LITERARY CRITICISM

1. INTRODUCTION 1. LITERATURE What is literature?

-literate/ literacy -able to read/write Origin- from Latin litteratura (letter literature with the small!l! - literature--- "iece of writing/"rinted information on a "articular sub#ect literature with the big $L! Literature-pieces of writin t!at are "a#ue$ as wor%s of art e . No"e#s& p#a's& poe(s (contrast to technical boo%s/ scientific/ academic writings Literar')connected with literature eg Literary &riticism'Literary (heory Litera#-- the basic or usual meaning of a word/"hrase (com"are to fi urati"e #an ua e eg..meta"hor) irony) allegory

Literature* *n a broad sense+to mean com"ositions that tell stories) dramati,e situations e-"ress emotions) analy,e and ad.ocate ideas. o Literature- hel"s us grow- "ersonally) intellectually $o"ens doors+ to a wide world/new e-"eriences de.elo"s our imagination)increases understanding)"ower of sym"athy see the beauty of the world around us lin%s us with the cultural)"hiloso"hical)religious world recogni,e human dreams/struggles in different time and "lace de.elo" mature sensibility)com"assion for li.ing beings a""reciate the beauty of order/arrangement it e-ercises our emotions through concern) sym"athy)interest)e-citement) tension)regret) fear) laughter. /o"e etc. (hrough e-"eriences in reading . literature sha"es our goal and .alues by clarifying our own identities-"ositi.ely through acce"tance of the admirable in humans and negati.ely through re#ection of the sinister. Literature 0 can also ser.e as a guide to life/ inculcate moral and ethical .alues and "ro.ides good e-am"les to emulate. Whereas the negati.e e-am"les ser.e as a reminder.

INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY T,EORY- CRITICISM 1. Literar' T!eor' 1 set of "rinci"les or assum"tions u"on which our inter"retation of a te-t is based. Our "ersonal literary theory is our conscious or unconscious de.elo"ment of a (in$-set ."a#ues& aest!etics& (ora#s etc./ concerning our e-"ectations when reading any ty"e of literature. (o articulate this framewor% and "iece together the .arious elements of our "ractical criticism into a coherent) unified body of %nowledge is our literary theory. Literary theory offers a .ariety of methodologies for us to inter"ret a te-t from different .iew"oints. (he im"ortance of literary theory (2ressler 1333 1. Literary theory assumes that there is no such thing as an innocent reading of a te-t. Whether our res"onse are emotional and s"ontaneous or well reasoned and highly structured) all such interactions with and to a te-t are based on some underlying factors that cause us to res"ond to the te-t in a "articular fashion. What elicits these res"onse or how a reader ma%es sense out of a te-t is at the heart of literary theory. 4. 2ecause our reactions to any te-t ha.e theoretical bases) all readers must ha.e a literary theory. (he methods we use to frame our "ersonal inter"retations of any te-t directly in.ol.e us in the "rocess of literary criticism and theory) automatically ma%ing us literary critics. 5. 2ecause many readers! literary theory is more often than not unconscious) incom"lete) ill-informed)and eclectic) their inter"retations can easily be illogical) unsound and ha"ha,ard.1 welldefined) logical) and clearly articulated theory enables readers to consciously de.elo" their own "ersonal methods of inter"retation) "ermitting them to order) clarify ) and #ustify their a""raisals of a te-t in a consistent and logical manner. (he benefit of understanding literary theory - 6theory can hel" us learn to see oursel.es and our world in .aluable new ways) ways that can influence how we educate our children) both as "arents and teachers' how we .iew tele.ision)from the nightly news to situation comedies' how we beha.e as .oters and consumers'how we react to others with with whom we do not agree on social) religious) and "olitical issues' and how we recogni,e and deal with our own moti.es) fears and desires. 1nd if we belie.e that human "roductions 0 not #ust literature but also) for e-am"le) film) music) art) science) technology) and architecture 0 are outgrowths of human e-"erience and therefore reflect human desire) conflict) and "otential) then we can learn to inter"ret those "roductions in order to learn something im"ortant about oursel.es as a s"ecies. &ritical theory) * thin% you will find) "ro.ides 4

e-cellent tools for that endea.or) tools that not only show us our world and oursel.es through new and .aluable lenses but can also strengthen our ability to thin% logically) creati.ely) and with a good deal of insight. (Lois (yson 4778 9sage of the theory 0 $see the world through the lens of the theory! :ince there are many ways of seeing the world) critical theories com"ete with one another for dominance from social) educational) cultural as"ects. ;ach theory seems to offer itself as the most accurate means of understanding human e-"erience. (hese theories ha.e a strong "olitical dimension because they offer different inter"retations of history and current e.ents. <ifferences in the theories 0 e.en within a single theory there are disagreements which result in the emergence of different schools of thought. $(he history of critical theory is) in effect) the history of an ongoing debate among its own ad.ocates as well as an ongoing debate with the ad.ocates of other theories.

