % 59%12>6
:e can eliminate u bet'een ()uations 59C1196 and 59C12>6 by the same procedure o" cross di""erentiation and subtraction to $et h 2 # h - sin$le e)uation "or T
2
h2# R
2 ! T" Q" $ h T
hy 2
59%12A6
can be "ound by sol#in$ ()uation 59C1226 "or
# and substitutin$ into ()uation 59C12A6 'ith the result h>T h >T
h> T
>
R2
P hT
R h 2 hy 2 hy > ! T"2Q $ cp 5T1 T8 26 " " Dlm b h

2
59%1246
The boundary conditions must also be 'ritten in terms o" T % @ecause T 2 2 P 8 on y P 8, b, h T Uh is also Bero on these boundaries% :ith # P 8 and h 2T the
Uh
P 8 on y P 8, b, ()uation 59C1186 $i#es h 2 T
Uhy 2 P 8 on
<(< %hermal Convection in a Porous Layer
219 2192
Fi$ure 9%28 The ;aylei$h number "or the onset o" con#ection in a layer o" porous material heated "rom belo' as a "unction o" the 'a#elen$th parameter 2X$Ul%
boundaries% Thus, the complete set o" boundary conditions "or the "ourth"or T is T P h 2 T Uhy 2 P 8 on y P 8, b% order di""erential e)uation The elementary solution "or T that 'ill satis"y both the di""erential e)uation and the boundary conditions is T 'here
P8 T
Xy 2X sin sin , b l
59%1236
is the amplitude o" the temperature perturbation and l is its T8 'a#elen$th% This "orm o" the solution automatically satis"ies all the boundary conditions% &ts amplitude is indeterminate "rom a linear analysis, but its 'a#elen$th can be "ound by substitutin$ ()uation 59C1236 into ()uation 59C1246 'ith the result {
2X b l 2
R X2 } 2
2
2X b l
T" $Q2 c !b5T T P % 1 8 " p" 6 Dlm
59%1286
The dimensionless combination o" parameters on the ri$ht side o" ()uation 59C1286 is the appropriate ;aylei$h number "or thermal con#ection in a layer o" porous material heated "rom belo' T" $ Q2 cp ! b5T1 " "T8 6 % Dlm
;a
59%1296
&n terms o" this ;aylei$h number ()uation 59C1286 becomes {

2X b l 2
R X2 } 2
2
2X b l
P ;a P ;acr %
59%1286
The ;aylei$h numbers $i#en in ()uation 59C1286 are the critical ;aylei$h numbers ;acr "or the onset o" con#ection 'ith 'a#elen$th l7 see ()uation 54C2196% The dependence o" ;acr on 2XbUl is $i#en in Fi$ure 9C28% There is a minimum #alue o" ;acr 'hich is the lo'est #alue o" the ;aylei$h number at 'hich con#ection can occur% The #alue o" 'a#elen$th correspondin$ to min 5;acr 6 is obtained by di""erentiatin$ the le"t side o" ()uation 59C1286 'ith respect to 2XbUl and settin$ the result e)ual to Bero% :hen this is done, 'e obtain l P 2b% 59%1216 The minimum #alue o" ;acr is "ound by substitutin$ this result into ()uation 59C1286 min5;acr 6 P >X 2 P 29%>38>% 59%1226 :e can no' determine under 'hat conditions thermal con#ection o" $round- 'ater 'ill occur in a uni"orm permeable layer% Ta!in$ ;a P >X 2 , Q" P 1888 !$ m 2 , T" P 18 2 E 1 , D P 1%22 18 > 0a s, cp" P >%2 182 J !$ 1 1 1 1 2 E , lm P 2%2 : m E , and $ P 18 m s , 'e can re'rite ()uation 59C1296 as dTc >%2 18 18 , P dy !b2 59%1226
'here all )uantities are in S& units% ()uation 59C1226 $i#es the minimum #alue o" the temperature $radient re)uired "or con#ection to occur in a porous layer o" permeability ! and thic!ness b% Fi$ure 9C21 sho's this relation in the "orm o" a plot o" dTc Udy #ersus ! "or se#eral #alues o" b% This "i$ure sho's that "or a typical $eothermal $radient o" 28 E !m 1 and a layer 1> thic!ness o" 1 !m a permeability $reater than 2%1 18 m2 is re)uired "or thermal con#ection% 9i$h $eothermal $radients and lar$e permeabilities
Fi$ure 9%21 The thermal $radient re)uired "or hydrothermal con#ection in a porous layer as a "unction o" the permeability o" the layer "or se#eral layer thic!nesses%
"a#or the occurrence o" hydrothermal con#ection% 1onditions in $eothermal areas on the continents and in the oceanic crust near ocean rid$es $enerally meet the minimum re)uirements "or hydrothermal con#ection% ( tensi#e "ractures or "ault Bones usually pro#ide the re)uired permeability, and near-sur"ace ma$ma bodies usually pro#ide the hi$h thermal $radients% 0roblem 9%22 Determine the minimum critical ;aylei$h number "or the onset o" con#ection in a layer o" porous material heated "rom belo' 'ith an isothermal and impermeable lo'er boundary and an isothermal constant pressure upper boundary% This boundary condition corresponds to a permeable boundary bet'een a saturated porous layer and an o#erlyin$ "luid% :hat is the horiBontal 'a#elen$th that corresponds to the minimum #alue o" ;acr O Ta!e the layer thic!ness to be b, and let the upper boundary, y P 8, ha#e temperature T P T8 and the lo'er boundary, y P b, ha#e temperature T P T1 % -ssume that at the onset o" con#ection T has the "orm T
PT
8 sin
2XS = 5y6 l
59%12>6
and sho' that = 5y6 is a solution o" d> = 2d2 = 2a R = 5a> a2 ;a6 P 8, dyf> dyf2 59%12A6
'here a 2Xb l y yf % b 59%1246
Sho' that the $eneral solution o" ()uation 59C12A6 can be 'ritten as = P c1 eiyf R c2 e 59%1236
iyf
R c2 sin ayf R c> cos ayf,
'here c1 , c2 , c2 , and c> are constants o" inte$ration and

2 i 2 P a R a ;a
59%1286 59%1296
a P a ;a a % Sho' that the boundary conditions are = P8 on yf P 8 and 1 59%1>86 d2 = P8 on yf P 1 dyf2 59%1>16 d d2 y 2 a dyf dyf2 = P8 on yf P 8% 59%1>26
Substitute ()uation 59C1236 into each o" these boundary conditions to obtain "our homo$eneous e)uations "or the "our un!no'n constants c1 , c2 , c2 , and c> % Sho' that a nontri#ial solution o" these e)uations re)uires i tan a R a tanh i P 8% 59%1>26 This transcendental e)uation is an ei$en#alue e)uation that implicitly $i#es ;acr as a "unction o" a, since both i and a are de"ined in terms o" ;a and a in ()uations 59C1286 and 59C1296% The critical ;aylei$h number can be "ound by numerically sol#in$ ()uations 59C1286, 59C1296, and 59C1>26% The #alue o" min 5;acr 6 turns out to be 23%1% *ne 'ay o" proceedin$ is to choose a #alue o" a 5there e ists an ;acr "or each a6% Then try a #alue o" a% 1ompute i "rom i 2 P 2a2 R a2 % Then compute tan aUa and tanh iUi% &terate on a until these ratios are e)ual% :ith a determined ;acr "ollo's "rom ()uation 59C1296% ;epeat the process "or di""erent #alues o" a until min 5;acr 6 is "ound% 0roblem 9%22 9eat "lo' measurements as a "unction o" distance "rom the Galapa$os spreadin$ center sho' an appro imate periodic spatial #ariation 'ith a 'a#elen$th o" about 3 !m% &" these data are interpreted in terms
o" hydrothermal con#ection in the oceanic crust, 'hat is the appro imate depth o" circulationO &" the ;aylei$h number "or the con#ectin$ system is about 188 and the temperature rise across the layer is se#eral hundred 1,
<(-B %hermal Plumes in Fluid2"aturated Porous Media
222 2222
Fi$ure 9%22 - t'o-dimensional plume o" hot $round'ater risin$ abo#e an intrusion o" small cross-sectional area emittin$ heat at the rate G per unit distance perpendicular to the plane o" the "i$ure%
estimate the permeability o" the crustal roc!s% *ceanic basalts are estimated to ha#e permeabilities o" about 18 14 m2 % 9%18 Thermal 0lumes in Fluid-Saturated 0orous ,edia &" an intrusion is o" limited spatial e tent, the heated buoyant $round'ater in its #icinity rises in the "orm o" a plume% Such a narro' plume resembles smo!e risin$ "rom a chimney on a calm day% Fi$ure 9C22 illustrates the t'o-dimensional plume abo#e an intrusion o" small cross-sectional area e tendin$ in"initely "ar in the B direction% For our analysis 'e appro imate the intrusion as a line source o" heat emittin$ G units o" ener$y per unit time and per unit distance in the B direction% The intrusion is embedded in a porous medium o" permeability ! completely saturated 'ith $round'ater% The #ertical coordinate y is measured up'ard "rom the intrusion or line source o" heat located at the ori$in o" the coordinate system% The e)uations $o#ernin$ the structure o" the plume are ()uations 59C16, 59C26, 59C1826, and 59C1826% @ecause the "lo' is steady, 'e set hUht P 8 in ()uation 59C1826 and obtain hT Q" c p " u h hT R# hy T P lm h2 h
2
h2 T R hy 2 % 59%1>>6
-s be"ore 'e adopt the @oussines) appro imation% The Darcy e)uations can be 'ritten ! hp uP Dh ! hp #P R Q" T" $5T T8 , D hy 6 59%1>A6 59%1>46
'here the hydrostatic pressure has been eliminated usin$ ()uation 54C28>6 and Q" and T8 are the constant density and temperature o" the ambient $round'ater% These e)uations can be simpli"ied usin$ a boundary-layer appro imation i" the plume remains thin as it mo#es up'ard% &" a is the 'idth o" the plume a distance h abo#e the intrusion, the re)uirement that the plume be thin is e)ui#alent to a h% The narro'ness o" the plume depends on the rate at 'hich the line source emits heat% For G su""iciently lar$e, the $round'ater in the plume 'ill be #ery buoyant and 'ill rise at a relati#ely rapid rate% -s a conse)uence, plume material 'ill mo#e up'ard )uite "ar be"ore it has an opportunity to spread laterally% The result 'ill be a narro' plume% :e 'ill be able to state )uantitati#ely ?ust ho' lar$e the heat source must be "or the plume to remain thin because the analysis to "ollo' 'ill yield an e)uation "or plume 'idth as a "unction o" distance abo#e the intrusion% &" the plume is thin, )uantities such as #elocity and temperature 'ill #ary rapidly 'ith distance across the plume compared 'ith ho' they 'ill #ary 'ith distance alon$ the plume% This characteristic allo's the problem to be simpli"ied usin$ boundary-layer appro imations similar to the ones 'e ha#e already used in our studies o" the structure o" the thermal lithosphere or boundary layer in Section >C14% To determine the appro imations appropriate to the present problem, 'e estimate the relati#e siBes o" the terms in the $o#ernin$ e)uations% :e 'ill then ne$lect the terms that are demonstrably small% .et / and + represent the ma$nitudes o" the horiBontal and #ertical Darcy #elocities in the plume at a distance h abo#e the ori$in 'here the plume thic!ness is a% The $radient o" u across the plume huUh is appro imately hu / , 59%1>36 h a 'hile the $radient o" # alon$ the plume h#Uhy is appro imately h# + % hy h 59%1>86
The continuity e)uation 59C1826 re)uires that these t'o terms balance,
'hich is only possible i" / + a h or / + a % h 59%1>96
The ma$nitude o" the horiBontal #elocity in the plume is #ery small compared 'ith the ma$nitude o" the #ertical #elocity i" a h% Darcys la' "or the horiBontal "lo' can no' be used to relate the ma$nitude o" the "lo' pressure 0 to the ma$nitude o" the up'ard "lo'% -ccordin$ to ()uation 59C1>A6 !0 / , 59%1A86 Da or, 'ith the help o" ()uation 59C1>96, D D a2 0 /a +% 59%1A16 ! ! h The pressure $radient term in Darcys e)uation "or the #ertical "lo' 5!UD65hpUhy6 thus has ma$nitude + 5h 2 Uh2 6% The term is much smaller the #ertical "lo' itsel" i" a h7 that is, the up'ard motion than o" the plume is dri#en by the buoyancy "orce% The pressure $radient term can thus be ne$lected in ()uation 59C1>46, 'hich becomes #P ! Q" T" $ 5T T8 6% D 59%1A26
The #ertical #elocity in the plume is directly proportional to the temperature e cess% The terms on the le"t side o" the ener$y e)uation are comparable because u hT / T + T # hT % h a h hy 59%1A26
The terms on the ri$ht side o" the temperature e)uation are une)ual, ho'e#er, because h 2 T Uhy 2 T Uh2 a2 P 1% h 2 T Uh 2 T Ua2 h2 59%1A>6 Thus heat conduction alon$ the plume can be ne$lected compared 'ith heat conduction across the plume, and 'e can 'rite u hT hT l h2 T R# % P m Q" c p " h 2 h hy 59%1AA6
The boundary-layer e)uations "or the plume structure are ()uations 59C 1826, 59C1A26, and 59C1AA6% Darcys la' "or the horiBontal #elocity is not re)uired because the e""ects o" the "lo' pressure are ne$li$ible%
-s in the case o" the thermal plume considered in Section 4C21, the #ertical "lu o" heat at any #alue o" y must be e)ual to the heat input G% @ecause the plume is symmetric about its centerline, this condition can be 'ritten
]
G P 2
Q" cp" #5T T8 6 d ,
59%1A46
'here the minus si$n is re)uired because the #elocity # is ne$ati#e% The symmetry o" the plume also re)uires h# P8 at P 8% 59%1A36 h -t lar$e distances "rom the plume the ambient temperature is T8 , and the "luid is motionless so that uP T T8 , #8 as % 59%1A86 &t is once a$ain appropriate to introduce the stream "unction de"ined in ()uations 54C496 and 54C386 to satis"y the conser#ation o" mass e)uation 59C1826% &n terms o" the stream "unction, ()uation 59C1A26 can be 'ritten T T8 P D hZ % !Q" T" $ h 59%1A96
/pon substitutin$ ()uation 54C496, 54C386, and 59C1A96 into ()uation 59C 1AA6, 'e obtain an e)uation "or ZF h Z h 2 Z h Z h 2 Z lm h 2 Z % P hy h 2 h h hy Q" cp" h 2 The inte$ral condition, ()uation 59C1A46, becomes ! T" $ G P 2Dcp"
]
8
59%1486
hZ h
59%1416
and the boundary conditions, 59C1A36 and 59C1A86, become hZ h2 Z P P8 at P 8 59%1426 hy h 2 hZ 8 as % 59%1426 h :e must obtain a solution to ()uation 59C1486 sub?ect to the conditions $i#en in ()uations 59C1416 to 59C1426% *nce a$ain 'e can use similarity #ariables% The appropriate #ariables are " P
2 Q D cp " " 1U2
!T" $lm Gy
59%14>6
qP
! T" $ Q2" cp" G

2 Dl2 my
1U2
59%14A6
Substitution o" these #ariables into ()uations 59C1486 to 59C1426 yields " d2 " dq 2 R
]
d" dq d" dq
d2 " R 2 2P 8 dq dq
59%1446 59%1436 59%1486 59%1496
1 2
2 " P d" P8 at q P 8 dq2 d" 8 as q % dq
()uation 59C1446 can be immediately inte$rated to $i#e " d" d2 " R 2 2 P 8% dq dq 59%1386
The constant o" inte$ration is Bero because the boundary conditions 59C 1486 re)uire both " and its second deri#ati#e to #anish at q P 8% -nother inte$ration o" ()uation 59C1386 $i#es
2 " 2 R 4d" P c1 dq
59%1316
or
2 c1
d" 1 P dq, 2 " 4
59%1326
2 'here c1 is the constant o" inte$ration% The inte$ral o" this e)uation is
" P c1 tanh
c1 q , 4
59%1326
'here the additional constant o" inte$ration is Bero, since " P 8 at q P 8% <ote that the boundary condition 59C1496 is automatically satis"ied by this "orm o" " % The constant o" inte$ration c1 is determined by substitutin$ ()uation 59C1326 into ()uation 59C1436 'ith the result c> 1P 1 18
1 c1 q > c sech dq P 2 8 sech s ds 8 4 2 c2 2 P 1 tanh s 1 tanh2 s P c1 2 2 9 8 >
59%13>6
228 2282
Fi$ure 9%22 +elocity and temperature distributions in a t'odimensional plume%
or c1 P 9 2
1U2
59%13A6
/pon substitutin$ this #alue o" c1 into ()uation 59C1326, 'e obtain " P 9 2
1U2
tanh
q % >81U2
59%1346
@y combinin$ ()uations 54C386, 59C1A96, 59C14>6, 59C14A6, and 59C1346, 'e "ind that the #ertical Darcy #elocity and temperature in a t'o-dimensional plume o" $round'ater is #P ! Q" T " $ 5T 8T 6 D ! T" $ G 2U2 2Q" cp" P Dcp" 22ylm
1U2
sech2
q % >81U2 59%1336
&n applyin$ this e)uation, recall that the up'ard coordinate is y and that y P 8 at the location o" the line source o" heat% Thus # is ne$ati#e, as it should be "or an up'ard "lo', and T T8 is positi#e, consistent 'ith a hot plume% The #elocity and temperature structures are sho'n in Fi$ure 9C22% 0roblem 9%2> Sho' that the 'idth o" the plume a, de"ined as the re$ion
Fi$ure 9%2> -n a isymmetric plume risin$ abo#e a small i$neous body emittin$ heat at the rate 7 as it cools%
'here 5T T8 6U5T T8 6ma [ 8%1, is $i#en by a P 12%2

2 2 Dl m y 2 !T" $Q" cp" G
1U2
59%1386
:hat condition must G satis"y "or the boundary-layer appro imations to be #alidO :e ne t consider the a isymmetric plume that rises abo#e a small coolin$ i$neous body appro imated by a point source o" heat emittin$ G units o" ener$y per unit time% The heat source is located at the ori$in o" the coordinate system 'ith y #ertically up'ard and r the radial distance "rom the plume centerline, as s!etched in Fi$ure 9C2>% The boundary-layer appro imations also apply to the a isymmetric plume, and 'e need only modi"y ()uations 59C1826, 59C1A26, and 59C1AA6 "or the e""ects o" cylindrical $eometry% ()uation 59C1A26, Darcys la' "or the #ertical "lo', does not re)uire any chan$e% The ri$ht side o" ()uation 59C1AA6 $i#es the result o" heat conduction normal to the plume centerline in the t'o-dimensional case% &t needs to be replaced by the appropriate "orm "or heat conduction in the radial direction that appears on the ri$ht side o" ()uation 54C2A26% &n addition, the horiBontal ad#ection term uhT Uh on the le"t side o" ()uation 59C1AA6 must be replaced by the radial ad#ection term ur hT Uhr, 'here ur is the radial Darcy #elocity% Thus the ener$y e)uation "or the a isymmetric plume is
Fi$ure 9%2A Flo's into and out o" an in"initesimal tubular cylindrical #olume in a porous medium%
ur
hT hr
R#
hT hy
1 hT lm h2T R % Q" cp" hr 2 r hr
59%1396
The appropriate "orm o" the steady incompressible continuity e)uation in cylindrical $eometry can be deri#ed by carryin$ out a balance o" "luid on the tubular cylindrical element in Fi$ure 9C2A% The rate o" "luid "lo' into the element is #5y6 times the area 2Xr ar plus ur 5r6 times the area 2Xr ay or #5y62Xr ar R ur 5r62Xr ay% The rate o" "luid "lo' out o" the element is #5y R ay62Xr ar R ur 5r R ar62X5r R ar6 ay% These rates must balance "or steady incompressible "lo' resultin$ in 8P # 5y R ay 6 # 5y 6 ay 1 5r R ar 6ur 5r R ar6 rur % R 5r 6 r ar
59%1886
&n the limit ay, ar 8 ()uation 59C1886 $i#es the incompressible continuity
e)uation in cylindrical $eometry 1 h 5rur 6 R h# P 8% 59%1816 r hr hy The e)uations $o#ernin$ the a isymmetric plume are ()uations 59C1A26, 59C1396, and 59C1816% The #ertical "lu o" heat at any #alue o" y must be e)ual to the heat input G
]
G P 2X
Q" cp" r#5T T8 6 dr%
59%1826
The minus si$n is re)uired because G and T T8 are positi#e 'hereas # is ne$ati#e% The symmetry o" the plume at the plume centerline re)uires h# P8 at r P 8% 59%1826 hr -t lar$e distances "rom the plume the ambient temperature is T8 , and the "luid is motionless so that ur P T T8 , #8 as r % 59%18>6 :e proceed as 'e did in analyBin$ the t'o-dimensional plume by introducin$ a stream "unction Z appropriate to a isymmetric incompressible "lo' #P 1 hZ r hr 1 hZ ur P % r hy 59%18A6 59%1846
&t can be #eri"ied by direct substitution that the continuity e)uation 59C 1816 is identically satis"ied% The temperature in the plume is related to Z throu$h ()uations 59C1A26 and 59C18A6 T T8 P D hZ % !Q" T" $r hr 59%1836
- sin$le e)uation "or Z is obtained by substitutin$ ()uations 59C18A6 to 59C1836 into ()uation 59C1396 1 hZ hZ 1 hZ h 2 Z 1 hZ h 2 Z R r 2 hy hr r hy hr 2 r hr hrhy lm 1 hZ h2Z 1 h2 P R % Z Q" cp" r 2 hr r hr2 hr2
59%1886
The inte$ral condition, ()uation 59C1826, becomes 2X cp" D

