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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
CONCEPTS
Table of Contents
Computer Fundamentals Reviewer ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
Audience .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Prerequisites .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Computer - Overview ................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Functionalities of a computer .................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Definition ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Advantages ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
HIGH SPEED ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
ACCURACY ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
STORAGE CAPABILITY ..................................................................................................................................................................... 9
DILIGENCE ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
VERSATILITY ................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
RELIABILITY ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
AUTOMATION .................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
REDUCTION IN PAPER WORK ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
REDUCTION IN COST ..................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
NO I.Q ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
DEPENDENCY ................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................................................................................ 10
NO FEELING .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Computer Applications .......................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Business ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Banking ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Insurance .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Education .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Marketing .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Health Care........................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Engineering Design .............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Military .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Communication ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Government Applications ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Computer History Timeline .................................................................................................................................................................... 13
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Page 7 of 59
Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners as well as advanced learners who want to deal with computers. This tutorial is also
very useful for the undergraduate students of computer science, engineering, business administration, management, science,
commerce and arts where an introductory course on computers is a part of curriculum. After completing this tutorial you will find
yourself at a moderate level of expertise in knowledge of Computer basics from where you can take yourself to next levels
Prerequisites
Knowledge of computers is not a prerequisite to follow the contents of this tutorial. This tutorial assumes no background in computers or
computer programming.
Today's world is an information rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers. Purpose of this tutorial
is to introduce you about computer systems and its fundamentals.
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Computer - Overview
Computer - Overview
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
Stores the data/instructions in its memory and can use them when required.
Definition
Computer System is an electronic data processing device which does the following:
Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of Computers in today's arena.
HIGH SPEED
Milliseconds
(0.0001 sec)
Microseconds
(0.0000001 sec)
Nanoseconds
(0.0000000001 sec)
Picoseconds
(0.0000000000001 sec)
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for doing the same
task.
ACCURACY
Computations are accurate within a penny, a micron, a picoseconds or whatever level of precisions are required.
STORAGE CAPABILITY
The computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
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Computer - Overview
It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and any other type.
DILIGENCE
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
VERSATILITY
This machine can be used to solve the problems relating to various different fields.
At one instant, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.
RELIABILITY
The computer can work for unlimited lengths of time with a great accuracy and a little human intervention.
AUTOMATION
Once a program is written and fed into computer, it will accurately execute the program repeatedly without any additional
direction.
Once a program is given to computer i.e stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.
The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and speeds up the process.
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of files gets
reduced.
REDUCTION IN COST
Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of Computers in today's arena.
NO I.Q
A computer is a machine and has no intelligence of its own to perform any task.
DEPENDENCY
ENVIRONMENT
The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable to it.
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Computer Applications
NO FEELING
It cannot make Judgment based on feeling, taste, experience and knowledge unlike a human being.
Computer Applications
Following list demonstrates the various applications of Computers in today's arena.
Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility has made it an integrated part in
all business organizations.
Computer used in business organization for:
Payroll Calculations
Budgeting
Sales Analysis
Financial forecasting
Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer. The Insurance Companies, Finance houses and
Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
maturity date
interests due
survival benefits
bonus
Education
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Computer Applications
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the Education System.
The uses of computer provide a tool in the Education system is known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
The computer education is very familiar and rapidly increasing the graph of computer students.
There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate the students.
It is used for prepare a database about student performance and analysis are carried out.
Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of
orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.
ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerized
machines.
Some of major fields of health care in which computer are used:
Lab-diagnostic System: All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System: These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
Parma Information System: Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side effects etc.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in engineering purposes.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).CAD provides creation, edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering: Requires stress and strain analysis required for design
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Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Employ computerized control systems. Some military
areas where a computer has been used are:
Missile Control
Military Communication
Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant. Some main areas in this category are:
Chatting
Usenet
FTP
Telnet
Video-conferencing
Government Applications
Computers play an important role in government applications. Some major fields in
this category are:
Weather Forecasting.
Budgets
Male/Female ratio
The Abacus is first used for computations. Some claim it originated with the Chinese, but
most scholars argue that it was invented by the Babylonians
1600s
John Napier creates Napiers Bones (multiplication tables on wood or paper) and
logarithms.
1621
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1642 A.D.
1670
Blaise Pascal creates a mechanical adding machine for tax computations (Pascals
Calculator/ Pascaline Calculator). It is unreliable.
Gottfried von Liebniz creates a more reliable adding machine that adds, subtracts, multiplies, divides, and calculates
square roots. He also invented the Binary Arithmetic that became the basis of virtually all modern computers.
