1.

Half-Wave Rectifier
A Rectifier is a circuit that converts ac to pulsating dc.
Half-wave rectifier: A circuit that eliminates either the positive or
negative alternations of its input signal.
The basic half-wave rectifier
shown is a diode that is
connected in series between
an ac source and a load
resistance.
DIODE APPLICATIONS
Half-Wave Rectifier Operation
with Resistive Load
For the positive half-cycle of the
input, the source forces positive
current through the diode, the
diode is on, and v
O
= v
S
(for an
ideal diode).
During the negative half cycle,
negative current cant exist in the
diode. The diode is off, current in
resistor is zero, and v
O
=0 .
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
Resistive Load (cont.)
Using the offset model, during the on-state of the
diode v
O
= v
S
- V
on
= (V
P
sinet)- V
on
. The output
voltage is zero when the diode is off.
Often a step-up or step-down transformer is used
to convert the 220-V, 50-Hz voltage available
from the power line to the desired ac voltage
level as shown.
Time-varying components in the rectifier output
are removed using a filter capacitor.
Peak Detector Circuit Operation
As the input voltage rises,
the diode is on, and the
capacitor (initially
discharged) charges up to
the input voltage minus the
diode voltage drop.
At the peak of the input
voltage, the diode current
tries to reverse, and the
diode cuts off. The
capacitor has no discharge
path and retains a constant
voltage providing a constant
output voltage:
V
dc
= V
P
V
on
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with RCLoad
As the input voltage rises during the first
quarter cycle, the diode is on and the
capacitor (initially discharged) charges
up to the peak value of the input voltage.
At the peak of the input, the diode
current tries to reverse, the diode cuts
off, and the capacitor discharges
exponentially through R. Discharge
continues till the input voltage exceeds
the output voltage which occurs near the
peak of next cycle. This process then
repeats once every cycle.
This circuit can be used to generate
negative output voltage if the top plate of
capacitor is grounded instead of bottom
plate. In this case,
V
dc
= (V
P
V
on
)
Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit with
RCLoad (cont.)
The output voltage is not constant as in an ideal peak detector, but has a ripple
voltage V
r
.
The diode conducts for a short time AT called the conduction interval during
each cycle, and its angular equivalent is called the conduction angle u
c
.
P
r
c
on P
on P r
V
V
T
C
T
R
V V
T
T
RC
T
V V V
2
) (
1 ) (
= A =

~
A
~
|
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.
|

\
|
e u
EXAMPLE
Half-Wave Rectifier Analysis
Problem: Find the dc output voltage, output current, ripple voltage, conduction
interval, and conduction angle for a half-wave rectifier.
Given data: secondary voltage V
rms
= 12.6 (60 Hz), R = 15 O, C = 25,000
F, V
on
= 1 V
Analysis:
Using discharge interval T = 1/60 s,
V
C
T
R
V V
V
A
V
R
V V
I
V V V V V
on P
r
on P
dc
on P dc
747 . 0
) (
12 . 1
15
8 . 16
8 . 16 ) 1 2 6 . 12 (
=

~
=
O
=

=
= = =


u
c
=eAT =
2V
r
V
P
=0.290 rad=16.6
o
AT =
u
c
e
=
u
c
2tf
=
0.29
120t
=0.769 ms
Peak Diode Current
In rectifiers, nonzero current exists
in the diode for only a very small
fraction of period T, yet an almost
constant dc current flows out of the
filter capacitor to load.
If the repetitive current pulse is
modeled as a triangle of height I
P
and width AT,
using the values from the previous
example.


I
P
=I
dc
2T
AT
=48.6 A
Surge Current
In addition to the peak diode currents, there is an even larger current through the
diode called the surge current that occurs when power is first turned on.
During first quarter cycle, current through diode is approximately
The peak value of this initial surge current occurs at t = 0
+
:
using values from previous example.
Actual values of surge current wont be nearly as large as predicted above
because of the neglected series resistances associated with both the rectifier
diode and transformer.
) cos( sin ) ( ) ( t V C t V
dt
d
C t i t i
P
P
c d
e e e = ~ =
|
|
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.
|

\
|


I
SC
=eCV
P
=168 A
Peak Inverse Voltage Rating
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of
the rectifier diode is the diode
breakdown voltage.
When the diode is off, the reverse-bias
across the diode is V
dc
- v
S
. When v
l
reaches its negative peak,
P P on P l dc
V V V V v V 2 ) ( PIV
min
~ = >
2. Full-Wave Rectifiers
Full-wave rectifiers cut capacitor
discharge time in half and require
half the filter capacitance to achieve
a given ripple voltage.
All specifications are the same as
for half-wave rectifiers.
Full-Wave Rectifier Equations
P
r
P
on P
on P
r on P dc
V
V
V
V V
RC
T
T
C
T
R
V V
V V V V
2
1
) (
1
2
) (

e e
=

~ A

~ ~
P
V PIV
V
V
T
P
r
c
2

2
=
= A =e u
3. Bridge Rectification
The requirement for a center-
tapped transformer in the
full-wave rectifier is
eliminated through use of 2
extra diodes.
All other specifications are
the same as for a half-wave
rectifier except PIV = V
P
.
Rectifier Topology Comparison and
Design Tradeoffs
Rectifier Parameter Half-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
Filter Capacitor