2
1 r
hZ hr
dr
59%1896
GP
! T" $
and the boundary conditions, ()uations 59C1826 and 59C18>6, become 1 hZ 8, r hy 1 hZ 8 r hy h 1 hZ 8 hr r hr as r % as r 8 59%1986 59%1916
:e a$ain "ind a solution by introducin$ similarity #ariables7 the appropriate #ariables "or the a ially symmetric plume are Q" c p " " P Zl m y ! cp" T" $G r qP D
59%1926
1U2
Q" % 59%1926
lm y
The minus si$n is inserted into ()uation 59C1926 to ma!e q a positi#e #ariable% Substitution o" these #ariables into ()uations 59C1886 to 59C1916 $i#es
2 d" " q" d " dq R q dq 2
dq dq q
d" 2 d" P
Rq dq
d2 " 2 2d " dq2 q dq 2 59%19>6 59%19A6 as q 8 59%1946
1 P 2X
8
d" dq
" d" 8, q dq 1 d" 8 q dq
1 d2 " 1 d" 8 q dq 2 q 2 dq as q %
59%1936
()uation 59C19>6 can be inte$rated to $i#e " d" 1 d" d2 " P R c1 % q dq q dq dq2 59%1986
The boundary conditions 59C1946 re)uire that the constant o" inte$ration c1
be $i#en by c1 P lim
q8
d" dq
59%1996
9o'e#er, ()uations 59C18A6, 59C1926, and 59C1926 sho' that d" Udy is proportional to r#% @ecause # is "inite at r P 8, r# 8 as r 8 and d" Udq 8 as q 8% Thus c1 P 8 and ()uation 59C1986 becomes " d" 1 d" d2 " P % 59%2886 q dq q dq dq2 - solution o" this e)uation that satis"ies the boundary conditions 59C1946 and 59C1936 is >c2 q2 " P 1 R c2 q 2 % 59%2816
The constant o" inte$ration c2 is obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 59C2816 into 59C19A6 'ith the result 2 c2 P % 59%2826 4>X ()uation 59C2816 becomes " P 2 q2 % 14X 1 R 2q2 4>X 59%2826
The #ertical #elocity and temperature distributions in the plume are obtained by combinin$ ()uations 59C18A6, 59C1836, 59C1926, 59C1926, and 59C 2826 #P P ! Q" T " $ 5T 8T 6 D
p c2" G $Q 2 ! T " $ Q" G 2 r 2 ! T" " 1R 2 8Xy Dlm Dl m 4>X y 2
59%28>6 The dimensionless #elocity and temperature pro"iles "or the a isymmetric plume are sho'n in Fi$ure 9C24% 0roblem 9%2A Sho' that the diameter o" the a isymmetric plume a, de"ined as the re$ion 'here 5T T8 6U5T T8 6ma [ 8%1, is $i#en by 1U2 2> y l D 59%28A6 aP | | m Q" ! T" $cp" G
Fi$ure 9%24 0ro"iles o" the dimensionless #elocity and temperature in an a isymmetric plume%
Fi$ure 9%23 The "ormation o" ma$ma at $rain intersections durin$ the "irst sta$es o" partial meltin$%
:hat condition must G satis"y "or the boundary layer appro imations to be #alidO 9%11 0orous Flo' ,odel "or ,a$ma ,i$ration - lar$e "raction o" the (arths #olcanism occurs beneath ocean rid$es% -s mantle roc! rises beneath a rid$e partial meltin$ occurs because o" the decrease in pressure 5see Fi$ure 1C>6% The resultin$ ma$ma mi$rates up'ard throu$h the mantle to "orm the basaltic oceanic crust% -lthou$h pressurerelease meltin$ e plains 'hy partial meltin$ occurs at depth beneath an ocean rid$e, it does not e plain ho' the ma$ma ascends throu$h the mantle to "orm the o#erlyin$ oceanic crust% :hen partial meltin$ occurs, the "irst ma$ma produced collects alon$
<(-- Porous Flo! Model for Magma Migration
$rain boundary intersections, as illustrated in Fi$ure 9C23% :hen su""icient meltin$ has occurred, the ma$ma coalesces to "orm a net'or! o" interconnected channels% The channels pro#ide permeability "or the mi$ration o" ma$ma throu$h the matri o" unmelted crystalline $rains% Since the ma$ma is li$hter than the remainin$ crystalline roc!, the $ra#itational body "orce dri#es the ma$ma up'ard alon$ the #ertically connected channels% - porous "lo' model can be used to )uantitati#ely treat this up'ard mi$ration o" ma$ma% The ma$ma "ills the porosity, and the solid crystals ma!e up the matri % -s a reasonable appro imation 'e assume that the microscopic porous "lo' model $i#en in Section 9C2 and illustrated in Fi$ure 9C1 is applicable to this problem% The di""erential buoyancy o" the ma$ma relati#e to the solid crystals is the pressure $radient that dri#es the ma$ma up'ard, that is, dp P 5Qs Ql 6$, 59%2846 dy 'here Ql is the ma$ma density and Qs is the density o" the solid% &n 'ritin$ ()uation 59C2846, 'e assume that the pressures in the li)uid and the matri are e)ual% For this to be the case, the matri must be able to de"orm and collapse as the ma$ma mi$rates up'ard% -t the hi$h temperatures associated 'ith partial meltin$ and on the rele#ant time scales, solid-state creep processes are su""iciently rapid to pro#ide this de"ormation% The relati#e #elocity bet'een the ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels and the de"ormable matri is $i#en by substitutin$ ()uations 59C 46 and 59C2846 into 59C36
2 #l #s P b Y5Q s Q 6$ % l 2>XD
22A 22A2
59%2836
&n this e)uation b is the $rain siBe, #l is the actual #elocity o" the ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels, #s is the actual #elocity o" the solid matri 5up'ard #elocities are ne$ati#e6, Y is the #olume "raction o" ma$ma, and D is the ma$ma #iscosity% ,a$ma in the horiBontally connected channels mo#es up'ard 'ith the #elocity #s o" the solid matri % The )uantities #l , #s , and Y are "unctions o" depth y in the melt Bone% Fi$ure 9C28 sho's the ma$ma mi$ration #elocity relati#e to the solid matri #l #s as a "unction o" the #olume "raction o" ma$ma "or b P 2 mm, Qs Ql P 488 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 , and D P 18 0a s% The #iscosities o" ma$mas are stron$ "unctions o" temperature and #ary considerably 'ith ma$ma composition% - typical #iscosity "or a basaltic ma$ma is 1 0a s7 andesitic ma$mas ha#e #iscosities o" about 188 0a s% :e no' apply the ma$ma mi$ration model to the production and ascent
Fi$ure 9%28 ,a$ma mi$ration #elocity relati#e to the solid matri as a "unction o" the #olume "raction o" ma$ma Y%
vl vs
o" ma$ma beneath an ocean rid$e% :e assume that mantle roc! is risin$ #ertically at a #elocity #8 that is su""iciently lar$e that prior to the onset o" meltin$, heat conduction is ne$li$ible and the temperature o" the roc! is constant% The roc! be$ins to melt 'hen it reaches the depth y8 at 'hich its temperature pro"ile intersects its meltin$ temperature Tm pro"ile% The dependence o" the meltin$ temperature on pressure is $i#en by the slope o" the 1lapeyron cur#e im P dp dT ,
m
59%2886
'hich is assumed to be constant% Since dpUdy P Qs $, the meltin$ temperature $radient dTm Udy is Qs $Uim and Tm as a "unction o" depth is $i#en by Qs $ y, 59%2896 T mP T m8R im 'here Tm8 is the #alue o" the meltin$ temperature at the sur"ace% The meltin$ temperature pro"ile and the isotherm o" the ascendin$ unmelted mantle roc! are sho'n in Fi$ure 9C29a "or y8 P A8 !m, im P 3%A ,0a E 1 , $ P 18 2 2 m s , Qs P 2288 !$ m , and Tm8 P 1>88 E% The temperature o" the risin$ mantle roc! prior to the onset o" meltin$ is 1428 E in this e ample% *nce meltin$ commences, the temperature pro"iles o" the ascendin$ mantle roc! and ma$ma coincide 'ith the meltin$ temperature pro"ile% -s the roc! and ma$ma mo#e up'ard, their temperatures decrease alon$ the melt-
Fi$ure 9%29 Dependence o" 5a6 temperature %, 5$6 melt "raction f, 5c6 up'ard #elocity o" the solid matri vs , 5 5e d6 6 #olume up'ard "raction #elocity ma$ma in o" o" ma$ma Y on #ertically connected channels vl , and depth y in the melt Bone beneath an ocean rid$e%
in$ cur#e, and internal ener$y is made a#ailable to melt an increasin$ "raction o" the roc!% :e de"ine the melt "raction " to be the ratio o" the total up'ard mass "lo' rate o" ma$ma to the up'ard mass "lu o" roc! Qs #8 prior to the onset o" meltin$% From ()uation 59C86, the up'ard mass "lo' rate o" ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels is YQl #l U2, and the up'ard mass "lo' Thusrate o" ma$ma in the horiBontally connected channels is 2YQl #s U2% the melt "raction is $i#en by " #s YQl #l R 2YQl % 2Qs #8 &" the up'ard mass "lo' rate o" ma$ma chan$es by d dy YQl 5#l R 2#s 6 2 59%2186
228 2282
bet'een y and y dy, and the latent heat o" "usion is ., an amount o" ener$y . d dy YQl 5#l R 2#s 6 2
must be e tracted "rom the internal ener$y o" both the roc! and ma$ma per unit time and per unit area o#er this same depth inter#al% Thus, the appropriate ener$y balance is 5Qs #8 6cp dT d YQl 5#l R 2#s 6 P. , dy dy 2 59%2116
'here 'e ha#e assumed that the speci"ic heats o" the roc! and ma$ma, cp , are e)ual% The coe""icient o" cp 5dT Udy6 on the le"t side o" ()uation 59C 2116 is the total up'ard mass "lo' rate o" roc! and ma$ma in the melt Bone7 conser#ation o" mass re)uires that this e)ual the mass "lo' rate o" roc! 5Qs #8 6 prior to the onset o" meltin$% Substitution o" ()uation 59C2186 into 59C2116 yields dT d" cp P . % 59%2126 dy dy &n the melt Bone dT Udy P Qs $Uim % :e use this #alue o" the temperature $radient and inte$rate ()uation 59C2126 'ith the boundary condition " P 8 at y P y8 to obtain cp 59%2126 " P Q $ 5y8 y6% s im . ,elt "raction increases linearly 'ith decreasin$ depth in the melt Bone 1 1 as illustrated in Fi$ure 9C29 $ "or c P 1 !J !$ E , . P 228 !J !$ 1 , p and the other )uantities as $i#en be"ore% - 2AN melt "raction is produced o#er a depth ran$e o" 18 !m% The #elocity #s can be determined as a "unction o" depth by combinin$ ()uation 59C2186 'ith the conser#ation o" mass e)uation Ql Y5#l R 2#s 6 2 Qs #8 P R Qs #s 51 Y6% 59%21>6
&" 'e di#ide ()uation 59C21>6 by Qs #8 and subtract 59C2186, 'e obtain # 1 " P s 51 Y6% 59%21A6 #8 Since Y is $enerally much smaller than 1 5'e 'ill see in an e ample belo' 2 that Y is smaller than about 18 6, 'e can ne$lect Y in ()uation 59C 21A6 and sol#e "or #s #s P #8 51 " 6
P #8
c p Qs $ 5y8 y6 % im .
59%2146
-t y P y8 , #s e)uals #8 7 as y decreases, the up'ard #elocity o" the solid matri #s also decreases% Fi$ure 9C29c sho's #s as a "unction o" depth "or the parameter #alues already $i#en% To determine #l , 'e eliminate Y bet'een ()uations 59C2836 and 59C2186 and "ind
2 #l2 R #l #s 2# s R
2" Qs $ 5Qs Ql 6bZ2 #8 P 8% 2>XDQl
59%2136
The solution o" this )uadratic e)uation "or #l is |# | P Z|#s | R l 2 9#s2 " Qs $ 5Qs Ql 6b2 |#8 | R 1U2 > 8XDQl
59%2186
'hich becomes, upon substitutin$ "or " and #s "rom ()uations 59C2126 and 59C2146, | #8 | c Q $ |#l | P 1 p s 5y8 y6 im . 2 2 2 c Q 9#8 1 $p s 5y8 y6 R > im . 2| | Q2$ 2 5Qs Ql 6b #8 cp 5y8 y 6 1U2 % 59%2196 R s 8XDQl im . -t y P y8 , #l e)uals #8 7 as y decreases, |#l | increases% Fi$ure 9C29d sho's the depth dependence o" the up'ard #elocity o" the ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels% &n addition to parameter #alues already $i#en, 'e used #8 P A8 mm yr 1 , Ql P 2388 !$ m 2 , b P 2 mm, and D P 1 0a s to calculate #l % The #elocity o" the ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels is tens o" meters per year% Thus the ma$ma "lo's "reely up'ard alon$ $rain boundaries as soon as the melt is produced% ,elts "rom di""erent depths mi to "orm the ma$ma reachin$ the sur"ace% The #olume "raction o" ma$ma can be "ound by sol#in$ ()uation 59C2836 "or Y and substitutin$ "or #l and #s "rom ()uations 59C2146 and 59C2186 'ith the result YP 2>X D b2 5Qs Ql 6$ R
t
2|#8 | 2
c p Qs 5y8 y6 $ im .
2
9#2 c Q 8 1 p s > $ im 5y8 y6 .
c Q2 $ 2 5y8 y 65Qs Ql 6b2 |#8 | R p s 8Xim .DQl
1U2
59%2286
-t y P y8 , Y is Bero7 as y decreases, Y increases% 9o'e#er, as can be seen in Fi$ure 9C29e, "or the parameter #alues $i#en abo#e, Y remains less than a "e' tenths o" a percent% -lthou$h the #olume "raction o" ma$ma is small in the melt Bone, the ma$ma in the #ertically connected channels is risin$ so "ast that the mass "lo' rate o" this ma$ma is a substantial "raction " o" the ascendin$ mantle roc!% 0roblem 9%24 ,eltin$ in a layer 'ith a thic!ness h is caused by a uni"orm rate o" heat $eneration 9 per unit mass% 5a6 Sho' that the rate at 'hich ma$ma mi$rates out o" the top o" the layer is $i#en by h9U.% 5b6 Deri#e an e pression "or the #olume "raction o" ma$ma as a "unction o" depth in the layer in terms o" the $rain siBe b, the ma$ma #iscosity D, and the densities Qs and Ql % 9%12 T'o-0hase 1on#ection &" $round'ater is heated su""iciently, boilin$ 'ill occur% Geysers are e#idence o" boilin$ at depth% &" 'ater and steam coe ist, the temperature o" the mi ture is at the boilin$ temperature, and the steam is said to be !et% &" all the 'ater is con#erted to steam, the temperature may e ceed the boilin$ temperature and the steam is said to be dry% :ells o" the $eothermal po'er stations at the Geysers north o" San Francisco and at .ardarello in &taly dischar$e dry steam% 9o'e#er, in the main reser#oirs o" these vapor2 dominated systems, the steam is 'et% To better understand the beha#ior o" such $eothermal reser#oirs, let us a$ain consider a horiBontal layer o" a permeable medium saturated 'ith 'ater% The impermeable upper boundary at y P 8 is maintained at a temperature T8 , and the impermeable lo'er boundary at y P b is maintained at a temperature T1 , T1 [ T8 % The stability o" this layer 'ith re$ard to thermal con#ection 'as considered in Section 9C9% 9ere 'e assume that the ;aylei$h number "or the layer is less than the minimum critical #alue o" >X 2 $i#en in ()uation 59C1226% -s lon$ as the temperature T1 o" the lo'er boundary is less than the boilin$ temperature Tb , heat is trans"erred across the layer by conduction, and the temperature is $i#en by ()uation 59C1136% :hen the temperature o" the lo'er boundary reaches the boilin$ temperature, a t'o-phase, essentially
<(-4 %!o2Phase Convection
2>1 2>12
Fi$ure 9%28 The heat pipe mechanism 5$6 "or the #ertical transport o" heat in a t'o-phase "luid layer 'ith the temperature pro"ile 5a6 and the saturation pro"ile 5c6%
isothermal Bone de#elops ad?acent to the lo'er boundary, as illustrated in Fi$ure 9C28% &n the t'o-phase Bone the li$ht steam rises throu$h the denser 'ater because o" buoyancy% @oilin$ ta!es place at the lo'er boundary o" the layer, and steam condenses at the boundary bet'een the upper 'ater layer and the lo'er t'o-phase Bone% The depth o" this boundary is yb % -n isothermal re$ion in 'hich heat is trans"erred by the counter"lo' o" the t'o phases is !no'n as a heat pipe% ,easurements o" temperature and pressure in drill holes in #apor-dominated $eothermal systems sho' that their structures indeed resemble the model in Fi$ure 9C287 they consist o" near-sur"ace 'ater layers se#eral hundred meters thic! o#erlyin$ the main #apor-dominated t'o-phase reser#oirs% Some laboratory measurements o" heat transport in a counter"lo'in$ steamC 'ater layer are $i#en in Fi$ure 9C21% The total thic!ness o" the layer in 'hich these data 'ere ac)uired is b P 8%1A9 m, its porosity Y e)uals 8%23, its per meability ! P 8%A 18 12 m2 , and the thermal conducti#ity o" the saturated medium lm P 8%92 : m 1 E 1 % Fi$ure 9C21a sho's the temperature pro"iles in the layer "or #arious #alues o" the heat "lu )% The isothermal lo'er Bone and the linear temperature pro"ile in the upper conduction-dominated re$ion are clearly illustrated% The depth to the upper boundary o" the t'ophase Bone yb is easily obtained in terms o" the heat "lu by considerin$ Fouriers la' o" heat conduction in the upper layer y P T8 6
b
Zlm 5Tb )
59%2216
'here it 'ill be recalled that an up'ard heat "lu is ne$ati#e% Fi$ure 9C
Fi$ure 9%21 5a6 Temperature distribution in a porous layer saturated 'ith 'ater and heated "rom belo' "or se#eral #alues o" the heat "lu 5@au, 19886% 5$6 ,easured dependence o" the ratio o" the depth o" the t'o-phase Bone to the layer thic!ness on the heat "lu compared 'ith ()uation 59C2216%
21b sho's that the predicted #alues o" yb Ub are in $ood a$reement 'ith the obser#ations% :e ne t consider the heat pipe mechanism "or the transport o" heat in the t'o-phase Bone% Steam is produced at the lo'er boundary and "lo's up'ard at a mass "lo' rate per unit horiBontal area dm# Udt 5up'ard #elocities and mass "lo' rates are ne$ati#e67 'ater is condensed at the upper boundary o" the t'o-phase Bone and "lo's do'n'ard 'ith a mass "lo' rate dm' Udt that ?ust balances the up'ard steam "lo'% &n this steady state one-dimensional counter"lo', mass conser#ation re)uires dm# dm' R P 8% dt dt 59%2226
<o condensation or boilin$ can occur 'ithin the t'o-phase Bone because it is isothermal and there is no heat conduction% The enthalpy o" the risin$ steam e ceeds that o" the descendin$ 'ater by an amount e)ual to the latent heat o" #aporiBation o" 'ater% Thus there is a net up'ard ad#ection o" heat at the rate dm# P .Q# ## P .Q' #' P .dm' , dt dt
)P .
59%2226 'here . is the latent heat o" #aporiBation, Q# and Q' are the densities o" steam and 'ater, and ## and #' are the Darcy #elocities o" steam and 'ater% &n deri#in$ ()uation 59C2226, 'e ha#e used the relations dm# P Q# ## dt dm' P Q' #' dt
59%22>6
bet'een the mass "lo' rates and the Darcy #elocities% For t'o-phase "lo' in a porous medium Darcys la' "or #ertical "lo', ()uation 59C26, can be modi"ied to $i#e ! 51 S 6 dp Q $ ## P # D# dy #' P !S dp Q' $ , D' dy
59%22A6 59%2246
'here D# and D' are the dynamic #iscosities o" steam and 'ater and S is the saturation, the "raction o" the porosity "illed 'ith 'ater% The "raction o" the porosity "illed 'ith steam is 1 S% ()uations 59C22A6 and 59C2246 can be deri#ed by assumin$ a parallel model in 'hich the 'ater "lo's in a "raction S o" the horiBontal area occupied by the interconnected porosity, and steam "lo's in the remainin$ "raction 1 S% The combination o" ()uations 59C2226 to 59C2246 yields a "ormula "or the heat "lu that is 'ritten in dimensionless "orm as ) D# rP P !.$Q# 5Q# Q' 6 S 51 S 6 % {51 S6
D' Q# D# Q'
R S}
59%2236
The dimensionless heat "lu r is a "unction o" the saturation S% Since S is constant in the t'o-phase re$ion, see Fi$ure 9C28c, r is also constant% The dependence o" r on S "rom ()uation 59C2236 is $i#en in Fi$ure 9C 22 "or the atmospheric pressure #alue o" the ratio D# Q' UD' Q# P 38% The "i$ure also includes data "rom the laboratory e periment described abo#e7 the a$reement bet'een theory and e periment is )uite $ood% The ma$nitude o" the heat "lu across the layer is a ma imum |) |ma at the #alue o" the saturation Sma sho'n in Fi$ure 9C22% The #alue o" Sma can be obtained by di""erentiatin$ ()uation 59C2236 and settin$ drUdS e)ual to
Fi$ure 9%22 Dependence o" the 'ater saturation " on the dimensionless heat "lu r "rom laboratory measurements 5circles6 and ()uation 59C2236 5cur#e6%
Bero Sma P
D' Q# 1U2 D'} Q# 5Q' D 6 Q' D# # % ' Q# } {1 D Q D

' #
59%2286
For 'ater and steam 'ith D# Q' UD' Q# P 38, ()uation 59C2286 $i#es Sma P 8%1832% The ma imum heat "lu rma is obtained by substitutin$ ()uation 59C2286 into ()uation 59C2236
t
rma P 1R
D ' Q#
u
1U2 2
59%2296
D # Q'
For D# Q' UD' Q# P 38, rma is 8%398% &" the heat "lu e ceeds this #alue, burnout occurs% - lar$e "raction o" the layer is saturated 'ith dry steam and heat is transported by the con#ection o" the dry steam and conduction in the matri % The temperature increases by a lar$e amount in order to transport a small amount o" additional heat% The ma imum heat transport by the heat pipe mechanism is independent o" the layer thic!ness C see ()uations 59C2236 and 59C2296% :ith the properties appropriate to the boilin$ o" 'ater 1 2 at atmospheric pressure . P 2A88 !J !$ , Q P 1888 !$ m , Q# P 8%A98 ' 2 2 A !$ m , D' P 8%28> 18 0a s, D# P 1%2A 18 0a s, 'e "ind that the heat pipe mechanism accommodates a heat "lu ) P 8%9A : m 2 i" the 1A permeability ! P 18 m2 % 0roblem 9%23 1onsider a porous layer saturated 'ith 'ater that is at the
Collateral Reading
boilin$ temperature at all depths% Sho' that the temperatureCdepth pro"ile is $i#en by 1 ;# Ql $ y 1 , 59%2286 ln 1 R P Tb8 T . p8
2>A 2>A2
'here Tb8 is the boilin$ temperature o" 'ater at atmospheric pressure p8 , Ql is the density o" li)uid 'ater 'hich is assumed constant, and ;# is the $as constant "or 'ater #apor% Start 'ith the hydrostatic e)uation "or the pressure and deri#e an e)uation "or dT Udy by usin$ the "ormula "or the slope o" the 1lapeyron cur#e bet'een 'ater and steam dp . Ql Q# . Q# , P dT T 5Ql Q# 6 T 59%2216
'here Q# is the density o" 'ater #apor% -ssume that steam is a per"ect $as so that p Q# P % 59%2226 ;#T Finally, note that p P p8 R Ql $y i" Ql is assumed constant% :hat is 1 1 the temperature at a depth o" 1 !mO Ta!e ; P 8%>42 !J !$ E , . P # 1 2A88 !J !$ , Tb8 P 232 E, p8 P 18A 0a, Ql P 1888 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s 2 % 0roblem 9%28 1alculate pressure as a "unction o" depth in a #apordominated $eothermal system consistin$ o" a near-sur"ace li)uid layer >88 m thic! o#erlyin$ a 'et steam reser#oir in 'hich the pressurecontrollin$ phase is #apor% -ssume that the hydrostatic la' is applicable and that the li)uid layer is at the boilin$ temperature throu$hout% -ssume also that the steam reser#oir is isothermal% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @au, 9% 9% 519886, ( perimental and theoretical studies o" natural con#ection in laboratory-scale models o" $eothermal systems, 0h%D% Thesis, 1ornell /ni#ersity, &thaca, <%=% :hite, D% (% 519486, 9ydrolo$y, acti#ity and heat "lo' o" the Steamboat Sprin$s thermal system, :ashoe 1ounty, <e#ada, /%S% Geolo$ical Sur#ey, 0ro"essional 0aper >A8-1% 1ollateral ;eadin$ @ear, J%, &ynamics of Fluids in Porous Media 5-merican (lse#ier, <e' =or!, 19326, 34> pa$es%
- de"initi#e te tboo! on the theory o" the dynamics o" "luids in porous media "or ad#anced under$raduate and $raduate students in the "ields o" $round'ater hydrolo$y, soil mechanics, soil physics, draina$e and irri- $ation en$ineerin$, sanitary en$ineerin$, and petroleum and chemical en$ineerin$% - $ood bac!$round in ad#anced en$ineerin$ mathematics is re)uired includin$ such sub?ects as #ector analysis, cartesian tensors, and partial di""erential e)uations% 1hapter 1 is an introductory chapter describin$ a)ui"ers, $round'ater, and oil reser#oirs, the porous medium, and the continuum approach to porous media% 1hapter 2 discusses "luid and porous matri properties% &n 1hapter 2 the concepts o" pressure and pieBometric head are introduced% Succeedin$ chapters deal 'ith the "undamental "luid transport e)uations in porous media, constituti#e e)uations, Darcys la', hydraulic conducti#ity, layered media, anisotropic permeability, deri#ations o" Darcys la', methods o" solution o" boundary and initial #alue problems, uncon"ined "lo' and the Dupuit appro imation, "lo' o" immiscible "luids, hydrodynamic dispersion, and models and analo$s includin$ the 9eleCSha' cell% There are problems at the end o" each chapter and an appendi 'ith ans'ers% Domenico, 0% -%, and F% :% Sch'artB, Physical and Chemical 9ydrogeology 5John :iley, <e' =or!, 19986, 82> pa$es% This is a comprehensi#e te tboo! that co#ers a broad ran$e o" topics concernin$ both the physical and chemical aspects o" hydro$eolo$y% 1oncepts o" porosity and permeability, Darcys la', a)ui"ers, and the $o#ernin$ e)uations are introduced% ,ethods o" hydraulic testin$, transport o" heat and particulate matter, a)ueous $eochemistry, solution and precipitation, contaminant transport, and remediation are co#ered% FreeBe, ;% -%, and J% -% 1herry, Ground!ater 50rentice 9all, (n$le'ood 1li""s, <%J%, 19396, 48> pa$es% This under$raduate te tboo! co#ers #irtually all aspects o" the "lo' o" $round'ater% @oth physical and chemical processes are considered alon$ 'ith en$ineerin$ applications% Fy"e, :% S%, <% J% 0rice, and -% @% Thompson, Fluids in the EarthAs Crust 5(lse#ier, -msterdam, 19386, 282 pa$es% - te tboo! "or ad#anced under$raduate and $raduate students on the $eneration and mi$ration o" "luids in the crust, their in"luence on structures, and their collection and concentration into commercially #iable reser#oirs% ,a?or chapter headin$s include an introduction to "luid in- #ol#ement in $eochemical and tectonic processes, chemistry o" natural "luids, #olatiles in minerals, mineral solubility and solution chemistry, rates o" metamorphic reactions, release o" "luids "rom roc!s durin$ meta-
morphism, controls o" "luid composition, meltin$, e perimental roc! de"ormation, crustal conditions o" temperature, pressure, and strain rate, permeability, hydraulic "racture, elasticity, de'aterin$ o" the crust, diapirs and diapirism, and "luids, tectonics, and chemical transport% Go$uel, J%, Geothermics 5,cGra'-9ill, <e' =or!, 19346, 288 pa$es% This is an (n$lish translation o" the authors boo! L.a GKeothermie%M The boo! be$ins 'ith a discussion o" the thermal re$ime near the (arths sur"ace and ho' it is a""ected by $round'ater circulation% The problem o" e tractin$ usable heat "rom $eothermal resources is then addressed% The operation o" 'et and dry steam $eothermal po'er plants is described and methods are $i#en to estimate the po'er output and use"ul li"etime o" a $eothermal resource% The "inal "e' chapters consider more $eneral problems o" interest to students o" (arth scienceF thermal e"- "ects o" i$neous intrusions and e trusions, heat produced by de"ormation and "aultin$, thermal stresses in roc!s, the source o" the heat-producin$ metamorphism, coolin$ o" the (arth, thermal e""ects o" radioacti#e decay, and con#ection in the mantle% -side "rom the solutions o" a "e' di""erential e)uations the boo! is nonmathematical in nature% ,us!at, ,%, %he Flo! of 9omogeneous Fluids %hrough Porous Media 5J% :% (d'ards, -nn -rbor, ,ichi$an, 19>46, 342 pa$es% - classic te tboo! on the theory o" "lo' throu$h porous media% 0art 1 is an essentially nonmathematical treatment o" the "oundations o" porous medium "lo' theory% &t includes an e tended introduction about the physical situations to 'hich the theory is rele#ant C $round'ater "lo' and the mi$ration o" oil and $as, and chapters on Darcys la', the measurement o" permeability, and the hydrodynamical e)uations% 0art 2 discusses the steady-state "lo' o" li)uids stressin$ t'o-dimensional problems and potential theory methods7 three-dimensional problems, $ra#ity-"lo' systems, nonuni"orm permeability, t'o-"luid systems, and multiple-'ell systems are also considered% 0art 2 deals 'ith the "lo' o" compressible li)uids in porous media and 0art A treats the "lo' o" $ases% 0hillips, *% ,%, Flo! and Reaction in Permea$le Roc,s 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 19916, 233 pa$es% This is a $raduate le#el te tboo! on "lo' throu$h porous media% The $o#ernin$ principles, patterns o" "lo', reactions, instabilities, and thermal con#ection are considered% 0olubarino#a-Eochina, 0% =a%, %heory of Ground .ater Movement 50rince- ton /ni#ersity 0ress, 0rinceton, <e' Jersey, 19426, 412 pa$es% - classic te tboo!, translated "rom the ;ussian edition, on the mathematical
2>8 2>82
Collateral Reading
theory o" the "lo' o" $round'ater% The boo! is intended primarily "or hydraulic en$ineers and the le#el o" mathematical sophistication is hi$h% There are t'o ma?or parts on steady and unsteady "lo's% ,a?or chapters include physical and mathematical "undamentals, t'o-dimensional "lo's in a #ertical plane, con"ined seepa$e under hydraulic structures, the method o" in#ersion and its applications, seepa$e in hetero$eneous and anisotropic soils, natural and manmade 'ells, three-dimensional problems in seepa$e, inertia e""ects in unsteady "lo's, nonlinear unsteady "lo' 'ith a "ree sur"ace, linear e)uations o" unsteady $round'ater "lo', t'o-dimensional unsteady "lo', and numerical and $raphical methods in steady and unsteady "lo's% Scheide$$er, -% (%, %he Physics of Flo! through Porous Media 5/ni#ersity o" Toronto 0ress, Toronto, 1anada, 19486, 212 pa$es% - "undamental te tboo! on the physical principles o" hydrodynamics in porous media% Topics co#ered are description and characteriBation o" porous materials, physical properties o" "luids, e)uations o" "luid "lo', hydrostatics in porous media, Darcys la' and solutions o" Darcys e)uation, physical aspects o" permeability, and multiple-phase "lo' in porous media% :arin$, G% -%, Thermal sprin$s o" the /nited States and other countries o" the 'orldI- summary, G( "( Geological "urvey Professional Paper, 8o( 6<4, 194A, 282 pa$es% -n e tensi#e re#ie' o" the in"ormation on the location o" the sprin$s, the temperature o" the 'ater, "lo' rate, chemistry, $as content, and practical uses% The "acts are tabulated by country or $eo$raphical area% The data are accompanied by a brie" description o" the $eolo$y and a map sho'in$ the location o" the sprin$s% There is a lon$ annotated list o" re"erences to the literature on thermal sprin$s%
18 1hemical Geodynamics
18%1 &ntroduction ;adioacti#e heatin$ o" the mantle and crust plays a !ey role in $eodynamics as discussed in Section >CA% The heat $enerated by the decay o" the uranium isotopes 228 / and 22A /, the thorium isotope 222 Th, and the potassium isotope >8 E is the primary source o" the ener$y that dri#es mantle con#ection and $enerates earth)ua!es and #olcanic eruptions% ;adio$enic isotopes play other !ey roles in the (arth sciences% &sotope ratios can be used to date the La$esM o" roc!s% The science o" datin$ roc!s by radioisotopic techni)ues is !no'n as geochronol2 ogy% &n many cases a roc! that solidi"ies "rom a melt becomes a closed isotopic system% ,easurements o" isotope ratios and parentCdau$hter ratios can be used to determine ho' lon$ a$o the roc! solidi"ied "rom a ma$ma and this de"ines the a$e o" the roc!% These techni)ues pro#ide the only basis "or absolute datin$ o" $eolo$ical processes% -$e datin$ o" meteorites has pro#ided an a$e o" the solar system o" >%AA Ga% The oldest roc!s on the (arth 'ere "ound in :est Greenland and ha#e an a$e o" 2%4A Ga% .unar samples returned by the -pollo missions ha#e a$es o" o#er > Ga% Guantitati#e measurements o" the concentrations o" radioacti#e isotopes and their dau$hter products in roc!s "orm the basis "or chemical geody2 namics% (ssentially all roc!s "ound on the sur"ace o" the (arth ha#e been throu$h one or more meltin$ episodes and many ha#e e perienced hi$h temperature metamorphism% These episodes ha#e clouded the chemistry o" the source roc!s "rom 'hich the sur"ace roc!s ha#e been deri#ed% For e ample, the partial meltin$ o" mantle roc!s concentrates incompatible elements into the resultin$ ma$ma, but isotope ratios $enerally remain una""ected% Thus isotope systematics can place )uantitati#e constraints on the e#olution o" the mantle as 'ell as pro#ide an absolute $eolo$ical time scale%
2A8 2A82
Chemical Geodynamics
&sotope studies o" mid-ocean rid$e basalts 5,*;@6 sho' that they are remar!ably uni"orm in their isotopic si$natures% This uni"ormity is e#idence that the upper mantle reser#oir "rom 'hich they are e tracted is a 'ellmi ed $eochemical reser#oir% These systematics also sho' that the reser#oir is not pristine, but is systematically depleted in incompatible elements relati#e to the re"erence bul! silicate (arth% The relati#e concentrations o" incompatible elements "or the bul! silicate (arth are in"erred "rom #alues "ound in chondritic meteorites% &" the upper-mantle ,*;@ source reser#oir is depleted in the incompatible elements, then there must be a complementary enriched reser#oir7 this is the continental crust% :hen partial meltin$ o" the mantle occurs beneath a mid-ocean rid$e the incompatible elements are systematically "ractionated into the melt% Thus the basaltic oceanic crust is enriched in the incompatible elements% The comple ma$matic processes responsible "or the "ormation o" the continental crust "urther concentrate these incompatible elements% This phenomenon 'as illustrated by the typical concentrations o" the incompatible heat-producin$ elements $i#en in Table >C2% :e 'ill sho' that the isotope systematics o" ,*;@ can be used to determine the mean a$e o" the continents and to estimate the siBe o" the mantle reser#oir "rom 'hich the continental crust has been e tracted% &sotope studies o" ocean island basalts 5*&@6 sho' systematic di""erences "rom ,*;@% The *&@, e%$%, 9a'aii, tend to be enriched in incompatible elements relati#e to ,*;@% @ecause *&@ are $enerally associated 'ith mantle plumes, 'e can conclude that plumes do not ori$inate "rom the 'ell-mi ed upper mantle reser#oir "rom 'hich ,*;@ is e tracted% *ne hypothesis "or the enriched *&@ is that plumes sample a near pristine lo'er mantle reser#oir% ,i in$ bet'een a pristine lo'er mantle and a depleted upper mantle can e plain some, but not all, o" the isotope systematics o" *&@% second hypothesis is that the isotope hetero$eneities associated 'ith *&@ de#eloped in the continental crust and mantle and that plumes contain subducted marine sediments and delaminated continental lithosphere that ha#e not been completely mi ed into the mantle reser#oir% Geodynamic constraints can also be obtained "rom the concentrations o" the rare $ases helium and ar$on in the atmosphere and their "lu es out o" the crust and mantle% -s an e ample, all >8 -r "ound in the atmosphere is the result o" the decay o" >8 E 'ithin the (arths interior% Thus a balance can be made bet'een the heat $enerated "rom potassium in the mantle and the mass o" ar$on in the atmosphere%
18%2 ;adioacti#ity and Geochronolo$y .ord ;uther"ord "irst pointed out the potential o" radioacti#e isotopes "or heatin$ the interior o" the (arth% &n 198A he proposed that uranium minerals could be dated by determinin$ the amount o" radio$enic helium in them% @olt'ood 519836 published the "irst a$e determinations o" uranite based on uraniumClead 5/U0b6 ratios% 9is dates o" >18CA2A ,a are $enerally consistent 'ith modern measurements on these roc!s% (arly studies o" a$e datin$ 'ere summariBed and the "irst $eolo$ical time scale 'as proposed by 9olmes 519126% Geochronolo$y is based on the decay o" a radioacti#e parent isotope 'ith a mole density ? 5moles per unit mass6 to a radio$enic dau$hter isotope 'ith a mole density i and on a nonradio$enic re"erence isotope o" the dau$hter element 'ith a mole density i% The isotope ratio T is de"ined by i , i and the parentCdau$hter composition ratio D is de"ined by TP 518%16
-B(4 Radioactivity and Geochronology
342
? DP % 518%26 i -s a speci"ic e ample, consider the rubidiumCstrontium isotope system% The radio$enic parent rubidium isotope is 83 ;b, the radio$enic dau$hter strontium isotope is 83 Sr, and the nonradio$enic re"erence strontium isotope is
84
Sr% The concentrations o"the radioacti#e parent isotope ? and the radio$enic dau$hter isotope i #ary 'ith time t accordin$ to the principle o" radioacti#e decay d? P l? 518%26 dt di P l?, 518%>6 dt 'here l is the decay constant and time t is measured "or'ard% The concentration o" a radioacti#e parent isotope decreases in time at a rate proportional to the concentration o" the parent isotope, 'hile the concentration o" the radio$enic dau$hter isotope increases in time at the same rate% The inte$rals o" ()uations 518C26 and 518C>6 are ? P ?8 e i P
i8 lt lt
518%A6 6,
R ?8 51 e
518%46 'here subscript Bero re"ers to the concentrations at t P 8% The hal"-li"e t1U2 o"
a radioacti#e parent isotope is de"ined to be the time re)uired "or one-hal" o" the atoms present at t P 8 to decay% @y puttin$ ? P ?8 U2 in ()uation 518C A6 'e obtain 8%A P e or ln 2 8%4921A P % 518%86 l l Some o" the more 'idely studied isotopic systems to$ether 'ith their decay constants and hal"-li#es are $i#en in Table 18C1% The isotope and composition ratios T and D can be determined usin$ ()uations 518C16, 518C26, 518CA6 and 518C46% &" the initial isotope and composition ratios at time t P 8, T8 and D8 respecti#ely, are speci"ied, the subse)uent time e#olution o" a closed system is $i#en by t1U2 P T P D8 51 e D P D8 e
lt lt lt
1U2
518%36
6 R T8
518%96 518%186
(liminatin$ the initial composition ratio D8 "rom this pair o" e)uations $i#es T P T8 R D5elt 16% 518%116 This relation may be used to determine the La$eM o" a roc!% The a$e re"ers to the time 'hen the rele#ant elements became L"roBenM into the roc!% /nder ideal conditions no "urther $ain or loss o" these elements 'ould occur until the roc!s are studied in the laboratory% Thus a measured date may represent the time since the crystalliBation o" the roc! or the time since a metamorphic e#ent 'hen the roc! 'as heated to su""iciently hi$h temperatures "or chemical chan$es to occur% For a number o" isotopic systems it is appropriate to assume that lt 1% :hen this appro imation is applied to ()uations 518C96 and 518C186 'e obtain T P T8 R ltD8 D P D8 % 518%126 518%126
From Table 18C1 'e see that this 'ill be a $ood appro imation "or both the rubidiumCstrontium and samariumCneodymium systems% -s a speci"ic e ample o" a$e datin$, consider a roc! that crystalliBed "rom a melt at time t P 8% :e assume that the isotope ratio in the melt T8 is a constant% The crystalliBed roc! 'ill ha#e a #ariety o" minerals in it% -s these minerals "orm, "ractionation o" the parent and dau$hter isotopes occurs% &n some minerals
-B(4 Radioactivity and Geochronology
Table 18%1 Isotope "ystems Commonly Gsed in Chemical Geodynamics and %heir Properties
;adioacti#e 0arent &sotope 83 ;b 1>3 Sm 228 / 22A / ;adio$enic Dau$hter &sotope 83 Sr 1>2 <d 284 0b 283 0b Stable ;e"erence &sotope 84 Sr 1>> <d 28> 0b 28> 0b Decay 1onstant o" 9al"-.i"e o" ;adioacti#e ;adioacti#e 0arent n1U2 0arent l 5GyrC1 6 5Gyr6 1%>2 18 2 >8%8 2 4%A> 18 184 1%AA1 18 1 >%>49 9%8>8 18 1 8%38>
&sotope System ;ubidiumCStrontium SamariumC<eodymium /raniumC.ead /raniumC.ead
34A
2A> 2A>2
0.9
T 0.8 n P 3.65 Ga
0.7 0 1 2 D 3 4
Fi$ure 18%1 ;ubidiumCstrontium isochron "or the -mitso) $neiss "rom the Godthaab district o" south'estern Greenland% The isotope ratio T is $i#en as a "unction o" the composition ratio D "or #arious minerals% 5Data "rom ,oorbath et al%, 19326% This is one o" the oldest terrestrial roc!s% The correlation 'ith ()uation 518C126 $i#es an a$e n P 2%4A Ga%
the parent isotope is enriched relati#e to the dau$hter isotope% &n these minerals D is lar$e and the isotope ratio T becomes pro$ressi#ely lar$er o#er time% &" T8 'as a constant and i" the roc! 'as not subse)uently altered chemically, then measurements o" T #ersus D "or di""erent minerals in the roc! should lie on a strai$ht line !no'n as the !hole2roc, isochron% The a$e is proportional to the slope o" this line accordin$ to ()uation 518C 126% ;adiometric datin$ techni)ues presently in 'ide use include the decay o" 83 ;b to 83 Sr, 1>3 Sm to 1>2 <d, >8 E to >8 -r, 22A / to 283 0b, and 228 / to 284 0b% :e "irst consider the ;bCSr datin$ method% From Table 18C1 the hal"-li"e "or the system is >8%8 Gyr, thus the linear appro imation $i#en in ()uation 518C126 is applicable% ;ubidium is an al!ali metal that substitutes "or potassium in micas and E-"eldspar% Strontium is an al!aline earth metal that substitutes "or calcium in minerals such as pla$ioclase and apatite% <aturally occurrin$ rubidium typically contains 32%2N 8A ;b and 28%8N 83 ;b% <aturally occurrin$ strontium typically contains 82%AN 88 Sr, 3%8N 83 Sr, 9%9N 84 Sr, and 8%4N 8> Sr% ;adio$enic 83 ;b decays to the stable dau$hter 83 Sr by the emission o" a beta particle and an antineutrino% -n e ample o" a ;bCSr 'hole-roc! isochron is $i#en in Fi$ure 18C1% The
roc! is an -mitso) $neiss "rom :est Greenland and it is one o" the oldest terrestrial roc!s% 0resent #alues o" isotope ratios T are plotted a$ainst present #alues o" parentCdau$hter ratios D "or se#eral minerals in this roc!% The strai$ht line is the best "it o" ()uation 518C126 to the data% To obtain this "it, 'e re)uire that the a$e o" the roc! be n P 2%4A Ga and that the isotope ratio o" the roc! be T8 P 8%38% 5:e use the symbols t and unit yr 'hen time is measured "or'ard "rom the past and the symbols n and unit a 'hen time is measured bac!'ard "rom the present%6 ;adiometric datin$ o" roc!s is not al'ays as simple as this e ample% First, because decay products are isotopes o" elements such as strontium, lead, and ar$on, there is uncertainty in the amount o" the dau$hter element present at t P 8% &n addition, roc!s are not per"ectly closed systems7 there can be some e chan$e o" both parent and dau$hter atoms 'ith surroundin$ material% This is o" particular concern 'hen the decay product is a $as such as ar$on% 0roblem 18%1 Sho' that the mean li"e o" the atoms o" a radioacti#e isotope 'ith decay constant l is l 1 % 0roblem 18%2 Four minerals in a roc! 'ere "ound to ha#e the "ollo'in$ 83 SrU84 Sr and 83 ;bU84 Sr ratiosF 516 8%393 and 12%A, 526 8%398 and 11%2, 526 8%34> and 3%8, 5>6 8%3>2 and >%2% :hat is the a$e o" the roc!O 0roblem 18%2 Fi#e minerals in a shale 'ere "ound to ha#e the "ollo'in$ 83 SrU84 Sr and 83 ;bU84 Sr ratiosF 516 8%38> and 18%8, 526 8%349 and 1>%8, 526 8%3A8 and 9%>, 5>6 8%322 and A%3, 5A6 8%314 and 2%8% :hat is the a$e o" the roc!O 0roblem 18%> T'o minerals, - and @, "rom a roc! ha#e strontium isotope ratios o" 8%39 and 8%33 and rubidiumCstrontium composition ratios o" A%1 and 2%1, respecti#ely% To understand these ratios, assume that the roc! under'ent a metamorphic alteration at some time a"ter its "ormation% -ssume that durin$ the metamorphism 83 Sr 'as completely mi ed but 'as not lost "rom the roc!% Deduce the ori$inal a$e o" the roc! and the a$e o" the metamorphic e#ent% -ssume that the mineral - is 8N o" the roc! and that mineral @ is 18N% Ta!e the ratio o" the number o" common 83 Sr atoms to the number o" 84 Sr atoms to be 8%3% - second important isotope system in chemical $eodynamics is the samariumC neodymium system% Samarium and neodymium are rare earth elements that occur in many silicate and carbonate minerals% The radio$enic parent samarium isotope is 1>3 Sm, the radio$enic dau$hter neodymium is 1>2 <d, and the
non-radio$enic re"erence neodymium isotope is 1>> <d% ;adio$enic 1>3 Sm decays to the stable dau$hter 1>2 <d by alpha particle emission% The SmC <d
system can be used "or $eochronolo$y in e actly the same 'ay as the ;bC Sr system% The primary ad#anta$e o" both systems is that the parent and dau$hter elements are solids and there"ore relati#ely secure a$ainst $ain or loss durin$ the li"e o" the roc!% The main disad#anta$es are the lo' concentrations o" the elements and the relati#ely lon$ hal"-li#es, 'hich ma!e it di""icult to date youn$ roc!s% -nother important isotope system "or $eochronolo$y and chemical $eodynamics is the uraniumClead system% The t'o principal isotopes o" uranium are 228 / and 22A / 'ith concentrations o" 99%23N and 8%32N, respecti#ely% @oth isotopes are radio$enic and decay to lead isotopes throu$h the emission o" T and c particlesF 228 / decays to 284 0b and 22A /r decays to 283 0b% *ther lead isotopes are 28> 0b 'hich is not a radio$enic product and 288 0b 'hich results "rom the decay o" the radio$enic isotope o" thorium 222 Th% The uraniumClead system has the ad#anta$e that t'o di""erent uranium isotopes decay to t'o di""erent lead isotopes 'ith di""erent decay constants 5Table 18C16% The system has the disad#anta$e that the elements are acti#e chemically and the parent and dau$hter elements beha#e )uite di""erently% &n particular, uranium is #ery soluble in 'ater under o idiBin$ conditions% For the uraniumClead isotopic system, the radioacti#e parent isotopes 228 / and 22A / ha#e mole densities ? and ? % The radioacti#e dau$hter isotopes 284 0b and 283 0b ha#e mole densities i and i % The nonradio$enic re"erence isotope is 28> 0b 'ith a mole density i% The decay constants are denoted by l and l % The uraniumClead system is commonly discussed in terms o" the composition ratios ? ? DP mP , 518%1>6 i ? 'here D is the uraniumClead ratio and m is the ratio o" the uranium parent isotopes, 'hich is a uni#ersal constant "or the (arth% &n addition, the lead isotope ratios i TP i
cP
518%1A6
i are introduced% The time e#olution o" a closed system is $i#en by T P D8 51 e D P D8 e