Step Reckoner (1671), featured a stepped drum which found use in numerous subsequent
computers.
1842
1850s
George Boole developed Boolean Logic which would later become significant to the design of computer circuitry and
as a method for refining the searching of information
1890
Herman Hollerith designs a system to record census data (Holleriths Tabulating Machine). He was an American
statistician and inventor who developed a mechanical tabulator based on punched cards to rapidly tabulate
statistics from millions of pieces of data. The information is stored as holes in cards, which are interpreted by
machines with electrical sensors. Hollerith starts a company that will eventually become IBM (International Business
Machine).
1939
John Atanasoff, with graduate student Clifford Berry, designs and builds the first electronic digital computer. His
project was funded by a grant for 650$.
1942
ABC (Astanasoff Berry Corporation) was invented by John Astanasoff and Berry Corporation of IOWA state
university. It is the first model of an electronic digital computer. It used vacuum tubes instead of electrical relays in
carrying out computations
1944
Mark 1 was by Howard Aiken with support of IBM. It is the first large scale electromechanical digital computer. It used
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1946
The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) machine was developed by John W. Mauchly and
J. Presper Eckert, Jr. at the University of Pennsylvania. It used 18,000 vacuum tubes, punch-card input, weighed thirty
tons and occupied a thirty-by-fifty-foot space and cost $500,000 to build. It was only programmable by changing the
wiring, not through software changes, but was productive from 1946 to 1955 and was used to compute artillery firing
tables.
1946
John von Neumann proposes that a program be stored in a computer in the same way that data are stored. His
proposal, called the "von Neumann architecture," is the basis for modern computers.
1947
William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs invented the transistor. In the next decade, vacuum
tubes will be replaced by transistors for which they will receive the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956.
1949
1951
Eckert and Mauchly build the first general-purpose commercial computer, the UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic
Computer). It is the first computer designed and sold commercially, specifically for business data-processing
applications
1952
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Calculator) was one of the earliest electronic computers. Unlike its
predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary rather than decimal, and was a stored program computer. It was a binary serial
computer with automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with an
ultrasonic serial memory capacity of 1,000 44-bit words (later set to 1,024 words, thus giving a memory, in modern
terms, of 5.5 kilobytes). The EDVAC was built for the U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen
Proving Ground by the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering.
1957
An IBM team, led by John Backus, designs the first successful high-level programming language, FORTRAN (FORmula
TRANslator), for solving engineering and science problems.
1958
The first computer to use the transistor as a switching device, the IBM 7090, is introduced.
Jack St. Clair Kilby and Robert Noycefirst of Texas Instruments manufactured the first integrated circuit, or chip,
which is made up of six components, a feat for which they eventually win a Nobel Prize for physics in the year 2000.
This led to hundreds of tiny transistors that fit on a chip of silicon, then thousands, then millions over the next decade.
1964
The first computer to use integrated circuits, the IBM 360, is announced.
1965
The CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System) operating system is introduced. It allows several users simultaneously
to use, or share, a single computer.
1970
A first version of the UNIX operating system is running on the DEC PDP-7.
1971
Nicklaus Wirth designs the Pascal programming language as a language for teaching structured programming
concepts.
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Computer Generations
1972
1973
1975
1975
1976
Digital Equipment Corporation introduces its popular minicomputer, the DEC VAX 11/780.
1977
1978
Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston develop the first electronic spreadsheet, called VisiCalc, for the Apple computer.
1979-82
Bjarne Stroustrup of Bell Laboratories in New Jersey introduces "C with Classes."
1981
1983-85
1984
Apple introduces the Macintosh, the first widely available computer with a "user-friendly" graphical interface using
icons, windows, and a mouse device.
1988
1989
1989
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes the first standard for the C programming language.
Computer Generations
Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to
distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together
make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period,
characteristics. We've used approximate dates against each generation which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers
S.N. Generation & Description
1
First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
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Computer Generations
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3
Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation : 1980-onwards.ULSI microprocessor based
First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959.
First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs
produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were
very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation
Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used.
There were Machine code and electric wired board languages used.
The main features of First Generation are:
Unreliable
Very costly
Huge size
Need of A.C.
Non portable
IBM-650
Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965.
These generations using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power,
more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation
machines made of vaccum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were
used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as
secondary storage devices.
In this generation assembly language and high level programming language
like FORTRAN, COBOL was used.
There was Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used.