0. Literar' Criticis( 6 o.erall term for studies concerned with defining) classifying) analy,ing) inter"reting) and e.aluating wor%s of literature. (=./. 1brams =atthew 1rnold) a 13th century literary critic a disinterested ende.our to learn and "ro"agate the best that is %nown and thought in the world (herefore> L.&. is a disci"lined acti.ity that attem"ts to study) analy,e) inter"ret and e.aluate a wor% of art( literary te-t T!eoretica# criticis( ) formulates theories and "rinci"les regarding the nature and .alue of literary wor%s. through these "rinci"les) theoretical criticism "ro.ides the necessary framewor% for "ractical criticism. =./. 1brams - (. &. .."ro"oses an e-"licit theory of literature) in the sense of general "rinci"les) together with a set o terms)distinctions) and categories) to be a""lied to identifying and analy,ing wor%s of literature) aswell as the criteria by which these wor%s and their writers are to be e.aluated. (he earliest) and enduringly im"ortant ) treatise of theoretical criticism was 1ristotle!s Poetics (?th century 2& 1ractica# Criticis( . app#ie$ criticis(/ 0 a""lies the theories of theoretical criticism to a "articular wor%. 1 "ractical critic e-"lains) e.aluates or #ustifies a wor% of literature. <istinction between an a2so#utist critic and t!e re#ati"istic critic. 1 1bsolutist critic 0 who "osits that there is only one theory a critic may utili,e when e.aluating a wor%. 4 @elati.istic critic 0 utili,e .arious and e.en contradictory theories in critiAuing a literary wor%. 5

(he basis is for either %ind of critic or any form of criticism) is #iterar' t!eor'. Without theory) "ractical criticism could not e-ist.

3. T!e function of a critic 1 common meaning of criticism is $fault finding!. (he most .aluable criticism is not that loo%s at faults only but that which calls our attention to interesting things going on in art. W./. 1uden 0 so far as * am concerned) a critic can do me one or more of the following ser.ices> 1 introduce me to authors or wor%s of which * was unaware 4 con.ince me that * ha.e under.alued an author or wor% because * had not read them carefully enough 5 show me relations between wor%s of different ages and cultures which * could ne.er ha.e seen for myself because * do not %now enough and ne.er shall ? gi.e a reading of a wor% which increases my understanding of it B throw light u"on the "rocess of artisticma%ing 8 throw light u"on the relation of art to life)science)economics)ethics) "olitics) religion etc. 4. T!e 5rowt! of Literar' Criticis( 1. Clato (?4D -5?D 2& *n his wor%s such as Republic and others) he laid the foundation of "hiloso"hy and literature> the conce"ts of truth) beauty) goodness) reality) ontology (nature and relations of beings ) e"istemology (how we %now) what we %now ) ethics and morality. 4. 1ristotle (5E? 0 544 2& /is well %nown Poetics ) is a discussion of literary theory used until the "resentdefinition of tragedy 0 hamartia (heroes downfall ) catharsis ("urging of audience!s emotions 5. /orace (8B 0 E2& ?. Longinus (1st &entury 1.<. B. <ante :1lighieri (148B- 1541 - the middle ages) *taly 8. :ir Chili" :ydney (1BB? 0 1BE8 0@enaissance D. Fohn <ryden ( 1851 0 1D77 0 the @estoration "eriod E. 1le-ander Co"e (18EE 0 1D?? 3. William Wordsworth ( 1DD7- 1EB7 @omanticism. Cublished Lyrical Balladsredefines "oetry 17. /i""olyte 1dol"he (aine (1E4E 0 1E35 Gictorian era. Cublished The History of English Literature in 1E85. 1d.ocated a historical a""roach to literary analysis. 11. =atthew 1rnold ( 1E44 0 1EEE Gictorian era 0"oetry and humanity 14. /enry Fames ( 1E?5 0 1318 focuses on no.e

6. Literar' t!eories 1. Hew &riticism/ Iormalism 4. Csychoanalytic criticism 5. @eader-res"onse criticism ?. <econstructi.e criticism / <econstruction B. =ar-ist/sociological criticism 8. Ieminist/Jender citicism D. Hew /istoricism E. :tructuralism/ :tructuralist criticism 3. Costcolonial criticism 17. &ultural criticism 11. 1frican 1merican criticism 14. Lesbian) Jay and Kueer &riticism 15. Costmodern criticism/ "ostmodernism 1?. ;cocriticism Critica# Approac!es to Literature7 (1ccording to Lennedy M Jioia 4774 1. Iormalist criticism 4. 2iogra"hical criticism 5. /istorical criticism ?. Csychological criticism B. =ythological criticism 8. :ociological criticism D. Jender criticism E. @eader- @es"onse criticism 3. <econstructionist criticism 17. &ultural :tudies (O &OH&L9<;> Literary criticism is a natural human res"onse to literature Ceo"le will "onder) discuss) analy,e te-t that interests them *nformal criticism eg of friends tal%ing about a literay te-t 0 informal) casual)sub#ecti.e. How 0academic-- more disci"lined- scholars Literary critics ha.e borrowed from other disci"lines'eg. linguistics) history) "sychology) "olitical science) sociology etc. =ass media critics tend to e.aluate which wor% is worth reading 2ut serious literary criticism 0 hel"s us to better understand a wor%

NOTE7 (o understand the theory) you ha.e to familiari,e with the language each theory ad.ocates 0 familiari,e with the %e' concepts on which the theory is grounded. B

T,E LITERARY T,EORIES7

1. 8ORMALIST CRITICISM . NE9 CRITICISM / 1. ;m"hasi,es the wor% as a self-contained) inde"endent unit)which is to be studied in itself) not as "art of some larger conte-t such as the author!s life or a historical "eriod. 4. Hamed after Fohn &rowe @ansom!s boo% The New Criticism (13?1 "ro"osed that a te-t is a concrete ob#ect that can be analy,ed to disco.er its meaning inde"endent of the author!s intention or emotional state or .alues of either author or reader. 5. *t is also called the Hew &riticism because it re"laced biogra"hical-historical criticism that was dominant in the 13 th century. *t was a common "ractice at that time to inter"ret a te-t by studying the author!s life and times to determine aut!oria# intention ( the meaning the author intended the te-t to ha.e . (he author!s letters) diaries) and essays were combed for e.idence of authorial intention as well as autobiogra"hies) biogra"hies and history boo%s. *n an e-treme form) biogra"hical-historical criticism seemed to e-amine the te-t!s biogra"hicalhistorical bac%ground instead of e-amining the te-t. ?. Hew &ritics sees a literary te-t as a uniAue form of human %nowledge that needs to be e-amined on its own terms. *t refers to its own intrinsic .alue) not on social or biogra"hical etc. as"ects. *t sees elements in the te-t itself. *t focuses on the words in the te-t itself rather on the author!s life/historical bac%ground. B. :T!e te;t an$ te;t a#one< a""roach . C#ose rea$in . e;p#ication-#ine 2' #ine p#ot& c!aracteri=ation& point of "iew& settin & $iction& i(a er'& structure