lt l 6t
lt
6 R T8 6 R c8
518%146 518%136 518%186
c P m8 D8 51 e m P m8 e5l
l t
518%196
'here T8 and c8 are initial #alues o" the isotope ratios and D8 and m8 are initial #alues o" the composition ratios% &t is not appropriate to use the linear appro imation o" the e ponentials "or the decay o" uranium isotopes because o" the relati#ely lar$e #alues o" the decay constants 5Table 18C16% &nitial #alues "or the lead isotope ratios at the time the (arth "ormed ha#e been obtained "rom studies o" iron meteorites% +irtually no uranium or thorium is present in these meteorites so that the measured #alues are ta!en to be primordial7 these are T8 P 9%283 and c8 P 18%29>% &nitial #alues o" the composition ratios D8 and m8 at the time the (arth "ormed are related to the composition ratios o" the present bul! silicate (arth Dsp and msp 5assumed to ha#e e#ol#ed as a closed system6 by Dsp P D8 e
ln
e
518%286 P 1 , 123%8 518%216
msp P m8 e5l
l 6ne
'here ne is the a$e o" the (arth% 5<ote that subscript p is used to indicate present 1U123%8 #alues%6 The present uranium isotope ratio is msp P ?s p U?sp P 5m8 P 1U2%146% The present lead isotope ratios "or the bul! silicate (arth are Tsp P Dsp 5elne 16 R 9%283 518%226 D e 16 R 18%29>% 518%226 csp P sp 5el n 123%8 This is !no'n as the 9olmesC9outermans model based on independent deri#ations by 9olmes 519>46 and 9outermans 519>46% (limination o" Dsp "rom ()uations 518C226 and 518C226 $i#es csp 18%29> 1 P Tsp 9%283 123%8 el ne 1 % ln e e1
518%2>6
The dependence o" csp on Tsp de"ines an isochron "or the bul! silicate (arth% ,eteorites are a source o" minerals that "ollo' an isochron% The meteorites ha#e been isolated closed systems since early in the e#olution o" the solar system% Some meteorites ha#e considerably hi$her uraniumClead composition ratios D than other meteorites% The hi$h D meteorites $enerate more radio$enic lead 5284 0b, 283 0b6 and thus ha#e hi$her isotope ratios Tsp and csp % Data "or Tsp and csp "rom se#eral meteorites are $i#en in Fi$ure 18C2% The data correlate 'ith the isochron $i#en by ()uation 518C2>6 ta!in$ the a$e ne P >%AA Ga, 'hich is belie#ed to be the a$e o" the solar system% The time e#olutions o" the isotope ratios in the bul! silicate (arth are $i#en by Ts P Ds 5elt 16 R 9%283 518%2A6
222
40
A = 4.6 Ga B = 4.5 Ga
A B
30 bsp 20
10 10 20 30 40 50 60
asp
Fi$ure 18%2 .ead isotope ratios "or se#eral iron and stony meteorites 50atterson, 19A46% The 283 0b ratios csp are $i#en as a "unction o" the 284 0b ratios Tsp % Three isochrons are $i#en "rom ()uation 518C2>67 the best a$reement is 'ith an a$e ne P >%AA Ga, this is the a$e o" the solar system%
cs P
Ds l t 5e 16 R 18%29> 123%8
t6
518%246 518%236
Ds P Dsp el5ne
'here Ts and cs are the lead isotope ratios at a time t a"ter the "ormation o" the (arth and Ds is the uraniumClead ratio at a time t a"ter the "ormation o" the (arth% The e#olution o" prime#al lead in a closed system is illustrated in Fi$ure 18C2% The isotope ratios cs and Ts "ollo' the $ro'th cur#es $i#en by ()uations 518C2A6, 518C246, and 518C2367 results are $i#en "or present uraniumClead ratios Dsp P 8, 9, 18% The #alues o" cs and Ts at the present time, csp and Tsp , "or #arious #alues o" Dsp de"ine the geochron% The intersections o" the $eochron 'ith the $ro'th cur#es $i#e the #alues o" csp and Tsp "or a closed system 'ith the three #alues Dsp P 8, 9, 18% The #alues o" cs and Ts at a time n in the past "or #arious #alues o" Dsp de"ine an isochron7 isochrons are $i#en in Fi$ure 18C2 "or prime#al lead 'ith n P 1, 2, 2 Ga% For lead to lie on a $ro'th cur#e it must ha#e been a closed system "or the a$e o" the (arth% Some $alena 50bS6 deposits that satis"y this condition are associated 'ith sediments and #olcanics in $reenstone belts and island arcs that 'ere con"ormable 'ith the host roc!s 5in contrast to cross-cuttin$ #eins6% Thus they are !no'n as conforma$le lead deposits% .ead isotope data "or se#eral con"ormable lead deposits are $i#en in Fi$ure 18C>% The cs CTs data in Fi$ure 18C> correlate 'ell 'ith the $ro'th cur#e correspondin$ to Dsp P 9% &t should be emphasiBed that con"ormable lead
Fi$ure 18%2 Gro'th cur#es "or the lead isotope ratios in a closed system o" prime#al lead, Ts and cs , as $i#en by ()uations 518C2A6, 518C246, and 518C 236% ;esults are $i#en "or present uranium-lead ratios Dsp P 8, 9, and 18% The present #alues o" Ts and cs , Tsp and csp , "or all #alues o" the present uranium-lead ratio Dsp de"ine the $eochron% The #alues o" Ts and cs at a time n in the past "or #arious #alues o" Dsp de"ine an isochron% &sochrons are $i#en "or n P 1, 2, 2 Ga%
deposits are those that lie on a $ro'th cur#e% ,ost lead deposits appear to ha#e been deri#ed "rom source re$ions that ha#e $enerated e cess radio$enic lead% This is also the case "or the lead isotopes in both ,*;@ and *&@ as 'ill be sho'n%
18%2 Geochemical ;eser#oirs The (arth is subdi#ided into 'ell-de"ined physical units% -t the center is the solid inner core surrounded by the li)uid outer core% The core is primarily iron and the cores "ormation occurred #ery early in the e#olution o" the (arth% The lar$est unit in the (arth is the mantle% &n some cases it is appropriate to di#ide the mantle into t'o units, the upper mantle and the lo'er mantle% The near-sur"ace layer on the (arth is di#ided into t'o units, the oceanic crust and the continental crust% :e "inally ha#e the oceans and the atmosphere% &n terms o" $eochemistry 'e de"ine each o" these units to be a $eochemical reser#oir% Some o" these reser#oirs are )uite homo$eneous chemically 'hereas others are )uite hetero$eneous% The chemical composition o" the atmosphere is homo$enous 'hereas the chemical composition o" the continental crust is )uite hetero$eneous% &n terms o" chemical $eodynamics, 'e utiliBe a bo model 5Fi$ure 18CA6
Fi$ure 18%> .ead isotope ratios Ts and cs are $i#en by the solid circles "or se#eral con"ormable lead deposits 5Eanase'ich, 19486% The data points correlate 'ell 'ith the $ro'th cur#e "rom ()uations 518C2A6, 518C246, and 518C236 ta!in$ Dsp P 9% The numbers on the $ro'th cur#e represent a$es n in Ga% The oldest lead deposit has an a$e o" about 2%2 Ga% The $eochron is also sho'n%
in 'hich each o" these units is treated as a $eochemical reser#oir% The "ocus o" our attention 'ill be the $eochemical cycle associated 'ith plate tectonics and mantle con#ection% The primary processes are the $eneration o" the oceanic crust at ocean rid$es and its elimination at subduction Bones, the $eneration o" continental crust at subduction Bones, the creation o" oceanic and continental crust at hotspots, and the loss o" continental crust by delamination and sediment subduction% There are also important interactions 'ith the core, oceans, and atmosphere% The creation o" the oceanic crust at mid-ocean rid$es leads to the stron$ concentration o" incompatible elements into the basaltic oceanic crust "rom the upper mantle throu$h the partial meltin$ process% Gases and "luids $enerated by this #olcanism trans"er incompatible and #olatile elements to the oceans and atmosphere% 9ydrothermal circulations also e chan$e material bet'een the oceanic crust and the oceans% The oceanic crust is coated 'ith sediments that are primarily deri#ed "rom the continents% -t ocean trenches the altered oceanic crust is cycled bac! into the (arths interior% -lon$ 'ith the descendin$ lithospheric plate, some continental material is recycled into the mantle at subduction Bones7 this material includes chemically altered oceanic crust and entrained sediments% -t a depth o" about 188 !m, the upper part o" the oceanic crust melts% 0artial meltin$ also occurs in the o#erlyin$ mantle 'ed$e% These processes "urther concentrate the incompatible elements% The result is island-arc #olcanism% This
Atmos*$ r
Volcanism
+c ans
Volcanism
Erosion )"#rot$ rmal % #im nts &slan# Arcs %!'#!ction &slan# Arcs )ot %*ots ( lamination
+c anic Cr!st
,i#- s )ot %*ots
Contin ntal Cr!st
.** r /antl
%!'#!cation ( lamination 0l!m s
1o2 r /antl
E3sol!tion
+!t r Cor
%oli#i4ication
&nn r Cor
Fi$ure 18%A Schematic dia$ram o" the $eochemical reser#oirs and interactions in#ol#ed in the chemical $eodynamic beha#ior o" the (arth%
#olcanism alon$ 'ith continental "lood basalts and hotspot #olcanism "orms ne' continental crust% 9o'e#er, all o" these sources ha#e compositions that are considerably more ma"ic 5basaltic6 than the present silicic composition o" the continental crust% Further di""erentiation o" the continental crust is attributed to remeltin$ e#ents and delamination o" the ma"ic lo'er continental crust% The ma$mas "rom the mantle associated 'ith subduction Bone #olcanics, "lood basalts, and hotspot #olcanism intrude the continental crust and in the presence o" 'ater produce silicic 5$ranitic6 ma$mas% These ma$- mas rise into the upper crust ma!in$ the upper crust more silicic and the lo'er crust more ma"ic% Subse)uently the ma"ic dense roc!s o" the lo'er crust are returned to the mantle by delamination% The net result is that continental crust becomes more silicic and it becomes a reser#oir "or the
incompatible elements, includin$ the radio$enic elements /, Th, and E and the li$ht rare (arth elements% -lthou$h the continental crust is small in #olume, its enrichment in incompatible elements is so lar$e that it constitutes a si$ni"icant $lobal reser#oir "or these elements% The atmosphere constitutes an important reser#oir "or the radio$enic $ases helium and ar$on% :hile the oceanic crust plays a critical role in chemical $eodynamics, its #olume is so small that it can be ne$lected in isotopic mass balances% &sotopic studies o" basalts pro#ide important insi$hts into the mantle reser- #oir or reser#oirs "rom 'hich they are deri#ed% @asalts "ormed at midocean rid$es 5,*;@6 and at oceanic islands 5*&@6 $enerally ha#e the same ma?or element composition% @oth types are $enerated by pressure-release partial meltin$ o" mantle roc!% @ut 'hen considered in terms o" trace element and isotopic compositions, the ,*;@ and *&@ can be )uite di""erent% &sotope ratios and the distributions o" rare earth elements sho' that normal mid- ocean rid$e basalts 5n-,*;@6 are nearly uni"ormly depleted in incompatible elements% - normal ,*;@ is de"ined in this conte t as the oceanic crust o" that portion o" the rid$e system 'ith bathymetric depths $reater than 2 !m% This e cludes, "or e ample, sections near &celand and the -Bores% The uni"ormity o" n-,*;@ is e#idence that the upper mantle "rom 'hich it is deri#ed is nearly homo$eneous as discussed in Section 4C2>% The depletion o" the n-,*;@ source re$ion is complementary to the enrichment o" the continental crust% Thus, it is necessary that the roc!s "rom 'hich the continental crust has been e tracted be uni"ormly mi ed bac! into the upper mantle reser#oir% -lthou$h n-,*;@ is remar!ably uni"orm, other mantle-$enerated basalts are more hetero$eneous% Shallo' parts o" the mid-ocean rid$e system $enerally ha#e enriched mid-ocean rid$e basalts 5e-,*;@6 and *&@ ha#e a 'ide #ariety o" isotopic si$natures% These si$natures ran$e "rom depleted n-,*;@ #alues, to bul! silicate (arth #alues, to enriched continental crust #alues% There"ore, the mantle cannot be a sin$le homo$eneous chemical reser- #oir% Some e-,*;@ and *&@ appear to lie on a mi in$ line bet'een n-,*;@ and a primordial bul!-(arth reser#oir% For such a chemical reser#oir to ha#e sur#i#ed o#er some >%A Gyr it must ha#e remained essentially isolated o#er this period% *ne hypothesis that e plains the mi in$ line is a t'olayer mantle% :ithin the lo'er mantle there is an isolated re$ion 'ith primordial mantle roc!% The primordial lo'er mantle re$ion is separated "rom the depleted upper mantle by a compositional boundary% The density di""erences associated 'ith this compositional boundary pre#ent subducted and delam-
inated lithosphere "rom enterin$ the lo'er mantle% :hen plumes rise "rom the thermal boundary layer abo#e this compositional boundary, they entrain primordial lo'er mantle material% Thus the primordial lo'er mantle re$ion is decreasin$ in siBe 'ith time% The mi in$ o" primordial lo'er mantle roc! 'ith depleted upper mantle roc! can e plain the principal isotopic characteristics o" the basalts $enerated by the ma?or 9a'aiian and &celandic plumes% -n alternati#e e planation "or these $eochemical characteristics is that their source re$ions are LblobsM o" primiti#e mantle scattered throu$h- out the lo'er mantle% ,antle plumes sample these blobs but mid-ocean rid$e #olcanism does not% -lthou$h the mi in$ o" primiti#e and depleted mantle reser#oirs can e plain some o" the $eochemical characteristics o" e-,*;@ and *&@, other characteristics re)uire an alternati#e e planation% The anomalous isotopic si$natures o" *&@s "rom ocean islands such as Tristan, Gou$h, Eer$uelen, St% 9elena, -Bores, and the Society &slands can be attributed to the presence in the depleted mantle reser#oir o" incompletely homo$eniBed subducted oceanic crust and entrained sediments and delaminated continental crust and lithosphere% The obser#ed isotopic anomalies must ha#e de#eloped in old continental crust and lithosphere because chemical hetero$eneities 'ould not ha#e persisted "or the re)uired len$th o" time in the con#ectin$ mantle% @ecause o" the !inematics o" plate tectonics, the mid-ocean system randomly mi$rates o#er the upper mantle% The position o" rid$es is speci"ied by the symmetry o" the sea"loor spreadin$ process% The ascendin$ "lo' beneath an ocean rid$e is $enerally a passi#e process and the #olcanism that $enerates n-,*;@ randomly samples the upper mantle reser#oir% The near uni"ormity o" n-,*;@ in terms o" rare earth distributions and isotope ratios is e#idence that the upper mantle is a nearly uni"orm depleted reser#oir% ( - ceptions are rid$e se$ments that interact 'ith mantle plumes, "or e ample &celand and the -Bores% &n these re$ions the rid$es are anomalously shallo' and e-,*;@ is produced% <o' let us brie"ly consider the core reser#oir% &n Fi$ure 18CA the core reser#oir is di#ided into t'o parts in accordance 'ith our !no'led$e o" the core structure% 1oolin$ o" the (arth throu$h $eolo$ic time has resulted in the $ro'th o" a solid inner core% &n this process, li$ht alloyin$ elements such as silicon are concentrated into the li)uid outer core 'hich becomes pro$ressi#ely richer in the li$ht elements 'ith time% *" particular importance are the possible modes o" interaction o" the lo'er mantle and outer core includin$ chemical reactions at the coreCmantle boundary, e solution o" li$ht elements "rom the outer core into the lo'er mantle, and dissolution o" hea#y elements "rom the lo'er mantle into the outer core% :hile there is much
speculation about coreCmantle mass e chan$e, there is no stron$ e#idence "or si$ni"icant transport bet'een these reser#oirs so in the "ollo'in$ discussions 'e 'ill assume such transport is ne$li$ible and ne$lect the core reser#oir% 18%> - T'o-;eser#oir ,odel 'ith &nstantaneous 1rustal Di""erentiation The simplest model "or the $eochemical e#olution o" the mantle and the continental crust is a t'o-reser#oir model consistin$ o" the continental crust 'ith a mass ,c that 'as instantaneously separated "rom a mantle reser#oir at a time nc be"ore the present 5nc is the a$e o" crustal separation6, the mass o" the complementary mantle reser#oir is ,m % This complementary mantle reser#oir may be the entire mantle, in 'hich case ,m is the mass o" the mantle, or there may be an isolated pristine mantle reser#oir in the deep mantle, in this case ,m is less than the mass o" the mantle% The mass o" the mantle reser#oir and the time o" crustal separation can be constrained by the measured #alues o" the isotope ratios and composition ratios% :hen considerin$ reser#oir models it is standard practice to e press isotope ratios in terms o" a normaliBed isotope ratio de"ined by gP T 1 Ts 18 P
>
i Ui 1 18> , i s Uis 518%286
'here the subscript s re"ers to the bul! silicate (arth, and to e press concentration ratios in terms o" a "ractionation "actor de"ined by "P D 1P Ds ?Ui 1% ?s Uis 518%296
&" the parent isotope ? is more incompatible than the dau$hter isotope i, then " [ 8 in the enriched reser#oir and " \ 8 in the depleted reser#oir% &" the parent isotope ? is less incompatible than the dau$hter isotope i then " \ 8 in the enriched reser#oir and " [ 8 in the depleted reser#oir% &" " [ 8 then the isotope ratio becomes more radio$enic and g [ 87 i" " \ 8 then the isotope ratio is less radio$enic and g \ 8% For the rubidiumC strontium system the parent isotope 83 ;b is more incompatible than the dau$hter isotope 83 Sr and " [ 8 and g [ 8 in the enriched crustal reser#oir and " \ 8 and g \ 8 in the depleted mantle reser#oir% For the samariumC neodymium system the parent isotope 1>3 Sm is less incompatible than the dau$hter isotope 1>2 <d and " \ 8 and g \ 8 in the enriched crustal reser#oir and " [ 8 and g [ 8 in the depleted mantle reser#oir%
To compare model results 'ith obser#ed #alues o" isotopic ratios and "ractionation "actors, 'e need to de#elop e pressions "or the model )uantities "c , "m , gc , and gm , 'here subscripts c and m re"er to the crustal and mantle reser#oirs, respecti#ely% From the de"initions o" g and " in ()uations 518C286 and 518C296 it is clear that 'e need to deri#e "ormulas "or i c 5t6, i m 5t6, i s 5t6, ?c 5t6, ?m 5t6, and ?s 5t6% This can be done usin$ ()uations 518CA6 and 518C46 pro#ided 'e are care"ul to identi"y the amounts o" the parent and dau$hter isotopes in the initial state o" each reser#oir and to measure time "or'ard "rom the instant o" creation o" each reser#oir% 0rior to crustal separation, all material e#ol#es as bul! silicate (arth 'ith an initial time t P 8 and the initial amounts o" the parent and dau$hter isotopes are ?s8 and i s8 % For both the rubidiumCstrontium system and the samariumCneodymium system, appro - it is a $ood appro imation to assume that lt 1% :ith this imation the isotope and composition ratios "or the bul! silicate (arth "rom ()uations 518C126 and 518C126 are $i#en by Ds P D8 Ts P T8 R ltD8 % 518%286 518%216
-B(6 999
%!o2Reservoir Model !ith Instantaneous Crustal &ifferentiation
The composition ratio Ds can be ta!en to be constant and the isotope ratio Ts increases linearly in time% :e assume that the continental crust is instantaneously remo#ed "rom the mantle source reser#oir at t P ne nc % Subse)uent to this separation the t'o reser#oirs C the enriched continental crust and the depleted mantle C e#ol#e as closed $eochemical systems% -lthou$h the continental crustal reser#oir is enriched in both the parent and dau$hter isotopes, the enrichment "actors "or the t'o di""er% For the crustal and mantle source reser#oirs, the initial time is ne nc 5ne is the a$e o" the (arth6 and the initial amounts o" the parent and dau$hter isotopes are 'ritten h?c i, h?m i, hi c i, and hi m i, 'here the brac!ets indicate that a )uantity is e#aluated at t P ne nc % The initial #alues o" h?c i and hi c i in the crustal reser#oir are represented by enrichment "actors Ds? and Dsi relati#e to the bul! silicate (arth at the time o" separation h ic h i i Dsi P ci hi s i Zh?c i D s? 518%226 h?s i
181 his8 i 818
518%226
&n 'ritin$ ()uation 518C226 'e assumed that the radio$enic and nonra dio$enic dau$hter isotopes i and i ha#e the same enrichment "actors% &"
Table 18%2 Present Parameters for the "m/8d and R$/"r Isotope "ystems
&sotopic System 1omposition ratio, bul! silicate (arth Dsp &sotope ratio, bul! silicate (arth Tsp 1omposition ratio, mantle Dmp &sotope ratio, mantle Tmp Fractionation "actor, mantle "mp <ormaliBed isotope ratio, mantle gmp 1omposition ratio, crust Dcp &sotope ratio, crust Tcp Fractionation "actor, crust "cp <ormaliBed isotope ratio, crust gcp (nrichment "actor Dsi G, Gyr 1 SmC<d 8%1943 8%8828 8%A1242 8%88811 8%22 8%8> 8%A121A 8%8881A 8%118 8%22 18 A 8%188 8%812 8%A11> 8%881 8%>A1 8%83 22%8 22 29 9 2A%2 8%82 ;bCSr 58%8892 8%88326 8%38>34 8%888>> 8%828 8%828 8%38231 8%888A8 8%38 8%2> 29 1A 8%9 8%9 8%318 8%82 9%1 18 198 288 IC 13%3 1%A
"ourceF -llHe$re et al%, 1982%
the parent isotope is more incompatible than the dau$hter isotope then Ds? [ Dsi , i" the dau$hter isotope is more incompatible than the parent iso tope, then Dsi [ D s? % The initial #alues o" i and ? in the mantle reser#oir at t P ne nc , hi m i and h?m i, can be related to Dsi and Ds? by the application o" mass conser#ation "or the parent radionuclide and dau$hter species at the time o" crustal separationF
i i,m c i,c R h m his i5,c R ,m 6 P hi h?s i5,c R ,m 6 P h?c i,c R h?m i,m %
518%2>6 518%2A6
- similar e)uation applies to the nonradio$enic isotope% ()uations 518C2>6 and 518C2A6 can be rearran$ed to $i#e hi
m
P his8 i
him i
,c ,m
5D si 16
518%246
P1 hi i s h?m i 5D h?s i
P 1
,c
s?
16,
518%236
,m
'here, consistent 'ith ()uation 518C226, 'e ha#e assumed the e)uality o" the enrichment "actors o" the radio$enic and nonradio$enic dau$hter isotopes in the mantle source reser#oir at the time o" crustal "ormation% -"ter crustal separation the isotope and composition ratios "or the t'o reser#oirs are obtained usin$ ()uations 518C16, 518C26, 518C286 to 518C226, 518C246, and 518C236 'ith the result Dc P D 8 Ds? Dsi 518%286
Dm P D8
,c
5Ds?
u
518%296
16 ,m ,c 5Dsi ,m
16
Tc P T8 R l5ne nc 6D8 R l5nc n 6Dc 518%>86 Tm P T8 R l5ne nc 6D8 R l5nc n 6Dm % 518%>16
/sin$ ()uations 518C286, 518C296, and 518C286 to 518C>16 the "ractionation "actors and normaliBed isotope ratios "or the continental crustal and depleted mantle reser#oirs are $i#en by "c P "m P D s? 1 Dsi
t
518%>26
u
,c ,m
{Ds? 1}
518%>26
,c { 1 , Dsi 1} m
gc P G"c 5nc n 6 'here gm P G"m 5nc n 6 G P 18> and n is the a$e ?s8 Ds 8 l P 18> l i s Ts8
8
518%>>6 518%>A6 518%>46
n ne t%
518%>36
&n 'ritin$ ()uations 518C>>6 and 518C>A6, 'e assumed that lne D8 UT8 1 and that lne 1% /pon e#aluatin$ ()uations 518C>26 to 518C>46 at the present time n P 8, e pressions "or nc and ,c U,m can be obtained in terms o" the measurable )uantities gmp , "cp , and "mp nc P gmp G"mp 1
1
518%>86 % 518%>96
"c p ,c P Dsi 1 "mp ,m
These results are also #alid "or the $radual "ormation o" the continental crust i" nc is interpreted as the mean a$e at 'hich the crust 'as e tracted "rom the mantle reser#oir% :e ne t e#aluate these "ormulas "or nc and ,c U,m usin$ data "rom the 'idely in#esti$ated SmC<d and ;bCSr systems% To employ ()uations 518C>86 and 518C>96 to estimate nc and ,c U,m 'e must speci"y the numerical #alues o" the composition ratios, isotope ratios, and other parameters that enter these e)uations% The #alues 'e need are
121 212
Table 18%2 Parameter Calues for the "m/8d and R$/"r Isotope "ystems Gsed in the %!o2Reservoir Model
&sotope System 75Gyr6 gmp "mp "cp Dsi gcp
1
SmC<d 2A%2 18 58%1886 8%>A1 29 22%8
;bCSr 13%3 29 8%38 IC IC IC
+alues are either "rom Table 18C2 or are calculated 5sho'n in parentheses6% 1alculated #alues are based on a separation a$e nc P 2%1 Ga and a mass ratio ,c U,m P 8%818%
$i#en in Table 18C2 'ith error estimates% ;e"erence #alues o" the samariumC neodymium system "or the bul! silicate (arth are based on data "rom chondritic meteorites 5this is commonly !no'n as a chondritic uni"orm reser#oir, or 19/;6% ,eteorite data do not yield a bul! silicate (arth #alue "or the rubidiumCstrontium composition ratio because the (arth is si$ni"icantly depleted in these elements relati#e to chondritic meteorites% The #alue o" Ds "or the ;bCSr system $i#en in Table 18C2 has been in"erred "rom ;bCSr #ersus SmC<d systematics% +alues "or all rele#ant )uantities are $i#en e cept "or the enrichment "actor Dsi "or the ;bCSr system% This is because o" the e treme #ariability o" the concentrations o" rubidium and strontium in the crust% &n some cases parameter #alues are better constrained "or the SmC<d system and in other cases they are better constrained "or the ;bCSr system% From ()uation 518C>86 and Table 18C2 'e can obtain the mean a$e o" the crustal reser#oir% Substitution o" #alues $i#es nc P 2%2 Ga "or the SmC <d system and nc P 2%1 Ga "or the ;bCSr system% This di""erence in a$es can be attributed either to uncertainties in the isotope parameters or to di""erential crustal recyclin$% The uncertainties in the isotope parameters, particularly "mp , are su""iciently lar$e to e plain the di""erence in a$es% The #alues "or mantle "ractionation are better constrained "or the ;bCSr system because the de$ree o" "ractionation is lar$er% Thus the lo'er a$e o" 2%1 Ga is "a#ored by most $eochemists% &sotope parameters consistent 'ith this a$e are $i#en in Table 18C2% The time e#olution o" the SmC<d system consistent 'ith the #alues in Table 18C2 is $i#en in Fi$ures 18C4 and 18C3% 1omposition ratios D and isotope ratios T are $i#en as "unctions o" time t and a$e n in Fi$ure 18C4 "or the bul! silicate (arth, depleted mantle, and enriched
-B(6 %!o2Reservoir Model !ith Instantaneous Crustal &ifferentiation 121212
Fi$ure 18%4 Time e#olution o" the SmC<d system consistent 'ith the #alues $i#en in Table 18C2% 5a6 1omposition ratios D are $i#en as a "unction o" time t and a$e n "or the bul! silicate (arth, the depleted mantle, and the enriched continental crustal reser#oirs% 5$6 &sotope ratios T are $i#en as a "unction o" time t and a$e n "or the bul! silicate (arth, depleted mantle, and enriched continental crustal reser#oirs%
continental crustal reser#oirs% The continental crust is separated "rom the depleted mantle reser#oir at an a$e nc P 2%1 Ga% The mantle is enriched in the parent isotope 1>3 Sm and the crust is enriched in the dau$hter isotope 1>2 <d relati#e to the bul! silicate (arth, thus Dm [ Ds [ Dc in Fi$ure 18C 4a% @ecause o" its enrichment in the parent isotope, the mantle becomes more radio$enic than the bul! silicate (arth% @ecause o" its depletion in the radio$enic isotope, the crust becomes less radio$enic than the bul! silicate (arth, thus Tm [ Ts [ Tc in Fi$ure 18C4b% Fractionation "actors " and normaliBed isotope ratios g "or the SmC<d system are $i#en as "unctions o" time t and a$e n in Fi$ure 18C3% +alues are $i#en "or the bul! silicate (arth, depleted mantle, and enriched continental crustal reser#oirs% The beha#ior o" the "ractionation "actors in Fi$ure 18C3a is essentially similar to the beha#ior o" the composition ratios in Fi$ure 18C 4a% The positi#e #alues o" g "or the depleted mantle reser#oir in Fi$ure 18C3b
1>1 >1>
Fi$ure 18%3 Time e#olution o" the SmC<d system consistent 'ith the #alues $i#en in Table 18C2% 5a6 Fractionation "actors f are $i#en as a "unction o" time t and a$e n "or the bul! silicate (arth, the depleted mantle, and the enriched continental crustal reser#oirs% 5$6 <ormaliBed isotope ratios g are $i#en as a "unction o" time t and a$e n "or the bul! silicate (arth, depleted mantle, and enriched continental crustal reser#oirs%
indicate relati#e enrichment in the parent isotope% Similarly, the ne$ati#e #alues o" g "or the enriched continental crustal reser#oir indicate relati#e depletion in the parent isotope% :e 'ill no' determine the constraints on reser#oir masses% &" nc P 2%1 Ga and 5gmp 6<d P 18 'e "ind "rom ()uation 518C>86 that 5"mp 6<d P 8%188, a #alue that is 'ithin the uncertainties $i#en in Table 18C2% To obtain the ratio o" the mass o" the continental crust to the mass o" the depleted mantle usin$ ()uation 518C>96 the SmC<d system must be used since 5"cp 6Sr is poorly constrained% :ith the assumption 5"mp 6<d P 8%188 and the use o" other #alues "rom Table 18C2, ()uation 518C>96 $i#es ,c U,m P 8%818% For comparison, the ratio o" the mass o" the crust to the mass o" the entire mantle is 8%88A8 and the ratio o" the mass o" the crust to the mass o" the mantle abo#e the 448-!m seismic discontinuity is 8%8188% This mass balance su$$ests that the depleted upper mantle reser#oir constitutes about one-hal" o" the mantle and that the remainder o" the mantle is a near-primordial reser#oir
in the lo'er mantle% There are certainly ma?or uncertainties in ma!in$ this determination o" the masses o" the mantle reser#oirs% The uncertainty in the #alue o" 5"mp 6<d is the most important% 9o'e#er, as 'e 'ill discuss, other $eochemical obser#ations support the presence o" a near-primordial reser#oir o" appro imately this siBe in the lo'er mantle% The /C0b system can also be studied in the conte t o" the instantaneous crustal di""erentiation model% For the uraniumClead system, the linear appro imation "or radioacti#e decay cannot be used and the "ull e ponential relation is re)uired7 also, the composition ratios are not constant% -t the time o" crustal separation t P ne nc , the applicable bul! silicate (arth #alues o" the isotope and composition ratios Tsc , csc , Dsc , and msc are obtained "rom ()uations 518C146 to 518C196 'ith the result Tsc P D8 51 e Dsc P D8 e msc P m8 e
l5n n 6 e c
-B(6 %!o2Reservoir Model !ith Instantaneous Crustal &ifferentiation 1A1A1A
6 R T8 6 R c8
518%A86 518%A16 518%A26
csc P D8 m8 51 e
l 5ne nc 6
l5ne nc 6
5ll 65ne nc 6
518%A26
*nly the composition ratio D chan$es 'hen the crust is "ormed because Tsc , csc , and msc are isotope ratios% From ()uations 518C1>6, 518C226, and 518C226, the chan$es in D are related to the mean enrichment "actors by Dc8 Ds ? Dsc P ?c8 isc ic8 ?sc P Dsi 518%AA6 518%A>6
Dm8 1 5,c U,m 65Ds? v, P 16 Dsc 1 5,c U,m 65Dsi 16
'here Dc8 and Dm8 are the composition ratios "or the enriched crust and depleted mantle, respecti#ely, at the time o" "ormation o" the crust% The parameter v is a measure o" the "ractionation at this time% Formulas "or the present lead isotope ratios o" the crust and mantle can be "ound by the manipulation o" the precedin$ e)uations Tcp P Dsp elne D sp ccp P 123%8
ne e
elnc R
Ds? lnc 5e 16 R T 8 Dsi 518%A46 D s? Dsi