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Computer Generations
The main features of Second Generation are:
Use of transistors
A.C. needed
IBM 1620
IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108
Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971.
The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits
(IC's) in place of transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack
Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient.
In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multiprogramming Operating System were used.
High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
The main features of Third Generation are:
IC used
More reliable
Smaller size
Faster
Lesser maintenance
Still costly
A.C needed
IBM-360 series
Honeywell-6000 series
IBM-370/168
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Computer Generations
TDC-316
Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980.
The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to
have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became
more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal
computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System
were used.
All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this
generation.
Very cheap
Use of PC's
Pipeline processing
No A.C. needed
DEC 10
STAR 1000
PDP 11
CRAY-1(Super Computer)
CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date.
In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of
making computers think like human beings.
All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
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Computer Generations
Robotics
Neural networks
Game Playing
ULSI technology
Desktop
Laptop
Notebook
Ultra Book
Chrome Book
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Computer Types
Computer Types
Computer can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
Sr. No.
Type
Desktop Computer
Specifications
WorkStation
Portable Computers
Server
Main Frame
Supercomputer
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Computer Types
WorkStation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop
publishing, software development, and other such types of applications which
require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large
amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special
type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
Workstations are also single-user computers. However, workstations are typically
linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
Mainframe
Mainframe is a very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently. Mainframes support many simultaneous programs execution.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather
forecasting , scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
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Computer Types
OS
Number of
cores
Clock
Speed /
Core
Power
(kW)
Tianhe-2
(MilkyWay-2)
National University
of Defense
Technology
China
LINUX
3,120,000
2.20 GHz
17,808
Titan
LINUX
560,640
2.20 GHz
8,209
Sequoia
Lawrence
Livermore National
Laboratory
United States
LINUX
1,572,864
1.60 GHz
7,890
K
Supercomputer
RIKEN Advanced
Institute for
Computational
Science (AICS)
Japan
LINUX
705,024
2.00 GHz
12,660
Mira
Argonne National
Laboratory
United States
LINUX
786,432
1.60 GHz
3,945
Stampede
Texas Advanced
Computing
Center/Univ. of
Texas
United States
LINUX
462,462
2.70 GHz
4,510
JUQUEEN
Forschungszentrum
Juelich (FZJ)
Germany
LINUX
458,752
1.60 GHz
2,301
Vulcan
Lawrence
Livermore National
Laboratory United
States
LINUX
393,216
1.60 GHz
1,972
SuperMUC
Leibniz
Rechenzentrum
Germany
LINUX
147,456
2.70 GHz
3,423
Tianhe-1A
National
Supercomputing
Center in Tianjin
China
LINUX
186,368
2.93 GHz
4,040
Rank
10
System
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Computer Components
Computer Components
All types of computer follows a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input data
into information useful to their users
Sr. No.
Operation
Description
Take Input
The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
Store Data
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and when required.
Processing Data
Performing arithmetic, logical operations on data in order to convert them into useful
information.
Output Information
The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed report
or visual display.
Direct the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user and computer.
The input devices translate the human being information into the form understandable by computer.
Memory Unit
Control Unit
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link between computer and
users.
Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by users.
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Computer CPU
Computer CPU
Control Unit
It stores all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing.
It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer. It does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are
It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the computer.
It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
26
Arithmetic section
Logic Section
ARITHMETIC SECTION
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex
operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.
LOGIC SECTION
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.
Keyboard
Mouse
Joy Stick
Light pen
Track Ball
Scanner
Graphic Tablet
Microphone
Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the data to the computer. The layout of the
keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for Windows and
Internet.
The keys are following
Sr. No.
Keys
Description
Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digits keys (0-9) which are generally give same layout as that
of typewriters.
Numeric
Keypad
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid
out in the same configuration used by most adding machine and calculators.
Function Keys
The twelve (12) functions keys are present on the keyboard. These are arranged in a row along the top of
the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
Control keys
These keys provides cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow key. Control keys also
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Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar,
Tab, and Print Screen.
Layout
Description
QWERTY
QWERTZ
AZERTY
Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control
device. It is a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses
the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on
pressing the buttons.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is
present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
TYPES
Optical and laser mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the mouse movements.
Inertial and gyroscopic mice - Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate,
3D mice - Also known as bats, flying mice, or wands, these devices generally function through ultrasound and provide at least
three degrees of freedom.
Ergonomic mouse - type of mouse intended to provide optimum comfort and avoid injuries.
CONNECTIVITY
USB
Cordless or wireless
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ADVANTAGES
Easy to use
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves
in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube.