IO@=1L*:( &@*(*&1L K9;:(*OH: /ow is the wor% structured or organi,ed? /ow is the "lot? Who is the narrator? /ow is the narrator/character re.ealed to the audience? Who are the ma#or/minor characters? What is the setting- time/ "lace? What %ind of language is used? What images) symbols) meta"hors a""ear in the te-t?

0. READER-RES1ONSE CRITICISM 1. @-@ criticism focuses on readers! res"onse to literary te-ts. (he meaning of a literary wor% is not merely something "ut into the wor% by the writer> the meaning is an inter"retation created or constructed or "roduced by the reader and the writer. 4. :tanley Iish> s There a Te!t in This class" (13E7 *nter"retation is not the art of construing) but of constructing. *nter"reters do not decode "oems' they ma%e them. 5. *n @-@ criticism ) the reader is acti.e) not "assi.e) during the reading "rocess. 2oth reader and te-t interact (share a transactional e-"erience ?. (he te-t is a stimulus for eliciting .arious "ast e-"eriences) thoughts) ideas of the reader (real life e-"eriences/ "ast reading e-"eriences . (he te-t sha"es the reader!s e-"eriences) selecting) limiting and ordering ideas that best conform to the te-t.

@;1<;@-@;:COH:; &@*(*&1L K9;:(*OH: What is your initial emotional reaction to the te-t? /ow do you feel after reading it? <o you find youself agreeing to or res"onding differently at any "oint? 1t what "laces in the te-t do you often ha.e to ma%e inferences) inter"ret) fill in ga"s? /ow do you res"ond to the characters/ the s"ea%er/ the narrator? /ow do you feel about them? What "laces/ as"ects of the te-t had caused you to do some serious thin%ing? *f you ha.e read a te-t more than once) how has your second and subseAuent readings differed from the earlier reading?

3. 1SYC,OLO5ICAL .1SYC,OANALYTIC/ CRITICISM 3.1 Intro$uction 1. (his theory has its roots in the wor% of :igmund Ireud and his followers. Ireud is the founder of "sychoanalysis 0 which is a medical techniAue or a method of thera"y for the treatment of the mentally ill or distressed "atiens which would hel" them to understand the source of the sym"toms . 4. *t is the a""lication of the "sychological "rinci"les of :igmund Ireud (1EB81353 in analysis of literary te-ts. (he analysis would e-amine the author and the writings in the framewor% of Ireudian "sychology. 1 central doctrine of Ireudian "sychology is the Oe$ipus co(p#e;) the .iew that all males(females? unconsciously wish to dis"lace their fathers and to slee" with their mothers (? . 1ccording to Ireud) hatred for the father and lo.e of the mother) normally represse$) may a""ear disguised in dreams. Wor%s of art) similar to $rea(s are $is uise$ .ersions of re"ressed wishes 5. ;-am"le 0 *n the "lay Hamlet) /amlet delays %illing &laudius because &laudius (who has %illed /amlet!s father and married /amlet!s mother has done e-actly what /amlet himself wanted to do. Ior /amlet to %ill &laudius) would be to %ill himself. ?. Csychological criticism can also turn from the author and the wor% to the reader) see%ing) to e-"lain why we) as readers/audience) res"ond in certain ways. 3.0 ,istorica# >ac% roun$ 1. :ince the ?th &entury 2.&.) 1ristotle commented on the effects of tragedy on the audience> through "ity and fear) tragedy created a catharsis of these emotions. 4. =atthew 1rnold- literature can ma%e us better "eo"le. he belie.ed that "oetry can ins"irit and re#oice the reader 5. William Wordsworth- said that the im"ulse to write comes from emotion recollected in tranAuility ?. &oleridge- described $ creati.ity! as the li.ing "ower and "rime agent of all human "erce"tion B. (he abo.e are e-am"les of Auestions/theories of a "sychological nature. (hey try to e-"lain the growth) de.elo"ment) and structure of the human "ersonality. *n the late 13th century) :igmund Ireud introduced his theories about the wor%ings of the human "syche) its formation) organi,ation and "roblems. 8. Ireud!s students) eg 1lfred 1dler and &arl Fung) would build on his ideas to "robe the wor%ings of the human "syche. D. *n the 13B7!s. Horthru" Irye) de.elo"ed Fung!s ideas where it is a""licable to literature. E. FacAues Lacan 0 new linguistic theories- said that language sha"es our unconscious and conscious minds ) thereby gi.ing us our identity.