l nc
l nc
5e
16 R c8 518%A36
141 414
Tmp P Dsp de
lne
elnc R v5elnc 16e R T8
518%A86
15.8 G oc$ron 15.7
15.6 cm* 15.5 /+,B 15.4 Ds* = 8.05 15.3 17 18 19 Tm* 20 21
Fi$ure 18%8 0redicted #alues o" the lead isotope ratios "or the depleted mantle based on a model o" instantaneous crustal "ormation% The $eochron "or the present bul! silicate (arth "rom ()uations 518C226 and 518C226 is sho'n% The uraniumClead composition ratio "or the bul! silicate (arth is assumed to be Dsp P 8%8A% The isotope ratios cmp and Tmp "or the depleted mantle "rom ()uations 518CA86 and 518CA96 are $i#en "or #arious a$es nc o" crustal "ormation by the solid lines% +alues correspondin$ to v P 1%A, 2%8, and 2%A, as de"ined in ()uation 518CAA6, are sho'n by the dotted lines% The distance "rom the $eochron increases 'ith increased remo#al o" lead "rom the mantle, i%e%, lar$er v% The intersections o" the dotted lines 'ith the solid lines $i#e the re)uired #alues o" v% The "ield "or lead data obtained "rom ,*;@ 5:hite, 198A6 is also sho'n%
Dsp cmp P 123%8
dene
enc
R v5e
l nc
16e R c8 , 518%A96
'here ()uations 518C286 and 518C216 ha#e been used to introduce present bul! silicate (arth #alues% .et us compare these lead isotope results "or instantaneous crustal di""erentiation 'ith ,*;@ data% The ,*;@ isotope data are ta!en to be representati#e o" the depleted mantle reser#oir% The en#elope "or the correlation bet'een cmp and Tmp "or the lead isotope data "rom ,*;@ is sho'n in Fi$ure 18C8% The $eochron "rom ()uations 518C226 and 518C226 is sho'n "or ne P >%AA Ga% For the bul! silicate (arth, Dsp P 8%8A is a pre"erred #alue% The point on the $eochron correspondin$ to this uraniumC lead ratio is indicated in Fi$ure 18C8% This model assumes that lead 'as pre"erentially se$re$ated into the continental crust at a time nc a$o% Thus v, de"ined by ()uation 518CAA6, is $reater than 1 since Dsi is lar$er than Ds? % The ma$-
Table 18%> Isotope &ecay Reactions %hat Produce Rare Gases and the ssociated &ecay Constants
&sotopic ;eaction
228 22A
Decay 1onstant l 5GyrC1 6
9al"-.i"e n1U2 5Gyr6
/ 284 0b R 8 > 9e / 283 0b R 3 > 9e 222 Th 288 0b R 4 > 9e >8 E >8 -r 5>8 E >8 -r, >8 1a6
1%AA1 181 >%>49 9%8>9 18 1 8%3828 2 >%9>8 18 1>%889 A%81 18 2 11%92 5A%A>2 18 1 6 51%2A8A6
"ourceF -llHe$re et al%, 1983%
nitude o" v is a measure o" the de$ree o" pre"erential se$re$ation o" uranium into the mantle reser#oir% :e assume the lead isotope data "or ,*;@ re"lect the isotopic state o" the depleted mantle reser#ior% The dependence o" cmp on Tmp "or nc P 1, 2, and 2 Ga is $i#en by the solid lines in Fi$ure 18C8% The distance "rom the $eochron increases as v increases% +alues correspondin$ to v P 1%A, 2%8, and 2%A are illustrated by the dotted lines% The ,*;@ "ield can be e plained by a crustal se$re$ation a$e nc bet'een about 1%A and 2%8 Ga and #alues o" v bet'een 1 and 2% The mean a$e o" the continental crust in"erred "rom the model and the ,*;@ lead isotope data is about 1%3 Ga% :ith v P 1%A, Ds? P 22, and ,c U,m P 8%818, ()uation 518C>46 $i#es Dsi P AA7 thus, lead must be stron$ly "ractionated into the continental crust% The model "or ,*;@ lead based on instantaneous crustal "ormation re)uires the remo#al o" lead% The upper continental crust is not enriched in lead relati#e to uranium, ho'e#er, and thus there is no direct e#idence that the continental crust ser#es as the complementary lead-enriched reser#oir% This lac! o" an ob#ious lead-enriched reser#oir has become !no'n as the missin$ lead parado % The missin$ lead mi$ht reside in the lo'er continental crust or in the core% @ecause the mean a$e o" e traction "rom the mantle o" the missin$ lead is bet'een 1%A and 2%8 Ga and the a$e o" core "ormation is about >%A Ga, the core is unli!ely to be the reser#oir o" the missin$ lead%
0roblem 18%A &sotope studies sho' that the uraniumCthorium ratio is >%8 "or the bul! silicate (arth, A%A "or the continental crust, and 2%A "or the ,*;@ source reser#oir% :hat "raction o" the mantle is the ,*;@ source reser#oirO
18%A <oble Gas Systems &n this section 'e consider the t'o isotopic systems 5listed in Table 18C >6 that produce the noble $ases helium and ar$on% The radio$enic parent isotopes o" these $ases are the principal heat-producin$ isotopes in the mantle% The noble $as systems ha#e both ad#anta$es and disad#anta$es 'hen used in reser#oir modelin$% The $ases 5particularly helium6 ha#e hi$h di""usion rates in the mantle and there"ore mi$rate readily% Thus, measured concentrations must be treated 'ith considerable care7 ho'e#er, the hi$h mobility leads to hi$h rates o" mantle de$assin$, and measurements on concentrations and "lu es in the oceans and the atmosphere can be interpreted to pro#ide insi$hts into rates o" production and transport in the mantle% The noble $as obser#ations on ,*;@ and *&@ can also be interpreted in terms o" a Lprimiti#eM si$nature% The (arths mantle 5and presumably the core6 'as e tensi#ely out$assed durin$ accretion% 9i$h concentrations o" nonradio$enic noble $as isotopes 2 9e and 24 -r are e#idence "or a primiti#e mantle 5or core6 reser#oir that 'as less e tensi#ely out$assed% There is essentially no primordial >8 -r in the (arth7 "or practical purposes all >8 -r "ound in the atmosphere is the result o" the radioacti#e decay o" >8 E 'ithin the (arths interior% The present isotope ratio "or the atmosphere is >8 -rU24 -r P 29A%A% The mass o" >8 -r in the atmosphere is ,>8 -r P 4%48 1814 !$% @ecause o" the hea#y atomic mass o" ar$on, si$ni"icant )uantities o" the ar$on isotopes do not escape "rom the atmosphere into space% The >8 -r in the (arths atmosphere must ha#e been transported "rom the (arths interior to the atmosphere% Transport processes include #olcanism, hydrothermal circulations throu$h the continental and oceanic crusts, and erosion% -s 'e discussed earlier, the "undamental hypothesis o" chemical $eodynamics is that the enriched continental crust has been separated "rom a depleted mantle reser#oir% This depleted mantle reser#oir may be all or part o" the mantle% &n the latter case there 'ill be a second buried, nearpristine mantle reser#oir% The near-pristine reser#oir 'ould ha#e elemental concentrations close to those o" the bul! silicate (arth% Similarly, the sum o" the enriched continental crustal reser#oir and the depleted mantle reser#oir 'ill also ha#e elemental concentrations close to those o" the bul! silicate (arth% :e assume that a lar$e "raction o" the ar$on produced by the radioacti#e decay o" potassium to ar$on has escaped "rom the crust and upper mantle reser#oir to the atmosphere% The mass o" >8 -r produced o#er the a$e o" the (arth ne P >%AA Ga in a reser#oir o" mass , is related to the mean
-B(> 8o$le Gas "ystems
383
concentration o" potassium in the reser#oir 1E by ,>8 -r P 1%19 18