When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal
to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball,
pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse.
A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be
stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera
had been pointed at.
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Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used
for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
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Fingerprints
Hand Geometry
Facial Features
Voice
Signature
Eye Pattern
Monitors
Graphic Plotter
Printer
Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called
pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels.
Monitors are defined in terms of the following:
Graphical Adapter - it is the electronic linked between the motherboard and the monitor.
Size It refers to the diagonal dimension of the display screen. It ranges from 5 to 30 inches.
Resolution refers to the number of addressable points on the screen the number of light can be directed under the
program control. These points is sometimes called PIXELS (short for picture elements)
Monochrome displays images in a single color, usually white, green, blue, red or amber.
Color Monitors mix red, green and blue to achieve a spectrum of colors and are called RGB monitors.
Large in Size
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Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers
Impact Printers
Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are following
Character printers
Line printers
Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.
These are of further two types
Daisy Wheel
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ADVANTAGES
Inexpensive
Widely Used
DISADVANTAGES
Slow Speed
Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for wordprocessing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality
representation.
ADVANTAGES
Better quality
DISADVANTAGES
Noisy
Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
Drum Printer
Chain Printer
Drum Printer
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ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Very expensive
Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called Non-impact Printers. These
printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page Printers.
The quality of output from a non-impact printer is normally excellent and much better than the output of impact printers.
These printers are of two types
Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers
High quality.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGE
Expensive.
Inkjet Printers
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Computer Memory
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of
ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of
printing modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers
can produce multiple copies of printing also.
ADVANTAGES
More reliable
DISADVANTAGES
Computer Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in computer where
data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
Alternatively referred to as storage, storage media, or storage medium, a storage device is a hardware device capable of holding
information.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called Cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which
varies from zero to memory size minus one.
For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
Cache Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.
It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating
system, from where CPU can access them.
ADVANTAGE
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
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Computer Memory
DISADVANTAGE:
It is very expensive.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are used for storing
Data/Information permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output
routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then
CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
It is non-volatile memory.
REMOVABLE DISK
Alternatively referred to as removable storage and removable media, a removable disk is a media that enables a user to move d ata
between computers without having to open their computer. Below is a listing of the removable disks you're likely to use with your
computer.
Floppy diskettes
Although hard drives that connect to a computers USB port do allow you to move data between computers without opening the
computer these drives are referred to as an external drive and not a removable disk drive.
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36
Computer Memory
INTERNAL
Internal is a term used to describe a device that is installed within the computer. For example, a video card is an internal device and a
printer is an external device. When referring to a drive an internal drive such as an internal hard drive is any drive that is inside the
computer.
EXTERNAL
External describes a hardware device that is installed outside of the computer.
DEVICE
CAPACITY
Floppy Disk
1.44MB to 4MB
Jump Drive
1GB to 32 GB
500GB
1GB to 4TB
FLOPPY DISK
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible
magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes
dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD).
Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch (200 mm) media and later in 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 3.5-inch (90
mm) sizes, were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s well into the
first decade of the 21st century.[1]
Today, because of the limited capacity and reliability of floppy diskettes many computers no
longer come equipped with floppy disk drives and are being replaced with CD-R, other writable discs, and flash drives.
COMPACT DISK
Abbreviated as CD, a compact disc is a flat, round storage medium that is read by a laser in a CD-ROM
drive that was invented by James Russell and first created at a Philips factory in Germany on August 17,
1982. The standard CD is capable of holding 72 minutes of music or 650 MB of data. 80 minute CDs are
also commonly used to store data and are capable of containing 700 MB of data. In the picture to the right,
is an example of what the standard compact disc looks like.
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DVD
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips, Sony,
Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs
while having the same dimensions.
FLASH DRIVE
Alternatively referred to as a USB drive, data stick, pen drive, keychain drive and thumb drive, a jump
drive is a portable drive that is often the size of your thumb that connects to the computer USB port.
Today, flash drives are available in sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 5GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB and
are an easy way to transfer and store information.
Unlike a hard drive the flash drive only contains an integrated circuit memory board capable of storing
information and has no movable parts.
Volatility
NON-VOLATILE MEMORY
A memory (data storage) can retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for longterm storage of information.
VOLATILE MEMORY
A memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not
a universal rule). Since primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.
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38
Computer RAM
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) can be used to give a computer a brief window of time to move information from primary
volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted. Some systems have integrated batteries that maintain
volatile storage for several hours.