3. &ontributions from Fung) Lacan) etc. "lus Ireud!s 0 it is "ossible to disco.er in literary wor%s what the author had not stated directly or had not reali,ed what he had said. Cossible to read between(beneath the lines 17. (here is an absence of the aesthetic theory (science/study of beauty or "erce"tion of what is beautiful and meaningful ) ne.ertheless) it can be used in combination or to com"lement other literary theories. 3.3 Si (un$ 8reu$ 1. Wor%ed with hysterics) neurotic "atients. (heori,ed that the root of their "roblems was "sychological) not "hysical. 2elie.ed that su""ressed incestuous desires) fantasies and wishful thin%ing had a "art in neuroses. 4. /e de.elo"ed the =odel of the /uman Csyche> T!e D'na(ic Mo$e# 0 the human mind consists of the conscious .rationa#/ and the unconscious .irrationa#/ which controls a ma#or "art of man!s actions. 5. (he unconscious - recei.es) stores hidden desires) fears) ambitions) "assions.*t is a dynamic system that stores biogra"hical memories and also su""ressed and unresol.ed conflicts.(hese disguised truths and desires may be re.ealed through the conscious. *ne.itably) these desires are re.ealed through dreams) art) literary wor%s) and accidental sli"s of the tongue Ireudian :li"s ?. T!e Econo(ic Mo$e# ) hel"s to go.ern the human "syche 7a the p#easure princip#e ) cra.es "leasure) instant gratification) ignoring moral and se-ual boundaries of society. b the rea#it' princip#e ) conforms to society standards and regulations on "leasure. Lee"s the "leasure "rinci"le in chec%. B. T!e Tripartite Mo$e#s - the "syche is di.ided into > a/ i$ 0 the irrational) unconscious 0 fulfill the urges of the p#easure princip#e. *t contains the #i2i$o ) source of "sychose-ual desires. i$ o"erates on im"ulse) without any controlling will to get immediate satisfaction of desires b c e o ) the rational) logical "art of the mind. *t o"erates on the rea#it' princip#e ) regulate the instinctual desires of the id. supere o ) "art of the mind that acts as an internal censor-hel" to ma%e moral #udgment under social "ressures. @e"resenting society!s moral norms/restrictions) the su"erego becomes a filtering agent- su""ress the desires and instincts forbidden by society and thrusting them bac% into the unconscious. :u"erego manifests itself through "unishment. =ay create an unconscious sense of guilt and fear. *t is left to the e o to mediate between the instinctual (es" se-ual desire of the i$ and social "ressure from the supere o .

8. 8reu$+s 1re-Oe$ipa# De"e#op(enta# 1!ases ) in early childhood we go through 5 "hases>a oral "hase 0suc% mother!s breast) libido acti.ated. =outh becomes the erotogenic ,one (suc%ing thumbs) later %issing b anal stage 0 anus becomes the ob#ect of "leasure when children learn the delight of defecation and learning that they are inde"endent from their mothers. (he anus becomes the erotogenic ,one- when children turn sadistic) e-"elling and destroying through defecation. 1 means of e-"ressing anger and e-citement u"on disco.ering their freedom from their mothers. 2y withholding feces) they learn they can control othersN c "hallic stage 0 child!s se-ual desire/libido is directed towards the genitals when the child learns the "leasure from stimulating one!s se-ual organ. 1t this stage) the "leasure "rinci"le controls the child. &hild 0sadistic) self-centred) cares for "leasure only. (o grow u" as a normal adult- the child must de.elo" a sense of maleness/femaleness. that can be achie.ed through Oedi"us or ;lectra com"le-. 3.4 8reu$+s Oe$ipus & Castration& E#ectra Co(p#e;es a Oe$ipus Co(p#e; 0 during the child!s late infantile stage (5-8 yrs the infant male has an erotic attachment to his mother. (unconsciously desires for se-ual union with his mother . 2ut he has a ri.al> father. 1t the "hallic stage and aware of his own erogenous organ) he "ercei.es the attention gi.en to the mother by the father as se-ual. b Castration Co(p#e;- the child must "ass through this stage for normal se-ual de.elo"ment. (he boy %nows that he has a "enis li%e his father whereas his mother and sister do not. /e is "re.ented from ha.ing incestuous desires for his mother by the fear of castration by his father. /e re"resses his se-ual desire) identifies with his father and ho"es to "ossess a woman li%e his father (transition to manhood c E#ectra Co(p#e; - transition from a girl to a normal woman. (he young child is also erotically attracted to her mother and recogni,es a ri.al (the father . 9nconsciously) she reali,es she is already castrated. :he turns to her father for her desires ("enis . 1fter the seduction of her father fails) she goes bac% to her mother and identifies with her. :he ho"es to "ossess a man li%e her mother. (hrough her relationshi" with a man) her desire for a "enis ("enis en.y will be a""eased.

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3.6 8reu$+s Si nificance of Drea(s *n The nterpretation of #reams (1377 > in the "rocess of growing u" to manhood or womanhood) the child has stored memories of re"ressed se-ual desire) anger) guilt etc. in the unconscious. (he unconscious will affect the conscious in the form of inferiority feelings) irrational thoughts and dreams and nightmares. -e.en though the conscious has su""ressed the desires etc. into the unconscious) it can redirect and resha"e the concealed wishes/desires into acce"table social acti.ities 0in writings. (he "syche o"ens a window to the i$ by allowing the softened and acce"table desires etc to see" into the conscious through> a dis"lacement 0 eg. switching a feeling of hatred for someone to something else in a dream b condensation 0 one may consolidate feelings/ anger/emotion to a .ariety of "eo"le in a sentence) "hrase or symbol. 3.? 8reu$+s 1s'c!oana#'sis an$ Literature When re"ressed feelings etc cannot be released through dreams) the ego must act and bloc% any outward res"onse. the ego and id becomes in.ol.ed in an internal battle/conflict called neurosis. (hrough Ireud!s "sychoanalysis) it is ho"ed to identify the unresol.ed conflicts that caused the neurosis. 1ccording to Ireud) a literary wor% is the e-ternal e-"ression of the author!s unconscious mind. (herefore) the wor% must be treated li%e a dream) a""lying "sychoanalytic "rinci"les to the te-t to unco.er the author!s hidden moti.ations and re"ressed desires.