2 > l>8 -r de
l>8 E
p5l>8 E ne 6 1e, 1E , 518%486
'here l>8 -r P A%81 18 Gyr is the decay constant o" >8 E to >8 -r and o" >8 E to both >8 -r and l>8E P A%A>2 18 1 Gyr is the decay constant >8 1a 5see Table 18C>6% The constant 1%19 18 > is the "raction o" potassium that is the isotope >8 E% From Table >C1 'e ta!e 1E P 21 18 A and 'ith ,>8 -r P 4%48 1814 !$ "rom abo#e and ne P >%AA Ga 'e "ind "rom ()uation 518C486 that , P 1%28 182> !$% This is 2>N o" the mass o" the entire mantle% The mass o" >8 -r in the atmosphere is 2>N o" the mass o" >8 -r that has been produced by the decay o" >8 E in the crust and mantle o#er the past >%AA Ga% *ne e planation is that there is a primordial reser#oir in the mantle "rom 'hich the ar$on has not escaped to the atmosphere 'ith a mass that is 44N o" the entire mantle% This is consistent 'ith the A8N mass "or a primordial reser#oir deduced on the basis o" <dCSm and ;bCSr systematics in Section 18C>% :hile $lobal balances o" >8 -r can be carried out, it is not possible to do the same "or > 9e because o" the relati#ely rapid loss o" this li$ht constituent "rom the atmosphere% The isotope composition ratio 5molal6 o" primordial helium "rom carbonaceous chondrites enriched in $ases is > 9eU2 9e P 1A88C 2A88% The present isotope ratio "or the atmosphere is > 9eU2 9e P 3%2 18A % lar$e "raction o" the > 9e in the atmosphere is attributed to the decay o" 22A /, 228 /, and 222 Th in the mantle and crust 5Table 18C>6% This radio$enic helium plus primordial helium mi$rate "rom the mantle and crust to the oceans and atmosphere% - small amount o" 2 9e is also produced in the (arths interior by nuclear reactions in#ol#in$ 4 .i% The helium isotopes escape "rom the atmosphere because o" their relati#ely lo' masses% The residence time o" helium in the atmosphere is estimated to be A88,888 years% 2 9e is also $enerated in the upper atmosphere by cosmic ray bombardment% ,easurements o" the > 9eU2 9e ratios "or $ases trapped in ,*;@ ha#e relati#ely little scatter 'ith a mean #alue o" about > 9eU2 9e 84,888% The #alues o" > 9eU2 9e "or ,*;@ are a "actor o" ei$ht smaller than the atmospheric #alue% The > 9eU2 9e ratio "rom the mantle is smaller than the > 9eU2 9e ratio in the atmosphere because the helium "lu into the atmosphere "rom the continents is hi$hly radio$enic, i%e%, hi$h > 9eU2 9e% &n direct contrast to ,*;@, measurements o" the > 9eU2 9e ratios "or $ases trapped in basalts "rom the 9a'aiian &slands sho' si$ni"icantly
lo'er > 9eU2 9e ratios% Samples "rom .oihi seamount $i#e > 9eU2 9e P 28,888
282 828
18,888 'ith samples "rom other 9a'aiian #olcanoes $i#in$ some'hat hi$her #alues% The interpretation o" the hi$h 2 9e #alues "rom the 9a'aiian #olcanoes is that these #olcanoes are samplin$ a primiti#e reser#oir% 9i$h 2 9e #alues are also "ound in &celand% 18%4 &sotope Systematics o" *&@ So "ar 'e ha#e concentrated on the crustal and depleted mantle reser#oirs% :e no' turn to the isotope systematics o" *&@% /nli!e ,*;@, the *&@ ha#e considerable isotopic #ariability% &nterpretations o" this #ariability re)uire an identi"ication o" *&@ sources% &t is clear that *&@ cannot come entirely "rom the near-homo$eneous upper mantle reser#oir that is the source o" ,*;@% The ocean islands 'here basalts are "ound are hotspots attributed to partial meltin$ in mantle plumes% &n turn, the li!ely source o" the mantle plumes is the instability o" the hot thermal boundary layer at the base o" the mantle reser#oir that is the source o" ,*;@% This boundary layer could lie at the coreCmantle boundary or it could be at the upper boundary o" a primordial reser#oir in the lo'er mantle% 0ressure-release meltin$ occurs in the ascendin$ plume material resultin$ in *&@% The isotopic si$natures o" *&@ can be attributed to the source re$ion in the thermal boundary layer and to material entrained in the plume as it ascends throu$h the mantle% &" mantle con#ection is layered, then at least part o" the si$nature can be attributed to a pristine or near-pristine layer in the lo'er mantle% - second possible source o" anomalous isotopic si$natures is subducted oceanic lithosphere and delaminated continental lithosphere% These units sin! throu$h the mantle and are $radually heated by adiabatic compression and by heat conduction "rom the hot surroundin$ mantle% -"ter heatin$, this material can become entrained in the $eneral mantle circulation and e#entually into up'ellin$ plumes, or the sin!in$ material can descend to the bottom o" the con#ectin$ re$ion, be heated 'ithin the lo'er thermal boundary layer, and then s'ept into the plumes risin$ "rom the boundary layer% -s part o" the ascendin$ mantle plumes, the "ormerly subducted and delaminated material can contribute to the isotopic hetero$eneity associated 'ith *&@% Thus, some o" the isotopic hetero$enity o" *&@ could ha#e de#eloped 'ithin the a$in$ continental crust and mantle lithosphere% The isotope systematics o" *&@ are illustrated in Fi$ures 18C9 to 18C11% <ormaliBed isotope ratios "or the samariumCneodymium system gp 5<d6 are plotted a$ainst the normaliBed isotope ratios "or the rubidiumCstrontium system gp 5Sr6 in Fi$ure 18C9% @y de"inition, the bul! silicate (arth 5@S(6 lies at gp 5<d6 P gp 5Sr6 P 8% -s discussed in Section 18C>, our pre"erred #alues
-B(? Isotope "ystematics of 1I0
212 121
Fi$ure 18%9 <eodymiumCstrontium isotope correlations "or ,*;@ and *&@% <ormaliBed isotope ratios "or the samariumCneodymium system gp 5<d6 are plotted a$ainst the normaliBed isotope ratios "or the rubidiumC strontium system gp 5Sr6% *bser#ations lie 'ithin the speci"ied en#elopes% The data "or the basalts are di#ided into "i#e $roupsF &% ,*;@7 includes data "rom the ,id--tlantic ;id$e 5-r6, (ast 0aci"ic ;ise 50;6, the south- 'est section o" the &ndian ;id$e 5&;6, and (aster &sland 5(6% &&% 9a'aii 596% &&&% Eer$uelen 5E67 also includes data "rom Gou$h 5Go6, Tristan da 1unha 5T6, and the :al#is ;id$e 5:6% &+% St% 9elena 5S967 also includes data "rom -scension 5-s6, the -ustrals 5-u6, and Guadalupe 5Gu6% +% Society 5So67 also includes data "rom Samoa 5S-6, the -Bores 5-B6, ;apa ;id$e 5;6, ,acDonald 5,D6, and @ou#et 5@6% Solid circles indicate bul! silicate (arth 5@S(6 #alues, gp 5<d6 P gp 5Sr6 P 8, and depleted mantle reser#oir 5D,;6 #alues, gp 5<d6 P 18 and gp 5Sr6 P 29%
"or the depleted mantle reser#oir 5D,;6 are gp 5<d6 P 18 and gp 5Sr6 P 29 5Table 18C26% The actual measurements "or ,*;@ lie 'ithin the en#elopes $i#en by -r 5mid--tlantic rid$e6, 0; 5east 0aci"ic rise6, and &; 5the south'est section o" the &ndian ;id$e6% The classi"ication o" the *&@ 'ill be discussed later% The normaliBed isotope ratios "or the rubidiumC strontium system gp 5Sr6 are plotted a$ainst the lead 284 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios Tp 50b6 in Fi$ure 18C18% The @S( lies at gp 5Sr6 P 8 and Tp 50b6 P 13%AA% The lead 283 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios cp 50b6 are plotted a$ainst the lead 284 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios Tp 50b6 in Fi$ure 18C11% This is an e tension o" the leadC lead correlation $i#en in Fi$ure 18C8 to include the *&@% The @S( lies at cp 50b6 P 1A%> and Tp 50b6 P 13%4 and the $eochron "or the @S( "rom ()uations 518C226 and 518C226 is $i#en "or Dsp P 8%8A% To systematiBe these results 'e consider "our ,*;@ and *&@ classi"ications as "ollo'sF ,*;@ 5&6% &n addition to normal mid-ocean rid$e basalts 5n-,*;@6,
222 222
Fi$ure 18%18 StrontiumClead isotope correlations "or ,*;@ and *&@% <ormaliBed isotope ratios "or the rubidiumCstrontium system gp 5Sr6 are plotted a$ainst the 284 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios Tp 50b6% The data are di#ided into "i#e $roups as described in Fi$ure 18C9% The solid circle indicates @S( #alues, gp 5Sr6 P 8 and Tp 50b6 P 13%4%
this $roup includes a substantial "raction o" the *&@ "rom &celand, the Galapa$os, and (aster &sland% The source is the 'ell-mi ed, depleted upper mantle reser#oir, as discussed be"ore% ,antle plumes contribute to the basaltic #olcanism on &celand, Galapa$os, and (aster &sland, but much o" this basaltic #olcanism comes "rom the same depleted mantle reser#oir as n-,*;@% The <dCSr correlation "or ,*;@ "rom the (ast 0aci"ic ;ise in Fi$ure 18C9 ti$htly clusters near the depleted mantle #alue, 5gmp 6<d P 18 and 5gmp 6Sr P 29% This can be attributed to the lar$e )uantities o" basalt produced by this rapidly spreadin$ rid$e% 9a'aii 5&&6% The 9a'aiian hotspot is the most #oluminous source o" *&@% 9a'aiian basalts appear to be a mi ture bet'een basalts "rom the depleted mantle reser#oir and basalts "rom a relati#ely pristine reser#oir% The positions o" 9a'aii in the isotope correlation plots o" Fi$ures 18C9 to 18C11 con"irm this association% &n particular, the 9a'aiian basalts in the <dCSr correlation plot $i#en in Fi$ure 18C9 lie on a mi in$ line trend bet'een the D,; and the @S(% @oth 9a'aii and &celand can be associated 'ith stron$ mantle plumes that contain considerable mantle roc! "rom the depleted n,*;@ source reser#oir but also contain entrained pristine mantle roc!% The association o" pristine mantle roc! is consistent 'ith primordial noble $as si$natures discussed in the pre#ious section%
-B(? Isotope "ystematics of 1I0
222 222
Fi$ure 18%11 .ead-lead isotope correlations "or ,*;@ and *&@% The 283 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios cp 50b6 are plotted a$ainst the 284 0bU28> 0b isotope ratios Tp 50b6% The data "or basalts are di#ided into "i#e $roups as described in Fi$ure 18C9% The solid circle indicates @S( #alues, cp 50b6 P 1A%> and Tp 50b6 P 13%4%
Eer$uelen 5&&&6% The *&@ "rom Eer$uelen ha#e a dis-tincti#e enriched isotopic si$nature relati#e to ,*;@% This si$nature is also "ound in *&@ "rom Gou$h, Tristan da 1unha, and the :al#is ;id$e% This $roup is re"erred to as enriched mantle member number one 5(,&6% These islands ha#e a nearly pristine si$nature "or Sr, <d, and 0b but not "or 2 9e% The pristine si$nature is particularly stri!in$ in the SrC0b correlation plot in Fi$ure 18C 18% The 5cp 60b C5Tp 60b correlation in Fi$ure 18C11 sho's relati#ely little lead loss but an old model a$e% *ne interpretation is that the source is recently delaminated old continental lithosphere% Such a delamination 'ould not be e pected to include the radio$enic upper continental crust% &ts Sr, <d, and 0b isotope si$natures 'ould be nearly pristine but 2 9e 'ould be lo' because this mantle is out$assed% St% 9elena 5&+6% The *&@ "rom St% 9elena is distincti#e in ha#in$ su""ered a #ery lar$e lead loss relati#e to ,*;@ and other *&@% This si$nature is also "ound in *&@ "rom -scension, the -ustrals, and Guadalupe% The lar$e lead loss associated 'ith this $roup implies hi$h #alues "or the uraniumC lead ratio D7 "or this reason they are re"erred to as 9&,/% The source o" the lar$e #alues o" D is the radio$enic continental crust% This *&@ $roup can be attributed to mi in$ bet'een depleted mantle and delaminated old continental crust%
2>2 >2>
Collateral Reading
Society 5+6% The *&@ "rom the Society &slands also ha#e a distincti#e enriched isotopic si$nature% &t is distinct "rom the Eer$uelen $roup in the strontium isotopic si$nature% The end member o" this $roup is denoted as the enriched mantle member number t'o 5(,&&6% This $roup includes the ,ar)uesas, Samoa, and the -Bores includin$ Sao ,i$uel, ;apa ;id$e, ,ac- Donald, and @ou#et% The *&@ "rom the Society &slands and Samoa are particularly anomalous in <dCSr systematics as sho'n in Fi$ure 18C9% The end member o" this $roup lies on a mi in$ line bet'een the depleted mantle reser#oir and marine sediments% The -Bores ha#e a lar$e spread that can be associated 'ith a mi in$ line bet'een the depleted mantle and subducted youn$ continental crust% The lar$e lead loss sho'n in the 5cp 60b C5Tp 60b correlation 5Fi$ure 18C116 can be associated 'ith subducted radio$enic sediments "rom the upper continental crust% The Eer$uelen, St% 9elena, and Society types o" *&@ are associated 'ith 'ea! plumes that do not entrain pristine roc!% 9o'e#er, all the *&@ include substantial "ractions o" basalts "rom the depleted mantle reser#oir% The neodymiumCstrontium correlation $i#en in Fi$ure 18C9 sho's a stron$ mi in$-line trend bet'een depleted ,*;@ and @S(% This trend is stron$ e#idence "or the e istence o" a near-pristine reser#oir% *nly the Society $roup sho's a si$ni"icant de#iation "rom the trend% -s sho'n in Fi$ure 18C11 all *&@ lie to the ri$ht o" the $eochron% This characteristic lead si$nature may ha#e de#eloped in the continental crust% The *&@ hetero$eneities probably arise "rom t'o sourcesF 516 nearly pristine roc! that is entrained "rom the lo'er mantle and 526 continental crust and mantle that ha#e recently been subducted or delaminated% 9a'aii and &celand are e amples o" the entrainment o" lo'er mantle material% The basalts "rom these islands lie on mi in$ lines bet'een depleted and primiti#e isotopic ratios and ha#e e cess primordial rare $as isotopes% *ther *&@ are di#ided into three typesF The Eer$uelen $roup is characteriBed by an isotopic si$nature associated 'ith a contribution "rom recently delaminated continental lithosphere% The St % 9elena $roup is characteriBed by a #ery lar$e lead loss attributed to old, radio$enic continental crust% The Society $roup has anomalous <dCSr systematics and a lar$e lead loss that is attributed to youn$ continental crust%
1ollateral ;eadin$ -llHe$re, 1% J%, S% ;% 9art, and J%-F% ,inster 519826, 1hemical structure and e#olution o" the mantle and continents determined by in#ersion o" <d
Collateral Reading
392
and Sr isotopic data, &&% <umerical e periments and discussion, Earth Planet( "ci( Lett( 44, 191C212% -llHe$re, 1% J%, T% Staudacher, and 0% Sarda 519836, ;are $as systematicsF Formation o" the atmosphere, e#olution and structure o" the (arths mantle% Earth Planet( "ci( Lett( 81, 123C1A8% @olt'ood, @% @% 519836, *n the ultimate disinte$ration products o" the radioacti#e elements, m( J( "ci( >, 33C88% 9olmes, -% 519126, %he ge of the Earth 59arper and @rothers, .ondon6 19> p% 9olmes, -% 519>46, -n estimate o" the a$e o" the (arth, 8ature 1A3, 488C 48>% 9outermans, F% G% 519>46, Die isotopenhVau"i$!eiten in natuVrlichen @lei und das -lter des /rans, 8atur!eiss% 22, 18AC184, 219% Eanase'ich, (% ;% 519486, The interpretation o" lead isotopes and their $eolo$ical si$ni"icance% &n Radiometric &ating for Geologists, pp% 1>3C 222, eds% (% &% 9amilton and ;% ,% Far)uhar 5&nterscience 0ublishers, .ondon6% ,oorbath, S%, ;% E% *<ions, ;% J% 0an!hurst, <% 9% Gale, and +% ;% ,cGre$or 519326, Further rubidiumCstrontium a$e determinations on the #ery early 0recambrian roc!s o" the Godthaab district, :est Greenland, 8ature Phys( "ci( 2>8, 38C82% 0atterson, 1% 1% 519A46, -$e o" meteorites and the (arth, Geochim( Cos2 mochim( cta 18, 228C223% :hite, :% 5198A6, Sources o" oceanic basaltsF ;adio$enic isotope data, Ge2 ology 12, 11AC118% 1ollateral ;eadin$ Dic!in, -% 0%, Radiogenic Isotope Geology 51ambrid$e /ni#ersity 0ress, 1ambrid$e, 199A6% -n ad#anced and #ery complete treatment o" isotope $eochemistry% The isotope systematics o" the ;bCSr, SmC<d, /CThC0b, ;eC*s, and .uC 9" systems are $i#en% ;are $as $eochemistry and /-series $eochemistry are treated% ( perimental techni)ues, "ission trac! datin$, cosmo$enic nuclides, and e tinct radionuclides are co#ered alon$ 'ith a #ariety o" applications% Faure, G%, Principles of Isotope Geology, 2nd edition 5:iley, <e' =or!, 19846% - comprehensi#e treatment o" the uses o" isotopes in $eolo$y% +arious a$e
242 424
Collateral Reading
datin$ techni)ues are comprehensi#ely re#ie'ed% The radio$enic systematics o" the ;bCSr, SmC<d, .uC9", ;eC*s, and /CThC0b systems are $i#en% The stable isotopic systems o" o y$en, hydro$en, carbon, nitro$en, and sul"ur are also treated%
-ppendi Symbols and /nits
-%1 S& /nits
282 828
"ym$ols and Gnits
Guantity @asic /nits .en$th Time ,ass Temperature (lectrical current Deri#ed /nits Force (ner$y 0o'er 0ressure Fre)uency 1har$e 1apacitance induction ,ultiples o" Ten 182 184 189 1812 181A 18 18 182 184 189 1812 181A 1818
/nit meter second !ilo$ram Eel#in ampere ne'ton ?oule 'att pascal hertB coulomb "arad
Symbol m s !$ E < J : 0a 9B 1 F
()ui#alent
2 !$ m s 2 !$ m s 2 2 !$ m s 2 1 2 !$ m s s 1 -s 12 s2 !$ 1 m 2
milli micro nano pico "emto atto !ilo me$a $i$a tera peta e a
m D n p " a ! , G T 0 (
(4 Conversion Factors
-%2 1on#ersion Factors
292 929
282 828
"ym$ols and Gnits
To 1on#ert acre an$strom, |astronomical unit, -/ bar, b
To "t2 m2 cm nm cm Tm atm dynecm 2 2 lb in mm 9$ ,0a $al 5/S6 liter cal ?oule ?oule inch m m2 $ cm s 2 ne'ton cal dyne cm ?oule "t in m yd 2 cm m ss 2 in2 liter in2 liters $auss tesla tesla pound !$ 2 1 cal cm s m: m 2 acre cm2 :
,ultiply by >2A48 >8>4%9 18 8 18 1%>94 1812 8%1>94 8%98492 184 1>%A828 3A8%84 18 1 >2 1A8%98 2A1%994 18A>%2A >%18> 8%29238 18 2 9%8493 18 12 1 18 A 2%29884 18 8 1 3 18 4 12 8%28>8 228 1 18 2 221 2%38A>1 233%>19 >%A>488 A 18 189 18 > 8%88228>4 182 18 4 >1%8> 2%>318A 188 3>A%388
barrel, bbl 5petroleum6 @ritish thermal unit, 5@%T%/%6 calorie 5$m6, cal centimeter, cm darcy dyne er$ "athom, "ath "eet, "t "urlon$ $al $allon, $al 5/%S% li)%6 $allon, $al 5&mp%6 $amma $auss $ram, $ heat "lo' unit 59%F%/%6 hectare horsepo'er
(4 Conversion Factors
212 121
To 1on#ert inch, in ?oule, J !ilo$ram, !$ !ilometer, !m !ilometer hr !ilo'att !not liter meter micron, D mile mm 9$ ne'ton ounce pint poise pound poundal )uart sto!e slu$ tesla ton 5short6 'att yard year 5cal6
1
To cm er$ cal $ pound m "t mile mile hr 1 'att 90 mi hr 1 cm2 $al 5/%S%6 in2 "t cm "t !m dyne cm 2 dyne lb $allon $ cm 1 s 1 1 1 !$ m s !$ ne'ton $allon cm2 s 1 !$ $auss lb !$ Js 1 90 in m days s
,ultiply by 2%A> 183 8%229884 182 2%28>42 182 2288%8> 8%421231 8%421231 182 1%2>182 1%1A8339 182 8%24>13 41%8223 2%2888> 18 > A288 1%4892> 1222%22 18A 8%842A 8%12A 1 8%1 8%>A2A92 8%1282AA 8%2A 1 1>%A9> 18> 2888 983%18A 1 8%8812>182 24 8%91>> 24A 2%1A24 183
222 222
"ym$ols and Gnits
-%2 .ist o" Symbols
(5 List of "ym$ols
222 222
Symbol a -
Guantity e)uatorial radius o" the (arth radius e)uatorial moment o" inertia area ,adelun$ constant distance @ur$ers #ector ma$netic "ield e)uatorial moment o" inertia buoyancy "lu @rin!man number speci"ic heat polar radius o" the (arth dra$ coe""icient de$ree o" compensation concentration polar moment o" inertia distance ma$netic declination "le ural ri$idity dra$ pipe diameter di""usion coe""icient enrichment "actor isotropic strain eccentricity char$e on an electron speci"ic internal ener$y =oun$s modulus (c!ert number ener$y acti#ation ener$y barrier ener$y coe""icient o" "riction "re)uency "orce "lattenin$ o" the (arth "riction "actor "ractionation "actor
()uation &ntroduced 51C46 54C2126 5AC296 52C246 53C186 52C26 53C1146 51C26 5AC216 54C2>>6 53C1A>6 5>C436 5ACAA6 54C2246 52C1146 5>C46 5AC246 52C1>16 51C>6 52C326 54C2186 54C2446 53C426 518C226 52C1226 5AC4A6 53C186 53C236 52C>6 54C>126 58C326 53C336 53C346 52C226 5>C326 5AC16 5ACA46 54C296 518C296
S& /nit m m !$ m2 m2 m m T !$ m2 !$ s
1 1
b b @
@r c cD 1
J !$ m
!$ m2 m < m < m m2 s 1
d D
1 J !$ 0a J J mole 1 1 J mole s <

1 1
( (a (8 "
2>2 >2>
"ym$ols and Gnits
Symbol F $ _$ G h
Guantity "orce per unit 'idth "orce acceleration o" $ra#ity $ra#ity anomaly $ra#itational constant shear modulus depth hei$ht o" topo$raphy heat trans"er coe""icient hei$ht o" phreatic sur"ace heat $eneration rate thic!ness o" re"erence crust hydraulic head mole density ma$netic inclination mole density "lu o" atoms ellipticity coe""icient thermal conducti#ity @oltBmann constant permeability sprin$ constant bul! modulus transport coe""icient hydraulic conducti#ity len$th len$th latent heat ma$netic dipole moment mass earth)ua!e ma$nitude mass bendin$ moment per unit len$th moment o" an earth)ua!e atomic mass number o" atoms per unit #olume $eoid anomaly -#o$adros number <usselt number
()uation &ntroduced 52C1>6 58C>96 51C16 5AC1886 52C446 52C16 52C26 52C1816 54C24>6 59C226 5>CA6 5AC1>86 54C96 518C16 51C26 518C16 53CA86 5AC>26 5>C16 53C236 59C16 53C186 52CA86 5>C2A86 59C26 52C446 52C226 5>C1286 51C46 5AC16 58C326 52C446 52CA86 58C326 53C236 53C>46 5AC496 53C236 54C2436
S& /nit < m

1
< m s 2 m s 2 m2 !$ 1 s 2 0a m m : m m : !$ m m
1 2
i & ? J J2 ! !f E
: m 1 E 1 J E 1 2 m < m 1 0a !$ m1 s1 m s 1 m m J !$ 1 - m2 !$ !$ < J !$mole m 2 m

1
l . m
,a n _< <8 <u
(5 List of "ym$ols
2A2 A2A
Symbol p 0 0e 0r ) G
Guantity pressure horiBontal "orce per unit len$th "lo' pressure 0eclet number 0randtl number load heat "lo' per unit area heat "lo' #olumetric "lo' rate inte$rated heat "lu heat source stren$th heat content per unit area radial coordinate radius o" the earth pipe radius radius o" cur#ature uni#ersal $as constant ;aylei$h number ;eynolds number sur"ace distance distance to rotation a is speci"ic entropy stihmeaer stren$th temperature horiBontal #elocity #elocity $eopotential lattice ener$y #ertical #elocity speci"ic #olume #olume #ertical "orce per unit len$th $ra#itational potential acti#ation #olume 'idth displacement #ertical de"lection depth o" compensation horiBontal coordinate #ertical coordinate comple distance horiBontal coordinate number o" char$es per ion
()uation &ntroduced 51C16 52CA86 54C446 54C23>6 54C26 52CA46 5>C16 5>CA6 54C2A6 5>C1136 5>C1196 5>C1A86 52C4A6 52C3>6 54C226 52C446 53C236 54C2146 54C>86 51C196 5AC>46 5>C2A26 58>C2346 6 5>C16 51C136 5>C1A16 5ACA26 53C>6 54CA26 5>C1326 52CA16 52CA46 5ACA16 53C336 52C46 52C3A6 52CA86 5AC1A16 52C3A6 51C16 58C886 52C8A6 53C186
S& /nit 0a < m 1 0a 0a : m 2 : m2 s1 2 J m1 : m 2 Jm m m m m J mole 1 E 1 m m J !$ 1 E 0s a E m s 1 m s 1 m2 s 2 J m s1 m 2 !$ 1 m2 <m 1 m 2 s2 m2 m m m m m m m m

1
r ;
;a ;e s
T u / # +
+a ' : y ] B
i r a _ g
gj g8 p q W
s l
D8 m v Q b
an$le stretchin$ "actor "le ural parameter coe""icient o" thermal e pansion isotope ratio an$le compressibility $eothermal $radient isotope ratio slope o" 1lapeyron cur#e (ulers constant ?ump "re)uency tube diameter subtended an$le dilatation strain small )uantity normaliBed isotope ratio rate o" strain permitti#ity o" "ree space distance distance similarity #ariable colatitude an$le nondimensional temperature thermal di""usi#ity decay constant .amKe parameter 0a 'a#elen$th m thermal conducti#ity #iscosity coe""icient o" internal "riction composition ratio permeability o" "ree space 0oissons ratio !inematic #iscosity isotope ratio distance density stress Ste"anC@oltBmann constant sur"ace mass density
51C226 52C46 52C1236 5>C1346 518C16 52C1A86 52CA86 5>C416 518C16 5>C2A46 5>C1286 53CA46 59C46 51C136 52C846 52C3>6 5AC226 518C286 52C1236 53C186 5>C196 5>C196 5>C946 51C46 52C246 5>C926 5>C486 518C26 52C16 52C1836 59C1826 54C16 58C246 518C26 51C46 52C>6 54C26 518C1>6 5>C1A16 51C16 52C16 5>C2>26 5AC1846
m E 1
0a 1 E m 1 0a E s 1 m
1
s1 F m 1 m m
m2 s1 s 1
: m 0a s
T m m2 s
m !$ m 2 0a : m 2 E > !$ m
2
Symbol n
Guantity shear stress period o" oscillation rela ation time $ro'th time hal"-li"e latitude an$le !inetic ener$y porosity lon$itude stream "unction an$ular #elocity solid body rotation circular "re)uency
()uation &ntroduced 5>C2>26 5>C3>6 54C18>6 54C1A36 5>C36 51C186 52C836 53C>46 59CA6 51C1>6 54C496 51C136 52C926 5>C326
S& /nit 0a s s s s J
2 m s s 1 1
n1U2 Y
Z ^
s1
-ppendi @ 0hysical 1onstants and 0roperties
@%1 0hysical 1onstants
Guantity Speed o" li$ht (lectronic char$e 0ermeability o" #acuum 0ermitti#ity o" #acuum 0lanc! constant @oltBmann constant Ste"anC@oltBmann constant Gra#itational constant (lectron rest mass -tomic mass unit -#o$adros number /ni#ersal $as constant
Symbol c e D8 g8 h ! b G me <;
+alue 2%99392>A8 188 m s 1 19 1 1%48213322 18 >X 18 3 T m- 1
8%8A>1838 18 12 F m1 4%42483AA 18 2> J s 1%2884A8 18 22 J E 1 A%438A1 18 8 : m

2
>
4%4324 1811 < m2 !$ 8%91892893 18 28 !$ 1%448A>82 18 23 !$ 22 4%8221243 18 mol 1 8%21>A18 J mol

1
0(4 Properties of the Earth
@%2 0roperties o" the (arth
292 929
888
Physical Constants and Properties
Guantity ()uatorial radius 0olar radius +olume +olume o" core +olume o" mantle ;adius o" sphere o" e)ual #olume ;adius o" core ;adius o" inner core ,ass ,ean density ,ass o" core ,ass o" mantle ,ass o" crust ()uatorial sur"ace $ra#ity 0olar sur"ace $ra#ity -rea .and area 1ontinental area includin$ mar$ins :ater area *ceans e cludin$ continental mar$ins ,ean land ele#ation ,ean ocean depth ,ean thic!ness o" continental crust ,ean thic!ness o" oceanic crust ,ean sur"ace heat "lo' Total $eothermal "lu ,ean continental heat "lo' ,ean oceanic heat "lo' Solar constant -n$ular #elocity (llipticity coe""icient Flattenin$ 0olar moment o" inertia ()uatorial moment o" inertia -$e o" (arth
Symbol a c + + +m
c
+alue
4 4%238123 184 m 4%2A43A2 21 18 2 m 1%8822 18 m 1%33 1828 m2
9%84 1828 m2 4%2388 184 m
rc ric , Q ,c ,m ,cr $e $p -c -o hf 'f hf cc hf oc )fs Gs )fc )fo ' J2 " 1 ne
2%>88 184 m 1%21A 184 2> m A%9324 18 !$ 2 A%A1A 18 !$ m 2 2> 1%882 18 !$ >%8>2 182> !$ 2%24 1822 !$ 9%388224331A m s 2 9%822184248A m s A%18 181> m2 1%>8 181> m2 2%8 181> m2 2%42 181> m2 2%1 181> m2 83A m 239> m >8 !m 4 !m 83 m: m 2 >>%2 T: 4A m: m 2 181 m: m2 1232 : m 2 3%29211A 18A rad s1 1%88242 18 2 2%2A281848118 182 8%82A8 1823 !$ m2 8%889A 1823 !$ m2 >%AA Ga
2
0(5 Properties of the Planets
@%2 0roperties o" the 0lanets
>1> 1>1
,ercury Semima ?or a is o" orbit, 184 !m Sidereal period o" re#olution, days (ccentricity &nclination to ecliptic, de$ ()uatorial radius, !m (llipticity ,ass 182> !$ Density, !$ m 2 ()uatorial $ra#ity, ms 2 Sidereal period o" rotation, days 1U,;2 Sur"ace temperature, E A3%9 83%949 8%28A41> 3%88A 2>29 8 8%2282 A>23 2%381 A8%4A I >>8
+enus 188%2 22>%381 8%884821 2%29> 48A2 8 >%849 A28> 8%838 2>2%8 8%2> 328
(arth 1>9%4 24A%2A424 8%814321 I 4238 8%882> A%9324 AA1A 9%3882 8%993238 8%222A 288
,ars 223%9 484%984 8%892212 1%8A8 229> 8%88A9 8%4>18A 2922 2%498 1%82A9A4 8%24A 218
Jupiter 338%2 >222%448 8%8>81 1%28A 31,298 8%8423 1899 1224 22%1 8%>12A28 8%24 129
Saturn 1>21 18,3A9%>2 8%8A1 2%>9 48,228 8%182 A48%A 483 8%94 8%>23A 8%2A 93
/ranus 2883 28,488%9 8%8>3 8%332 24,288 8%82> 84%82 1218 8%49 8%4A 8%22 A8
<eptune >A29 48,189 8%883 1%338 2A,22A 8%8244 182%> 1428 11%8 8%348 8%22 A4
0luto A924 98,>4A 8%2A2 13%12 11A3 I 8%81A 1188 8%32 4%283 I A8
818
0(6 Properties of the "atellites
@%> 0roperties o" the Satellites
>2> 2>2
>>> >>>
0lanet (arth ,ars Jupiter
Satellite ,oon 0hobos Deimos -malthea &o (uropa Ganymede 1allisto .eda 9imalia .ysithea (lara -nan!e 1arme 0asiphae Sinope ,imas (nceladus Tethys Dione ;hea Titan 9yperion &apetus 0hoebe ,iranda -riel /mbriel Titania *beron Triton <ereid 1haron
Distance "rom 0lanet 182 !m 28>%> 9%28 22%>8 181%2 >22 438%9 1838 1882 11,89> 11,>88 11,328 11,323 21,288 22,488 22,A88 22,388 18A 228 29A 233 A23 1222 1>81 2A41 12,9A2 128 191 244 >24 A82 2AA AA12 19%>
Sidereal 0eriod Days 23%222 8%2189 1%242>> 8%>9818 1%3491> 2%AA12 3%1AA 14%489 228%3 2A8%4 2A9%2 2A9%4 421 ; 492 ; 32A ; 3A8 ; 8%9>2 1%238 1%888 2%323 >%A18 1A%9>A 21%233 39%221 AA8%> ; 1%>12 2%A28 >%1>> 8%384 12%>42 A%833 ; 248%1> 4%283
;adius Em 1323%182 11 4 128 1821 1A49 242> 2>82 8 92 18 28 1A 28 2A 18 199 2A8 A28 A48 34A 2A3A 1>A 318 118 122A A39 A8A 389 341 12A2 138 I
,ass 1821 !$ 32%>82 1%88 1 82 1%88 1 8> I 89%22 >8%8 1>8 183%4 I I I I I I I I 8%823A 8%83> 8%422 1%8A 2%28 12>%A 8%1 1%A9 I 8%844 1%2A 1%13 2%A2 2%81 21%A I I
Saturn
/ranus
<eptune 0luto
81>
@%A 0roperties o" ;oc!
Density !$ m--2 Sedimentary Shale Sandstone .imestone Dolomite ,etamorphic Gneiss -mphibole ,arble &$neous @asalt Granite Diabase Gabbro Diorite 0yro enite -northosite Granodiorite ,antle 0eridotite Dunite ,iscellaneous &ce 2188C2388 1988C2A88 1488C2388 2388C28A8 2488C28A8 2888C21A8 2438C23A8 29A8 24A8 2988 29A8 2888 22A8 24>8C2928 2388 22A8 2888C2388 913
( 1811 0a 8%1C8%3 8%1C8%4 8%AC8%8 8%AC8%9 8%>C8%4 8%2C8%8 8%4C8%8 8%>C8%3 8%8C1%1 8%4C1%8 8%4C8%8 1%8 8%82 8%3 1%>C1%4
G 1811 0a 8%1C8%2 8%8>C8%2 8%2C8%2 8%2C4%> 8%2C8%2 8%AC1%8 8%2C8%2A 8%2AC8%2A 8%2C8%2 8%2C8%>A 8%2C8%2A 8%2C8%2A 8%> 8%2A 8%2 8%4C8%3 8%892
m 8%1C8%2 8%1C8%2 8%1AC8%2 8%1C8%> 8%1AC8%2A 8%> 8%2C8%2 8%2C8%2A 8%2C8%2A 8%2A 8%1AC8%2 8%2AC8%2 8%2A 8%2A
! T : m--1 E-- 8--A E--1 11 1%2C2 1%AC>%2 2C2%> 2%2CA 2%1C>%2 2%1C2%8 2%AC2 1%2C2%9 2%>C2%8 2C> 1%9C>%8 2%8C2%4 >%1CA 1%3C2%1 2%8C2%A 2C>%A 2%3C>%4 8%21C8%24 2%2 2%> 1%4 2 2%>
2%> A
0(> Properties of Roc,

;adius r 5!m6 2>88%8 2A88%8 2488%8 2388%8 2888%8 2988%8 >888%8 >188%8 >288%8 >288%8 >>88%8 >A88%8 >488%8 >388%8 >888%8 >988%8 A888%8 A188%8 A288%8 A288%8 A>88%8 AA88%8 A488%8 A381%8 A381%8 A888%8 A988%8 A931%8 A931%8 4888%8 4188%8 41A1%8 41A1%8 4288%8 4288%8 42>4%4 42>4%4 42A4%8 42A4%8 4248%8 4248%8 4231%8 Depth y 5!m6 2891%8 2831%8 2331%8 2431%8 2A31%8 2>31%8 2231%8 2231%8 2131%8 2831%8 1931%8 1831%8 1331%8 1431%8 1A31%8 1>31%8 1231%8 1231%8 1131%8 1831%8 931%8 831%8 331%8 438%8 438%8 A31%8 >31%8 >88%8 >88%8 231%8 231%8 228%8 228%8 131%8 31%8 2>%> 2>%> 1A%8 1A%8 2%8 2%8 8%8 Density Q 5!$ m--2 6 AA44%A AAA4%> AA84%> A>A4%4 A>84%8 A2A3%1 A283%2 A2A3%2 A283%2 A1A4%3 A18A%9 A8A>%3 A882%8 >9A8%8 >893%9 >8>>%2 >389%9 >32>%4 >438%A >421%2 >A42%1 >A82%8 >>>2%2 >288%3 2992%1 2929%2 2812%2 2322%3 2A>2%2 2A2A%9 2>44%2 2>2A%8 22A9%A 224>%8 223A%3 2288%3 2988%8 2988%8 2488%8 2488%8 1828%8 1828%8 0ressure 0 5G0a6 12A%8 12>%4 128%8 122%8 113%> 111%9 184%> 181%1 9A%8 98%4 8A%A 88%> 3A%> 38%> 4A%A 48%3 AA%9 A1%2 >4%A >1%9 23%2 22%8 28%2 22%8 22%8 19%9 14%8 12%> 12%> 12%2 8%9 3%1 3%1 A%A 2%2 8%4 8%4 8%2 8%2 8%8 8%8 8%8 Gra#ity $ 5m s--2 6 18%49 18%44 18%A2 18%>1 18%21 18%22 18%14 18%18 18%84 18%82 9%99 9%93 9%9A 9%9> 9%92 9%92 9%9> 9%9> 9%9A 9%94 9%93 9%99 18%88 18%82 18%82 18%88 9%99 9%93 9%93 9%94 9%92 9%91 9%91 9%89 9%84 9%8> 9%8> 9%8> 9%8> 9%82 9%82 9%82 @ul! ,odulus E 5G0a6 4AA%4 4A2%3 4>>%8 423%9 489%A A91%3 A3>%> AA3%A A>8%9 A2>%4 A88%A >92%A >34%4 >48%3 >>>%8 >28%8 >12%8 294%4 288%2 242%8 2>3%1 228%2 212%> 299%9 2AA%4 229%3 289%3 189%9 132%A 138%1 1A8%4 1A2%9 123%8 128%1 128%> 121%A 3A%2 3A%2 A2%8 A2%8 2%1 2%1 Shear ,odulus G 5G0a6 292%8 292%2 298%3 28A%A 239%> 232%> 243%A 241%3 2AA%9 2A8%2 2>>%A 228%8 222%8 223%2 221%A 21A%3 289%8 282%9 193%9 191%8 18A%4 139%> 132%8 1A>%8 122%9 114%2 188%3 98%4 88%4 39%A 3A%9 3>%1 4A%4 44%2 43%4 48%2 >>%1 >>%1 24%4 24%4 8%8 8%8
812
0oissons ;atio m 8%21 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%23 8%23 8%23 8%28 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%29 8%28 8%28 8%29 8%29 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%28 8%2A 8%2A 8%28 8%28 8%A8 8%A8
@%4 ,antle 0roperties
-ppendi 1 -ns'ers to Selected 0roblems
1C1 1C2 1C2 1C> 1CA 1C4 1C3 1C8 1C11 1C12 1C12 1C1> 1C13 1C18 1C19 1C28 1C22 1C22 1C2> 1C2A 2C1 2C2 2C2 2C> 2CA 2C4 2C3 2C9
A3 ,yr 2A !m >29 m 2%3> 18 > T 1448 !m A1 <, 38 ( 3A <, 122 ( 38 <, 184 ( 8%2 , 38 A%A , 49 1884 !m, 2>>1 !m 1828 !m, 2888 !m 9%1 mm yr 1 3A mm yr 1 >3 mm yr 1 218 , 128 mm yr 1 7 8 , 18> mm yr 1 1 248 , >2 mm yr 288 , 82 mm yr 17 188 , 38 mm yr 1 1 1 2A8 , 92%> mm yr 7 A8 mm yr 91 , A1 mm yr 1 228 ,0a 48 !m 298 m 1%18 1%>8 A%2 !m, 28 !m 1A8 ,0a >%1 1811 <, >1 ,0a
>8> 8>8
ns!ers to "elected Pro$lems
2C18 2C1> 2C13 2C18 2C19 2C28 2C24
8%4 18> < 144%A ,0a, 22%A ,0a >%4 G0a 12,288 !$ m 2 , >22 G0a, 129 G0a, 12%9 m s 2 >3 and 42 ,0a, 3A and 14A 8%A, 2, A, A%A ,0a 2 c a P d5 b a 6 R 5Bb Ba 62 e
1U2
sin W2 sin5W1 R W2 6
1
cos Bc Ba P d5 6e1U2
b
W1 R tan
a6 2
Bb Ba b a sin W2 sin5W1 R W2 6
R 5Bb Ba
sin 2C23 2C29 2C28 89%1 6 2C21 2C22 2C22 2C2> 2C1 2C2 2C2 2C> 2C3 2C8 2C9 2C18 2C11 2C12 2C12 2C1>
>A mm yr 1 gj P 18 3 yr 1 , gjyy P 2%1 18 3 yr 1 , gj y P 18 3 yr 1 28%2 mmUyr 5_0 G P 3A%2 , _0 : P A9%3 , _G: P 41%> , c P 8A mmUyr 5_0 S P 39%A , _0 , P 42%4 , _S, P 48%4 , c P 4>%> 6 32%8 mmUyr 5_0 ( P 8>%1 , _0 - P 3>%9 , _( - P 24%4 , c P 32%A 6 1 2>%A mmUyr , 2A%3 ( o" S 1 2A%8 mmUyr , >1%9 ( o" S 188 ,0a >2 ,0a, 12A ,0a m b1 , m 51 R m 6b1 U( 52m 2 R m 16Q$yU(, 51 2m 6Q$y 5. 6,8 U2D 52.2 > 2 6+a U>8D )5. 6, )5. 62 U2 22%> ,0a, 8%23 ,0a 2 . )U12D R 2 2 .2 )U14, 8 \ \ .U2 514 > 4> 2 . R 94 2 .2 8 .2 R .> 6 )U28> D .U2 \ 59 . 2 > 2 6+a U12D 8 \ \ .U2 2 2 2 2 52> . 8 R 4. . 6+a U>8D .U2 \ \ . 5 > 2 2 . R .2 6)UD, .U2, 2.2 )U>h2 8%>8A m