Mutability
READ/WRITE STORAGE OR MUTABLE STORAGE
It allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes
would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage.
Accessibility
RANDOM ACCESS
Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited
for primary and secondary storage. Most semiconductor memories and disk drives provide random access.
SEQUENTIAL ACCESS
The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of
information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
Capacity
RAW CAPACITY
It is the total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of bits or bytes (e.g.
10.4 megabytes).
Computer RAM
A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It
is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).
Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location
inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can
reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is
small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
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Computer ROM
Faster
Large size
Expensive
Used as RAM
lesser in size
Less expensive
Computer ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture.
A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first
turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
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Computer Motherboard
Advantages of ROM
Non-volatile in nature
Easy to test
Computer Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer
together. A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card,
sound card and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered
as the backbone of a computer.
Features
Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to compatible with motherboard to function properly.
Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Popular Manufacturers
Intel
ASUS
AOpen
ABIT
Biostar
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41
Gigabyte
MSI
Description:
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU. For memory, normally one or
more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive and optical drives via ribbon cables. Mother
board carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There a peripheral card slots on front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards and other expansion cards can be
connected to motherboard.
On left side, motherboard carries a number of ports. These ports connect monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, network cables
and all to the motherboard. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out
fashion. For example, pen drives digital cameras etc.
Unit
Description
Bit (Binary
Digit)
Nibble
Byte
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
represent a data item or a character.
Word
Unit
Description
Kilobyte (KB)
1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB)
1 MB = 1024 KB
10
= 1,024
20
= 1,048,576
30
GigaByte (GB)
1 GB = 1024 MB
2 = 1,073,741,824
TeraByte (TB
1 TB = 1024 GB
2 = 1,099,511,627,776
PetaByte (PB)
1 PB = 1024 TB
2 = 1,125,899,906,842,624
40
50
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42
Computer Ports
Computer Ports
What is a Port?
A computer port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.
A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to computer or over
the internet.
Characteristics
Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.
Serial Port
Parallel Port
25 pin model.
PS/2 Port
43
Computer Ports
Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard.
Can connect all kind of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
Introduced in 1997.
VGA Port
Have 15 holes.
Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.
Power Connector
Three-pronged plug
Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.
Firewire Port
Invented by Apple
Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector
Modem
Ethernet Port
Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.
Game Port
Connect a PC to a joystick
Connect a Flat panel LCD monitors to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
44
Computer Hardware
Sockets
Computer Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the computer i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are following.
If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul. Both are complimentary to each other.
Computer Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to
solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software
System Software
Application Software
45
Computer Software
It is essentially the master controller for all the activities that takes place within a computer. It is referred to as a set of computer
programs that controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface with application programs.
Hardware
System Software
Application Software
User
Close to system.
Fast in speed.
Difficult to design.
Difficult to understand.
Less interactive.
Smaller in size.
Difficult to manipulate.
Operating System Perform many different task often referred to as SERVICES. These services can be classified as either external or
internal.
External Services It helps users start program, manage stored data and maintain security.
Internal Services It is behind the scenes services to ensure that the computer system functions efficiently.
Desktop Operating System it is also referred to as a client operating system. It is designed for single-user microcomputer.
Server Operating System sometimes called network operating system is designed for computers that provide centralized
storage facilities and communications capabilities and Web Sites.
Real-Time Operating System - is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. The main
object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events.
Multi-user vs. Single-user - A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system concurrently.
Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time.
Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking - When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a singletasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multitasking operating system.
Two types of Multi-tasking
o
Pre-emptive - the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs.
Cooperative - is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner.
Distributed - manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer.
Embedded - Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to
operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.
46
Computer Software
Logs the jobs that are finished and currently being executed
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47
Computer Software
Application Software
Application software is the software that is designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software prepared by us
in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also
consists of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet
package.
Examples of Application software are following
Payroll Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint
It is close to user.
It is easy to design.
More interactive.
Slow in speed.
Easy to understand.
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Peopleware
Peopleware
Peopleware It refers to the person engaged in various processes of computer operations, programming and system analysis,
maintenance and implementation.
Positions in the IT department usually divided into five main areas
1.
Management It directs the planning, research, development, evaluation and integration of technology.
a.
2.
System Development and Programming It analyzes designs, develops and implement new information technology and
maintains and improves existing systems.
a.
3.
Technical Services They evaluate and integrate new technologies, administer the organizations data resources, and support
the centralized computer operating system and servers.
a.
4.
Operations operates the centralized computer equipment and administer the network, including both data and voice
communications.
a.
5.