3.@ App#ication of 1s'c!oana#'sis C!aracter Ana#'sis o what are the main traits of the character? o how are those traits re.ealed? o what does the narrator re.eal about the character? o does the character change? if so) how and why? o does the character come to understand something not understood at the outset? o how does the character .iew himself/herself? o how is the character .iewed by other characters? o do the two (abo.e .iews agree? o what images are associated with the character? 11

what are the main symbols? what symbols are connected with the character ? does the character ha.e any interior monologues/dreams? are there any conflicts between what is obser.able and what is going on in the character!s mind. o where do the characters act in ways that are inconsistent with the way they are described by the narrator or "ercei.ed by other characters? o how can you e-"lain a characters irrational beha.iour? what causes? what moti.ation? o o o o 3.@.1 Ot!ers o what similarities do you find among the characters) situations) settings of the te-t with other wor%s that you ha.e read? o is the narrati.e li%e any classical myths you %now? o does the "rotagonist re#ect some "art of hi/her "ersonality and "ro#ect it onto someone /something else? o does the character ha.e a realistic and accurate sense of self?

3.@.0 Critica# Auestions- on t!e Aut!or 3.B What connections can you infer between your %nowledge of the author!s life and the beha.ior of characters in his or her te-t? /ow does your understanding of the characters! actions) relationshi"s) moti.ation) attitude) beha.ior in a literary wor% hel" you understand the mental world and imaginati.e life of the author? /ow does a te-t- its images) symbols) meta"hors etc 0 re.eal the "sychological moti.ations of its characters or the "sychological mindset of its author? /ow can a "sychological or "sychoanalytic a""roach to a "articular te-t be combined with another theory e.g. formalist)biogra"hical) feminist) =ar-ist?

A#ternati"e approac!es7 what unconscious moti.es are o"erating in the main character(s ' what core issues are illustrated? (the unconscious 0 re"ressed desires) conflicts) guilt are there any oedi"al dynamics "resent? is it "ossible to relate a character!s "atterns of adult beha.iour to early e-"eriences in the family as "ortrayed in the te-t.? how can characters! beha.iour ) e.ents) images etc. be e-"lained in "sychoanalytic conce"ts eg. crisis) se-uality) regression) fear of death) lo.e) romance etc? in what ways can we inter"ret a te-t as analogous to a dream? what does the literary wor% suggest about the "sychological being of its author? ("sychobiogra"hies

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4. MARCIST-SOCIOLO5ICAL CRITICISM 4.1 Intro$uction 1 form of historical criticism which sees history "rimarily as a struggle between socioeconomic classes and it sees literature as the "roduct of economic forces of the "eriod. ;conomics is the base or infrastructure. On this base rests a su"erstructure of ideology (law. "olitics) "hiloso"hy) religion) arts) literature which reflect the interests of the dominant class. (hus literature is a material "roduct) which is "roduced to be consumed. =ar-ist/ :ociological criticism0 e-amine literature in the social) economic) "olitical) cultural conte-t in which the te-t is written relationshi" between the artist and society analy,e the content of the te-t- what sociological/cultural/economic etc. .alues the is im"licitly/e-"licitly stated in the te-t 4.0 Dar# Mar; ->ac% roun$ Jerman "hiloso"her)economist)sociologist of 13th century 2orn 1E1E- (rier) Jermany- Fewish descent 1E5B-9ni.ersity of 2onn- not serious. 1E58- his father sent him to 9 of 2erlin Wrote "oems/comic no.els/tragic "lays/ also wrote on meta"hysics 1E?4-2ecame a #ournalis in an o""osition news"a"er- deemed sub.ersi.e-banned =arried Fenny Gon West"halen- daughter of city councilor in (rier 1E?5- emigrated to Caris-#ournal 0wrote on "olitics and law (ogether with Irederic% ;ngels- wrote Caris =anuscri"ts(humanistic communism 1E?B ;ngels- .isits to London-wrote $ (he Jerman *deology! 1E?8- e-"elled from Caris. Went to 2russels-&ommunist &orres"ondence &omm. 1E?E-&ommunist League formed. ;ngels-wrote T!e Co((unist Manifesto (he =anifesto called for wor%ers! u"rising/result in re.olutions- Irance/Jermany ;-iled to London-stayed with family-financial difficulties/sic% wife/death of his children /e was also sic%-boils from head to foot Withdrew from "olitical acti.ities-wrote on economic issues 1E8D- the well %nown Das Dapita# 0 condemned the free mar%et (laisse,-faire ca"italist system 1EE1-wife died. 1EE5-daughter died

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=arch 1EE5- =ar- died in his armchair

4.3 Mar;+s T!eories o 1ddress social "roblems from the economic as"ect o &oncerned with "hysical/material reality of man o Hot about truth).irtue)sin or e-istence of Jod 1. *n =ar-ism) economic conditions are %nown as material circumstances while social)"olitical)ideological settings generated by the material circumstances are %nown as historical situation. 4. 1ny changes in material condition would result in changes in class structure. &lass struggle for economic/"olitical/social ad.antage 5. (he basis of society is the economic system.Other as"ects li%e religion)culture etc are "arts of the su"erstructure which de"ends on the base (economy ?. Dia#ectic (ateria#is( 0 class struggle within society-borrowed the term from /egel!s "hiloso"hy of thesis-anthithesis-synthesis conce"t O dialectic- ideas formed in intellectual debate O thesis-"ro"osition O antithesis- challenges/counter "ro"osition O synthesis- re.ised "ro"osition B. T!esis- ruling class-mono"oli,es factors of "roduction-$bourgeois $ca"italist system! Antit!esis- wor%ing class $"roletariat! S'nt!esis- outcome- the new wor%ing class o.erthrows the ruling elite and restores a new order/system $communist state! Kuote> *n the Communist $anifesto ..the history of all hitherto e-isting society is the history of class struggles6..a fight that each time ended either in a re.olutionary reconstitution of society at large or in the common ruin of the contending classes 4.4 Ter(s-concepts of Mar;ist criticis( 1. I$eo#o '- system/beliefs in society. *ndoctrinated through cultural conditioning or use of force or coercion. ;g.Co((unis(-capita#is(-en"iron(enta#is(-nationa#is(-patriotis( &ritics can e-"lain literature in any era in terms of the economic or ideological situation s"ecific to that era. 4. ,e e(on'- related to ideology- enforces the society!s social/ collecti.e consciousness eg. (he ruling elite im"oses ideals on the wor%ing class- wages/"ro"erty they could earn. 5. A#ienation 0 distance of indi.idual wor%ers from the final "roduct/es" in di.ision of labour(ca"italism . Wor%er could not see the finished "roduct. Ho sense of indi.idual achie.ement.