W1 R tan
Bb Ba b a
\.
2C1A 2C13 2C18 2C28b 2C21 2C22 >C2 >C>
5.> )8 UX > D6 sin5X U.6 5p Q$h65.2 12 2 6U2>, .U2 5p Q$h6512 2 .2 6U>h2 , .U2 1%8 G0a 18%1 !m 14%A !m 18 ppb, 32 ppb,8%188N 1 3%> 18 12 : !$ , 2%1 18 12 : !$ 1 , 1%A 18 11 : !$ 1 , 1 9 18 1%1 18 : !$ , 3%3 18 : !$ 1 , 2%> 18 18 : !$ 1 , 12 1 2%A 18 : !$ 1 11 >CA 9 18 : !$ >C3 14 m: m 2 , 18 !m >C8 ) P )m R Qhr 9 >C9 123 !m, 8%A2 D: m 2 1 >C18 )s P )m R Q9s b 2 1 1 T P T8 R )m y R Q9s by ! 2 ` 2 1 1 Q9 y Q9 y2 R s s 2 4 b >C11 AA%A m: m 2 , 488%A 1 >C1> A8,888 E Q9 2 >C1A T8 R 5a b2 6 R rb 4! ) a 2 a >C14 T8 R s 1 ! 2b Q9 2 2 1 Q9 b2 1 1 >C13 T8 R 5a , r 6R 2 ! 4! a r a[r[b >C19 322 m >C28 >2%8 m: m 2 11 >C22 1%2 1812 yr, 18 , 2%4 1811 , 1%2 1812 , 1%9 1811 1 1A >C2> 3%> 18 E s >C2A 9%2 18 1A E s 1 >C24 2%14 m, 9%9> m >C23 9A8 m >C28 1%1> m >C29 A%2 18 2 E X >C28 R nX, n P 1, 2, 2 % % % > >C21 2%4>5st61U2 >C22 2 18A sec
>C2>
y T8 R cy _T8 er"c p , n \ t \ 2 s5t R n 6 8 y T8 R cy _T8 er"c p 2 s5t R n 6 y R _T8 er"c ,t [ 8 2 st 8%22 m 24 ,yr 4A%9 ,yr, 92 !m s5Tm T8 6 2 , e l1 1U2 5Xst6 er" l1 yZ 5Tm T8 6 er" , 8 \ y \ ys 2 st er" l2 5T# Tm 6 y yA T# er"c , y [ ys er"c l2 2 st 2 5Tm T# 6 5T# Tm 6 X . l2 l e2 P er"c l2 c er"c l2 22 !m 1>8 !m 1%29 days /v T8 R 5T T8 6 e p s T8 T er" 5TU2 s6 R 1 er" 5TU2 s6 T T8 yZ er" 1 er" 5TU2 s6 2 st )m Qd. R c5Tm T8 6e 14%A ,0a 4%> !m A88 m, 288 m 8%8> mm yr 1 }5Qm Ql 6y. , 8%4 5Qm Q' 6 228 m >%2 !m 2C2 !m 3%4 !m, 12%8 !m 18%4 !m, 18%A !m 2%>4 !m 48 E 13,888 E
>C23 >C28 >C29 >C>8
>C>1 T8 R
>C>2 >C>2 >C>> >C>4 >C>3
>C>8 >C>9 >CA8 >CA2 >CA2 >CA> >CAA >CA4 >CA3 >CA8 >CA9 >C48 >C41 >C42
>C42 >C43 >C48 AC1 AC2 AC2 AC> ACA AC3 AC8 AC9 AC18 AC11 AC12 AC14 AC18 AC19 AC28 AC22 AC22 4C2 4C2 4C> 4CA 4C4 4C3 4C8 4C9 4C18
2%3 E 3%1 m2 s 1 2%2 m2 s 1 1%43 18 2 2%> 421 18 2 5a6 4%2A 183 J, 5b6 1%12 18> m s 1 , 5c6 42,288 E <o 9%388218>4 m s 2 , 9%822133 m s 2 , 2 9%388>429 m s , 9%822811 m s 2 $e R 2GbUa2 >1>8 !$ m 2 , 12,>18 !$ m 2 2 >>48 !$ m 2%3> days 21 hours 12 million tons 2%98 mm s 2 8%1 !m >%2 184 !$ m 2 2 2 8%8>>938 6 5 mm s , 8%A418> mm s h2 Qm XG Qcu 2h Qm Qc l . R 5Qm Qcu 6 $ Qm Qcu 9R b 1>%> !m 1 dp u u 1 dp 52 y h6 D 8 , D 8 , 52 y h6 h h 2d 2d D u hR 8 8 2 h5dpUd 6 1U2 Q$h2 sin T 2DG , 2D Q$ sin T 8%213 ,0a 19%2 ,0a 1%23 18 28 8%82A m, 8%8> m s 1 , > 18> 5Qs Ql 6$d2 U12D ` 1 dp hy 2 u8 y 2 2 y u y, R 8 2D d 2 2 2h
t `u
y2 h 1 y2 y2 u8 y R4 . R 2h2 2h 2h h 2 21 4C12 8%41 !m, 8%22 !m, > 18 0a s
X X X X 1 y R 2 tan 4C12 u P 2 R 2 2 y 2 R y2 X2 2 2 52 > 6 X y X X y tan1 R 2 y u # P 2/ 2 2 R y2 2 2 52 X> 6 2 5 ` / 9X 2 P 9X2 2 R X52 2 2X6 > 5 > 26 2X 2 2R 2 1 R 2X 2 2 2X tan 1 2 2 y 2 2X 2X 2 1R R 2 2R y 2 2 2/
2 R y2 / # P 9X 2 5 > 26
A2A 2A2
ns!ers to "elected Pro$lems
4C1A 4C14 4C28 4C21 4C2> 4C2A 4C24
4C29 4C28 4C22 4C2A 4C28 8 3C1 3C2 3C> 3C11 3C12
2X 2X 1 y 2 2 X R 2 2 2 2 tan 2X 2X 2 2 R 2 2R 2 2 2X y 2 2 1 R 2 R y2 18 >%4 18 0a s 19A,888 yr 2%2 1818 0a s 8%>4 1828 0a s A2 !m, AA m2 s 1 , >%4 1818 :, 8%21 ,yr 1 , 1%28 188 !m2 3> !m, 222 m2 s 1 , 1%9 1811 :, 8%>2 myr 1 , 2%22 189 !m2 1 1 > 1 2 2 A > T P 11 R 12 R 1 y d y R d >sD 4 > 94 38 ! 1 ! d2 38 )P 1 , sD 13 2%> 18A , 2%9 189 , >%2 183 , 1%2 184 1%14 b, 3%8A b 1>%> !m 8%22 Du2 1 Du28 D u2 8 T8 R hy y 2 , , 2 !h 2 h 2, ! A>3 !J mole 1 1%4 188 0a 1%2> 182 J !$ 1 E 1 32 bars 123 ,0a, 848 E
3C21 b , b U 4 3C22 b8 Ud51 m 62 R 1e1U2 , 51 m 2 6b8 U(d51 m 62 R m e1U2 3C22 2n , 2n ` b8 a2 b8 a2 a2 b8 c2 , 3C2> , 1 2 2 2 2a2
1%1 -ns'ers to Selected 0roblems 1C1 1C2 1C2 1C> 1CA 1C4 1C3 1C8 1C11 1C12 1C12 1C1> 1C13 1C18 1C19 1C28 1C22 1C22 1C2> 1C2A 2C1 2C2 2C2 2C3 2C9 2C18 2C1> 2C13 2C18 2C19 A4 ,yr 2A !m >29 m 2%3> 18 > T 1448 !m A1 <, 38 ( 3A <, 122 ( 38 <, 184 ( 8%2 , 38 A%A , 49 1884 !m, 2>>1 !m 1828 !m, 2888 !m 18%> mm yr 1 89 mm yr 1 >9 mm yr 1 218 , 128 mm yr 1 7 8 , 18> mm yr 1 1 248 , >2 mm yr 288 , 82 mm yr 1 7 188 , 38 mm yr 1 2A8 , 92%> mm yr 1 7 A8 mm yr 1 1 91 , A1 mm yr 228 ,0a 48 !m 298 m 1A8 ,0a >%1 1811 <, >1 ,0a 8%4 18> < 144%A ,0a, 22%A ,0a >%4 G0a 12, 288 !$ m 2 , >22 G0a, 129 G0a, 12%9 m s 2 >3 and 42 ,0a, 3A and 14A
2C28 2C24
8%A, 2, A, A%A ,0a P d5

2 a6
R 5Bb Ba 62 e
cos W R tan1 1 Bc Ba P d5
b
sin W 2 sin5W 1 R W2 6 Bb Ba b a
1U2
1U2 sin W 2 62 R 5B b B a 6e sin5W1 R W2 6 Bb Ba 1 1 R tan b a sin W
2C23 2C29 2C1 2C2 2C2 2C> 2C3 2C8 2C9 2C18 2C11 2C12 2C12 2C1> 2C1A 2C13 2C18 2C28b% 2C21 2C22 >C2 >C> >CA >C3 >C8
>A mm yr 1 j P 18 3 yr 1 , jyy P 2%1 18 3 yr 1 , j P 18 3 yr 1 188 ,0a >2 ,0a, 12A ,0a m b1 , m 51 R m 6b1 U( 52m 2 R m 16Q$yU(, 51 2m 6Q$y 5. 6,8 U2D 52.2 > 2 6+a U12D )5. 6, )5. 62 U2 22%> ,0a, 8%23 ,0a 2 . )U12D R 2 2 .2 )U14, 8 \ \ .U2 514 > 4> 2 . R 94 2 .2 8 .2 R .> 6 )U28>D .U2 \ \ . 59. 2 > 2 6+a U12D 8 \ \ .U2 52>. 2 8 2 R 4.2 .2 6+a U>8D .U2 \ \ . > 2 2 2 2 5 2 . R . 6)UD, .U2, 2. U>h 8%>8A m 5.> )8 UX > D6 sin5X U.6 5p Q$h65.2 12 2 6U2>, .U2 5p Q$h6512 2 .2 6U>h2 , .U2 1%8 G0a 18%1 !m 2> !m 1A ppb, 48 ppb, 8%899N 4%2 18 12 : !$ 1 , 2%2 18 12 : !$ 1 , 2%4 18 11 : !$ 1 18 1 12 1 9%4 18 : !$ , A%1 18 : !$ 11 1 9%> 18 : !$ 14 m: m 2 , 18 !m ) P )m R Qhr 9
>C9 >C18
123 !m, 8%A2 D: m )s P )m R
1 Q9s b 2 1 1 1 1 Q9s y 2 T P T8 R )m y R Q9s by Q9s y2 R ! 2 2 4 b

>C11 >C1> >C1A >C14 >C13 >C19 >C28 >C22 >C2> >C2A >C24 >C23 >C28 >C29 >C28 >C21 >C22 >C2>
AA%A m: m 2 , 488%A 1 E Q9 2 T8 R 5a b2 6 R rb 4! ) a 2 a T8 R s 1 ! 2b Q9 2 2 1 Q9 b2 1 1 T8 R 5a ,a [ r [ b r 6R 4! a r 2 ! 322 m >2%8 m: m 2 1%2 1812 yr, 1811 , 2%4 1811 , 1%2 1812 , 1%9 1811 4%2 18 1A E s 1 9%2 18 1A E s 1 2%14 m, 9%9> m 9A8 m 1%1> m A%2 18 2 E X R nX, n P 1, 2, 2 % % % > 2%4>5st61U2 2 18A sec y T8 R cy _T8 er"c p , n \ t \ 8 2 s5t R n 6 y T8 R cy _T8 er"c p 2 s5t R n 6 y R _T8 er"c ,t [ 8 2 st
>C23 >C28 >C29 >C>8
8%22 m 24 ,yr 4A%9 ,yr, 92 !m s5Tm T8 6 2 , el1 1U2 5Xst6 er"cl1
>C>1 T8 R yZ 5Tm T8 6 er" , 8 \ y \ ys er" l2 2 st 5T T 6 y yA , y [ y T~ ~ m er"c s er"c l2 2 st 2 5Tm T8 6 5T~ Tm 6 X . l2 l e2 P er"c l2 c er"c l2
>C>2 >C>2 >C>> >C>4 >C>3
22 !m 1>8 !m 1%29 days T8 R 5T T8 6 e p
/v s
>C>8 >C>9 >CA8 >CA2 >CA2 >CA> >CAA >CA4 >CA3 >C48 >C41 >C42 AC1 AC2 AC2 AC> ACA AC3 AC8 AC9 AC18
yZ T8 T er"5TU2 T T8 s 6 R er" 1 er"5TU2 s6 1 er"5TU2 s6 2 st )m Qd. R c5Tm T8 6e 14%A ,0a 4%> !m A88 m, 288 m 8%8> mm yr 1 }5Qm Ql 6y. , 8%4 5Qm Q' 6 228 m >%2 !m 2C2 !m 48 E 13,888 E 2%3 E 1%43 18 2 2%>421 18 2 5a6 4%2A 183 J, 5b6 1%12 18> m s 1 , 5c6 42,288 E <o 9%388218>4 m s 2 , 9%822133 m s 2 , 9%388>429 m s 2 , 2 9%822811 m s $e R 2GbUa2 >1>8 !$ m 2 , 12,>18 !$ m 2 2 >>48 !$ m 2%3> days
AC11 AC12 AC14 AC18 AC19 AC28 AC22
21 hours 12 million tons 2%98 mm s 2 8%1 !m >%2 184 !$ m 2 8%8>>938 mm s 2 , 8%A418> mm s 2 XG Qcu $
5
2h
Qm Qc l 9 R Qm Qcu
h2 Qm R 5Qm Qcu 6
AC22 1>%> !m 4C2 1 dp u u 1 dp 52y h6 D 8 , D 8 , 52y h6 2d h h 2d 4C2 4C> h D8 u8 R 2 h5dpUd 6 Q$h2 sin T 2DG , 2D Q$ sin T 4CA 4C4 4C3 4C8 4C9
1U2
8%213 ,0a 19%2 ,0a 1%23 18 28 8%82A m, 8%8> m s 1 , > 18> 5Qs Ql 6$d2 U12D 1 dp hy 2 u8 y 2 2 y u y, 4C18 R 8 2 2D d 2 2h y2 h 1 y2 y2 u8 y R4 . R 2h h 2 2h2 2h 4C12 8%41 !m, 8%22 !m, > 1821 0a s 4C12 2/ X y XP 1 2 u R tan 2 2 X2 2 > X X y R 2 2 R y2 2 2 y X X 2/ 1 X ~P R 2 y tan X2 2 2 2 2 >
y
2
R y2
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2
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R X52 2 2X6
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4C1A 4C14 4C28 4C21 4C24
>%4 1818 0a s 19A,888 yr 2%2 1818 0a s 8%>4 1828 0a s 11