C =
V
P
V
on
V
r
T
R



C =
V
P
V
on
V
r
T
2R



C =
V
P
V
on
V
r
T
2R

PIV Rating


2V
P



2V
P



V
P

Comments Least Complexity Smaller Capacitor
Center-taped Transformer
Two Diodes
Smaller Capacitor
No Center-taped Transformer
Four Diodes

DESIGN EXAMPLE
Rectifier Design Analysis
Problem: Design a rectifier with given specifications.
Given data: V
dc
= 15 V, V
r
< 0.15 V, I
dc
= 2 A Assume: V
on
= 1 V.
Analysis: Use a full-wave bridge rectifier that needs a smaller value of filter
capacitance, smaller diode PIV rating, and no center-tapped transformer.
V V PIV A CV I
A
ms
s
A
T
T
I I ms
V
V
V
V
T
F
V
s A
V
T
I C
rms
V V
V V V
V
P P surge
dc P
P
r
r
dc
on dc P
17 = | 711 ) 17 )( 111 . 0 ( 120
7 . 94
352 . 0
60 / 1
2
2
2
| 352 . 0
17
) 15 . 0 ( 2
120
1
2
1
111 . 0
15 . 0
1
120
1
2
2 /
0 . 12
2
2 15
2
2
2

= = = =
= =
A
= = = = A
= = =
=
+
=
+
= =
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t e
t e
4. Diode Limiters (Clippers)
Limiter: A diode circuit that limits or clips off the positive (or negative)
part of its input signal.
The circuit shown is a
positive limiter.
Because the cathode
is at ground potential
(0 V), the anode
cannot exceed 0.7 V
(assuming a silicon
diode). Thus, point A
is clipped at 0.7 V
when the input
exceeds this value.
A Limiter Applications | 0 5 V Supply
An example shows a circuit that limits the signal into a computer.
The Diode D2 will conduct when the voltage V
1
> 4 V.
When D2 is ON, V
2
= 4 V + V
on
.
When D2 is OFF, V
2
= V
1
.
(V
1
) (V
2
)
5. Diode Clampers
A diode clamper adds a dc level to an ac signal. They are often referred to as dc
restorers.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x 10
-3
-5
0
5
10
Time
Zener Diodes
Zener diode: A silicon pn junction device that differs from the rectifier diode in
that it is designed for operation in its reverse-breakdown region.
SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES
Zener Diode Reverse Characteristics
Ideally, the reverse
breakdown has a
constant breakdown
voltage.
This makes Zener
Diode useful as a
voltage reference,
which is its primary
application.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR USING THE ZENER
DIODE
The Zener diode keeps the voltage across load resistor R
L
constant. For
Zener breakdown operation, I
Z
> 0.
For proper regulation, Zener current I
Z
must be positive.
If the Zener current < 0, the Zener diode no longer controls the voltage
across the load resistor and the voltage regulator is said to have dropped
out of regulation.
min
1
| 0
1 1
R
V
V
R
R
R R
V
R
V
I
Z
S
L
L
Z
S
Z
=

> > + =
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\
|


I
S
=
V
S
V
Z
R
=
(205)V
5kO
=3 mA
I
L
=
V
Z
R
L
=
5V
5kO
=1 mA | I
Z
=I
S
I
L
=2 mA
EXAMPLE
Voltage Regulator using the Zener Diode
Problem: Find the source, load and Zener
diode currents for a Zener diode regulator.
Given data: V
S
= 20 V, R = 5 kO, V
Z
= 5 V
EXAMPLE
Voltage Regulator Including Zener Resistance
Problem: Find the output
voltage and Zener diode current
for a Zener diode regulator.
Given data: V
S
= 20 V, R = 5
kO, R
Z
= 0.1 kO, V
Z
= 5 V
Analysis: The output voltage is
now a function of the current
through the Zener diode.
0 mA 9 . 1
100
V 5 V 19 . 5
100
V 5
V 19 . 5
0
5000 100
V 5
5000
V 20
> =
O

=
O

=
=
=
O
+
O

+
O

L
Z
L
L L L
V
I
V
V V V
Line and Load Regulation
Line regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to input voltage
changes.
mV/V Regulation Line
S
L
dV
dV
=
Load regulation characterizes how sensitive the output voltage is to changes in
load current withdrawn from regulator.
O = Regulation Load
L
L
dI
dV
EXAMPLE: Line and Load Regulation
Calculations
For the circuit shown in the figure the line
regulation can be calculated from the nodal
equation for V
L
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=
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
+ =
+
+ = +
= + + = +

R
Z
R
R
Z
R
R
Z
R
L
dI
L
dV
R
Z
R
Z
R
S
dV
L
dV
L
I
Z
R
Z
V
R
S
V
R
Z
R
R
Z
R
V
I
V V
R
Z
R
R
Z
R
V I
V V
Z
R R
V
I
V V V V
I
V V V V
L
L
R
Z
R
S
L L
R
Z
R
S
L
L
R
Z
R
L
R
S
R
L
L
R
Z L
R
S L
Z Z
Z Z Z
// |
1 1
0 0
Examples of Practical Diode
Applications
Rectifier Circuits
Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
Battery Charging Circuits
Simple Diode Circuits
Protective Circuits against
o Overcurrent
o Polarity Reversal
o Currents caused by an inductive kick in a relay circuit
Zener Circuits
Overvoltage Protection
Setting Reference Voltages