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?. Co((o$ification- in a free mar%et system)a commodity is "roduced for e-change ( has .alue /umans/wor%ers are regarded as a $thing! or commodity for the economic functions that they "erform. B. >our eoisie 0 1 term by =ar- which refers to the owners of the means of "roduction in a society. (land) labour) ca"ital 8. 1ro#etariat 0 =ar-ist term for 0wor%ers in society D. E;c!an e "a#ue 01n assessment of the worth (.alue of something based on what it can be traded or sold for. E. Use "a#ue 0 an a""raisal of something based on what it can do 3. 8a#se consciousness 0 Ceo"le!s acce"tance of an unfa.ourable social/economic system without Auestioning) that is )as the logical way for things to be. 17. Superstructure ) (he social) "olitical) and ideological systems (.alues ) arts) legal system etc generated by the 2ase ( (et!o$s of pro$uction-econo('/ ?.B. Auestions for a Mar;ist Ana#'sis7 who are the "owerful "eo"le in the society de"icted in the te-t? who are "owerless "eo"le/ 1re they de"icted with eAual attention? why do the "owerful "eo"le ha.e that "ower? Why is it denied to others? do you find e.idence of class conflict and class struggle? do you find re"ression and mani"ulation of wor%ers by owners? is there e.idence of alienation and fragmentation? does the bourgeoisie in the te-t) either consciously or unconsciously routinely re"ress and mani"ulate less "owerful grou"s? <o you find tools for re"ression - news) media) laws) etc. what does the setting tell you about the distribution of "ower and wealth? is there e.idence of cons"icuous( clearly seen consum"tion? does the society de"icted .alue things for their usefulness) for their "otential for resale or trade) or for their "ower to con.ey social status? do you find in the te-t itself e.idence that it is a "roduct of the culture in which it is originated? what ideology is re.ealed? - racism) se-ism) ne"otism) im"erialism? does the te-t su""ort the ideology or condemn it? any o.erla""ing of other literary criticism eg feminism? are you aware of your own acce"tance of any social) economic) or "olitical "ractices that in.ol.e control or o""ression of others? ?.8 Ot!er Critica# Auestions What social forces/institutions are "ortrayed in the te-t? What is the author!s attitude towards them? What "olitical/economic elements a""ear in the te-t? /ow im"ortant are they in determining/influencing the li.es of the characters? What economic issues a""ear in the te-t? /ow im"ortant are economic factors in influencing the moti.ation/beha.ior of the characters? 1B

(o what e-tent are the li.es of the characters influenced /determined by social) "olitical and economic forces/conditions? 1re the characters aware of these factors?

6. 8EMINISM-8EMINIST CRITICISM 6.1 T!e Issue in 8e(inis( o =en) either consciously or unconsciously ha.e o""ressed women) by allowing them little) or no .oice in social) "olitical and economic matters. 1 "atriarchal society dominated by men. o 2y not gi.ing an o""ortunity for women!s .oices) o"inions) res"onses and writings) men ha.e su""ressed the female (women )defined what it means to be feminine and ha.e de.oiced) de.alued) and tri.iali,ed the female gender. o =en ha.e made women as the nonsignificant other 6.0 Responses fro( 8e(inis( 1 need to change this degrading .iew of women as the $nonsignificant other! ;.ery woman is a .aluable "erson with the same "ri.ileges and rights as e.ery man Women must assert their own .oices in "olitics) society) education etc. ;.g. <ebun%ing stereoty"ing of women in te-ts/re"ublishing/redisco.ering te-ts written by females but su""ressed by males. @e-reading the wor%s of male authors from the woman!s "oint of .iew (hrough such changes) feminists ho"e to create a society where male and female .oices are heard and .alued.

6.3 >ac% roun$ 1. Cre#udice/ bias against women ha.e its roots in Western culture. ;.en 1ristotle) a Jree% "hiloso"her) states that the male is by nature su"erior) and the female inferior) and the one rules and the other is ruled Western culture/"hiloso"hy ha.e labeled women as im"erfect and s"iritually wea% creatures 4. 1 struggle for women!s rights began in the 1D77!s. =ary Wollstonecraft wrote % &indication of the Rights of 'omen in 1D34. :he asserted on women!s rights and re#ected the "atriarchal assum"tion that women are inferior to men. 5. Girginia Woolf "ublished % Room of (ne)s (wn in 1313)declaring that men ha.e and continue to treat women as inferiors. :he cited an e-am"le of :ha%es"eare!s sister who was also gifted but su""ressed since she is a woman. ?. (he Jreat <e"ression of the 1357s and the :econd World War in the 43?7!s ha.e delayed the de.elo"ment of feminist ideals. B. Ieminist .oices arose in the 1387s along with "olitical and social changes. Late =illet "ublished *e!ual Politics in 1383 to change the ideological social characteristics of male and female. :he states that $a female is born but a woman is created!. :e- is determined by birth but gender is a social construct created by cultural ideals and norms e.g. boys must be aggressi.e and domineering while girls must be "assi.e and humble. (he ideology is transmitted through the mass 18