> 2 y 2 R A d> y 1 d >sD 4 > 94
T P 11 R 12 R )P 4C29 4C28 4C22 4C2A 4C28
11 ! d2 38 ! 38 , sD 13 d 13
2%> 18A , 2%9 189 , >%2 183 , 1%2 184 > 1%14 b, 3%8A b 1>%> !m 8%22 T8 R
8 !h2
Du2
1 Du28 Du2 8 hy y 2 , , 2 h 2!
3C1 3C2 3C> 3C11 3C12 3C21 3C22 3C22 3C2>
A>3 !J mole 1 1%4 188 0a 1%2> 182 J !$ 1 E 1 32 bars 123 ,0a, 848 E b ,b U 4 m 62 R 1e1U2 , 51 m 2 6b8 U(d51 m 62 R m e1U2 b8 Ud51 2n, 2n a2 b8 2
2 1 c 2a2
b8 a2 b8 a2 , 2 2
&nde
absolute temperature, 298 time scale, >11 acceleration, centri"u$al, 28, 288 "luid element, 22A $ra#ity, 3, 8>, 19A, 288, 22A re"erence, 28> accretional plate boundaries, 1, 4, 229 seismicity, 229 accretionary prism, 18 accumulation, strain, 9A, 99, 24>, 244 acti#ation ener$y, 28> mantle, 228 #olume, 28> acti#e continental mar$in, 29 adiabat, mantle, 18A adiabatic compressibility, 18A, 183 compressional heatin$, 183 "lo', 183 temperature $radient, 18A admittance, 214 ad#ection o" heat, 149, 242, 291 porous medium, 291 a$e determination, >18C>11 continents, >18, >28 earth, 1A2, 1A4, 14A, >1> meteorites, >18, >1> moon, A4, >18 sea"loor, 22, 1A9 -iry compensation, 219 -!na ,ontes, 44 -lae, 48, 14> albedo, 48 albite, 3 allochthonous thrust sheet, 2>9 allu#ial "an, 191 -lps, 28 -ltiplano, 28 -malthea, 43 -montions la', 2>2 'et "ault, 2>2 -natolian "ault, <orth, 2A9
-nderson, (% ,%, 2>4 theory o" "aultin$, 2>2 an$le, "ault dip, 229, 2>2 subduction, 18, 2>2 an$ular "old, 2A2 momentum, A8 #elocities, 22 anharmonicity, 298 anisotropic thermal conducti#ity, 1>3 anomalies, $eoid, 282, 214 $ra#ity, 19A, 283 @ou$uer, 211C212 "ree-air, 212 sphere, 288 isostatic, 214 ma$netic, A, 22, 28 potential, 28> anorthite, 3 ans'ers to problems, >23 anticline, >A, 12> anticlinoria, >A, 2>9 -phrodite Terra, 44 -pollo pro?ect, A4, >18 -ppalachian basin, 128 mountains, >AC>4, 2>8 thrust sheet, 2>8 a)ui"er, 12>, 224, 222 artesian, 222 con"ined, 234 heatin$, 24> uncon"ined, 238 arc, island, 2, 18 #olcanism, 12, 18> -rchean, 22 -rchimedes principle, 3>, 2A3 area, continents, 19, 12A oceans, 12A ar$on, >11C>12, >22 -r$yre basin, 48 arm, "ailed, 28 moment, 11>
Inde#
-rsia ,ons, 48 -rtemis, 43 artesian "lo', 222, 233 -scension, >24 -scraeus ,ons, 48 aseismic creep, A2, 83, 2A3 slip, A2 aspect ratio o" con#ection cells, 238 mantle, 22> asthenosphere, 1, A>, 224 counter"lo', 224C223, 228 -tla, 44 -tlantic *cean, 28 atomic "orces, 292 atoms, di""usion, 28A impurity, 281 interstitial, 281 !inetic ener$y, 293 mass, 293 potential ener$y, 293 spacin$, 292 #olume, 29> aulaco$en, 28 -ustrals, >24 a#alanche, mantle, 189 -#o$adros number, 294, 298 a is, principal strain, 92 principal stress, 82 rotational, 2>, 193 trans"ormation o" strain, 91 trans"ormation o" stress, 88 a isymmetric plume in porous medium, 299 aBimuth, ma$netic, 22C2> -Bores, >13, >23 bac! arc spreadin$, 12 @acon, Francis, 2 balance, "orce, 33, 228, 22A moment, 114 barrier, potential, 288 basal dra$, 221 heatin$, 124 basalt, 3 "lood, 13, 241 li)uidus, 1>8 lunar, A4CA3 ocean island, >18, >2> oceanic, 2, >18 solidus, 1>8 basement, 21, 34 basin, -ppalachian, 128 "oreland, 128 impact, A4 .os -n$eles, 188 mar$inal, 12 ,ichi$an, A8, 214 rin$ed, A8 sedimentary, A, >2, 3A, 129, 139 @asin and ;an$e pro#ince, >8, A> bathymetry, 4, 13> beach terraces, ele#ated, >, AA, 2>8 beddin$ planes, 129 belt, thrust, >2 benchmar!, 9A bendin$, 112C11> cylindrical, 112C11> earths lithosphere, 121 elastic, 11> elastic-plastic, 22A island chains, 12> moment, 112, 123, 22AC224 critical, 2A2, 22A ma imum, 22A ocean trenches, A, 9, 18A, 123, 224 plastic, 9, 2A2, 22A plates, 112, 114 sedimentary basins, A, 129 under periodic load, 122 #iscous, 2A2 @eni @ousera, 248 @enio"" Bone, 1, 11 @ermuda S'ell, 221 @eta ;e$io, 44 biharmonic e)uation, 223 binary planet, A8 bindin$ ener$y, 292 @iot, ,%, 2A2 theory o" "oldin$, 2A2 blobs, mantle, >13 bloc! "aultin$, 9 bloc!in$ temperature, 22 body "orce, 32, 22A descendin$ lithosphere, 191, 288 $ra#itational, 32, 19A, 22A, 288 'a#e ma$nitude, 2A2 boilin$ hot sprin$s, >8, 224, 291 @oltBmanns constant, 298 bombardment, terminal, A4 @ou$uer $ra#ity anomaly, 212 "ormula, 218 boundary condition, "ree sur"ace, 229, 249 no slip, 229, 249 boundary layer, A>, 1AA, 189, 232, 293 e)uations "or plumes, 293 stability, 232 structure o" thermal con#ection, 23> theory, 232, 23> thermal, A>, 1AA, 189, 232, 23> thic!ness, 1AA, 232 @oussines) appro imation, 244 e)uation, 281 @ou#et, >23 bo model, >1A brea!do'n pressure, 84 brea!out, 'ellbore, 83 @re#ard "ault, 2>9
414 141
@rin!man number, 214 brittle crust, >2, 229, 2>3 de"ormation, >2, 18A, 292, 229 "racture, 2>4 @runhes epoch, 24 buc!lin$, 118, 2A8 "orce, 119, 12>, 2A8 lithospheric, 122 'a#elen$th, 119, 12> bul$e, e)uatorial, 19A, 193 "le ural, 2>1 peripheral, 12> rotational, 19A, 193 bul! modulus, 112, 29> silicate earth, >18 buoyancy "lu , 248 "orce, 1, A>, 224, 2A3, 248, 244, 23>, 292 @ur$ers circuit, 288 #ector, 288 buried load, 214 burnout, >83 ca!e, marble, 284 1allisto, AACA4, 43, 38 1aloris basin, A8 1ambrian period, 22 1ameroon .ine, >3 capture, lunar, A8 carbonaceous chondrite, 9, 4A 1arboni"erous period, 22 1arolina slate belt, 223, 2>9 cell, aspect ratio, 231, 238, 29A cellular con#ection, 243, 23>, 292 1enoBoic era, 22 center o" mass, 199 centri"u$al acceleration, 28, 288 chamber, ma$ma, 3, 144 channel "lo', 224, 212, 21> "rictional heatin$, 21> non-<e'tonian, 212 temperature dependent #iscosity, 21> chaotic terrain, 42 char$e, electronic, 29A chemical $eodynamics, >18 remanent ma$netism, 22 che#ron "old, 2A2 chondritic meteorite, 9, 128, >19 uni"orm reser#oir, >19 circuit, @ur$ers, 288 circular "re)uency, 1A8 circulation, hydrothermal, >8, 12>, 1A9, 291, >14 1lapeyron cur#e, 191, 281, >82, >88 climb, dislocation, 289 1oble creep, 288, 283 coe""icient, di""usion, 282C282 dra$, 2A3 "riction, 39, 2>2, 2>4, 2A1 dynamic, 2>2, 2A1
internal, 2>4 static, 2>2 heat trans"er, 242 thermal conducti#ity, 122 thermal e pansion, linear, 132, 299 #olumetric, 132, 244, 299 cohesi#e ener$y, 292 colatitude, 194 ma$netic, 2> collision, continental, >8C>1, >4, 39, 229 column, strati$raphic, 28 compaction o" sediments, 228 comparati#e planetolo$y, AA compensation, 122, 19A, 212 -iry, 219 de$ree, 122, 13> depth, 13>, 228 "le ure, 21> 0ratt, 228 thermal, 221 competent roc!s, 2A8 complementary error "unction, 1AA component, #elocity, 22> composition ratio, >18C>11 compositional boundary, 22> compressibility, 32, 112, 292 adiabatic, 18A, 183 isothermal, 132 compression, tectonic, 2>9, 229 tria ial, 118 unia ial, 183 compressional heatin$, 183 compressi#e strain, 229 stress, A2, 38 condition, "ree-sur"ace, 229, 249 no-slip, 228, 249 conducti#e heat trans"er, 122, 242, 244 cylindrical, 1A8 mo#in$ medium, 148 spherical, 1>>, 1A8 three-dimensional, 1>4, 248 time-dependent, 1>9C1A8, 149 t'o-dimensional, 1>4 conducti#ity, hydraulic, 23A thermal, 122, 244 anisotropic, 1>3 measurement, 12>, 1A3 conduit, #olcanic, 224 con"ined a)ui"er, 234 con"ormable lead deposits, >1A con?u$ate "aults, 2>1 conser#ation, ener$y, 128, 224, 293 la's, 224 mass, 224, 228, 22A momentum, 224, 298 porous medium, 281, 28A, 298, 292 conser#ati#e "ield, 281 constants, physical, >22
Inde#
constituti#e la', 224 contact metamorphism, 131 continental collision, >8C>1, >4, 39, 229 crust, 2, 19C28, 3>C3A, >18, >1A a$e, >28 "ormation, 22, >18, >14 thic!ness, 2, 19, 3> dri"t, 2CA, 22, 224 "it, 2, >8 $eotherm, 1>1, 148, 183 heat "lo', 12A, 1>2, 148 production, 1>1 lithosphere, 1>1, 148, 183, >2> thic!ness, 188, 222 mar$in, 2, 29 acti#e, 29 passi#e, 29 reconstruction, >8 ri"ts, 28, 2>8 shields, 21 splittin$, 28 continents, 2, 13, >8 a$e, >18, >28 area, 19, 12A thermal subsidence o", 181 continuity e)uation, 22A porous medium, 281, 284, >88 control #olume, 221 con#ection, cellular, 243, 23>, 292 heat trans"er, 122, 244 homo$eniBation, 284 mantle, >, 124, 189, 224, 28A aspect ratio, 222 layered, 189 lo'er, 189, 22> secondary, 133 upper, 189, 22> 'hole, 189 parameteriBed, 239 porous layer, thermal, 292 secondary, 133 thermal, >, A>, 224, 244C243, 232, 23> "inite amplitude, 232, 23> stability analysis, 243, 232 t'o-phase, >8A con#er$ent plate boundaries, 1, 9, 29, 28A, >1A con#ersion "actors, >29 coolin$, earth, >, A>, 124, 22A hal" space, 1A2, 13A, 182 instantaneous, 1A2 oceanic lithosphere, 1A3 plate, 141, 134, 222 secular, >, A>, 124, 22A coordination number, 29> core, earth,s, 24, 189, >1A inner, 23, >1A lunar, A3 ,ercury, A8
424 242
outer, 24, 189, >1A corner "lo', 2>2 coronae, 43 coseismic strain, 9> sur"ace displacement, 242 cosines, la' o", 24, 193 1ouette "lo', 229, 283, 212 "rictional heatin$, 282 temperature dependent #iscosity, 211, 212 1oulomb ener$y, 292, 29A "orces, 292 1oulomb-<a#ier criterion, 2>4 counter"lo', >8A asthenosphere, 224C223, 228 o" steam and 'ater, >8A country roc!, 144 co#alent bonds, 294 1rater .a!e, A2 crater palimpsests, 38 craters, planetary, AA creep, aseismic, A2, 83, 2AA 1oble, 288, 283 di""usion, AA, 292, 288, 284 dislocation, AA, 292, 283 "ault, 2>1, 241, 248 $rain boundary, 288, 283 9errin$-<abarro, 284 oli#ine, 228 po'er la', 211 pressure-solution, 292, 229 solid-state, >, AA, 249 1retaceous period, 22 critical bendin$ moment, 2A2, 22A buc!lin$ "orce, 119, 12>, 2A8 ;aylei$h number, 238, 232, 29> 'a#elen$th "or buc!lin$, 119, 12> crust, brittle, >2, 229, 2>3 continental, 2, 19C28, 3>C3A, >18, >1A a$e, >28 "ormation, 22, >18, >14 thic!ness, 2, 19, 3> lunar, A3 oceanic, 2, >1A thic!ness, 2 stress in, 8A crustal e tension, A> rheolo$y, 223 roots, > shortenin$, >2, >A stretchin$, 3A, 182 thic!enin$, >2, >A thinnin$, 3A, 182 crystalline lattice, 292 structure, 292 1ullin$ model, 191 1urie temperature, 22 cur#ature, radius o", 11> cyclic strain dampin$, 243
cylindrical bendin$, 112C11> heat trans"er, 1A8 pipe, 221, 248 dam, porous, 239 dampin$, cyclic strain, 243 Danu ,ontes, 44 Darcy, 9%, 23> la', 23> #elocity, 23> datin$, meteorites, >18, >1> radiometric, >18 dau$hter isotope, >11 decay constant, >11 radioacti#e, >18C>11 Deccan "lood basalts, 13, 241 declination, ma$netic, 22 d Kecollement, >1, 2A8 deep sea drillin$ pro?ect, 22 de"ect, point, 281 de"lection, lithosphere, 184, 121 ,oho, 21A de"ormation, brittle, >2, 18A, 292, 229 ductile, >2, 18A, 292 elastic, 18A, 292 map, 221 plastic, 18A, 22> de$ree o" compensation, 122, 13> de$rees o" "reedom, 293 Deimos, 4> delamination, 2, 19, 22, >18, >1A, >2> delta, ri#er, 192 density, 3, 32 anomaly, 283 dipole moment o", 213 mantle, 18A, >24 depleted mantle, 9, >18 deposition o" sediments, 191 depositional remanent ma$netism, 22 deposits, mineral, >8, 23> depth, compensation, 13>, 228 dependence o" heat production, 1>1 ocean, 13> s!in, 1A2 descendin$ lithosphere, 9, 12, 198C191 body "orces, 191, 288 thermal structure, 198 de#iatoric strain, 9> stress, 33, 8> normal, 8> principal, 8> De#onian period, 22 de tral stri!e-slip "ault, >9, A2 diama$netic, 22 diamonds, 249 diapirism, 224, 2>>, 2A9 di""erentiation, 22 di""usion, 282, 243 atom, 28A
coe""icient, 282C282 creep, AA, 292, 288, 284 #iscosity, 284 $rain boundary, 288, 284 heat, 1A> ions, AA stress, 282, 243 #acancy, AA, 282 di""usi#ity, thermal, 1>9, 223 di!e, 8, 144 dilatation, 88, 183, 112 dimensionless #ariables, 222 diopside, 3 dip an$le o" "aults, 229, 2>2 slip "aults, 2>1 subducted lithosphere, 18, 2>2 dipole, ma$netic, 22C2> moment, 22 density, 213 dip-slip "aults, 2>1 dischar$e "ormula, Dupuit-Fuchheimer, 239 dislocation, 283, 24> climb, 289 creep, AA, 292, 283 #iscosity, 289 ed$e, 288 scre', 288 slip, 289 displacement, 88 earth)ua!e, A1, 229, 2A2, 24> "ault, A1, 229, 2>2, 2A8, 2A2, 242 dissipation, tidal, A8, 49 #iscous, 242, 282, 21A distance, "elt, 2A> sur"ace, 2> distribution, ,a 'ell-@oltBmann, 288 plate, 1 seismicity, A1 #olcanism, >4 diurnal temperature chan$es, 1A8, 1A2 domes, salt, 19A, 288, 224, 2>>, 2>9 do'nthrust bloc!s, >2 dra$, 2A4 basal, 221 coe""icient, 2A3 lithosphere, 221 pressure, 2A4 #iscous, 2A3 dra'do'n, 'ell, 233, 288 dri"t, continental, 2CA, 22, 224 drillin$ pro?ect, deep sea, 22 dri#in$ "orces, 288 mechanisms, >, A> drop, stress, 2A2 dry steam, >8A ductile beha#ior, >2, 18A, 292 Dulon$ and 0etit, la' o", 298 Dupuit appro imation, 238
Dupuit-Fuchheimer dischar$e "ormula, 239 du Toit, -%, 2 dynamic "riction, 2>2, 2A1 #iscosity, 223 dynamo, 24 (arth, a$e, 1A2, 1A4, 14A, >1> bul! silicate, >18 coolin$, >, A>, 124, 22> "ission, A8 properties, >22 rotation, 2, 193 earth)ua!e, displacements, A1, 229, 2A2, 242 ener$y, 2A> (rBincan, 2A9 "elt distance, 2A> intensity, 2A2 9ector mine, 2A9 Eern 1ounty, 2A8 .anders, 182, 2A9, 24> .oma 0rieta, 2A8 ma$nitude, 2A2 body 'a#e, 2A2 moment, 2A> sur"ace 'a#e, 2A2 moment, 2A> <orthrid$e, 2A9 0ar!"ield, 2A3 San Fernando, 2A9, 242 San Francisco, A>, 2A4, 242 Tan$shan, >2 earth)ua!es, 1, A1, 229, 2A8 distribution, A1 "re)uency o" occurrence, 2AA $reat, 229, 2A3, 248 intraplate, A> <e' ,adrid, A> subduction Bone, 18, 229 (arths core, 24, 189, >1A rotation, 2, 193 (ast -"rican ;i"t, 28, >3 0aci"ic ;ise, 28 (aster &sland, >24 eccentricity, 282 (c!ert number, 28> eclo$ite, 249 eddies, 222 ed$e dislocation, 288 e""ecti#e stress, 2>2 #iscosity, 222 ei$en#alue, 119, 12> (instein "re)uency, 293 period, 293 (istla, 44 (ithinoha, 43 elastic bendin$, 11> "le ure at island chains, 112C 11> ocean trenches, A, 9, 18A sedimentary basins, A, 129
limit, 22A lithosphere, 4, 184, 123, 221 thic!ness, 124, 128, 128, 222 material, 18A, 292 per"ectly plastic, 9, 292, 222 rebound, 229, 2>2, 2A8 'a#e ener$y, 2AA elasticity, linear, 184, 292 thermal, 132 electronic char$e, 29A ele#ated beach terraces, AA, 2>8 ele#ation correction, 212 phase chan$e, 191, 281 ellipsoid o" re#olution, 282, >8A ellipticity, 282 embedded plate, 114 endothermic phase chan$e, 188 ener$y, acti#ation, 28> atomic !inetic, 293 atomic potential, 293 balance, 244 bindin$, 292 cohesi#e, 292 conser#ation, 128, 224, 293 porous medium, 298, 292 1oulomb, 292, 29A earth)ua!e, 2A> e)uation, 248 e)uipartition o", 293 $ra#itational potential, 281 internal, 294, 298 lattice, 292 radioacti#e decay, 124 enrichment "actor, >18 enstatite, 8 enthalpy, >83 entropy, 184, 282 en#elope, stren$th, 2>3 (ocene period, 22 episodic subduction, 23> e)uation, biharmonic, 223 @oussines), 281 continuity, 22A ener$y, 248 "orce balance, 228 heat, 243 .aplaces, 1>3, 21>, 242 mass conser#ation, 224, 228, 22A motion, 228 e)uator, ma$netic, A, 22C2> e)uatorial bul$e, 19A, 193 moment o" inertia, 284 radius, 288 e)uilibrium, hydrostatic, >, 3>, 122, 19A, 212, 21A e)uipartition o" ener$y, 293 e)uipotential, $ra#ity, 282 er", 1AA
er"c, 1AA erosion, 28, 191 stress due to, A2, 189, 13> temperature due to, 1A4, 148 error "unction, 1AA complementary, 1AA (rBincan earth)ua!e, 2A9 (ulers theorem, 22 (uropa, A4, 43, 49 e othermic phase chan$e, 188 e pansion, 132, 299 linear coe""icient o" thermal, 132, 298 #olumetric coe""icient o" thermal, 132, 244 e ponential heat source distribution, 1>1 inte$ral, 1A3, 223, 249 e tension, A> e tensional strain, 2>8 "actor, con#ersion, >29 "re)uency, 282 "riction, 222 inte$ratin$, 24> "ailed arm, 28 "ailure, lithospheric, 12 "an, allu#ial, 191 Farallon plate, 29 "ault, 1, A1, 292, 229 @re#ard, 2>9 con?u$ate, 2>1 creep, 2>1, 241, 248 cyclic strain dampin$, 243 dip slip, 2>1 displacement, A1, 229, 2>2, 2A8, 2A2, 242 "riction, 2>1 "rictional heatin$, 18>, 198 $ou$e, A1, 229, 2>2 le"t-lateral, A2, 2>1 loc!ed, 2>1, 2A8 normal, 28, A2, 229C2>8 <orth -natolian, 2A9 re#erse, 229 ri$ht-lateral, A2, 2>1 rupture, 229 San -ndreas, 1>, 2A, >3, A1, A2, 84, 9>C9A, 93, 112, 229, 2AA strain accumulation, 24>, 244 stress drop, 2A2 stri!e-slip, A2, 229, 2>1, 241 thrust, >2, A2, 229, 2>4 trans"orm, 12, 133, 229 'et, 2>2 "aultin$, -nderson theory o", 2>2 bloc!, 9 "aults, con?u$ate, 2>1 dip an$le, 229, 2>2 "riction on, 2>1 'ater pressure, 2>2 "ayalite, 8 "elt distance, 2A>
intensity, 2A2 Fennoscandia, 2>1 "errima$netic, 22 "erroma$netic, 22 "iber stress, 112 Fic!s la', 282 "ield, conser#ati#e, 281 $ra#ity, 19A ma$netic, A, 22 "inite amplitude thermal con#ection, 232, 23> "ission o" earth, A8 "it o" continents, 2, >8 "lattenin$, polar, 19A, 282 earth, 284 ,ars, 284 moon, 284 rotational, 288 "le ural bul$e, 229 parameter, 12A ri$idity, 11A 'a#elen$th, 122 "le ure, 18A, 112 compensation due to, 21> island chains, A, 12> ocean trenches, A, 9, 18A, 123, 224 plastic, 224 under periodic load, 122 sedimentary basins, A, 129 "lood basalts, 13, 241 "lo', adiabatic, 183 a)ui"er, 222, 238 artesian, 222, 233 asthenosphere, 224C223, 228 channel, 224, 218, 212 non-<e'tonian, 218 corner, 2>2 1ouette, 229, 283, 212 heat, >4, >8, 122, 12A laminar, 222 pipe, 221, 248 plu$, 21> 0oiseuille, 222 porous media, 23>, 233, 291 rate, #olumetric, 222, 228 sphere, 2AA sta$nation point, 248 Sto!es, 2A>, 2A9 turbulent, 222, 2A3 unsteady, 2A3 "luid, 224 incompressible, 22A in?ection, 2>2 linear, 224 mechanics, 224 <e'tonian, AA, 224C223, 292 non-<e'tonian, AA, 292, 211 pressure, 223 "luidiBed bed, 23A
"lu , buoyancy, 248 heat, >4, 122 material, 228 #acancy, 282 "old, an$ular, 2A2 che#ron, 2A2 recumbent, >4 'a#elen$th, 2A2 "oldin$, >A, 224, 2>9, 292 @iot theory, 2A2 "oot 'all, 2>1 "orce balance, 33, 228, 22A body, 32, 191, 22A, 288 buc!lin$, 119, 12>, 2A8 buoyancy, 1, A>, 224, 2A3, 248, 244, 23>, 292 1oulomb, 292 $ra#itational, 32, 19A, 22A, 288 inertial, 22A interatomic, 292 pressure, 228 sur"ace, 32 tectonic, 38 #iscous, 22A "orces, atomic, 292 body, 32, 22A dri#in$, 288 "rictional, 221 $ra#ity, 32, 19A, 22A, 288 inertial, 22A pressure, 228 rid$e push, 22>, 281 suction, 2>2 sur"ace, 32 tidal, 2 topo$raphy, 222 $eoid, 222 #iscous, 22A "orebul$e, 12A "oreland basins, 128 "ormation, permeable, 222 "orsterite, 8 speci"ic heat, 298 "ossil ma$netism, 22 "ounderin$, lithospheric, 9 Fourriers la', 122, 1>3 cylindrical $eometry, 1A8 spherical $eometry, 1A8 three dimensions, 1>4 t'o dimensions, 1>4 "rictional heatin$, 242 "ractionation, 8 "actor, >18 "racture, 18A, 292, 229 brittle, 2>4 hydro, 84, 2A9 ma$ma, 2A9 propa$ation o", 224, 2A9 Bone, 1>, 18A, 133
bathymetric o""set, 133 "ree-air correction, 212 $ra#ity anomaly, 212 "reedom, de$rees o", 293 "ree-slip condition, 229, 249 "ree-sur"ace condition, 229, 249 "re)uency, 1A8 circular, 1A8 (instein, 293 "actor, 282 Frey?a ,ons, 44 "riction, 39, 2>2, 2A1 coe""icient, 39, 2>2, 2A1 dynamic, 2>2, 2A1 static, 2>2 "actor, 222 "ault, 2>1 "orce, 221 internal, 2>4 "rictional heatin$, 12, 18>, 198, 242, 243, 282, 21A, 249 "ront, seepa$e, 239 Fu?i, ,ount 289 "unction, complementary error, 1AA error, 1AA stream, 223 "usion, latent heat o", 142 $abbro, 8 Galapa$os &slands, >3, >24 spreadin$ center, >9, 294 $alena, >1A Galilean satellites, AA, 43, 38 Ganymede, AA, 43, 38 $as constant, uni#ersal, 298 $ases, noble, >11, >22 rare, >11, >22 $au$e, strain, 84 $eochemical reser#oir, 28A, >18, >1A $eochron, >1A $eochronolo$y, 28, >18C>11 $eodesy, 9A $eodetic net'or!, 94 re"erence system, 28A $eodolite, 98 $eodynamics, chemical, >18 $eoid, 281C282, 222 anomaly, 282, 214 isostatic, 214 hei$ht, 213 map o", 213 re"erence, 282C282 sea "loor, 222 topo$raphy ratio, 221 $eolo$ical time scale, 28, >18C>11 $eometrical "orm o" #olcanoes, 283 $eotherm, 1>8, 183C188, 22> continental, 1>1, 148, 183 mantle, 18A, 183C188, 22>
oceanic, 1A9, 183 $eothermal $radient, 122 reser#oirs, 224, >8A $eysers, >8, 224, >8A Geysers $eothermal "ield, >8A $iant impact, A8 $lacial rebound, >, AA, 282, 228, 219 $laciation, 2 temperature e""ect o", 1A2, 1A4 $lobal positionin$ system, 188, 244 Glomar 1hallen$er, 22 Gond'analand, 2, >8 Gordon, ;% @%, > $ou$e, "ault, A1, 229, 2>2 Gou$h, >13, >24 $raben, 28 $radient, adiabatic, 18A $eothermal, 122 pressure, 223 $rain boundary creep, 288, 283 di""usion, 288, 284 $ranite, 8 $ra#imeter, 212 $ra#itation, <e'tons la' o", 19A $ra#itational acceleration, 3, 8>, 19A, 288, 22A constant, uni#ersal, 8A, 194 e)uipotential sur"ace, 281C282 "orce, 32, 19A, 22A, 288 instability, 1, 224, 2>A potential, 281 anomaly, 28> ener$y, 281 slidin$, 4, A2, 281, 2>3 $ra#ity, acceleration o", 3, 8>, 19A, 288, 22A anomalies, 19A, 283 @ou$uer, 211C212 continuation, 21> "ree-air, 212 horiBontal cylinder, 288 line, 289 lunar, 211 salt dome, 288 sphere, 288 #ertical cylinder, 211 correction, ele#ation, 212 "ree-air, 212 latitude, 212 terrain, 212 data, reduction o", 212 e)uipotential, 282 "ield, lunar, A8, 211 +enus, 4AC44 "ormula, @ou$uer, 218 periodic mass distribution, 212 potential, 281 re"erence, acceleration o", 28> topo$raphic e""ect, 211 $reat earth)ua!es, 229, 2A3, 248
Greenland, >18, >12 $round ice, ,ars, 41 $round'ater, 224, >8A "lo', 234 mound, 28> $ro#ed terrain, 38 $ro'th rate, 2>8, 249 Grunt"est number, 214 Guadalupe, >24 $uide, stress, A, 9 Gul" o" -den, 28 hal"-li"e, >11 hal" space coolin$ model, 1A2, 13A, 182 han$in$ 'all, 229 harmonic motion, 293 harBbur$ite, 8 9as!ell, <% -%, > 9a'aiian-(mperor chain, 1A, >22 9a'aiian &slands, 1A, >4, >18, >13, >22, >24 deep, 12> rid$e, 12>, 298 s'ell, 14, 221, 248 head, hydraulic, 228, 228, 23A plume, 13, 2A9 pressure, 281 heat ad#ection, 149, 242, 291 conduction, 122, 242, 244 cylindrical, 1A8 mo#in$ medium, 148 one-dimensional steady, 128 one-dimensional unsteady, 1>9C1A8, 149 spherical, 1>>, 1A8 three-dimensional, 1>4, 248 t'o-dimensional, 1>4 e)uation, 243 "lo', >4, >8, 122, 12A continental, 12A, 1>2, 148 con#ecti#e, 122, 244 cylindrical, 1A8 e""ect o" erosion, 1A4, 148 e""ect o" $laciation, 1A2, 1A4 e""ect o" sedimentation, 148 lunar, A3, 1>>, 1>4 mantle, 1>2, 148 measurement, 122 oceanic, 12A, 1A9, 141 reduced, 1>2 sedimentary basins, 139 spherical, 1>> sur"ace, >8, 122, 12AC124, 1A9 "lu , plume, 248 $eneration, A>, 124, 1>1, >18 depth dependence, 1>1 mantle, 124C123 meteorites, 128 latent, 142, >83 pipe, >8A speci"ic, 132, 183, 298
trans"er, 122 coe""icient, 242 conducti#e, 122, 242, 244 con#ecti#e, 122, 244 radiati#e, 122 heatin$, adiabatic compressional, 183 a)ui"er, 24> basal, 124 compressional, 183 "ault, 18>, 198 "rictional, 12, 18>, 198, 242, 243, 282, 213, 249 hal" space, 1A2, 13A, 182 instantaneous, 1A2 radioacti#e, >, A>, 124, >18 9ector ,ine earth)ua!e, 2A9 helium, >11, >22 9ellas basin, 48 hematite, 22 9errin$-<abarro creep, 284 9ess, 9%, 2 hi$h temperature peridotite, 288 hi$hlands, lunar, A4 9imalayas, 28, >1 hin$e, plastic, 9, 224 9olmes, -%, >, >11 9olmes-9outermans model, >1> 9olocene, 22 homo$eniBation, con#ecti#e, 284 homolo$ous temperature, 28> 9oo!es la', 183 hot branch, 218 sprin$s, >3C>8, 224, 24>C24A, 291 hotspot, 1>, >4C>3, 241, >1A, >2> distribution, 14, >3, 248 s'ell, 14, >3, 221, 248 trac!, 1A, 241 9udson @ay, 2>1 hydraulic conducti#ity, 23A head, 228, 228, 23A hydro"racturin$, 84, 2A9 hydrostatic e)uation, 3 e)uilibrium, >, 3>, 122, 19A, 212, 21A head, 228, 228, 23A pressure, 3, 22>, 223 stress, 8> hydrothermal circulations, >8, 12>, 1A9, 291, >14 &apetus, 2>8 ice, "ormation o", 14> Galilean satellites, 38 load, AA, 228 sheet, AA, 2>9 &celand, 1A, >13, >24 &mbrium basin, A3 impact basins, A4 craterin$, AA $iant, A8
impurity atoms, 281 inclination, ma$netic, 22 incompatible elements, 123, 28A, >18 incompetent roc!, 2A8 incompressible "luid, 22A material, 183 inertia, moment o", 199, 28AC284, 221 e)uatorial, 284 ,ars, 42, 284 moon, A3, 199, 28AC284 polar, 284 sphere, 28A spheroid, 284 thermal, 243 inertial "orce, 22A in?ection, "luid, 2>2 inner core, 23, >1A instability, $ra#itational, 1, 224, 2>A ;aylei$h, 238, 232, 29> ;aylei$h-Taylor, 2>A, 22> instantaneous coolin$, 1A2 heatin$, 1A2 shut-in pressure, 84 inter"erometry, radar, 182, 24> #ery lon$ baseline, 99, 244 inte$ratin$ "actor, 24> intensity, "elt, 2A2 interatomic "orce, 292 intermediate principal stress, 8> internal ener$y, 294, 298 "riction, 2>4 interstitial atoms, 281 intraplate earth)ua!es, A> #olcanism, >4 intrusion, coolin$, >8 de"ormation due to, 119 &o, AACA4, 43 heat "lo', 49 #olcanism, 48 ionic bondin$, 29> irre#ersible process, 183, 282 isentropic process, 184 &shtar Terra, 44 island arc, 2, 18 an$le o" subduction, 18, 2>2 chains, 1A bendin$, 12> #olcanism, 12, 18> isochron, >12, >1> 'hole roc!, >12 isostasy, 3>, 13>, 212 -iry, 219 0ratt, 228 thermal, 221 isostatic $eoid anomaly, 214 isotherm, A isothermal compressibility, 132 isotope ratio, >18C>11
normaliBed, >18 isotopes, dau$hter, >11 parent, >11 radioacti#e, >, >18C>11 re"erence, >11 isotropic, 18A strain, 9> stress, 8>, 112 J2 , 288 earth, 284 ,ars, 284 moon, 284 Je""reys, 9%, > ?oints, 292 ?ump "re)uency, 281 Jurassic period, 22 Eel#in, .ord, 1A2, 1A4, 14A material, 228 Eer$uelen, >13, >24 Eern 1ounty earth)ua!e, 2A8 Eilauea &!i, 14> !imberlite, 8 !inematic #iscosity, 223 mi in$, 284 !inetic ener$y, atomic, 293 laccolith, 119 la!es, la#a, 14> .a!shmi 0lanum, 44 .amKe parameters, 184 laminar "lo', 222 .anders earth)ua!e, 182, 2A9, 24> .aplaces e)uation, 1>3, 21>, 242 solution, 138, 234 .aplacian operator, 223 .ardarello $eothermal "ield, >8A latent heat o" "usion, 142 o" #aporiBation, >83 latitude, 199 correction, 212 ma$netic, 22C2> .atona, 43 lattice ener$y, 292 sites, 294 spacin$, 292 structure, 292 .aurasia, 2, >8 la#a la!es, 14> la' o" cosines, 24, 193 o" Dulon$ and 0etit, 298 o" sines, 24 layer stretchin$, 283 layered mantle con#ection, 189 lead, >12C>12 deposits, >1A isochron, >12 le"t lateral stri!e slip "ault, A2, 2>1 .herB, 289 lherBolite, 288
limit, elastic, 22A line, #olcanic, 1, 12, >4 linear coe""icient o" thermal e pansion, 132, 299 elasticity, 184, 292 "luid, 224 lineariBed stability analysis, 243C248 li)uidus, basalt, 1>8 list o" symbols, >28 lithosphere, 1, A asthenosphere interaction, 243 bendin$, A, 18A, 121 continental, 1>1, 148, 183, >2> thic!ness, 188, 222 de"lection, 184, 121 descendin$, 9, 12, 198C191 dra$ on, 221 elastic, 4, 184, 123, 221 thic!ness, 124, 128, 128, 222 oceanic, 9, 1A3, >2> hal"-space coolin$ model, 1A3 plate coolin$ model, 141 thic!ness, A, 1A8 thermal, A, 4 lithospheric buc!lin$, 122 "ailure, 12 "le ure, 18A, 112 compensation due to, 21> due to periodic loadin$, 122 island chains, A, 12> ocean trenches, A, 9, 18A, 123, 224 sedimentary basins, A, 129 "ounderin$, 9 stress, >9, A2, 281 lithostatic pressure, 3>, 33, 8>, 22>, 2A8 load, buried, 214 ice, AA, 228 island, 12> sediment, 129 lobate e?ecta "lo', 42 scarps, A9 loc!ed "ault, 2>1, 2A8 .oma 0rieta earth)ua!e, 2A8 .os -n$eles basin, 188 lo' #elocity Bone, 223 #iscosity Bone, 223 lo'er mantle, 12, 22>, >1A reser#oir, >18 lunar basalt, A4CA3 capture, A8 core, A3 crust, A3 $ra#ity "ield, A8, 211 heat "lo', A3, 1>>, 1>4 hi$hlands, A4 ma$ma ocean, A4, 14A ma$netic "ield, A3 maria, A4
mascons, A8, 211 moment o" inertia, A3, 284 orbit, A8 ori$in, A8 samples, A4 temperature, 1>A ,ac1ulla$hs "ormula, 288, 28A ,acDonald, >23 ,adelun$ constant, 29A ma$ma, 3, 224 body, >8 chamber, 3, 144 "racture, 2A9 mi$ration, >82 porous "lo' model, >82 ocean, A4, 14A solidi"ication, 142 #elocity, 14>, 2A8, >82 #iscosity, 2A8 #olume "raction, >82 ma$nesio'uVstite, 184, 188, 191 ma$netic anomalies, A, 28 aBimuth, 22 colatitude, 22 declination, 22 dipole, 22 e)uator, 2> "ield, A, 22 ,ars, 42 ,ercury, A9 moon, A3 remanent, A, 22 +enus, 4A inclination, 22 latitude, 22C2> moment, 22C2A poles, A, 2>C2A re#ersal, A, 24 ma$netite, 22 ma$netiBation, chemical remanent, 22 depositional remanent, 22 natural remanent, 22 permanent, 22 thermoremanent, 22 ma$nitude, earth)ua!e, 2A2 body 'a#e, 2A2 moment, 2A> sur"ace 'a#e, 2A2 ,a!aopuhi, 14> mantle, 2, >1A acti#ation ener$y, 28> #olume, 28> adiabat, 18A a#alanche, 189 composition, 8, 281 con#ection, >, 124, 189, 224, 28A aspect ratio, 22> layered, 189
lo'er, 189, 22> upper, 189, 22> 'hole, 189 density, 18A, >24 depleted, 9, >18 $eotherm, 18A, 183C188, 22> heat "lo', 1>2, 148 lo'er, 12, 22>, >1A mi in$, 28AC284 o#erturn, 189 phase chan$e, 184 plume, 1>, AA, 133, 2A9, 299, >18, >13, >2> pressure, 8>, 184, >24 properties, >24 recyclin$, 28, 28A reser#oir, >18 rheolo$y, 218, 222 solidus, 188, 22> strain rate, 219 tomo$raphy, 12 upper, 12, 22>, >1A #iscosity, >, AA, 2>8 map, de"ormation, 221 marble ca!e, 284 mar$in, continental, 2, 29 acti#e, 29 passi#e, 29 mar$inal basins, 12 maria, lunar, A4 ,ariana trench, 128 bathymetric pro"ile, 128 ,arineris, +alles, 41 ,ar)uesas, >23 ,ars, AA, A9, 1>> canyons, 41 channels, 41 chaotic terrains, 42 core, 42 density, 42 dune "ield, 42 dust storms, 42 $round ice, 41 hemispheric asymmetry, 48 ma$netic "ield, 42 moment o" inertia, 42, 284 satellites, 4> #olcanism, 48 mascons, lunar, A8, 211 mass, atomic, 293 center o", 199 conser#ation, 224, 228, 22A porous media, 298 material, elastic, 18A, 292 "lu , 228 incompressible, 183 Eel#in, 228 ,a 'ell, 228 plastic, 9, 18A, 292, 222C22A
323 232
#iscoelastic, 292, 229 ,atthe's, D%, A ,atuyama epoch, 24 ma imum bendin$ moment, 22A principal stress, 8> shear stress, 82 criterion, 22> ,a 'ell-@oltBmann distribution, 288 ,a 'ell material, 228 ,ontes, 44 measurements, $ra#ity, 212 heat "lo', 122 strain, 9> stress, 8A thermal conducti#ity, 12>, 1A3 mechanics, "luid, 224 melt "raction, 123, >8> temperature, 28> meltin$, 3 pressure release, 4, >82 membrane stress, A2 ,ercury, AA, A8 core, A8 density, A8 intercrater plains, A9 lobate scarps, A9 ma$netic "ield, A9 ,esoBoic era, 22 metamorphism, 131 contact, 131 meteorites, a$e, >18, >1> carbonaceous chondrite, 4A chondritic, 9, 128, >19 "lu , A4 ,ichi$an basin, A8, 214 ,id--tlantic ;id$e, 28 mid-ocean rid$e basalt, >18 mi$ration, ma$ma, >82 mineral deposits, >8, 23> minimum principal stress, 8> ,iocene period, 22 mi in$, mantle, 28AC284 di""usi#e, 28A !inematic, 284 modulus, bul!, 112 ri$idity, 184 =oun$s, 184 ,oho, 2, 19A de"lection, 21A ,ohoro#icic discontinuity, 2 mole, 294 molecular #olume, 29>, 294 moment arm, 11> balance, 114 bendin$, 112, 123, 22AC224 critical, 2A2, 22A ma imum, 22A density dipole, 213
Inde#
earth)ua!e, 2A> o" inertia, 199, 28AC284, 221 e)uatorial, 284 ,ars, 42, 284 moon, A3, 284 polar, 284 sphere, 28A spheroid, 284 ma$netic, 22C2A ma$nitude, 2A> seismic, 2A> momentum, an$ular, A8 conser#ation, 224, 298 monuments, 94 moon, AACA4 a$e, A4, >18 capture, A8 core, A3 $ra#ity "ield, A8, 211 heat "lo', A3, 1>>, 1>4 hi$hlands, A4 la#a la!e, 14> ma$ma ocean, A4, 14A ma$netic "ield, A3 maria, A4 mascons, A8, 211 moment o" inertia, A3, 284 orbit, A8 ori$in, A8 temperature, 1>A ,or$an, :% J%, A, 1A motion, e)uation o", 228 simple harmonic, 293 ,ount @a!er, A2, 289 Fu?i, 289 ,aBuma, A2 St% 9elens, A2, 289 Shasta, A2, 289 mountain buildin$, 1, >1 multiple solutions, 213 nappe, >4 natural remanent ma$netism, 22 neodymium, >12C>12 <eo$ene, 22 net'or!, $eodetic, 94 neutral sur"ace, 11> <e' ,adrid earth)ua!es, A> <e'tonian "luid, AA, 224C223, 292 <e'tons la' o" $ra#itation, 19A second la' o" motion, 22A <inety-(ast rid$e, 298 noble $ases, >11, >22 non-linear "luids, 292 terms, 248 non-<e'tonian "luid, AA, 292, 211 channel "lo', 212 nonrene'able stresses, 13>, 22A normal "ault, 28, A2, 229C2>8
polarity, 24 strain, 32, 83 stress, 32, 88, 22A de#iatoric, 8> shear, 22A normaliBed isotope ratio, >18 <orth -natolian "ault, 2A9 <orthrid$e earth)ua!e, 2A9 no-slip condition, 228, 249 number, -#o$adros, 294, 298 @rin!man, 214 coordination, 29> (c!ert, 28> Grunt"est, 214 <usselt, 242, 232, 233 0Keclet, 24> 0randtl, 223, 24> ;aylei$h, 249, 231, 29> critical, 238, 232, 29> ;eynolds, 222, 2A3, 242C24> <usselt number, 242, 232, 233 oblate spheroid, 19A oblateness, 199 obli)ue subduction, 24 ocean crust, 2, >1A basalt, 3, >18 thic!ness, 2 $eoid, 222 $eotherm, 1A9, 183 heat "lo', 12A, 1A9, 141 island basalts, >18, >2> lithosphere, 9, 1A3, >2> coolin$, 33, 1A3 hal"-space coolin$ model, 1A3 plate coolin$ model, 141 thermal structure, 1A8 thic!ness, A, 1A8 ma$ma, A4, 14A rid$es, 1, 4, 28, 229C2>8, >1A, >2A trenches, 1, 9, 29, 229 "le ure, A, 9, 18A, 123, 224 seismicity, 18, 229 oceans, 2 area, 12A bathymetry, >, AA, 13>, 2>8 oil "ields, 2>> *ld Faith"ul Geyser, A8 oldest roc!, >12 *li$ocene period, 22 oli#ine, 8, 184 rheolo$y, 228 oli#ine-spinel phase chan$e, 184, 188, 191 ele#ation o", 191, 281 *lympus ,ons, 48 one-dimensional channel "lo's, 224 heat conduction, 128 onset o" thermal con#ection, 243, 232 operator, .aplacian, 223
ophiolites, 3C8 orbit, pro$rade, A8 *rdo#ician period, 22 ore deposits, >8, 23> ori$in o" the moon, A8 oro$enic Bone, >1 oro$eny, >1 orthopyro ene, 8 outer core, 24, 189, >1A o#erburden, 3>, 38, 132 o#ercorin$, 84 o#erthrust, 39 o#erturn, mantle, 189 0aleocene, 22 0aleo$ene, 22 paleoma$netic pole, 2A paleoma$netism, A, 22, 2> paleoreconstructions, >8 0aleoBoic era, 22 palimpsests, crater, 38 0an$aea, 2, >8 parama$netic, 22 parameteriBed con#ection, 239 parent, isotopic, >11 parent-dau$hter ratio, >11 0ar!"ield earth)ua!e, 2A3 partial meltin$, 3, 123, >82 0ascal, 3> passi#e mar$in, 29 0a#onis ,ons, 48 0Keclet number, 24> per"ect $as, >88 plasticity, 9, 292, 222 peridotite, hi$h temperature, 288 period, 1A8 (instein, 293 periodic load, "le ure, 122 $ra#ity, 212 heatin$, 1A8 temperature #ariation, 1>3 periodite, 8 peripheral bul$e, 12> permanent ma$netism, 22 permeability, 23> ma$netic, 2> models, 23A permeable "ormation, 222 0ermian era, 22 pero#s!ite, 184, 188, 191 petroleum "ormation, 181 0haneroBoic, 22 phase chan$e, 11, 142, 188, 191 endothermic, 188 e othermic, 188 mantle, 184 oli#ine-spinel, 184, 188, 191 ele#ation, 191, 281 uni#ariant, 191
0hobos, 4> phreatic sur"ace, 238 physical constants, >22 properties, >22 pillo' la#a, 3 pin$-pon$ ball analo$y, 18 pinned plate, 112 pipe "lo', 221, 248 heat, >8A heat addition, 242 #olcanic, 22> pla$ioclase "eldspar, 3 plane strain, 111 stress, 189 planet, binary, A8 planetolo$y, comparati#e, AA planets, pressure 'ithin, 8> properties, >2> plastic bendin$, 9, 2A2, 22A de"ormation, 18A, 22> hin$e, 9, 224 per"ectly, 9, 292, 222 plate, 22> yield, 222, 22> plate bendin$, 112, 114 boundaries, accretional, 1, 4, 229 con#er$ent, 1, 9, 29, 28A, >1A buc!lin$, 118, 2A8 coolin$ model, 141, 134, 222 cur#ature, 11> de"lection, 112 embedded, 114 "le ure, 18A, 112 motion, 22, 188 pinned, 114 plastic, 22> rotation, 22 tectonics, 1, A, 224, 288, 28A dri#in$ "orces, 288 #elocities, 22, 188 #iscous, 2A2 plates, distribution, 1 0leistocene period, 22 0liocene period, 22 plu$ "lo', 212 plume, 1>, AA, 133, 2A9, 299, >18, >13, >2> buoyancy "lu , 248 head, 13, 2A9 heat "lu , 248 mantle, 1>, AA, 133, 2A9, 299, >18, >13, >2> tail, 13, 2A9 thermal, A> porous media, 294, 299 point de"lect, 281 0oiseuille "lo', 222 0oissons ratio, 184 polar "lattenin$, 19A, 282 moment o" inertia, 284
radius, 282 'ander, 2, 28 path, 28 polarity, normal, 24 re#ersed, 24 pole, ma$netic, A, 2>C2A paleoma$netic, 2A positions, 2> rotational, 22 pore pressure, 2>2 porosity, 88, 23> porous a)ui"er, con"ined, 234 uncon"ined, 238 dam, 239 layer, thermal con#ection, 292 media, 23>, 298C291 thermal plume, 294, 299 post$lacial rebound, >, AA, 282, 228, 219 potassium, radioacti#e, >, >18, >12 potassium-ar$on a$e datin$, >12 potential anomaly, 28> barrier, 288 ener$y, atomic, 293 $ra#itational, 281 'ell, 281, 288 po'er-la' creep, 211 0randtl number, 223, 24> 0ratt compensation, 228 0recambrian period, 22 pressure, 3, 8>, 112 brea!do'n, 84 dra$, 2A4 "luid, 223 "orce, 228 $radient, 223 head, 281 hydrostatic, 4, 22>, 223 lithostatic, 3>, 33, 8>, 22>, 2A8 mantle, 8>, 184, >24 planetary interiors, 8> pore, 2>2 release meltin$, 4, >82 shut-in, 84 solution, 2>9, 228 creep, 2>9, 292, 229 principal a es, strain, 92 stress, 82 strain, 9> stress, 82, 112 de#iatoric, 8> intermediate, 8> ma imum, 8> minimum, 8> prism, accretionary, 18 problem ans'ers, >23 process, irre#ersible, 183, 282 pro$rade orbit, A8 properties, earth, >22
mantle, >24 planets, >2> roc!, >2A satellites, >2> transport, 228 0roteroBoic, 22 proto--tlantic *cean, >A pull, trench, 1, 9, 281 pure shear, 98, 111C112 push, rid$e, 4, 22>, 281 pyrolite, 8, 281 pyro ene, 3 Guaternary, 22 radar inter"erometry, 182, 24> radial heat "lo', 1>>, 1A8 cylindrical, 1A8 spherical, 1>> radiation, heat trans"er, 122 radioacti#e decay, >18C>11 rate, >11 heatin$, >, A>, 124, >18 isotopes, >, >18C>11 radioacti#ity, >11 radiometric datin$, >18 radius, e)uatorial, 288 cur#ature, 11> island arc, 18 plate, 11> polar, 282 random eddies, 222 ;apa ;id$e, >23 rare $ases, >11, >22 rate, $ro'th, 2>8, 249 strain, 224, 284, 219 ratio, aspect, 238 mantle, 222 0oissons, 184 ;aylei$h number, 249, 231, 29> critical #alue, 238, 232, 29> ;aylei$h-Taylor instability, 2>A, 22> rebound, elastic, 229, 2>2, 2A8 post$lacial, >, AA, 282, 228, 219 reconstruction o" continents, >8 recumbent "old, >4 recyclin$, mantle, 28, 28A ;ed Sea, 28 reduced heat "lo', 1>2 a$e dependent, 148 reduction o" $ra#ity data, 212 re"erence acceleration o" $ra#ity, 28> $eoid, 282C282 rela ation, stress, 292, 228 time, 2>8, 228 #iscoelastic, 228 remanent ma$netiBation, A, 22 chemical, 22 depositional, 22 natural, 22
thermo, 22 rene'able stresses, 13> reser#oir, $eochemical, 28A, >18, >1A $eothermal, 224, >8A lo'er mantle, >18 upper mantle, >18 resistance, thermal, 12> ;Keunion, 13, 241 re#ersal, ma$netic, A, 24 re#erse "ault, 229 re#ersed polarity, 24 re#olution, ellipsoid o", 282, >8A ;eynolds number, 222, 2A3, 242C24> ;hea ,ons, 44 rheolo$ical la', 224 parameters, 228 e""ects on mantle con#ection, 222 rheolo$y, 224, 292 brittle, 229 crustal, 223 mantle, 218, 222 oli#ine, 228 per"ectly plastic, 292, 222 stress dependent, 212 #iscoelastic, 292 rid$e, aseismic, 289 bathymetry, 4, 13> push, 4, 22>, 281 seismicity, 1, 4, 229 subduction, 29 #olcanism, 4 rid$e-rid$e trans"orm, 1> rid$es, aseismic, 289 ocean, 1, 4, 28, 229C2>8, >1A, >2A ri"t #alley, 28, 2>8 ri$ht lateral stri!e-slip "ault, A2, 2>1 ri$idity, "le ural, 11A modulus o", 184 rin$ed basins, A8 ;io Grande ;i"t, 28, >8 ri#er delta, 192 roc! a$es, >11 properties, >2A roots, continental, > rotation pole, 22 earths, 2, 193 solid-body, 98 rotational a is, 2>, 193 bul$e, 19A, 193 "lattenin$, 19A, 282 rubidium, >11C>12 rubidium-strontium datin$, >12 runa'ay, thermal, 218 ;uncorn, E%, A ;uther"ord, .ord, >11 St% 9elena, >13, >24 salt domes, 19A, 288, 224, 2>>, 2>9 samarium, >12C>12
Samoa, >23 San -ndreas "ault, 1>, 2A, >3, A1, A2, 84, 9>C9A, 93, 112, 229, 2AA strain accumulation, 24>, 244 San Fernando earth)ua!e, 2A9, 242 San Francisco earth)ua!e, A>, 2A4, 242 satellite laser ran$in$, 99 satellites, Galilean, AA, 43, 38 ,ars, 4> properties, >2> saturation, >83 Scandina#ia, 228 scarps, lobate, A9 scre' dislocation, 288 sea le#el, 28, 138, 28> chan$es, 28, 138 sea"loor, a$e, 22, 1A9 $eoid, 222 slope, 221 spreadin$, 1, 2, 22, 28 #elocity, 22 seasonal temperature chan$es, 1A8 second la' o" motion, <e'tons, 22A secondary con#ection, 133 secular coolin$, >, A>, 124, 22A sedimentary basins, A, >2, 129, 139 "le ural structure, A, 129 thermal e#olution, 139 subsidence, 139 sedimentation, temperature, 148 stress, A2, 189 sediments, 3, 191 accretional, 18 compaction, 228 deposition, 191 subduction o", 18, >18, >14 seepa$e "ront, 239 seismic lo' #elocity Bone, 223 moment, 2A> re"lection pro"ilin$, 2>4 'a#es, >, 2A2C2A> seismicity, >9 accretional plate boundaries, 1, 4, 229 distribution, A1 'estern /nited States, A2 intraplate, A> subduction Bone, 18, 229 separation o" #ariables, 1>3, 1A8, 229 shear, 223 "lo', 223, 211 stress dependent, 211 subcritical, 218 supercritical, 218 temperature dependent, 211, 21> #iscous dissipation, 21A "orce, 223 heatin$, 282, 21A modulus, 112
pure, 98, 111 simple, 98, 111 strain, 32, 9A stren$th, 2>4 stress, 32, 38, 88, 223, 22A criteria ma imum, 22> ma imum, 82, 122 #iscous, 22A sheet, allochthonous, 2>9 ice, AA, 2>9 thrust, >A, 38, 2>3 shell, spherical, 18, 1>> shield #olcanoes, 48, 44 shields, continental, 21 shortenin$, crustal, >2, >A shut-in pressure, 84 Sieh, E%, 2A3 silicic #olcanic roc!s, 12 sill, 144 Silurian period, 22 similarity, 1A>, 282 #ariable, 1A>, 282 simple harmonic motion, 293 shear, 98, 111 sines, la' o", 24 sinestral stri!e-slip "ault, A2 sites, lattice, 294 S& units, >29 s!in depth, 1A2 slab pull, 1, 9, 281 sliderbloc! model, 2A8 slidin$, $ra#itational, 4, A2, 281, 2>3 stable, 2A1 slip, aseismic, A2 dislocation, 289 slope stability, 2A8 Sna!e ;i#er plain, >3 Society, >13, >24 solid body rotation, 98 crystalline, 294 state creep, >, AA, 249 solidi"ication, 142 di!e, 144 la#a la!e, 14> ma$ma, 142 chamber, 144 sill, 144 solidus, 3, 1>8, 22> basalt, 1>8 periodite, 188 solubility, 2>9, 228 o" silica, 2>9, 228 solution, pressure, 2>9, 228 creep, 2>9, 292, 229 sol#ent, 228 spacin$, atomic, 292 speci"ic heat, 183, 298 at constant pressure, 183
at constant #olume, 132 spectral re"lectance, 48 sphere, "lo' o#er, 2AA $ra#ity anomaly due to, 288 heat conduction in, 1>>, 1A8 moment o" inertia, 28A spherical shell, 18, 1>> spheroid, 282 moment o" inertia, 284 oblate, 19A spinel structure, 184, 188 spreadin$, behind-arc, 12 sea"loor, 1, 2, 22, 28 sprin$ constant, 293, 2A8 sprin$s, artesian, 222, 233 hot, >3C>8, 224, 24>C24A, 291 stability analysis, 243C248, 292 boundary layer, 232 buc!lin$, 118, 2A8 lineariBed, 243 porous media, 292 thermal con#ection, 243, 232, 292 stable slidin$, 2A1 sta$nation point "lo', 248 static "riction, 2>2 steam, >8A dry, >8A 'et, >8A Steamboat Sprin$s, <e#ada, 291 steam-'ater mi tures, >8A counter"lo', >8A Ste"an problem, 142 Ste"an-@oltBmann constant, 18> Stic!ney, 4A stic!-slip beha#ior, 229, 2>1, 2A8 Sto!es "lo', 2A>, 2A9 "ormula, 2A3 strain, 32, 83 accumulation, 9A, 99, 24>, 244 compressi#e, 229 coseismic, 9> de#iatoric, 9> e tensional, 2>8 $au$e, 84 isotropic, 9> measurement, 9> normal, 32, 83 plane, 111 principal, 9> a es, 92 rate, 224, 284, 219 mantle, 219 shear, 32, 9A ma imum, 82, 122 unreco#erable, 222 thermal, 132 trans"ormation o" coordinates, 92 unia ial, 188
strati$raphic column, 28 stream "unction, 223 stren$th en#elope, 2>3 shear, 2>4 yield, 2A1 stress, >9, 32, 184 bendin$, 11> compressi#e, A2, 38 crustal, 8A de#iatoric, 33, 8> di""usion, 282, 243 drop, 2A2 due to erosion, A2, 189, 13> sedimentation, A2, 189 e""ecti#e, 2>2 elastic, 4 "iber, 112 "rictional, 2>1 dynamic, 2>2 static, 2>2 $uide, A, 9 hydrostatic, 8> isotropic, 8>, 112 lithostatic, 3>, 33, 8>, 22>, 2A8 measurement, 8A membrane, A2 nonrene'able, 13> normal, 32, 88, 22A de#iatoric, 8> plane, 189 principal, 82, 112 a es, 82 de#iatoric, 8> intermediate, 8> ma imum, 8> minimum, 8> rela ation, 292, 228 rene'able, 13> shear, 32, 38, 88, 223, 22A ma imum, 82, 122 yield criteria, 22> strain relations, 184 elastic, 184 tan$ential, 2A3 tensile, 38 thermal, A2, 131, 13> threedimensional, 82 trans"ormation o" coordinates, 88 t'o-dimensional, 88 unia ial, 184 #iscous, 22A normal, 22A shear, 22A yield, 292, 222 stretchin$, crustal, 3A, 182 "actor, 3A layer, 283 stri!e-slip "ault, A2, 229, 2>1, 241
con?u$ate, 2>1 de tral, >9, A2 le"t lateral, A2, 2>1 ri$ht lateral, A2, 2>1 sinistral, A2 strontium, >11C>12 structure, crystalline, 292 subcritical shear "lo', 218 subducted lithosphere, 1, 9, 29, 28A, >1A, >2> thermal structure, 198 subduction, 1, 9, 29, 28A, >1A, >2> an$le o", 18, 2>2 episodic, 23> obli)ue, 24 rid$e, 29 sediment, 18, >18, >14 seismicity, 18, 229 #olcanism, 1, 12, >4 submarine hot sprin$s, 224 subsidence, 13>, 139 continents, 181 $laciation, 228 sedimentary basins, 139 thermal, 13>, 139 suction "orce, 2>2 sudden coolin$, 1A2 heatin$, 1A2 supercritical shear "lo', 218 superposition, principle o", 1>8 sur"ace de"ormation, 1 displacements, 242 distance, 2> e)uipotential, 281C282, 222 "orce, 32 heat "lo', >8, 122, 12AC124, 1A9 production, 1>1C1>2 neutral, 11> phreatic, 238 strain, 9> 'a#e ma$nitude, 2A2 suture, >2, 2>9 s'ells, 14, >3, 221, 248 @ermuda, 221 9a'aiian, 14, 221, 248 symbols, list o", >28 syncline, >A, 12> synclinoria, >A, 2>9 synthetic aperture radar inter"erometry, 182, 24> table, 'ater, 238 tail, plume, 13, 2A9 tan$ential stress, 2A3 Tan$shan earth)ua!e, >2 Taylor, F% @%, 2 tectonic "orce, 38 tectonics, compressional, 2>9, 2>1 plate, 1, A, 224, 288, 28A tensional, >3
temperature, 294 absolute, 298 bloc!in$, 22 1urie, 22 dependent rheolo$y, 211, 21> 1ouette "lo', 21> dependent #iscosity, 211, 21> diurnal #ariation, 1A8, 1A2 e""ect o" erosion, 1A4, 148 e""ect o" sedimentation, 148 $laciation, 1A2, 1A4 $radient, 122 adiabatic, 18A homolo$ous, 28> li)uidus, 1>8 lo$, 122 melt, 28> moon, 1>A oceanic lithosphere, 1A8, 141 periodic sur"ace, 1>3 time dependent, 1A8 seasonal #ariation, 1A8 sedimentary basins, 139 solidus, 3, 1>8, 22> subducted lithosphere, 198 thrust sheets, 1A3 topo$raphic e""ect, 1>3 tensile stress, 38 tensional tectonics, >3 terminal bombardment, A4 #elocity, 2A9 terraces, ele#ated beach, >, 2>8 terrain correction, 212 Tertiary, 22 Tethys *cean, 2, >8 Tharsis, 48 Theia ,ons, 44 theodolite, 94 theory o" "aultin$, -nderson, 2>2 o" "oldin$, @iot, 2A2 thermal boundary layer, A>, 1AA, 189, 232, 23> compensation, 221 conducti#ity, 122, 244 anisotropic, 1>3 measurement o", 12>, 1A3 contraction, 1 con#ection, >, A>, 224, 244C243, 232, 23> "inite amplitude, 232, 23> porous layer, 292 stability analysis, 243, 232 di""usion, 1A> len$th, 1A> di""usi#ity, 1>9, 223 elasticity, 132 e#olution o" sedimentary basins, 139 e pansion, 132, 299 linear coe""icient o", 132, 299 #olumetric coe""icient o", 132, 244, 299
I8&EK
history o" the earth, 22A inertia, 243 isostasy, 221 lithosphere, A, 4 plume, A> porous media, 294, 299 resistance, 12> runa'ay, 218 strain, 132 stress, A2, 131, 13> subsidence, 13>, 139 continents, 181 sedimentary basins, 139 thic!ness, 1AA, 232 thermally acti#ated creep, >, 292 "aults, 248 thermoremanent ma$netism, 22 thic!enin$, crustal, >2, >A thic!ness, boundary layer, 1AA, 232 continental crust, 2, 19, 3> continental lithosphere, 188, 222 elastic lithosphere, 124, 128, 128, 222 oceanic crust, 2 oceanic lithosphere, A, 1A8 thinnin$, crustal, 3A, 182 thorium, radioacti#e, >, >18 three-armed pattern, 28 dimensional heat conduction, 1>4 thrust belt, >2 "ault, >2, A2, 229, 2>4 :ind ;i#er, 2>4 sheet, >A, 38, 2>3 tidal dissipation, A8, 49 "orces, 2 time dependent heat conduction, 1>9 $eolo$ical, 28, >18C>11 rela ation, 2>8, 228 #iscoelastic, 228 tomo$raphy, mantle, 12 topo$raphic correction "or heat "lo', 1>3 topo$raphy "orces, 222 $eoid, 222 $ra#ity due to, 211 ocean "loor, 13> temperature e""ect, 1>3 #alley and rid$e, >A, 2>9, 2>9 +enus, 4A tor)ue, 22A, 2>2 trans"er, con#ecti#e heat, 122, 244 trans"orm "ault, 12, 133, 229 trans"ormation o" strain coordinates, 92 o" stress coordinates, 88 transition to turbulence, 222, 2A3 transport coe""icient, 192 properties, 228 Trans#erse ;an$es, A>, 2A3 trench, ocean, 1, 9, 29, 229 earth)ua!es, 18, 229 elastic bendin$, A, 9, 123 plastic bendin$, 9, 224 pull, 1, 9, 281 #olcanism, 1, 12, >4 Tresca criteria, 22> trian$ulation, 94 Triassic period, 22 triple ?unction, 1>, 2A Tristan, >24 turbulent "lo', 222, 2A3 t'o-dimensional heat conduction, 1>4 t'o-phase con#ection, >8A "lo', >8A, >83 uncon"ined a)ui"er, 238 uncon"ormities, 28 unconsolidated, 23A unia ial compression, 183 strain, 188 stress, 184 /nited States, 'estern, >3, A2 units, S&, >29 uni#ariant phase chan$e, 191 uni#ersal "le ure pro"ile, 128 $as constant, 298 $ra#itational constant, 8A, 194 unreco#erable strain, 222 unsteady "lo', 2A3 upper mantle, 12, 22>, >1A reser#oir, >18, >1A upthrust bloc!, >2 uranium, radioacti#e, >, >18, >12C>12 uranium-lead datin$, >12 #acancy, AA, 281 di""usion coe""icient, 282 "lu , 282 +alles ,arineris, 41 #alley and rid$e topo$raphy, >A, 2>9, 2>9 ri"t, 28, 2>8 #an der :aals "orce, 294 #apor-dominated $eothermal system, >8A #ariable, similarity, 1A>, 282 #ariables, separation o", 1>3, 1A8, 229 #ector, @ur$ers, 288 #elocities, an$ular, 22 plate, 22, 188 #elocity components, 22> Darcy, 23> ma$ma, 14>, 2A8, >82 terminal, 2A9 +enus, 4AC43 atmosphere, 4A coronae, 43 $ra#ity, 4AC44 ma$netic "ield, 4A topo$raphy, 4A #ery lon$ baseline inter"erometry, 99, 244 +ine, F%, A #iscoelasticity, 292, 229
8>3
8>8
Eel#in, 228 ,a 'ell, 228 rela ation time, 228 #iscosity, 224C223 di""usion creep, 284 dislocation creep, 289 dynamic, 223 e""ecti#e, 222 $rain boundary creep, 283 !inematic, 223 ma$ma, 2A8 mantle, >, AA, 2>8 pressure solution creep, 229 temperature dependent, 211, 212 1ouette "lo', 212 #iscous bendin$, 2A2 dissipation, 242, 282, 21A dra$, 2A3 "lo' past sphere, 2A> "orce, 22A heatin$, 242, 282 plate, 2A2 stress, 22A normal, 22A shear, 22A #olcanic conduit, 224 line, 1, 12, >4 pipe, 22> rid$e, 291 #olcanism, 1, >4, 224 -"rica, >9 distribution, >4 intraplate, >4 &o, 48 island arc, 12, 18> ,ars, 48 rid$e, 4 subduction Bone, 1, 12, >4 'estern /nited States, A8 #olcano, $eometrical "orm, 283 pro"iles, 289 shield, 48, 44 #olume, acti#ation, 28> atomic, 29> control, 221 molecular, 29>, 294 speci"ic, 132 #olumetric coe""icient o" thermal e pansion, 132, 244, 299 "lo' rate, 222, 228 #on ,ises criterion, 22> #ortices, 2A3 :adati-@enio"" Bone, 1, 11 'all, "oot, 229 han$in$, 229 :al#is rid$e, 298, >24 'ander, polar, 2, 28 'ater table, 238
I8&EK
'a#elen$th, buc!lin$, 119, 12> "oldin$, 2A2 'a#e number, 249 'a#es, seismic, >, 2A2C2A> :e$ener, -%, 2 'ell dra'do'n, 233, 288 potential, 281, 288 'ellbore brea!out, 83 'estern /nited States, >3, A2 'et steam, >8A 'hole mantle con#ection, 189 roc! isochron, >12 :ilmin$ton oil "ield, 181 :ilson, J% T%, 28 cycle, 28 :ind ;i#er ,ountains, 2>4 thrust "ault, 2>4 enoliths, 8, 2AA, 249 =ello'stone, >3 yield, plastic, 222C22> shear stress criteria, 22> stren$th, 2A1 stress, 292, 222 Tresca criteria, 22> #on ,ises criteria, 22> =oun$s modulus, 184