Training They teach employees how to use components of the information system and answers specific user questions.
a.
The digit
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49
The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available in the number system).
Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 2
Last position in a binary number represents an x power of the base (2). Example 2 where x represents the last position - 1.
EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step
Binary Number
Decimal Number
4
Step 1 101012
((1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ))10
Step 2 101012
(16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 101012
2110
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Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 8
Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example 8 where x represents the last position - 1.
0
x
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step
Octal Number
Decimal Number
4
Step 1 125708
((1 x 8 ) + (2 x 8 ) + (5 x 8 ) + (7 x 8 ) + (0 x 8 ))10
Step 2 125708
Step 3 125708
549610
Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 16
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16). Example 16 where x represents the last
0
x
position - 1.
EXAMPLE
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step
Binary Number
Decimal Number
4
Step 1 19FDE16
((1 x 16 ) + (9 x 16 ) + (F x 16 ) + (D x 16 ) + (E x 16 ))10
Step 2 19FDE16
Step 3 19FDE16
Step 4 19FDE16
10646210
51
EXAMPLE
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step
Operation
Result
Remainder
Step 1
29 / 2
14
Step 2
14 / 2
Step 3
7/2
Step 4
3/2
Step 5
1/2
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the least
significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 111012
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52
Binary Number
Decimal Number
Step 1
111012
((1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ))10
Step 2
111012
(16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3
111012
2910
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Octal Number
Decimal Number
Step 1
278
((2 x 8 ) + (5 x 8 ))10
Step 2
278
(16 + 5 )10
Step 3
278
2110
Operation
Result
Remainder
Step 1
21 / 2
10
Step 2
10 / 2
Step 3
5/2
Step 4
2/2
Step 5
1/2
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53
EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step
Binary Number
Octal Number
Step 1
101012
010 101
Step 2
101012
28 58 38
Step 3
101012
258
EXAMPLE
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step
Octal Number
Binary Number
Step 1
258
210 510
Step 2
258
0102 1012
Step 3
258
0101012
EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 101012
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54
Binary Number
Hexadecimal Number
Step 1
101012
0001 0101
Step 2
101012
110 510
Step 3
101012
1510
Step 5
101012
F16
EXAMPLE
Hexadecimal Number: F16
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step
Hexadecimal Number
Binary Number
Step 1
F16
1510
Step 2
F16
110 510
Step 3
F16
00012 01012
Step 4
F16
000101012
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55
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data so that it has some meaningful values to
the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics
Input - In this step the input data are prepared in some convenient
form for processing. The form will depend on the processing machine.
For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data
could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such
as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.
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56
Computer Networking
Computer Networking
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.
Characteristics
Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let other computers of the network use
the machines available over network.
Network Cables
Distributors
Router
Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is
Distributors
many
body
printers,
to
which
other
computers,
computers
scanners
to
produce
etc.
can
be
Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and
Computers and other devices are connected to a router using network cables.
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57
Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be connected over a network.
Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards
Wireless network card need to inserted into the motherboard but no network
USB card, are easy to use and connect via USB port.
Computer automatically detects USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware.
It is an integration set of specialized programs that are used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.
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58
It is specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the computer, including
application programs and other system software.
To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier for the users to access and use other
resources.
Keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, according for resource using and mediating conflicting
requests from different programs and users.
The efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs
Memory Management -- It keeps tracks of primary memory i.e what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use etc.
Allocates the memory when the process or program requests it.
Processor Management -- Allocate the processor (CPU) to a process. Deallocate processor when processor is no longer
required.
Device Management -- Keep tracks of all devices. This is also called I/O controller. Decides which process gets the device
when and for how much time.
File Management -- Allocates the resources. De-allocates the resource. Decides who gets the resources.
Security -- By means of passwords & similar other techniques, preventing unauthorized access to programs & data.
Job accounting -- Keeping track of time & resources used by various jobs and/or users.
Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a service & from the system.
Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form of instructions.
Operating System acknowledges the same, do the corresponding action and inform the operation by a display screen.
Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and error-detecting methods.
Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and
other software to the various users of the computer systems.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the
IP Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
For
Example,
DNS
server
will
resolve
59
Intranet
PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.
Usually each company or organizations have their own Intranet network and
members/employees of that company can access the computers in their intranet.
Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet. But only members of Intranet network can
access intranet hosted sites.
In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/ gtalk over the internet.
Internet is general to PCs all over the world where Intranet is specific to few PCs.
Internet is wider access and provides a better access to websites to large population whereas Intranet is restricted.
Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.
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