media and literature. :he reiterated that women must re.olt against the "ower centre of their culture i.e. male dominance. (hey must establish female discourse) literary studies and feminist criticism. 8. 6.4 5'nocriticis( 1nalysis 0from woman!s .iew/e-"erience 1. images of the female body in the te-t. &ould highlight how certain "arts of the female anatomy become significant images/symbols in wor%s written by women 4. female language- differences between male/female lang. <o women s"ea%/write differently from men? 5. Iemale "syche and its relationshi" to the writing "rocess. Chysical/"sychological de.elo"ment? (Ireud!s "sychoanalysis? ?. &ulture- role of women in society? /ow society sha"es a women!s role etc. CRITICAL AUESTIONS 8ROM A 8EMINIST AS1ECT 1uthor male or female? @ole of women in the te-t? Iemale characters- "rotagonist/antagonist/minor/ma#or role? 1ny stereoty"ing of women ? 1ttitudes of men towards women? 1uthor!s attitude towards women? 1uthor!s bac%ground/culture influence his/her attitude ? Ieminine images/ymbols used? Iemale characters s"ea%/thin% different from males?

ADDITIONAL AUESTIONS (o what e-tent does the re"resentation of women (including men reflect the "lace and time in which the te-t was written? /ow are relations between men and women or between the same se- "resented in the te-t? What role/s do men and women assume and "erform and the conseAuences? <oes the author "resent the te-t from within a "redominantly male or female "oint of .iew/sensibility? What are the effects/result? /ow do the bac%ground/facts of the author!s life relate to the "resentation of men and women in the te-t? /ow do other wor%s by the same author corres"ond to each other in their de"iction of "ower relationshi"s between men/women?

1D

?.1OSTCOLONIAL CRITICISM 1. 21&LJ@O9H< 1Bth century- ;uro"ean domination of the Hew World ;ngland) :"ain) Irance) Cortugal 0"lundered human/natural resources 13th century- 2ritain 0largest im"erial "ower 1fter WW **) gradual inde"endence 0*ndia 13?D 13E7 02ritain lost colonies e-ce"t a few

2. CO:(-&OLOH*1L*:=/CO:(&OLOH*1L*:= 1. <eals with the effects of coloni,ation on cultures and societies. 4. 9sed by historians after the :econd World War e.g. the "ost-colonial state in discussion of the "ost inde"endence "eriod. 5. :ince the 13D7!s) the term has been by literary critics to discuss the .arious effects of coloniali,ation. ?. Costcolonialism definition> an a""roach to literary analysis that concerns itself with "articularly literature written in ;nglish in formerly coloni,ed countries. *t usua##' e;c#u$es literature that re"resents either 2ritish or 1merican .iew"oints and concentrates on wor%s from coloni,ed cultures in 1sia) 1frica) :outh 1merica) including 1ustralia and Hew Pealand. (Claces that were once dominated by but outside of the white) male) ;uro"ean cultural) "olitical) social and "hiloso"hical tradition. B. =ar-ist critics- use the term third-world literature . 8. <efinition- in.estigates/discusses what ha""ens when two cultures meet/clash and when one of them with its accom"anying ideology em"owers and deems itself su"erior to the other.

&. <;G;LOC=;H( OI (/; (/;O@Q 1. 13B7!: 0 ending of colonial "owers worldwide e.g. Irance ended its in.ol.ement in *ndochina. 4. 1lfred :au.y 0 coined the term t!ir$ wor#$ to re"resent countries that were "hiloso"hically) "olitically) and culturally not defined by Western meta"hysics. 5. 1387!s 0 critics) "hiloso"hers) authors eg. Irant, Ianon began "ublishing te-ts on "ostcolonial issues. ?. 13E7!s 0the term $"ost-colonial $ and $"ostcolonialism! a""ear in scholarly #ournals. 2ill 1shcroft) Jareth Jriffiths M /elen (iffin wrote The Empire 'rites Bac+, Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures in 13E3. B. =id 1337!s 0 the term had been firmly established in scholarly writing where $"ostcolonialism! refers to literature of cultures coloni,ed by the 2ritish ;m"ire. 1E