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Geodynamics

page iii 1 1 9 18 1A 22 2A 28 24 A9 4A 38 34 8A 98 91 92 93 99 18A 18A 183 123 123 128

2%2 2%> 2%A 2%4 2%3 2%8 2

0re"ace to the Second (dition

Preface to the "econd

-(4 %he Lithosphere

Fi$ure 1%> -n accretin$ plate mar$in at an ocean rid$e%

ccreting Plate 0oundaries

-ssume Q P 2288 !$ m 2 , $ P 18 m s at constant temperature%

, and the mantle roc! ascends

ccreting Plate 0oundaries

Table 1%1 %ypical Compositions of Important Roc, %ypes

-(> %ransform Faults

-(? 9otspots and Mantle Plumes

-(? 9otspots and Mantle Plumes

Table 1%2 9otspot Locations

SourceF -"ter 1rou$h and Jurdy 519886%

-(? 9otspots and Mantle Plumes

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

Table 1%2 Geologic %ime "cale

,iocene 0aleo$ene 1enoBoic

<eo$ene ,esoBoic 0aleoBoic

De#onian Silurian *rdo#ician

1ambrian 0roteroBoic -rchean

Fi$ure 1%22 Declination and inclination o" the ma$netic "ield%

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

Fi$ure 1%22 The (arths dipole ma$netic "ield%

'here D8 is the permeability o" "ree space 5D8 P >X 18

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

Fi$ure 1%2> )cont(* )$* &eclination, deg(

Fi$ure 1%2> )cont(* )c* Inclination, deg(

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

SourceF 9arland et al% 519986%

1retaceous Jurassic Triassic 0ermian 1arboni"erous De#onian Silurian *rdo#ician 1ambrian

SourceF -"ter ,% :% ,c(lhinny 519326%

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

Fi$ure 1%21 Map of seafloor ages )Muller et al(, -<<=*(

-(@ Paleomagnetism and the Motion of the Plates

The sur"ace distance s bet'een points - and 0 is s P a_, 51%196

-(< %riple Junctions

-(< %riple Junctions

The an$le T is then determined usin$ the la' o" sinesF

Fi$ure 1%28 -nother TTT triple ?unction%

Fi$ure 1%>8 - TT; triple ?unction%

-(-B %he .ilson Cycle

Fi$ure 1%>1 T'o TTF triple ?unctions%

-(-B %he .ilson Cycle

Fi$ure 1%>2 %he .ilson cycle(

-(-B %he .ilson Cycle

Fi$ure 1%>> 5cont%6 5b6 188 ,a% 5Smith et al%, 193>6

-(-- Continental Collisions

Fi$ure 1%>> )cont(* )c*

-(-- Continental Collisions

-(-- Continental Collisions

-(-4 Colcanism and 9eat Flo!

-(-4 Colcanism and 9eat Flo!

Fi$ure 1%A2 Distribution o" acti#e #olcanoes in the Guaternary%

-(-4 Colcanism and 9eat Flo!

-(-4 Colcanism and 9eat Flo!

direction on "ace @ is b @%