8. (wo schools of thought of "ostcolonialism> a "ostcolonialism 0 "eriod of after the coloni,ed societies/countries ha.e become inde"endent b "ostcolonialism 0 referring to all the characteristics of a society/culture from time of coloni,ation to the "resent. D. C& is concerned with di.erse issues eg nationalism) ethnicity) uni.ersality) feminism) language) education) history) resistance. *t highlights the struggle that occurs when a culture is dominated by another. *n interaction with the conAuering culture) the coloni,ed or indigenous culture is forced to go underground or be obliterated. E. 1fter coloni,ation) the coloni,ed "eo"le then write about the o""ression and loss of cultural identity. /ow the coloni,ed res"ond to changes in language) education) socio-economic matters etc. become the conte-t and theories of C&. 3. Costcolonial theorists 0 Iran, Ianon) /omi L. 2habha) Jayatri &ha%ra.orty :"i.a%. (he %ey te-t is ;dward :aid!s (rientalism (13DE . /e said that the ;uro"eans tried to #ustify their conAuests by the "ro"aganda/belief called $orientalism! ( the creation of non-;uro"ean stereoty"es that suggested that $orientals! were indolent) thoughtless) se-ually immoral) unreliable. /e said that human %nowledge can be .iewed from only one!s "olitical) ideological and cultural framewor%. Ho theory can be totally ob#ecti.e. (herefore) a writer in a coloni,ed culture would as% Auestions> Who am i? /ow did * de.elo" into the "erson that * am? (o what country/countries /cultures am * lin%ed to? *n as%ing these Auestions) the coloni,ed author is connecting himself to historical roots) admitting a tension between these roots and the new culture or hegemony im"osed on him and he confronts the fact that he an indi.idual and a "roduct of the social contract created by the dominant/coloni,er!s culture. 17. (he writings of the author would be "ersonal) "olitical) ideological) "ainful) disturbing) enlightening etc. (he result would be a message sent bac% to the ;m"ire telling the im"erials what they did wrong and how their ideology and hegemony damaged and su""ressed the ideologies and cultures of the conAuered. <. 21:*& C@*H&*CL;: 1. &oloni,ers "hysically conAuer other territories and "ractice cultural coloni,ation by re"lacing the "ractices/beliefs of the nati.es with their own .alues) systems) laws. *t resulted in loss of the "re-colonial culture. 4. When the nati.es! own culture is forbidden or de.alued) they see themsel.es as inferior to the coloni,ers. (hey $hide! or abandon their culture and ado"t or imitate the $su"erior! culture. 5. &oloni,ed nati.es "ractice $mimicry $ imitation of dress) beha.ior instead of resistance. ?. ;uro"ean coloni,ers asserted the su"eriority of their culture- they are ci.ili,ed whereas the nati.es are bac%ward/sa.age. (hey are ;urocentric (;urocentrism ) the standard for their culture which would be su"erior than the nati.es) lower status) the $subaltern!

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B. (he "ractice of $Othering!- .iewing others as inferior. :ometimes) .iew the nati.es as e.il or $the demonic other!. 8. :ometimes )the $other! is deemed to ha.e natural beauty) becomes the $e-otic other! D. (he interaction of cultures created mi-tures of nati.e and colonial- "rocess called as $hybridity! or $syncretism!. (hey are characteri,ed by tensions and changedynamic.

;. CO:(&OLOH*1L (;@=: 1. &ultural coloni,ation- im"osition of beliefs and social "ractices of the dominant "ower on the sub#ugated one) resulting in loss or changes of the nati.es culture. 4. <emonic other- the .iew that those who are different form oneself are bac%ward) sa.age and e.il. 5. <ouble .ision/ double consciousness 0 sense of being "art of both the coloni,ed and the coloni,ers) with conflicts and contrasts. @efers to both the indigenious "eo"le and later the settlers. (1mbi.alence ?. ;urocentrism 0 belief that ;uro"ean ideals are the standard by which all other cultures are to be measured and #udged. B. ;-otic other- the .iew that those who are different from oneself ha.e an inherent dignity and beauty) "erha"s because of their unde.elo"ed) natural state. 8. /ybridity/syncretism- the Auality of cultures that characteri,ed both the coloni,ed and the coloni,ers. =r%ed by conflicts and dynamic. D. =imicry 0 imitation of dress) language etc of the dominant culture by the o""ressed "eo"le. E. Heocolonialism 0domination of a de.elo"ing nation by international cor"orations) attracted by chea" labour and mani"ulable "olitical systems. 3. Othering 0 belief that those who are different from oneself are inferior beings. 17. :ubalterns 0 "eo"le of inferior status. :ubaltern writers see% to ma%e their marginali,ed cultures %nown and .alued for their "ast and "resent. @. >IO5RA1,ICAL CRITICISM 1. <eals with the inter"retation of a literary te-t by loo%ing into the author!s life and times to determine authorial intention(what the author intended the te-t to be . 4. (his criticism was de.elo"ed in the late 13th and early 47th centuries before the ad.ent of Hew &riticism(focuses on the te-t only 5. 1lso %now as historical-biogra"hical criticism 0in.ol.es the analysis of real historical e.ents during the author!s time) or when the te-t was written. ?. Literature is written by actual "eo"le and understanding an author!s life can hel" us com"rehend the te-t. 1 reader who reads the biogra"hy of an author can see how the author!s life e-"eriences and also the historical setting determine what the author will create.

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B. We are not concerned with recreating the record of an author!s life) but we can e-"licate his/her wor% by using the insight of the author!s life/bac%ground. 8. 2iogra"hical data can be used to inter"ret/com"rehend/am"lify the meaning of the te-t but not to drown the te-t with irrele.ant materialN &@*(*&1L K9;:(*OH: What influences-"ersons)ideas) e.ents etc 0are e.ident in the author!s life? (o what e-tent are the e.ents described in the wor% a direct transfer of what had ha""ened in the author!s actual life? What changes/modifications of the actual e.ents has the writer made in the te-t? Why might the author ha.e altered his/her actual e-"erience in the te-t? What are the effects of the differences between actual e.ents and literary transformation in the te-t? What has the author re.ealed in the wor% about his/her thought)"erce"tion) emotion? What does this has to do with the author!s literary de.elo"ment/career? 5ENRES

MaEor 5enres JenreR ty"e/style 5 genres+1. "rose fiction 4. "oetry/"oem 5. drama Ousually classified as imaginati.e literature! 1 genre- nonfiction "rose 1. "rose fiction- (narrati.e fiction )('t!s&para2#es&ro(ances& no"e#s&s!ort stories 4. "oetry- bre.ity (few words 5. drama/"lay 0 scri"t/stage/audience/dialogue

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non-fiction prosenews reports&artic#es& essa's& -describe/"resent facts.#udgement/o"inion - "resent truths of history) science) contem"orary e.ents etc. OOOrecent--- $iaries-Eourna#s ) creati"e non-fiction

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